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 Department of Tine Txteeior. 
 
 q)j\ 
 
 TENTH CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 FRANCIS A. WALKER, 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT. 
 
 THE HISTORY AND PRESENT CONDITION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 FISHERY INDUSTRIES. 
 
 rUKPAKED rXDKl! THl: 1> 1 1! E UTl I) N OF 
 
 PROFESSOR S. F. BAIRD. 
 
 r. S. COlCJtISSIOXEB OF FISII AND FIHIIEItlES. 
 
 G. BROWN GOODE, 
 
 ASSISTANT DIRECfQR U. S. XATIOXAL ItUSEUM. 
 \.ssociATES. 
 
 -Vr DIRECPqR U. S. XJ 
 AM) A STAFI'OF ASSr 
 
 THE OYSTER-INDUSTEY 
 
 BY 
 
 ERNEST INGERSOLL, 
 
 
 . WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT I'RINTING OFFICE. 
 
 1 « 8 1 . 
 
 f 
 
 
 -fT.-- 
 
Department of the Ixteridr. 
 
 TENTH CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 FRANbTH~A. WALKKR, 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT. 
 
 V V^6 
 
 THE HISTORY AND PRESENT CONDITION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 FISHERY INDUSTRIES 
 
 PREPARKD UN'OKlt T H K DIltECTlOK Ol' 
 
 PROFESSOR S. F. BAIRD, 
 
 r. S. COMillSilOXER OF FISH AXD FrsHEh'IES, 
 
 r.Y 
 
 G. BROWN GOODE, 
 
 ASSISTANT DliiECTOU U. S. yATlOXAL IITSEVM, 
 AND A STAFF OF ASSOCIATES. 
 
 THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY, 
 
 BY 
 
 ERNEST INGERSOLL, 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 OOVERNJIENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 
 18 8 1. 
 

ANALYSIS, 
 
 /^ 
 
 Title. 
 
 I. The Oyster-Industry — Descriptive and Statistical Reports. 
 
 A. The Maritime Provinces of Canada 
 
 1. Geographical jiosition and character of the oyster-beds 
 
 2. Mauuer of procuving the oysters 
 
 3. Future of the oyster-beds aud oyster-trade 
 
 B. Gulf of Maine 
 
 4. Former extent and condition of the native beds in the gulf of Maine — evidence of Indian shell-heaps 
 
 5. The time aud causes of the extinction of the oyster in the gidf of Maine 
 
 6. History of the natural oyster-beds in the gulf of Maine since the settlement of the coast by Europeans. . . 
 
 7. Oyster-cnlture in the gulf of Maine 
 
 8. History and present couflition of the oyster-trade at Wellfleet and vicinity 
 
 9. History and present condition of the oyster-trade of Boston 
 
 10. The oyster-trade of Salem, Massachusetts, and vicinity 
 
 11. The oyster-business of Ne wburyport 
 
 12. The oyster-business of the New Hampshire coast 
 
 13. The oyster-busLuess of Portland, Maine 
 
 14. The natural beds of Shee)iscot Bridge, Maine 
 
 C. The South Coast op Massachusetts 
 
 15. Oyster-culture in Buzzard's bay and Vineyard sound 
 
 Hi. The oyster-laws of Massachusetts 
 
 D. Taunto.n River ajjd Cole's River, Massachusetts 
 
 17. Oyster-culture and oyster-trade on Massachusetts afflnents of Narraganset bay 
 
 E. Coasts of Rhode Island 
 
 18. Legal regulations of Rhode Island oyster-fishery 
 
 19. The planting-grounds of Narraganset bay 
 
 20. Southern oysters : transplanting and trade 
 
 21. Native and seed oysters 
 
 22. Enemies of the oyster in Narraganset bay 
 
 23. Statistics of the oyster-trade of Rhode Island 
 
 F. Eastern Coast of Connecticut 
 
 24. Oyster-industries east of New Haven 
 
 2.5. Early oyster-trade at New Haven 
 
 26. Origiu and development <if the southeri trade 
 
 27. Native oy.slers aud oyster-i>lanting in the vicinity of New Haven 
 
 28. Present conditior of oysler-cultnre in the vicinity of New Haven 
 
 29. Laws of Connecticut relating to oysters 
 
 30. Limitations of oyster-culture in the New Haven region 
 
 31. Oyster-culture at Milford 
 
 32. Methods of catch aud disposal , 
 
 G. The Housatonic and Saugatuck Regions 
 
 33. Oyster-llsheries of Bridgeport and Westport 
 
 H. The Ea.st River and Peconic Ray 
 
 34. Oyster-interests from Hell Gate to Port Jeffersou, New York, and Norwalk, Connecticut .• 
 
 35. Peconic bay, or Eastern Long Island 
 
 I. The South Shore of Long Island 
 
 36. The Gr<'at South li.ay district 
 
 37. The Rockaway district 
 
 J. New York Bay (excluding the city of New York) 
 
 38. History of oyster-indnstries of New York bay 
 
 39. Oyster-industries of New York bay, 1879-'80 
 
 1 
 
 Page. 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 11 
 11 
 
 16 
 19 
 21 
 23 
 27 
 31 
 32 
 32 
 34 
 35 
 36 
 36 
 43 
 44 
 44 
 46 
 46 
 51 
 53 
 54 
 56 
 56 
 58 
 58 
 61 
 61 
 63 
 66 
 67 
 71 
 78 
 79 
 85 
 85 
 88 
 SB 
 97 
 98 
 98 
 108 
 110 
 110 
 114 
 
2 ANALYSIS. 
 
 Title. PxgO. 
 
 1. The Oysteu-Industry — Cortiuued. 
 
 K. Oysteu-Tkadb op New York City 121 
 
 40. Historical sketcli of the oyster-trade of New York city 121 
 
 41. The oyster-trade of New York in IriSO 120 
 
 L. Coast of New Jersey I'M 
 
 42. Oyster-industries of the New Jersey "bays" 134 
 
 M. Delaware Bay 144 
 
 43. New Jersey and Delaware shores of Delaware bay 144 
 
 N. Oyster-Interests of Philadelphia 154 
 
 44. The merchants and oyster-business of Philadelphia 154 
 
 O. Maryland and Baltimore - 156 
 
 45. Oyster-fisheries of Maryland 156 
 
 46. Packing and shipping trade of Maryland 165 
 
 47. Statistical summary for Baltimore 170 
 
 48. The oyster-laws of Maryland 172 
 
 P. Coasts of Virginia "■ ■ 180 
 
 49. Oyster-fisheries and oyster-packing 180 
 
 Q. The Southern Atlantic Coast 188 
 
 50. The oyster-products of North Carolina 188 
 
 51. Oyster-fisheries of South Carolina 190 
 
 52. Oyster-fisheries of Geoigia 190 
 
 53. Oyster-interests of East Florida - 192 
 
 R. The Gulf of Mexico 193 
 
 54. Oyster-interests of West Florida 193 
 
 55. Oyster-industries of Alabama 195 
 
 56. Oyster-industries of Mississippi and Louisiana 197 
 
 57. Oyster-industry of Texas 200 
 
 S. The Pacific Coast 201 
 
 58. Oyster-industries of California 201 
 
 T. Utilization of Oyster-shells 205 
 
 .59. Shell-liine and other applications of oyster-shells 205 
 
 II. The Natural History of the Oyster. 
 
 U. General Natural History 209 
 
 60. The growth and habits of the American oyster of the Atlantic coast 209 
 
 V. Fatalities to which the Oyster is subject 225 
 
 61. Living enemies of the oyster 225 
 
 62. Fatalities to which oysters are subject 237 
 
 III. Glossary of Terms. 
 
 W. An Oysterman's Dictionary 241 
 
 63. Phrases and words descriptive of niollusks and other invertebrates of the Atlantic coast 241 
 
 IV General Summary. 
 
 X. Statistical Tables 251 
 
 64. Table showing, by states, the persons employed, capital invested, and value of products of the oyster- 
 
 industry 251 
 
 ILLUSTKATIONS. 
 
 P)ate. Page. 
 
 XXX. Giant oyster, 14 inches long, from Dauiariscotta river, Maine --. 33 
 
 XXXI. Oyster tongs and nippers 79 
 
 XXXII. Inclosed dock for oyster-vessels at Perth Amboy, New Jersey — " The Creek" at Keyport, New York, with oyster-boats, 
 
 skiflfs, and scows 119 
 
 XXXIII. Oyster-barges at the foot of West Tenth street, North river, New Y'ork city 126 
 
 XXXIV. A Lake's bay shipping-house and "platform" for freshening oysters. Smith's Landing, Lake's bay. New Jersey 140 
 
 XXXV. Chesapeake oyster-dredges, with windlass 158 
 
 XXXVI. Baltimore oyster-shucking trough. — Oyster-knives of divers patterns, used in New England, New York, and the 
 
 Chesapeake region 169 
 
 XXXVII. Development of the oyster. Figs. 1-16 - 
 
 XXXVIIL Do". do. do. 17-32 
 
 XXXIX. Do. do. do. 33-42 
 
 XL. Do. do. do. 43-52 
 
 XLI. Do. do. do. 53-66 
 
 XLII. Do. do. do. 67 
 
 216 
 
SECTION X— [MONOGRAPH B.] 
 
 A REPORT ON THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 BY 
 
 ERNEST INGERSOLL. 
 
I. THE OYSTER-INDUSTHY-DESCRIPTIVE AND 
 STATISTICAL REPORTS. 
 
 A. THE MARITIME PROVINCES OF CANADA. 
 
 1. GEOGEAPHICAL TOSITION AND CHARACTER OF THE OYSTER BEDS. 
 
 DEScraPTiON of the eastern coast of New Brunswick. — It is well Iniowu that eastern New Brunswick 
 and the adjoining islands are the home of a breed of oysters, separated from those of the New England coast by 
 more than a thousand miles of shore line. 
 
 In a study of the oysters of the United States, it is important to glance at this distant scene of their growth and 
 industry, but more than a general view of the subject is not compatible with the purposes of the present repfirt. 
 
 The eastern coast of the province of New Brunswick is washed by the waters of the gulf of St. Lawrence. At 
 cape Tormentine the coast trends eastward, along Nova Scotia, to the Gut of Canso, and then turns sharply north- 
 ward, on the western side of Cape Breton island, which bars out the Atlantic. This part of the gulf is a great 
 bight, with Anticosti island on the north, and Capo Breton on the east. Down in the bottom of the bight, so to 
 speak, lies the long irregular shape of Prince Edward island, between which and the mainland flow the shallow but 
 troublesome currents of Northumberland str;iit. 
 
 The shores of New Bmnswick and Prince Edward are, for the most part, low bluffs of reddish soil, and sloping 
 meadows. There is little solid rock, few prominent headlands, but a generally continuous line of shore, shelving 
 very gradually into water nowhere deep. Many rivers come down along the coast of the gulf, and at the mouth of 
 each there is an estuary or inlet, proportionate to the size of the stream, from the mighty channel of the St. Lawrence 
 to the miniature bay of Bedeque. With the exception of two or three of the greater ones, all these inlets are so 
 shallow that it is easy to pole a raft anywhere, and they are usually protected from the swell of the outer sea and 
 the fury of the gales by a barrier of islands, or by projcctiug headlands and bars. This condition of things seems 
 highly favorable for oyster-growth, since nearly all of these inlets contain colonies of these mollusks. 
 
 SnippE&AN AND Caraqltette TO PicTOU. — Beginning at the north, on the coast of New Brunswick, the most 
 distant point at which 1 could ascertain that oysters had ever been discovered, was in the rear of Miscou island, at 
 iShippegan, and in Caraquette bay, a harbor on the southern shore of the bay of Chaleurs. 
 
 In 18-i9, Mr. Perlcy, the queen's commissioner, reported to the government: 
 
 Somo oysters of very large sizo .'mil good cui.ility are fonnd at Tabusintac ; but those of tlio fiuost description are found on extcnsi\-o 
 beds iu tjliippegau harbor, St. Simon's inlet, and Caraquette bay, from which localities they an; exported every season to Quebec. Tlio 
 number of bushels exported from the port of Caraquette during the last eight years, is as follows : 
 
 1841 5,000 
 
 1642 7,000 
 
 184a 5,290 
 
 1644 e.ooo 
 
 1845.... 2,010 
 
 1846 1,915 
 
 1847 4i5 
 
 1848 5,432 
 
 Twenty years later, ]\Ir. Venning, inspector of fisheries, wrote: "In Shippegan and Caraquette, close time for 
 the protection of the oyster-beds has, for the first time (18G9), been partially enforced. These beds are extensive 
 and widely separated, and it is a matter of much difficulty to prevent occasional violations of the law." Again, 
 Professor Whiteaves* was informed that oysters bad been taken upon the flukes of anchors, in seven fathoms of 
 water, "between Little and Big Caraquette banks, in the bay of Chaleurs." I see no reason why they should not 
 also be found at the mouth of the Nipisiguit river, farther up the bay, on the same shore. South of Miscou and 
 Shippegan "gullies" the coast seems too bold a one tor oysters in great plenty, until Miramichi bay is reached, the 
 Avhole interior of which is full of these mollusks. This is especially true along the south shore, where there are 
 many islands, and at the innermost shallow estreniity of the bay, where the Miramichi river comes in. Bettaouin 
 is a particularly rieii locality. Having rounded Escuniinac cape, the headland Sjouth of Miramichi bay, a group 
 
 * Cavndinn Kntiirnliit, vii, ;;44. 
 
4 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of islands is soon reached, lying off the coast and parallel with it, under the shelter of which, in Kouchibougnac and 
 Eichibucto harbors, there is an abundance of beds. Passing on southward, along the shore of Northumberland 
 strait, Buctouche, Cocaigue, and Shediac bays follow in productive succession, beyond which there are no beds 
 reported, until cape Tormeutine is passed and the shallow coast of Nova Scotia is reached, extending from Pugwash 
 to Pictou. These last two localities are of small account, and close the list for the mainland. 
 
 Prince Edward island.— Prince Edward island, however, is almost engirdled with oysters and their remains, 
 except at the western end, where the precipitous red banks that give so picturesque an aspect to this coast, are 
 unsuitable for oyster-growth. The localities where beds exist, or have existed, on the island are: Cascumpeque, 
 Eichmond bay, Grand river, and the Narrows, in a group; Malpeque, the harbor of New London, Hillsborough bay 
 and river near Charlottetown, and Bedeque and Egmont bays. In addition to these main localities there is an 
 almost continual line of shallow and sheltered coves and inlets, around the whole eastern coast of the island, where 
 extinct or semi-fossil beds of oysters are to be found, embracing nearly every tidal bay or outlet. 
 
 Cape Breton and Nova Scotia. — Crossing now over to Cape Breton, a glance at the map will remind the 
 reader that the whole interior of the island is occupied by the Bras d'Or, which enters by two narrow channels 
 from the northeast, with Boulardrie island between them. "The Bras d'Or is the most beautiful salt-water lake 
 I have ever seen, and more beautiful than I had imagined a body of salt water could be," says Mr. Charles 
 Dudley Warner, in BacMeclc and That Sort of Thing. "The water seeks out all the low places, and ramifies the 
 interior, running away into lovely bays and lagoons, leaving slender tongues of land and picturesque islands, and 
 bringing into the recesses of the land, to the remote country farms and settlements, the flavor of salt and the fish 
 and mollnsks of the briny sea. There is very little tide at any time, so that the shores are clean and sightly for 
 the most part, like those of a fresh- water lake. It has all the pleasantness of a fresh-water lake, with all the 
 advantages of a salt one. In the streams which run into it are the speckled trout, the shad, .and the salmon; out 
 of its depths are hooked the cod and the mackerel, and in its bays fattens the oyster. This irregular lake is about 
 one hundred miles long, if you measure it skillfully, and in some places ten miles broad; but so indented is it, that 
 I am not sure but one would need, as we were informed, to ride one thousand miles to go round it, following all 
 its incursions into the land." 
 
 Here, as might be expected, the oyster lives in ])lenty, from St. Ann's to Mira river and St. Peter's bay. 
 
 "The few oysters to bo met with off Nova Scotia," according to Pardy, "occur at Jeddore head, twenty or 
 twenty-five miles east of Halifax harbor; also Country harbor, St. Mary's river, and Liscombe harbor, Guysboro' 
 county, on the outside, and Pictou harbor, John river, Wallace, Charles river, and Pugwash (mentioned above), in 
 Northumberland straits." 
 
 This catalogue appears to embrace the whole region known where oysters occur. In none of his dredging 
 expeditions upon the Dominion's vessels did Professor Whiteaves meet with "traces even of oysters in any part of 
 the area between Cape Breton and Prince Edward island, nor in any part of Northumberland straits, where the 
 bottom is deeper than 5 or 6 fathoms— that is to say, not in any of the open parts". In a letter printed in the 
 Canadian Naturalist for 1874, hereafter frequently to be referred to, the Hon. W. H. Pope, of Summerside, Prince 
 Edward island, reiterates this assertion, but adds: 
 
 Some years ago I observed a quantity of oyster-shells ou the sand at the north end of Tryon shoals (which are situated on the south 
 side of the island); they wore aboiit a quarter of a mile from the shore. Some of the shells wore filled with sand more compact than 
 some of our, sandstone rocks. AVheu I first observed these shells, my opinion was that they had been washed ashore from beds situated 
 in the deep water of the straits of Northumberland. It has since occurred to me that they are in situ, and arc t-ho remains of an ancient 
 oyster-bed which had been destroyed by tlio sand. The existence of a soft, muddy bottom in the vicinity of these shells, supports tho 
 supposition that at some period this uuiddy bottom was more extensive than at present ; that the oyster-bed was then formed, and was 
 destroyed by the encroachment of the sand forming the Tryon shoal. 
 
 Whiteaves on the southern fauna of the gulf of St. Lawrence.— A suggestion of how it may be 
 possible for oysters and so many other southern-dwelling mollusks to inhabit a sea so far north, and apparently so 
 exposed to the arctic ice and freezing currents that sweep down past Labrador, as are these, is made by Whiteaves 
 in the following ijaragraph : 
 
 On tho admiralty charts of the gulf of St. Lawrence an irregular lino of 60-fathoms soundings may bo seen to extend from 
 a little above the northern extremity of the island of Capo Breton, round the Magdalen group, and thence in a westerly direction 
 to Bonaventuro island. To tho south and southwest of this line the water is uniformly somewliat shallow, while to the north, 
 northwest, and northeast the water deepens rapidly, and in some places precipitously. Principal Dawson suggests that the subcarbon- 
 iferous rocks of which tho Magdalen islands are composed, and which appear again in the mainland, in Bonaventure county, may 
 possibly cross up under the sea in the area between the northwest side of Capo Breton and tho mainland of New Brunswick, as well as 
 that of the counties of Bonaventure and Gaspd, in the province of Quebec. This may account for the shallowness of the water in tho 
 area in question. Whether this is the case or not, it seems not improbable that the submarine plateau inside of this line of shallow 
 soundings may form a nattn-al barrier to those arctic currents which sweep down the straits of Belle Isle in a southwesterly direction, 
 and may tend to deflect their course in a bold curve into and up the river St. Lawrence. 
 
 Size and quality of Canadian oysters.— The oysters of this region are of large size, and have thick, 
 strong shells. Oysters of eight or ten inches in length are not extraordinary. I have heard of shells dredged 
 from extinct beds "as long as your roroarm", but I saw none of these monsters. The best are those which 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 5 
 
 Lave straiglit and narrow or cvenly-i-ounded shells, and grow singly. Wlieu the oysters grow in clusters, the 
 fishermen consider it a sign of degeneracy. That, as a rule, the oysters found nowadays are smaller than those 
 taken by the last genei-ation, is probably a tradition, without better foundation than other popular suppositions 
 that we live in degenerate days ; the old shells dredged from the mud show no gigantic proportions. 
 
 The oysters diil'er in taste, and consequently in quality, with the h)cality. Those from Shediac, Bedeque, and 
 Eichmond bays are esteemed most highly, because they are of firm substance and strongly saline flavor. Those 
 from the other beds are of fresher flavor, and some, for instance those in Hillsborough river, are disliked, because 
 "thin and watery". Tins seems due mainly to the fact that they are subjected to more fresh water than is good 
 for them when the tide is out. The oysters of poorest qualitj' of all, according to common report, come from the 
 Eichibucto region, although there is the deepest water iu which I have known them to be taken.* 
 
 CiiARACTEE OF THE BEDS. — The depth of water in which thej' live varies, from places so shallow that they 
 are left quite exposed by the lowest tidesj to a depth of 40 feet. This last is reported from Eichibucto. Perhajis 
 the average depth may be put at 10 feet.t 
 
 The oystei's occur in beds of varying size and shape. Some of them will be only a few rods, others several 
 acres iu extent. The slow accumulation of living ujion dead oj'sters, the drifting of the sediment, and the growth of 
 other organisms, have built many of these beds almost up to the surface, leaving a deep chaniiel between neighboiing 
 colonies. The foundations of such beds have been proved to be in some cases more than 20 feet below their crests. 
 Here and there, however, as in some i^arts of Richmond bay, and at Caraquette, the beds appear to be less well 
 defined and of more modern origin. The height which the oyster-beds attain above the general level of the 
 bottom, ])robably furnishes a solution of the well observed fact, that the ice becomes nnsafe over an oyster-bank, 
 while it is firm elsewhere ; the ridge of the beds would form currents iu the tides that would wear the ice over 
 them with more force and rapidity than elsewhere. 
 
 These oysters seem to have few enemies. In a list of animals found associated with this mollusk on the beds 
 at Shediac, Professor Whiteaves marks the mussels, Mytilus eclulis aml^ModioJa modiolus, the Natica heros, two 
 starfishes and a sea-urchin, as " more or less inimical"; but he adds: " So far as I could see, these do not exist in 
 sufiQcient abundance in Northumberland straits to be of any serious disadvantage." One of the old oystermen at 
 Shediac told me he had only seen three starfishes in his whole life. The shells of all sorts of bivalves here are 
 almost universally perforated by a sponge, but no harm seems to ensue to them when living. 
 
 2. MANNEE OF PEOCUEING THE OYSTEES. 
 
 Early oyster-pishing. — Th^ methods of procuring oysters employed in the maritime provinces are substan- 
 tially those followed in the United States, so far as the summer fishing is concerned. But in winter, oysters are 
 often raked through the ice. That this is an ancient custom, appears from a paragraph in Charlevoix's History of 
 North America : 
 
 Oyfters are very Plenty in Winter on the Coafts of Acadia, and the Manner of fifhing for them is fometliing fingular. They make a 
 Hole iu the Ice, and they thruft iu two Poles in fuch a Manner, that they have the Effectof a Pair of Pincers, and they feldom draw them 
 uj) without an Oyfter. 
 
 The oyster-industry at Shediac— The two most famous localities for oysters are Shediac and Summerside. 
 
 Shediac is a village of about 800 to 1,000 people, situated on the south side of Shediac bay, an inlet from 
 Northumberland straits. Tlie harbor extends for about four miles inland, and into its upper end flow one or two 
 small rivers. The outermost point of the harbor is Point du Ohene, where the termiiuis of the Intercolonial 
 railway from St. John is located. The harbor of Shediac is commodious, and protected by Shediac island; but 
 the depth of water is not great, and the few foreign vessels that come here annually for deals, are obUged 
 to anchor off the point. Their cargoes are conveyed to them, from the mills at the head of the bay, iu rafts. 
 Shediac is an ancient settlement of the Acadians, and has been the scene not only of Indian battles, but of 
 French garrisons, and of sanguinary conflicts between French and English, during the long contest which raged 
 for the possession of these shores during the early part of the last century and previously. Once or twice, long 
 ago, it was burned to the ground, and has sufi'ered a third conflagration since my visit. At one time it was hoped to 
 make it a port of importance, but its sole fame at present rests upou its oysters ; and this is a fading glory, for the 
 beds are nearly depopulated of the excellent bivalves that formerly flourished iu such abundance. 
 
 From the long railway wliarf at Point du Cheue, itself founded upon oyster shells, the beds once existed in 
 thick succession along both shores of the bay, and for some distance up the Shediac river, clear around to the 
 
 * Oysters are abundant at Cocaigue, Buctonchc, Eichibucto, Burnt Church, and other places on the coast, but in general they are 
 too f;ir witliin the mouths of fresh-water streams, aud their cjuality is greatly inferior to those aflected by sea-water only.— Pekley. 
 Report on the Fisheries, 1849. , 
 
 t You inquire: " Do you think oysters would thrive in somewhat deeper watcrthan that in which they are nowfound, if sown there?" 
 I thiuk they would thrive in the deepest part of auy inland water, if placed upou suitable ground.— Pope. Letter to Whiteaves, 
 Canadian Naturaliat, vii, 347. 
 
6 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Grandique, a stream that empties into tbe nortlieasteru corner of tbe bay. The number of these beds is said to be 
 about fifty, and they cover the soft bottom of the harbor with great mounds. 
 
 Procuring the services and guidance of Frauli Giuvien, I started out one dark morning to see the beds and 
 the process of raking. It was raining hard, the wind was chill and fitful, and the general appearance of the 
 surroundings somber in the extreme. The boat was a large, red, yawl-shaped one, and it lay some distance out in 
 the water, hard aground, although the tide was well up. Pulling off their shoes and stockings, Giuvien and his 
 assistant soon had it afloat, erected the mast, and then came to carry me on board 'poose-back. 
 
 Having gone a third of a mile from shore, and crossed the deepest part of the bay (in water of 4 to 6 fathoms), we 
 struck the first bed, finding it, by sounding with a pole, not more than five feet below the surface. Eamming the 
 pole hard down we "hung" the boat by my holding on to it, while Giuvien thrust down his great rake, and his 
 assistant his " tongs". But nothing was taken alive except one or two quahaugs, and we moved on. Trying several 
 beds, all coming within a fothom or less of the surface, and some being of great extent, we succeeded in two hours 
 in raking a dozen and a half of small oysters and about three dozen fine quahaugs, besides some mussels. This 
 was a tixir sample of the condition of the whole bay. 
 
 The rake and tongs used do not differ from those well known to oystermen in the United States, except, 
 ])erhaps, that they are ruder, generally being of home manufacture. 
 
 In the winter, when the ice forms over the whole bay to a thickness of three feet or so, the oystermau finds 
 his way out to a position over some of the beds, with the location of which he is perfectly familiar, and cuts a large 
 hole in the ice. Through this he lowers rake and tongs, and brings up load after load of living mollusks and dead 
 shells. Here this is the most profitable time of the year for the oysterman ; or, rather, it used to be. Twenty-five 
 or thirty years ago, not to go further back, the trade in oysters at this town was extensive, amounting to probably 
 about 1,000 bai-rels a year. Most of this crop was shucked and sent to St. John in kegs. In earlier times it was 
 not uncommon for one man to rake up a sleigh-load of oysters, through the ice, in a single afternoon. Now 200 
 bushels a year is all that is produced, ajid this in a very desultory fashion. No one devotes himself to it but the 
 French fishermen, and farmers use their leisure in raking occasionally. 
 
 At Puchibucto the oysters grow in the channel, and clear across the inlet, in water as deep as 35 feet. There, 
 consequently, rakes are used attached to poles so long and unwieldy that they require two men for their manipulation. 
 This great bay has been nearly depleted, however. In the Canadian Fisheries Eeport, Mr. J. McD. Sutherland, 
 local officer there, wrote to Mr. Yenuing, inspector of fisheries, as follows: 
 
 There are a good many oyster-ljeds in the river, but with tbe exception of one at Indian island (near to the south beach), the oysters 
 are very small, and of so poor a quality, that none have been sent away for years; in fact, they will not sell. The only beds from which 
 any are taken at present, are two at Kingston bridge, and one or two farther np the river, and only in very small quantities, as they 
 are of so poor a quality that it is diiBcult to find sale for them. There is a very large bed ak Indian island, and the oysters are very 
 large and of excellent quality ; but they are scarce and hard to get. Not more than :?0 or 40 barrels were taken from it last year. A 
 man may rake all day, and perhaps get only a bushel. There are hundreds of barrels of shells on this bed, and some farmers are making 
 arrangements to get the shells off it as manure for their farms. If anything could bo done to protect or increase the oysters in this 
 bed, I think it deserves attention. The only suggestion I can otfer is, that the shells and dead oysters be removed, and raking prohibited 
 for a number of years. There are some beds on which the oysters arc all dead, from which large quantities of shells are taken every year 
 by the farmers. — [Page 76.) 
 
 The present point of greatest abundance of the oyster on the mainland seems to be in Miramichi bay, at 
 Bettaouin. In 1870, Giuvien went there in a small vessel, with several others from Shediac, on a raking expedition. 
 They found the oysters were distributed everywhere over the harbor so thickly, that every square foot of the bottom 
 seemed to be occupied. They seemed to lie in little connected clusters right upon the sand, which was so soft that 
 mooring-stakes were easily driven into it. They found on the ground ships and schooners that took awayover 4,000 
 barrels during the single fortnight they remained. These bought their cargoes, at the rate of $1 a barrel, from the 
 small boats (each operated by two men) that swarmed in the harbor. The ships took their cargoes to Quebec, 
 various smaller craft carried loads elsewhere, and the G5 small boats that came down there from Caraquette 
 all intended to go home with full loads when the selling season closed. Four years of this onslaught have now almost 
 exterminated this great oyster-community. 
 
 So much for the mainland, where, I believe, the tongs and rake used from small boats in summer, and the rake 
 through the ice in winter, upon wild beds, every man owning his own implements and fishing for his own good 
 at odd moments, comprise the whole of oystering. 
 
 The oyster-industuy of Puince Edward island. — Crossing now to Prince E^lward island, a somewhat 
 more systematic, if not more scientific, pursuit of this industry is to be seen. The headquarters of the business is 
 at Summerside, a small, wooden, unattractive town of about 800 inhabitants, situated at the extremitj' of Bedeque 
 bay, on the southern side of the island. It is a lauding place of the steamers from Shediac, and also of the line to 
 Montreal. This district was originally settled by French; but when the island was ceded to Great Britain, these 
 people were expelled, and the inhabitants are now almost wholly Scotch and English. From Summerside are sent 
 the famous " Bedeque" oysters, so called from the bay in which they were found. 
 
 The true Bedeque oysters are, however, now extinct, or at least so nearly so as to be entirely unprofitable for 
 raking. The bay is an inlet half a dozen miles long, in which the water is nowhere more than 3 or 4 fathoms deep, 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 7 
 
 except ill tbc cbamiel tluit leads to tbe wharves of the fort. The whole saudy bottom of this bay is described as 
 foriiiorly one vast oyster-bed. At the upper eud it was so shallow that, when the tide was out, even children might 
 wade about and pick up oysters, which were often found clinging to the eel-grass, with their bauds; snch oysters 
 were the best of all. Finally, the bead of tbe bay became so choked up, that in the winter, at low tide, the ice 
 .was let down uutil it rested full weight upon the beds. But now the bay has lost its ancient suitability as a 
 home for the bivalves, and few remain. "Bedeque" oysters, therefore, like those of the once-celebrated "Porier" 
 bed at Shediac, now come from elsewhere, but still pass in the market under the brand-name by which they attained 
 their fame for excellence. The chief source of supply at preseut is Eichmond bay, an iulet on tbe north shore 
 formed by the union of several estuaries and filled with islauds and sand bars. That region, however, has many 
 subdivisions. It consists of a great, irregular, interior basin of shallow water, sending its arms back into the country 
 in all directions, and receiving long, wooded capes that jut out and form sheltered bays in great number. The 
 -water-access from the ocean to this lake is through Malpeque bay and the Narrows. The term "llicbmond bay" is 
 really restricted to the innermost part of it, while the western portion is called Grand river. The shores are low, 
 the bottom is soft, sandy mud, and no force of the outside storms ever penetrates these calm recesses. Ilere then, 
 if anywhei'e, ought we to And oysters, and here they occur in vast numbers. 
 
 The people who live ou the shores of this broad estuary are of varied nationality, and nearly all own farms, or 
 cultivate the laud for others. They may therefore be called farmers, as a class. But in the spring for a little while, 
 and from the first of September until November seals the water under its icy cover, they all become oystermen. 
 A few of them own small sail-boats, two-masted or sloop rigged, worth from $30 to $50, and of far more use than 
 beauty. As a rule, however, they go out to tbe beds in rude, flat bottomed, square-sterned, awkward boats, called 
 "flats". These are worth $10 each, and every family owns at least one, with its oars and tbe anchor. Rakes or, 
 dredges are not used at all here ; only a pair of tongs, worth about $2 50. It does not require much capital, 
 therefore, to enter upon the business.* 
 
 Uyster fishing begins on September 1 and lasts until the ice forms. On this island no fishing through the ice is 
 • practiced, and all that is done, with the exception of a few days in the spring, must be done at once. During this 
 season, therefore, all else is pretty much abandoned, and four or five hundred persons will be found engaged in the 
 work in the western half of the island; it is considered a good day's work when a boat brings home in the evening 
 two barrels to each of the crew. In so sheltered a place as Eichmond bay the state of the weather, which is likely 
 to be very rainy, chilly, and uncertain, makes little difference with the work. 
 
 About one-half of the fishermen are heads of families, the other half being made up of boys and young unmarried 
 men, and the vagabond element. Some of the more well-to-do farmers buy on the shore the catch of the latter class, 
 to a considerable extent, and add it to their own stock, paying from 50 to 80 cents a barrel ou the shore. The 
 main part of the catch, however, is hauled day by day to Summerside, from 2 to 10 miles distant, at an expense of 
 from 10 to 15 cents a barrel, and sold to the warehouses there. Sometimes the Summerside dealers go out to the 
 shore and buy, but more frequently procure what is not brought to their doors, by sending out empty barrels to 
 different persons and engaging them to be filled. The barrels used are second-hand flour barrels, worth 15 to 20 
 cents, and holding two and a half bushels, or from three to four hundred oysters each. The price paid for tliese 
 oysters varies from year to year. The highest rate ever reached was in 1875, when $2 50 per barrel was paid at 
 tiie warehouse. Since then, partly owing to tbe stimulus given by the high price, and the consequent increased 
 supply, the price has declined, until this September (1879) it went as low as SO cents a barrel, but recovered before 
 the end of the month to $1, which may be called the average price. A stormy season will lessen the supply and 
 augment the value. Little distinction is made by the warehousemen in buying in respect to locality, but in selling 
 it is found that the flue single oysters from Grand river will bring a considerable advance over those from Malpeque 
 and other points. The rule is: the deeper the water, the better the oyster. It is conceded that the old Bedeque 
 oyster was the best of all. 
 
 With the fidl crop of oysters the farmer-flshermen expect to pay for their winter's supply of provisions, chiefly 
 flour. But little cash, therefore, is used in the transaction, the buyer exchanging a barrel of flour for from five to 
 seven barrels of oysters. The average receipts of the oyster-fishermen are diflQcult to estimate; but those best 
 competent to judge thought that the men who paid strict attention to the business received from $50 to $70 a year 
 from it. This may be put down as about one-fourth of their total annual income. The workmg classes on tbe 
 island think they are doing very well if they make $300 a year. Every one of them is a year iu debt. When the 
 warehouseman delivers his flour in exchange for the oysters, it is really the crop of the next fiill that he is buying, 
 for the oysters he has just received were owed to him for the previous winter's provisions. It is so with all the 
 meirharts in town, who obtain a good portion of the season's catch for their own use, in pay for dry-goods, 
 groceries, &c. 
 
 The amount of cash capital involved in the business of oyster-dealing, therefore, is disproportionate to the 
 apparent business done, since so great a part of it is by barter. In the vicinity of Summerside it is probably within 
 
 ' The drtMljre lias never, to my knowledge, been employed iu the waters of Prince Edward island. Oysters are fished with "tonga " 
 from depths varying from ;j or 4 feet to 1-2, and even 15, feet. — Pope. Letter to Whiteaves, Canadian XatmalM, vii, 315. 
 
8 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ■bounds to say that $25,000 would cover the capital of all the dealers combiued ; and they represent all the oyster- 
 trade there is on the island worth mentioning. The business is not now so good as formerly, on account of the 
 "hard times" that now oppress the Canadas; and a profit of 20 per cent, is considered large; but in former years 
 50 per cent, of profit was often realized without much risk. 
 
 At the eastern end of the island the only locality for oysters, within recent times, is in Hillsborough bay and its 
 tributaries. This water is on the south shore, and is the harbor of Charlottetown, the chief town of the province. 
 Old men remember when oysters were so abundant there that they seemed inexhaustible. Eich beds were to 
 be found along the west side of Hillsborough bay, over in Orwell and Pownall bays, along the channel into the 
 inner harbor, and everywhere there and up Hillsborough, East and West rivers. The finest of all grew attached 
 singly to the eel-grass at the heads of the various little inlets, where one could wade out and get them; and at 
 certain ])laces the beds were so crowded that a boat could take eight bushels in an hour. 
 
 Now, however, these bays are almost depopulated of their oysters, and not more than $500 worth annually, it 
 is said, are raked there. These are all used in Charlottetown, being raked and peddled by two men who make a 
 scant business of it. Charlottetown, in addition, consumes nearly a thousand barrels from the western end of the 
 island, esteeming her own of far poorer quality. 
 
 Concerning the oysters of the Bras d'Or I could learn but little, but became satisfied that no trade in them 
 existed, beyond a limited home consumption by those who fished and their neighbors. 
 
 3. PUTUBE OF THE OYSTER-BEDS AND OYSTER-TRADE. 
 
 Former and present abundance. — A few words ought now to be said upon the relative former and present 
 abundance of the oysters of this region and the causes operating toward their increase or decrease. 
 
 To begin with: I am convinced that if it were possible to make a comparison between the actual number of 
 oysters on the beds fifty years ago with the number to-day, the disparity would not be great. The production 
 has changed geographically, rather than numerically. Ancient areas no longer yield so fully, but new ones have 
 been discovered. 
 
 The most famous of the old localities was Shediac, where the "Porierbcd" sent to the interior settlements 
 the best mollusks known. This bed lay between Shediac island and the north shore of the bay, and has been 
 abandoned for many years; but a fisherman told me, he thought a week's profitable raking might bo done there now. 
 After the exhaustion of the Porier bed, the large, salty, fat " Bedeque " oysters were placed in the market, and 
 acquired a high reputation. The demand soon exhausted them, but a few could at present be got anywhere in the 
 bay, now that they have rested so long. Meanwhile the eastern end of Prince Edward island had lost its oysters, 
 and those of the productive beds on the mainland were of poor quality. The shore-people began to think the era of 
 good oysters had passed by. More thorough and careful search was thus stimulated, and the results were, first, 
 the discovery that the beds in Cassurapeque, Malpeque, and Richmond bays were much more extensive than had 
 been supposed, and, second, the disclosure of wholly new localities in Miramichi bay and elsewhere. 
 
 The causes of the extinction of the old traditional beds are various. It is easy to see that the inordinate attack 
 made upon the new locality of Bettaouin during the last four years will shortly be fatal to it. It has nearly proved 
 so now, just as the other natural storehouses of these mollusks along the coast have been depleted by excessive and 
 heedless use.* 
 
 On the contrary, in the extensive region on the north side of Prince Edward island, whence the trade is now 
 mainly supplied, there seems to be no doubt of a steady growth in numbers, and no degeneracy in size and quality. 
 
 Causes of extermination. — The general law of the Dominion forbids the taking of oysters, at any point, 
 between the 1st of May and the 1st of September, when they are spawning. This law excites great disgust among 
 the fishermen, who assert that the proper way to alibrd legal protection to the industry is to prohibit winter-fishing. 
 As a result, the law is constantly brokeu.t The summer-raking, they say, does more good than harm; it is 
 positively beneficial, for it stirs up the beds and contributes to their widening. In the constant moving of the boat 
 the tongs or rake must rarely strike the ground twice in the same or nearly the same place, and only a few of the 
 mollusks are taken here and there. " Oysters thrive on muddy bottoms," writes Mr. Pope, " but they will not live 
 if imbedded in the mud. Many oyster-beds have been destroyed by mud alone. The annual fishing of oyster-beds, 
 if not carried to excess, improves them. In the process of fishing the bed is broken up, the shells and oysters lifted 
 out of the mud, and a supply of material (cultch) afforded, such as the oyster spat reqiiires, and without which it 
 must perish." This is undoubtedly true to a great extent, as has Jbeen proved in the United States. 
 
 * The close time is now (1869) rigidly enforced, but these beds (in Shediac harbor) have been so much reduced by yeiars of indiscriminate 
 raking, that a long time will elapse before they are restored. » » * The oyster-beds in Eichibucto harbor and river are now greatly 
 reduced and almost valueless ; and the only mode of restoring them is to prohibit rakiug entirely for a number of years, or to lease them 
 for natural and artificial culture.— Venning, Report on Canadian Fisheries, 1870-76. 
 
 t Oysters are caught and exposed for sale in every mouth in the year, and salmon are destroyed upon their spawning-beds with the 
 utmost impuuity. — Pope. Letter to Whiteaves, Canadian Naturalist, vii, 'M7. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 9 
 
 lu fisliiug tlirongli tlio ice, ou the contrary, every living tiling, and most of tlio loose dead matter witbin reach of 
 the long rake, are scraped ui). A barren spot of mud alone is thus left upou the bed. In summer all the debris 
 brought up by the tongs is thrown overboard., and is washed clean as it sinks waveringly to the bottom, forming 
 a loose layer of clean shells, etc , — precisely what the spawn needs to find support upon and cling to. It is equal 
 to putting down "stot^ls". 
 
 It appears, however, that sometimes this throwing back is a great harm, because living ones may be so few and 
 the proportion of dead shells so large. Thus the local officer, Jlr. John McD. Sutherland, in Kent county, in 
 ISCi'J, wrote that the beds at Eichibucto had been destroyed mainly through the practice of throwing back the shells 
 and dead oysters, which covered the living ones and killed them. "I do not think," he adds, "the digging of mud 
 for manure in any way injures the oysters, as there are none in the mud so taken, but a large quantity of very small 
 mussels." The ice-rakers, contrary to this advisable method of throwing back the shells, pile the worthless stuff 
 they bring up on the ice, where it either remains to be floated out to sea when the ice breaks up, or is carted away 
 to be si)read on the iields. The bed is not only scraped perfectly bare of its oysters, therefore, but nothing is left 
 for even the spawn to attach itself to; present and future are both destroyed. 
 
 This is a reasonable, and I believe a true, explanation of the decline of the yield at Shediac and at many other 
 points where it has been customary to rake in winter, so far as man's agency is concerned. The fact that the 
 Richmond bay region, which is never raked through the ice, thrives under steady spring and fall work, supports 
 this notion. The midsummer rest may or jnay not be worth the giving, but the strength of the law should certainly 
 be opposed to working through the ice. 
 
 INIany beds have ceased to produce within historical times, apparently for no other reason, than that by the 
 natural process of growth, one generation of oysters resting on the dead remains of the last, has built up the 
 deposit until it has come too near the surface. The clearing of the country, and the consequent increased amount 
 of drifted matter and sediment brought down by the streams that empty into the estuaries where the beds are 
 situated, aid to bring about this result, by raising the general level of the bottom, clogging the surface of the beds, 
 and thus lessening the depth of the water, until at some, unusually low tide in winter the immense weight of the 
 ice, is let down upon the bed, crushing and freezing all its life. This appears to be the case in the bay of Bedeque. 
 As for the extensive submarine deposits of oyster-shells that girdle the eastern and northern shore of Prince 
 Edward island, we do not know how old tbey are nor what killed them. Possibly the general geological elevation of 
 this coast brought them all too near the surface at once. I put much faith in this hypothesis. It has been said that 
 drifting ice tears up.the beds; but I, personally, could not learn of any appreciable damage ever occurring in this 
 ■way. All the beds are well sheltered froui the bergs and floes that swing np and down Xorthumberlaud strait, 
 and follow the currents through the stormy breadth of the open gulf. It is said to be one of the most favorable 
 conditions that conduce to the oyster-prosperity of the Malpeque region, that there the ice disappears earlier than 
 from tlie confined southern coasts of the island. 
 
 I find some discussion of this subject by .the Hon. W. H. Pope, in his communications to Professor Whiteaves, 
 from Prince Edward island, already quoted by me. He says : 
 
 It is probable that inauy of the oystcr-bfida ceased to be productive of oysters ages before the settlement of the country by Europeans. 
 Exteusi vo deposits of oyster-shells are now found covered by several feet of silt. How were the oysters upou these beds destroyed ? The 
 natural process of reproduction and decay would cause the oyster-beds, formed on the bottom, to rise so near to the surface of the water 
 that the ice would rest on them. The weight of heavy masses of ice upon the beds would injure the oysters, and the moving of the ice, 
 when forced by tide or wind across the bed, would soon destroy them. I have observed the more elevated portions of an oyster-bed over 
 which the ice had been thus forced. Several inches of the surface of the bed, iucliuliug all the living oysters, had been driven before 
 the ice, and the shells and oysters so removed had been deposited in a miuiaturo moraine on the slope of the bed where the water was 
 sufficiently deep to allow the ice to pass over it. This crushiug and grinding process would destroy many of the oysters; some would 
 bo crushed and broken, others smothered in the moraine. The gradual silling up of the river would prevent the running of the ice, 
 and the oyster-beds would in time be covered, as we now tiud them. Deposits of oyster-shells (covered with mud) 20 feet iu depth, are 
 found in rivers in the deepest parts of which (here are not 14 feet of water. 
 
 Oysters upou natural beds are seldom, if ever, killed by frost. I have known oysters to thrive upon a hard and stony bottom, 
 notwithstanding that the ice rested upon them once in 24 hours throughout the wint(>r. Some of these oysters grew adherent to a snuill 
 flat rock, about 8 inches in thickness. The oysters on the top of the rock were killed when they attained their second year's growth, I 
 think, by pressure, as those on the edges were never injured by ice or cold. 
 
 Oyster-beds in rivers in which sawdust is thrown in lar'ge quantities, would probably bo injured by it. The sawdust would, I think, 
 be carried by the current over the beds, and the roughness of their surface would detaiu some of it. The interstices between (he shells 
 and oysters would probaljly become filled with sawdust and muj. Mud and decomposing sawdust constitute a most oft'ensive compound. 
 
 There is another harmful influence exerted upon the oysters, however, by civilization, namely, the mud-digging. 
 The whole bottom of each and all of these oyster-bays is a comminuted mixture of decomposed shells and vegetable 
 matters, which goes under the name of mussel-mud. No one has ever sounded the full thickness of this, I think ; 
 but it has been dttg to the dei>th of 30 feet by the rude horse-power scoops that arc employed to dip it up. It 
 makes the best of manure, ajjd hundreds of thousands* of loads have been spread upon the neighboring farms 
 
 'During the ytast ten or twelve years millions of tons of oyster-shells and mud have beeu taken up by our farmei-s from oyster-beds, 
 by means of dredging-machiues worked by horses on the ice. In many instances the beds have been cut through, and iu souic places the 
 deposits of shell have been fouud to be upward of 20 feet in thickness.— Pope. Letter to Whiteaves, Canadian Naluralist, vii, 340. 
 
10 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 every year. It is sold by the dredgers at 10 cents a load, and it costs from 10 to 15 cents a load to haul it. 
 Three hundred loads a day might be raised, if demanded. In the excavation of this fertilizer two features work 
 disadvantageously to the oyster. In the first place, the actual l)ottojn is torn to pieces — the home destroyed and 
 the mollusks themselves eradicated. Secondly, the operation sets free great quantities of fine silt, which spreads 
 through the water fixr and wide, falls upon the oysters, and smothers or chokes them. The bay has lost its ancient 
 purity, and is no longer a suitable place for oyster-habitation. When, however, the work of the mud-diggers is 
 completed, the excavation they leave is gradually taken possession of again by mollusks. This has' happened 
 particularly at West river, near Charlottetown, w-here the whole bottom, for a long distance, was dredged up and 
 taken away, oysters and all, and it encourages belief that perhaps wheu Cedeque and the other bays are thoroughly 
 robbed of their manuring deposits, the desirable bivalves that once inhabited them will return to their ancient 
 haunts to begin a new era of existence and generation. ^ 
 
 Oysteb-culture in the Provinces. — Nothing in the way of oyster-cultivation, properly speaking, has been 
 attempted in the Provinces, that I could learn of. When the oyster dealers in St. John find themselves over- 
 stocked in summer, they sometimes throw a lot of oysters overboard near Navy island, raking them up as they 
 are wanted. An attempt to plant some there several years ago, resulted in all being stolen within a few months. 
 Occasionally a schooner-load of oysters is brought down from Buctouche, Miramichi, or some other northern bay, 
 where they are of poor quality, and are dumped for a few mouths in Shediac bay to "fatten". The improvement 
 is said to be very rapid and striking. Near Charlottetown, some years ago, a citizen took up a large quantity of 
 oysters from a distant part of the harbor and laid them down near his home, forming a bed convenient to his hand, 
 and the position of which was kept a secret in the familj'. A similar experiment in ti-ansplauting was made by 
 Judge W. H. Pope, of Summerside, two or three years ago, near New London, Prince Edward island, only upon 
 a more extensive scale and with a commercial view. His experiments did not wholly succeed, but seemed to show 
 satisfactorily that the improvement resulting from transplantment and care would be profitable, if attended to on 
 a large scale and in an enlightened way. 
 
 Such desultory work seems to be all that has ever been attempted in the Provinces toward oyster-culture. No 
 seed-oysters ha\'e ever been sent southward or received from the United States. They could be procured for about 
 $2 a barrel at Shediac and Summerside, and there remain enough of the genuine Porier and Bedeque breeds to 
 start new beds of these varieties in favorable spots elsewhere. 
 
 Efforts toward protection. — The danger of utter extinction which menaces the mainland beds is not a 
 new one. It was long ago pointed out that such a danger exists, and that measures ought to be taken to preserve 
 to the colonies this rich food-resource which was being so rapidly wasted. Mr. Perley announced it to the govern- 
 ment in 1849 in these words : 
 
 From tlie mauner in which the oyster-fishery of the gulf-shore is now being conilucted, all the oysters of good quality -n-ill, in a few 
 years, be quite destroyed. The preservation of this fishery is of considerahlo importance, and it might bs etiected as \Tell by judicious 
 regulations and restrictions a9 by encouraging the foriuation of artificial beds or layings in favourable situations. Several persons on 
 the coast intimated to the writer their desire to form new and extensive beds in the sea-water, by removing oysters from the mixed 
 water of the estuaries, where they are now almost worthless, if they could obtain an exclusive right to such beds when formed, audthe 
 necessary enactments to prevent their being plundered. 
 
 Feeling the importance of the matter. Judge Pope's experiment on Prince Edward island, already alluded to, 
 was made only iu pursuit of his belief that the matter was practicable. Ue wrote to Professor W^hiteaves in 1874: 
 
 The area of productive oyster-beds in the Dominion is comparatively limited and altogether inadequate to sujiply the demand for 
 oysters, which is now enormous, aud which is increasing every year. Unless the existing beds be protected and improved, and new beds 
 formed, the day will soon come when the oyster-beds of the Domiuion will cease to produce. * » * The rivers and estuaries of this 
 island [Prince Edward] are admirably ad.ipted for the cultivalion of oysters. The oysters found iu its bays are not to be excelled in 
 flavor, and if fished late in the autumn they will kecj) good for months. I see no reason why hundreds of thousands of acres of oyster- 
 beds should not be formed iu these bays, which would produce vast quantities in quality much superior to the oysters of Virginia. The 
 material for the formation of such beds is at hand in the ancient ones; the oysters with which to sow them could be had at little cost 
 during the waro, calm days of summer. * 
 
 Professor Whiteaves adds his testimony in the following paragraph, which refers chiefly to the mainland: 
 
 Many once productive beds in various parts of the gulf now yield almost nothing, and there is too much reason to fear that, unless 
 precautionary measures are adopted, the oyster-fisheries of the Dominion will soon become a thing of the past. The raking of the beds 
 has been palpably excessive and wasteful ; no such thing as cleansing the ground and scattering the spat during the close season has ever 
 been practiced ; the pollution of the ground by refuse of mills, by silting up, .and a variety of other causes, has led to the present state of 
 ruin and decay which we now see. Neglect, waste, and excessive cuijidity have almost destroyed these oyster-beds, aud will ultimately 
 entirely do so, unless remedial measures are adopted. 
 
 With the design of fostering the oyster product and industry, Mr. Venning, inspector of fisheries in New 
 Brunswick, has made many attempts to induce the use of capital in this direction, and regulate the dredging by 
 legal measures. He tried hard to get the government to divide the bay of Shediac into two equal portions, and to 
 lease the oyster-privileges to responsible persons for a term of years, under regulations that should not admit of the 
 extirpation of the mollusks. Such a hue and cry was raised by the ignorant natives, however, that the project had 
 to be abandoned. He called a public meeting at Shediac and tried to represent how muidi it would be for their 
 advantage to cease their destructive, indiscriminate raking, but utterly without effect. "My grandfadder rake 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 11 
 
 oysters, my faddcr he rake oysters when he want 'em, and by Gar! I rake him too !" That was the only arcnment 
 he couUl get. He oflered to aUow them to arrange that they control, in common, one of the halves of the bay, 
 leaving to him the other half; but they would submit to no regulation, and listen to no suggestions toward an 
 imiirovemeut of method. 
 
 Evidence from the shell-heaps of abundance in the past. — Thatf the oyster-beds of this region had 
 been a food-resource to the Indians for many generations before white men came to these shores, is proved by the 
 kjokkenmoddings or refuse .shell-heaps which occur along the coasts. These relics of aboriginal homes and feasts 
 also stand as evidence that formerly oyster-beds flourished where none have been known within the historic period, 
 and connect the remote, isolated fields of the gulf of St. Lawrence with the oyster-bearing regions in Massachusetts 
 bay and south of Cape Cod. The idea iirevails that an elevation of the land and sea-bottom, or a lowering of the 
 average temjierature of the climate to a fatal point, on the intermediate coasts, or both, have caused the death of 
 the reefs which once existed. 
 
 To the very extensive submarine beds of dead shells all through the waters of that ])art of the gulf between 
 Cape ]>reton and Gasi)(5 and around Prince Edward island, I have already alluded. They hardly bear upon our 
 present inquiry, except to prove the exti'eme antiquity of the molluscan population of that district. Passing down 
 the coast, I heard of old beds and a few living oysters at Jeddore head, near Halifax, "also Country harboi', St. 
 Mary's river, and Liscombe harbor, Guysboro' county, on the outside." In the bay of Fundy I could not learn of a 
 single living oyster, but it appears that formerly they dwelt there. 
 
 In his Field and Forest liambles, Dr. A. Leith Adams tells us that he examined several shell-heaps on islands 
 in the bay of Fundy and along the fiord of the St. Croix river for many miles. "Although a large number 
 had evidently been leveled and utilized for top-dressing, enough remain to show that, whether as articles of food, 
 bait, or both, the aboriginal races collected vast quantities of the well-known clam and quahog, besides two species 
 of ouster (Ostrea borealis and Virginiana), and the common forms of Natica, Crepklula, Solen, etc., the debris of which 
 strew the coasts of several of the inlets in the bay of Fundy, their numbers evincing the profusion of each species. 
 It has, however, been asserted by no less an authority than Dr. Gould, that all, especially the three tirst species, 
 are becoming rapidly extinct north of Cape Ann, Massachusetts" (p. 35). 
 
 Having given the substance of the opinion of Dr. Gould and some others as to the reason for the decadence, 
 Dr. Adams goes on to tell what he found in the kjcikkenmoddings along the bay of Fund}', ])articularly at Passa- 
 maquoddy bay. The mound was one of several facing the sea on a flat, so that the waves of high tides had washed 
 much of it away, "disclosing a perpendicular section composed almost entirely of clam-shells, interspersed with 
 mussels, whilks, and the common Planorbis. The former were extremely abundant, and for the most part in 
 fragments; however, I procured several very large ones, avei'agiug 3 by 4i inches in breadth, which the fishermen 
 of the neighboi'hood told me were very much larger than any recent specimens they had seen." He then describes 
 the bones of quadrupeds, birds, and fishes that occur in these refuse-heaps, and mentions the absence of charcoal. 
 
 This briTigs me to the border of Maine, and introduces the proper census inquiry into the "shell- fisheries" of 
 the United States, which occui)ies the succeeding chapters. 
 
 B. GULF OF MAINE. 
 
 4. FORMER EXTENT AND CONDITION OF THE NxlTIVE BEDS IN THE GULF OF MAINE. 
 
 EVIDENCE OF INDIAN SHELL-HEAPS. 
 
 Description of the IsTew England shell-heaps. — In beginning an account of oysters on the coasts of the 
 gulf of Maine, which extends from Nova Scotia to Cape Cod, the most prominent fact in relation to them appears 
 to be their former abundance in comiiarison with their present extinction. The histoi'ical aspect will, therefore, be 
 the first to be considered. The readiest way to begin this is to i)roceed to Damariscotta, a seaport village in 
 Lincoln county, Maine, where exists the greatest monument extant to the anticpiity of the oyster in these waters. 
 
 Above the village, the Damariscotta riv^er pursues a narrow course between precipitous banks for about a mile, 
 after which it expands into a shallow basin, about one mile long by one-half to one-quarter of a mile wide, known 
 as Salt bay. At its northern extremity are rapids and cataracts, formed by a rocky ledge lying across a narrow 
 channel, and above this is the extensive fresh-water area of Danuiriscotta pond. The falls at the head of Salt bay 
 limit the tide, and furnish water-power for several sawing and flouring mills. 
 
 Salt bay is nowhere more than a few feet deep, unless it be here and theie in the direct channel, plowed out by 
 the swift tide, and the bottom is gravel, or was so anciently. It is so far inland that its watei's are always 
 comfortably warm, and it is, therefore, not surprising to find that it formed the chosen home of a large and flourishing 
 colony of oysters, that seem to have found there the most congenial conditions for growth. The evidence of this 
 is aflbrded in the great shell-heaps that have made the locality celebrated among antiquarians. 
 
12 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 These "heaps" consist of piles of oyster-shells, varying from one to six or seven feet in depth, packed closely 
 together, and all ready to crumble, unless handled with great care. They begin in small quantity down nearly to 
 the falls at the bridge connecting Damariscotta and Newcastle, and thence continue uninterruptedly on both sides 
 of the river, up to the southern end of the bay. Here the heaps reach their greatest magnitude, and are best 
 observed upon the point of land which juts out into the southwestern part of the bay. Beyond this point, however, 
 scattering heaps are found along the shores. It has been estimated that not less than 8,000,000 cubic feet of shells 
 are thus piled up, and easily accessible. 
 
 It was once supposed that these beds were fossil, or that they had been formed by water in some way, and then 
 elevated above the sea-level. But an examination soon dispelled this notion, which nobody now believes. Their 
 position, structure, and contents, show conclusively that they are the work of human hands,* and a product of the 
 very earliest American oyster-fishery of which we have any knowledge. 
 
 If one digs down through them, he finds at the depth of a few feet that he comes suddenly to the earth and 
 gravel of the natural soil. Tliis is seen i)lainly in section'at sevei'al points on the western shores, where the water 
 has eroded the bank. The line of demarcation between the shells and the soil is sharp ; there is no intermingling 
 whatever.t In many places, however, the shells from above have slid down the face of the high bank, entirely 
 concealing its face, and covering the beach below. This gives a fictitious appearance of great depth, which has 
 deceived some writers upon the matter, I think. The shells are almost invariably single. In an hour's digging I 
 found but one specimen whei-e the two valves were together. They lie in all sorts of positions, in close contact 
 with each other, and so loosely that it is easy to pick them out of the bank one by one.| They are all of very 
 large size and some even giganUc. Shells have been taken out repeatedly that exceeded a foot in length, and one 
 of 15 inches is reported. They are, as a rule, long, narrow, and somewhat curved or scimitar-shaped. Broad and 
 straight ones are found, however. The shells are thick, but they flake away so in removal from the heap, that 
 scarcely more than the harder, nacreous, inner layers are usually obtained. ]!fearly all trace of color, inside and 
 out, has disappeared. 
 
 They are not everywhere of uniform depth, but thin here and thicker there, as though cast up in heaps, and the 
 soil over them is very thin, and consists only of decayed loam; but there was once a small forest Of spruce trees there, 
 and there still I'emain some very large and aged trunks and an abundance of bushes. At one place on the eastern 
 side the most extensive deposits of all crown the summit of a bluff or knoll CO feet or more in height, the face of 
 which seems terraced with shells, which extend back many rods from the river-bank.§ Scattered through the 
 banks, also, are the shells of the soft clam, quahaug, mussel, scallop, and various other remains, as I shall mention 
 hereafter. 
 
 When the earliest explorers landed upon the shores of North America, tley found that the Indians of all 
 regions were acquainted with the edible qualities of the various shell fish, and ate all that we now make use of.|| 
 They understood perfectly, also, the superior value of the clam and oyster, and everywhere along the New England 
 coast were accustomed to assemble at favorable points and have feasts of mollusks and maize, with much merry- 
 making. That fine old institution of Rhode Island and Connecticut, the clam-bake, almost the only thing that was 
 allowed to warm the cockles of a Puritan's heart, and still the joUiest festival in summer experience alongshore, 
 perpetuates the practice of the aborigines. Here, in southern Maine, appears to have been a particularly 
 favorable spot, isolated from the southern abundance of bivalves, and here the Quoddy Indians came in great 
 numbers. There is every evidence that these shores were much more thickly populated by the red men than the 
 coast regions either east or west of it. The word "Damariscotta" is said to mean "river of little fishes", and its 
 neighboring streams were equally famous for their finny wealth. In addition, the soil was fertile, the game very 
 abundant, and the climate pleasant. It may be said that, for an Indian district, the population was dense. 
 
 - ~ ■ » 
 
 * The evidence seemed conclusive, tb.it tbeso shell-mounds were not extinct oyster-beds, left exposed by some former uplift of the 
 Atlantic coast, but the work of aboriginal tribes, who repaired to this favored region at certain seasons of the year, and celebrated their 
 feasts with the delicious bivalve which must have formerly abounded in these waters. That these feasts were held periodically and, 
 perhaps, at considerable intervals, is shown by the condiMon of the larger deposits, and especially the large one which slopes to the water's 
 edge on the west bank of the river.— SIoses, Proceedings Central Ohio Seientific Association, i, p. 74. See also, Dr. JeflVies Wyman's 
 account in Second Annual Eeport, Peabody Museum of Archwologij, Cambridge, 1809. 
 
 tThe deposits are entirely free from any admixture of soil or debris of any sort, and one is struck with the appearance which a 
 fresh section presents, the clean, white wall of shells looking like a kiln of freshly baked porcelain.— Moses, loc. cil., 74. Wherever we 
 found a deep section of shells so lately made that the surface had not decomposed, the open appearance of the shells was marked. They 
 were not mingled with fragments of bone or broken shells or with sand, presenting, in this respect, an entirely difi'erent .appearance from 
 the great ileposit of oyster-shells by water at the mouth of the St. Mary's river, Georgia, which I had an opportunity of carefully 
 observing two years ago. — Chadbourne, Trans. Maine Hist. Soc., vi. 
 
 t Anotlier circumstance that strikes the explorer, is the extremely loose condition of the shells, even at the base of a deposit of great 
 depth. The shell may be drawn out with the greatest ease from any portion of the bank, and, with a little caution, in an entire state, 
 although readily crumbling if not handled with great care.— Moses, loc. cit., 74. The shells lie very loosely, .are remarkably white and 
 friable, being in a state of i^artial decomposition and readily falling to pieces when handled.— Moses, loc. eit., i, ]>. '3. 
 
 5 One of the deposits, as surveyed by Mr. John M. Brown and myself, has the following dimensions : Shape, oval; length, 180 feet; 
 breadth, 100 feet; depth, 6 feet ; height of base above high-water mark, 4 feet. The top of the loftiest mound is 31 feet above high-water 
 mark. It descends abruptly toward the river, and .at its base the action of the water has formed a tine shell-be.ach. — MosES, loc. eit., 75. 
 
 II See paragraph 6. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 13 
 
 No doubt, Lowcver, tlie chief iittiaction in the district was this isoLited colony of oysters, and that they were 
 made incessant use of, is attested by the size of the heaps. As a rule, there is little or no perceptible inter- 
 stratifit-atioi; of earth to su,!4;iest a period when no shells were thrown down, and the forest had time to grow and 
 di()[) its moldering leaves, the dust an 0])portunity to settle. Land-shells are very few, which would not be the 
 case bad weeds and bushes grown over the beds. The increase of the banks, then, as a whole, was steady from 
 the beginning to the end. 
 
 How long ago that beginning was, is a question very difficult to answer. Most persons, I believe, are inclined 
 to exaggerate the length of time required to pile up even so great a deposit as this. The shells are very large 
 and heavy. They will probably average twice the size of the ordinary oysters seen in Fulton market. The greed 
 of savages, when food is plenty, is as well known, as that a vast quantity of oysters may be eaten before the 
 appetite cloys. It is evident that large numbers of Indians permanently resided in the vicinity, and probable that 
 still greater numbers came from a distance to the coast in summer. This was in accordance with their habits 
 everywhere. Taking these various considerations together, it will be seen that it would not require so extraordinary 
 a period, as might at first appear, for the accumulation of the heaps, although so extensive; at the same time it is 
 evident that oysters were exceedingly numerous there. But it is also probable that not only were the shells of the 
 oysters eaten on the spot, thrown down on the bank, and thus piled up, as you can see the degenerate descendants 
 of these Indians doing to this day, but that visiting Indians were in the habit of ])rocuring large quantities of the 
 mollusks, shucking them here, and carrying them away to the interior in vessels of wicker, birch-bark, and pottery. 
 They came down the Penobscot and other rivers in large canoes in the autumn, filled up their buckets with oysters, 
 and departed. In the cold weather of early winter they would keep good for days and weeks, and form a luxury 
 in their up ('ouutry wigwams, that would remind them most pleasantly of sunny summer-days beside the sea. Thus 
 this bay became a shucking-grouud, as well as a place for feasts. Possibly a system of barter was instituted, by 
 which certain men lived on the si)0t and devoted themselves to getting and selling oysters in exchange for clothing 
 and weapons and game. We know there were arrow-makers and canoe-lmilders, and so on ; why not oyster-divers 
 and dealers? Indeed, it is not improbable that the small neighboring oyster-beds of Sheepscot and Thomaston 
 were designedly planted by the Indians with young mollusks obtained from Damariscotta, with a view to continued 
 and convenient supplies. 
 
 The Indians probably procured their oysters by wading out and picking them up at low tide. This was the 
 work of the women and children, while the warriors sat on the bank and ate till they were satisfied, or superintended 
 the proper freighting of the canoes. But many were also got, no doubt, by diving, which would be done mainly 
 by the young men. It is doubtful whether they used anything in the shape of a rake, grapnel, or tongs. I could 
 find no evidence of anything of this sort, but if such were used, they were doubtless made of wood (stone would 
 be too unwieldy), and therefore would completely perish. 
 
 Another question is, how did they open these monstrous shells? There are three ways: one is by fire — roast 
 a mollusk a few minutes and he opens his valves ; evidences of fire, in the shape of ashes and charcoal, are 
 recovered at various depths in various parts of the deposit,* and it is probable that this was the usual and cheapest 
 method. Another way was by striking a brisk blow on the side of the shell just over the "scar", or attachment of 
 the adductor muscle. This seems to paralyze the animal and his muscles relax. I have seen a heavy stone 
 implement that looked as though it had been used for this puriwse, and was different from the ordinary hammering 
 stones. At Wellfleet, also, I dug from a shell-heap a rough stone tool, evidently fashioned by men, which 
 exhibited signs of long usage both as a hammer and as a wedge or knife with which to pry open ihe valves. But 
 any of their stone knives or smaller hatchets would have been eminently suitable for this service, and there was 
 hardly need of a special instrument for the purpose. There is an implement in the possession of Dr. R. C. Chapman, 
 of Damariscotta, however, that appears to have been made expressly for such service, and would accomplish the 
 matter as deftly as our modern knives. 
 
 However, Damariscotta is only one of the many points along the coast of the gulf of Maine where these shell- 
 heaps, and extinct deposits under the water, show that the oyster once fiourished. The most easterly point that I 
 can make sure of is Mount Desert island ; for at Eastport no oysters or remains of them have ever been found 
 native, a report to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 In the George river are extinct beds, concerning which more will be said hereafter; then comes Damaris- 
 cotta, already described, and next is Sheepscot river, where there were once plenty of oysters, but no shell-heaps 
 of consequence, and the next point is Casco bay. 
 
 lu these jilaces, in deep sections, we found frasjnients of charcoal mingled with the shells under conditions that showed conclusively 
 that it could have been deposited there only as the shells were deposited. » » * So common did we find the coal, that I feel confident it 
 can be found there by any careful observer. — Cuadbourxb. Trans. Maine Hist. Soc, vi. In digging down from the surface of one of 
 these heaps, fragments of charcoal were found at a depth of 3 or 4 feet, and here and there a layer of the same substance. Above and 
 below these layers was sometimes a conglomerate mass of shells, apparently burned to lime by the action of fire. — MoSES, loc. cit., 71. 
 Ml'. Morse found at the very foundation of one of the highest heaps the renuiins of an ancient fire-place, where he exhumed charcoal, 
 bones, and pottery. » » • These small mouuiLs are composed of the same materials as the otiicrs, but had a larger admixture of earth. 
 They appcir to have been the heaps of n'fiis(< giadiially colh-ctcd arouud Ihe encampments. Wy.man. 2(1 .Inn. lieport Veubody .Una. Arch., 
 l>S(i9, p. l.ft. 
 
14 THE FISIIEEIES OF THE UNITED S FATES. 
 
 Everywhere that any digging has been clone in Portland harbor, in the neighborhood of Hari^swell, in the 
 Back cove at the mouth of the Presumpscot, or elsewhere iu the upper and sheltered part of Casco bay, these 
 monster shells have been met with. In the harbor they are buried seven feet deep, so rapid has been the tilling up by 
 sewage and other refuse, but behind the city, out of the way of drifting matter, they are struck oidy about two feet 
 under the surface of the bottom mud. Near Harpswell they are so accessible at low tide, that they have been 
 dredged up to some extent and used for manure upon the neighboring farms, where they very soon go to powder. 
 Upon nearly all the islands in the bay, also, have been found kjokkenmoddings, which have been extensively exploi-ed 
 and collected from for museums of archteology by Jlr. Fuller, Professor Morse, Professor Wyman, and others. 
 These heai)s are especially noted for the great quantities of the bones of the extinct auk, Alca impennis, that they 
 have yielded. 
 
 N"ot far southward of Casco bay are the Scarborough headlands, which were perhaps the first of all our shell- 
 heaps to attract attention. Southgate, in his history of the town, says: 
 
 The excellent opportuuities for fishing and hunting which distinguished Scarborough, made it one of the favorite resorts of the natives. 
 The place of their most ancient residence within the town was the point (Plummer's) south of Oak Hill. The site of their village 
 overlooks the river, marshes, and bay on the south, and was i)rotectcd u])ou the north by a high ridge of slate. There remains at that i)lace 
 a large bank of shells from one to ten feet in depth, supposed to have been deposited there by these Indians. * * » Some of the fields 
 on the south side of Blue point consist almost entirely of shells brought there by the Indians, and there are similar traces of them on the 
 opposite shore of Blaclc point. 
 
 SHELL-nEAPS OF OTHEu LANDS.— Shell-mounds, like that at Damariscotta, at various points along the shore 
 of Massachusetts, and in many other parts of the Atlantic coast of America, are found nearly all over the world. 
 They all tell the same story of savage life, and usually of an extremely degraded state of society, and an intensely 
 hard struggle for daily bread. It is a proof of no great sagacity to discover that mollusks were good for food. 
 Many animals, and even birds, found that out long ago. They are present in greater or less profusion upon all 
 coasts, and are more likely to be accessible than any other form of food, since they cannot get away, do not require 
 to be cultivated, and are equally plenty at all seasons. Is^evertheless, it is only within a very few years that these 
 heaps of shells near the beach have attracted the attention of antiquarians, as storehouses of materials out of 
 ■which something of the history of now prehistoric times might be reconstructed. Indeed, their character has been 
 mistaken altogether, until within the memory of men now living; for where they had been noticed at all they had 
 at once been set down as "old beaches", left high and dry by the sea, and this in spite of the fact that it was well 
 known that just such structures were even now being piled up by various tribes of savage men iu remote corners of 
 the globe. For instance. Captain Cook and Captain Grey both reported, that on the northwest coast of Australia 
 the natives, when they had any houses at all, dwelt in the llimsiest of huts along the coast line, and that there were 
 around them "vast heaps of shells, the fish of which we suppose had been their food". Some of these mounds 
 were described as covering half an aore and being ten feet thick. Down in New Zealand precisely the same thing 
 was observed. Captain Cook reported a similar state of affairs in Patagonia, while the Indians of Alaska and the 
 Eskimos of Greenland accumulated shells and bones in vast quantities round their doors, like their neighbors in 
 savagery on the equator and at the antipodes. Finally, it dawned upon students of archaeology that the prehistoric 
 inhabitants of Europe might have bad similar habits, and, if so, masses of castaway shells would remain to mark 
 the site of their huts and villages. Tliis led to an examination of the "old beaches", when it was quickly seen that 
 they were the product of human agency — were, in fact, the very remains the archtBologists were searching after. 
 
 The most fitmous and extensive of these mounds in Europe were those of Denmark. They have often been 
 described under tbe name of Ivjokkenmoddings, fiom two words meaning "heaps of kitchen-refuse". 
 
 Examination has made it evident that these deposits were scattered along the whole coast, following the ins and 
 outs of the deeply-indented shore; but they never occur inland, although the changes in elevation of the coast have 
 in some cases placed considerable new land betwixt them and the beach, just as, in other cases, the encroachment 
 of the sea has destroyed them iu i)art, or wholly submerged them. It is in the northern half of Denmark, however, 
 that the most exploration has taken place; and it shows conclusively that the people who built them evidently 
 made their homes always on the shore, just out of reach of the tide, only now and then, perhaps, following the chase 
 into the interior. 
 
 These heaps are much like that of Damariscotta. Some are of large extent and thickness, and hillocky ; others 
 of less size, but elongated ; a third sort in the shape of a ring, with a depression in the center, where we may 
 suppose the hut was built when last the place was occujiied. Sir John Lubbock's description of one of the most 
 productive of the heaps, that at Meilgaard, in 1SG3, will give a good idea of the whole — 
 
 In the middle this kjiikkenraodding has a thickness of about ten feet, from which, however, it slopes away in all directions ; round the 
 principal mound are several smaller ones of the same nature. Over the shells a thin layer of mold has formed itself, on which the trees 
 grow. A good section of such a kji>lckenuiud<!ing can hardly fail to strike with astonishment any one who sees it for the first time, and 
 it is ilifflcnlt to convey iu words an exact idea of the appearance which it presents. The whole thickness consists of shells, oysters being 
 at Meilgaard hj far the most numerous, with here and there a few bones, and still more rarely stone implements or fi-agmeuts of pottery. 
 
 The fonr species of shells most abundant in the Danish mounds are: the oyster, Ostrea cdulis, L.; the cockle, 
 Cdrdium echile, L.; the nnieSel, ^^1)tihts cdlllis, L.; aud the periwinkle, Liifw'ma, Uttorea, L. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 15 
 
 All of tbc'sc uiolliisks are s!ill mscmI for food; besides them, various other sea- and land shells occur in small 
 ([uantities. Sir John Lubbock points out that the shells of nearly all these mollusks average of far larger size 
 than they arc ever known to attain otl' those coasts at the present day; while the oyster has entirely disai)peared, 
 and even in the Kattegat itself occurs only in a few places. " Some oysters were, however, still living at Iselfjord 
 at the beginning of this century, and their destruction cannot be altogether ascribed to the fishermen, as great 
 numbers of dead shells are still present; but in this case it is attributed to the abundance of starfishes, which are 
 A^ery destructive to oysters. On the whole, their disappearance, especially when taken in connection with the 
 dwarf size of the other species, is evidently attributable in a great measure to the smaller proj,ortion of salt in the 
 water." The lack of saltuess alluded to arises from the fact, that the elevation of the shores and bottom of the 
 Kattegat has been so great as to admit only a little of the tide, while an increased quantity of fresh water flows in. 
 
 Besides these mollusk-shells, the remains of fishes, quadrupeds, and birds are very numerous and highly 
 interesting. Professor Steeustrup, who has paid great attention to this matter, estimated that the mound at 
 Havelse contained from ten to, twelve bones in every cubic foot. 
 
 Of the fishes, the most common are the herring, the doi-se (a kind of cod), the dab (a kind of flounder), and the 
 eel. Among the bones of birds there have been recognized skeletons of the capercailzie (a very large grouse), the 
 "wild swan, various ducks and geese, and of the great auk, Alca impennis, whose bones fill our American mounds 
 also, and which has now become extinct. 
 
 The mammals are represented in the mounds by the stag, the roe-deer, and the wild boar, for the most part — 
 97 per cent., according to Professor Steenstruij; Besides these, bones of the buffalo, dog, fox, wolf, mai-ten, otter, 
 porpoise, seal, water-vole, beaver, lynx, wild-cat, hedgehog, bear, and mouse. Such domestic animals as the ox, elk, 
 reindeer, hare, sheep, and hog are absent. Thodog was i^robably kept to be eaten ; or at least it is certain that he 
 became an article of footl on occasions. 
 
 The bones, little and big, arc all badly crushed and broken, and all in the same way, so that the parts missing 
 in one skeleton will exactly coincide with those in all the rest, if they could be got together. The long bones of the 
 arms and legs, for example, are all split open in the manner best adapted for the extraction of the marrow, 
 " which is in itself satisfactory proof of the presence of man." 
 
 The flint and stone implements dug up from these shell-heaps are very numerous, but show little skill. "A 
 very few carefully formed weapons have been found," says Sir John Lubbock, "but the implements generally are 
 very rude. Small pieces of A'ery coarse pottery have also been discovered, and many of the bones trom the 
 kjokkenmoddings bear evident marks of a sharp instrument: several of the pieces found by us were in this condition, 
 and had been fashioned into rude pins." Sir John continues : 
 
 "The kjokkenmoddings were not mere summer-quarters; the ancient fishermen resided on these spots for at 
 least two-thirds, if not the whole, year. This we learn from an examination of the bones of the wild animals, as it 
 is often possible to determine within very narrow limits the time of year at which they were killed. For instance, 
 the remains of the wild swan, Cijgnus musicus, are very common, and this bird is only a winter visitor, leaving 
 Danish coasts in March and returning in November. It might naturally have been hoped that the remains of 
 young birds would have supplied evidence as to the spring and early summer, but, unfortunately, as has already 
 been explained, no such bones are to be found. It is therefoi'e fortunate that among the mammalia two periodical 
 phenomena occur, namely, the shedding and reproduction of stags' antlers, which, with slight variations according 
 to age, have a fixed season ; and, secondly, the birth and growth of the young. These and similar phenomena 
 render it highly probable that the 'mound-builders' resided on the Danish coast all the year round, though I am 
 disposed to think that, like the Fuegians, who lead even now a very similar life, they frequently moved from spot to 
 spot. This appears to lue to be indicated not only by the condition of the deserted hearths, but by the color of the 
 flint flakes, etc.; for, while many of these retain the usual dull, blnish-black color which is characteristic of newly- 
 broken flints, and which remains unaltered as long as they are surrounded by carbonate of lime, others are 
 whitened, as is usual with those which have been exposed for any length of time. Perhaps, therefore, these were 
 lying on the surface during some period of desertion, and covered over onlj- when the place was again inhabited. 
 
 "Much as still remains to be made out respecting the men of the Stone period, the facts already ascertained, like 
 a few strokes by a clever draughtsman, sujjply us with the elements of an outline sketch. Carrying our imagination 
 back into the past, we see before us on the low shores of the Danish archipelago a race of small men, with heavy, 
 oveihanging brows, I'ound heads, and faces probably much like those of the present Laplanders. As they must 
 evidently have had some protection from the weather, it is most i)robable that they lived in tents made of skins. 
 The total absence of metal in the kjokkenmoddings indicates that they had not yet any weapons except those 
 made of wood, stone, horn, and bone. Their principal food must have consisted of shellfish, but they were able to 
 catch fish, and often varied their diet by game caught in hunting. It is perhaps not uncharitable to conclude that 
 when their hunters were successful, the whole community gorged itself with food, as is the case with many sa^■age 
 races at the present time. It is evident that marrow was considered a great delicacy, for every single bone which 
 contained any was split open in tlie iiiaiincr best ada])ted to extract tlie precious morsel." 
 
 We liave already seen (hat these mound builders were regular settlers and not mere summer-visitors, and, ou 
 
IG THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the wLole, seem to Lave lived in very much the same manner as the inhabitants of the Tierra del Fuego, who 
 dwell on the coast, feed principally on shellfish, and have the dog as their only domestic animal. A very good 
 account of them is given in Darwin's Journal, from which I extract the following passages, which give us a vivid 
 and probably correct idea of what might have been seen on the Danish shore long, long ago: 
 
 The iubabitants, living cliielly upon alit'lllish, are obliged constantly to change tlieir place of residence; but tbey return at intervals 
 to tbo same spots, as is evident from the pile of old shells, which must often amount to some tons in weight. These heaps can be 
 distinguished at a long distance by the bright-green color of ccrt.ain plants which invariably grow on them. » * * The Fuegian wigwam 
 resembles in size and dimensions a hay-cocli. It merely consists of a few broken branches stuck iu the ground, very imperfectly thatched 
 on one side with a few tufts of grass and rushes. The whole cannot be so much as the work of one hour, and it is only used for a few 
 days. * * * At a subsequent period the Beagle anchored for a couple of days nudcr Wollaston island, which is a short way to the north- 
 ward. While going on shore we pulled alongside a canoe with six Fiiegians. These were the most abject and miserable creatures 
 I anywhere beheld. On the cast coast the natives, as we have seen, have guauaco clo.aks, and on the west they possess seal-skins. 
 Amongst the central tribes the men generally possess an otter-skin, or some small scrap about as large as a pocket-handlccrchicf, which 
 is barely sufficient to cover theii' backs as low down as their loins. It is laced across the breast by strings, and, according as the wind 
 blows, it is shifted from side to side. But these Fucgi.ans in the canoe were quite naked, and even one full-grown woman was absolutely 
 so. It was raining heavily, and the fresh water, together with the spray, trickled down her body. • » * Thesepoor wretches were stunted 
 in their growth, their hideous faces bedaubed with white paint, their skins filthy and greasy, their hair eut.angled, their voices discordant, 
 their gestures violent and without dignity. Viewing such men, one can hardly make one's self believe they are fellow-creatures aud 
 inhabitants of the same world. * * * At night five or six human beings, naked and scarcely protected from the wind aud rain of this 
 tempestuous climate, sleep on the wet ground, coiled up like animals. Whenever it is low water they must rise to pick shelllish from the 
 rocks, and the women, winter and summer, either dive to collect sea-eggs or sit patiently in their canoes, aud, with a baited hair-line, 
 jerk out small fish. If a seal is killed, or the floating carcass of a putrid whale discovered, it is a feast. Such miserable food is assisted 
 by a few tasteless berries and fungi. Nor .are they exempt from famine, and, as a consequence, cannibalism is accompanied l)y parricide. 
 In this latter respect, however, the advantage appears to be all on the side of the ancients, whom we h;ive no right to accuse of cannibalism. 
 
 If the absence of cereal remains justifies us, as it appears to do, in concluding that they h.ad no knowledge of agriculture, they must 
 certainly have sometimes sufl'ered from jjeriods of great scarcity, indications of which may ])erhaps be seen in the bones of the fox, wolf, 
 and other carni vora, which would hardly have been eaten from choice ; on the other hand, they were blessed iu the ignorance of spirituous 
 licjnors, and saved thereby from what is at present the greatest scourge of northern Europe (p. 234). 
 
 5. THE TIME AND CAUSES OF THE EXTINCTION OF THE OYSTER IN T FIE GULF OF MAINE. 
 
 Date and extent of the extinction. — I attempted to show, in the last section, to how wide an extent 
 the oyster grew north of Cape Cod, and how recent was its disappearance in many localities. It is worth while 
 to inquire what has caused this sudden aud widespread extinction. At Mount Desert, at Bath, Maine, in Casco 
 bay, at Scarborough, New Hampshire, and Salisbury, Massachusetts, iu the Parker and Eowlcy rivers, in the 
 Chillies, Mystic, and Weymouth rivers, Ma.ssachusetts, and everywhere on Cape Cod, the native oj^sters are wholly 
 extinct. A few remain in Great Bay, near Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and at Sheepscot, Maine. Possibly, also, 
 a few could be .searched out at Damariscotta and Wellfleet, but this is very doubtful. What has killed them all ? 
 Beginning with those beds whose extinction was prehistoric, there are three theories, either of which is at the 
 service of the reader, or he m-iy, if he chooses, combine them. One is, that the Indians used them ui) ; another, that 
 the polluting of the water, by the refuse of mills and manufactures, had its influence; the third, that the elevation 
 of the coast, which geologists tell us has been proceeding steadily for many centuries, brought about conditions fatal 
 to this fixed mollusk, so far as the precise locality of particular beds was concerned. In George river, to begin at 
 the extreme east, we are told that the death of the oysters is very recent. They continued plenty up to lS.3(i, 
 according to the account of old residents of the district, who are under the impression that their subsequent 
 extinction was due to the sawdust coming down from lumber-mills, and brought iu by the eddying tide.* 
 
 In regard to the decline of the great deposits above Damariscotta there is much to excite curiosity. After all, 
 there was only a limited area of this oyster-growth— at most a square mile of water suitable for their habitation, 
 and it is certain that they were sought ibr year after year by a large number of persons. It would not be strange, 
 therefore, if, unable to propagate fast enough to supply the demand, they finally became extinct. I believe that this 
 calamity would not have been long delayed had the red men been left alone for a few decades longer. Indeed, it has 
 been gravely doubted whether any oysters were in existence iu Salt bay when the locality was first discovered by 
 white men. The traditions are uncertain, but I think they give satisfactory evidence that the first settlers found 
 at least a small number of oysters here, and that their disappearance is comparatively recent, probably •within the 
 present century. I am satisfied that the fir,st white men found still alive here the remnants of the great oyster 
 colony which the Indians had been foraging upon for many generations, perhaps, and had at last nearly exterminated. 
 
 Possible effects of natural sediment upon the Dajmauiscotta beds. — The influence of the Indians 
 having been considered, various other causes are assigned for the utter extinction of the oyster in this region. Dr. 
 
 * III is convenient to mention the following facts : In IS-S^ oysters were planted in Oyster river,. uear the George, but without success. 
 In lrtii4 it is said that a few living large ones were taken there, aud it is probable that a few still exist. The saw-mills have all ceased to 
 run ou these rivers, and I .see no good reason wby the beds should not be restocked with success. Tlie origiual locality was uear the 
 railwjiy bridge. There are no shell-heaps here. — Lclicr from the Hon. E. E. O'Brien. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 17 
 
 R. C. Chapman, of Newcastle, Maine, who lias paid much intelligent attention to the matter, has constructed a 
 theory in this wise: He points to the fact that the fresh- water pond above the island and rocky falls at Damariscotta 
 mills is about 00 feet higher than the level of Salt bay. The tide never goes beyond these rapids. He believes 
 that at one time the pond contained a far greater volume of water than now, and that it had either no outlet at 
 all into Salt bay, or else a very small one; but that Anally the weight of the water broke through the barrier of 
 rock and gravel at the falls, and made for itself this new channel oceanward. Tliis breakage would of course 
 burden the new outrushing current with an enormous amount of looseiied soil and broken rock, which would be 
 swept onward until it settled in thick sediment all over the bottom of Salt bay, and for a long time after the water 
 would be murky with clouds of mud. Such a catastrophe would undoubtedly kill the most, if not all, of the 
 molluscan life iu such an inclosed body of sea-water as Salt bay is ; and the oysters would survive it least of all. 
 But I am not convinced that there is evidence that any such a sudden, grand disaster ever occurred at that spot, 
 or, if it ever did, I am of the ojiiuiou that it was antecedent to the beginning of the shell-heaps. We are all more 
 fond of conjuring up some grand cataclysm to account for mysteries in nature, than to accept an explanation 
 commended by its simplicity. 
 
 Pollution op the water by mills and factories. — One of the first acts of the new settlers was the 
 erection of saw-mills at the falls, where they found a splendid water-power. These mills began at once to pour 
 great quantities of saw-dust into the stream, which was carried out into Salt bay and the river below, where it was 
 bandied back and forth iu the tireless tides until it sank. Sawdust very soon becomes water-logged and goes down. 
 At the same time woodmen were clearing the forests and draining the swamps, and farmers were breaking the turf. 
 Each of these operations tends to increase the running off of the rain and the carrying away of a far greater amount 
 of wilt than under natural conditions. The oysters thus found their clear, salt home freshened by an unusual influx 
 of rain-water, the currents always roily, and themselves gradually being smothereif in the sediment of sawdust and 
 earth deposited everywhere, except, perhai^s, in the deepest and swiftest parts of the channel. Thus an end was 
 made of what, with care, might no doubt have been nurtured into a most flourishing oyster-colony. 
 
 At the northeastern extremity of Salt bay a little stream, known as Oyster creek, comes in from toward the 
 village of Nobleboro. The mouth of this creek is out of the way of the currents from the mills, and, in general, it 
 is the part of the bay least likely to suffer harm from sediment. The men who fish for eels through the ice in winter 
 say that underneath the foot or so of thick sawdust and mud that now covers the bottom, and has perceptibly 
 lessened the general depth of the water within a hundred years, there is everywhere a layer of oyster-shells. 
 Here iu the creek, however, these are not covered up, but may be seen lying, large and white, on the bottom, as the 
 bridge is crossed. Moreover, men now living assert, that sixty or seventy years ago a few of the bivalves were still 
 to be had there, and that during the previous half century there were a great many in the bay. They believe that 
 later than that scattering individuals might have been found, and some men go so far as to say that in the " quick- 
 water " at the base of the falls a few oysters may even now be obtained. There are some supporting facts, and I 
 do not think it unlikely. 
 
 The covering of the formerly gravelly or shelly bottom of the bay would not only smother existing moUusks, 
 but, in the case of our subject, would prove fatal in another way. The spawn of the oyster requires some clean, 
 firm support to which to attach itself. The soft, wet matting of sediment would not do at all, and all the ova would 
 drift out to sea or become the food for fishes, and in either case produce nothing. 
 
 No longer than forty years ago, however, I am told, a dead spruce tree was dragged to the surface opposite the 
 shell-heaps, whence it had fiillen, top foremost, into the stream. The branches were clogged full of sawdust; but 
 clinging to the twigs were innumerable young oysters that had not had a chance to grow to any great size before 
 they were choked by the drifting sediment. Whence came the spawn for this growth, if there were then no living 
 oysters iu Salt bay or vicinity? It is possible some might be got, by careful search, in the Oyster creek corner yet. 
 
 As for the long, thick shells dredged up in the lower Penobscot river and in Portland harbor, indicating so 
 extensive a habitancy there of these mollusks in ancient times, possibly the death of many of them dates back to 
 Postpliocene days. Opposed to this thought, nevertheless, is the fact that shell-heaps upon the islands in Casco 
 bay show that a few oysters, at any rate, still existed when Indians dwelt there. No one has ventured on au 
 explanation of their extinction, that I am aware of, except Mr. C. B. Fuller, curator of the Portland Society of 
 Natural History, who suggests that, by the breaking away of the barrier represented by the present chain of 
 islands in the bay, the water of the outer sea was let fully into what had previously been a sheltered basin. This 
 water was so very much salter, as well as colder, than that to which the oysters had been accustomed, that they 
 were unable to survive the change. 
 
 Climatic changes. — Professor A. E. Verrill, however, evidently considers a change iu climate the cause of the 
 loss to the world's economy of these storehouses of food. In his Invertebrates of Vineyard Sound, this writer remarks 
 that the occurence of large quantities of oyster-shells beneath the harbor-mud at Portland, associated with Venus 
 mercenaria, Fecten irradians, TurhoniUa interrtipta, and other southern species, now extinct in that locality, and the 
 occurence of the first two species in the ancient Indian shell-heaps on some of the islands in Casco bay, though not 
 
 now found living among the islands, indicates that the temperature of those waters was higher at a former period 
 
 2 o 
 
18 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 than at present. These facts also point to the most satisfactory explanation of the existence of numerous southern 
 shells, associated with the oyster and Venus mercenaria in the aonthern part of the gulf of St. Lawrence, though 
 not now found in the intermediate waters along the coast of Maine nor in the bay of Fundy. 
 
 These remarks, it will be observed, apply to the whole coast, and are highly suggestive. In their light it is 
 useless to speculate upon the few remaining localities until Wellfleet, on the cape, is reached. 
 
 Extinction of the Wellfleet beds. — In Wellfleet harbor, as has already been shown, oysters were native 
 and widespread at the time of the discovery of the country by Europeans. The settlers began at once to make 
 use of them, and continued to do so as long as they lasted. Here we ought to know something definitely about 
 their extinction, but all the information is scattered and inexact. 
 
 Wellfleet was anciently known as Billingsgate, at least that part of it on the western side, on account of the 
 abundance of the fish there, and this name became an oyster-brand during the last century. In the Massachusetts 
 Historical Collections, iii, is preserved a topographical description of Wellfleet, by Levi Whitman, dated 1793, in 
 which is given considerable information upon our subject. Mr. Whitman asserts his opinion that "no part of the 
 world has better oysters than the harbor of Wellfleet. Time was when they were to be found in the greatest plenty, 
 but in 1775 a mortaUty from an unknown cause carried off the most of them. Since that time Billingsgate oysters 
 have been scarce, and the greater part that are carried to market are first imported and laid in our harbor, where 
 they obtain the proper relish of Billingsgate". 
 
 Forty years later Gould wrote, in his Invertebrates of Massachusetts : 
 
 They say that Wellfleet, where the southern oysters are planted for Boston use, was originally called Billingsgate, on account of the 
 abundance of fish, and especially oysters, found there; that they coatinued to he abundant until about the year 1780, when from some 
 cause they all died; and, to this day, immense beds are shown there of shells of native oysters which perished at that time. They say 
 that before that time no such thing was thought of as bringing oysters from the south. 
 
 The Wellfleet oysterman, whom Thoreau talked so long with on his visit to the cape in 1849, and the charming 
 report of whose conversation is given us in that pleasant author's Cape Cod, placed the date of the disappearance 
 of the oyster there as 1770. " Various causes are assigned for this, such as the ground frost, the carcasses of 
 blackflsh left to rot in the harbor, and the like, but the most common account of the matter is, and I find that a 
 similar superstition with regard to the disappearance of fishes exists almost every where, that when Wellfleet began 
 to quarrel with the neighboring towns about the right to gather them, yellow specks appeared in them, and 
 Providence caused them to disappear." 
 
 Nowadays, the citizens of the village repeat these traditions — all but the one about Providence — I did not hear 
 that — and hazard no new theory. It is perhaps most truthful of all to say, that excessive raking nearly depopulated 
 the beds, and that the blowing in of sand from the stripped hills, and the polluting of the tide-water by the oflal 
 of the fishing-vessels that throng the bay, destroyed the growth of the young. No doubt rotting carcasses of 
 schools of blacktish left on the beach (as has happened many a time) and the subtle anchor-frost helped — "that is, 
 a degree of cold so great as to cover the bottom with a coating of ice, and thereby to cut off the oysters from all 
 access to air and nourishment." It is very probable, nevertheless, that many native oysters are still living in 
 Wellfleet bay, perpetuating the old stock. 
 
 W^YMAN ON the EXTINCTION OF FOOD-MOLLUSKS IN FLORIDA AND ELSEWHERE. — I find SOme exceedingly 
 
 pertinent remarks on this subject in Dr. Jeffries Wyman's report on the shell-heaps of Florida. They are as follows: 
 
 It seems incredible to one who searches the waters of the St. John's and its lakes at the present time, that the two small species of 
 shells above mentioned could have been obtained in such vast quantities as are brought together in these mounds, unless at the times of 
 their foniiation the shells existed more abundantly than now, or the collection of them extended through very long periods of time. When 
 it is borue in mind that the shell-heaps afl'ord the only suitable stuface for dwellings, being most commonly built in swamps, or on lands 
 liable to be annually overflowed by the rise of the river, they appear to be necessarily the result of the labors of a few living on a, 
 limited area at any one time. At the present, it would be a very difficult matter to bring together in a single day enough of these shells 
 for the daily meals of an ordinary family. That they formerly existed in larger numbers than now, is by no means improbable. It is well 
 known, with regard to both anim.als and jilauts, that after flourishing for considerable periods in given areas, they at length yield in their 
 struggles for existence against changed conditions. The oysters of which the gigantic shell-heaps on the Damariscotta river in Maine 
 are built were, without doubt, obtained from the .adjoining waters, but to-day they are well-nigh extinct, and the s.ame is in a measure 
 true of some of the deposits on Caiie Cod, as at Cotuit Port. Analogous changes have been observed by European archicologists. The 
 oyster-banks near the mouth of the Baltic, from which many of the ancient shell-heaps of Denmark were formed, have di8ap[)eared, partly 
 through increasing freshness of the water, and partly through the ravages of the starfish. The last of them have disappeared from the 
 Iselfjord during a century, so that none are found further south than the northern end of the island of Sceland, and in large quantities 
 only on tlio more northern shores of the Kattegat. The water chestnut. Trapes vatans, once very abundant in some of the Swiss lakes 
 during the age of the lake-dwellers, has now become extinct in those regions. — Smithsonian Report, 1865, p. 3ti.5. 
 
 As the oysters of the ancient period were very much larger than those now found on the coast of Maine, it is 
 also the case that the shells from the mounds of the St. John's surpass in size, though to a less marked degree, 
 those of the actual iieriod. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 19 
 
 6. HISTORY OF THE NATURAL OYSTER-BEDS IX THE GULF OF MAINE, SINCE THE SETTLEMENT 
 
 OF THE COAST BY EUROPEANS. 
 
 Testimony of Champlain, Poitrincourt, and Winslow, 1605-1620. — Beyond the most general allusion, 
 the very earliest mention of oyster>^ in these waters occurs in ^006. The second voyage of exploration along our 
 coast found an anchorage in Massachusetts bay. "There were many very good oysters here," he relates, " which 
 we had not seen before, aud we named the place Port aux Huistres." Mr. Shifter, a commentator upon the history 
 of these voyages, says " it is plain that this port, which they named Oyster Harbor, was either that of Wellfleet or 
 Barnstable. The former, it will be remembered, Champlain, with De Monts, entered the preceding year, 1603, and 
 named it, or the river that flows into it, St. Suzauua du Cap Blauc. • * * It is obvious that Champlain could not 
 have entered this harbor the second time without recognizing it. * * » We may conclude, therefore, that the 
 port in question was not Wellfleet, but Barnstable. This conclusion is sustained by the conditions mentioned in 
 the text." 
 
 In another edition of Champlain's map (1G32) the " Riviere aux Escailles" is drawn emptying into the same part 
 of the bay which Ogilby, in his maj) of this part of America, published in 1670, calls " Port aux Huistres". This name 
 survived, indeed, to a much later time. In Ilees's Cycloptedia (1819), " Oyster bay " is given as " a harbour for small 
 vessels in the southwest limits of Barnstable, Massachusetts. It derives its name from its excellent oysters ". 
 
 Champlain (second voyage, 1606,) also relates that he found oyster-beds in Chatham harbor, on the south side 
 of Cape Cod, and makes the following general statement: "All the harbors, bays, and coasts from Choiiacoet 
 [Portland, Maine] are filled with every variety of fish. * • • There are also many shellfish of various sorts, 
 principally oysters." In this case, too, Rees preserves the recollection so long, that I wonder it has ever been lost, 
 for in his Cyclopaedia he mentions an " Oyster Island Harbour on the coast of Massachusetts, which, from its 
 latitude (lat. 41° 35', long. 70° 24'), must have been in the neighborhood of Chatham ". 
 
 These records by Chamjdaiu and Poitrincourt embrace the earliest notice that I can find of oysters on the 
 northern coast, but careful searching through all the early narratives of exploration and settlement around 
 Massachusetts bay, produces much additional testimony. For instance, in 1621, in a letter from Plymouth, 
 preserved in Mourfs Relation, Edward Winslow writes to an English friend: "Oyfters we have none near, but we 
 can have them brought by the Indians when we will." This shows they were not far away. Two years later we 
 read the sad report that "one in geatheriug fhellfifh was fo weake as he fiucke faft in y» mudd, and was found 
 dead in y** place. At last molt of them [Weftou's people in Maffachufetts bay] left their dwellings & fcattered 
 up & dowue in y« woods, & by y" water fide, wher they could find ground nuts & clames, hear 6 and ther ten ".• 
 
 HiGGiNSON, Wood, and Josseltw, 1630-1638. — In 1630 Higginson, in his New England's Plantation, gives 
 "muskles and oysters" as a part of the great wealth of the waters beside which the Pilgrims had placed their 
 colony; aud seven years afterward Thomas Morton added his witness: "There are great store of Ojsters in the 
 entrances of all Rivers; they are not round as those of England, but excellent fat, and all good. I have scene an 
 Oyster banke a mile at length." t 
 
 In 1634 William Wood, in his New EnglamVs Prospect, speaks of "a great oyster bank" in Charles river, and 
 another in the "Misticke", each of which obstructed the navigation of its river. Ships of small burden, he says, 
 were able to go up as far as Watertown and Newton, "but the Oyster-baukes doe barre out the bigger Ships." In 
 reference to the Mystic, and the large amount of ship-building upon it, Wood says, "Ships without either Ballast 
 or loading, may floate dowue this River; otherwise the Oyster-banke would hinder them which crosseth the 
 Chaunell." 
 
 "The Oysters," adds Wood, "be great ones in form of a Shoehorne; some be a foot long; these breed on certain 
 banks that are bare every spring tide. This fish without shell is so big, that it must admit of a division before you 
 can well get it into your mouth." 
 
 This bank appears to have been a very well-known and prominent feature in those days, though no popular 
 tradition of it remains. For example, Wiuthrop's History of New England, edited by the Rev. John Savage, p. 
 106, contains under date of August 6,1633, the following statement: "Two men servants to one Moodye, of 
 Roxbury, returning in a boat from the windmill, struck upon the oyster-bank. They went out to gather oysters, 
 and, not making fast their boat, when the flood came, it floated away, and they were both drowned, although they 
 might have waded out on either side ; but it was an evident judgment of God upon them, for they were wicked 
 persons." 
 
 In Hubbard's General History of New England, written in 1633, is another account of the same incident, or 
 accident, as one of several instances where the visible wrath of Jehovah, apparently so manifest to the Puritan, 
 had instantly followed ti-ansgression. I quote the passage: 
 
 The like judgment befell two lewd persons that lived in service with one of Roxbury, who, rowing in a boat from the windmill hill 
 in Boston, struck upon an oyster-liauk near the channel, and going out of their boat before they had fastened her, to get oysters, the tide 
 came in before they were aware, and floated away the boat; and, they not being acquainted with the channel, were both drowned on the 
 bank, though they might at first safely have waded through to the shore. 
 
 " Bradford's History of Phjvioulh Plantation, in Coll, Mass. Hist, See,, vol. iii, 4th sec, p. 130. tNew English Canaan, p. 90, 
 
20 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 There are otLer references to this matter. John Josselyn, Gent., iu his Account of Two Voyages to New England, 
 printed in 1G38, describes Boston and its environs. Charles river is portrayed with minuteness, and the expansion 
 above the "Narrows", now known as the Back bay, is indicated. "Toward the southwest," he writes, "in the 
 middle of the bay, is a great oyster-bank, toward the northwest is a creek ; upon the shore is situated the vilhxge of 
 Medford ; it is a mile and a half from Charlestown." 
 
 This is mixed, and throws small light upon the precise position of either of these banks, which must have been 
 of considerable importance to Bostouians at that time, and particularly to the poor. This appears from the 
 foregoing, and from a paragraph in a very interesting tract preserved in the Geneva library, w^ritten by an 
 unknown French refugee who visited Massachusetts in 1GS7; describing the prosperity of Boston, the author says: 
 "This town carries on a great trade with the islands of A.merica and with Spain. They carry to the islands flour, 
 salt-beef, salt-pork, cod, staves, salt-salmon, salt-mackerel, onions, and oysters salted in barrels, great quantities of 
 which are taken here." 
 
 Location of the Ghaeles eivbr beds. — It is a less easy task than it would at first appear to determine 
 the location of these ancient beds of oysters. For that iu the Mystic river I have no data sufficient to guide me 
 with any exactness ; any one may guess within a mile of it. There is better information in regard to the Charles 
 river beds. 
 
 The "lewd persons" who lost their careless lives were returning from the windmill. This, it is known, stood 
 upon one of the hills in the common— possibly that which now upholds the soldiers' monument. The tides at that 
 time washed the shore of the higher parts of the common, along where Charles street now passes, and boats could 
 doubtless come almost up to the foot of the mill with their loads of grist. Eeturning out through the bay, they 
 would pass close by any oyster-banks that lay oft" Cambridge port. 
 
 Through the discussion of a paper which I had the honor to read before the Boston Society of Natural 
 History, in September, 1879, upon Massachusetts oysters, some new facts of interest were brought to light bearing 
 upon the point now under consideration. Prof. F. W. Putnam remarked that when, twenty years ago, the ground 
 was being broken at the corner of Berkeley and Boylston streets, for the foundations of the building devoted to 
 this very society, in which we were then sitting, many immense oyster-shells in good condition were struck at a 
 depth of several feet. Tliis part of Boston is all " made ground ", extending over former tide-flats in the " Back 
 bay " of Charles river. It is possible that these aged buried oysters grew on the anciently noted bed, the site of 
 which therefore is now appropriately indicated by the Natural History Booms and the noble Institute of 
 Technology. 
 
 Plymouth and Newbury, 1660-1700.— Meanwhile Plymouth had pulled her people out of where they had 
 " stucke fast in y« mudd ", and discovered that her moUusk- fisheries were valuable, as the following quotation fi-om 
 the records evince : 
 
 " Att the general! court held att Plymouth the fourth of June, 1661— 
 
 It is enacted by the Court that five shillings shalbee payed to the Couutrey vpon every barrcll of Oysters that is carryed out of 
 the Gouv'ment, and that the Countrey bee not defrauded, hee shall enter them with the Towne Clarke before hee carry them away, or else 
 to forfeit twenty shillinss ^ barrell on any carryed away not entered."* 
 
 "Att the 2cond Session of the Gencrall Court held att Plymouth, for the jurisdiction of New Plymouth, the seaventh of July, 1680— 
 
 This Court doth order that all such as are not of our collonie be heerby prohibited of fetching oysters from Taunton River with 
 boates or any other vessells ; and incase any such shall ^sist on in soe doeing after warning given to the contrary, this Court doth order 
 John Hathway, of Taunton, and doe heerby impower him to make seizure of such boates and vessells for the collonie's vse." t 
 
 Moving a little farther eastward, I find that the oysters in Parker and Rowley rivers were valuable to the 
 settlers in that region. In his History of Netcbury, Mr. Joshua Coflin remarks : 
 
 Certain it is that vast quantities of lime of the best quality were annually made in Newbury for nearly a century, for export as well 
 as for home use. Prior to this time lime was manufactured from oyster- and clam-shells. Lewis, in his Minute and Accurate History of 
 Lyuno, informs us, under the year 1696, that immense numbers of great clams were thrown upon the beaches by storms. The people were 
 permitted by a vote of the town to dig and gather as many as they wished for their own use, but no more, and no person was allowed to 
 carry any out of town, on a penalty of twenty shillings. The shells were gathered in cart-loads on the beach and manufactured into 
 lime. 
 
 New Hampshire and Maine.— Still farther on, Durham river, Brainford county, New Hampshire, was known, 
 as early as 1697, as " Oyster river", just as its neighbor was called " Lamprey river", because of the mollusks in the 
 one and the "eals" in the other. The "Great Bay" into which the Durham river flowed was full of oysters, and 
 tradition has it tliat no more than a century ago vessels used to come there and be loaded with these oysters, while 
 previously the neighborhood had always been able to obtain all they wished witli little trouble. 
 
 In Scarborough and Casco bays, and along Mount Desert, I am inclined to believe that oysters were extinct 
 before the occupation of that region by white men. But I think, that if it is true that George river is the stream 
 ascended by Weymoutli during the first decade of the seventeenth century, he undoubtedly subsisted his crew, 
 while there, upon the oysters, though he does no more than mention "muscles", without distinction of kind. 
 
 This George river is the most eastern point at which I have been able to discover any trace of oysters in the 
 
 *Phjmouth Colony Records, vol. xi, 1623-1682, Laws, p. 132. i Ibid., vol. vi, 1678-1691, p. 44, 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 21 
 
 United States. It is an insignificant stream, tbat ilows down to the sea at Thomaston. The month of the stream, 
 as is the case always along that deeplj- indented coast, is in the form of a deep estuary, and forms a good harbor. 
 At a point about fifteen miles inland, measured along the river, the Knox and Lincoln railway crosses. Just above 
 the bridge a trifling stream known as Oyster river comes in, and the confluence of the two streams is in a broad, 
 shallow expansion, about marking the head of the tide. It was just at this point that the first-comers to this region 
 found an abundance of oysters within a restricted space. Oyster river, a little stream that "makes in" between 
 Thomaston and Warren, was the principal point. According to the Hon. E. K. O'Brien, of Thomaston, tradition 
 asserts that sloops used to go there to load oysters for the neighboring colonies. They were abundant, also, on the 
 main George river, by Edward O'Brien's ship yard, in Warren. These old oysters are reputed to have been of 
 huge size, a report borne out by the remains of shells which now exist. Similarly, I believe, the first settlers found 
 at least a few oysters at Damariscotta, though history is silent and tradition is uncertain. It is positively known, 
 however, that the ancient Sheepscot settlement found in its oyster-beds a source of constant profit, both by 
 consumption and sale, and they are not altogether exhausted from that river yet, in spite of sawdust and chips. 
 
 Lost oyster localities along the gulf of Maine. — It is probable that there were many other localities, 
 now forgotten, where the oyster existed along the gulf of Maine at the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
 besides those I have indicated, namely, Wellfleet, Barnstable, Weymouth, Boston, Ipswich, Newbury, Portsmouth, 
 Sheepscot, Damariscotta, and George rivers. Nor must it be forgotten that this catalogue does not embrace the 
 prolific field bordering Buzzard's bay, whence the colonies were con.stantly supplied overland. Add to this i)lcnitude 
 of oysters the inexhaustible abundance of several species of "clams", so-called, scallops, lobsters, and so forth, and 
 it is no wonder that the shellfish are constantly alluded to in the narratives of the early struggles of the IJilgrims 
 against starvation, as a blessed source of food; for it may well be supposed that without them they would hardly 
 have survived the rigors of those dreadful first winters. Even their quality found a champion, who thought them 
 first rate. Josselyn informed his readers that the Indians fed much on lobsters, and adds : 
 
 Somo thoy rost, and some they dry as they do Lampres and Ousters, which are delicate breakfast meat so ordered ; the Oi/sters are 
 long slieli'd. I have had of them nine inches long from the joyut to the toe, containing an Oi/stcr like those the Latines called Triclacuan, 
 that were to be cut into three pieces before they could get them into their mouths, very fat & sweet. 
 
 In the face of this testimony, briefly indicated, it is curious that it should ever have been denied that the 
 oyster was indigenous in Massachusetts bay, as has been done more than once, and still more strange that so well 
 informed a naturalist as A. A. Gould should not have felt strong enough to afSrm it. In Binney's edition of his 
 Invertebrates of Massachusetts it is stated : 
 
 It is also a question on which there are various opinions, whether the oyster was indigenous in Massachusetts bay, or whether all 
 which grow in the various oyster-beds owe their parentage to inhabitants of the Dalaware, Chesapeake, and Oyster bay, etc. That 
 they now [1806] grow spontaneously, and, for anght we can learn, always have grown so, on the south shore, there is no reason to doubt; 
 and that they are occasionally found of patriarchal appearance in all parts of our bay is certainly true. But the question is, whether 
 these places are theii- natural habitat, or whether they have been accidentally dropped where they were found. Many incline to this 
 latter opinion, especially the younger oystermen and some scientific gentlemen ; but the old settlers of Cape Cod are of a difl'erent 
 opinion. 
 
 Mr. Gould would not have allowed this non-committal, and consequent doubt as to his own belief, had he 
 consulted history. Indeed, we may fairly give him the credit of believing better than he wrote, for in his first 
 edition (1811) he records that "old men relate that they were accustomed to go up Mystic river and Charles river, 
 and gather oysters of great size, before it was the custom to bring them from New York. And even now individuals 
 of enormous size are occasionally brought from both these places, and probably might be found, by special search, 
 at any time ". 
 
 7. OYSTER-CULTURE IN THE GULF OF MAINE. 
 
 Early attempts at oystee-oultxjre. — I have ventured elsewhere to suggest that the oyster-beds in the 
 Sheepscot and George rivers may have been planted there by the Indians, who carried over from Damariscotta, 
 by paths yet traceable, a quantity of full-grown oysters, and placed them in those streams, in order to keep them 
 alive conveniently near home. If this supposition is correct, it is probably the earliest instance of oyster-culture 
 in North America. Nevertheless, oyster-cnltnre proper— that is, the propagation of oysters in permanent beds, 
 which annually increase by their native spawn— remains almost unknown in the gulf of Maine, and uniformly 
 unsuccessful, except at one point. This is not wholly inattention to the matter, but the lack of suitable conditions 
 for successful growth. 
 
 In a letter from General Benjamin Lincoln, of Hingham, Massachusetts, to the Eev. Mr. Belknap, author of the 
 History of New Hampshire, dated December 12, 1791, it is remarked: 
 
 We have undoubtedly been criminally inattentive to the propagation of the oyster in different parts of our shores; we can probably 
 fill our channels with these shellfish with much more ease than we can fill our pastures with herds and flocks. 
 
 Had General Lincoln studied the case more deeply, he might have had to change his opinion of the "great 
 ease". More than half a century before— indeed, in the year 1711— "a plan for forming an oyster-bed in Plymouth 
 
22 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 liarbor was projected by a company of tliirty-one persons, whose names are on record. Oysters were procured and 
 deposited in a certain place, deemed the most eligible, with the hope that they might thus be propagated; but it 
 was ascertained by the experiment that the flats are left dry too long for their habit, which requires that they be 
 covered at all times by water".* 
 
 Obstacles to successful oyster-culture in the gltlp op Maine. — This coast is a precipitous and rocky 
 one, affording few suitable points for oyster-culture; most of these were occupied by the native beds, which have 
 succumbed. Other localities have been rendered unfit for oyster-life, by the pollution of the water, through various 
 agencies of civilization. The climate, also, appears to be too severe for any but native breeds. Virginia oysters 
 have frequently been left through the winter in deep water, but have very rarely lived; and, if they did so, would 
 spawn at so late a day that the autumn chill proves fatal to the young. I have heard of a bag-full of oysters, 
 supposed to be from Virginia, surviving for several years in Sheepscot river, but the case is hardly authentic. All 
 attcrajits at the cultivation aud propagation of Virginia or New York oysters have, therefore, been abandoned as 
 entirely futile on the Maine coast or iu Massachusetts bay, except at VVelltieet. The severity of the winters, the 
 violence of the tempests, the S(;arcity of good bottom, and the abundance of starfishes and other enemies, maiie 
 planting unprofitable, if not impossible. 
 
 Experiments at Salem and Wellfleet. — As an instance of the data upon which I found my conclusion, 
 I give the following information, furnished by the Messrs. Newcomb, oyster-merchants in Salem, Massachusetts. 
 
 In regard to the advisability of planting oysters in the vicinity of that town, Mr. Newcomb had little 
 encouragement to offer. Some that had been brought from Fire island by his father, many years ago, and were put 
 down in the harbor channel, were found some years later to have lived and to have grown very large and good. 
 The present firm put 1,000 bushels in water five feet deep, at low-tide, in Bass river, one season, but every one of 
 them died during the winter. There is no very good gi-ouud for planting anywhere in that harbor. 
 
 At Wellfleet, Cape Cod, however, something is being done, with good prospects. In years past it frequently 
 happened that the oysters bedded at Wellfleet would spawn and young ones attach themselves to stones, and to 
 the wharfs and bridge piers, in myriads. Most of these would be left exposed at low-tide, and consequently were 
 killed by the first frosty day. A large number, however, survived every winter, scattered here and there in 
 submarine and protected situations. This induced the experiment of trying to preserve some throughout the year, 
 and causing them to x)erpetuate themselves. This failed as far as Virginia seed was concerned, but the Taunton 
 river or "Somerset" seed, tried by Mr. S. R. Higgins (the pioneer in this work) in 1878, lived and throve. In 1879, 
 having sprinkled a portion of the bottom of the bay with clean shells to catch any stray spawn, he deposited a 
 quantity more of this hardy seed, and in 1880 will add largely to his stock, which, as yet, has suffered no serious 
 harm. He has been followed in his enterprise by several other gentlemen in Boston aud WeUfleet, and the 
 business bids fair to be an entire success. 
 
 The planting grounds are off Great island, where there is from three to six feet of water over the beds at low 
 tide. The bottom is hard sand, with a thin layer of mud over it, the kind of bottom most highly esteemed. The 
 enemies of the oyster are few, and the currents so arranged as to make a large catch of spawn probable. The 
 water is very salt, the growth of the mollusk rapid, and the result a bivalve of high quality. The great drawback 
 is the winter, and this is not greatly feared. The harbor freezes entirely over, but the oysters are planted in a 
 depth of water so great as to be out of reach of the ice. However, even if the ice rests upou them, provided they 
 lie flat, it will only crowd them into the sand, and will not kill them under ordinary circumstances, but if it is 
 shifted about by wind or tide when iipou the beds, it will tear them to pieces. There is not much chance of extensive 
 damage in this way. What will prove fatal to all of them, however, is "anchor frost", if it occurs under the beds. 
 But the chances are that this will not happen for several winters together. 
 
 One of the gentlemen engaged gave me the following figures as an estimate of probable investment and returns, 
 but it was considered by other shippers too sanguine a view. The cost of planting 500 bushels of seed from Somerset 
 would be $250. He calculated that they would at least be doubled in number at the end of the ensuing year, 
 making 1,000 bushels, and that by the next spring (allowing 500 for loss by accidents and death) there would be 
 1,500 bushels on the bed. There would now be 1,000 bushels of these ready to take up, at a cost of 20 cents or so 
 a bushel. These would sell for at least $1 a bushel, leaving 80 cents profit. Thus — 
 
 Cost of original bed, f)00 bushels ^-250 
 
 Took up iu two years, 1,000 bushels, .at 20 cents cost 200 
 
 450 
 Received for 1,000 bushels •. 1,000 
 
 Profit accruing in two years 550 
 
 This doubling of the investment in two years is not unreasonable, in my opinion, besides having a good growing 
 bed left over; but requires a continuance of good weather and other fortunate circumstances, and takes uo account 
 of the numerous petty expenses occurring, from time to time, in the care of the beds. 
 
 Suitable localities for oyster-culture north op Cape Cod. — I have been asked in particular as 
 
 * Thacher's History of Plymouth, p. 170. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 23 
 
 to the probability of success in restocking the former haunts of the oyster in the rivers of Maine, and especially 
 at Damariscotta. I learn that occasionally oysters, of what origin I do not know, have by accident been dropped 
 into the tide-water below the bridge, in Damariscotta, and have afterward been fished out grown to a large size. 
 The reader will remember, that about forty years ago, a great quantity of young oysters were found collected in 
 the branches of a tree which had tumbled over into the river near the lower end of Salt bay. These facts go to 
 show that some kinds of oysters will live and spawn there yet ; whether anything but native seed would, or not, is 
 doubtful. Furthermore, the site of the former beds is now so covered with mud and sawdust and eel-grass, that 
 much of the space is rendered unsuitable, while the clearer bottom of Oyster creek is liable to be drained so dry 
 by some of the ebb-tides in winter, as to allow the ice to rest fairly upon the bottom, which would probably be fatal 
 in that climate. Hereafter no sawdust will be thrown into the river and bay, if the law is enforced as it might 
 be, but nothing can prevent the roiling of the water by a heavy rain. On the whole, I fear only a very limited 
 cultivation of oysters is possible in that locality, even if a successful beginning could be made. 
 
 The same dismal remarks will apply to George and Sheepscot rivers. In the former stream I am informed that 
 an attempt at planting was made a few years ago, but failed. In Sheepscot river nothing has been tried, but it is 
 hinted that, even if other conditions were favorable, every seed-oyster would be secretly transferred from river-bottom 
 to frying-pan before time had been given to begin to spawn. Police measures would prevent this, however. 
 
 At Portland, Mr. C. B. Fuller thinks the only suitable situation to attempt the cultivation of oysters, in that 
 region, is in the mouth of the Presumpscot, where the water is shallow, warm, and comparatively fresh ; but he 
 doubts the ability of southern oysters to survive the winter. However, it is intended by one of the dealers to try 
 the experiment with seed oysters from Prince Edward island. 
 
 In the Great bay, behind Portsmouth, New Hampshire, beds of native, living oysters still flourish, and by 
 judicious transplanting of these a large additional yield might be accomplished. There is much suitable ground, 
 I judge. It is likely that the present inferior quality of these oysters might be greatly improved by cultivation. 
 It is very jirobable, also, that Somerset or Wellfleet seed would exist through a winter, become acclimated, and 
 prosper in this well-sheltered and firm-bottomed inlet. I wonder that some one has not yet made the experiment. 
 
 Unless it be Mystic river or Barnstable harbor, I know of no other likely place for oyster-cultivation on the 
 northern side of Cape Cod. Where rocks, mud, or ice are not obstacles, starfish es and other enemies are likely to 
 annoy, or proper protection of the beds to be imi)racticable. 
 
 8. HISTORY AND PRESENT CONDITION OF THE OYSTER-TRADE, AT WELLFLEET AND 
 
 VICINITY. 
 
 Early oyster-culture: History. — Realizing that their natural resources in oysters had disappeared, and 
 that any attempt to preserve the beds by a system of propagation was unsuccessful, the people of the coast of 
 Massachusetts bay turned their attention many years ago to replacing their oysters by importations from more 
 favored regions, which should be kept in good condition during the warmer half of the year, by being laid down in 
 the shore- water, and so held in readiness for the autumn-trade. This operation was called " planting ", but it is a 
 misuse of the word, and the other popular phrases, " laying down " or " bedding", express the fact more truthfully. 
 It is not oyster-culture at all, but only a device of trade to get fresh oysters and increase their size and flavor, which 
 adds proportionate profit in selling. It is neither intended or desired that they shall spawn. 
 
 Just when this practice began on Cape Cod — for Wellfleet, whence had come the latest and best of the native 
 oysters, naturally became the headquarters of the trade — is uncertain ; no doubt it was some time before the opening 
 of the present century. There is a gentleman now living in the village of Wellfleet, Mr. Jesse D. Hawes, who is 
 eighty-four years old. He cannot remember when they did not bring some oysters every fall from New York bay, 
 to use at home and sell in Boston. 
 
 It is surmised that when the native beds became exhausted, the inhabitants got into the habit of going to 
 Buzzard's and Narraganset bays, then to the Connecticut shore, and Anally to New York, and laying down more and 
 more yearly in Wellfleet harbor, until finally a considerable business grew. Egg Harbor, New Jersey, was also a 
 ground much frequented a little later by oystermen. 
 
 By the year 1820, I am informed by Mr. F. W. True, who made inquiries for me on this subject, 12,000 to 14,000 
 bushels were brought to Wellfleet yearly, and ten or twelve shops were opened by Wellfleet men for their disposal 
 in Boston and Portland. This accounts for the striking fact, that there is hardly an oyster dealer on the New 
 England coast, north of Cape Cod, who is not a native of WeUfleet, and a certain small circle of old names seems to 
 inclose the whole trade. Besides the citizens, however, many strangers came in and procured the iirivilege of bedding 
 down imjjorted oysters to fatten on the flats of this hospitable harbor. In 1841, Mr. Gould, the conchologist, 
 wrote that the whole trade at Wellfleet then employed 30 vessels of about 40 tons each, and the services of about 
 120 men for three months of the year. Tliis yielded to the town a revenue of about $8,000 annually. 
 
 Early oyster-culture: Methods. — The process of "bedding down" was as follows: Each proprietor of a 
 space upon the flats chartered the services of a vessel, in the latter part of the winter, to go to some specified 
 oyster-ground and purchase a certain number of bushels, for which he gave the captain money. The vessel was 
 
24 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 chartered at a round sum for tlie trip, or else was paid at a rate varying from 15 to 20 cents a bushel freight, on 
 the cargo. When the vessel arrived home she anchored in the distant channel, and the oysters were unloaded into 
 dories, 50 bushels to a dory. The dories then i^roceeded to the grounds, which had been already divided into 
 rectangles a few rods square, by rows of stakes, and deposited a load of 50 bushels in each rectangle or "square". 
 In order that the oysters might be distributed as evenly as possible over the bottom, the dory was rowed to the 
 center of a square, and anchored at both ends. The dorymen then threw out the oysters with shovels into all parts 
 of the square. This was done when the water was high over the beds. When the tide was out the oysters were 
 redistributed with forks or "spreading-machines". The similarity of this procedure to the seeding of a field is 
 obvious, and sufficiently explains the phrase "oyster-planting". It aftbrded occupation to a distinct class of men, 
 who did it by contract, the ordinary price being about 10 cents a bushel for placing them upon the beds. The 
 season for bedding began in February, as soon as there was a surety of no further danger of hard freezing, and 
 continued until April, the ground chosen being the hard surface of the flats in the western portion of the bay, 
 where the beds would be left dry about two hours at each low-tide. The oysters had very little fresh water near 
 them, and their growth was variable, seeming to depend on the weather, but in what way, or just how it effected 
 them, I could not learn. In a favorable season they grew very rapidly, in respect to both shell and meat, so 
 that the 100 bushels put down in April would fill 300 bushel measiues when taken up in October. The percentage 
 of loss was always considerable, however, probably never less than one quarter, and now and then amounting to 
 the whole bed. Drifting sand, sudden frosts, when the beds were exposed, disease, and active enemies, were the 
 causes that operated against complete success. I could not obtain satisfactory information concerning prices 
 during the fii-st quarter or half of the present century, and am inclined to believe they did not differ much from the 
 present rates, except that selling rates were uniformly higher, and far more profit was realized than is now possible. 
 Dr. Gould describing the winter-work in his Invertebrates of Massachusetts, states that in the autumn the oysters are 
 taken up, selected, brought to market, and sold at wholesale for $1 per bushel, the cost of planting, attending, 
 taking up, etc., amounting to 20 cents per bushel. Thus a profit of 30 cents on a bushel, or about 40 per cent, on 
 the cost, is realized ; and the town of Wellfleet thereby realizes an income of about $8,000 annually. 
 
 Introduction op Virginia seed. — It was asserted by citizens of Wellfleet, both to me and to Mr. True, that 
 not until 1845 were any oysters brought to Wellfleet from Virginia, and that the cause of their importation then 
 was the high price asked for " seed ", as the oysters purchased in the Somerset river, in Connecticut, and in New 
 York, for bedding, were erroneously termed. William Dill is credited with being the first captain engaged in the 
 Chesapeake trade. 1 think, however, that there is an error here, for Gould mentions iu his book that in 1840, 
 40,000 bushels were brought to Wellfleet annually from Virginia, at a cost of $20,000. Nevertheless, it was not 
 until al)out 1845 or 1850, that the business began to confine itself to Virginia oysters, and a large business to be 
 done. At its height, about 1850, it is probable that more than 100,000 bushels a year were laid down in the harbor ; 
 some say 150,000. One consignment alone of 80,000 bushels was remembered by Mr. S. E. Higgius, who kindly 
 gave me the many facts noted above. The favorite ground was at the mouth of Herring river. 
 
 This great business gave employment to many men and vessels, and was eagerly welcomed by the Wellfleet 
 people. Eesponsible men were accustomed to meet the incoming vessels and take contracts to bed the oysters. 
 Tlie ordinary price was 9 cents a bushel. They hired help at day's wages, and often made a good profit. Fifty 
 men would thus often be busy at once. 
 
 During the summer partly, but chiefly in the fall, these great deposits, which would perish during the cold 
 winter, but were now well-grown, were raked up and sent to the warehouses in Boston, Portland, and minor ports, 
 in freight vessels and in packets. Usually the oysters were owned and bedded by dealers, who used them in their 
 regular trade, but some were owned by speculators, who took them to nuirket, or sold them to dealers as they lay 
 upon the beds, the purchaser taking all risks. The measure used for oysters in those days was a half-barrel holding 
 a bushel, called a " bushel-barrel". 
 
 Decline of oyster-trade. — The war of the Eebellion, however, interfered somewhat with the oyster-trade, 
 and it began to decline, so far as Wellfleet was concerned. Then the various dealers in northern ports, having 
 learned something, began to bed near home in their own harbors, and so saved freightage. Finally, the steamers 
 from Norfolk and the railways entered into so serious a competition, that fully ten years ago Wellfleet bay was 
 wholly deserted by the oystermen, as a bedding-ground, though her vessels still continue to carry cargoes in winter 
 from Virginia to Boston, Portland, Salem, Portsmouth, and the Providence river, to supply the active trade and 
 fill the new beds, which the dealers at these various ports had learned could be established at home. 
 
 Tlie reader thus discovers how important a part Wellfleet has played in the history of the oyster-trade of New 
 England. A hundred thousand bushels of the bivalves once grew fat along her waterfront, and thousands of 
 dollars were dispensed to the citizens iu the industry they created. Now, a little experimental propagation, of the 
 value of a few hundred dollars, and about 0,000 bushels of bedded oysters from Virginia, worth perhaps $5,000 
 when sold, form the total active business. The oyster-fleet, however, remains, though greatly diminished and 
 carrying its cargoes to Boston, Portland, and elsewhere, instead of bringing them to be laid down in the home 
 harbor. It will be long before Wellfleet, and its neighbor, Proviucetown, lose the prestige of old custom as 
 oyster-carriers. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 25 
 
 Wellfleet oyster-fleet in 1.S7S-'S0.— The vessels registered at Wellfleet, that habitually take part in 
 the oyster-trade, and formed the fleet of the seasons of 187S-'79 and 1879-'80, are the following, all schooners : 
 
 Name. Tons. Name. Tons. Name. Tons. 
 
 Lizzie D. Barker 76 Edward Rich 74 Addie F. Cole 76 
 
 Nathan Cleaves 80 Alice P. Higgiu8 92 Emma A. Higgina 94 
 
 Effio T. Kemp 63 Lizzie Smith 77 Carrie G. Croshy 58 
 
 Flora A. Newcomb 70 Benjamin Oliver 78 Nil Desperandum 80 
 
 MarySteele 70 Benjamin S. Wright 108 E.H.Norton 57 
 
 George T. Littlefield 112 Gertrude Snmmers 64 Ida R. Freeman 59 
 
 Lucy M. Jenkins 70 H.W.Pierce 74 Ahby Frankfort 71 
 
 Asa H. Peroere 99 Maria Webster 58 
 
 Mary E. Whorf 6.5 Lucy J. Keeler 94 Total tonnage 2,239 
 
 Walter L. Rich 80 Charles F. Atwood 70 
 
 Newell B. Ha wes - 90 Nannie E. Waterman 80 
 
 Provincetown oyster-fleet, 1878.— From Provincetown there also hails a fleet of schooners in the oyster- 
 trade, that may as well be put down here, since all remarks will apply to both. Those running in 1878-'79 were : 
 
 Name. Tons. Name. Tons. Name. Tons. 
 
 Ellio F. Long 98 Freddie W. Allton 86 Etta E. Sylvester 90 
 
 Freddie Walter 82 M. E. Higgins 94 Mary Suow 71 
 
 Willie L. Swift 101 Kit Carson 94 R. A. Lumbard 65 
 
 William Matheson ." Ill John M. Fi.sko fil 
 
 Teresa D. Baker 87 Lottie Bell 96 Total tonnage 1,539 
 
 Mary Matheson 115 Belle Bartlet 76 
 
 Lottie Bums 97 Delia Hodgkins 95 
 
 Characteristics op Cape Cod oyster-schooners.— This list of 46 schooners comprises, I think, the whole 
 of the Cape oyster-fleet ; and there are few vessels engaged outside of these ports. They were noted in the old 
 days, as now, for their swiftness in speed and firmness of structure, and were the origin and prototypes of the 
 famous Boston clipper-ships. The original cost of these fine vessels was, on the average, about $7,000; now they 
 are not worth over $4,000 each. In summer they go on mackerel-fishing voyages, which occupy a little moi-e 
 than half of the year. In the winter and si)ring they carry oysters, varying it with frequent coasting trips. Four 
 voyages after oysters annually would probably be a fair average, and not more than a third of the vessels' yearly 
 receipts, as a rule, will be derived from this source. They are commanded by captains of experience, and go back 
 and forth quickly, safely, and profitably. Caj^t. Jesse Freeman, now one of the leading fish-merchants of the village, 
 told me that he had sailed between the Chesapeake and northern ports 316 times before he was forty years old, that 
 is 158 voyages. His opinion was that no cargo wore upon a vessel less (others say the opposite), and it was usually 
 of much profit to the owners. In the spring, oysters for bedding are brought cheaper than those designed for 
 market in winter. 
 
 The crews and their profits.— The crew of an oyster-vessel usually consists of two (often three) men 
 before the mast, with a cook, mate, and captain. One-third (as a rule), sometimes one-half, of the freight-money 
 goes to the owners, and the remainder to pay the men and furnish food. The wages of a mate in 1879 were $30 a 
 month; of a cook, $25; and of a seaman, $15 to $16. Food for a voyage costs from $40 to $50. In addition to 
 his share, the owners give the captain $15 a month. 
 
 Suppose, then, a load of 3,000 bushels, with freight at 18 cents a bushel, bought after 30 days' voyage. The 
 proceeds would be divided as follows : 
 
 3,000 bushels, at 18 cents $540 00 
 
 One-third to owners J180 00 
 
 Mate's salary 30 00 
 
 Three men, at §15 45 00 
 
 Cook's salary 25 00 
 
 Provisions 45 00 
 
 325 00 
 
 Remains for general bills and captain 215 00 
 
 Three seasons' work done by a Wellfleet schooner.— As an example of the history of an oyster- 
 schooner's voyages, I give a copy of what was done in two years by one of the vessels in the above list. Her 
 length was 86 feet; breadth, 23 feet; depth, 8 feet 6 J inches ; measurement, 97.95 tons. She was owned by fifteen 
 partners, and in 1876 cost in Newburyport $9,819 63. The record of her trips from 1877 to 1879 stands: 
 
 Spring 1877, first trip, 3,000 bushels, at 18 cents freight |540 00 
 
 Spring 1877, second trip, 3,406 bushels, at 18 cents freight 613 08 
 
 Spring 1877, third trip, 3,012 bushels, at 18 cents freight 542 16 
 
 Spring 1877, fourth trip, 3,550 bushels, at 18 cents freight 639 00 
 
 Spring 1877, fifth trip, 3,286 bushels, at 18 cents freight 591 48 
 
 • 
 
 Whole stock 2,925 72 
 
 Great generals (or expenses charged to account of vessel) 460 15 
 
 2,465 57 
 
26 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Oue-lialf schooner's share |1,239 78 
 
 Two au J oue-half per cent, of whole stock to captain 73 14 
 
 1, 159 64 
 By charter on load to plant 140 00 
 
 1,299 64 
 Mate's wages $289 50 
 
 Bills paid by captain 53 42 
 
 342 92 
 
 Balance due owners 956 72 
 
 1877. 
 
 Nov. 26. 3,475 bushels, at 18 cents freight 625 50 
 
 Dec. 26. 3,579 bushels, at 18 cents freight 644 22 
 
 1878. 
 
 Feb. 6. 3,746 bushels, at 18 cents freight 674 28 
 
 March 7. 3,621 bushels, at 18 cents freight 651 78 
 
 April 16. 3,463 bushels, at 18 cents freight 623 .34 
 
 May 6. One load to Providence 400 00 
 
 3,619 12 
 
 One-third schooner's share 1,206 37 
 
 To bills paid by captain 109 08 
 
 Balance to owners 1,097 29 
 
 1878. 
 
 Dec. 18. 3,765 bushels, at 18 cents freight 677 70 
 
 1879. 
 
 Feb. 1. 3,885 bushels, at 18 cents freight 699 30 
 
 March 4. 3,789 bushels, at 18 cents freight 682 02 
 
 April 5. 3,732 bushels, at 16 cents freight .597 12 
 
 April 26. 3,600 bushels, at 15 cents freight 540 00 
 
 3, 196 14 
 Port charges 296 32 
 
 2,899 82 
 
 One-third schooner's share 966 61 
 
 Schooner's bills 44 34 
 
 Balance due owners 922 27 
 
 Financial profits of the oyster-schooners. — In settlement with the owners of the schooners just referred 
 to, for these three oystering seasons, the summaries stood as follows : 
 
 
 isrr. 
 
 18»8. 
 
 1879. 
 
 Credits . .. 
 
 $826 89 
 226 89 
 
 $1,206 37 
 448 95 
 
 $966 61 
 
 BiUs 
 
 250 08 
 
 
 
 
 600 00 
 
 757 42 
 
 716 53 
 
 
 
 This was divided among the owners in the following proportions : 
 
 
 
 isrr. 
 
 1878. 
 
 18T9. 
 
 A 
 
 Il-32d8. 
 6-32ds. 
 2-32d8. 
 2-32ds. 
 l-32d. 
 l-32d. 
 l-32d. 
 1.32d. 
 2-32ds. 
 l-32d. 
 2-32ds. 
 l-64th. 
 l-64th. 
 l-64th. 
 l-64th. 
 
 $206 25 
 112 50 
 37 50 
 37 50 
 18 75 
 18 75 
 18 75 
 18 75 
 37 50 
 18 75 
 37 50 
 9 37 
 9 37 
 9 37 
 9 37 
 
 $260 26 
 141 96 
 47 32 
 47 32 
 23 63 
 23 66 
 23 66 
 23 66 
 47 32 
 23 66 
 47 32 
 11 83 
 11 83 
 11 83 
 11 83 
 
 $246 29 
 
 B 
 
 134 34 
 
 C . .. . 
 
 44 78 
 
 D 
 
 44 78 
 
 E 
 
 22 39 
 
 F 
 
 22 39 
 
 G 
 
 22 39 
 
 H 
 
 22 39 
 
 I 
 
 44 78 
 
 J 
 
 22 39 
 
 K 
 
 44 78 
 
 I. 
 
 11 19 
 
 M 
 
 11 19 
 
 N 
 
 11 19 
 
 O 
 
 11 19 
 
 
 
 
 64-64th8. 
 
 599 98 
 
 757 12 
 
 716 46 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 27. 
 
 It is probable that this season (1S79-'S0) the sum of the freights paid to Wellfleet and Provincetown schooners 
 on oystcr-caigoes aloue, will exceed $75,000, and the losses and casualties will be few. The competition of the 
 steamers between Norfolk and Boston, of the railroads, and particularly the recent custom of opening so many 
 oysters in Virginia, has been severely hurtful, however, to the oyster-schooner interests. 
 
 1 may add an odd note of interest to naturalists. At Wellfleet are found many marine invertebrates not known 
 elsewhere north of Virginia, which the naturalists of the United States Fish Commission say were probably 
 introduced with imported oysters. 
 
 Statistical recapitulation foe Wellfleet and vicinity: 
 
 Number of planters, wholesale-dealers, and shippers 3 
 
 Number of vessels and sail-boats engaged schooners*.. 46 
 
 Present value of same $185, 000 
 
 Number of siiilors employed (three months) 250 
 
 Eaniiugs of same - -. $15,000 
 
 Total earnings of schooners |75, 000 
 
 Annual sales of — 
 
 I. Native oysters bushels.. 600 
 
 Value of same $500 
 
 II. Chesapeake "plants" bushels.. 6,000 
 
 Value of same $5,000 
 
 Total value of oysters sold annually $5,500 
 
 9. HISTORY AND PRESENT CONDITION OF THE OYSTER-TRADE OF BOSTON. 
 
 Early history of the oyster-business. — The natural resources of the harbor in oysters, and the extent 
 to which they entered into its early commerce, have already been hinted at in paragraph six. 
 
 When the natural beds in the Charles and Mystic rivers gave out, Boston derived its oysters from the natural 
 beds at Wellfleet and in Buzzard's bay, but mainly from the first named. When, in turn, these became exterminated, 
 toward the close of the last century, Boston dealers began to bring shiploads of oysters from the shores of Buzzard's 
 and Narraganset bays, directly to the city in winter, and in the spring bedded at Wellfleet supplies for the ensuing 
 summer and autumn. This has been explained in the account of Cape Cod, preceding this. These cargoes were 
 taken up in the early fall, and sent in sloops and schooners to Boston. There the schooners were dismantled and 
 tied up, or else the cargoes were transferred to hulks (old mastless vessels) and covered witli so thick a layer of 
 sea-weed that no frost could get at them. These hulks were towed up into the docks close to Faneuil Hall, the 
 recollection of which is preserved in the name of Dock square, and there the oysters were sold to retail-dealers, 
 peddlers, and other customers, either in the shell or opened. Another favorite place for the oyster-vessels to lie 
 was about where the Boston and M. ine railway station now stands, in Haymarket square. At that time a canal, 
 well remembered by old citizens, ran through from the Charles river to the city wharf, following what is now 
 Blackstoue street. Another wharf for oyster-boats occupied the present site of the New England hotel. Prices 
 then ranged higher than now in some respects and lower in others. A bushel in the shell (at wholesale), or a gallon 
 opened, cost $2: this was "in liquor", the '<solid" gallon being a recent invention. In the restaurants they charged 
 ninepence (12 J cents) for a "stew", and fourpence (6^ cents) for a "dozen" of foiu-teen; or you could buy a better 
 quality for 7 cents. 
 
 There was a queer custom in vogue in those days, half a century ago. Besides the hawking about the streets, 
 which has survived, a few men used to "bag" them. Taking a bag of the bivalves on their backs, they would go 
 in the evening to a house where there was a lively family, or, perhaps, where a company of friends had assembled. 
 A carpet would be spread in the middle of the parlor on which the damp bag would be set, when the peddler would 
 open the top, shuck an oyster, and pass it upon the half-shell to his nearest customer; then another for the next, 
 and so on. Some lively scenes must have been enacted around that busy bagman, as his knife crunched rapidly 
 through the brittle shells, and the succulent morsels disappeared down fair throats. 
 
 Meanwhile, more and more oysters were being brought every winter from Long Island sound, Newark bay, 
 New Jersey, and southern waters, mainly in Cape Cod vessels, as I have shown, but somewhat, also, in Boston's 
 own craft, for in those days there were more mackerel-fishermen hailing from the city than there now are. 
 
 Introduction of Virginia oysters. — When oysters first began to be brought to Boston from Virginia I 
 could not ascertain with precision. The patriarch of the business, Mr. Atwood, of the firm of Atwood & Bacon, says 
 that when he began dealing in Water street in 1826, oysters were being brought regularly from Chesapeake bay in 
 small quantities. He thinks the first cargo arrived about 1824." Mr. J. Y. Baker assures me that in 1830, 20,000 
 bushels from all quarters sufficed for Boston. About 1840 Gould estimated that 100,000 bushels would cover the 
 consumption of all Massachusetts. Business rapidly increased, however, as the subjoined figures of the importations 
 
 * Seventeen of these schooners, worth $68,000, are registered at Provincetown, which otherwise does not appear as an oyster-locaUty. 
 
28 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of oysters in cargoes from Yirginia, by Atwood & Bacon alone, will show, 
 other dealers in the city. Atwood & Bacon received — 
 
 Besides these there were eight or ten 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 In 1846 32,575 
 
 lu 1850 90,.'354 
 
 In 1851 90,587 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 In 1853 123,097 
 
 In 1855 10.5,752 
 
 In 1857 83,000 
 
 These were by their own nine vessels alone; they had occasional cargoes otherwise. The largest lot (1853) cost 
 them $41,853, which gives an idea of values. Freight in those days was 17 cents. 
 
 At present very few oysters, indeed, are bedded in the vicinity of Boston, while of propagation there is none 
 whatever. The grounds in the harbor were never very excellent, and became less so as the city increased in size. 
 The encroachments of the building and filling in along the water-fi'ont over-ran the old limits of the bedding-grounds, 
 and even the ancient natural beds. Where the Boston and Maine railway's car-house stands, a leading dealer not 
 many years ago laid down 42,000 bushels in a single sea.son. It was known as White island at that time. The 
 South Boston flats are being graded up into streets, and the Cbarles, Mystic, and Maiden rivers. Bird island, and 
 other places were long ago abandoned, because the wharves or (he sewerage of the city has destroyed their 
 usefulness to the oysterm;in. Instead of bedding in his own harbor, therefore, the Boston dealer, as a rule, now 
 rents ground in Buzzard's or Narraganset bays, and lays down there (the principal g;'!>n:;(ls being about the mouth 
 of Providence river) the Virginia oysters he proposes to use for his summer- and autumn-trade, or else he has 
 abandoned the practice altogether. The process of bedding will be dwelt upon in the chapter upon the lihode 
 Island fisheries. 
 
 The oyster-trade diteing the Eebellion. — The coming on of the war of secession found the Boston 
 oyster-trade in its most flourishing condition. More cargo-oysters were brought then, than ever since; prices were 
 high and profits large. The shipping interests fostered by it were large, too, for the competition of railways and 
 steamers hatl hardly made itself felt. Most of the large dealers ran lines of vessels of their own, as well as chartering 
 additional assistance in the spring. In the demand for fast sailers which the oyster-business created, is found the 
 origin of that celebrated model of sailing vessel that made America famous on the seas — the clii)per-shii>. The first 
 of these were made by Samuel Hall, a noted ship-builder, at his yard in East Boston, and were named Despatch, 
 Montezuma, Telegraph, and Express. They were from 90 to 120 tons, old measurement, and carried an average cargo 
 of 2,500 bushels of oysters. Six months in the year these clippers were devoted to bringing oysters from Virginia. 
 There were thirty-five or forty of these "sail" running, and in the summer they would go fishing. The freight 
 tariff on oysters was then 20 cents, and during the war it went as high as 25 cents a bushel. 
 
 The war interfered sadly with the business of oystering. Often the military operations did iiot admit of the 
 cultivating and raking of the beds in Virginia and Maryland, or of the schooners from northern ports going where 
 they wished to buy. A period of higher costs and shortened sales was in store for the dealers, and they have not 
 yet quite recovered the prosperity of 1860. The greatest period of depression was 1874-'75, when the business was 
 almost a failure. I think none of the dealers "suspended ", however. 
 
 Attempts at oyster-culture. — In the course of this business, as long ago as the traditions of the trade go 
 back, a few bushels were now and then laid down in various parts of the harbor to keep them from spoiling. But 
 this was not at first a regular and systematic thing. The bedding-grounds were usually in the Charles, Mystic, 
 Maiden, and Pines rivers, often above the bridges, or on the Winthrop shore. Later all the dealers bedded on the 
 South Boston flats, which are now being wholly filled up by the New York and New England railway. There was 
 a large, oval, bare space here, occupied by all the dealers in the city, who had it regularly divided. Mr. J. H. 
 Wiley's father's portion was at the extreme end, and was bounded by eel-grass. He experimented by putting oysters 
 over, upon, and among the eel-grass, and found that they did far better than those on the open flat, which had been 
 occupied for a long time, and ebbed dry. Mr. Wiley supposed that the reason was, that it was new ground, from 
 which fresh and plenteous nourishment was to be derived. The grass afforded so much protection, also, that many 
 oysters used to survive the winter. 
 
 The Boston oyster-fleet of 1878-'79. — At present (1879-'80) the only vessels, so far as I could learn, 
 registered in Boston and engaged in the oyster-carrying trade, are the following schooners, all the property of a 
 single firm : 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 William H. West 68 
 
 Eddy Pierce 96 
 
 Alice 89 
 
 Barty Pierce 95 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 J. M. Ball 87 
 
 Neponset 74 
 
 Longwood 66 
 
 Leona 100 
 
 Opened oysters in the Boston market. — Another great change from ancient methods of conducting the 
 business has been caused by the introduction of opened oysters from Norfolk. These are received twice a week 
 (Tuesdays and Fridays) by steamer direct from Norfolk, and on other days, to a less extent, by steamer from Norfolk 
 to New York, and thence by railway. In the neighborhood of 250,000 gallons were thus handled in Boston during 
 the winter of 1879-'80, for they come only between September and April. They are shipped in barrels and kegs. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 29 
 
 The effect of this intiovatiou has been very marked upon the trade ; whether for good or ill there are two opposite 
 opinions, the general verdict being that this feature works against the best interests of the trade. In their favor, 
 it is said, in general, that they can be sold cheaper than any other oysters, and hence are accessible to the poorer 
 class of people ; that they are as good as the cargo-oysters, and that in the increased number sold is compensation 
 for the diminished percentage of profit. I will quote some opinions expressed to me in this direction: 
 
 The Boston Oyster-Company considered the innovation of Norfolk opened oysters not unfavorable to business 
 generally, although hurtful to the cargo-trade. Although higher profits were received five or six years ago, three 
 times as many gallons are sold now as then, and hence dealers can aiibrd to take less. Selling more cheaply a 
 grade of goods equal to the old stock opened here, they give better satisfaction and sell more. There is less risk, 
 also, than with cargoes, in which they had relinquished large dealings. They washed all their oysters from Norfolk 
 carefully, and had heard no complaint of ill-health resulting from eatiug them. 
 
 The Chesapeake Oyster-Company deal almost wholly in opened oysters, and believe in the Norfolk trade, for 
 the same reasons as given in the report of the " Boston " company, and say that, with their refrigerator barrels, they 
 have no trouble with warm-weather losses. One of the advantages of this new business is, that a man can begin it 
 with small means, since the stock may be procured in quantities as small, or large, as desired. 
 
 R. R. Higgins thought the oysters opened in Norfolk as good by the time they got here as those of the same 
 grade opened here out of cargoes. He used them largely, and had opened a branch-house in Norfolk in order to 
 compete with the Norfolk shippers on their own ground. By sending to his customers full packages, he avoided 
 the complaints against the Virginia shippers, that they sent "scant" bai-rels, pretending to aUow for a "swell" of 
 the contents, which does not occur. 
 
 This, I believe, completes the list of those who would not be glad to see the Norfolk opened oysters disappear 
 from the market. Indeed, so strong is the prejudice, that an eflbrt was made about two years ago to induce the 
 legislature to forbid their importation into the state ; but this failed, it being opposed not only by certain consumers 
 and carriers, but by two or three of the wholesale-dealers themselves. In opposition to them it is asserted that 
 their quality is poor; that they are unhealthy; that the losses attending them are greater than with cargoes, and 
 that they unduly cheapen all superior grades of stock. Two grades are brought to Bostou, but for one of the 
 '.'selected" come ten barrels of the "common", the cheapest and poorest oysters brought to the Norfolk market. 
 The alleged iujuriousness of them is said to arise from their too great age when they arrive. It is almost impossible, 
 any way it is arranged, to get the stock from Norfolk to Boston's customers in less than a week. If they are put 
 upon tlie steamer in Norfolk immediately upon being opened, come speedily, and the weather remains cold, little 
 fault will be found. It is rare, however, that this favorable conjunction of circumstances occurs, and a large 
 percentage of almost every cargo is thrown away. One firm dumped overboard 300 gallons out of a single shipment 
 recently. Under such circumstances the wholesaler will save all he can, including now and then some he ought to 
 throw away ; and the same thing will occur in the shop of the retailer, so that frequently the consumer gets oysters 
 not fit to eat. Rumors of sickness and death resulting are common enough, but I failed to trace any to a 
 trustworthy origin in truth. They are often dirty, and are washed again and again, until the aroma and delectable 
 flavor is all goue from their lacerated and rinsed remains. They are only fit to be cooked in a method calculated 
 to disguise their insipidity, by the time Vermont, Maine, or Canada get them for dinner. 
 
 Nor does it appear that a large increase of sales has followed the introduction of this new stock. Trade has 
 changed rather than amplified, while prices have been reduced in a marked manner throughout the whole list. If, 
 now, the wholesale-dealer clears 5 cents a gallon on Virginia oysters, in shell or out, he thiuks himself doing well. 
 Most of the business is done on a much smaller margin. Considerable profit, however, is made on the "superior 
 grade " of Norfolk stock ; but oidy a little of this is brought on. Worse than this, however, for Boston merchants, 
 is the fact that Norfolk cuts out much of their regular custom. A man anywhere can buy five or ten gallons and 
 have them sent to him just (or very nearly) as cheap as the wholesaler who gets his thousand gallons. The natural 
 result is, that many retailers and large consumers, like the hotels, do send direct to Virginia. With the cargo- 
 method this is out of the question. All consumers near Boston or other importing cities must go there for supplies. 
 Take it all in all, Boston thoroughly deplores the innovation, but comforts herself with the conviction, that already 
 she sees signs of general dissatisfaction, and looks forward to a speedy abandonment of the new for the old method. 
 
 Kinds op oysters sold in Boston.— A large variety of oysters are to be found on sale in Boston from 
 widely difterent points. Those from the shore of Connecticut used to be highly esteemed, but they have gone out 
 of the Boston market. The " Cape" and " Providence" oysters are better of late, and the expense of bringing them 
 on is much less than from Connecticut. About five years ago the very choicest brand eaten came from Wareham, 
 at the northern extremity of Buzzard's bay. Now these are poor, ami better ones come from Cotuit, on the " heel" 
 of Cape Cod, and the best of all (in my judgment) are from the Sandwich shore, particularly Monument river. The 
 size, fine appearance, and saltness of the "Cape" or " native" oysters recommend them for "bench" stock, to be 
 eaten raw. You see advertised also the Blue-point, Saddle-rock, Stamford, and Norwalk oysters, more familiar 
 to New Yorkers; but they are kept for a special, small custom, as " lancy ". 
 
30 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Boston oystebdealees and oyster-men. — It is not ea.sy to get at the exact unmber of persons in Boston 
 who derive their daily support from the oyster-business. The hired help of the wholesale dealers amounts to about 125 
 persons the year round, with the addition of about 2.50 more who are engaged with greater or less steadiness to " shuclc" 
 during the colder half of the year. The majority of these persons are married ; and I believe that, including the 
 dealers themselves, to multiply by four in each case would fairly estimate the luimber of souls represented — that is, 
 tlie mouths fed. There are, then, in this wholesale trade, deriving their whole support, about 500 persons ; deriving 
 one-half their support, about 1,000 persons. 
 
 It is asserted that there are about 1,000 retail-shops, flsh-markets, hotels, and restaurants in the city where 
 oysters form a regular part of the sales. I was unable to verify this, but am inclined to believe it rather under 
 than over the actual number. It would be a low estimate to say, that an a\'erage of one family of five persons in 
 each case is supported by the moUuscan share of the business, which would add 5,000 persons to the 750 in the 
 wholesale department, and give a total of 5,750 persons in Boston estimated to derive their living chiefly out of the 
 oyster and clam. Most of the wholesalers run restaurants and lunch-counters. The wages paid vary with 
 the kind of employment and the employer, all the way from $J: to $25 per week. The lowest rates are paid 
 to the girls in the restaurant-kitchens, who get from $3 to $5 per week and their board, and to the waiters 
 in the restaurants, who receive about $8 a week and boaid. The men who pack, attend to shipments and delivery 
 of orders, who aid in bedding, and do the heavy work of the establishment, will average from $12 to $15 a week. 
 The large addition employed between September and May are "openers" or "shuckers", who are paid by the solid 
 gallon, and work only when there are oysters to be opened. They are, as a rule, a rough, ignorant class of men. 
 In summer they do ordinary laboring jobs, like working on the streets and carrying hods. Their pay has been a 
 shilling (17 cents) a gallon for some years, but last season (lS78-'79) 18 and occasionally 20 cents was paid; and in 
 consequence of a strike on their part it is expected that 20 cents will be the ruling price in 1879-80. It is rare that 
 they earn more than $10 a week, and often not half that. The largest day's work at opening oysters that I coul(J 
 learn of was performed seveial years ago by a man in Atwood & Bacon's employ, who opened 45 gallons between 
 7.30 a. m. and 10.30 p. m.; but this was " liquor" measurement, and he got only 10 cents a gallon for it. Most of 
 the openers are married and have large families. 
 
 Prices. — The cost (total, delivered) and selling prices of the various grades of oysters in Boston, are no.w 
 about as follows, in 1879 : 
 
 In Shell ( per bushel) : 
 
 Cost. Sell for. 
 
 From Virginia, in cargo |0 30 to $0 40 
 
 Virginia "plants" 50 to 60 
 
 Bags (common) — ..-. 50 to 55 
 
 Bags (selected) 90 to 95 
 
 Lynnhaven (Virginia fancy) 2 00 to 3 00 
 
 Monument River 1 40 to ICO $2 25 to $2 50 
 
 Other natives 95 to 1 20 
 
 Providence rivers 50 to 60 
 
 Opened (^^er gallon) : 
 
 From Norfolk (common) 55 to 60 60 to 65 
 
 From Norfolk (superior) 60 to ()5 75 to 90 
 
 The dealers would feel satisfied with 20 per cent, of profit, but do not get it. Six or seven cents a bushel and 
 five cents a gallon is the usual advance. 
 
 Disposition of the oyster-shells. — Subsidiary to the oyster-business in Boston, is the disposal of the 
 empty shells. These are used somewhat for filling in, particularly along the Atlantic-avenue wharves, and are 
 largely consumed by the gaslight companies to be burned into lime for purifying their gas. In addition to this 
 there are two pulverizing establishments in East Boston that take large quantities. The shells are gathered for 
 them by carters and boys of every grade, at odd times, from the saloons, the proprietors of which are glad to get 
 rid of them, and taken to the factories, a few barrels at a time. The factories pay 8 cents a barrel, and often men 
 are thus able to profitably employ their leisure. The shells are put into a crusher and then through bolts, and 
 are thus ground into small fragments, from which the dust is sifted. The machinery employed is precisely that used 
 for crushing bones, etc. There is a strong prejudice against the presence of any oyster-shell in the manufactured 
 fertilizers, strange to say, and the broken shell finds a market only as food for poultry in place of fine gravel. The 
 price is one-quarter of a cent a pound, and a barrel will weigh about 275 pounds. About 500 barrels, valued at 
 $375, are sold annually by these tactories to the henneries near Boston, and an occasional barrel of the finer grade 
 is sold to the bird- stores, to be used in "sanding" the floors of cages. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 31 
 
 Statistical recapitulation for Boston: 
 
 Number of wholesale dealers and shippers 10 
 
 Number of vessels engajjed • 8 
 
 Value of same $20,000 
 
 Number of men hired by dealers — 
 
 Annually .- — 125 
 
 Semi-annually 250 
 
 375 
 
 Annual earnings of same $85, 000 
 
 Semi-annual earninss of same 35,000 
 
 $120,000 
 
 Number of sailors employed (three months) . — — •. 40 
 
 Earnings of same ........ $2,500 
 
 Number of restaurant-servants - --• 1,000 
 
 Annual earnings of same* $500,000 
 
 Total number of families chiefly supported '. 1,500 
 
 Annual wholesales of — 
 
 I. Native oysters (Cape Cod) bushels.. 15,400 
 
 Selling value of same $15,000 
 
 11. Chesapealce "plants" bushels.. t457,500 
 
 Selling value of same $340,000 
 
 m. Faucy stock bushels.. 60,000 
 
 Selling value of same $100,000 
 
 IV. Baltimore and Norfolk "opened stock" gallons.. 3.50,000 
 
 Selling value of same $250,000 
 
 Total wholesale value of oysters sold annually... $705,000 
 
 10. THE OYSTER-TRADE OF SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS, AND VICINITY. 
 
 Present condition of the oyster-trade. — The oyster-business here, the next place north of Boston 
 where there is any original trade, seems quite out of proportion to the importance of the town. The reason is found 
 in the fact, that a large surrounding region derives its supplies from this point, as well as the town itself, which 
 appears to be highly educated in the eating of all kinds of shellfish. Two schooners, the T. A. Newcomb, 130 tons, 
 and the Lizzie Smith, 118 tons, are engaged in the trade. They cost $22,000, but now are worth only about $5,000 
 each. In the summer they go on mackereling voyages, but in the winter devote their whole time to bringing oysters 
 fli'om Virginia. Ten years ago 25,000 bushels sufliced for the demand, and a portion of these came from New York 
 bay ; in 1875 three vessels were employed, and Salem called for 15,000 bushels, all from the Chesapeake. At present, 
 however, the total annual importation by sailing craft does not exceed 40,000 bushels, with about 5,000 bushels by 
 steamer from Norfolk, in winter, added. About 500 bushels of "fancy" stock from New York are also sold. A large 
 portion of these oysters are sold at the wharf; another large portion goes into the storehouse; a third part are 
 opened ; and the remainder (8,000 to 9,000 bushels) are laid down in Collins bay, near Beverly bar, where they are 
 dry at each ebb-tide. No opened oysters are taken from Norfolk or Baltimore. The result is as follows: 
 
 Oysters imported in vessels 40,000 bushels, costing, at 36 cents $14,400 
 
 Oysters imported via Boston steamer 5,000 bushels, costing, at 57 cents 2,850 
 
 Oysters (fancy stock) 500 bushels, costing, at $1 00 500 
 
 Totals 45,500 bushels, costiug 17,750 
 
 Selling price of Virginia oysters, imported at wharf, 40 cents. 
 
 Selling price of bedded oysters, in summer, 90 cents (common), $1 20 (selected). 
 
 Selling price of opened oysters (common), $1 per gallon. 
 
 Selling price of opened oysters (selected), $1 20 per gallon. 
 
 Selling price of opened oysters (in winter), 75 cents per gallon. 
 
 Annual amount of business, $40,000. 
 
 The firms engaged employ 43 men from November 1 to May 1 ; the rest of the year about 20 men. Thia 
 represents about 100 persons supported by the business, since many of the men are unmarried. The weekly salaries 
 will average $12, and shuckers are paid 20 cents for each solid gallon. 
 
 The old shells are disposed of to the gas company of the city at one-half cent a bushel, the purchaser paying 
 for the carting. This does not take all of the 1,500 or so bushels a week accumulating, which are used by the 
 proprietors to fill in water-lots, which they buy for the purpose of thus converting into land. To sell their shells 
 is more profitable, however. 
 
 The Newcomb method of ttnlading cargoes. — The leading firm in Salem, Messrs. D. B. & J. Newcomb, 
 boasts an economic method of transferring the cargo from the vessel to the shuckers' broad tables, ranged around 
 the interior walls of their shucking-house down on the wharf. This building is two-storied, and is flush with the side 
 of the wharf, so that the vessel moors alongside. A door in the end of the loft opens upon a railless platform or 
 
 " Somewhat mixed with other duties. t Of these, 140,000 gallons opened are sold annually under the name of "Providence stock". 
 
32 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 balcony 6 feet square. Here two men stand to receive the loaded tubs of oysters as fast as they are hoisted (by 
 horse-^wwer) out of the vessel's hold. When a tub comes within reach they seize it, overturn it into a wheelbarrow, 
 made of one-third of a strong cask, mounted on a wheelbarrow-frame, and one man sends it down while the other 
 goes and empties the barrow, returning in time to help when the tub comes up again. The ordinary method is ibr 
 two men to receive the tub upon the first floor, carry it away, lift it up, and overturn it upon the table, while two 
 others hand back an empty tub and repeat the operation. This requires four men and much lifting. The Newcombs, 
 however, dispense with two men and all the laborious lifting, by receiving their oysters on the upper floor and 
 dumping them from a wheelbarrow down shutes that lead to different iJortions of the shucking-table, or to the 
 "cool room", where they can store 8,000 bushels at a time, if desired. 
 
 Statistical recapitulation foe Salem aot) vicinity: 
 
 Number of wholesale-dealers 3 
 
 Number of scliooners engaged 2 
 
 Value of same ' $10,000 
 
 Number of men liired by dealers 25 
 
 Semi-annual earnings of same |2, 500 
 
 Number of restaurant-servants 20 
 
 Annual earnings of same $12,000 
 
 Total number of families supported 25 
 
 Annual sales of — 
 
 II. Chesapeake "plants" bushels.. 40,000 
 
 Southern, by steamer bushels.. 5, 000 
 
 Value of same $40,000 
 
 III. Fancy stock bushels.. 500 
 
 Value of same $750 
 
 Total value of oysters sold annually $40,750 
 
 11. THE OYSTER-BUSINESS OF NEWBURYPORT. 
 
 SouTHEBN OYSTERS IN Newbtjryport. — The wholesale oyster-business at this port is small. About 3,000 
 bushels of southern oysters are sufficient for the demand. These cost from 45 to 50 cents per bushel when put 
 down, and from an eighth to a quarter of them die during the summer. The bedding-grounds are in Parker river. 
 About three families get their support from the business here, but the business is losing ground and is encroached 
 upon by the opened stock from ISTorfolk. 
 
 Oysters sold. bushels.. 3,500 
 
 Value $3,250 
 
 Families supported 3 
 
 12. THE OYSTER-BUSINESS OF THE NEW HAMPSHIRE COAST. 
 
 The BUSINESS of Portsmoxtth and Dover. — In Portsmouth, New Hampshire, there are only two dealers 
 who trade in oysters by wholesale and at first hand. They each send a schooner to Virginia in April, the voyage 
 lasting about three weeks, and bring a load of 2,300 to 2,600 bushels each. Nearly the same course is pursued 
 here as in Boston. The captain is given sufficient money to probably fill his vessel, and told to do the best he 
 can with it ; but he is not given a rate of freight per bushel, as in Portland, but hired at a given sum, which, in 1878, 
 was $425. This amounts, however, to about the same thing as the 18 cents a bushel paid for freight to Portland 
 and Boston. All these 5,000 busliels of oysters are bedded down on the banks of the river in Portsmouth harbor, a 
 mile or so below the city, where the ebb-tide leaves them nearly dry. They last through to the middle of October, 
 with the help of a few "fancy" oysters from New York for the retail-counter. The cost per bushel of these oysters, 
 as delivered in the establishment, varies from 40 to 50 cents, and the average selling price, at wholesale, is 75 cents. 
 
 In the winter no vessels come from Virginia, and all supplies are di-awn from Norfolk by steamer to Boston, and 
 thence by rail, or, in emergency, by buying in Boston or Portland. These are almost wholly opened oysters, in 
 barrels and kegs. Not more ihan 1,000 bushels, all told, are supposed to come iuto Portsmouth during the winter, 
 in the shell. The-e cost 50 lo 60 cents. Of the others, I coidd get nothing better than estimates trom each dealer, 
 which, added together, give about 45 barrels, or 1,350 gallons, as the combined importation. Perhaps 150 gallons 
 more come from Boston, in emergencies. The whole consumj)tion of Portsmouth, then, seems to cost about as 
 follows : 
 
 Oysters in vessels. 5,000 bushels $2,.';00 
 
 Oysters in shell, otherwise 500 
 
 Oysters opened (about) 750 
 
 Oysters, fancy and extra (about) 750 
 
 4,500 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 33 
 
 The oyster-establisliments employ 6 men, paid from $6 to $15 per week. In all, 25 persons are snpported by 
 the trade. No planting has ever been done at Portsmouth, and even those bedded down in the harbor show little 
 growth of shell or body. To supply Dover, New Hampshire, a few miles above, about 2,000 bushels of Chesapeake 
 oysters are brought up each spring and laid down in Cocheco river, near the town. A proportionate winter-supply 
 comes by rail. 
 
 The natural beds of Geeat bay. — I was told by Mr. Washington Freeman, of Portsmouth, that this 
 gentleman discovered an extinct bed of large oysters in the Cocheco river, some years ago, but no living ones are 
 to be had there now. 
 
 A few miles up from the mouth of the river Piscataqua, and the harbor of the city of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 
 an extensive bay reaches southward from the river into the lowlands. It is divided into two portions: first. Little 
 bay, nearest the river, and second. Great bay, with which the former is connected by Furber's straits, where Durham 
 river comes in. A portion of Great bay, on the eastern side, is also known as Greenland bay; and two rivers flow 
 into it (the Exeter and Lamprey), besides a multitude of trout-brooks. This interior basin is perhaps ten miles 
 long and five to seven wide, but the shores are very irregular. It is so shallow that a large portion of the shores 
 are left as dry tlats at every low-tide, yet there are channels deep enough to allow large vessels to go up to New- 
 market and Exeter, when the water is favorable. This spot was renowned among the Indians for the oysters 
 living there, and considerable shell-heaps attest the constant use made of the bivalves. Whatever might have 
 been its resources a century or half a century ago, it is certain that within more recent times the locality was 
 forgotten, or at least made no account of, as oyster-ground, by the large population that inhabited the shores. It was 
 therefore looked upon almost as an original discovery when, in 1874, the explorations of the Coast Survey, which 
 was sounding and mapijing out the channels, showed that there were oyster-beds still flourishing at many points 
 from one end of the bay to the other; that is, in Great bay, for none, to my knowledge, have ever been found in the 
 outer Little bay. There were no tools proper for the gathering of oysters in the neighborhood, and very little was 
 done at first to make the knowledge gained available. There lived in Newmarket, however, an old Chesapeake 
 oysternian by the name of Albert Tibbetts, who sent to Providence for oyster-tongs, procured boats, and began 
 raking in earnest. Olhers imitated his example, and the following year witnessed great activity. For several 
 months, I was told, there were probably a dozen boats, with two or three men in each boat, raking every day, the 
 average take being about five bushels to the man. They used not only tongs and rakes, but used also dredges. 
 In the winter, also, they would cut long holes in the ice, and dredge the beds by horse-power, stripping them 
 completely. It was seen that this rash and wholesale destruction would speedily extermiuate the mollusks, and 
 laws were passed by the state forbidding the use of the dredge under all circumstances ; making the months of 
 June, July, and August "close time"; and forbidding fishing thi'ough the ice at any time. The last regulation was 
 the greatest help of all, for the ice-rakers would not throw back the debris of dead shells, but pile it on the ice, 
 where the hundreds of young oysters attached to it would freeze to death. But these beneficent restrictions came 
 too late, and the business of oystering has steadily declined, untU now only two or three boats keep up a desultorj- 
 search for profitable beds, and a bushel and a half a day is considered good work for each man. Only seven or 
 eight persons wei'e engaged during the summer of 1879, and these not all of their time. All unite in ascribing the 
 decline of the industry to over-raking of the beds, and feel disposed to pray for a law forbidding any raking 
 whatever during several years, in order to give the oysters a chance to recuperate their depleted ranks. 
 
 The beds, as I have said, are all in Great bay. They occupy the channels at various points, and are each of 
 considerable extent. There are perhaps a dozen well known localities or clusters of beds. These are mainly 
 situated in Greenland bay, near Nannie's island, along the Stratham channel, up Exeter river to some distance 
 beyond the bridge of the Concord railroad, in the Little channel near by, and up Lamprey and Durham rivers. 
 The chief raking now is done off Nannie's island. The average of the water on the beds is hardly more than 
 10 feet deep, and it is pretty fresh. The tide-way, as a rule, is strong, and the bottom tough, clayey mud. The 
 oysters are very large. I heard of specimens 15 inches long, and those of 9 and 10 are common. One man 
 told me of a single specimen procured in 1877 which weighed three pounds and one ounce in the shell, .the fleshy 
 part alone weighing one pound and one ounce. These large ones, however, all have the appearance of extreme age, 
 and are heavy, rough, sponge-eaten, and generally dead, though the ligament still holds the two valves of the shell 
 together. In taste, this oyster is flat and rather insipid, which is laid to the too great freshness of the water. It 
 takes a large quantity of them to " open" a gallon of solid meat, a bushel not yielding more than two to two 
 and a half quarts. As a consequence, there has not been a very great demand for them, though all that can be got 
 now are readily disposed of. Formerly the price was $1 a bushel in Newmarket, where they Avere chiefly bought; 
 but in 1879, 80 cents was the price. No culture of these or of imported oysters has ever been tried here; and the 
 chances are against success. 
 
 Since gathering the details given above, I have received the subjoined letter, which explains itself, but must 
 I think, be slightly "discounted" in its figures : 
 
 • ^ Newmarket, N. H., October 20, 1879. 
 
 Dear Sir: Yours of tlio li'.tb at baud. I will give you wli it information I can by writing, tbougb I slionld bave been liottcr pleased 
 to bave talked witb you ou tbe oyster-question. I could liave given you more iuformation in tbat way, probably; but ^ill answer your 
 queries as you put them. 
 3 o 
 
Monograph- YSTEK-IJ^'D USTR T. 
 
 Plate XXX 
 
 CiiAST Oyster, 14 inciiks u.nc;. i-uom Damariscotta River, Maine (natural 
 
 size). 
 
34 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 I. Oysters were first found iu Exeter river eight years ago by a government surveying vessel. Oysters were also known to be in 
 Durham river and at Nannie's island. I claim to have found the beds in Great bay four years ago. It is my opinion that there are oyster- 
 roclis all the way down to Portsmouth, but the bottom is not suitable for dredging, which is the only way they could be taken after you 
 leave Groat bay. 
 
 II. For two years they were tonged and dredged steadily through the summer-months by an average of 20 persons a day. Some days 
 70 to 80 men would be working. The average catch to a man that understood the business was 25 bushels. Wo could have caught more 
 by working more hours, but the supply was greater than the demand. We worked about six hours per day. 
 
 III. The average catch uow to a man is 3 bushels. A cause of the decline is that the marketable oysters have nearly all been caught. 
 There are to-day more in number of young oysters than ever before, but they are not yot of marketable value, being in size from a five-cent 
 piece to an old penny. If they are not properly i)rotected they will die before they are suitable to use. An oyster needs cultivation and 
 protectinn. 
 
 IV. Ten thousand bushels is a low estimate of what has been taken the four years I have been here. 
 
 V. The oyster does not find a ready market, not being a profitable oyster for any trade at the price asked for it. There is too much 
 shell for the meat. They are a natur.il oyster, and no natural oyster this side of Sandy Hook finds a ready market, except for the puriiose 
 of planting. For meat and flavor they are but little better than New.ark bays. Thoy need transplanting. 
 
 VI. There has been no planting done here of Virginia or New York oysters. It would be no use to plant Virginia oysters here. They 
 would be winter-killed. New York natural or hardy oysters would live. There have been a few Virginias bedded from spring to fall 
 here, and they did better for the time they were overboard than oysters generally do in auy water that I am acquainted with ; and I have 
 oystered in every state where oysters are worth catching — New Hampshire, Connecticut, Long Island, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, 
 Maryland, and Virginia — having done nothing else for 20 years, and having worked for the largest firms in New York. Will send you 
 informatiou any time you write for it. 
 
 Yours, respectfully, 
 
 A. T. TIBBETTS. 
 
 As I have remarked in anotber place, I regard this body of water as a very promising field for testing whether, 
 with Prince Edward island, Somerset, or some other hardy seed, artificial propagation is not possible at even this 
 northern point. 
 
 Statisticajl recapitulation — Great bay, Portsmouth, and Dover, Kew Hampshire : 
 
 Number of wholesiile dealers 3 
 
 Number of men fishing in summer for natives 6 
 
 Number of vessels and sail-boats engaged 5 
 
 Value of same — $300 
 
 Number of restaurant servants 6 
 
 Annual earnings of same $2,500 
 
 Total number of persons supported 25 
 
 Annual sales of — 
 
 I. Native oysters bushels.. 1,000 
 
 Value of same $800 
 
 IL Chesapeake "plants" busheU.. 7,000 
 
 Value of same |7, 000 
 
 III. Fancy stock bushels.. 800 
 
 Value of same $1, 000 
 
 IV. Value of Norfolk "opened stock" $1,000 
 
 Total value of oysters sold annually $9,800 
 
 13. THE OYSTER-BUSINESS OF PORTLAND, MAINE. 
 
 History and methods. — No oysters are native at Portland, and the city is supplied directly from the Virginia 
 producers. The real beginning of the oyster-trade in Portland was made by James Freeman, about forty years 
 ago, and two ship-loads from the South, amounting to, say, 200 bushels a year, filled the demand of Portsmouth, 
 New Hampshire, and Portland together. Sometimes, also, a ship-load would be brought from Staten Island to 
 Wellfleet, on Cape Cod, and laid down, to be drawn upon during the summer. It was not until a few years ago 
 that four merchants began to charter a vessel or vessels to run south and buy oysters, to be divided between them, 
 each firm Contributing its quota of purchase-money and expenses in i^roportion to its share of the cargo. 
 
 From 1SG9 to 1875, the following amount of oysters were thus brought in : 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 May, 1869, to May, 1870 33,369 
 
 May, 1870, to May, 1871 49,906 
 
 May, 1871, to May, 1872 57,332 
 
 May, 1872, to May, 1873 62.786 
 
 May, 1873, to May, 1874 79,767 
 
 May, 1874, to May, 1875 71,673 
 
 From 1875 until the present, accurate statistics are not obtainable. The sum of the oysters now brought 
 to the city is believed to be 75,000 bushels a year. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 35 
 
 The cost of the cargo-oysters is about the same in all respects as at Boston, and the business is similarly 
 conducted. The cost, in Portland, per bushel, of oysters delivered in the warehouse, then, sums up as follows, at 
 an average : 
 
 1869 to 1872 50 cents. 
 
 1872 to 1875 45 cents. 
 
 1876 to 1879 35 cents. 
 
 The selling price for oysters in the shell has ranged from a dollar (ten years ago) down to 55 cents at present. 
 This is in winter; in summer it often reaches and exceeds $1 50 a bushel. This increase of price in summer is due 
 to the fact that no oysters can then be got in Virginia, where the law enforces a cessation of raking, and to the 
 extra expense entailed by ''bedding". 
 
 As the weather begins to get warm in the spring, all the surplusage of each cargo which each dealer can spare, 
 is sent about five miles down Casco bay in large, open boats, and dumped overboard upon the flats for summer- 
 keeping. These oysters improve in quality, fatten up, and the shells add a " feather edge", often of remarkable size. 
 It is calculated that one-fourth at least of these will perish, while the increase in value is only from 20 to 25 cents 
 more than when they were put down. In consequence, the practice has fallen into disrepute, and only one 
 merchant now beds extensively. 
 
 That there has been no growth in the business of importing and selling cargo-oysters commensurate with the 
 growing population and cultivated palates of the region tributary to Portland, is acknowledged. The late 
 depression in prosperity has made itself felt here, since the oyster ranks among luxuries. Neither so large prices, 
 nor, proportionately, so wide profits, can now be obtained. This is ascribed by all dealers to the new fashion of 
 buying oysters already opened in jSTorfolk and elsewhere in the South and bringing them here in barrels and cans. 
 
 The transactions in this branch of the trade (which must be added to the former estimates) amount to about 
 $1,000 a week for, say, four months. A large part of this stock is supplied at second hand from Boston. Here, 
 as elsewhere, there are two opinions as to the real profit of dealing in this opened " barrel " stock. 
 
 The number of persons directly supported by the wholesale oyster-trade in Portland is not large, numbering 
 between 40 and 50 families the year round, and half as much occasional help iu addition in winter, to assist in 
 oijening new cargoes arriving. 
 
 The wages paid to men employed about the establishments vary from $8 to $18 a week, and to girls in the 
 kitchen— for each of the wholesale houses has a lunch-room attached— about $4 a week. They also receive their 
 board. Those who open the oysters are here called "shuckers". They receive from 15 to 20 cents a gallon for their 
 work, and are able to make from $7 to $12 a week as long as work lasts. Formerly many more shuckers were 
 employed than at present. 
 
 The vessels employed in carrying the oysters are mackerel-schooners clearing from Cape Cod ports. They 
 spend the summer iu fishing and the winter in this trade. In 1S7S, the Mary Steele, Nathan Cleaves, Mary Whorf, 
 and H. E. Willard were engaged. An average load is about 3,000 bushels, and a voyage in March has been made 
 iu ten days, but the usual time is from three to four weeks. 
 
 That in ancient times this locality was tenanted by oysters of the same race as those which lived in Damariscotta 
 and Sheepscot waters, and have survived to the present day iu the latter stream, is shown by the discovery of 
 biu-ied beds of shells, as has already been pointed out and commented upon. 
 
 Statistical recapitulation fok Portland: 
 
 Number of wholesale-dealers — •.- -- * 
 
 Total number of families suiiported ---• ^^" 
 
 Total number of families partly supported — • ^'^ 
 
 Annual sales of — 
 
 n. Cbesapeakes bushels.. 75,000 
 
 Value of same $50,000 
 
 III. Fancy stock bushels.. 5,000 
 
 Value of same $6,000 
 
 IV. Value of Baltimore and Norfolk "opened stock" $15,000 
 
 Total value of oysters sold annually ..... .-- $'1,000 
 
 14. THE NATURAL BEDS OF SHEEPSCOT BRIDGE, MAINE. 
 
 Native oysters in Sheepscot river.— Four miles west of Damariscotta and Newcastle, in Lincoln couuty, 
 Maine, is a small bed of living oysters and evidences of a greater number in the past. The Sheepscot river flows 
 into the head of one of the inlets from the sea with which this rugged coast is filled. At the village of Sheepscot 
 Bridge (one of the oldest cominunities in the United States, having been settled first by the Dutch in 1518) another 
 little stream enters, known as Dyer's river. A quarter of a mile below the confluence of these streams is a cataract, 
 and below this the widening expanse of one of the most beautiful of Maine's fiords. 
 
 From just below the falls (where there are some mills) to a point about three miles above, oysters were once 
 
36 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 abundant. It is a tradition, that a hundred years ago smacks used to come from Boston and load up with these 
 oysters ; but I am inclined to doubt the veracity of the tale. The most thickly inhabited portions of this region, 
 were the basin just above the falls, the mouth of Dyer's river, and, chief of all, a point about one and a half mile 
 above the bridge. 
 
 The bottom of the stream is rough and rocky, and the bivalves were always difficult to get. The ordinary 
 method was by diving. Ten years ago it was possible to get a bushel or two in a day up the Sheepscot river ; but 
 uow Mr. Mauly Sargeut, the most experienced man iu the village, thiuks a peck would prove a good day's work. 
 They grow singly and of great size, shells a foot to fifteen inches iu length have frequently been taken. They 
 closely resemble in character those at Damariscotta, and are pronounced of very fine quality. 
 
 Speculation has been indulged as to whether this little colony of oysters is a natural one or not. There seems 
 to be good evidence to show that it was planted desiguedly by the Indians, before the advent of white men, with 
 moUusks brought from the Damariscotta beds. The position and condition of the colony; the fact that the 
 banks of this river were thickly populated by Indians, who might be supposed to know enough to save themselves 
 the trouble of going four miles every time they wanted oysters, by transplanting them to their own stream ; the 
 fact that no more distant stream has them, although no good reason can be discovered for their absence ; and the 
 fact that no shell-heaps of any account exist to attest ancient use of the bed, all seem to confirm this supposition. 
 Dr. H. F. Hall, of Sheepscot, who has studied the matter with care, and various others, hold this opinion. As I 
 hinted before, it is probable that the isolated oyster-colony in the George river, near Thomastou, was planted in the 
 same way, and that Salt bay is the only really native and indigenous home of the oyster anywhere in this region. 
 These oysters have no commercial value, of course. They are much rarer than the partridges iu the neighboring 
 woods, and there is little likelihood of their increasing. Nor are there are any shell-banks to afford a fertilizer for 
 the worn and rocky soil. 
 
 C. THE SOUTH COAST OF MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 15. OYSTEE-CULTDEE IN BUZZAED'S BAY AND VINEYAED SOUND. 
 
 Verrill on the oyster-beds of southern Massachusetts. — Buzzard's bay, indenting the southern shore 
 of Massachusetts, and nearly separating Cape Cod from the mainland, has been noted since its discovery for its 
 natural oysters, and is now the scene of wide cultivation and a large business. It was of this region that Professor 
 Verrill wrote the ensuing paragraphs iu his Invertebrates of Vineyard Sound, several years ago : 
 
 In Buzzard's bay the bottom is generally muddy, except iu very shallow water about some of the islands, where patches of rocky 
 bottom occur, and opposite some of the sandy beaches, where it is sandy over considerable areas. Tracts of harder bottom, of mud or 
 saud, overjjrowu with algse, occasionally occur. In Vineyard sound the bottom is more varied * » *; muddy bottoms are only 
 occasionally met with. 
 
 Attached to the sides and surfaces of rocks and ledges along many parts of this coast, young oysters, Osfira rinjiniana, often occur in 
 vast uumbers, sometimes completely covering and concealing large surfaces of rocks. But these generally live ouly through one season, 
 and are killed by the cold of winter, so that they seldom become more than an inch or an inch and a half in diameter. They come from 
 the spawn of the oysters in the beds along our shores, which, during the breeding season, completely fill the waters with their free- 
 swimming young. They are generally regarded as the young of " native" oysters, but I am unable to find any specific diftereuces between 
 the northern and southern oysters, such ditfcreuces as do exist being due merely to the circumstances under which they grow, such as 
 the character of the water, abundance or scarcity of food, kind of objects to which they are attached, .age, crowded condition, etc. All 
 the forms occirr both among the northern and southern ones : for they vary from broad and round to very long and narrow ; from very 
 thick to very thin; and iu the character of the surface, some being regularly ribbed and scalloped, others nearly smooth, and others very 
 rough and irregular or scaly, etc. When young, and grown under favorable conditions, with plenty of room, the form is generally round 
 at first, then quite regularly oval, with an undulated and scalloped edge and radiating ridges corresponding to the scallops, and often 
 extending out into spine-like projections on the lower valve. The upper valve is flatter, smooth at first, then with regular lamelloe, or 
 scales, scalloped at the edges, showing the stages of growth. Later in life, especially after the first wiuter, the growth becomes more 
 irregular and the form less symmetrical, and the irregularity increases with age. Very old specimens, in crowded beds, usually become 
 very much elongated, being often more than a foot long and perha])s two inches wide in the adult individuals; for nearly all the oyster- 
 shells composing the ancient Indian shell-heaps along our coast are of this much-elongated kind. Nowadays the oysters seldom have a 
 chance to grow to such a good old age as to take this form, though such are occasionally met with in deep water. The young specimens 
 on the rocks are generally mottled or irregularly radiated with brown. They were not often met with on the bhores of Vineyard sound, 
 for oysters do not flourish well in that sandy region, though there are extensive beds in some parts of Buzzard's bay, aud a few near 
 Holmes' Hole, in a sheltered pond. The oysters prefer quiet waters, somewhat brackish, with a bottom of soft mud containing an abundance 
 of minute living animal and vegetable organisms. In such places they grow rapidly, and become fat and fine-llavored, if not interfered 
 with by their numerous enemies. 
 
 Topography : Early abundance of shellfish in Wareham and vicinity — The best starting point for 
 inquiries, perhaps, is Wareham, an ancent town on Wareham river, which flows into the northern limit of the bay. 
 Below the "Narrows" where the bridge is, there is a broad inlet, known as the Northwestern arm of Buzzard's bay, 
 or sometimes as the Waukinco river. Above the bridge the Wareham river flows in, joined by the Agawam river 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTIiY. 37 
 
 from the eastward. Both of these streams are influenced by the tide for a considerable distance above the village, 
 are shallow, and are partially bord(;rc(l by flats. From the bridge upward for half a mile, there anciently was one 
 continuous oyster-bed, and, besides this, various other coves and rivers in the neighborhood were inhabited by these 
 and other bivalves. In colonial days the present townshiiis of Rochester, INIatapoiset, Marion, and Warehani, which 
 are ranged around the head of the bay, were known as Rochester, and tradition sajs that it was named after the 
 city of Rochester, in England (which city was famous for shellflsh), because of the abundance of oysters, quahaugs, 
 clams, scallops, etc., along the shores. 
 
 Legislation and license in Waeeham. — That the earliest inhabitants valued oysters, is a matter of 
 history; and even in colonial times they were made the subject of legislative protection by the town, for fear of 
 their disappearance, as witness the following : 
 
 In town-meeting .at Wareli.am, voted — 
 
 March 20, 1775, that there shoukl bo no shellCnh nor shell sold nor carried or.t of town. 
 
 March 12, 1781, that no oyster-shells shall he catched to carry out of the town without the leave of John Fearing, Joshua Briggs, 
 & Joshua Crocker, ou the penalty of p.ayiug six shillings per bushel. 
 
 September 24, 17ril, that no person shall catch any oysters or oyster-shells for to carry out of the town or carry themselves out of 
 the town on y" penalty of forfeiting two shillings and 8 pence per bushel. 
 
 About 1840 was argued here the famous case of Dill i\i. Town of Wareham, involving rights to oyster-fisheries 
 and planting privileges, which the curious in such lore will find both intricate and entertaining. 
 
 As an attempt at regulation of the oyster-flshery, a few years ago, the town divided off into grants all the 
 shores of the numerous salt rivers and inlets embraced in the extensive and sinuous sea-coast, and offered these 
 grants, under a twenty-years' lease, as ground for the cultivation of oysters. The expense of procuring a grant 
 was $2 50, and it was subject to taxation at a valuation of $50. These grants were about 125 in number, and were 
 situated in Wareham and Agawam rivers, above the "Narrows bridge", along the shores of the Waukinco river, as 
 the broad inlet from the Narrows down to Buzzard's bay is called, and in Broad Marsh river. Crooked river, Mark's 
 cove, and the Weeweautit river, all of which are tributary to the Waukinco. On the shore other localities are: 
 Brown's cove. Onset bay. Shell Point bay. East river. Long Neck shore, and Cohasset river. The average size of 
 the grants is about two acres, giving from 250 to 300 acres of shore suitable to oyster-culture in this town, nearly 
 all of which is already granted. 
 
 The seed which has been placed upon these grants, and is to be placed there, is entirely obtained from the 
 natural beds, which are abundant in the Agawam, Wareham, and Weeweautit rivers. The incessant raking to 
 which the beds were subjected to obtain it, added to the demand for market, threatened extermination so seriously 
 that, in 1874, the selectmen decreed that no one should be allowed to flsh for ojsters at all, without paying to the 
 town a duty of 10 cents a bushel, the proceeds to go to pay an officer for measuring, etc. Under this rule the town 
 issued licenses and received pay, in 1875, from 36 licenses, $303 60, giving 3,036 bushels ; and in 1876, from 47 
 licenses, $425 50, giving 4,255 bushels. 
 
 Since then few licenses have been issued, owing to the opposition and quarreling excited. The oyster-matter 
 became a political issue. It is probable that multiplication by three of the results for 1875 and 1876, would give 
 the approximate yield for those years, and there is said by all persons to have been a decrease since. 
 
 Markets and prices. — About five years ago no oyster was better received in the Boston market than that 
 from Wareham; it held the first place. Though it has lost this distinction by "opening" poorly of late, it is still 
 of fine quality and in demand by the neighborhood markets. Wagon-loads are sent oft' to Plymouth, Middleboro, 
 and elsewhere, frequentlj' through the winter ; and during the season of 1877-78 the Old Colony railway carried 
 780 bushels in shell from the Wareham station, and about 150 gallons of opened stock. From East Wareham 
 (Agawam station) there were shipped, during the winter of 1877-'78, 924 bushels iu shell, while partial accounts of 
 the next season (1879-'80) indicate a large increase. By far the larger jiart of the yield, however, is sold small, as 
 "seed oysters" to be planted upon the beds along the eastern shore of Buzzard's bay and the "heel" of Cape Cod. 
 This seed is never carried away to be sold, but the purchasers come after it in spring and fall in sloops of about 
 25 feet keel, locally knowu as "yacht-boats". This seed sells for 30 to 35 cents a bushel iu spring, or 60 to SO 
 cents in fall, and is one and two years old, mixed. Some experiments have been made iu bedding Virginia oysters 
 through the summer, but although they lived well enough it was not found profitable. They brought only $4, 
 while the native oysters would fetch $0, a barrel. 
 
 Oyster-affairs in Wareham can hardly be called a business. The title to the grants is very uncertain, the 
 impression being that the right to operate upon them exists only through courtesy of the owners of the adjacent 
 ui)lands, and a vast amount of litigation would probably arise if any one chose to object to the present status. This 
 feeling, and the jealousy of anything smacking of monopoly, has deterred capital from being invested in any 
 considerable degree, although efforts have been made to bring money from New York and Boston to bear upon this 
 industry. At present the poor, ignorant, and shiftless portion of the community, for the most part, have to do with 
 the oysters, and have found, it necessary, iu order to protect each other from a common thieving propensity, to 
 decree among themselves that no man shall fish after sunset, even upon his own grant. It would be an outside 
 estimate to say that 200 persons live upon the oyster in Wareham, at an iuvestment of $3,000. 
 
38 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Savery on oyster-oulture in Wareham. — Since writing the above account I have received the following 
 instructive communication relating to this region, which I am happy to give entire : 
 
 East Wareham, Mass., January 29, 1880. 
 
 Dear Sir : In order to auswer understandingly your inquiries respecting tlio oyster-busiuess of Wareham, I find it necessary to give 
 you a condensed liistory of it. 
 
 Oysters grow naturally in tlio two rivers of Wareham, the Waukiuco and the Weeweantit. In the former the natural beds extend 
 from Wareham narrows, two miles above its mouth, about one mile up stream; in the latter river, the natural beds extend over a distance 
 of about two miles. At low tide the water is about two feet deep on these beds, and the bottom is somewhat muddy. Spawn is deposited 
 on them every year to a greater or less extent. The oysters grow in clusters, are long and thin, the meat is watery, not firm and solid, 
 thou"-!! of pretty good tlavor, and on the lower part of the beds, where the water at low tide retains its saltness, they do not attain great 
 size even when undisturbed, but soon die, and are succeeded by a new growth. Scattering oysters are found in the channels for about one 
 mile down stream, of fair size, firm meat, and good flavor, probably carried there when very small, by the current from the natural beds. 
 
 Prior to 1840, the privilege of taking the oysters from these beds was leased to a WeMeet company, and several thousand bushels 
 were carried to Wellfleet harbor, Massachusetts, .and there planted for the Boston market. About 1840, fearing that the natural beds 
 would be injured, the town annulled the contract with the Wellfleet company, and but few oyster.s, except for the w^e of the inhabitants, 
 wore taken from these beds for many years. In 1845, Peter Presho, of Wareham, got a grant from the legislature to plant oysters in a 
 cove at the upper part of Onset bay, an arm of Buzzard's bay, in East Wareham. He there plauted a few hundred bushels of Waukiuco 
 river oysters with good success, that is, they grew large, were well filled, and of excellent flavor. They did not increase in numbers, no 
 spawn seemed to come from them, nor were any small oysters seen on the adjacent shores. 
 
 In 1855 I got a license from the selectnien of Wareham, under the general state law, to plant oysters in Onset bay, adjoining and 
 above the Presho grant. I brought from Rappahannock river, Virginia, 2,200 bushels of large oysters in the month of May, planted them 
 on my grant, intending to market them the next fall. They did not arrive in very good condition, and what lived did not "fill" well, so 
 I sold but few, and let the rest remain on the grant. After the first year they "filled " well, and were of excellent quality. In a few 
 years young oysters began to catch on the shells and on the stones of the adjacent shores, so that people made a business of catching 
 ovsters in that vicinity, and from my grant, for the home-market. I proposed planting again, but my business taking me away from 
 Wareham and the late war coming on, prevented my doing so. Young oysters continued to increase, and to be found on various parts 
 of the shores of Onset bay, mostly on the sand-bars, ahout low-water mark. They generally lived but one year, being killed by the winter. 
 
 In 18(55 I commenced gathering the young oysters early in the fall, and planting them from two to four feet deep, at low water. I 
 found that they did well, growing rajiidly, and having an excellent flavor. In 1867 I carried some to the Parker House, Boston, and the 
 proprietors pronounced them as fine oysters as they had ever seen, and engaged all I had to sell; since which time I have furnished 
 Wareham oysters to the Parker House whenever they have been in suitable condition for their trade. I took care to secure and preserve 
 the spawn, placing shells and brush wherever I thought it likely to catch, and by 1859 had several thousand bushels growing finely. 
 On the 8th of September of that year, we had a severe southeasterly gale, which w.ashed the sand from the shores and bars, covering the 
 oysters and destroying the greater portion of them. The water that was driven into our bay by that gale was uncommonly salt and 
 bitter, killing nearly all vegetation, even large trees, as far as it reached, and injured many wells. The oysters were seriously hurt 
 by it, and the next year were poor and very salt, hardly marketiible. They did not fully recover from its eflects until 187-i. Many other 
 persons had by this time procured licenses, and commenced planting, getting their seed mostly from the Waukiuco river and the shores 
 of Onset bay. Several cargoes of large Virginia oysters were planted in the spring, and taken up and sold in the fall, but this did not 
 prove protit.able. Spawn now began to catch in various parts of Onset bay, in water from 10 to 12 feet deep at low water; I think this 
 came from the Virginia oysters ; none has caught there since ; they have all been taken up. In one year I think at least 20,000 bushels 
 of seed, about one inch in diameter, were taken from Onset bay and planted elsewhere, some going to Providence river, and some to various 
 parts of Cape Cod. Nearly all the available shores of Wareham were by this time granted to difierent persons for oyster-planting. 
 Seed-oysters at this time, from Onset bay, sold readily at from 50 ceUts to 75 cents per bushel, from the boats, and large oysters brought 
 from $5 to |9 per barrel, delivered at the railroad station. The business of growing oysters was profitable. The only limit seemed to be 
 in the size of the individual grants and the amount of capital invested. The grants were too small to do a large business, and no great 
 amount of money was invested in it. 
 
 In 1875 W.areham oysters were poor, hardly marketable, and during the winter many died ; the next two years they were good, and 
 mine brought §7 50 per barrel ; in 1878 and 1879 they were very poor, and unsalable except to peddlers, at a low price. Last winter at 
 least one-half of our large oysters died. No seed of any consequence has been caught in Onset bay the past three years. I have tried to 
 find out why our oysters were so poor some years and good others, and my observations lead me to the following conclusions: Onset bay 
 has no fresh-water streams discharging into it other than small brooks, but on its shores are innumerable springs of fresh water, exuding 
 almost everywhere between high- and low-water mark. Near where the springs flow copiously, the oysters are the best. These springs 
 derive their supply from the rain that falls on the great wooded territory in Wareham and Plymouth, called "Plymouth woods ". In 1875 
 the springs were very low. The previous winter had been very cold, the ground freezing to a great depth, and the woods did not thaw 
 out until the last of May. All the water that fell, therefore, ran oflf the surface, and did not penetrate the ground to supply the springs. 
 The next winter was warmer, more rain fell, the springs filled, and oysters improved. Then occurred (he great fires, destroying all 
 vegetation on thousands of acres of Plymouth woods, and leaving a sandy barren, where the rain that fell evaporated rapidly ; the ponds 
 in the woods shrank to a smaller compass than was ever known before, the swamps dried up, springs failed, many wells gave out entirely, 
 and the streams that furnish the water-power of Wareham were, and still are, lower than ever before, and oysters are poorer, I am confident 
 that, for the production of good oysters in this vicinity, a certain uniform supply of fresh water is required, springing directly from the 
 ground on which they are planted. It will not do to have the water vary in saltness ; if it does, though the shell may grow rapidly, the 
 meat is watery and flavorless. Oysters are seldom of good quality in brackish water, yet when taken from salt water and placed for a 
 short time in freshwater, they will grow plump, and improve, if not left too long. 
 
 Oysters always feed on the flood-tide. Then the water seems cloudy, while on the ebb it is clear. I have often observed, that as soon 
 as the tide began to flow the oysters woukl slightly open their shells, the feathery edge of the moUusk could be seen protruding and iu 
 motion, apparently feeding. In raking oysters on the flood-tide they often catch on the teeth of the rake ; I never knew this to occur on 
 the ebb. Oysters throw off their spawn at the commencement of the flood-tide, hence it generally catches near low-water mark, and 
 up stream from the spawning-bed, except in rivers where there is always a downward flow. 
 
 Their season for spawning here varies from the 1st of July to the Ist of September, according to the condition of the oyster and the 
 temperature of the w.ater; the spawn in favorable situations grows rapidly. I have known a boat, with aperfectly clean bottom, anchored 
 over an oyster-bed, to have its bottom completely covered with oysters of over an inch in diameter in two weeks' time. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 39 
 
 Thoiif;L seed taken from the natural beds in our rivers does well when planted in other localities, the restrictions upon taking them 
 placed by the town-authorities, and 10 cents per bushel to be paid the town, prevent their being used to any great extent. No Viigniia 
 oysters have been planted here for several years past, with the exception of a small cargo I brought from there last year, hoping to obtain 
 Bpawu from them in course of time; they seem to bo doing well; no oysters to any extent are opened for sale. Those sent to Boston last 
 year brought .$5 per barrel at the railroad station. The greater quantity of oysters sold last year were to jieddlers, at §1 per bush()l on the 
 shore, who disposed of them in the adjacent towns. From the best information I can get, I think about 7,(100 bushels were marketed from 
 this town the past year, paying to the producers about $10,000. Very little money is paid out for labor; planters do their own work, 
 and what help is needed can be got for 15 cents per hour. The prospect for much business next year does not look encouraging. No seed, 
 to any great extent, has been planted for the past two years. I have quite a large tiuantity growing, but can form no correct estimate of 
 how many. I shall continue planting the ensuing year, if I can procure seed that will not cost over 25 cents per bushel, iilanted. I expect 
 to bring some young oysters from the Great Wicomico river, Virginia, to jjlant hero. I think they will do well if caught in shoal-water, 
 and are young and thrifty. I have oysters planted there, but cannot yet tell how successful they will prove. 
 
 The greatest drawback to complete success of the business here, has been the lack of uniformity in quality from year to year. Much 
 of the ground upon which our oysters are planted has too little water upon it at low tide ; the oysters freeze in the winter, or are killed 
 by the ice resting upon them. It is also impossible to catch them for market just when they bring the best prices. The most destructive 
 enemy to our oyster-beds is a small mollnsk, here called the "borer" or "white snail"; it drills a small hole through the shell directly 
 over the "eye" of the oyster, causing its death. Some beds, particularly where the bottom is hard, are completely destroyed by them. 
 The periwinkle also is very destructive to large oysters; one will destroy at least a bushel in a season. There are but few starfishes. 
 Eespectfully yours, 
 
 A. SAVEEY, C. E. 
 
 Oyster-beds m Sippecan harbor, Wing's cove, and Weeweantit river. — Southwesterly from Warebam 
 the head of Buzzard's bay contains several oyster-localities of varying importance. They are: The Weeweautit 
 river, for a mile or so in the neighborhood of the highway bridge; Wing's cove, and the Blankinship cove of 
 Sippecan harbor, in the town of Marion. 
 
 In the Weeweantit natural beds of very good oysters have existed for a long time, and a few years ago a 
 large yield was obtained from them every year by Mr. Kobinson and others. Latterly, however, the quantity 
 has decreased, and the beds have been raked almost wholly for the sake of seed. There are grants here, but no 
 improvement, as yet, of any consequence. 
 
 In Sippecan harbor (the harbor of Marion) it is said that no oysters were known until about fifteen years ago 
 (1804), when the shore of Ram island, on the eastern side of the harbor, near ttie entrance, was found strewn with 
 young oysters, and the next year it was ascertained that these had lived and were growing. The whole cove rapidly 
 filled, and at once began to be taken by the inhabitants in large quantities. 
 
 Oyster-culture in Somerset. — Some gentlemen, in 1875, got permission of the town to plant oysters on 
 the bar at the entrance of the harbor, and brought a large quantity of seed -oysters from Somerset, Massachusetts, 
 to lay down there. Taking the hint, the town surveyed a fringe of grants around the whole harbor, which were 
 rapidly secured by the citizens for purposes of culture. The first design was that all owning grants should seed 
 them from abroad, leaving the natural beds in Blankinship cove and all the channels as public domain. But this 
 was done to a very small extent, the natural beds being raked and dredged, instead, for oysters to be placed upon 
 the grants, until it seemed likely that no mollusks at all would be left upon the beds. Legislative measures, both 
 of state and town, were brought forward for oyster-protection, but with little avail, as restrictive measures had 
 small support from public opinion, and now there is little attempt to restrain any one fishing to any extent. It is 
 reported by some, as a consequence, that few oysters are left, while others say that there are as many oysters 
 there now as ever. Meanwhile, those who had planted were not encouraged. The best grants lay in favorable 
 spots, where the oysters had shallow water, a hard bottom, and quick tide, only lacking fresh water. One gentleman 
 has planted about twelve thousand bushels, and has put down six to eight thousand empty shells, hoping to catch 
 spawn ; but since these were put down there has been no year in which the spawn was plenty at Marion. (The last 
 good year for spawn in Wareham was 1877, in Somerset, 1878.) Both of these investments have proved to be 
 losing ones. The oysters brought here from Somerset have grown pretty well in shell, but in meat are lean and 
 Avatery. Last August those of marketable size produced less than two solid quarts to the bushel. This fall (1879) 
 there has been an improvement, but a bushel does not ''open" more than three quart.s. These facts are true, as a 
 rule, over the whole extent of the harbor, and in every instance the owners consider that they have lost money on 
 their investment, and that it is probable that no great success can be looked for in raising oysters at Marion, for 
 unexplained reasons. Even when they succeed in getting a fair quantity of oysters, they are not as hard and plump 
 as they ought to be, and will not sell in Boston market at prices which will repay the expense of their cultivation. 
 Among special discouragements maybe mentioned the burying of two thousand bushels in one bed, on the outside 
 of Earn island bar, by a single gale during the winter of 1878, and the sudden death of several thousand bushels up 
 the harbor through anchor-frost. As a consequence, a large portion of the oysters which have been ])lanted here 
 from Somerset have been taken up and sent to Providence river, where they have been rebedded with great success. 
 It may be that this will afford an opportunity for business, although planting will not succeed well. The .seed can be 
 bought in Somerset and laid down here for about 35 cents a bushel. Two years later it can be sold to Providence 
 dealers for 75 cents. During these same years the natural beds near Earn island have tlourished tolerably well, 
 although the large tracts of .shells about the harbor have caught no spawn. They have not opened as much nor 
 of as good (piality, however, as formerly; but there are great diliereuces in the o^\sters of even this limited area. 
 
40 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 A bed at Eam's island, on the sand, in three to five feet of water, "opened handsome," while only a few yards away 
 oysters on a muddy bottom were of poor quality and size. 
 
 There have been about $17,000 invested in oyster-culture in this town, but I believe the whole matter could be 
 bought now for $10,000. Perhaps 5,000 bushels, all told, have been disposed of annually for the last three or four 
 years, at $1 a bushel or gallon. 
 
 Natural beds in Sandwich. — Crossing over now to the eastern head of the bay (since there is nothing to 
 be noticed south of Marion on the west, except a little later at New Bedford), I have to report an extensive industry. 
 The Cohasset river divides the town of Wareham from the adjacent township of Sandwich, its neighbor on the 
 south and east. Flowing into Buzzard's bay from this Sandwich side are several rivers, and the shore is indented 
 with numerous inlets and shallow ponds. Nearly all of these inlets were found by the earliest colonists occupied by 
 beds of natural oysters, and most of these beds are still living and supplying seed for cultivation. That the Indians 
 used the oysters extensively is shown, not only by tradition and analogy, but by abundant traces of former feasts in 
 the shape of shell-heaps. Some account of the oysters of this region more recently, is accessible in a letter from 
 Dr. J. B. Forsyth, written in 1840, to Dr. A. A. Gould, and printed in the first edition of the latter's Invertebrates 
 of Massachusetts. Dr. Forsyth says that the aged men of the vicinity assured him that oysters had never been 
 brought there from abroad up to that time (1840) ; that they grew so abundantly everywhere along the Sandwich 
 shores " that at low water you could at almost any point procure a bucketfull of them from the rocks". Dr. Forsyth 
 also mentions Wareham as an oyster- locality. There was then a statute prohibiting a man from taking more than 
 two bushels at one time for his own use, and forbidding their being carried out of town. " The oysters," says the 
 writer, " are generally collected by a few men. Mho bring them to the village and dispose of them at 50 cents a bushel 
 for their trouble; and by selling half a bushel or a bushel to an individual the spirit of the statute is not violated. 
 This may be repeated every day, until the desired sup]dy is laid in. When i)laced in the cellar and fed from time to 
 time with a little meal and water, they will sometimes keep good for months." 
 
 Culture and legislation on Monument river. — Buzzard's bay is the new name for the railway station 
 on the Old Colony line, known to all the people about there as Cohasset Narrows, because it is upon the narrowest 
 part of the neck of the peninsula of Cape Cod. The river flowing down past Buzzard's bay station is the Monument, 
 a clear, broad stream, up and down which the tide rushes with great force. " Wild" native oysters inhabited this 
 stream, but had been pretty nearly exhausted by constant raking, when the attention of the town-authorities of 
 Sandwich was caUed to the matter, a few years ago. They caused a siirvey of this and the various other oyster- waters 
 of the township, and divided them oft into " grants " of different sizes, according to the character of the bottom, but 
 none less than about an acre and a half in extent. These grants could be taken by any citizen of the town, under 
 certain conditions, upon the payment of $2 50. If not improved within a year they reverted to the town. Each 
 grant, as soon as taken, and no matter what the value of the stock upon it, was taxed at a valuation of $50. 
 
 The special state laws passed for the benefit of this new industry, were substantially as follows : 
 
 March 26, 1834. Section 1. If any person shall hereafter take any oysters or other shelUish from their beds, or destroy them 
 therein, in the town of Sandwich, except as is hereinafter provided, he shall forfeit for every bushel of oysters so taken or destroyed, the 
 sum of five dollars, and for every bnshel of other shellfish so taken or destroyed, the sum of three dollars: Proricltd, hoieever, That the 
 selectmen of said town may give permits in writing to any inhabitant to take shellfish at snch times and for such uses as they sh.all think 
 reasonable and express in such permits, not exceeding two bushels for one family: I'rovided, further, That any inhabitant of said town 
 may, without such permit, take one bushel of oysters or other shellfish per week from their beds in said town, for the use of his or her 
 family, from September 1 to June 1, annually. 
 
 Sec. 2. If any boat, wagon, sleigh, or other vehicle, shall be found within the limits of said town with any oysters or other shellfish 
 on board, taken in said town contrary to the provisions of this act, any inhabitant may seize and detain the same, not exceediug forty- 
 eight hours, in order that the same, if need be, may be attached by due process of law to answer the said fines and forfeitures, with costs 
 of suit: Provided, however, That as soon as the owner or master of any such vessel, boat or craft, cart, wagon, sleigh, or other vehicle, shall 
 pay said fines and forfeitures without suit to the treasurer of said town, such vehicle shall be discharged, with the effects therein. 
 
 Sec. 3. If any person or persons, residing in Sandwich, shall assist any person belonging to any other town, in taking any of the fish 
 aforesaid, or shall supply them therewith, he shall forfeit for every bushel of oysters so taken five dollars, and for every bushel of other 
 shellfish three dollars, and the purchaser or purchasers, knowing them to be unlawfully taken, shall be subject to the like forfeitures. 
 
 Sec. 4. All persons not otherwise disqualified shall bo competent witnesses in any prosecution upon this act. 
 
 Sec. 5. All the forfeitures mentioned in this act, not herein otherwise appropriated, shall enure, one half to said town, and the 
 other half to the person or persons giving information, to bo recovered by the treasurer of said town in an action of debt, before any 
 justice of the peace for said county of Barnstable, or any court proper to try the s.ame. 
 
 May 15, 1867. Section 1. Whoever takes any oysters from Monument river, Sandwich, previous to October 1, 1868, shall forfeit 
 five dollars for each bushel so taken. 
 
 Sec. 2. The inhabitants of the town of Sandwich, at a legal meeting held for the purpose, may make regulations concerning the 
 taking of oysters in said river ftfter said first day of October ; and whoever takes any oysters from said river contrary to the regulations 
 so made, shall be subject to the same penalties as are provided ii) the iircceding section.* 
 
 * On February 26, 1873, a precisely similar regulation was made for Barlow river, Sandwich, to be in effect subsequent to October 1, 
 
 1874. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 41 
 
 r 
 
 Votes of Town, March 3, 1879. 
 
 Voted, That the Monument and Barlow rivers bo closed for catching oysters from tho first day of May next, until the first day of 
 October following. 
 
 Voted, That the regulations concerning the taking of oysters from said first day of October until the next annual meeting, shall bo 
 the same as voted at a meeting adjourned from the annual meeting in March, 1878, to the fifth day of November in said year, which is as 
 follows: Any inhabitant may take one bushel of oysters in each week, and no more, the same to be taken under the sui)ervision of tho 
 fish-committee of the town, who are directed to prosecute all persons violating tho regulations now voted. That Saturday in each week 
 shall bo the catching day. 
 
 Voted, That the town sustain the officers chosen in all legal action pertaining to their ofSco. 
 
 Voted, That the town allow its inhabitants to take all the oysters they can with suitable iustrumeuts, such as drags, tongs, aud rakes, 
 wherever they can find them, except on private grants aud in Mouumeut and Barlow rivers. 
 
 Voted, That any person entitled to one bu.shel of oyster.s per week under the regulations for the Monument and Barlow rivers, may, by 
 an order, empower another person to take said bushel of oysters for his or her family use. 
 
 The people were quick to take advantage of these legal permits, and it was not long before nearly all space of 
 value was appropriated, and wild speculation began; but it is only within the last three or four years that much 
 business has been done, or systematic efi'orts at transplanting and stocking have been introduced. There are now 
 about 50 owners on Monument river, Cohasset river, and in Little biiy, and a careful estimate of money invested 
 gives $30,000 as the probable value of grants, stock on hand (November, 1879), and appurtenances. Many of tho 
 grants are as yet very slightly stocked with oysters. 
 
 Tho Monument river oysters were famous in olden times for their superior (piality and size. "They opened 
 well," the oystermeu said; that is, there was a large proportion of meat to the shell, which was thin, brittle, and 
 much scalloped. The first idea was simply to hold, as proprietors, the seed which were caught upon the grants from 
 the natural bed at the mouth of the river ; and, to facilitate this catching, more or less dead shells have been thrown 
 down. But the more enterprising planters have laid down great deposits of seed-oysters, ijurchased chietly in 
 Wareham, and these are just now beginning to produce their legitimate returns, having grown to a marketable 
 size. Some fresh seed is put down every year, but in addition to this, it is expected that large accessions will be 
 made by spawn caught from the natural bed and from the spawning of the planted oysters. Since 1874, however, 
 very little spawn has been caught. In that year a vast quantity appeared, but arrangements were not made 
 to avail themselves of it. 
 
 The amount of seed placed upon a grant varies with the pocket and theory of the owner, from 100 to 500 bushels 
 on an acre; perhaps 200 bushels would be an average of actual planting. The seed iiom one to two years old is 
 used and preferred. It is generally planted in the spring, when it can be bought for from 30 to 35 cents a bushel; 
 but it is thought much better to plant it in the fall, although then from GO to 80 cents is asked for the seed. It 
 costs about 10 cents a bushel to throw down. The best bottom (and that which is found everywhere here) is hard 
 sand, a little soft on top. The average depth of water on the beds is 3 feet ; but some stock is iilanted where it is 
 exposed or just covered at ebb-tide, the objection to this being the danger of damage from drifting ice, for the 
 mere resting of the ice on the oysters is not usually harmful, provided they lie flat on the sand. The calculated cost 
 of beginning business along this river now, would be about as follows: 
 
 Present cost of good ground (1 grant) $40 
 
 Seeding, 300 bushels at 50 cents 150 
 
 Sail-l)oat and row-boat 55 
 
 Beach, shanty, and furniture 40 
 
 Eake, tongs, shovels, and tools 10 
 
 Incidentals 05 
 
 Total 3(i0 
 
 One who is really going into the matter hopefully, must expect about this outlay before he considers his grant 
 in condition to yield. If he puts down shells for the spawn to catch upon, as he probably will, it will cost him 
 about 10 cents a bushel. _ 
 
 Formerly Virginia oysters were i)lanted and bedded here, but did not do well. The prices received for these 
 oysters, which are all picked over aud shi])ped to Boston in good shape, vary from $3 50 to $6 a barrel. In 1878, 
 the exports from the Buzzard's Bay station by rail were 138 barrels. Up to November 1, 1879, 240 barrels wore 
 sent, making 300 barrels a probable total for that year. Besides this, in 1879, much opening was done by tho 
 oystermen to supply the neighborhood market, and about 1,000 gallons of opened oysters were carried by express 
 companies, in small packages. 
 
 Oystek-cultuee in Bed Beook nAEBOE (Pocasset). — Another oyster-locality in the town of Sandwich, 
 is Eed Brook harbor, six miles south of Monument river. The railway station is Pocasset, on the Wood's Holl 
 branch of the Old Colony line. This harbor is an indentation of Buzzard's bay, about one and a half miles long by 
 one-third of a mile wide, and it is separated from the outer bay by an island. A branch of the harbor, also, runs 
 up to a landing known as Bjylowtown. The name Eed Brook harbor is derived from a little stream which flows 
 into it, the bottom of which is tinged with iron rust; but this brook does not freshen the water to any considerable 
 
42 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 extent. The bottom of the maiu part of the harbor is hard sand, and the water is nowhere more than 8 feet deep 
 at low tide. In some portions rocks and eelgrass exist. 
 
 On the southern shore of this harbor, about a mile from its head, exists a living bed of natural oysters, some 
 seven acres in extent, under protection of the town for public benefit. The oysters growing upon it are reported to be 
 large, but not of extraordinary size, scalloped and roundish, differing in no respect from aged oysters grown after 
 transplanting to another part of the bay. Excepting this natural bed, the whole harbor has been surveyed and 
 divided into grants; all those good for anything have been taken up, and must now be bought at an advanced price, 
 if any one desires to possess them. The largest owner is a Boston firm, reputed to have 75 acres, but beside it are 
 a score of other proprietors, inhabitants of the shores. It is safe to say that $3,500 would buy out all the home 
 interests in the whole tract, and $15,000 cover the total investment up to January 1, 1880. There is a spirit of 
 progress here, however, which will lead to a great increase in the value of the property within the next few years. 
 During 1878, for example, there were shipped from Pocasset station only 85 barrels ; in 1879, 500 barrels. 
 
 I spent some hours on these giounds with Mr. Edward Eobinson, who exerted himself to make ray visit 
 instructive. He thought that one-half of the whole water-area was suitable for oyster-cultivation, and all of this 
 is now appropriated, though only a portion has yet been stocked. The seed is mainly derived from the native bed 
 in the harbor and from the shores where the native spawn has "set", and is planted in the spring and fall. The 
 only outside seed brought in thus far is 300 bushels from the Weeweantit river, across the bay; and 1,000 bushels 
 from Somerset. The latter did not seem to do well. A long, sandy point runs out into the harbor here, which 
 ebbs dry at low tide. This does not come into any grant, therefore, and hence is public ground for the gathering of 
 seed. I saw upon the pebbly beach, in places, how abundantly this was to be had. Young oysters, at this season, 
 from the size of a dime to that of a dollar, were strewed between tide-marks so thickly that you could hardly avoid 
 stepping upon them, and they would survive the winter well in this exposure. These are gathered by everybody 
 who wishes and placed upon their grants. In addition to this, many thousands of bushels of old shells have been 
 laid down, the proper time to do this work being early in July, in order to have their surfaces clear and ready to 
 catch the spawn which begins to appear about that time. In 1870, when there was the last good quantity of spawn 
 emitted, the shells had been put down in May, and by July were so slimy that the spawn did not set upon them. 
 They learned wisdom by that, but no good year for spawn has occurred since. The seed is planted in varying 
 quantity, but Mr. Robinson said he should put it down shoulder to shoulder, so as to pave the whole bottom, if he 
 had enough. I saw tracts where the growing oysters lay so thick as to conceal the sand, and you could gather a 
 bushel from a square yard of bottom. The natives consider the seed here better than that at IMonument river, for 
 it is rounder and less distorted. When the oysters are three to four years old, and ready for market, Mr. Eobinson 
 takes them up and lays them upon a wooden floor near his packing-shanty, in water almost wholly fresh, which 
 takes away the very saline flavor, fills them up in size, and makes them plump and hard. It is known as the 
 "fattening" process, after which they are ready for shipment. Bought from the boats, a dollar a bushel is paid for 
 these oysters, but the freight to Boston and the barreling make them cost about $1 30 a bushel to the dealer. 
 
 Here, as at Monument river, fishing is habitually done through the ice in winter. The method is to cut a large 
 hole and use tongs. The oystermen do not complain of it as especially cold or unpleasant work. In order to keep 
 the oysters from freezing, they dip the bag which they intend to put them in when caught, in water, and hold it 
 upright until it freezes stiff. It thus stands conveniently open, like a barrel, and no wind can blow through its sides 
 to the detriment of the contents. 
 
 Catatjmet and Faxmouth. — Below Eed Brook harbor are Cataumet harbor, Currant river. Wild harbor, and 
 Squeateague pond. All of these are inhabited by beds of native oysters, and hence were granted in lots by the 
 town (Sandwich) under the usual regulations. They difter in no important respect from the Eed Brook region, are 
 all of small extent, and the whole money-investment, all together, will not exceed $500. 
 
 At East Falmouth there is a small business, the facts concerning which were kindly communicated to me in a 
 letter from Mr. Frank C. Davis, which I take pleasure in transcribing : 
 
 East Falmouth, Mass., Koveniler20, 1879. 
 Dear Sir: There are no natural oyster-beds in onr locality, norhave there been within my recollection, uoris there any trace, so far as I 
 am aware, of their existence in the past. Oysters are cultivated on a small scale here, but there is not room for a very extensive business. 
 Wo have a few acres of tide-flats, but the oyster-bottom extends cliietiy along the shore, varying from six feet to one rod in width. This 
 bottom is composed of sand and gravel. Outside of this you have dead black and blue mud, where nothing will live except eels. 
 
 I should judge there were 1,000 bushels of seed planted per annum, and about the same amount of oysters sold each year. The seed 
 is obtained in Buzzard's bay, and costs from !{i35to $35 per 100 bushels. 
 
 The ground is granted by the town of Falmouth to the tax-payers of said town, and all of it is taken up. The oysters grow well 
 here, but are liable to die. Our oysters bring from $3 to $5 per barrel ; very choice, $6. 
 Eespeotfully, 
 
 F. C. DAVIS. 
 
 New Bedford and vicinity.— A few words remain to be said about New Bedford and vicinity. The 
 Acushnet river, just above New Bedford, has been found wanting in the qualities necessary to make it good 
 l)lanting ground for oysters. The experiment has been tried, but has failed. No cultivation exists there, therefore. 
 
 The principal dealers in the town buy yearly a superior stock of oysters in the Chesapeake bay, bringing one 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 43 
 
 cargo of 3,500 bushels for bedding, aud another cargo for winter use ; the schooner Hastings, of nearly 100 tons 
 ■ burthen, is the vessel used at present. These oysters cost 65 cents when laid down, but grow very little on these 
 beds, since there is no fresh water to start them. In addition to this, one tirm furnishes oysters from Pro\idence 
 river, Wareham, and elsewhere. Tlie rest of the town, as calculated by them, use about 200 bushels and 100 gallons 
 a week for 5 mouths. This makes New Bedford's estimated consumption, annually, about 13,000 bushels. 
 
 Five men are employed six months, as openers, at 17 cents a gallon. 
 
 Just west of ]^ew Bedford is a little stream and inlet, known as Westport river. This was the locality of an 
 ancient bed of native oysters, which has now nearly disai)peared through too great raking. They are said to be 
 A-ery large and of good quality, but not more than 50 bushels a year can now be caught throughout the whole three 
 miles from the "Point" up to the bridge, which sell at $1 50 to $2 a bushel in New Bedford. There is reputed to 
 be good planting ground near the bridge. 
 
 A few miles west of Westi)ort is the Dartmouth river, where, it is said, an oyster-bed has recently formed, but, 
 as yet* is of little account. The bottom there, however, is regarded as very suitable for planting upon. Fifty 
 bushels a year would cover the whole t. ipply from here. 
 
 Planting in Cotuit and Waquoit. — At Cotuit and Waquoit are considerable planting interests, under 
 similar regulations to those existing ou the eastern shore of Buzzard's bay. From West Barnstable station, enough 
 oysters were sent to Boston by rail, combined with what went elsewhere by water, to make the production of Cotuit 
 amount to about 5,000 bushels annually; these oysters have a high reputation in Boston. Waquoit will produce half 
 as much more, chiefly from Wareham seed. Both localities will give a census of 40 jilanters, and an investment of 
 $40,000. There is a considerable fleet of sail-boats here. 
 
 Former occurrence of oysters in Martha's Vineyard. — In respect to Martha's Vineyard, only a 
 paragraph remains to be said, quoted from a descrijition of the island in the Massachusetts Historical Collections^ 
 second series, 1807, page 58 : 
 
 Tlie oyster is found iu Newtown pond, and iu two other ponds on the south shore, one of which is in Edgartown, .ind the other in 
 Tisbury. It is fresh to the taste ; but it is im]>roved in its relish and rendered fatter, by digging a canal through the beach, and letting the 
 salt water flow into the fresh-water ponds. As the southerly wind soon fills up the canal, the digging must be renewed four or five times 
 iu a year. 
 
 Statistical recapitulation. Buzzard's bay and Vineyard sound: 
 
 Number of planters and shippers 150 
 
 Extent of ground cultivated acres.. 500 
 
 Number of families supported 400 
 
 Number of vessels and sail-boats engaged 100 
 
 Value of same $20,000 
 
 Annual sales of — 
 
 I. Native oysters bushels.. 19,000 
 
 Value of same f;-25,000 
 
 II. Chesapeake "plants" bushels.. 7,000 
 
 Value of same $0,000 
 
 Total value of oysters sold annually $31,000 
 
 16. THE OYSTEE-LAWS OF MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Condensed view of laws as ajmended in 1878. — The oyster-laws of Massachusetts, chapter 83, as amended 
 in 1878, are condensed as follows: 
 
 Section 11. Whoever takes oysters from their beds, destroys them, or willfully obstructs their growth, etc., forfeits $2 for every 
 bushel, including shells. [This last phrase was made necessary by the fact that, in colonial times, when the oyster first became the suliject 
 of legal restriction, the penalty was evaded by the culprit's claiming that the shells were not to be measured against him — only the oyster 
 meats. — E. I.] 
 
 Sec. 12. The mayor and aldermen, or the selectmen, of any city and town may give permits to any person to take a stated quantity 
 of oysters; and every inhabitant may, without jiermit, take oysters, for family use, from September 1 to June. 
 
 Sec. 13. Makes the same regulation in respect to other shellfish. 
 
 Sec. 14. Any boat, not owned in the place, aud found with oysters on board, not taken under a permit or license, may be seized aud 
 detained by anj' iuhabitant for not more than 48 houis, pending process of law. 
 
 Sec. 15. Native Indians are allowed to dig for all kinds of shellfish for home use ; and fishermen may take bait, not exceeding 
 seven bushels at once. 
 
 Sec. W. The mayor and aldermen or selectmen of any city or town may " * * grant a license, for a term not exceeding twenty years, 
 ^n an,\' inhabitant thereof, to plant, grow, and dig oysters, at all times of the year, upon and in any flats and creeks therein, at any place 
 where There is no natural oyster-bed ; not, however, impairing the private rights of any person, nor materially obstructing the navigable 
 waters of any creek or bay. But no person shall take any oysters from any flats or creeks for wliich a license has been granted, " • • 
 between sunset and sunrise, on penalty of forfeiture of license and the oysters ou his beds. 
 
 Sec. 17. Such license shall describe the metes and bounds, shall be recorded, and shall cost the applicant $2 50. 
 
 Skc. 18. The person so licensed, fiis heirs and assigns, shall, for the purposes aforesaid, have exclusive use of the flats and creeks 
 described in the license during the time therein specified ; and any person who, without consent of the owner, removes oysters from 
 licensed ground incurs a fine of $100, or less, or imprisonment from thirty days to six months, or both. 
 
44 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED S'i'ATES. 
 
 Special laws relating to Cape Cod were passed in 1870, and remain in force, to the following effect : 
 
 Section I. No person not an inhabitant of tlie town ofWellileet shall take any clams, qnahangs, oysters, or other shellfish within the 
 ■waters of said town, without first getting a permit from the selectmen, nor shall any person heiug an inhabitant of said town take any 
 of said fish for bait, at any time, exceeding three bushels, including their shells, or for the purpose of selling the same, without a permit 
 from the selectmen of said Wellfleet, who may grant the same for such sum to be jiaid to the use of the town as they shall deem jjroper; 
 but the inhabitants of said town may take said fish for family use without such permit. 
 
 Sec. II. Whoever takes any shellfish from within the waters of said AVellfleet in violation of the provisions of this act, shall, foi 
 every offense, pay a fine of not less than five or more than ten dollars and costs of prosecution, and one dollar for every bushel of shell- 
 fish so taken ; said fine and forfeiture imposed under this act to be recovered by indictment or information before a trial justice in the- 
 county of Barnstable. 
 
 D. TAUNTON RIVER AND COLE'S RIVER, MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 17. OYSTER-CULTUEE AND TRADE ON MASSACHUSETTS AFFLUENTS OF NARRAGANSET BAY. 
 
 Peculiarities of the Somerset native stock. — A discussion of this small district forms a natural division 
 of the subject, since the Taunton river beds are isolated, and lying between Narraganset bay and the Cape Cod 
 district, furnish seed for both. The river itself flows into Narraganset bay, and the region immediately about its 
 mouth is included. 
 
 There lies in the Taunton river, at Dighton, a hirge rock, well known to archajologists, on account of some 
 inscriptions which it bears ; these, though untranslated, are supposed to be the work of Norse voyagers who early 
 visited these waters. The foundation for this supposition is very fidly and attractively stated in Thoreau's Cape 
 Cod, to which the reader is referred. These earliest comers were pleased to find shellfish abundant in the region, 
 and the English settlers, three or four centuries later, record their thankfulness on similar grounds. From time 
 immemorial, then, oysters have been natives of this district, and no such mistake as has been made north of Cape 
 Cod could ever be put forward to deny that they are here indigenous. 
 
 Legislation and license. — It was long ago recognized that the Taunton river was a valuable oyster- 
 property, and legal measures were early adopted looking toward, its preservation. The present plan of operations 
 came into effect about thirty years ago, and though differing slightly in the various towns bordering the river, 
 consists, in general, of the leasing of the ground for raking and planting purposes, during a term of years, at a fixed 
 rental. Most of the towns do this under the general law of the state, already explained in the chapter on the south 
 coast of Massachusetts bay district (C) ; but Somerset had a special act in her favor, jiassed by the legislature iu 
 1847, which reads as follows : 
 
 Section 1. The town of Somerset shall have the exclusive control of the oyster-fishery in that part of Taunton river within the limits 
 of said town, and may sell at public or jirivate sale * » * the right or privilege of taking oysters » • » for a term of not less than three 
 nor more than ten years at any one term; and all money arising from such sale or sales shall be paid unto the treasurer of said town, for 
 its use, etc. (Chapter 44.) 
 
 Beyond this, every householder has the right to take three bushels each month for family use. 
 
 The privilege of this town now rents for $800 a year, and is owned for five years by the Somerset Oyster 
 Company, composed of citizens of the town. 
 
 1)1 Fall River, the lease is held by a firm from Wellfleet, Massachusetts, at $000 a year. 
 
 In Freetown, the holder of the lease is a Providence man, who pays about $1,000 annually for the privilege. 
 
 The lessee of the privileges of Dighton, also, is a citizen of Providence, at a cost of $475 a year. 
 
 Berkeley rents its oyster-banks to a Somerset comjjauy at $1,300 a year, for a long term. 
 
 Assonet is leased for ten years, with Providence capital, at $1,225 a j'ear. 
 
 The total income, therefore, derived by the towns along the bank of this small river, only a dozen miles long, 
 is $5,400. This is wholly for the privilege of raking the bottom for seed, besides which the towns reserve the right 
 of each citizen to take such oysters from the river as he needs "for family use". I know no other district in the 
 United States which is made to serve the public treasury so well. 
 
 In respect to this matter of leases, however, it may be said, that it was evidently the intention of the makers of 
 the law to parcel out the privilege among many persons; but the shape of the business has changed, capital has 
 overcome weak opposition, where it existed, and where there was a score of owners of the waterfront tweuty-fivo 
 years ago, there is now only one. It is jirobably to the general advantage, however, in this case, that the business 
 should be thus centralized. 
 
 Somerset oysters : The history of their deterioration. — The oysters from all parts of Taunton river 
 (the producing extent is about 12 miles long) are known as "Somersets". Formerly they were considered extremely 
 good eating, and grew to a large size. Within the last twentj--five years, however, they have assumed a green 
 appearance and lost quality. It is popularly asserted, locally, that this is owing to the influence of the impurities 
 •'discharged by the copper works, by the rolling-mills, and by the print-works, which are situated some miles above 
 the oyster beds. But this has been denied, on the grouud that not enough of the mineral matter thus thrown into 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 45 
 
 the currcut could get down there to affect the oysters so seriously, and also on the better ground, that chemical 
 analyses fail to show the presence of anything to account for the greenish stain, which is precisely that so highly 
 esteemed a few years ago in the French oysters of Marennes, and other districts. I was assured that this greenness 
 varied in different parts of the river, and with diflereut seasons, and that if any oysters happened to have grown 
 high up on the bridge-piers, or elsewhere off the bottom, they were not green at all. Just how deleterious to health 
 these green Somerset oysters are, I could not learn satisfactorily. Nobody pretends that their effects are fatal, and 
 some say they are as good as any other inferior oyster. The general opinion, however, is, that eating a dozen raw 
 ones is certain to be followed by violent sickness at the stomach. Xo doubt i)rcjadice has much to do with it, for 
 there is no food which the imagination would more quickly influence the stomach to reject, than the soft, slippery, 
 and somewhat insipid fresh-water oyster. The same green appearance occurs of late in the oysters of Seekonk 
 river, to be spoken of later on; and in both cases transplanting entirely removes the stain and elevates the quality, 
 which is said to be slowly improving. In consequence of this stain, the eating of Somerset oysters, in their natural 
 state, has been nearly given up, and the whole trade of the river is devoted to the production and sale of seed. Of 
 course no planting of any sort, beyond the occasional transference of "set" from one part of the river to another, 
 has ever been undertaken. 
 
 Culture op seed-oystees in Taunton river. — The number of young oysters born every fall in Taunton 
 river varies, but there is never a year wholly without them. The season of 1877 was a good one, and about ten 
 years previous, the autumn of "the great September gale", saw an extraordinary production, or "set", as the 
 ap]iearance of the young oysters is termed here. The rocks and gravel along both shores are covered to a greater 
 or less extent, but in addition to this, every owner spreads down great quantities of clean shells every summer, in 
 the hope of catching spawn. Generally, they are successful, and sometimes extremely so. Some experiments have 
 been tried with sunken brush; but though the spawn attached itself well enough, the currents and winds are so 
 strong and uncertain as to drift it all away and lose it to its owner. Perhaps 25,000 or 30,000 bushels of shells are 
 spread in this river annually. The favorites are scallop shells, because they are thin and brittle, so that the young 
 oysters anchored to them are easily broken apart or detached. Scallop shells are somewhat scai'ce, and 3,000 
 bushels put down at Assonet in 1878, cost $300. The result, nevertheless, is often very gratifying. Mr. S. E. 
 niggins told me, that from 500 bushels of shells placed near Fall Eiver, he took up the following year 3,500 
 bushels of young oysters. The annual product, in seed, of the different town-fronts along the river, is given 
 approximately, as follows: 
 
 Busbcls. Bushels. Bushels. 
 
 Berkeley 11,000 Somerset 6,000 Assonet 13,000 
 
 DigUtou 3,000 Freetown 10,000 Fall River 8,000 
 
 Total "Somerset seed" 51.000 
 
 Putting an average value of 45 cents a bushel on this (the sales of the Somerset Oyster Company in 1879 
 netted them 42 cents), gives the sum of $22,950 as the value of the yearly crop of Taunton river seed. Of this, 
 $5,400 is paid as revenue to the towns, and the balance mainly to native assistants in dredging, tonging, and 
 transportation. The river-towns may, therefore, be said to derive about $20,000 as the annual value of theu- fisheries 
 to them, besides the oysters needed "for family use". Tliis money is widely distributed. While the law permits 
 the raking of the river during nine months of the year, it is nevertheless the fact, that the main part of the work 
 must be done in a much shorter time. As soon as the weather permits, or about April 1, the proprietors put gangs 
 of men at work, and keep at it until the end of May. The catch is nearly all contracted for before it is caught, and 
 every one is straining to fill their orders at the promised time. The water is from three to twenty feet deep, and 
 the tonging not very diflicult. The tongs used do not work by the twisting of the grain of an oaken pivot, but on 
 a brass swivel-pivot, known as the "Somerset" tongs. All, however, do not approve of the invention, averring 
 that it wears out the tongs. During the months of April and May, about 60 persons are employed in Somerset 
 ahme, and in other towns in proportion— perhaps 400 along the whole river — who, as a rule, live along the bank, and 
 often own the boats they operate — if not owned, one is hired from their employer at 25 cents a day. The catching is 
 all done by the bushel. Now from 10 to 15 cents a bushel is given, according to the scarcity of the mollusks, and a 
 smart man might make $2 a day, though the average will not exceed $1 50. Formerly wages were higher: and 
 perhaps the lowering has induced that constant effort on the part of the catchers to cheat the buyers, through false 
 measures, etc., which is so freely charged against them. 
 
 The ground is cleaned up pretty thoroughly by the time the 1st of June is reached, and in the fall little raking 
 is done, it being considered poor policy. A well-known lessee on the Freetown shore, however, thinking, at the 
 expiration of his lease a few years ago, that he would be unable to renew it, resolved selfishly to dredge his whole 
 land in the autumn, leaving as barren a ground as possible for his successor— a proceeding quite characteristic of 
 the locality. He did so, but succeeded in renewing his lease, and returned to his raking the ensuing spring ratlier 
 ruefully, expecting to find little or nothing. To his astonishment, he picked off of an area that had usually yielded 
 him 0,000 to 7,000 bushels, no lees than 12,000! Hence, he concluded that the thorough scraping had done the 
 bottom good, though where he got the spawn at that late day is a mystery. This small seed, less tlian a year old, 
 and about the size of your thumb nail, is widely distributed, going to beds on Cape Cod, in Buzzard's bay, along the 
 
46 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 southern shore, and in all parts of Narraganset. It is highly esteemed on account of its hardiness. Wonderful 
 stoiies are told of the cold and heat, drought and exposure, water too salt and water too fresh, which it has survived 
 and prospered under. There is no difficulty about selling to planters all that can be raised, and the present high 
 prices are due to the rivalry which has been brought about between buyers. The vessels which come to carry it 
 away are small sloops and schooners, of 30 or 40 tons, which carry from 300 to 1,000 bushels. None, I think, is sent 
 anywhere by rail. Starfishes, nowadays, are few in Taunton river; but the borers, Urosalpinx cinereus, are growing 
 more and more numerous and troublesome. 
 
 Culture and protection in Swansea, Massachusetts. — After leaving Taunton river, therefore, pointing 
 westward, the first point at which oysters of any commercial consequence are met with, is in Coles river, which 
 flows into Mount Hope bay, almost on the boundary between Massachusetts and lihode Island. It was known long 
 ago that oysters had inhabited this stream, and also Lee's river, near by, and immense dead shells are occasionally 
 brought to light, but it had almost been foi'gotten, until a few years ago, when there was suddenly discovered near 
 the mouth of the inlet a large bank of living oysters of fine quality. Everybody at once rushed to rake them up, 
 evading or discarding the special law enacted in 1807 for the protection of the oyster-beds in these very rivers, and 
 which I condense herewith : 
 
 Section 1. Defines the scope of the act — Cole's and Lee's rivers, town of Swansea. 
 
 Sec. 2. Penalties— fine of |5 to $50. 
 
 Sec. 3. Any householder, an inhabitant of Swansea, may take for family use two bushels a month ; but selectmen may give a written 
 permit for a larger quantity. 
 
 Sec. 4. The town of Swansea * * * shall hare the exclusive right to and control of the residue of the oyster-fisheries in Cole's river 
 and in Lee's river, within its limits, and the selectmen * * * shall have the right, from time to time, to seU to any person, at public or 
 private sale, for any term not exceeding five years, the privilege of taking oysters from their beds therein * * *, under such regulations as 
 they may in writing iiermit and designate. But at any legal meeting, called for the pur^iose, the town may, by vote, direct the limit and 
 extent to which the selectmen shall thereafter exercise the powers herein conferred. 
 
 Sec. 5. The town may recover treble damages against offenders under this act. 
 
 Sec. 6. Any deputy-sherifi', constable or selectman may arrest and detain persons found offending. 
 
 Sec. 7. Any boat or vehicle containing oysters from Cole's or Lee's river in violation of this act, may be seized awaiting regular 
 process of law (described in the context). 
 
 Sec. 8. Preserves the right to grant licenses for oyster-culture, and also Indians' rights. 
 
 The result of this onslaught was, that two or three seasons of it nearly extirpated the colony, and the few to be 
 obtained now are only got by hard effort on the part of a few professional river-men, who peddle them in the 
 neighborhood, or take them to Fall Eiver. 
 
 The extensive banks and tide-flats of this river, however, have long abounded in young oysters, which were 
 buried by the digging for clams, which is extensively carried on here, or frozen by the winter weather, so that few, 
 if any, survived, and none to speak of were gathered. Lately a large gravel-bank has been thrown up by the 
 changed currents against the pier of the railway-bridge, and the number of infant moUusks attached to the 
 pebbles here became so great as to attract the attention of Providence oystermen, who have created a demand for 
 this seed. It is therefore gathered and sold now, about 1,000 bushels, it is estimated, having been collected during 
 1879. Tills is hardy, of good shape, and produces a round and remarkably fine oyster. Some attempts have been 
 made at Cole's river to plant and rear its own oysters, and the town granted areas for this purpose, but they have 
 not been successful thus far. Litigation has resulted, in several cases, from a clashing of alleged rights, and 
 anchor-frost and starfishes, or drifting sand, have done the rest. I fear it is not a favorable locality for this purpose. 
 
 Of Lee's river there is nothing to be said. 
 
 Statistical recapitulation for Taunton and Cole's rivers: 
 
 Number of planters (not counted elsewhere) 10 
 
 Extent of producing area acres.. 13 
 
 Number of men employed (a few days in spring) 400 
 
 Value of shore property and cultch |5, 000 
 
 Number of boats employed » 250 
 
 Value of same |5, 000 
 
 Annual sales of native oysters bushels.. 52,000 
 
 Value of same $23,000 
 
 E. COASTS OF EHODE ISLAND. 
 
 18. LEGAL REGULATIONS OF EHODE ISLAND OYSTER FISHERY. 
 
 Origin and history of the oyster-law. — When the people of " The Colony of Rhode Island and the 
 Providence Plantations" felt themselves sure of future stability, they applied to the king, Charles II, to grant 
 them a charter, which he graciously did in the year 1G83. This charter was a wonderful document for those days, 
 because of the well-nigh perfect liberty it embraced, and its hospitality to every conscientious belief, whatever the 
 name of the religious banner it rallied under. Among the privileges and liberties it insisted upon was the right 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 47 
 
 of free-fisbing in every shape. The relations of the fishermen to the owners of the shores were defined with great 
 minuteness, and were calculated to make all the fish of the sea, and all the molluscous denizens of the muddy 
 tide-flats, as available as possible to every citizen. Tliereafter they were jealously preserved for public benefit. 
 In 1834-35, for instance, the first session of the assembly at East Greenwich was distinguished by an act for the 
 preservation of oysters, which the thoughtless inhabitants were burning in large quantities for lime; and, iu 
 October, 17GG, an "act for the preservation of oysters" was passed, forbidding them to be taken by drags, or 
 otherwise than by tongs, under a penalty of ten pounds. Parents and masters were held liable for the violation 
 of this law by their children or servants, and the owners of boats engaged iu evading it were subject to a double 
 fine. When (and it was not many years ago) the state constitution was adopted, no clause was so scrupulously 
 worded against possible evasion, as that which declared that in respect to the rights of fishing and of taking clams, 
 etc., everything should remain precisely as decreed in the old charter. 
 
 The oyster-law, therefore, is based upon the principle, that between high-water mark and the public highway of 
 the ship-channel, the land and water are controlled by the state as public property, to be administered for the 
 greatest good to the greatest number. Khode Islanders are extremely tenacious of these shore- and water-rights, 
 and there has been no little quarreling over some actions of the legislators and decisions of the courts with respect 
 to this subject; but, upon the whole, there has been little alteration of the original law. I condense it below, 
 including all of the emendations up to 1880 : 
 
 Abstkact of tue oyster-laws as amended up to 1880: 
 
 GENERAL STATUTES. Chapter 132.-0/ the free and common fisheries. 
 
 Section 1. Prohibits taking oysters from the "free and common fisheries ", or exposing for sale between May 15 and September 15; 
 and north of Field's point, Providence river, between May 1 and November 1. 
 
 Sec. '2. Prohibits one person taking more than 10 bushels of oysters a day; penalty, $20. 
 
 Skc. 3. Refors to qnahaugs and clams. 
 
 Sec. 4. Forbids dredges "or any other method more destructive to oyster-beds than the usual method of taking them by oyster- 
 tongs"; penalty, forfeiture of boat and all apparatus, and a fine of |300 upon every person engaged. 
 
 Sec. 5. Exempts "under-rakes" from the force of section 4. 
 
 Sec. 6. Fines any person willfully breaking up, dumping upon, or otherwise damaging any free oyster-bed ; $500 for each oflfense. 
 
 Sec. 7. Prohibits planting on any private bed oysters taken south of a line from Hill's wharf to the commissioner's monument on the 
 Seekonk shore (penalty, $20 for every bushel); "provided, however, that the planting upon private beds of young oysters found above 
 low-water mark, or fonnd adhering to the shells of oysters iit for market or present use, shall not be deemed a violation of this section." 
 
 Sec. 8. Enjoins culling, and the restoring to the bed of the shells and all small oysters unfit for market. 
 
 Sec. 9. Forbids raking at night. 
 
 Sec. 10. "No person not a citizen of this state shall be allowed to fish for oysters or other shellfish within the waters of this state." 
 
 Sec 11. Gives the shellfish-commissioners the right to "buoy off", i. e., seclude any bed from being raked, when they think it is 
 becoming exhausted, until it has again become sufficiently productive. They may also "buoy" any new beds discovered. 
 
 Sec 12. Enjoins ijroper publication of the placing and removal of buoys. 
 
 Sec 13. Prohibits the raking of "buoyed" beds or tampering with the buoys. 
 
 Sec 14. The penalties for violation of sections 8, 9, 10, and 13 are : flue of ^20 for each offense, and forfeiture of boat and all apparatus. 
 
 Sec 15. Persons convicted of a second offense against the oyster-laws forfeit their right to fish for three years thereafter. 
 
 Sec 16. Establishes Quicksand pond, in Little Comptou, Point Judith ponds, and all the Charlestown ponds, except Powaget, as 
 free-fishei ies. 
 
 Sec 17. Enforces the regulation concerning close season (see section 1). 
 
 Sec. 18. Repeals all previous laws inconsistent with these amendments. 
 
 Chapter 133. — Of private and sereral fisheries. 
 
 Section 1. Provides for the election of three state commissioners of shellfisheries, by the legislature, who shall hold office for five 
 years. [Previous to 1864 there had been one and sometimes two commissioners, serving without pay.] 
 
 Sec 2. These commissioners may lease, by public auction or otherwise, to any inhabitant of the state, any land "covered by tide- 
 water at low tide and not within any harbor line, to be used as a private and several oyster-fishery for the planting and cultivation of 
 oysters thereon ", upon such terms aud conditions as they may deem proper, but not for more than ten nor less than five years, at $10 a 
 year rent for every acre leased, " and not leasing more than one acre in one lot or parcel to one person or firm ". 
 
 [Strict adherence to this last clause is avoided by common consent, most of the leasing being done, when there is no opposition, in 
 lots of several acres. The commissioners evade the technical obstacle by writing, "This land is leased in parcels of one acre each, but 
 included in one lease for convenience ". ] 
 
 Sec 3. Gives the commissioners power to modify and cancel leases or to remit rent. 
 
 Sec. 4. Forbids the letting of "any land north of a line extending across Providence river from the south side of Hill's wharf, to a 
 freestone monument at Lyon's point in East Providence, or letting any of the ponds in Little Compton, South Kingston, Tiverton, Charlestown, 
 New Shoreham, or Westerly, or letting Long bed. Rock island bed, Muscle island bed, or Long Neck flats, in Providence river." 
 
 Sec. 5. Enjoins publication of applications for leases. 
 
 Sec 6. Gives the commissioners power to compel the attendance of witnesses, etc. 
 
 Sec 7. Persons aggrieved may appeal from the commissioners to the court of common pleas. 
 
 Secs. 8, 9, 10. Define appeal-proceedings, proceedings and judgment in appellate court, and proper execution of leases. 
 
 Sec 11. Requires the commissioners, before granting a lease, to have the laud surveyed and platted ; to cause proper bounds to be set 
 up on the shore in order to define the limits of the leased .area; to see that such land is inclosed with stakes or buoys not more than two 
 rods apart (when not interfering with navigation); and to have the plats of all the leases bound in a book. 
 
 Sec 12. The expenses inenrrcd uuiler section 11 must be borne by the lessee, aud the commissioners shall receive from the applicant 
 their necessary expenses in supervising, and $1 50 a day for actual service. 
 
48 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Sec. 13. Peualties of §20 fine and double damages ensuing for tampering with boundaries of oyster-grounds. 
 
 Sec. 14. "The oysters planted or growing in any private oyster-gronud leased as aforesaid shall, during the continuance of the lease, 
 be the private iiersoual property of the lessee of such oyster-ground ; and the taking and carrying away thereof » » » shall be larceny 
 * * * and shall be punished accordingly ; and, in addition to the penalty prescribed by law for larceny, the person convicted shall 
 forfeit his boat » » * and all the implements used in the commission of said otfense." lu addition to this the owner of the oysters 
 stolen has a private action for damages against the thief. 
 
 Sec. 15. Requires the commissioners to see that the terms of the leases are properly fulfilled and rents punctually paid ; in case of 
 failure they must terminate the leases. 
 
 Sec. 16. Enables them to proceed against delinquent lessees. 
 
 Sec. 17. "The commissioners may take possession of any lot leased upon which the rent or assessment shall not have been paid, and 
 may dispose of such lot, with all of the oysters thereon, by public auction, to the highest bidder, upon giving one week's notice * * * in 
 some newspaper printed in Providence." 
 
 Sec. 18. Prohibits lishing at night, under penalty of lj20 fine and forfeiture of boat and apparatus. 
 
 Sec. ly. "Any person who shall wrongfully take and carry away oysters from a private oyster-bed shall, for the first offense, be fined 
 §50, and for any subsequent offense shall be fined |100 and bo imx^risoned for six mouths." 
 
 Sec. 20. Willful iujury to any private oyster-bed or to auy laud leased for oyster-culture, subjects to a fine of §500 and confiscation of 
 all apparatus involved. 
 
 Sec. "21. Deprives of the privilege of fishing for three years, in addition to the other penalties, upon second conviction for offences 
 under this chapter. 
 
 Sec. 22. Forbids taking more than two bushels of oysters a day from Trustan pond, South Kingston. 
 
 Sec. 23. Makes each of the commissioners a special constable to enforce the law and seize the property of those violating it, and 
 similarly empowers all iiolice constables. 
 
 Sec. 24. Declares that nothing is intended in the oyster-laws to "prevent any citizen of the state from digging clams or quahaugs 
 on the shores of the public waters ". 
 
 Form of lease of grol'ND for oyster-cultltre. — The form of lease by wliicli grouud for oyster-culture 
 is conveyed by the state of Ehode Island, to lessees, is appended herewith : 
 
 No. . 
 
 This indenture, of two parts, made and entered into on this day of , in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred 
 
 and seventy , by and between the state of Ehode Island and Providence Plantations, on the one part, and , in said 
 
 state, of the other part, witnesseth : 
 
 That the said state doth hereby lease, demise, and let unto the said ^ a certain piece of land in , lying and being 
 
 and covered with tide-water, containing about acre- , and bounded and described as follows, to wit: 
 
 To Iiave and to hold to the said , executors, administrators, and assigns, to their use as a xjrivate or several 
 
 oyster-fishery, for the planting and producing of oysters, for and during the term of ten years from the day of the date hereof, on the 
 terms and conditions (among others) that the said lessee-, executors, or administrators, shall pay therefor to the general treasurer of said 
 
 state, during the said term, the yearly rent per acre of dollars, in manner hereinafter jirovided. And the said state doth hereby 
 
 covenant with the said lessee-, executors, admiuistrators, and assigns, that they may and shall occupy the premises hereby leased during 
 the term aforesaid, peaceably and quietly, and free from all lawful claim and demand of all persons whomsoever, other than as 
 
 hereinbefore or hereinafter set forth: the said lessee for , executors, administrators, and assigns (with a reservation of his 
 
 right to claim remission or abatement, as by law provided), doth covenant with said state, that will pay to the general treasurer, for 
 
 the use of said state, the sum of dollars, on the first day of January in each year during the term aforesaid. 
 
 Furthermore : This lease is made and accepted, subject to the provisions of existing laws relating to oyster-fisheries, and to a reserved 
 right of the state to amend said laws as it shall deem expedient (reference to the same being here made) ; and also, suhject to the further 
 conditions followiug, to wit : First. That he shall at all times erect, place, or renew the bounds, stakes, or buoys, with marks thereon, for 
 defining the premises, as and -when required by the commissioners. Second. That he shall pay all expenses of surveys of lots, and 
 renewing stakes or bounds, and rent, to the general treasurer, as aforesaid. Third. That he shall not underlet or assign the premises to 
 any person whomsoever, without the assent, iu writing, of the commissioners. Fourth. That he will not knowingly or willfully violate 
 auy iirovision of the laws at any time in force relating to the oyster-grounds or oyster-fisheries within the state ; and Fifth. That, in the 
 event he shall refuse or neglect to comply with or conform to these conditions, or any or either of them, the said commissioners may, on 
 the part of said state, re-enter upon said leased premises and terminate the lease, and declare the same forfeited, and dispose of the lessee's 
 interest iu tlie said land, together with all the oysters thereon, at iniblie auction, to the highest bidder, upon giving one week's notice of 
 such sale in some newspaper printed iu the city of Providence ; and the lessee-, executors, admiuistrators, or assigns, shall be holden to pay 
 all damage that shall thereby be sustained by said state. 
 
 In witness whereof, the commissioners of shellfisheries hereunto subscribe the name of said state, and set their names and seals as 
 
 commissioners, and the said lessee- hereunto sets hand- and seal- the day and year aforewritten. 
 
 The State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, 
 
 By . [L. s.] 
 
 Commissioner of Shelljislieries, 
 
 Signed, sealed, and delivered in presence of- 
 
 . [L. s.] 
 
 . [L. s.] 
 
 Assistant Commissioners of SheUJisherics. 
 
 Statistics op Rhode Island shellfisheries in 18G0 and 1865.— This general statute, in substantially 
 its present shape, came into force in 1864. Previous to that time the state had let oyster-grounds at $1 rent per 
 acre, and not much business was done. The condition of the shellfisheries in 1865 is exhibited in the following 
 table, extracted from the census report for that year. 
 
 Iu 1861 the Ehode Island Society for the Encouragement of Domestic Industry stated, that while the 
 continental shore-line of Ilhode Island is only 45 miles, it has 320 miles of shore washed by the tides. Five out of 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 
 
 49 
 
 the 32 towns that compose the state are situated on islands. The bays embraced within the state, and the extensive 
 salt ponds near the southern coast, abound with shelltish. 
 
 To ascertain the extent and value of these fisheries, the society made great exertions, but without success, at 
 the time of the general census of ISGO. A statement, nevertheless, exists in the report of 18G0, that the oysters of 
 Rhode Island were valued at $382,170, out of a total of about $0,000,000 for all the fisheries, excluding whales. In 
 18C5, this point was made a special feature, and much fuller information was gathered. "These statistics," says 
 the report of the general assembly's committee, "must, from the nature of the case, depend to some extent upon 
 estimates. For example, the clams on the shores are free to all the inhabitants of the state who choose to dig 
 them. Persons come to the shores from all quarters, and often from distances of several miles, and dig as many 
 clams as they choose to eat or carry home. Nothing is exactly known of the quantities thus removed. The only 
 estimates which coidd be made were from the opinions of the owners of shore-farms." 
 
 I give below the table of the product of the shellhsheries, by towns, presented by the committee in 1865 : 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Bushels of 
 clams. 
 
 Bushels of 
 quahangs. 
 
 Bushels of 
 scallojjs. 
 
 Bnshols of 
 oysters. 
 
 Total value 
 
 of all sheU- 
 
 fish. 
 
 Barrington - 
 
 962 
 
 200 
 1,215 
 1,415 
 9,127 
 
 1G2 
 
 467 
 
 
 
 12,313 
 
 Bristol 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 339 
 
 2,953 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,635 
 1,627 
 
 13 
 242 
 
 6,313 
 13,949 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 119 
 
 (Lobsters.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,200 
 1,C80 
 4 331 
 
 
 
 
 4,200 
 
 
 7,715 
 676 
 200 
 
 3,405 
 404 
 200 
 
 6,740 
 267 
 
 145 
 55 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 
 Cranston 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 Sast Providence 
 
 830 
 2,906 
 
 
 12, 100 
 
 50, 450 
 
 1,812 
 
 19, 662 
 54 122 
 
 
 3 
 
 Charlestown .- 
 
 1 515 
 
 
 1,480 
 
 870 
 18 
 
 6.791 
 3,345 
 
 Soutli Kingston 
 
 * 3, 070 
 7 
 
 Westerly 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 31, 097 
 
 9,241 
 
 9,653 
 
 71, 894 
 
 118, 655 
 
 
 Opposition to existing legislation. — Although the amounts in the above table ought to have been doubled 
 to rejiresent the truth in each case, on the average, yet they show that when the new law, putting a rent of $10 
 an acre and organizing the oyster-interest under careful control by the state, went into operation, the whole value 
 of the industry was very small, com^jared with the present. Since the passage of this statute the oyster-interest has 
 steadily grown in importance. 
 
 Nevertheless, there has always been more or less grumbling on the part of the owners of leases, who pleaded that 
 they are paying an exorbitant rent. The general financial depression of 1873-'76 heightened this discontent, and 
 in the winter of 1878-'79 it came to the surface in a contest before the legislature, which brought up several mooted 
 points. The great bone of contention was the construction put by the commissioners iqion who were suitable 
 persons to receive leases. It was notorious that many Boston dealers planted oysters and operated business 
 generally in Narraganset bay, upon ground leased in the name of some " inhabitant of the statu", who might or 
 might not act as their agent at the scene of operations. This practice was deemed by many native fishermen an 
 infringement of law, and an injury to them. They, therefore, endeavored to procure the passage of a bill through 
 the legislatm-e, making it a misdemeanor for any lessee of oyster-beds to be interested with any person not a resident 
 in the state, with a penalty of $100 and a cancellation of the lease, for such "interested" connection. 
 
 The su])porters of this bill averred that its object was to secure to the citizens of Ehode Island the right to supply 
 the demand for oj'Sters grown and cultivated in waters of this state, and to induce the capital invested in that 
 business to be located here, where it and the profits accruing might be subject to taxation, and thus made to help 
 pay the revenues of the state* beyond the mere rent money of the ground. It was claimed that it was not intended 
 as a restraint upon trade; did not imply that no lessee might borrow capital from outside the state, or might not 
 contract to sell his oysters outside; and, also, that it was not with the intent to create a monopoly. 
 
 The op])ositiou to this bill was strong, and was put in tangible shape by the .application of Mr. George N. Bliss, 
 an ex-commissioner of shelUisheries, for lease of ground in Providence river, in his name, as a partner in a Boston 
 firm. A hard fight before th# general assembly and before the commissioners resulted. Those opposing him 
 
 • I am of the opiuion that the capital from other states invested in oysters in Rhode Island is between $200,000 and $250,000. 
 4 O 
 
50 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 stated that the superior capital of outsiders was securing all the ground that was good for auything, aud was thus 
 keeping away citizens who wanted to plant on a small scale in their home-waters ; moreover, that the great firms 
 could afford to undersell individual i^lanters because of their large facilities and production, and worse than that, 
 that they brought oysters of poor grade, already opened, from Norfolk, mixed them with Providence river oysters, 
 and so lowered the price and hurt the reputation of the honest native dealers. 
 
 In reply, Mr. Bliss said that the law which was then before the legislature was unconstitutional, and if passed 
 it would be impossible to enforce it. The state could not dictate whose money, or where obtained, a man should use 
 in his business. The oysters within the state were taxable, and therefore Boston owners paid their proportionate 
 revenue. Nor could the state say what a licensee shall do with his oysters, to whom or where he shall or shall not 
 sell them. As to the scarcity of land, that had been the cry for ten years, yet the state was leasing from one to 
 two hundred additional acres of ground every year, aud there would be more and more leased for years to come. 
 Instead of harm, there was a positive benefit arising from the introduction of foreign capital, since there was not 
 money and enterprise enough within the state to successfully keep it out by fair preoccupation of all opportunities. 
 The more beds leased, the larger the number of oysters produced and the cheaper. The Rhode Island market, he 
 stated, takes only one-tenth of the oysters grown in the state. The remaining nine-tenths are sold outside. The 
 price of oysters in the Providence market has decreased each year since 18G6, when the price was $1 75 per 
 solid gallon, to 187S, when it was from $1 15 to $1 20, and to 1879, when it was only 90 to 95 cents. It appeared, 
 therefore, that year by year oysters were increasing in quantity aud lessening in price. This was the result of good 
 legislation; and so long as it continued, the state was bound to consider the present regulations proper and foster 
 them. If the effects had been as terrible upon the resident oystermen as had been predicted, they would have been 
 driven from the field long ago; but there is not one of them who is not still in business aud annually enlarging 
 his planting area. The state could not legislate for the aggrandizement of these few owners, but must study the 
 general benefit of the whole commonwealth. 
 
 The result of the fight was that the bill failed to become a law, and Mr. Bliss secured his new leases. 
 
 A DEFENSE OP EXISTING LEGISLATION. — The abovc sketch partly answers the question, whether the law is 
 equally wise in charging $10 an acre. From a careful study of the case, I, myself, believe that it is. The report of 
 the commissioners of shellfisheries for 1878, reviewing the iire\ious twenty years, proves this quite satisfactorily. It 
 is admitted that at $5 an acre, for instance, the state would not have received so much money. 
 
 In 1857 the revenue from oyster-rents was only $30. In 1858, when there was a commissioner to look after it, 
 $685 22. From 1859 to 18G1, there appears no mention of oyster rents in the state treasurer's reports. I believe all 
 dues were remitted on account of the universal destruction of oysters by starfishes at this time. In 18G2, there were 
 collected $82 ; 1SG3, $G0 ; 1801:, $61. Then came the present law charging $10 an acre, and the net proceeds of 
 oyster- rents to the state at once advanced, as follows : 
 
 1865 I 737 72 
 
 1666 661 27 
 
 1867 1,568 50 
 
 1868 1,814 40 
 
 1869 1,949 15 
 
 1870 1,527 65 
 
 1871 2,186 63 
 
 1872 $2,772 95 
 
 1873 4, 483 88 
 
 1874 4,997 05 
 
 1875 5,276 00 
 
 1876 5,300 00 
 
 1877 6, 045 25 
 
 1878 6,582 90 
 
 This shows that, in spite of a rent of $10 an acre, in spite of the fact of lively competition with Boston capital, 
 in spite of the fact of the general financial depression just passed, and in spite of the steady decrease in the selling 
 prices of all grades of oysters, the revenue to the state has steadily grown, and new leases are continually applied 
 for. It is, moreover, an admitted fact, that assignments of oyster-ground are continually taking place, at a bonus 
 of from $75 to $200 an acre. If the state is to make any alteration in this state of affairs, she would do better to 
 advance than to reduce the rent upon productive ground. 
 
 " But," say tlie dissatisfied ones, " we can never be sure that a piece of ground will be suitable for oyster-gi'owth 
 until we have tried it. If we take out, say ten acres, as an experiment, and i)erhaps are not able to plant it that 
 year, or try it for two or three years, and then find that it won't do, we suffer a heavy loss, paying several hundred 
 dollars upon useless ground." 
 
 The reply is, that meu constantly do find it worth while to take the risk, even at $10. One person I know of, has 
 applied for 100 acres, beyond any territory heretofore thought suitable ; and that in case they fail, or show that 
 they have not been able to begin to use certain land as soon as they expected, the commissioners may, aud often 
 do, remit a part or the whole of the rent. This very year rent was remitted upon 47 acres belonging to one person. 
 However, in their report for 1878, the commissioners referred to this alleged grievance as follows: 
 
 At the present time nearly all the oysters gro^vn on private beds are imported from Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Tort, and 
 Virginia, and although oysters spawn here freely, it is only at rare intervals that there is what the oystermen call a set, when the spawn 
 attaches itself abundantly to sticks, stones, shells, and other substances, and grows to mature oysters. If, in some way, we conid stop 
 this great waste of spawn, so that it might produce oysters, an incalculable increase in our oyster-business would naturally follow. In 
 Connecticut the oystermen throw into the water immense ciuantities of oyster-shells at the exact time of oyster-spawning, and are thus 
 very successful, as the spawn readily attaches itself to clean, bright shells. The holders of oyster-beds here say that they would try 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 51 
 
 similar experiments, but they cannot afford to pay $10 an acre annual rent for such a purpose, especially as several years must elapse 
 before tlu-y would get returus, eveu if successful, and that the Connecticut men have the advantage of paying only §1 annual rent for 
 each acre. 
 
 Under the present law the commissioners are not allowed to lease land for less than f 10 annual rent for each acre, and wo respectfully 
 suggest that the general assembly inquire into the expediency of granting more favorable terms to persons who may wish to experiment, 
 •with a view of making productive our annual crop of oyster-spawn. 
 
 It is probably unnecessary to say anything further with respect to the law, unless it be to state, that although 
 not required by any express provisions of the statutes, the commissioners have always held themselves ready to 
 attend to the prosecution of ofleuders against the oyster-laws, whenever reasonable evidence has been pre.sented to 
 them, and have prosecuted many oflenders, without charge for legal sei'vices. "It is evident," they reported, "that 
 there have been combiuatiou.s for the purpose of stealing from these beds, which is done in the night-time by men 
 in row-boats, with watchmen ready to give alarm at the approach of danger, and thus, in many instances, they are 
 able to escape detection." The arrest and conviction of several put a strong check upon these thieves, who stole 
 the oysters and then inflicted additional injury upon the bed-holders, by underselling them in the markets. 
 
 19. THE PLAS^TING-GEOUNDS OF NAERAGANSET BAY. 
 
 The east side of Narraganset bay. — Tradition says that oysters used to grow in Mount Hope bay proper, 
 below the month of the Taunton river; but I could get little trustworthy testimony on this point. Beyond that, 
 on the eastern side, 1 could not learn of any oyster-beds, ancient or modern, until I reached Newport, where now 
 none are growing or planted (the city deriving all its supplies from Providence), but where, in some of the larger 
 salt water ponds, they formerly existed in considerable quantities. They were described to me as a large, round, 
 scalloped oyster, quite different from those ancientlj' found in the pond on Block island, which were said to be long, 
 slender, and very good. It is probable that a careful survey of ponds and inlets along the eastern bank of the 
 Scoconet river, and around Scocouet point, would disclose the remains of many extinct beds, and perhaps some 
 living colonies of oysters. The same may be said of Newport neck and Couauicut island. 
 
 The Kickamuit river is an inlet of Narraganset bay, at the extreme eastern boundary of the state, which has 
 an entrance only a stone's thi'ow in width, but expands interiorly into a bay about three miles long and one wide, 
 the narrow upper portion of which is called Palmer's river. The water is shallow, of course, and the bottom of a 
 very varied character. Forty-one acres have been leased, distributed among eight planters. Native oysters grew 
 there of good size and quality, and some are got yet, but the chief value of the ground is for planting; and as yet 
 the experiment is too slight to afford much judgment. There seems good reason to expect success, since it used to 
 be a famous place for "set". The bottom is also said to be full of fresh springs, which is highly in its advantage. 
 
 Westward of the Kickamuit river are "Warren, Barringtou, and Palmer rivers, joining in an inlet of Providence 
 river. In these three sti-eams is leased a total of 173 acres, distributed among thirteen proprietors, some dujjlicating 
 Kickamuit, Drownville, Providence, and Boston names. The shell-heaps strewn upon the knolls along all four of 
 these rivers, show that the succulent bivalves have lived in their waters since time immemorial. Occasionally the 
 natural oysters are still to be found; and that twenty years ago many remained, is shown by the fact that in ISGO 
 an extraordinarily large number of infant oysters "set" on the shores. These native oysters were very large and 
 long and slender. Their shells were not usually very heavy, and they were held in high esteem. At present there 
 are none to be had of marketable size, and there are not enough young ones to be found in these rivers to amount 
 to anything. Nevertheless the Warren and the Barrington are among the best places in Rhode Island, apparently, for 
 oyster-culture. The water is wonderfully pure, sparkling, and salt, and flows in and out with a swift tide. The 
 bottom is very hard, as a rule, and in places rocky. This fact makes the oysters there come to have a round outline, 
 and a firmer, better substance within, though they do not grow so fast as they would lying u])on mud. 
 
 A score of years ago planting was begun above the road and railway bridges, in Barringtou river, and among 
 the first leases taken out was one for the acre or two of " quick-water" between the bridges ; but it is only within two 
 or three ye;irs that operations have been extended below this part into the main river, where the water is salt, and 
 ranges in depth from 9 to IS feet, over a hard bottom. 
 
 The Virginia oysters bedded here do very well, indeed. They are handled mainly by one planter. His plan is 
 to lay 75 bushels on an area 50 feet square, distributing them by shoveling overboard ft-om the large crafts known 
 as "planting-boats". Ten men, the usual number engaged on a single cargo, will thus unload and put upon the 
 beds from 2,000 to 2,500 bushels a day. The Virginia oysters cost, put down, about 35 cents a bushel. On good 
 ground tlie growth is gratifying, although about one-fourth of the original number put down are expected to peiish. 
 The large amount of cultch spread upon this gentleman's territory, had thus far yielded him no return of consequence, 
 since he had planted with it only a few natives. On the contrary, another prominent lessee in Warren river, gave 
 his whole attention to rearing native oysters, and paid no attention at all to "Chesapeakes". He procures his 
 seed, like all the rest of the. dealers, from Somerset, Wareham, Pocasset, etc., but mainly from the Connecticut 
 shore. Formerly he got it much cheaper, but now it costs him from 50 to 70 cents a bushel. The several hundred 
 bushels he put down three years ago lived well, and he now considers them trebled in value. He has adopted the 
 
p. 9 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 plan of uot planting until June. " When the weather gets warm," he says, " the slime rises from the sand and rocks 
 on the bottom of the river and floats away. There remains a clean bottom, and I wait to take advantage of this 
 most favorable condition of things for my young oysters, who will have a hard enough time, under any circumstances, 
 to live through it." Being fortunate enough to have a tract where the swift tide never permits serious freezing, he 
 is able to wait until all his competitors are frozeu up, when he can sell his easily accessible stock at a large 
 advance upon the ordinary pricje, which averages about a dollar a bushel. 
 
 Eumstick point jiits out from the southern end of Itumstick neck, a peninsula dividing the Warren river from 
 the waters of Providence river. It is the site of a dangerous shoal, and the bottom is hard and iu places rocky. 
 There is only one owner of ground there, who leases 12 acres, but it is probable that a hundred acres more will be 
 let there during 18S0. 
 
 Providence rivee and the west side of the bay. — Proceeding now up the eastern shore of Providence 
 river, at Nayat point (which stands opposite Canimicut, and marks the real mouth of the river on this side), 46 
 acres are now planted by a Providence firm. The beds are north of the iioiut, ou the sandy bottom around Allen's 
 ledge. 
 
 The next point above this is Drownville, where the oyster-bottom is owned bj' three men, who divide 25 acres. 
 Many other dealers, however, make Drownville their opening and shipping point, among them, several P>oston firms 
 having large opening-houses and shipiMng extensively. So many citizens, not less than 125, are given employment, 
 therefore, in the winter, that the remark of one was justified: "Drownville would evaporate if it were uot for the 
 oysters." The starfishes and periwinkles have been troubling the Drownville planters of late more than elsewhere. 
 
 Beaching back into the country north of Drownville, and protected from the outer bay by Bullock's point, is 
 Bullock's cove, a shallow estuary, by many regarded as the very best place to plant oysters in the whole state. It 
 is certain that, uniformly, the best oysters now put into the market come from this immediate neighborhood. The 
 only reason I have heard assigned is, that the bottom has many springs in it, supplying constant fresh water. 
 In Bullock's cove 13 acres are taken up by two men; but the ground at Bullock's point (239 acres) is held by 12 
 lessees. 
 
 At Sabine's point, just above, there is only one owner, whose tract of 64 acres lies in a crescent between the 
 light-house and the point. Just north, a single acre is let at Pomham rocks; and beyond, at Fuller's rocks, i) acres 
 are divided among four persons. This brings us to Field's point, on the western side, the northern limit of oyster- 
 culture, and a scene of considerable operations, 23 acres being iinder lease to 9 persons. South of Field's point the 
 river widens suddenly, but the channel hugs the opposite (eastern) shore, leaving extensive shallows all along the 
 western shore. Southward from Field's point to Starvegoat island (familiarly condensed into Stargut island) runs 
 a reef which is pretty nearly dry everywhere at lowest tide. This reef was among the earliest tracts taken up by 
 the veteran oysterman, Robert Pettis. When, about 1861, the starfishes were depopulating the beds all over the bay, 
 he alone was so situated that he could get at them at low tide and destroy them, and his good luck was the occasion 
 of groat profit to him. At Starvegoat island the beds now operated are 27 acres iu extent. 
 
 There were formerlj- natural oysters growing abundantly all over this part of the river ; but the main deposit 
 was just south of Starvegoat island, in the center of the tract of 160 acres, now known to oystermen as Great Bed. 
 This in old times was the great scene of oyster-raking, and it is more than thirty years since these beds were wholly 
 exhausted. Once in a while, then, they used to get a few enormous specimens from there, and peddle them about 
 town at 10, 15, and 20 cents each; but even these disappeared long ago. The owners on this bed are no less than 
 21 in number, and at Patuxent 63 acres more are taken up by five men. 
 
 At Gasi)e point, 10 acres, and at Canimicut point, 60 acres, both being in a little salter and deeper water than 
 any of the rest, complete the list of plantations, except one acre in Wickford harbor and another at Westerly. 
 
 In former years beds grew naturally clear up to the city of Providence, and oysters were even found in the 
 "Cove", that pretty circle of water near the railway station, the banks of which have been converted into a park. 
 Now, however, any leasing of ground north of Field's and Kettle points is impracticable and prohibited, because 
 of the large amount of impurities thrown into the water by the city's drainage. The few beds up there — Long bed, 
 West bed, Diamond bed, etc. — have, therefore, now been abandoned, and are not counted, though a few leases have 
 not quite yet expired. 
 
 At its January session, in 1878, the Ehode Island general assembly passed a resolution enjoining the 
 commissioners to visit the Great Salt pond (also known as Powaget pond), in Charlestown. It lies on the southern 
 border of the state, and communicates with the open ocean by a narrow inlet, which frequently becomes closed by 
 the shifting of the sand in the autumnal storms. In this pond the spawn of the oyster sets abundantly each year, 
 and grows rapidly until the closing of the breach connecting the pond with the ocean cuts off the daily supply of 
 salt water, which causes the oysters to die in immense quantities. If a permanent connection of this pond with the 
 ocean could be secured, the natural oysters, which are of excellent quality, could be grown with great success, and 
 large quantities of seed-oystei's could be obtained for stocking the oyster-beds of Narraganset bay. 
 
 Such was the report of the examining committee, and such is the opinion of the people generally. Accordingly, 
 the legislature appropriated $1,500 to defray the expense of constructing a sort of riprap wall, in such a way that 
 the currents and waves should help to keep the breach open, instead of closing it, and so maintain a constant influx 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 53 
 
 and efflux of sea- water. This work is not yet completed and tested. If it should succeed, a large, new territory 
 will be added to the oyster-grounds of the state. 
 
 Pawcatuck rivkr.— The Pawcatuck river divides the state of Connecticut from Rhode Island, and is snhjoct 
 to tides as far up as Westerly, at least. From a mile below Westerly to its mouth it is inhabited by oysters, though 
 of poor quality, and hence of small commercial importance. These are of two sorts : one kind, the "rock -oyster", 
 attaches itself to the rocks along the shores and in the bottom of the stream, and grows singly to a good size ; the 
 other, called the "bed-oyster", grows iu dense clusters, in crowded beds, and is of very small size; it is rarely 
 brought to market, and is considered by the fishermen worthless to transplant, on account of the clustered condition. 
 Sufficient painstaking in the matter would, of course, overcome this objection. For some years tlie oysters of 
 all kinds iu this river have been affected by a disease which interferes with their sale, because, whether for good 
 reason or not, they are sup])osed to be unwholesome. The disease was described to me as producing little "boils" 
 on the body, inside the mantle, as near as 1 could understand. It appeared first as a greenish spot, then became 
 yellow, and finally turned into a black, rotten pustule. Various causes are assigned, but none are satisfactory. Dry 
 seasons, like the present, seem to auguieut the disease, which is i)erhaps a fungoid growth that finally "eats out a 
 hole", as the fishermen say, and it is not essentially different from the " greenness" of Somerset and Seekonk oysters. 
 
 A large set occurs regularly in this river, but iu some years to a greater extent than iu others. Three years 
 ago was said to be an exceedingly productive year. Young oysters were found upon everything all through the 
 river, and upon some rocky points down toward the mouth, they were said to have been seen lying on the shore 
 "in windrows a foot deep"; this is an exagg^jration, no doubt, but gives evidence that there was a vast quantity. 
 This was immediately following a dredging-oat of the channel. Nothing of any account was done toward saving 
 them to stock beds anywhere. Pawcatuck river is not considered suitable for oyster-bedding to any extent, unless 
 the ground should first be prepared by paving the mud and killing out the eel-grass. There are many impurities 
 in the water, also, arising from drainage and the waste of many mills, print-works, and other mauufactories. In 
 Ward's pond, on the contrary, a sheet of water aflected by the tides, which lies four miles east of Westerlj', is found 
 a most excellent place for oysters, wild and cultivated, but the people who inhabit the shores do little themselves, 
 and object to attempts on the part of outsiders. This ])ond contains between one and two hundred acres, and is 
 nearly everywhere gravelly or sandy on the bottom, with considerable fresh water flowing in. I was told that 
 nowhere in this whole region did oysters grow so fast, and acquire so fine a relish, as here, but not having inspected 
 the pond myself, I cannot corroborate these glowing reports by personal observations. 
 
 Area op pre-empted oyster- grounds in Rhode Island. — To recapitulate, I append a list of localities 
 where oyster-ground is let in Rhode Island, and the areas in 1879 : 
 
 Locality. Acres. Locality. Acres. Locality. Acres. 
 
 Kickmmiit river 35 Sabine point 64 C.animiciit point 60 
 
 Palmer's river 5 Pomham rock 1 Wickford harbor 1 
 
 Warrenriver 141 Fuller's rocks 9 Ward's pond, Westerly 1 
 
 Barrington river 27 Field's point 23 
 
 Kunistick point 12 Starvegoat island 27 Total number of acres 962 
 
 Nayat point 46 Great Bed 160 
 
 Drownville 25 Pawtuxet 63 Number of lessees 56 
 
 Bullock's cove 13 Gasp6 point 10 Average tract acres.. 17.2 
 
 Bullock's point 239 
 
 Future of the shellfish-industry in Rhode Island. — To the question : " Is all the suitable ground 
 in Narraganset bay taken up " ? the oystermen almost always reply : " Yes". But they have been doing so for years 
 and years, yet from 100 to 300 acres have been added to the leased area every year, and applications for more are 
 now in. Below Canimicut point is an extensive basin, with plenty of hard bottom, entirely unoccupied, owing to 
 the depth of the water, which, however, over large tracts, is no deeper than is planted in Connecticut. The same 
 is true of Greenwich bay, where one man assured me a thousand acres would some day come under oyster-cultivation. 
 Not much experimenting has been done in either of these districts as yet, however, the cost of leases and the active 
 opposition of the scallop-interest deterring. It may be said, in general, that land enough unoccupied remains in 
 Rhode Island to give scope to all the capital likely to be invested there for many years to come. It has been asserted 
 more than once by the commissioners, that the revenue from her shellflsheries ought to, and in time will, pay all the 
 expenses of the state. 
 
 20. SOUTHERN OYSTERS: TRANSPLANTING AND TRADE. 
 
 Bedding Virginia oysters.— Thus far the bedding and fattening of Virginia oysters, mainly to be sold 
 opened, has been the most profitable branch of the business. Of these oysters about 500,000 bushels are laid down 
 annually, at present. The vessels employed in bringing them are mainly owned on Cape Cod, and have already 
 been named. None, so far as I could learn, hail from Rhode Island ports. The freight is about 15 cents a bushel, 
 in the fall and winter, falling to 12 and 10 cents in the spring, when quicker voyages for planting purposes 
 can be made. What part of the Chesapeake bay furnishes the best oyster for these waters is a question that has 
 received much attention. One gentleman told me that he had lost the whole of two years' labor, by trying to put down 
 
54 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 cargoes from the Rappahannock. Another planter, equally experienced, said these succeeded well enough if 
 brought here and planted before the weather became at all warm. Oysters from the St. Mary and Potomac rivers 
 are troublesome, because mixed with many obnoxious mussels, and, besides, they do not grow well, as a rule. 
 Those from Tangier sound are pretty good, and are largely bought. The general verdict, however, is, that the best 
 Virginia oyster for this bay is to be had in the James I'iver. These show the largest growth at the end of the 
 season, developing a hard, lliuty shell and white meats ; on the contrary, I was told that at New Haven, Connecticut, 
 the James river oysters cannot be used at all. But many cargoes are jjlanted here, the exact southern home of 
 which is never known. 
 
 The laying down of southern oysters must all be done early in the spring. If they would only survive the 
 voyage as late as June, Mr. Bourne thought that month would be the best time to plant them. When I suggested 
 the use of steamers to expedite the transfer, he said it would not help matters, for the jarring of the cargo, caused 
 by the throb of the engine, would kill the moUusks; he did not even allow any wood to be split on his oyster- vessels, 
 for fear of this species of damage. Of the half a million bushels bedded in Ehode Island yearly, about half are 
 owned in Boston. 
 
 Trade in Norfolk opened oysters. — During the winter of 1878-'79, the Norfolk opened oysters were 
 brought to Providence in large quantities, by several dealers. The followiug is a statement of shipments, 
 furnished by the steamship company : 
 
 Oyatera shipped from Norfolk to Providence, Rhode Island, via Merchants^ and Miners' Transportation Company, during 1878 and 1879. 
 
 Month. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 
 261 
 
 1,727 
 103 
 
 1,983 
 
 3,210 
 
 2,262 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 April 
 
 
 
 1,742 
 36 
 
 May 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 347 
 802 
 353 
 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 153 
 1,737 
 
 1 930 
 
 
 
 3,923 
 
 
 1,362 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,623 
 
 3,342 
 
 9,348 
 
 8,651 
 
 The result of this experiment was so unsatisfactory, however, that the importation of this opened "barrel- 
 stock" has been almost wholly abandoned. What now comes (so it is darkly hinted) is chiefly used to adulterate 
 genuine " Providence rivers". 
 
 21. NATIVE AND SEED-OYSTERS. 
 
 Dearth op young oysters in Rhode Island. — The fattening of Virginia oysters is only half the business, 
 though, perhaps, the most profitable part, in Rhode Island. A vast number of "native" oysters are raised in 
 Narraganset bay, though but a portion of them are born there. There are only a few places in the bay where a 
 "set", as it is called, occurs with any regularity or of any consequence. In the Warren and Barrington rivers it has 
 not happened for twenty years, and the same is true of the whole eastern shore, except Cole's, Kickamuit, and Seekonk 
 rivers. Providence river itself never produces young oysters now, nor does any part of the western shore, except 
 Greenwich bay and the ponds in the extreme southern part of the state, deriving their salt water directly from the 
 Atlantic. The cause of this dearth of spawn and seed, where once every shore was populous with it, can only be 
 ascribed, I think, to the antecedent disappearance, through persistent raking, of all the old native oysters. In 
 Cole's river a heavy "set" occurred three years ago, and from 500 to 1,000 bushels are obiained every year. In the 
 Kickamuit, the shores are dotted with iufant ostrete annually, and supply the planted beds there, while old oysters 
 of very good quality are not infrequent. In dredging back and forth throughout the whole extent of Greenwich bay, 
 the scallop-fishers frequently take up large oysters, evidently " to the manor born", and they are now and then seen 
 on the shore-rocks. About 1872 there was a very large " set" here and in Potowomut river, just below. Boats came 
 down fiom Providence and elsewhere and were filled again and again. But all of the crop left was swept away 
 by starfishes, which were then very abundant, or was buried beneath drifting sand and wrack, and so no 
 establishment of a natural bed there was possible. If these young oysters were not all picked out of Greenwich 
 bay in the fall, they would live through the winter, even where the ice rested fully upon them at low tide, and 
 would soon repoinilate the bay. But now their annual value to any one is insignificant and constantly decreasing. 
 
 The seed-oysters of Seekonk river. — There remains one river, nevertheless, where, under protection, the 
 oysters are able to reproduce regularly every year. This is the Seekonk, which flows down past Pawtucket and 
 Providence, with East Providence on its left, and numerous bridges and small shipping to worry its swift tides. 
 The Seekonk has always been a favorite home of the oyster, and year by year the river contributes its quota to 
 the tongers, through a space from the Wicksbury pier to nearly five miles above. This is due largely to the fact 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 55 
 
 tbat the oysters of the Seekonk, like those of the Taunton river, are vividly green. No better reason can be 
 assigned than in the former case, and, like the others, this seed, when transplanted for a few months, entirely loses 
 its verdant tint. Seekonk oysters, therefore, never go to market, but are all caught for the seed. This catching 
 begins November 1, according to law, aud must close on May 1. These dates are arranged with the purpose to 
 prevent successful planting, and so protect the fishery; but the planters buy as long as the weather remains "open'' 
 and warm. Very little raking is done in this river in the spring. The men who catch it are rivermen, who work 
 at this a few weeks in November aud December, aud the rest of the year do other water-work. The law forbids 
 taking more than 10 bushels in one day to each boat, but if the seed is plentiful, this law is very often violated, since 
 there is no officer to watch. Peihaps it is a direct good effect of these regulations, that 1S7.S and 1879 have witnessed 
 the largest yield of Seekonk seed known in a dozen years. The main buyers are Wilcox, Browne, Wall, and Adams, 
 of India i)oiiit; but everybody buys a few bushels who can. The catchers have to take what pay is oO'ered them, 
 but competition sometimes produces a good rate, the usual price being 25 cents a bushel. This being public 
 ground, and everybody having a chance at it (many of the heavy owners send spare boats aud crews up this river 
 to rake at odd times), it is impossible to come at any close estimate of the amount of seed oysters taken from the 
 Seekonk during the last year. The truth I believe to be somewhere between five and ten thousand bushels. It is 
 a shapely, hardy seed, opening well, and is in general demand, some planters putting it at the head of the list for 
 its good qualities. One year on its new bed suffices to remove totally the green tinge, and two years to make it 
 marketable. 
 
 Seed-oysteks fkom adjoining states. —The remainder of the seed oysters planted in Narraganset l)ay 
 come from the Connecticut shore. East river. Fire island and the Great South bay, Somerset (planted chiefly by 
 those owning privileges in Taunton river), and from various parts of Buzzard's bay. I often asked which was best, 
 but could never get evidence of much superiority in any one kind. The success of a planting does not depend on 
 the kind of seed put down, so much as it does upon a thousand cii-cumstances of weather, water, and bottom. Tlie 
 seed which would do excellently in one cove would behave badly in the next, and vice versa, individual i»references 
 being founded upon these varying aud unesidained exjieriences. The seed from the south shore of Long Island used 
 to be cheapest of all, and good ; but a Boston demand ran up the price beyond the pockets of Rhode Island planters. 
 In general, it may be said that auy seed transplanted to Narraganset bay develops into a better oyster than 
 it would have come to be if left in its native waters. 
 
 Undecided questions in oyster-planting. — Similarly, it is hard to tell what has been the outcome of 
 a particular lilauting — that is, how much profit is made — because it is inextricably mixed with various other work. 
 Native seed put down and ready to grow, has cost on an average about 60 cents a bushel. To estimate profits on 
 it is out of the question, until the oysteis are all sold, nor even then. If all does well, treble value is calculated upon 
 in three years' growth. 
 
 It is not even decided whether it pays best to grow "natives" or fatten "Chesapeakes". The first year you 
 plant a piece of ground the oysters do the best; the next year jioorer; the third year they fail. Consequently, 
 the oystermen try not to plant the same area continually, but shift their oysters around to allow the old ground to 
 be revived by free contact with the rejuvenating sea. If left down in one place more than three years, it is said 
 that many of the oysters die, from no reason but exhaustion. It is the universal opinion, that the character of the 
 bottom has quite as much to do with their nourishment and good growth as has the water. On sand they grow 
 slower than in mud, but are of better shape and flavor. Similarly, they need to be far enough apart not to crowd 
 one another into deformity. 
 
 Much ground that is not now suitable might be made so, but needs to be carefully prepared, if the planter has 
 any hopes of catching spawn,* and the more intelligent say that carelessness in this respect, and a lack of any source 
 of spat, is the reason why in the Warren river and at other points no " set" has occurred for manj^ years, and the 
 depositing of cultcli, in the shape of old oyster-shells, has been in vain. It is found on the seed-grounds, that the 
 more a spot is raked (not denuded by a dredge, but often raked), the more it i)roduces. Cat i)oint, Seekonk river, 
 is one example of this; Somerset, after the fall-dredging, is another instance. To prepare a muddy tract, you need 
 to pave it with shells. This is done early in the spring, 10,000 bushels of shells, say, being thrown on, at an 
 expense of from $250 to $300. Then in June, when the shells have settled well into the mud and formed a strong 
 surface, throw down more clean shells, and scatter a quantity of large living oysters just ready to spawn — 100 
 bushels of "mothers" to three or four thousand bushels of shells. Scallop-shells make the best stools or cultch, 
 because they are thin and brittle, and can easily be broken away from the seed when it is to be taken up and 
 transplanted. You thus have the source of spawn, and its most suitable resting place, side by side. 
 
 Great success in several instances has followed this plan, particularly in Greenwich bay and Apponaug cove, .so 
 far as the catching of spawn is concerned. One planter told me that he put down, in 1877, about $125 worth of cultch 
 and inother-oystei-s at the latter place, and calculated that he obtained, in a few weeks, $10,000 worth of seed; but 
 a little later it all died — why, he is unable to guess. Another gentleman, at the same place, last year, put down 
 1,60^ bushels of shells and GO-bushels of spawning or mother-oysters. In the immediate vicinity of tliese he got a' 
 
 * The very meager account given of tliis form of true oyster-culture is supplemented iu the chapters G and H on Connecticut and 
 the East river, where the process is carritil to a much greater degree of perfection. 
 
56 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 good set; but on a closely adjacent bed, where there were no "mothers", not a young oyster was to be seen. He 
 had had the same experience in the Kickamuit. On the other hand, the simple tumbling over of shells in the hope 
 of catching drifting spawn, has proved almost universally a failure here. One man told me he had planted shells 
 steadily for thirteen years in Providence river, and had got only one set worth mentioning. 
 
 Native oystees at Block island. — On Block island, many years ago, there was an abundance of small 
 oysters living in the ])ond that occupies so much of the interior of the island. For some reason, however, they 
 were rarely found in a fit condition for food, but would serve to transplant. The oystermen at Clinton, Connecticut, 
 and elsewhere, used to buy them, the price being 2o cents a bushel, delivered at their destination. The shells of 
 these Block island oysters were so delicate, one planter told me, that it was easy to pinch your thumb and finger 
 through them, and often there would be so much air and fresh water held within their half-vacant shells, that they 
 would float when thrown overboard in planting, and drift away. All these oysters long ago disappeared, and no 
 cultivation has been tried to replace them. 
 
 Eeturning northward, I find that, at Bristol, several attempts to raise oysters have failed, and that the markets 
 x)t this ancient and beautiful village are now supplied by Providence. 
 
 22. ENEMIES OF THE OYSTER IN NAEEAGANSET BAY. 
 
 Men and starfishes. — The active enemies of the oyster in these waters are five : human thieves, popularly 
 known as "ten-fingers"; starfishes, or "five-fingers"; winkles, drills, and annelid worms. I will not dwell upon 
 these here, because the subject is fully discussed in another chapter devoted especially to these pests. Stricter 
 measures of both guarding and punishing have, of late, put a stop to the stealing to a great extent. The starfishes 
 have not been seriously troublesome, except in limited spots, since their memorable ^isit in 1800 and 1801, when 
 they all but extirpated the business, and compelled it to move up to West and Diamond beds, now abandoned, 
 where the water was too fresh to permit the starfishes to follow, and where a heavy fall of snow came to the aid 
 of the oystermen, and finally killed the five-fingers, by freshening and chilling the water beyond their endurance. 
 During the last two or three years, however, starfishes have become more numerous, particularly in the Bullock's 
 Point region, and have done much damage. 
 
 MoLLUSKS AND WORMS. — The wiukles, or "wrinkles", Sycofypus canaliculatus, seem also to be on the increase, 
 and commit considerable damage. In many parts of the bay drills, Urosalpinx cincrea, occur abundantly, and rapidly 
 destroy the seed and younger oysters, not attacking the old ones so readily. In Taunton river, a few years ago, 
 this little mollusk made clean work, eating nine-tenths of all the seed between Somerset and Assonet. In Pawtuxet, 
 this year, the oystermen have been greatly troubled by multitudes of annelid worms, Svrjmhe, whose tortuous, 
 cylindrical cases are formed thickly upon every shell, and serve to collect a coating of cases, sand, mud, etc., which 
 is often half an inch or more thick. This is known locally as "sanding-up" or "loading", and under its infliction 
 the mollusks suffer greatly in quality, probably through the fact that the parasitic worms, which feed upon the 
 same organisms as the oysters, extract much of the nourishment from the water, which otherwise would go to make 
 them fatter. One or two other minor animal agencies inimical to the oyster are at work all the time. 
 
 23. STATISTICS OF THE OYSTEE-TEADE OF EHODE ISLAND. 
 
 Capital invested. — The amount of capital invested in this district it is almost impossible to come at. It 
 probably approaches $1,000,000, including perhaps $300,000 or $350,000 worth of seed-oysters growing on the beds. 
 One- third or more of this property is owned in Boston, and the necessary money for carrying on operations comes 
 thence, but is represented by men who also do more or less private planting on their own account. Of coirrse this 
 is chiefly in the hands of a dozen or more planters on the list ; the forty or fifty others will not average a greater 
 sum than $1,000 each invested in this business, which is chiefly conducted personally, close to their bay-side homes, 
 and without hired help, by selling to home-shippers. The expensive warehouses required by some of the wholesale 
 dealers and shippers in the city of Providence count largely in the estimate of capital involved; and the boats used 
 are of a good class. 
 
 Yield and value of the oyster-beds. — The yield of the beds and its value, appears in the following 
 table : 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 1879. Native oysters produced on beds owned in Rhode Island 108,200 
 
 Southern oysters, ditto 274,300 
 
 Native oysters produced on beds owned out of the state 40,000 
 
 Southern oysters, ditto 2.38,000 
 
 Total Narraganset production 660, 500 
 
 The total value of this, and some additional annual business, will amount to at least $000,000, at the original 
 
 wholesale price paid the producer. 
 
 Prices and wages. — The prices at which oysters were sold by wholesale dealers in the city of Providence, 
 
 during 1879, were the following : Virginias, in shell, selected, $1 to $1 25 per bushel; Virginia plants, common, 90 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 57 
 
 cents per gallon ; Virginia plants, selected, $1 25 per gallon ; natives, in shell, $1 25 to $1 50 per bushel ; at retail, 
 25 to 35 cents a quart, of all kinds. Some " fancy " lots, of course, brought higher rates than these prevailing market 
 prices. In " Arnold's" and other restaurants the most palatable oysters possible are laid upon the counter lo 
 tempt the appetite. Those trom Gasp6 point, purely native-grown, are recognized as the very best of all, and sell 
 for five cents a piece. They are delicious. So great an industry, of course, gives support to a numerous body of 
 citizens in this district, at least during part of the year. In the summer so little is done that comparatively few are 
 employed, this number including only the proprietors of beds, the dealers and assistants who are obliged to keep 
 their shops open, and the few men required for catching oysters for the feeble market, for spreading shells and 
 planting seed, and for watching the safety of the beds. Reckoning the proprietors as perhaps 100 in all, the 
 addition of the rest employed the year round would bring the total up to about 250 ; but this varies considerably 
 from year to year. They are paid by the week, as a rale, wages running from $7 to Sit, and averaging about 8 10. 
 For the colder half of the year, " the season," as it is called, large additional help is needed, both on the water and 
 in the opening-houses that are placed close to the shore at various points, or on the wharves in the southern part 
 of Pro\'idence city. Taking all the oyster-houses together at the head of Narraganset bay, I find about 350 openers 
 employed. Add this to the 250 counted up as otherwise employed, and I have GOO men as the total. A very large 
 proportion of these men are married ; and I believe it would not be unfair, all things considered, to multiply this GOO 
 by 4, which would give us 2,400 persons of all sexes and ages sui ported chietly by the oyster-industry in the Rhoile 
 Island district. 1 believe this is short of the truth. The sum of the wages paid is somewhere about §125,000 annually. 
 . Oyster openers and their methods. — Separating the meat from the shell is known in Providence as 
 "cutting out" an oyster. The "cutters" or openers are taken from a low grade of society, as a rule, and are about 
 one half foreigners, mostly natives of Ireland. During the summer many of them go "bony-lishing", i. e., in chase 
 of the menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, others get a living in various capacities along the shore and on the water, 
 and a large portion of them are common laborers. No women are employed here in the opening houses. 1 was told 
 that an experiment made in employing them some years ago was regarded as a failure. Very few boys are to l)e 
 seen, also. Here the only method followed is that known as "side-opening". The opener holds the oyster 
 in the palm of his unsupported left hand, which is protected by a sort of gauntlet of leather, while he pries the 
 shells apart with his knife. This is a quicker method than any other, but it is very laborious, causing a hard 
 strain upon the muscles of the hand and wrist, and upon those of the left side. It has an advantage, however, of 
 producing less bre^tking and refuse than any other style of cutting out. The oyster-meats, nevertheless, are carefully 
 washed by being stirred about in large coUenders, through which clean water is running. This gets rid, at the same 
 time, of course, of all the natural moisture or liquor of the oyster, and the result is known as "solid" measurement. 
 
 The payment for opening oysters is made at the rate of so much per gallon " solid" or " in liquor", as agreed 
 upon ; if the former, 12 cents is the usual price the present season ; if the latter, 17 and 20 cents is demanded. From 
 $1 to $2 a day is earned while work lasts. The amount of difference between a gallon of oysters measured "solid" 
 and one measured "in the liquor", depends on the condition of the stock. It is the universal complaint this year, 
 that all Rhode Island mollusks are " opening poor" ; that is, there is too much liquor and too little meat in the shells. 
 This is universally attributed to the fact that the present autumn (1870) has been very dry; more rain would have 
 made the oysters "fatter". At present it takes three liquor-gallons to make two solid ones, at their best; but in 
 some years the difference is almost nothing, and then the oystermen will say: "You couldn't press the meat back 
 into its own shell, after opening," so rich and elastic are the juicy bodies. 
 
 Statistical recapitulation for Rhode Island: 
 
 Number of planters ino 
 
 Number of lessees in 1S79 TjG 
 
 Ext(!nt of ground cultivated acres.. 9(i2 
 
 Value of same (about) $15,000 
 
 Value of sbore-jiroperty (about) |75, 000 
 
 Number of boats engaged lUO 
 
 Value of same, with outfit ^20,000 
 
 Number of men hired by planters or dealers through the whole year l.'O 
 
 Annual earuiugs of same $75,000 
 
 Number of men hired h.ilf the year 3')0 
 
 Semi-aunu.al earnings of same $50, 000 
 
 Number of families supported, exclusive of retail-trade, about 500 
 
 Annual sales (1879) of — 
 
 I. Native oysters bushels.. Wf^, 200 
 
 Value of same $205,500 
 
 II. Chesapeake "plants" bushels.. 274,;!00 
 
 Value of same $200,000 
 
 III. Fancy stock bushels.. 15,000 
 
 Value of s.ime $20,000 
 
 IV. Baltimore and Norfolk "opened stock" gallons.. 8,0.50 
 
 Value of same $5,000 
 
 Value of oysters raised in Rhode Island, but owned elsewhere $250, (I0(» 
 
 Total first value of all oysters produced in Narragausett bay, annually $liKi,.50O 
 
58 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 F. COAST OF CONNECTICUT. 
 
 24. OTSTEE-INDUSTEIES EAST OF NEW HAVEN. 
 
 Natural and aetificiax, beds near New London. — The extreme eastern point on the Connecticut shore 
 where any oysters occur, is in the neighborhood of New London. A few miles east of the mouth of the Thames, in 
 the township of Grotou, is an inlet and river known as Pequonock. In !S77 several gentlemen leased about 35 
 acres of ponds on the east side of this river. In one of these ponds, containing about 15 acres, native oysters grew 
 upon the rocks and around the edges. A portion of the bottom of this pond they prepared for oyster-raising, by 
 spreading scallop-shells over six acres, and gravel and beach-sand over two acres. Here they planted some 2,500 
 bushels of seed from Stony Creek, Clinton, and Fair Haven, Connecticut, at a total expense of between $4,000 and 
 $5 000. These oysters have grown finely, but as yet few have been taken to market. This year (1879-'80) has been 
 a comparatively poor one for them. 
 
 The oysters in Pequonock river are deep and cup-shaped, not of large size, and with a thin, white, flinty shell. 
 Locally, they are very highly esteemed. Another locality where this firm has undertaken oyster-cultivation, is in 
 the Niantic river, an inlet just west of the Thames, where they have had 20 acres set off for the purpose, and have 
 already planted some seed. In Alewife cove, between Niantic bay and the Thames, they have also several acres 
 of ground which they purpose preparing in the near future. A few oysters are now being put upon the market 
 from these ponds, and have met with a good reception, at high prices. These planters believe that a grand success 
 awaits them : others assert that the waters are unsuitable, and that little of importance will result. Three persons 
 are emjiloyed. 
 
 In the river Thames, years ago, were great numbers of indigenous oysters. Thousands of bushels were 
 annually obtained for the markets of the neighboring towns. These oysters were of good quality, and generally 
 of immense size. Planting, however, was never a success, owing to the great freshets which ofteu sweep down the 
 river, and also owing to the impurities that are cast so plentifully into the stream from the drainage of the towns 
 and from multitudinous factories along the tributary streams. Nevertheless, a few native "Norwich river" oysters 
 are annually caught, except in the close season, between IMarch 1 and November 1, and there are half a dozen 
 persons in Norwich who deal in them and in other oysters, but the whole city's trade, probably, does not amount 
 to 10,000 bushels a year of "natives" and "Chesapeakes" combined, and is decreasing. 
 
 At New London, the oystermen own ground at Bullock's point and Drownville, in Providence river, Ehode 
 Island. Upon those tracts, in 1879, they bedded about 15,000 bushels of Virginia oysters, in addition to receiving 
 a winter's supply of 35,000 bushels. New London and its neighborhood also consumes about 700 bushels of fancy 
 oysters annually, mainly brought from Providence, Ehode Island. The prices at this point, in 1870, were, for 
 southern oysters, 80 cents to 81 a gallon^ for native stock, 50 cents a quart, or $1 60 a gallon, wholesale. Twenty 
 cents a solid quart is paid for opening. 
 
 There are employed here in the winter months 12 men on oyster-vessels and 25 men on shore, besides the 
 principals. These are mostly heads of families, who engage in menhaden-fishing in summer. 
 
 Oysters in Saybrook. — Moving westward from New London, the first village of consequence is Saybrook. 
 There is a small stream here called Oyster river, that produces a variety of the bivalves after which it is named, 
 which are saxl to be of superior quality. Mr. John N. Clark kindly made inquiries for me, and reports that the 
 production is trifling. Fifteen or twenty persons engage in these native fisheries at odd hours, getting so few 
 bushels each, that the total gathered in the whole season will probably amount to do more than a hundred. Five 
 years ago the town appointed a committee on the subject, and several persons received grants of land for the 
 purpose of cultivating oysters, but the obstacles (chiefly thieving) were so many that no one has persisted in the 
 attempt, either to bed southern oysters or to raise native stock. 
 
 Oysters in Clinton. — At Clinton, a little village settled under the name of Kenilworth (afterwards corrupted 
 into Killingworth), at the mouth of the Hammonaset river, the oyster-business is of long growth, and is somewhat 
 peculiar. The harbor, in old times, contained an abundance of large, succulent oysters, but these have been ail-but 
 exhausted in one way or another. About twenty-five years ago the planting began in the harbor, the seed then 
 used being canght mainly at home or brought from Block island. The harbor, at present, contains about 200 acres 
 suitable for oystei'-growth. Formerly there was much more, but a few years ago the sea made a breach through 
 the peninsula which incloses the harbor, by which the southerly storms are given so fierce an entrance into the bay, 
 that any attemjit at oyster-work, or even at navigation, over much of the water-space, is rendered utterly futile. 
 If this breach, locally known as the Dardanelles, could be filled up — and the cost, I was informed, would not exceed 
 $1,000— a thousand acres, or more, would be added to the oyster-bottom. The bottom is hard, the water nowhere 
 too deep for tonging, and of about the right degi'ce of freshness. Mud and sand drift so badly in winter, however, 
 that no oysters can be left down during that season. The practice, therefore, is to put down not only Virginias, 
 but natives of so large a growth that they shall be marketable the next winter. Tears ago a much larger number 
 
THE (3YSTER-INDUSTRY. 59 
 
 of Virgiiiiii oysters were planted tbau at present— often 20,000 bushels— but the business has changed, until now 
 only 8,000 bushels a year are demanded. The freight from the Chesapeake is 12 cents a bushel, and the following 
 four schooners lind employment: J. H. Chafl'ee, 130 tons; Mary Stow, 100 tons; G. A. Hayden, 108 tons; Helen P., 
 140 tons. 
 
 A fair "set" occurs in Clinton harbor every year, and in 1877 there happened a very heavy one. A certain 
 quantity of this survives, and abaut 1,01)0 bushels are utilized annually. The majority of the "native" oysters, 
 however, are raised from seed bought along the shore to the westward, that from Norwalk being preferred. This 
 costs from 75 cents to $1 a bushel, and is planted in April. It is ready to take up late in the following autumn, 
 and has grown rapidly, and into handsome shape. The quality, also, is most excellent, such oysters selling for from 
 $1 to $1 ."'0 a bushel, at wholesale. The annual production of this stock amounts to 2,000 bushels. The only enemy 
 of the oyster here is the drill; but this is sadly abundant. 
 
 To recapitulate, Clinton i>roduces annually — 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Of southern iilants, .about - >i, 000 
 
 Of Connecticut plants, about y, 000 
 
 Of uativo oysters, about - 1,000 
 
 Total 11.000 
 
 The total investment here, which at present will not exceed $10,000, is divided among about fifteen planters, 
 and aflbrds a partial livelihood for perhaps a score of families. 
 
 The bottom of the margin of the sound off the villages of Madison and East Elver has been staked off to a 
 considerable extent, but is utilized by only one firm of oyster-producers. Mr. Elihu Kelsey has kindly reported to 
 me, by letter, upon the extent of their operations. Their beds consist of six acres or more, and are near a small 
 island called Overshore. This area is protected on its southern side by high reefs of rocks. They have a second 
 bed of about 12 acres extent, a mile and a half eastward near Tufas island, in liO feet of water, with hard, sandy 
 bottom, where they are experimenting. They also own a third bed near Guilford harbor of 24 acres, on which they 
 have spread "2,000 bushels of shells and a good many small stones, on which the oysters 'set' and grew for four 
 years, and were the best in the world; but the water is too shoal without artificial protection, and the storms and 
 thieves have ruined the bed". As not enough "set" is caught uijon the stools, a thousand bushels or so of seed- 
 oysters are annually raked from the natural beds in the vicinity of East Elver, or bought from dealers in Stony 
 Creek and New Haven and planted upon the beds. These various beds yielded, during 1879, about 1,200 bushels, 
 the most of which were sold in the shell at $1 to $1 50 per bushel. For opened oysters $1 CO a gallon was received. 
 ]Sro southern oysters were handled in any shape. In respect to the drawbacks and general condition of the business 
 at East Elver, Mr. Kelsey writes: "The first drawback to success is the lack of good protection from storms 
 which might be remedied by the construction of a breakwater. The second is the constant alteration of the state 
 laws designed to protect the industry. The third drawback is thieving. The present condition of our producing 
 beds is good ; and the prospect is, that with plenty of hard labor our venture will be remunerative. We find the 
 character of the soil to be of the greatest importance. On our producingbed the mineral ingredient of the soil is 
 iron. This renders the oysters healthy and of the finest tiavor, so that our customers say they cannot be excelled." 
 
 Oyster-cultuke in Guilford. — At Guilford some inshore ground is cultivated, but this is not of great 
 capacity. Outside, west of Goose island, they have improved about 100 acres in water from seven to ten fathoms 
 deep, upon a hard, sandy bottom. This outer tract has not as yet had time to yield much. The spreading of shells 
 in the hope of catching spawn, appears futile, for the sufficient reason that there are no living oysters in the vicinity 
 to produce the spat. A large quantity of seed has therefore been placed on this area. This seed was i)rocured 
 partly in the Guilford river, although there is great opposition to its being taken, and has largely been bought in the 
 western part of the state. Besides this, several hundred bushels of large-sized oysters have been scattered among 
 the planted shells, to produce the spawn which it is desired to catch. A small set has already been obtained, and 
 next year some harvest will begin. 
 
 The oysters heretofore and at present obtained at Guilford, from the artificial inshore beds which have been in 
 existence for thirty years, are of large size and fine shape. Their flavor is excellent. Formerly they were sold 
 regularly to Hartford buyers at $8 and $9 a barrel ; now, however, they are worth on'y •$ 4 to .$5. About 800 bushels 
 a year comprise the total yield at present. No Virginia oysters are planted at Guilford. Experiments showed that 
 the practice was not successful. The great drawback upon the inshore ground is the drifting of sand and mud, 
 which is likely to occur in storms; the drills, also, are troublesome, but 1 did not hear that starfishes had caused 
 much damage thus far. 
 
 The native i iver-oysters at Guilford formerly lined the whole river, opposite the town, for tliree or four miles. 
 A town-regulation early prohibited the taking of more than two bushels a day by one person, but this has been 
 more or less evaded, and now the fishery is of little value, all the oysters taken being very snmll; yet there is so 
 strong a poi)ular prejudice against utilizing any of this product in seeding the artificial beds, or against allotting 
 
60 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the suitable grouud in the exhausted river for cultivation, that the town voted to not avail itself of the privileges 
 granted by the state, in general statutes, which are as follows: 
 
 Skc. l:i. " The selecimen of Guilford may lease, for not exeeecling ten years, all ground of the town in East and West rivers, suitable 
 for jjlanting or cultivating oysters, to the highest bidder," at public auction ; but no lease shall be made to any person of more than live 
 acres, nor to a minor. "The leases shall be executed by the selectmen, as deeds of real estate, reserving to said town the rents for such 
 grounds, » *■ » and any lessee shall, during the term of his lease, be the owner of all the oysters thereon, but shall not take any oysters 
 therefi'om in the night season." 
 
 This ratification, as I have stated, was refused, and a two-bushel protective regulation was made instead. 
 
 About 600 acres of laud have been set apart for oyster-cultivation in the waters of the sound, outside of this 
 harbor, besides that already mentioned near shore. No improvement, however, has yet been made upon this area. 
 
 Oyster-culture in Stony Creek. — The next point of oyster-culture is Stony Creek, where the large 
 collection of islets known as The Thimbles affords excellent opportuuitj' for planting and raising. Organized 
 business here is of comparatively recent date, but native oysters of extra quality were always to be had for the 
 raking in the harbor. The largest dealer is the Stony Creek Oyster Company, 1^. P. Miner, president, which was 
 established in 1808, and now owns 400 acres of ground devoted to the growing of oysters, and has a cai)ital stock 
 of $42,000. 
 
 The Stony Creek Oyster Company raises annually about 15,500 bushels of natives, and employs six men. All 
 the stock is sold in shell, shipping in barrels, and opening little or nothing. The other persons engaged in planting 
 have spent a good deal of money here in getting the foundation of a business laid, but with small actual results as 
 yet. There is also a large class of citizens who cultivate for personal use, or sell to a trifling extent, and so get a 
 partial support out of the industry. It was very difficult to gather any exact or approximate figures, therefore, 
 outside of the oyster company's report ; but I judge that all the other producers together, added to the 15,500 
 bushels reported by President Miner, will not bring the total production of Stony Creek, in 1879, above 20,000 
 bushels. 
 
 The prospects at this point seem very good. Some large sloops are employed in dredging, and it is proposed' 
 to employ steam very soon. An air of unusual thrift is observable about the oyster-houses on the shore, which do 
 not, as is too often the case, disfigure the pleasant scene. Stony Creek is a favorite source of seed-supply to the 
 planters of Ehode Island, and probably one-fourth of the year's yield is sold in the spring for this purpose, the 
 l^urchasers sending sloops to be loaded. Stony Creek beds had a good set in 1879, very little in 1878, but a massive 
 collection of spawn in 1877. The great obstacle to success along this part of the coast, is the lack of smooth, hard 
 bottom, and the liability of the ever-present mud, to be moved about and settle upon the oyster-beds in such quantities 
 as to kill the young and stunt the old ones. The oysters grow in clusters, and are likely to be of large size, long 
 and slender, forming " coon-heels" and " razor- blades". They are so clogged with mud when brought ashore, that a 
 stream from a hose must be turned upon the heap before the clusters can be broken apart, preparatory to the 
 culling for size. 
 
 Oyster CULTURE in Branpord and East Haven. — At Branford, a few miles westward, about the same 
 state of things exists, and there are some addiiional discouragements, making the prospect less bright than at Stony 
 Creek. Some who have tried it assert, that Branford is good for nothing as an oyster-nursery, but others have 
 a brighter faith. It formerly had more prosperity than at present, in this line. The river was a great natural 
 oyster-bed, but has now become nearly depopulated, and it is hard to get any seed for the outer beds. The starfishes 
 are reported to have damaged the beds very greatly in 1878, and the drill is an ever present enemy. Southerly 
 storms often bury the oyster-beds here wholly out of sight. This misfortune happened to one planter, after an 
 expenditure of over $1,200 on artificial beds inside of Stony island. The whole product of the locality last year, 
 was about 3,500 bushels, and half a dozen families are supported. Off Branford and East Haven's coast, in the 
 deeper water of the sound, more or less ground has been granted to strangers, but the results are nothing, as yet. 
 
 At the village of East Haven about 80 acres are under cultivation in the off-shore waters of the sound, 
 devoted wholly to native oysters, for which seed is procured from neighboring beds, or spawn is caught on planted 
 shells. In 1879 the catch was 3,000 bushels, all of which were sold iu the shell at an average price of $1 per 
 bushel. It is supposed there remain -0,000 bushels of oysters on the ground, subject to risks from heavy storms 
 and creeping enemies. The mode of catching Is by dredges at all seasons, and three men find employment at $2 
 wages per day. 
 
 Statistical suimmary for eastern Connecticut. — Eecapitulatiug the statistics of this eastern district of 
 Connecticut, we find the following result for 1879 : 
 
 Number of acres improved, about 900 
 
 Number of families supported, about 100 
 
 Number o'f bushels of "natural growth" oysters marketed, about 8,700 
 
 Number of bushels of southern oysters used 6.5,000 
 
 Number of bushels northern i^lanted oysters sold, about — 34, 000 
 
 Number of vessels engaged : schooners, (j ; sloops, aO 26 
 
 Amount invested iu fixtures, etc., about $75,000 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 61 
 
 25, EARLY OYSTER-TRADE AT NEW HAVEN. 
 
 Abundance of oysters in former days. — New Haven is one of the principal depots of the oyster-trade 
 in Connecticnt, and in the United States. With New Haven, bowever, I include Fair Haven, Soutli Haven, West 
 Haven, and Milford, since tlie business all around and oil" the mouth of the hariior is substantially united. 
 
 From the earliest times the borders of the Quiuepiac river, on the eastern boundary of the city of New Haven, 
 have been the scene of oyster-operations. Shell-heaps along its banks show how the aborigines sought in its waters, 
 season after season, the best of bivalves, and the earliest settlers followed their example. Natural beds of oysters 
 were scattered over the bottom of the whole river for three miles, clear up to the North Haven salt meadows, and 
 at intervals along the eastern shore of the harbor, where favorable coves existed. At all points these mollusks were 
 convenient of access. The result was that the raking of oysters in this river, and along the eastern shore of the 
 harbor at its mouth, which was a free privilege, was early adopted as a business by many persons who lived near 
 the banks, and a considerable retail peddling trade was thus kept up throughout the neighborhood, in addition to 
 the home-supply. Wagon-loads of opened oysters in kegs, traveled in winter to the interior towns, even as far as 
 Albany, and thence westward by canal. 
 
 26. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OP THE SOUTHERN TRADE. 
 
 Importation from New Jersey and the Chesapeake. — It came about, that among the first places in New 
 England to imjwrt oysters from New Jersey, and then from Virginia, to be transplanted for additional growth, was 
 Pair Haven ; and it. is probable that tar more oysters were brought there from the Chesapeake twenty years, or 
 even ten years ago, than now are. At that time a large lleet of Connecticut vessels was emjjloyed in this traflic 
 every winter, and some stirring traditions remain of perilous voyages during that icy season. They were better 
 oysters that came in those days, also, than now. While a large majority of these cargoes were at once sent into 
 the current of winter-trade, and distributed to customers all over the state (for no other harbor fattened 
 "Chesapeakes" to any extent), a quarter or so of the whole season's importation was regularly bedded down, 
 in Aprd and May, to supply the summer and tall demand. The favorite bedding-ground then, as now, was "The 
 Beach", a sand-spit ritnning off into the harbor for more than a mile from the Orange (western) shore. This is 
 bare to a great extent at low tide, but covered everywhere at high tide, and is the best possible place for its purpose. 
 The ground on this beach rents at from two to live cents a bushel, according to location. Those occupying the 
 Beach each year — in 1S79 they were 23 in number — form themselves into a mutual protective association, and 
 l)rovide watchmen who never leave the ground. Formerly these watchmen lived in boats housed in, but now, upon 
 opposite extremities of the Beach, piles have been driven and two houses have been built, where these men live, and 
 whence they walk or row about day and night to guard the property. They go on duty at the time of the first 
 planting, and remain until the last oyster is gathered, a period usually about nine months long. Their wages are 
 only $40 a month, and it would seem to be an extremely tedious duty; yet there is no lack of volunteers for the 
 l)laces. But I have shot ahead of my subject, in following out this matter to its present status ; let me return to a 
 past period. 
 
 The Virginia trade began about forty or fifty years ago. Captain Meiritt Parran having been the first man to 
 bring them. His cargo was a sloop-load of about 600 bushels, profitably sold. The trade rapidly grew into 
 immense proportions. Just when it was at its zenith it is hard to say — ]irobably about thirty years ago— and 
 it was then very profitable. Tlie Fair Haven establishments had branch-houses in all the inland cities, as far as 
 Chicago and St. Louis, and it was reported that the profits of a single house, from 1852 to 1856, amounted to 
 $25,000 a year. Levi Rowe & Co., alone, in 185G, are said to have employed 20 vessels, and 100 openers, and to 
 have sold 150,000 gallons of oysters, while companion-houses shipped from 1,000 to 1,500 bushels per day throughout 
 the season. In 1857-'58, according to De Broca, from 200 to 250 schooners were employed in supplying the 
 establishments of Connecticnt from the Chesapeake and Fair Haven, which alone, he says, made use of 2,000,000 
 bushels, but this undoubtedly was a large exaggeration ; one-half of that would certainly more than cover the facts. 
 Half a dozen years later, when De Broca wrote, the decline was very perceptible. 
 
 De Broca's description of New Haven in 1862.— Some extracts from Lieutenant De Broca's report, made 
 in 1862, to the French government, upon the oyster-industries of the United States, and reprinted in the first 
 report of the United States Fish Commission, will present interesting, if not wholly trustworthy, reminiscences of 
 New Haven at that time, where Lieut. De Broca is well remembered. This writer says : 
 
 New Haven, the capital of Counectiout, ranks next to Boston in importance, in the oyster-trade. The business is divided into two 
 distinct brandies, the culture of oysters and the various occupatious connected with their transportation to the tow'us of the interior 
 
 The i)rincipal plantations are sitn.atcd in the bay. Commencing at a short distance from the head of the great i)ier, they extend over 
 a distance of about three miles, almost without interruption ; on the one baud to the southern part of the sandy point, and on the other to 
 Morris creek, always leaving free the channels of navigation leading to the harbor. 
 
62 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The maritime ground on wliicli they arc established is partially exposed at low tide. In some cases, however, the jdantations are 
 constantly snlimprgcd, and are at a depth varying from 1 to 6 feet, when the water is lowest. The soil is formed of sand and mud, 
 mingled with sea-weed, and the stratum of mud, upon which the oysters rest, is about three inches thick. 
 
 The spectacle presented on entering the harbor is most curious. As far as the eye can see, the bay is covered with myriads of branches, 
 waving in the wind, or swayed by the force of the currents. It looks as if a forest were submerged, the tops of the trees only rising above 
 the surface of the water. 
 
 At certain distances on the plantations, large boats are anchored or moored to posts, having a small house built upon them for the 
 accommodation of the men appointed to watch the grounds. They are four in number. The wages of these guardians of the property 
 amount to about |30 a month, and are paid by the association of planters. This system of surveillance is indispensable, since most of the 
 plantations are at a distance from the harbor, and might be invaded with Impunity, especially at night. 
 
 About five hundred men are employed in planting oysters in the spring, and in gathering them in the proper season to supply the 
 necessities of commerce. 
 
 The New Haven banks have a very high reputation, and the number of bushels planted annually is estimated at 250,000. 
 
 The establishments engaged in the transportation-business are mostly at Fair Haven, a charming village, beautifully situated. Some 
 are at Oyster Point, on the western part of the l>ay. At Fair Haven the Quinciiiac is about a mile and a half wide,* and is protected from 
 the winds on the south and east by a chain of wooded hills, lying parallel with its course. It forms a beautiful smooth sheet of water, 
 until its entrance into the bay, where the currents are very strong, but not suiBciently so to disturb the jilantations established in the 
 bed of the river. Some of the dealers, before using the oysters, deposit them for two or three days in the Quinepiac, the saltish water 
 giving the flesh a better appearance. 
 
 The establishments of the dealers are on both sides of the river, and many of them are built partly in the water, in order that the 
 fishermen may discharge their cargoes with greater ease. 
 
 The dealers send raw oysters away in small wooden barrels, called kegs, or in tin cans, containing about a quarter of a gallon. During 
 the winter, wooden barrels are considered a sufficient protection ; but in warm weather, and when the moUusks are to be sent to a distance, 
 tin boxes are used exclusively. The work of packing is accomplished in the same building where the oysters are shelled, or in one near 
 at hand ; and whatever may be the receptacle used, it must contain only a quarter of its capacity of juice. A tinner is employed in each 
 establishment to close the cases, by soldering a small round piece of tin over the opening. The cases are then placed in a refrigerator, 
 where they remain until sent to the railroad. When dispatched to distant cities, those of the West for instance, the cases are inclosed in 
 a box of pine wood containing about a dozen. These are tightly packed, and a space is left in the middle of the box for the reception of 
 a piece of ice, which preserves the oysters until they reach their destination. 
 
 The number of barrels and boxes or cases required annually, at Fair Haven, is so great that two large manufactories have been 
 established for the manufacture of these articles, and they employ about one hundred and fifty persons. That for the making of kegs uses 
 steam as a motive power. Everything in the establishment is done by machinery. One machine cuts out the staves, a second the bottom; 
 others pierce the holes, and form the plugs. The kegs, at wholesale, bring the following prices: Kegs containing a gallon, |1 08 a dozen; 
 kegs containing a half-gallon, 94 cents a dozen. Tin cases are worth .$5 50 a hundred. 
 
 Oysters without the shell are divided into two classes — those of large size selling for twenty cents a gallon more tlian the others. 
 They sell at the rate of |3 for half a dozen cases, each of which contains from seventy to one hundred moUusks. 
 
 The Fair Haven oystee-trade in 1857. — A very careful account of the business, as it seems to me, was 
 printed in the New Yorlc Tribune of January 9, 1857, access to which 1 owe to the liberality of Mr. Thomas F. DeVoe, 
 of New York. It says that 80 vessels were then bringing oysters to Fair Haven. They were mainly schooners of 
 2,000 to 4,500 bushels capacity, and were generally owned in Fair Haven, but many additional ones were 
 occasionally chartered. The capital invested there was considered little short of $1,000,000. 
 
 Describing the village and its methods during the busy season, this article continues : 
 
 There are the openers, the washers, the measurers, the fillers, the packers, etc., each of which performs only the duties pertaining to 
 its own division. At this season of the year (January) few of the oysters are " planted ", but are generally taken directly from the vessel 
 to the places occupied by the openers, who form a large number of operatives, and are composetl of females and boys, who earn from $i> to |9 
 per week. An expert at this branch will open 100 quarts per day, but the average is not perhaps over 65 iiuarts. The standard price is, 
 I think, 2.J cents per quart. This work gives employment to many hundreds, and much of the work is performed at private dwellings, 
 thus ali'ording opportunity for labor to many who cannot go into a general workshop. The oysters, as they come from the vessel, are 
 heaped upon the center of the room, the operators occupying the wall-sides. Each person has before him a small desk or platform, some 
 3 feet in height, on which is placed, as occasion requires, about half a bushel of oysters, from which the opener takes his supply. On the 
 stand is a small anvil, on which, with a small hammer, the edge of the shell is broken. The operative is provided with a knife and hammer, 
 both of which are held in the right hand at the time the shell is broken, when the latter is dropped and the knife does its work. Two 
 tubs or pails, of about three gallons capacity each, are placed within about 3 feet of the workman, into which he throws, with great 
 dexterity and rai)idity, the luscious morsel which is to tickle the palate and gratify the taste of some dweller in the far West. The object 
 of placing these vessels of reception so far from the operator is to prevent, as much as possible, the deposit of the original liquor with 
 the oyster. * « * From the opening-room the oysters are taken to the filling-room, and thence to the packing department. In the 
 filling-room, on a platfiirm, are placed a dozen or more kegs or cans, with the bungs out. The oysters are first poured into a large hopper 
 pierced with holes, in which they are thoroughly washed and drained, when they are ready to be deposited in packages. This is done 
 by placing a funnel in the aperture of the keg, by one person, while another " measures and pours". This operation is performed with 
 great rapidity, two or three men being able to fill some 2,000 kegs in a day. After depositing the requisite number of "solid oysters", as 
 they are termed, in each package, a pipe conveying fresh water is applied, and the vacant space filled with nature's beverage — the bungs 
 placed and driven home — when it is ready to be shipped. 
 
 In hot weather, the article adds, kegs are placed in boxes surrounded with broken ice. One firm, Eowe & Co., 
 used 150,000 kegs a year, costing about $15,000. 
 
 The oyster-trade of Fair Haven in 1870. — Except that the use of the little wooden kegs has been 
 abandoned for the most part, and that opening is no longer done at the homes of the workmen, but wholly at the 
 planter's warehouse, the foregoing report presents a good picture of the Fair Haven of to-day. 
 
 * The Fair Haven iron bridge is just 150 paces in length. — E. I. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 6» 
 
 With tlie growth of so extensive a business, in so confined a space, came the attendant evil of too severe 
 competition. About 1850, therefore, oue or two Fair Haven men of energy conceived tlie idea of talcing tlicir 
 warehouses to the oysters, instead of bringing the mollusUs so far to tlie salesroom. They therefore opened branch 
 houses in Baltimore. Others followed, and the names of Maltby, Mallory, Hemingway, Itowe, and their confreres, 
 long familiar in Connecticut, and identified then as now with the oyster-business on the Quiuepiac, becauie equally 
 well known along the Chesapeake, and, through wide advertisements, over the whole country. All the great 
 Baltimore firms of old standing originated in Fair Haven, just as Welllieet, an obscure village on Cape Cod, 
 supplied Portland, Boston, and Providence, with its oystermen. The result was the same in both cases ; the home 
 interests retrograded when metropolitan advantages began to be used in competition, and at Fair Haven considerable 
 and rapid changes in methods, as well as the results of trade, have come about. 
 
 All of the foregoing remarks have applied to the imported Chesapeake oysters, which were brought in the 
 spring, fattened on the sand-bars in the harbor, and taken up in the autumn. Then, as now, IS^ew Haven hai'bor 
 had uo competition in this branch of trade worth speaking of anywhere else in the state; and it may be dismissed, 
 so far as the whole of Long Island sound is concerned, with the remark, that many or all of the old dealers continue 
 to bring and ])lant southern oysters, which they open in the fall and winter, but a good proportion confine themselves 
 wholly to raising and disposing of natives. 
 
 The Chesapeake oysters brought into this locality in 1879 amounted to about 450,000 bushels. Those from the 
 Rappahannock are the favorites for winter use, and are iinported almost exclusively ; for planting purposes, however, 
 Kai)pabannock oysters are uudesirable, and those from Fishing Bay, Saint Mary's, and Clirisfleld, are preferred. 
 But this may be wholly changed in a year or two. The names of the i>rincipal dealers appear in the appended 
 table. 
 
 The New Haven oyster-fleet. — The vessels employed in this trade are rarely owned in New Haven, as 
 used to be the case, but mainly hail from New York. The following is the list, so far as I have been able to 
 complete it — all schooners: 
 
 Name. Tona. Name. Tons. Xame. Tons. 
 
 William Fanen 75 J. F. H. Laugrel — Garry P. Wright — 
 
 EUie F. Long 98 Morning Star 55 Stephen Wood 12 
 
 Mary C. Decker 91 Minnie Griffin — David Carll Viij 
 
 Jauies Phelps 112 Ella H. Barnes 190 Mary Ellen — 
 
 John Mosscr 93 R.Mason 51 John A. CUaft'ee i 130 
 
 Orvctta 128 Wm. H. Van Name 97 Harvest Home — 
 
 The smaller of these schooners are preferred, as they make quicker passages, but the larger will carry for less 
 money. Freights, therefore, vary with the vessel and the season, from 10 to 18 cents. It is estimated that 3 cents 
 will plant the oysters, which makes their cost from 22 to 28 cents a bushel. The selling price will average at least 
 75 cents, and probably more. 
 
 27. NATIVE OYSTERS AND OYSTER-PLANTING IN THE VICINITY OF NEW HAVEN. 
 
 Early oyster-campaigns on the Quinepiac. — The remainder of my history will apply to the gathering, 
 transi)lanting, and jiroijagating of native oysters in the waters of Long Island sound, opposite New Haven. 
 
 It has already been mentioned, that native beds existed within recent years, if they do not now flourish, in 
 every harbor westward of the Thames river, and that many of these old localities, as Stony Creek, Branford, and 
 so forth, still furnish large quantities of small oysters for the plantations. None of these localities ever equaled, 
 however, the importance of the Quinepiac and its tributaries at New Haven as a natural field of oyster-production, 
 while this harbor was equaled, if not surpassed, by several inlets still further west. 
 
 Until lately, however, all this wealth was used up in private consumption, sold in the shore-towns as "fancy", 
 or mixed in with the southern stock, without being taken into account. The fi.shing was done mainly for each man's 
 winter-supply, and nobody paid much attention to any regulation of it beyond the close-time in summer. Gradually, 
 however, these public river oysters became more rare and coveted. The law was ■' off" on the 1st day of November, 
 and all the natural beds in the state became open to any person who wished to rake them. In anticipation of this 
 date, great i)reparations were made in the towns along the shore, and even for twenty miles back from the seaside. 
 Boats and rakes, and baskets and bags, were put in order. The day before, large numbers of wagons came toward 
 the shore from the back country, bringing hundreds of men, with their utensils. Among these were not uiifrequently 
 seen boats, borne on the rigging of a hay -cart, ready to be launched on the expected morning. It was a time of 
 great excitement, and nowhere greater than along the Quinepiac. On the day preceding, farmers flocked into Fair 
 Haven from all the surrounding country, and brought with them boats and canoes of antique pattern and ruinous 
 aspect. These rustics always met with a riotous welcome from the town-boys, who hated rural competitiou. They 
 were very likely to find their l)gats, if not carefully watched, stolen and hidden before they had a chance to launch 
 them, or even tem])orarily disabled. These things diversified the day and enlivened a community usually very 
 peaceful, if not dull. As midnight approached, men dressed in oilskin, and carrying oars, paddles, rakes, and 
 
64 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tongs, collected all along the shore, where a crowd of women and children assembled to see the fun. Every sort 
 of craft was prepared for action. There were sharpies, square-enders, skifis, and canoes, and they lined the 
 whole margin of the river and harbor on each side in thick array. As the "witching hour" drew near, the men 
 took their seats with much hilarity, and nerved their arms for a few moments' vigorous work. ISTo eye could see the 
 great face of the church-clock on the hill, but lanterns glimmered upon a hundred watch-dials, and then were set down, 
 as only a coveted minute remained. There was a hush in the merriment along the shore, au instant's calm, and then 
 the great bell struck a deep-toned peal. It was like an electric shock. Backs bent to oars, and paddles churned the 
 water. From opposite banks navies of boats leaped out and advanced toward one another through the darkness, as 
 though bent upon mutual annihilation. "The race was to the swift," and every stroke was the mightiest. Before the 
 twelve blows upon the loud bell had ceased their reverberations, the oyster-beds had been reached, tongs were 
 scraping the long-rested bottom, and the season's campaign upon the Quinepiac had begun. In a few houi-s the 
 crowd upon some beds would be such that the boats were pressed close together. They were all compelled to move 
 along as one, for none could resist the pressure of the multitude. The more thickly covered beds were quickly 
 cleaned of their bivalves. The boats were full, the wagous were full, and many had secured what they called their 
 "winter's stock" before the day was done, and thousands of bushels were packed away under blankets of sea- weed 
 in scores of cellars. Those living on the shore, and regularly engaged in the trade, usually secured the cream of the 
 crop. They knew just where to go first; they were better practiced in handling boats, rakes, etc.; they foimed 
 combinations to help one another. That first day was the great day, and often crowds of spectators gathered to 
 witness the fun and the frequent quarrels or fights that occurred iu the pushing and crowding. By the next day 
 the rustic crowd had departed, but the oysters continued to be sought. A week of this sort of attack, however, 
 usually sufflced so thoroughly to clean the bottom, that subsequent raking was of small account. Enough oysters 
 always remained, however, to turuish si)awn for another year, and the hard scraping prepared a favorable bottom, 
 so that there was usually a fair supply the nest season. It was uot long, however, before the old-fashioned large 
 oysters, " as big as a shoe-horne," were all gone, and most of those caught were too small for market. Attention was 
 therefore turned to the cultivation of oysters, and as the Chesapeake trade declined, this subject began to receive 
 more and more earnest attention, and to arouse au unexpected opposition upon all sides. 
 
 Legal allotjient op planting-grounds. — The laws of the state provided for the setting apart of tracts 
 of land under water for the planting or cultivating of oysters. The position and amount of these tracts that were to 
 be set apart were left to the judgment of the people of each town, who chose a committee of three to five electors, 
 termed the oyster-ground committee, to act in such matters. Two restrictions, however, were always jealously 
 insisted upon : first, that no " natural oyster-beds" should be set apart or " designated" (the legal term) for purposes 
 of planting or cultivation ; second, that no more than two acres should be allotted to each applicant. All the early 
 designations made iu New Haven harbor, therefore, were in the shallow districts near and below the mouth of the 
 Quinepiac, where no natural beds existed, and the allotments were of various sizes. They were owned by women 
 and minors as well as by voters, and thus it was possible for a citizen who cared to do so, to acquire for his use 
 several acres, being those taken out in the name of his wife, his sons, and even of his relatives of remote degrees. 
 Moreover, it was permitted to assign these rights and privileges; but any one who applied for grants of land 
 "for the purpose of speculation", was guilty of a misdemeanor. It was thus an easy matter for a man who 
 desired to cultivate native oysters extensively, to get under his control a large amount of land, through assignments 
 from family and friends; uor, in the great majority of cases, was any money consideration given for such 
 assignments. It soon became common, indeed, for an application to be made by "A, B, and others", a score or 
 more, perhaps, everybody understanding that while the "others" were actual inhabitants of the town, they had 
 no inteutiou of making any personal use whatever of the privileges. This, of course, was au evasion of the law, 
 which practically amounted to its annulment, yet no one objected, for the spirit of the statute was not considered 
 to have been broken; perhaps it ought to be said, no one objected at first, for within the last few years there has 
 been loud murmuring against the largest dealers, who have obtained the control of hundreds of acres, and who have 
 found it necessary to secure amendments and additions to the laws in order to make their titles sure and strong. 
 
 Origin op oyster-planting in Long Island sound.— It will be understood by this, that the business of 
 catching and cultivating native, home-bred oysters at IsTew Haven had grown, out of the old haphazard condition, 
 into a definite and profitable organization by the time the last decade began. It was not long before all tlie 
 available inshore bottom was occupied, and the lower river and harbor looked like a submerged forest, so thickly 
 were planted the boundary stakes of the various beds. Encroachments naturally followed into deeper water, and 
 this proceeded, until finally some adventurous spirits went below the light-house and invaded Long Island sound. 
 
 Who was the originator and pioneer in this bold move is undecided ; the honor is claimed by several with about 
 equal right. At any rate Mr. H. C. Eowe first showed the courage of his opinions enough to take up some hundreds 
 of acres outside, in water from 25 to 40 feet in depth, and to begin there the cultivation of native oysters. 
 
 Incessantly swept by the steady and rapid outflow of the Quinepiac and Housatonic (whose current flows 
 eastward), the hard sandy bottom of Long Island sound, off New Haven and Milford, is kept clean throughout a 
 considerable area, beyond which is soft, thick mud. There are reefs and rocks scattered about, to be sure, and 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 65 
 
 now aiid tlicn patches of mud; but over largo areas exteDdsonlyasmootli, unencumbered bottom of sand or gravel. 
 This makes this region peculiarlj- adajjted to oyster culture. 
 
 Co>'FLicTi^o CLAIMS OF rKOPiJiEToiiSHiP IN OYSTER-CrKOTJND. — This ncw departure. Or uuloolccd for ospansiou 
 of the business, caused considerable excitement as it rapidly developed. It was soon seen, in the first place, that 
 the existing statutes, which never had coutemplated this sort of thing, would not fit all the exigencies, and after 
 the codification of 18G0, alterations and amendments rapidly followed one another, in wliich the conflicting interests 
 of the deep-water cultivators and the small inshore-owners were sought to be harmonized or guarded against 
 opposition. Although recognized by law and acknowledged by clear heads since the earliest times, the rights of 
 proprietorship under the water, and the notion of property in the growth and improvement ensuing upon ground 
 granted and worked for oyster-culture, have hardly yet permeated the public mind and become generallj' accepted 
 facts. Cultivators of all grades found many and many instances in which their staked-out ground was reappropriated, 
 or the oysters, upon which they had spent a great deal of time and money, were taken by their neighbors even, who 
 an"-rily resented any imputation of stealing. Not uncommonly the proceeding was much after the manner of mining 
 in a new gold or silver region, such as the Leadville district of Colorado, for instance, where prospectors " located 
 claims'' on top of one another, and all went to digging side by side, the first one to strike "mineral" having a 
 right to any or all of his rivals' territory, within stipulated limits. 
 
 Having put some oysters on a piece of ground and found them to do well, a man would put in a claim for a 
 grant of that piece, and feel greatly abused because it had previously been designated to some man who knew that 
 the onlj- proper or safe way was to get legal i)ossession of the ground first, and make a trial afterwards.* Then number 
 one would claim the right to remove his oysters, and in doing so would be sure to be charged by number two with 
 taking more than belonged to him. It was easy, too, for unscrupulous persons to dump seed or large oysters upon 
 ground that they i)retended not to know was already granted, and then, in taking their stuif away, to rake up a 
 large addition. 
 
 If a man neglected to take out a title to his ground, or omitted any technicality, somebody stood always ready 
 to rob him of all the results of his work in open daylight, with the calmest effrontery. "All that is under water is 
 public property," was the maxim of the million, "unless eveiy form of law is observed;" and unless it is watched 
 with a shot-gun besides, they might have added. An authentic incident that happened many years ago, will illustrate 
 this temper; and I should not devote so much attention to this matter, w-ere it not that this false philosophy has 
 been almost universal ; has proved the greatest stumbling-block to the prosperity of efforts at oyster-culture along 
 this whole coast, and is almost ineradicable from the 'longshore mind. 
 
 Two of the veterans of the native oyster-business at this point, were born and spent their boyhood on the shore, 
 and early became accustomed to the habits and haunts of all the fishes and mollusks. When they were lads of 
 seventeen they sought out a suitable place near the western shore, ami gradually accumulated there an artificial bed 
 of native oysters, which soon attained a merchantable size. There were several hundreds of bushels, and the young 
 men were congratulating themselves as fall approached, that upon the early completion of the engagements, which 
 then occupied their time, they would reap a rich harvest from their labor and patience. The time when they inteiuled 
 to take them up was only a few davs distant, and no harm by storm or otherwise had come to the bed, when one 
 morning they went oat only to find that every oyster had disappeared ! It was a cruel disappointment, but 
 inquiry soon solved the riddle. In the darkness of the preceding night several teams, fully prepared for the work, 
 came down from miles and miles back in the country, from away up about Westville and Woodbridge and North 
 Orange, and their owners had raked up the whole bed, and carted it away to hide in their cellars. No robbery 
 could be plainer, and there was little attempt to secrete it; but there was no redress, and the perpetrators chuckled 
 over it as a good joke, without a scruple about the propriety of the thing. Nothing in the sea was private propertj'. 
 
 Legal protection for oystee-planters.— A vast amount of this sort of stealing and interference with 
 proprietary rights granted by the state, was ])erpetrated and sanctioned by the great majority of the watermen, 
 under the plea that the locality in question was "natural ground". Any definition or restriction of this ground 
 was impracticable and resisted. The only resource for the man who had invested money in oyster- culture, and 
 wanted the opportunity to develop his investment, was to declare that no "natural oyster-ground" existed in New 
 Haven harbor, and that designations past and to come were valid, even though the areas so designated might once 
 have been^ natural oyster beds. This checkmated the men who "juniped claims", yet refused to be considered 
 thieves ; but it caused a tremendous howl against the movers, in which a large number of persons, having small 
 information of the facts, joined, on the general principle of " death to the capitalist". It may have worked discomfort 
 in a few individual cases, as all sweeping changes must, but on the whole, considering how nearly exhausted and 
 worthless the Quinepiac fisheries had become, I think it must be regarded as not unjust. x\t any rate, the 
 legislature of 1S75 passed an amendment exempting Orange, New Haven, and East Haven from the enactment 
 prohibiting the setting apart or "designation" of "natural oyster-beds" for purposes of planting or cultivation, 
 leaving, however, the law intact for the rest of the state. Had this measure not been passed, systematic cultiva- 
 
 • Perhaps soino excuse or explanation of this soro feeling is found iu the fact, that the town of Branford allowed a man to apply for 
 and try a cjnautity of laud a year; at fho expiration he could pay for it or " heave it up", as he thought best. This was a purely local 
 regulation, however. 
 
 .5 o 
 
66 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tion would have been vastly hindered, if not altogether killed, by thieves and malcontents, so far as Ifew Haven 
 harbor is concerned. Elsewhere, under ditferent conditions, no such necessity exists as yet, in order to be able to 
 prosecute the artificial raising. Instantly ujion the passage of this act, there was a rush by everybody for the 
 possession of lots in all parts of the Quinepiac and West rivers. Tlie oyster-committee of the towns decided that 
 each owner of laud abutting on the river should possess the right to the bottom opposite his land for 100 feet from 
 high-water mark. This was a concession to popular feeling, though that opinion had no foundation in law what- 
 ever, since the title to riparian real estate in this state terminates at the high-water tide limit. Between these 
 boundaries, or "wharf lines", tracts equal iu width to each man's water front, and extending to the channel, were 
 allotted to the land owners at $10 to $15 an acre ; but the majority of them were not more than half an acre in 
 extent. Lucky receivers of these river-grants at once found themselves able to sell for from $25 to $50, and before 
 long there was brisk demand and little sale, at prices ranging from $100 to $150. The deep-water men found this 
 river property of great use as a nursery for seed, and as a place to make temporary deposits of surplus stock, etc. 
 The Quinepiac thus began to bristle with boundary stakes, much as the harbor had done for many years pi-evious, 
 and many of these river-lots are now valued at more than $500. 
 
 In 1877 a very full set was obtained everywhere iu the river and harbor ; in 1878, however, there was almost a 
 total dearth ; but 1879 again saw a partial set. 
 
 28. PRESENT CONDITION OF OYSTER-CULTURE IN THE VICINITY OF NEW HAVEN. 
 
 Orange or West Haven. — Situated on the western shore, the township of Orange (West Haven) owns the 
 western half of the harbor of New Haven. These shores have always been populous with oysters, which were 
 raked as public property. If any attempts at cultivation were made untU within a few years, they were desultory 
 and of small account. When the general oyster-statutes were passed. Orange at once acted under them, but 
 delegated to its selectmen the powers of an oyster-committee instead of erecting a second board, as was done in all 
 the other towns. This arrangement has been found to work very well. The first designation was made in April, 
 1804, and all the suitable ground in West river and in the harbor was soon set apart, amounting to about 45 acres. 
 Mr. Samuel Smith, chairman of the selectmen, tells me that nothing was charged for this ground, but that it was 
 put under taxation, and now pays on A'aluations runniug from $50 to $500. When, four years ago, the experiment of 
 deep-water cultivation was begun. Orange issued designations, almost wholly to citizens of other towns, for about 
 2,450 acres, at $L an acre. It is impossible to come nearer than this to the town's revenue from its oyster-lots, 
 since no separate account is published by the treasurer. The deep-water area is taxed at a merely nominal rate at 
 present. 
 
 Only two producers of any consequence now reside in West Haven. The small allotments in West river which 
 they possess, are nearly ruined by the drifting of sediment, and the total product of the river last year would hardly 
 exceed 500 bushels. One planter told me he had had 12 acres in one lot iu the harbor sjioiled by becoming 
 covered with mud. 
 
 New Haven. — Between Orange and East Haven lies New Haven, priding herself ujion her harbor. She had 
 begun to set apart oyster-planting ground for the use of her citizens. Before long, however, it was claimed that 
 she was allotting spaces of bottom over which she had no jurisdiction. This brought on suits at law and aroused 
 inquiry. The forgotten fact was then brought to light, that in 1803 a joint commission (of which Noah Webster, 
 the lexicographer, was a member) determined the boundary between New Haven and East Haven to be, in general 
 terms, the ship-channel down the Quinepiac aud down the harbor. This was ratified by the general assembly. A 
 few years later some disputes caused the appointment of a commission to settle upon the boundary between New 
 Haven and Orange. This was reported to be the middle of West river, and thence eastward to the ship-channel 
 in the harbor. It seems to have been the intention of this commission that this line should intersect and terminate 
 at the East Haven line, but by some error this was not quite doiie. The recommendations of this commission were 
 adopted by the legislature and decreed to be the boundary between the two towns. This left to New Haven only 
 the waters just about her wharves and a very narrow, wedge-shaped strip down the channel. When, by later laws, 
 it was decided what of the deeper ground of the sound should be "designated" by East Haven and Orange, 
 respectively, New Haven was allowed a strip 1,500 feet wide, running southward into the sound from a line drawn 
 from the old light-house to Savin rock. 
 
 Although these boundaries were settled nearly a century ago, the New Haven oyster-committee not long ago 
 designated ground in Orange waters, where they had no right to. Unscrupulous persons at once took possession, 
 and in some cases refused to yield to the legal owners deriving their designations properly. Hence expensive suits 
 and much personal .animosity has arisen. Many lessees, however, learning their mistake in time, took out new 
 deeds from the rightful authorities, and so saved themselves. But this was done at additional expense, for New 
 Haven had never charged anything for her privileges. 
 
THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 67 
 
 29. LAWS OF C02JNECTICUT RELATING TO OYSTERS. 
 
 Laws relating to the fisheries fob shellfish. — Having thus briefly reviewed the circuinsfaiices and 
 growth of the oyster-business of New ILiven atui its vicinities ; touclied upon the decline of the Virginia trade 
 and the beginning of organized cultivation of the native stock ; noted the drawbacks and opposition with which 
 this had to contend, and the extraordinary jealousy which shows itself among the river-uiou and producers, it is 
 a proper time in whicli to introduce a careful digest of the state-laws pertaining to the oyster-business, an 
 examination of which will reveal the many reasons why specific acts for the protection of this interest were deemed 
 needful from time to time. 
 
 The oyster statutes of Connecticut, in force in 1S80, were as follows: 
 
 Chapter IV. Fisheries. — Part I. Fisuekies in tide-watee and rivers. — Art. I. Fisheries for shellfish. 
 
 Section 1. Describes the particular territory within which the selectmen of East Haven may "designate" or grant ground for the 
 planting and cultivation of oysters ; describes within what other waters the oyster-committee of the same town may designate ; and gives 
 to the selectmen of Orange all the powers of an oystor-couunittec. 
 
 Sec. 2. Provides that any other town except East Haven and Orange may appoint a committee of not more than five electors, which 
 shall designate to applicants suitable places in the navigable waters of the town for planting or cultivating oysters, clams, or mussels. 
 
 Sec. 3. Any person desiring to plant or cultivate oysters, clams, or mussels may apply in writing for a suitable place, and such 
 committee or selectmen may make such designation, not exceeding two acres in extent, after the applicant has proved that the ground has 
 not previously been set otl' for this purpose ; that the ground is withiu town limits ; and that fees due to the town for this designation 
 have been deposited. Town clerks may grant the required certificates, and town treasurers receipt for payments of fees. Violations of 
 this act by members of town conunittees are punishable. Having received his designation, the applicant must mark the boundaries of 
 his ground by buoys or stakes, set at suitable distances, and labeled with the name or initials of the owner ; and until then he shall not be 
 permitted to catch oysters upon the ground. Designations may bo made to several in common. 
 
 Sec. 4. Every person who shall plant or cultivate oysters, clams, or mussels in any such place shall own them, and also .all other 
 oysters, clams, or mussels in such place, and have the exclusive right of taking up and disposing of them, and of using such place for f ho 
 puriiose of planting or enltiv.ntiug oys^ers, clams, or mussels therein, which shall be transferrable by written assignment, but nothing 
 herein contained shall afiect the rights of any owner of lands in which there may be salt-water creeks or inlets, or which may be opposite 
 or contiguous to such navigable waters ; nor the existing by-laws of any city, town, or borough ; nor authorize any committee or selectmen 
 to designate, or any person to mark, stake out, or inclose any natural oyster-bed (except in Now Haven harbor and its tributaries, and for 
 a distance not exceeding two miles from the mouth of said harbor), or infringe the free navigation of said waters, or interfere with the 
 drawing of seines in any place established and customarily used for seine-fishing. 
 
 Sec. 5. Any person procuring oystor-ground " for the purpose of assigning rights which he may acquire for profit or speculation", shall 
 bo fined ^50. 
 
 Sec. 6. Amended and replaced by subsequent legislation, adds to the powers of the New Haven committee the power to designate 
 ground for oyster-planting and cultivation iu the waters of Long Island sound, which lie between East Haven and a line par.allel to its 
 boundary and .'lOO yards to the westward ; and the selectmen of Orange may designate between this tract and a line due south from Savin 
 rock, even though such ground " may have been natural oyster-beds". And the committee's previous designations in this territory are 
 hereby confirmed. 
 
 Sec. 7. Enjoins that all designations of oyster-ground, when made.sh.all be exactly recorded in the oflice of the town clerk, together 
 •with all descriptions and assignments; "and all attested copies of such applications, designations, , and assignments, with a certificate 
 that they have been recorded, shall be conclusive evidence of the fact of such record, and prima facie evidence of the validity of such 
 application, designation, and assignment." 
 
 Sec 8. Any owner who has lost the evidences of title to oyster-ground, after having filed them with the town clerk, may apply to the 
 town committee, and if he satisfies them of his claim, he ra.ay receive from them a new title ; but there are heavy penalties for fraud under 
 this provision. In case of boundaries being lost, or when the committee authorized to stake out oyster-grounds have described the 
 boundaries incorrectly, the superior court, as a court of equity, may, upon petition, order such uncertain boundaries to be re-cst.ablished, 
 according to prescribed methods, except in cases where a map of the ground has been filed with the town clerk, in which case uncertain 
 bounds are to be established by a surveyor appointed by a. judge of the superior court. 
 
 Sec. 9. When there are more than thirty designations in any one town the selectmen shall procure a m.ap of the district. 
 
 Sec 10. An owner desiring to dam or lock an inlet or salt-water creek for the purpose of cultivating oysters therein, the selectmen 
 shall visit the spot and report upon the propriety of the request at a meeting of the town ; if the meeting approves, the owner may build 
 a dam, etc., as indicated by the selectmen, and maintain it during the pleasure of the general assembly. 
 
 Sec 11. When any natural oyster-bed is set apart, contrary to law, the superior court in the same county has power to revoke 
 the designation, if it deems it best ; but must give the owner time to remove any oysters and improvements on the property. 
 
 Secs. 12 .and 13. Conferred privileges upon Guilford which that town declined to ratify. 
 
 Sec. 14. No person, except the authorized committee or selectmen, shall stake out or inclose any oyster-grounds iu navigable 
 ■waters, unless such person shall own this ground under the jirovisions of this chapter ; pen.alty, fine not to exceed .?50. 
 
 Sec 1,'). Any member of a committee who shall designate ground for oyster-cidtivatiou upon natural oyster-beds, or in .any other 
 place where it is prohibited by law, shall forfeit from $2.5 to §200, excepting in Orange, New Haven, and East Haven. 
 
 Sec 1G. Any other person than the owner, who shall unlawfully reuu)Vo any shells or shellfish from a place designated for oystor- 
 pliinting, shall be fined not exceeding $300, or imprisoned not more th.an one year; but if the offense be committed at night, heavier 
 penalties are decreed. 
 
 Sec 17. Forbids taking any oysters or oyster-shells from the Thames river between March 1 and November 1. 
 
 Sec 18. Every persou who shall willfully injure .any inclosuro legally designated for oyster-iilanling, remove any buoys or stakes, 
 injure any oysters, remove any .shells from such inclosure, or willfully deposit mud there, shall be subject to heavy penalties, after trial 
 before a justice of the peace, with rfght of appeal to the superior court. 
 
 Sec. 19. Provides penalties for injiny to dams or locks of any oyster-pond. 
 
68 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Sec. 20. Proliiliits taking "shells or sliellfisli" betweeu sunset and sunrise, from any navigable waters of the state (except clams in 
 Bran ford harbor from April to October), under fine of .$50 to §100, or imprisonment, or both. 
 
 Sec. 21. Prohibits the taking of shellfi.sh, or the use of spears for taking fish, within any area designated for oyster-planting, 
 ■within two miles of the shores of Brauford or East Haven; penalty, fine of from |7 to .$100, or imprisonment. 
 
 Sec. 22. Prohibits the use of dredges in New Haven harbor west of a line from Farm river to Scotch cap, and north of a line from 
 ■Scotch cap to Southwest ledge, and then westerly to Hines' place in Orange ; prohibits taking shellfish in Morris creek, except on or 
 adjacent to one's own land ; and prohibits dredging 6i/ steam anywhere away from upon one's own ground, more than two days in the week, 
 under heavy penalties, which may be imposed by a justice of the peace, subject to an a])peal to the superior court. Dredging on one's 
 own ground is allowed, however, in East Haven waters to the owners of ground southerly of a line drawn from The Chimneys, throu-Th 
 Quixe's ledge and Adam's fall, until it intersects a line drawn from the old light-house to Savin rock. 
 
 Sec. 23. All sherifl's and constables shall, and any other persou may, seize any boat or vessel iUegally used in dredging, with its 
 tackle, apparel, and furniture, wherever found, within one year thereafter; and, if condemned, the boat, etc., shall bo sold after the 
 prescribed form. 
 
 Sec. 24. When there shall be found in any waters of this state, on board any boat or vessel, illegally used under the provisions of 
 this chapter, any dredge or shells and shellfish, it shall be prima facie evidence that said boat or vessel was used contrary to the provisions 
 of said chapter. 
 
 Sec. 25. No person shall gather shells or shellfish in any waters of this state for himself or his employer, unless he and his employer 
 are at that time, and have been for six months previous, actual inhabitants of the state. 
 
 Sec. 26. Eefers to lobsters. 
 
 Laws of 1875.— Since the revision of the Statutes in 1875, the following additional laws have been enacted : 
 
 March 16, 1878. — When oysters have been planted on any ground legally designated, and doubt arises as to the jurisdiction of 
 neighboring towns over it, prosecutions against the owner may be made in either of the three towns nearest. 
 
 March 27, 1878. — No committee or selectmen of any town shall designate, and no persou shall mark, stake out, or inclose for the 
 cultivation of oysters, clams, or mussels, any natural clam-bed. 
 
 March 27, 1878. — No person shall take or carry away from Brauford or Farm rivers any oyster-shells or seed-oysters, for the purpose 
 of planting tliem on jirivate beds ; or more than two bushels of oysters in a single day ; or shall use tongs for taking oysters there between 
 May 1 and October 1 ; under penalty of forfeiting §14 before a justice of the peace in Brauford or East Haven, with a right of appeal to 
 the superior court. 
 
 I^ATTGATION LAWS. — There are two clauses in the state's navigation laws (chap, viii) which concern oysters, 
 as follows : 
 
 Sec. 19. Every person who shall deposit any substance except oyster-shells in the harbors of New Haven, Bridgeport, and Stamford, 
 shall be fined from $50 to |500, or imprisoned, or both. 
 
 Sec. 20. Gives the city court or a justice of the peace jurisdiction in such cases. 
 
 Eejiedying WEAK TITLES. — By a series of amendments and resolutions the legislature has "healed" many 
 weak titles to oyster-ground, by enacting that designations of ground for planting and cultivating oysters, clams, 
 or mussels shall be valid and confirmed, including: 
 
 I. All granted informally under the provisions of chap. 3, sec. viii, although the owners may have lost their evidences of title after 
 having filed the same with the town clerk (July 17, 1875). 
 
 II. All in which the applicant may be a married women or a minor (March 16, 1878). 
 
 III. All in which the a])plication was made for the purpose of transferring the privileges ; and all such transfers are confirmed (March 
 
 27, 1878). 
 
 IV. All designations for "planting", where "cultivation" is not mentioned. 
 
 V. All designations of ground described as containing not over two acres to each applicant, exclusive of muddy or rocky hottom, 
 although the total quantity of ground embraced in the designation may be more than two acres to each applicant (March 27, 1878). 
 
 VI. All designations previous to March, 1879, by the town of East Haven, between its westerly boundary and a line drawn due south 
 from the center of the mouth of East Haven river. 
 
 Establishment of a state cojoiission for locating oyster-grounds. — Finally, some months subsequent 
 to the compilation of the previous legal information, the legislature of 1881 passed an act, which is given herewith 
 in full, which reconstructs the methods hitherto in vogue, and reads as follows: 
 
 AN ACT establishing a state commission for the designation of oyster-gronnds. 
 
 General Assembly, January session, A. D. 1881. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and Bouse of Eejwesentatives, in General Assembly convened: 
 
 Section 1. The state shall exercise exclusive jurisdiction and control over aU shellfisheries which are located in that area of the 
 state which is within that part of Long Island sound and its tributaries, bounded westerly and southerly by the state of New York, 
 easterly by the state of Rhode Island, aiid northerly by a line following the coasts of the state at high water, which shall cross all its 
 bays, rivers, creeks, and inlets at such places nearest Long Island sound as are within and between points on opposite shores, from one of 
 which objects and what is done can be discenied by the naked eye upon the other. And all shellfisheries not within said area shall be and 
 remain within the jurisdiction and control of the towns in which they are located, under the same laws and regulations and through the 
 same selectmen and oyster-committees as heretofore, except that such selectmen and committees shall hereafter ouly act as the agents of 
 their respective towns. If a diftereuce shall arise between any town and the commissioners as hereinafter provided for, as to the boundary 
 line between said town and the area so to be mapped, said town, by its selectmen, may bring its petition to the superior court for the 
 county within which said town is situated, to determine said boundary line, and said court, upon reasonable notice to the parties, shall 
 hear said petition and appoint a committee to ascertain the facts in such case and report the same to said court, and said court shall 
 thereupon make such order as may be proper in the premisesi 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 69 
 
 Sec. 2. The tlireo fish-commissioners of the state now in office, and their successors, shall also he and constitute a boaril of commissioners 
 of sliolltisheries, and be empowered to make or cause to be made a survey and map of all the Rronnds witliin the said area in Long Island 
 sound, which have been or may be designated for the planting or cultivation of shellfisli ; shall ascertain the owncrshi)) thereof, and how 
 much of the same is actually in use for said purposes; thoy shall also cause a survey of all the natural oyster-beds in said area, and shall 
 locate and delineate the same on said map, not to exceed ^2,500 in cost, and shall report to the next session of the legislature a plan for 
 an equitable taxation of the property in said fisheries, and make an annual rejjort of the state and condition of said fisheries to the 
 legislature, and the said commissioners shall be empowered to appoint and employ a clerk of and for said board, and they shall each give 
 a bond for the faithful performance of their duties, and for the payment to the state treasurer of all money that may come into their hands 
 under this act, in the sum of two thousand dollars. 
 
 Sec. 3. The said commissioners .shall also be empowered, in the name and in behalf of the state, to grant by written instruments, for 
 the purpose of planting and cultivating shellfish, perpetual franchises in such undesignated grounds within said .area as are not, and for 
 ten years have not been, natural clam or oyster-beds, whenever application in writing is made to them through their clerk, by any person 
 or persons who have resided in the st.ato not less than one year next preee<ling the date of said application. The said application and the 
 said grant shall be in manner and form as shall be approved by the chief justice of the .state, and all such grants maybe assigned 
 to any person or persons who are or have been residents of the state for not less than one year next preceding such assignment, 
 by a written assignment, in manner and form approved by said chief justice ; and the said commissioners shall keep books of record and 
 record all such grants and assignments therein, and the same shall also be recorded in the town clerk's office in the town bounded on Long 
 Island sound, within the meridian boundary lines of which said grounds are located, if lines were run due south from i)resent teiTuiui of 
 town lines. 
 
 Sec. 4. When any such application is filed with the clerk of said commissioners, he shall note on the same the date of its recejition, 
 and shall canse a written notice, stating the name and residence of the applicant, the date of filing the application, the location, area, and 
 description ot the ground applied for, to be posted in the office of the town clerk of the town bounded on the said Long Island sound, withiu the 
 meridian boundary lines of which .said grountls are located, where such notice shall remain posted for twenty days. Any person or persons 
 objecting to the granting of the grounds applied for, ay -iforesaid, may tile a written notice with the town clerk, stating the grounds of 
 his or their objections, upon the payment to said town clerk of the sum of twenty-five cents, and at the end of said twenty days the town 
 clerk shall forward all such written objections to the clerk of said commissioners; and in case such objections are so filed and forwarded, 
 the said commissioners, or a majority, shall, upon ten days' notice in writing, mailed or personally delivered to all the parties in interest, 
 hear and ))ass upon such objections at the town in which such grounds are located as aforesaid, and if such objections are not sustained 
 and the area of ground is not, in the opinion of the commissioners, of unreasonable extent, they may, for the actual cost of surveying and 
 mapping of such grounds, and the further consideration of one dollar per acre ])aid to the said commissioners, to be by them paid over to 
 the treasurer of the state, grant a perpetual franchise for tlie i>lanling and cultivating shellfish in such grounds, or in any part of the 
 same, in the manner aforesaid, and when no objections are made such grants may be made for the considerations hereinbefore named. At 
 all hearings authorized by this act the said commissioners may, by themselves or their clerks, subpa'na witnesses and administer oaths as 
 in courts of law. 
 
 Sec. 5. The said commissioners shall, previous to the delivery of any instrument conveying the right to plant and cultivate shellfish 
 on any of said grounds, make or cause to be made a survey of the same, and shall locate and delineate the same, or cause it be located and 
 delineated upon the map aforesaid, and upon receipt of said instrument of conveyance the grantee shall at once cause the grounds therein 
 conveyed to be plainly marked out by stakes, buoys, ranges, or mouuments, which stakes and buoys shall be continued by the said grantee 
 and his legal representatives, and the right to use and occupy said ground for said purposes shall be and remain in said grantee and his 
 legal represeutatives: Profided, That if the grantee or holder of said grounds does not actually use and occujiy the same for the purjioses 
 named, in good faith, within five years after the time of receiving such grant, the said commissioners shall petition the superior court of 
 the county having jurisoictiou over the said grounds, to appoint a committee to inquire and report to said court as to the use and occupancy 
 of said grounds, in good faith, and said court shall in such case appoint such committee, who, after twelve days' notice to petitioners and 
 respondents, shall hear such petition and report the facts thereon to said court, and if it shall appear that said grounds are not used and 
 occupied in good faith for the purpose of planting or cultivating shellfish, the said court may order that said grounds revert to the state, 
 and that all stakes and buoys marking the same be removed, the costs in said petition to be paid at the discretion of the court. 
 
 Sec. 6. When, after the occupancy and cultivation of any grounds designated as aforesaid, by the grantee or hislegal representatives, 
 it shall appear to said commissioners that said gi-ounds are not suited for the planting or cultivation of oysters, said grantee, upon receiving 
 a certificate to that efi'ect from said commissioners, may surrender the same, or any iiart thereof. Not less than one hundred acres to the 
 state, by an instrument of release of all his right and title thereto, and shall, on delivery of such instrnment to the said coumiissioners, 
 receive their certificate of said release of said grounds, the location and number of acres described therein, which .shall be filed with the 
 state treasurer, who shall pay to the holder the sum of one dollar for every acre of ground described in said release, where said sum has 
 been paid therefor to the state. And the .said release shall be recorded by the said commissioners in their record-books, and in the town 
 clerks' ofiice in the town adjacent to and within the meridian boundary lines of which said grounds are located. 
 
 Sec. 7. Said commissioners shall provide, in addition to the general map of said grounds, sectional maps, comprising all griuinds 
 located within the meridian boundary lines of the several towns on the shores of the state, which maps shall be lodged in the town 
 clerk's office of the said respective towns; and said connuissioners shall also provide and lodge with said town clerks blank applications for 
 such grounds and record-books for recording conveyances of the same, and all conveyances of such grounds and assignments, reversion, 
 and releases of the same shall be recorded in the books of said commissioners, and in the town clerks' offices in the towu.s adjacent to and 
 within the meridian boundary lines of which said grounds are located, in such books as arc provided by said commissioners, subject to 
 legal fees for such recording, and the cost of all such maps, blank-books, surveys, and all other expenses necessary for the carrying out the 
 provisions of this act, shall be aiulited by the comptroller and paid for by t he treasurer of the state, and the said comuii.ssioners shall each 
 receive for their services five dollars per day for the time they are actually employed, as provided for in this act ; their accounts for such 
 service to be audited by the compti'oller and paid by the treasurer of the state. 
 
 Sec. 8. All designations, assignments, and transfers of ground in Long Island sound heretofore made for the purpose of planting or 
 cultivating oysters, clams, or mussels, excepting natural oyster-, clam-, or mussel-beds, are hereby validated and confirmed. 
 
 Sec 9. All the provisions of the statutes of this state relating to the planting, cultivating, working, and protecting shell fi.shiries, 
 upon grounds heretofore designated under said laws, except as provided for in section eight of this act, and as are rot inconsistent with 
 this act, are hereby continued and made applicable to such designations as may be made under the provisions of this act. 
 
 Sec. 10. When it shall be showTi to the satisfaction of the said connuissioners that any natural oyster- or clam-bed has been designated 
 by them to any person or persons, the said commissioners shall petition the superior court of the county having jurisdiction over the said 
 grounds, to appoint a committee to inquire and report to the said court the facts as to such grounds, and said court shall, in such case, 
 
70 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 appoint such committee, -wlio, after twelve days' notice to the petitioners and respondents, shall hear such petition, and report the facts 
 thereon to said court ; aud if it shall appear that any natural oyster- or clam-beds, or any part thereof, have been so designated, the said 
 court may order that said grounds may revert to the state, after a reasonable time for the claimant of the same to remove any shellfish 
 he may have planted or cultivated thereon in good faith, and said court may further order that all stakes and buoys marking the same be 
 removed, the costs in said petition to be taxed at the discretion of the court. 
 
 Sec. 11. Any commissioner who shall knowingly grant to any person or persons a franchise, as hereinbefore provided, in any natural 
 oyster-bed, or clam-bed, shall be subject to a fine of not less than one hundred dollars, nor more than five hundred dollars, aud if such 
 franchise is granted the grant shall be void, and all moneys jiaid thereon sliall be forfeited to the state ; and said commissioners shall in no 
 case grant to any person or persons a right to plant or cultivate shellfish which shall interfere with any established right of fishing, aud 
 if any such grant is made the same shall be void. 
 
 Sec. 1'2. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent herewith are hereby repealed, but this act shall affect no suit now pendiug. 
 
 Town laws of East Haven : Taxation. — It will be observed that the first section of the old law gave 
 the right to grant laud in East Haven to both the selectmen and the oyster-committee. The former had long been 
 accustomed to set apart oyster-ground, and retained this privilege for the riv^er and upper shores, while the committee 
 designated in deep water. In a special meeting of the town of East Haven, held in September, ISGo, to ratify the 
 late legislature's enactments, au oystercommitt«e of five was appointed; and it was 
 
 Voted, That the committee aforesaid shall stake out the grounds aforesaid in squares of one acre each (where the nature and extent 
 of the said grounds will permit), and employ a surveyor to survey aud make a map of the same, and lodge it with the town clerk of said 
 town. 
 
 Voted, That each person who makes application to the committee aforesaid » » » and receives from them a written description 
 of gromid set apart to them, shall * * * pay to the said town clerk at the rate of f 10 per acre, which money is to be used in paying 
 the expenses incurred in making out the aforesaid survey. 
 
 Voted, That the town clerk i)ay the suriilus, if any, into the treasury of the town. 
 
 The succeeding spring, in order to give the young oysters in the river a chance to get some growth, all raking 
 was iirohibited " from April 9, 186G, to March 9, 1867 ". 
 
 The reason why this area was restricted to one acre, was in order that there might be enough to go around ; 
 applicants were so numerous, at first, that designations were aUofteil literally by drawing the number of the 
 designation from a dark box. The favorite locality was IMorris cove. For all the land set a:part by the selectmen, 
 $10 or more an acre was received; when application was made for grants outside, the oyster-committee thought 
 the experiment so foolish that they were ashamed to ask more than $1. In addition to this, there was a charge of 
 90 cents for making and recording each deed, besides (until late years) a 50cent revenue stamp on each document, 
 and a second one in case of a transfer. About 750 acres were designated at $10 an acre, and about 1,500 acres at 
 $1. In all. East Haven had granted 2,523 acres of oyster-ground up to January 20, 1 880. My authority is the 
 Hon. 0. A. Bray, who has had official charge of these matters for many years in that town. To this may be added 
 C50 acres set apart but not yet paid for. Since 1877 East Haven has taxed these grants, under the head of 
 " personal property ", at valuations of $5, $10, and occasionally more, per acre, the rate last year being 12 mills on 
 the dollar. The reports of the treasurer show that East Haven has derived the following satisfactory revenue from 
 the sale of her oyster-culture privileges : 
 
 Previous to 18G7 S3, 325 00 I In 1874 $220 00 
 
 In 1867 2-22 Go 
 
 In 18f.8 300 00 
 
 In 1809 197 50 
 
 In 1871 97 50 
 
 In 1872 1,554 00 
 
 In 1873 68 00 
 
 In 1875 430 00 
 
 In 1876 883 95 
 
 Inl877 479 85 
 
 In 1878 79 90 
 
 In 1879 .509 75 
 
 Total 8,427 45 
 
 The expenses of surveys, etc., used up about one-half of this ; the other half went to the treasury. All the $1 
 designations have been "net" to the town. 
 
 Resolutions of the legislature in 1879. — These and other provisions and alterations of the oyster-laws 
 have caused much discussion, and showed satisfactorily the existence of nuich discontent, though no one seems able to 
 propose a better arrangement. The best opinion, 1 believe, is that few changes are desirable. In comxjliance 
 with the wishes of the oyster-interest of the state, the legislature of 1879 passed the following resolutions : 
 
 Whereas, the raising of oysters from the spawn in the deep waters of this state, in Long Island sound, has proved by experience to be 
 a success ; 
 
 Whereas, there is an immense tract of available oyster-ground between the town boundaries and the southerly boundaries of the 
 state, which cannot at present be used, because the state has grauted no authority to designate it; 
 
 Whereas, these grounds can be disposed of so as to bring a large sum into the treasury of the state: Therefore, 
 
 Resolved hy this assemblji, That a commission, consisting of three persons, be appointed by the governor to prepare a plan, and report 
 to the next session of the general assembly, for the gradual disposal of the grounds in the waters of this state which are suitable for the 
 cultivation of oysters. Said commission shall examine all existing statutes relating to oyster-grounds and to^^^ lines in the sound, all 
 customs aud by-laws in dili'erent parts of the state, and such other matters as pertain to oyster-fisheries, so that the system devised shall 
 be of general application, and enable the state to dispose of the franchise of the grounds to the best advantage. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 71 
 
 The commissioners appointed were : the Hon. Eobert Coit of New London (chairman), the Hon. H. B. Graves 
 of Litchfield, and the Hon. Charles W. Bell of Norwalk. They held meetings during the autumn of 1879, in various 
 shoi'etowns, which were well attended by the oyster-growers, and to their report is probably due the new law passed 
 in Jauuarj', ISSl, and already quoted, in respect to the designation of grounds by the state. 
 
 Such are the circumstances under which the oystermen in New Haven harbor and the contiguous sound are 
 able to do business. 
 
 30. LIMITATIONS OF OYSTER-CULTURE IN THE NEW HAVEN REGION. 
 
 Selection of otster-geound. — As I have already remarked, the cultivation of native oysters has grown 
 up within comi)aratively recent years, to supply the altered conditions of the business and fill the demand for the 
 home-bred stock. It soon expanded beyond the limits of shallow water, until now the hopes of all cultivators of 
 anj' consequence ai'e centered upon the deep-water ground, to which the inshore tracts are held as subsidiary, being 
 largely used only as nurseries wherein to grow seed for the outside beds. 
 
 The i>rocess by which a man secures a large quantity of land outside has been described. It is thought hardly 
 worth trying unless at least 50 acres are obtained, and many of the oyster-farmers have more than 100. These 
 large tracts, however, are not always in one piece, though the eflbrt is to get as much together as possible. He 
 obtains the position of his ground, as near as he can, by ranges on the neighboring shores, as described in his leases, 
 and places buoys to mark his boundaries. Then he places other buoys within, so as to divide his property up into 
 squares an acre or so in size. In this way he knows where he is as he proceeds in his labors. Having done this, 
 he is ready to begin his active preparations to found an oyster-colony. 
 
 The bottom of the sound opposite New Haven, as I have said, is much of it smooth, hard sand, with occasional 
 little i^atches of mud, but with few rocks. The depth varies from 25 to 40 feet. This area is almost totally void of 
 life, and no oysters whatever were ever found there, except after some "dumps" were made outside the light-house, 
 by the dredging boats which had been cleaning out the channel and deposited many living oysters along with the 
 other dredgings in the oflflng. These dumps very soon became, in this way, oyster-beds, supplying a considerable 
 quantity of seed, which was public property, to be had for the dredging and taking their share in the incessant 
 controversies as bones of contention. 
 
 Preparation of a deep-water oyster-farm. — When a cultivator begins the preparation of a deep-water 
 farm, his lirst act is to scatter over it, in the si)ring (about May), a quantity of full-sized, healthy native oysters, 
 which he calls "spawuers". The amount of these that he scatters depends on his circumstances; from 30 to 50 
 bushels to the acre is considered a fair allowance here, I believe. The rule is, 1 bushel of spawuers to 10 bushels 
 of cultch. He now waits until early in July (from the 5th to the 15th is considered the most favorable time), 
 when he thinks his spawuers must be ready to emit their spat. He then employs all his sloops, and hires extra 
 vessels and men, to take down to the harbor the tons of shells he has been saving up all winter, and distribute them 
 bi'oadcast over the whole tract of land he j)roposes to improve that year. These shells are clean, and fall right 
 alongside of the mother-oysters previously deposited. The chances are fair for catching of spawn. Sometimes the 
 same plan is pursued with seed that has grown sparingly upon a i)iece of ground; or young oysters are scattered 
 as spawuers, and the owner waits until the next season before he shells the tract. Sometimes there must be a 
 preparation of the ground, before any operations can be begun ui)on it, by elaborate dredging or otherwise. Within 
 the harbor, for instance, considerable muddy bottom has been utilized by first paving it with coarse beach-sand. 
 No spot where there is not a swift current, is considered worth this trouble. The proper amount is 200 tons of 
 sand to the acre, which can be s[)read at the rate of five sharpie-loads a day, at no great exjjense. The sand forms 
 a crust upon the mud firm enough to keep the oyster from sinking, and it need not be renewed more than once iu 
 five years. 
 
 Expense of an oyster-farm. — In either case, therefore, the planter's expense has not been enormous. I 
 present herewith two statements of the outlay under the operations outlined above, which are as follows: 
 
 No. 1. — Fifty acres. 
 
 2,000 bushels spawners, at 30 cents $G00 00 
 
 15,000 bushels shells, at :i cents 4.")0 00 
 
 Planting 15,000 bushels shells, at 4 cents 600 00 
 
 1.650 00 
 Ko. 2. — Sixty acres. 
 
 2,000 bushels of spawners, at 5Ci cents |1, 130 00 
 
 17,000 bushels of shells, at 4 cents CSO 00 
 
 4,453 bushels Bridgeport seed, at 10 cents 445 30 
 
 « , , _. 
 
 2,255 30 
 
72 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In a third case Captain George H. Townsend gave me a statement of the expenses of starting a farm of 25 acres 
 ofi' the mouth of East Haven river. This was a more elaborate arrangement, but on the other hand was accomplished, 
 through a variety of favorable conditions, cheaper than would have been possible with ground otherwise situated: 
 
 2,000 bushels small river oysters, at 25 ceuts |;500 00 
 
 Spreading same and staking, at 5 cents 100 00 
 
 COO bushels dredged seed, at 40 ceuts 240 00 
 
 10,000 bushels of shells, put down at 4 ceuts 400 00 
 
 1,240 00 
 
 I think it would not be unfair to average the cost of securing, surveying, and jjreparing the deep-water beds at 
 about $40 an acre, or about $4,000 for 100 acres. To this must be added about $2 an acre for ground-surveys, 
 buoys, anchors, etc. But now that he has got his set everywhere ujion this 50 acres of shells, the planter's anxieties 
 have just begun. The infant mollusk, when first it takes hold upon the stool, the merest speck upon the surface of 
 the white shell, is exceedingly tender. The chances in its favor in the race against its numberless adversaries are 
 extremely few, almost as few as befriended the egg when first it left the protection of the mother-mantle. The 
 longer it lives the better are its chances, but the tender age lasts all through the autumn and until it has attained 
 the size of a quarter-dollar piece; after that it will withstand ordinary discouragements. It often happens, therefore, 
 that the "splendid set" pi-oves a delusion, and Christmas sees the boasted bed a barren waste. The cultivator finds 
 his work as risky as mining. "You can't see into the water," he says; and the miner quotes back his proverb: 
 " You can't see into the ground." A suflicient cause may usually be assigned for the death of large districts of 
 infant oysters which appeared to get a good start. Starvation is probably the true explanation. Some evil current 
 bore away from them the necessary food. In other cases specific causes, the most potent of which are storms, caa 
 be pointed out. 
 
 Vicissitudes and losses of oyster-planting. — In the fall, just when the young oyster-beds are in their 
 most delicate condition, occur tiie most destructive gales that afflict the Connecticut coast. They blow from the 
 southwest, and if, as occasionally happens, they follow a stift' southeaster, jiroducing a cross-sea of the worst 
 character. The water is thrown into a turmoil to a depth, in some cases, of four or five fathoms, and everywhere 
 between that and the beach the oyster-beds are torn to pieces, all boundaries are dissolved, and windrows of oysters, 
 containing thousands of bushels, are cast up along the whole extent of the beach. Although so great a disaster 
 as this is rare, it does occasionally happen, and hardly a winter passes without more or less shifting of beds or other 
 damage by tempest. The burying of beds under drifted sand is more uncommon off New Haven than easterly; 
 but in the harbor, where the bottom is soft, mud is often carried upon the beds to such an extent as to smother, if 
 not wholly to hide, the oyster. All that part of the harbor near the mouth of West river is so liable to this accident 
 that oystermen have abandoned that district altogether. It is believed by many that the beds in the sound, in 
 water more than twenty-five feet deep, are safe from disturbance from gales; but others decline to put their faith 
 in any dei>th thus far planted. Frequently oysters cast up by storms, if attended to immediately, can be saved 
 and replanted with profit. 
 
 Management of the oyster-farm. — Having secured a colony of young oysters upon the stools which have 
 been laid down for them, they are left alone until they attain the age of three, four, or five years, according to their 
 thrift and the trade for wliich they are designed, by the end of which time they have reached a large size and 
 degree of fatness, if the season has been favorable. If, as is largely done by those planters who live at Oyster 
 point, the oysters are to be sold as seed to Providence river or other planters, they are taken up when only one or 
 two years old. Not a great quantity of this seed was so disposed of last year — not over 20,000 bushels, I should say. 
 It is not considered, as a rule, so profitable as to wait for the maturity of the stock. 
 
 Experiences of Captain Townsend in oyster-planting. — In no way, probably, conld I better illustrate 
 the series of slow experiments and expensive trials by which the more intelligent of the New Haven planters have 
 succeeded so far as they have done, than by giving an abstract of a diary kept for several years by one of the most 
 energetic of these experimenters, Capt. Chas. H. Townsend. I am able to avail myself of it through his consent, 
 and the kindness of Prof A. E. Verrill, of Yale College, to whom it had been intrusted lor scientific use. Captain 
 Townsend lived at South Haven, where his brother, Mr. George H. Townsend, still continues the business on a 
 large scale. Captain Townsend was in command of ocean steamers for many years, and took special pains, when 
 in Europe, to study the methods of oyster-culture in vogue on the French coast, and was able to apply many hints 
 there obtained to his jilantations on this side, though he found so great a difference of circumstances and natural 
 history between French and American oysters, that his transatlantic experience was of less use here than he had 
 expected it to be. The "fort", to which he often refers, is old Fort Hale, on the rocky eastern shore of the 
 harbor, near the mouth. It was a picturesque brick structure in 1812, but had become dilapidated at the time when 
 the civil war of 1801 broke out, and so was razed and transferred into a series of earthworks and bomb-proofs. 
 The moat and its tide-sluice became the scene of Captain Townsend's experiments, detailed in the account condensed 
 herewith. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 73 
 
 The first inemoranduin in this interesting book informs us, under the date " 1S67", that the author " commenced 
 stocking the ditcli at Fort Hale with native oysters, of two years' growth, in September and October of 18G7, for 
 tlie i)urpose of experiment". Only 51 bushels were laid down. To ISOS is devoted oidy one page, as follows : " In 
 September and October, 1SC8, we notice a thrifty set of young oysters along the edge of the ditch and on the 
 stones near the sluice ; also, on the piles of the bridge and in the brook that leads into the ditch. We are also 
 sorry to note that about one-half of the oysters laid down as an experiment, for spawners, have been killed by 
 becoming buried in the nuid." Subsequently (June 10, 1870), the author records that "one of our neighbors took 
 from the ditch, one night last fall, 23 bushels of the oysters planted by us and sold them in New Uaven". Betwixt 
 mud and thieves, experimental knowledge appears to have been a dear acquisition. 
 
 The next record is under 1SG9 : 
 
 From the last two years' oxpori<'nce we have di-cidnd to stock the ditch with native oysters, of three years' growth, this fall, for the 
 purpose of having them in thriving condition dnring the spawning-season of 1870. Wo have now down the following ([nantitics: 
 
 Buslicls. 
 
 Kemaining, fonr years old, say 25 
 
 Eemai7jiug,.of spawn 100 
 
 Selected natives, jdanted November 3 to 29 150 
 
 This year's growth, taken from the edge of the ditch 25 
 
 Total 300 
 
 The next entry is a list of the names of the 48 original proprietors to whom the oyster-lots, subsequently 
 transferred to the Townsend Brothers, were first granted by the town of East Haven. The lots run from No. 389 
 to No. 482 ; each lot consisted of two acres. 
 
 In July, 18G8, Mr. Townsend began spreading shells upon seven of his lots, and between the 16th and 29tli 
 threw overboard 4,487 bushels, estimating that each lot required from 700 to 750 bushels. The expense of this he 
 sets down at 8 cents a bushel; 2J cents cost of shells; 5 cents for boating and spreading; J cent for staking, etc. 
 
 Following this comes a "memorandum of sound and cove seed-oysters, planted August and September, 1808". 
 This states, very particularly, the date of planting, who did the labor, the exact location of the work, and the number 
 of bushels init down each time, with occasional additional note, regarding quality, etc. A large number of the Fair 
 Haven oystermen appear to have been furnished with steady employment at this season. Succeeding this entry, are 
 similar memoranda of Fair Haven river seed-oysters planted at the same time upon different ground. In all, 834 
 bushels of cove and sound seed and 2,595 bushels of river seed were planted, both kinds a year old. This seed, says a 
 subsequent entry, was laid down at the rate of 25 bushels to 30 feet square, or 1,000 bushels to the acre ; eighteen 
 months afterward it was decided to be too thick to thrive well. 
 
 At this time he began taking up some Virginia oysters. One cargo, iilanted April 24, 1809, on lot 455, consisted 
 of 705 bushels from Fishing bay. They cost, to bed down, 31i cents a bushel, and sold, December 1, at 48 cents a 
 bushel. Another cargo, jdanted on lots 400 and 407, April 25, 1 809, consisted of 2.280 bushels from Great Anamassie. 
 They cosl, to bed down, 34 J cents, and sold, on the ground, for 50 cents per bushel. The oysters remained down, on 
 the average, six months, and increased in growth one-third. 
 
 Between July 14 and 26 lie shelled the east side of lots 428, 429, 430 with 900 bushels of" stools", in a strip 
 about 100 feet wide, and put 200 bushels on Black Rock bar. 
 
 This completes the diary for 1869. I continue to quote : 
 
 January 1, 1S70. — Paid W F , for service as watchman, 10 days, at 52 ."iO, $25. 
 
 F was relieved to-day hy A. Monlthrop, whom I have employed, for the Townsend Brothers, to cnltivate oysters, and otherwise, 
 
 for one year, at the rate of fTf) per month. 
 
 January 2t), 1870. — Spent several hours to-day with Monlthrop on the oyster-heds in the harl)or. I also told him of my plans for 
 developing the ditch at Fort Halo. We walked around it and I gave him an idea how much of the ditch we had stocked ; I also showed 
 him the mussel-patch in the sluice, and gave him directions to get brush ready to lay over the mussels for the purpose of catching their 
 spawn, similar to the French plan. I also told him to prepare stakes, boats, etc., for work in the si)ring. 
 
 March 2(5, 1870. — I find the cold weather had killed many of our finest oysters near the sluice at the fort. We were employed scraping 
 and trimming up the ditch, etc. 
 
 March 28, 1870. — Moulthrop and myself busy on the oyster-grounds getting ready to transplant seed from spawn of 1868. 
 
 On the following day the transplanting was begun. Lot 409 had been "shelled" in July, 186S, at the rate of 
 1,000 bushels to the acre. These shells had canght a large amount of spat, which had lived and was now ready 
 to be transfeired. Between March 29 and May 26 there were taken from this lot, as follows : 
 
 Euahcls. 
 
 Transplanted to lot No. 42fi 050 
 
 Transplanted to lot No. 40G - G-15 
 
 Transplanted to lot No. 403 , 030 
 
 Transplanted to lot No. 402 540 
 
 Before tran.splanting, the lot which was to receive this seed was divided off' into "squares", 30 feet in breadth, 
 and about 15 bushels was placed on each square. Mr. Townsend made a plat of each lot, so planted, in his note- 
 book. I will transcribe one, as a sample of the many that occur all through, since it may be suggestive. On each 
 square is noted the date of planting and the number of bushels, thus : " April 14 — 15." 
 
74 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 NOETH. 
 28 30 30 30 30 
 
 30 feet. 
 
 Thisstrip, 30 
 
 April 18—15. 
 
 April 18—15. 
 
 ^co April 16 — 15. 
 H 
 
 April 16—15. 
 
 AprU 16—15. 
 
 April 15—15. 
 
 ft. widfi, plant ed July and A ugHst, 1868, 
 June 5, 1871 
 
 April 18—15. 
 
 April 15—15. 
 
 April 15—15. 
 
 April 15—15. 
 
 April 14—15. 
 
 April 14—15. 
 
 April 18—15. 
 
 April 14—15. 
 
 April 14—15. 
 
 April 14—15. 
 
 AprU 14—15. 
 
 April 14 — 15. 
 
 April 11—15. 
 
 Aprfl 11—15. 
 
 April 13—15. 
 
 AprU 13—15. 
 
 April 13—15. 
 
 April 13—15. 
 
 irith 210 bush 
 
 April 7 — 15. 
 
 April 7—15. 
 
 AprU 7—15. 
 
 April 7—15. 
 
 April 6—15. 
 
 ApiU 6—15. 
 
 els F. H. see 
 
 April 12—20. 
 
 AprU 5 — 15. 
 
 April 5—15. 
 
 April 5—20. 
 
 April 6—15. 
 
 April 6—15. 
 
 d. Beplanted 
 
 April 11—16. 
 
 Mar. 31—17. 
 
 Mar. 31—18. 
 
 Mar. 30—17. 
 
 Mar. 30-18. 
 
 Mar. 29—15. 
 
 90 90 90 90 90 100 100 bosh. 
 
 SOUTH. 
 
 Turning tlie pages still further, it appears that other spat had been caught on stools and was now transplanted, 
 over 8,000 bushels being gathered from ten or twelve acres. Meanwhile, seed was being imported from outside sources. 
 Cove seed, for instance, was caught uji from lot No. 415 and laid down on lot No. 444, on Black Eock bar, to the 
 amount of 750 bushels ; while on June 15, 30 bushels of Long Island seed was put on lot 417, at a cost of 25 cents a 
 bushel ; and on July 25, 110 bushels of Morris Cove seed, at 20 cents, was planted on lot 415. 
 
 Meanwhile, in May, the schooner Albert Field brought Mr. Towusend a cargo of Wycomico river oysters from 
 Virginia, which he bedded on Crane bar and on Black Eock bar, under the following expense : 
 
 3,000 bushels, first cost, at 15 cents $450 00 
 
 3,000 Imsliols, at 14 cents freight 420 00 
 
 2,940 bushels, bedded, at 3 cents 88 20 
 
 Total 958 20 
 
 Add cost of 4 tubs 4 00 
 
 Add brandiug 12 tubs, at 50 cents 6 00 
 
 Grand total , 9(58 20 
 
 Diary of Captain Townsend. — Going back a little, now that this subject of transplanting has been followed 
 to the end, the diary shows that Mr. Townsend conducted many exiierimeuts in ijroiiagating 03'sters during the 
 summer. I cojiy the record of this practical study : 
 
 May 25, 1870. — I have carefully watched the growth of oysters planted in the ditch. A large proportion of the first laid down have 
 died, having been badly mudded ; but the young ones, from the spat or spawn of the oysters, laid down in 1867 and 18G8, have grown very 
 rapidly. The shells are thin and generally thrifty. 
 
 June 18. — I have this day been employed * » * running east and west lines, as per map No. 1 of oyster-grounds, in New Haven 
 harbor within the limits of East Haven. [Here follows technical description of boundaries and ranges corrected from the survey of 1866.] 
 * * * I have taken great pains to have this survey made, and spared no expense, as it is very important that some landmark should 
 be made, as the ice carries away all stakes in winter, and it is remarkable that the one stake we have used has remained so long; but it 
 is sure to go next winter, for the sea-worms have eaten it badly. 
 
 June 23.— Laid down near the bridge 15 bu-shels very large and fine single oysters taken from lot 422. 
 
 June 29. — Employed all day. Employed all day with two carts, three men, and Sergeant Maxwell, at the fort, carting oyster-shells 
 preparatory to shelling the ditch. We have dumped 27 loads, of 25 bushels each, in piles 60 feet apart. Will spread the shells at the rate 
 of 12| bushels to a space 30 feet square. We call the ditch 30 feet wide at the bottom. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 75 
 
 July 2. — M;ix-n-ell finislioil spreading aliells iu tbo ditch for tlip present. For the past week I have kept the ditch with about 4 feet of 
 ■water in it in order to let the sim heat the water and make the oysters all spawn about thi' same time. I have also shut out the tide and 
 let tiow in as much fresh water as possible, as an abundant snp]>ly is supposed to benefit the oysters while sjiawuing. 
 
 Jiihj 10. — Examined shells and oysters in the fort ditch this uioruing. The native oy.sters of the ditch seem to be about half-done 
 spawning, while those taken from lot No. 4'J'J — very large, line, single oysters, say four years old — seem just ready to spawn. The shells 
 put iu July 1 are coated with slime, line sea-grasses, and now and then a speck which looks as if it might be spat. 
 
 At the end of July the author sums up his summer's labors, and counts over 10,000 bushels of stools planted, at 
 a cost of from 5 to 7 cents laid down, or a total of $688 50. 
 
 Jul;/ 28. — I have also laid down, as an experiment, what is equal to 00 bushels an acre of smooth stones on lot 179, to keep the shells 
 from shifting, and also to see if the spawn will set on the stones. 
 
 We are oft'ered any quantities of shells for 2 cents per bushel in the heap, or laid down for !> cents. We have paid as high as 5 cents 
 
 a bushel for shells brought from Fair Haven river, but can now get the same work done for 4 cents, and 3J. H G has planted 
 
 1T7 bushels of shells takeu from the saltpeter works for 2 J cents; William E. B furnishes shells, laid down, for 5 cents per bushel; and 
 
 William G will let us have 5,0U0 bushels for 2 cents, or have them laid down for 5 cents. 
 
 On August 1, Mr. Towusend tabulated his estimated wealth iu oysters — the season being now over — as follows : 
 
 Bthshels. 
 
 Young seed, from shells 8, 150 
 
 Old seed, river and cove 6,000 
 
 Fort ditch l,,'-)00 
 
 Scattering sources 1, ,^00 
 
 Virginia plants 3, 000 
 
 Total 20,150 
 
 August 2. — This day examined two oyster-lots in Morris cove, the first a triangular lot near Morris' wharf. » « * Wg fl^d it well 
 stocked, and also aflbrding good clamming, but the growth of oysters there is very slow. This is oue of the oldest beds in the cove, and 
 there are oysters on it seven or eight years old. The .second, oft' Nettleton's, ranges as follows: » » • This lot was seeded in 186(>-'67, 
 and the oysters have not grown since the first year. Clams iu abundance. 
 
 I notice that the oysters at Morris' and iu the harbor .are out of spawn, but we see no signs of young oysters yet. 
 
 SeptcmhcT 1. — Have examined carefully the shells laid down to catch spawn, and have not as yet found oue young oyster, either in the 
 fort ditch or in the harbor lots. We hear of a slight set in the cove and oft' the light-house. Moulthrop has been employed iu the cove 
 and has brought up and laid down on lot No. 413, about 150 bushels of oysters, which were very fat, hut had not grown enough to pay for 
 planting, iu three years ; and I am convinced from actual observation that Morris cove, inside of the base-line, is not a productive spot for 
 seed-oysters. Off-shore, and between Morris' wharf and the light-house, they may do better, as they get more current and fresh water. 
 If the brook running east of Thompson's house could be let into the cove about at Parker's house, I think it would improve oyster-culture 
 between the fort and the light-house, filOO per annum. 
 
 Moulthroi) has taken several bushels of clams from lots 250 and 2G7, and reports good clamming, something we will pay attention 
 to next year. 
 
 The Virginia oysters planted on Black Rock bar have ''sanded " somewhat, and, with the exception of a small spot in the sluice, the 
 ground north of a line running to Hugh Waters' is not fit to plant on again, as I notice that some sand-ridges have shifted two rods since 
 spring. The.se oysters (a lot of 1,060 bushels, from schooner Albert. Field, planted May 14, being all that lived out of a cargo in bad 
 condition when put down) have grown about 50 per cent, in three and a half months. If allowed to remain until December 1, they oiight 
 to be double their size when put overboard. Some of them are still in spawn, but are fit to open now, and their flavor is the same as that 
 of the fort oysters. 
 
 We also planted 1,920 bushels, from the same vessel, on Crane's bar, in 2 and 3 feet of water (low tide) and on softer bottom, and in 
 less current ; they have not done as well. 
 
 Oystermen report native oysters fat, but cannot account for it, as we have not had rain for three months. They say the reason tho 
 spawn has not matured this year is because the water has been so salt that it has killed the spawn. • Moulthrop has also caught up 500 
 bushels of natives planted on lot No. 401, and has laid them down for fall use on the flats off the mouth of the creek. 
 
 October 1. — During the last two weeks wo have sold about 175 bu.shels of oysters, and bought about 400 bushels of cove seed, and laid 
 it down for next ye.ar. We have also begun to open a few oysters to try the market, but the weather is so warm dealers do not care to 
 buy. The seed planted iu the spring looks thrifty and clean. The drills have made some havoc, and we hear of starfish otf the Pardee 
 buoy. 
 
 October 23. — Returned froiu Boston last night, and this afternoon went out with Jloultlirop to examine the oysters laid down as an 
 experiment, on Black Rock bar. We find th.at the tidal wave occasioned by the shock of an earthquake last Thursday, has done considerable 
 liavoc among the oy.ster-bcds. For the last two summers the growth of sea-weed on the flats has been very abundant, and as there was 
 no ice last winterto clean it oft", this year's growth, with the old growth, made the quantity double ; the hot sun this .summer having killed it 
 all, and left it to decay. When the tidal wave came up the harbor from south-southVest to north-northeast, it is reported to have combed up 2 
 feet, by captains of vessels lying at anchor, and it swept before it all the mass of loose decayed sea- weed, and piled in windrows all the way from 
 tho Townsend creek to Crane's bar, completely smothering 500 bushels of oysters laid down at the mouth of the creek. It also altered 
 the whole south and west side of Black Rock bar, and has destroyed hundreds of bushels of fine Virginia oysters, the sand in some places 
 being 2 feet high. It has also tossed the oysters about in every direction, and our loss cannot be counted up at present, but we found 
 oysters half a mile from their beds, which shows the strength of the tidal wave to have been great. 
 
 I find the oysters laid down as an experiment have all done well, except those laid down just north of the breakwater, off' King's 
 island. They are poor, which I attribute to not having fresh water, and I will in the spring open a creek through the meadow, which 
 will give a good sujiply ; as I believe the salt meadows are full of fine springs of fresh water, and if drained will not only benefit the 
 
 ' This and the previous sentence refer to popular traditions which no evidence supports as true. — E. I. 
 
76 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 meadow, but the fresh water will furnish a large supply of food necessary for the oysters to thrive well. The seed laid on the flats in May 
 last has increased 100 per cent., and ou Black Rock bar about 50 per cent. The young cove- or lijj;hthouse-seed, bought of Captain 
 Luddinn-tou in August, has at this moment increased 100 per cent., and astonishes us all. It is my opinion, that if we lay down any more, 
 iu order to thrive well they should be put down at the rate of 10 bushels to the square of 30 feet. By so doing, the seed will be large 
 and souud in about one year's time. 
 
 I have not examined the oysters in the ditch at Fort Hale for two months, but when looked at they were iu a thrifty condition, aud 
 will be ready for market this fall, if required. The two beds opposite ship-yard in Fair Haven river, are being taken up, and Mr. George , 
 Baldwin, the ship-builder, who has charge of them, says they are fat and looking well. The oysters in the cove are small, as they lie out 
 of the current ; but the clams are very abundant. Next year we shall clean up the cove. I write this in haste, as I le.ave for New York 
 to take command of steamer Ontario to-night, aud expect to make a voyage to Europe. Will commence next March to cultivate in earnest. 
 
 After his return from this voyage, Captain Townsend resumes his diary : 
 
 January 1, 1871. — Having closed the oyster-season last month, aud being away at sea, my brother, George H. Towuseud, decided to keep 
 Anson Moulthrop watching oysters until I returned. 
 
 Haviu" arrived at Boston, January 12, and home, J.annary I.'), I find the oyster-interest has been well looked out for, aud as ice has 
 closed up the harbor, we will wait until spring, before makiug farther beyoud watching, etc. 
 
 March 1. — The ice has now broken up and left the shore and salt meadows in a very bad condition, having had several south-south- 
 west gales, which reached their height about high water, piling the cakes of ice, some of which were 2 feet thick, one on the other, aud 
 the heavy surf kept them iu constant motion, so that the whole length of the beach has been stirred up from Fort Hale to the creek, aud 
 thousands of tons of sand have been driven upon the meadows north of the creek. On the whole, the north part of the farm has been 
 improved, but my point (the south water-front) badly injured. I also notice the ice has plowed deep furrows along the flats, and large 
 rocks have been taken from the beach and left on the flats ; and that oysters left in holes ou Black Rock bay, have been washed out, and 
 more than one-half carried out to sea by the ice. Those that remain, however, are of good quality, and in the sluice where the water 
 was deep enough to keep them from coming in contact with the ice, I find them vtTy fat and sweet. This winter has proved one thing, 
 however, that all oysters must be taken oft' the flats before the harbor freezes up, or frost will kill what ice does not carry off. Of the 300 
 bushels of Virginia oysters left on Crane's bar, in 4 feet of water at low tide, about three-fourths have died, but the one-fourth now living 
 have the same flavor as the native oysters, aud are very fat. The native oysters have all done well. Those planted ou the off-shore acres 
 have increased about 200 per ceut., aud those iu-shore about 150 jjer cent. I think we can safely estimate that the 8,500 bushels of seed 
 taken from about 3,000 bushels of shells laid down iu 1808, and transplanted iu April and May, 1870, will now turn out 22,000 bushels of 
 thrifty stock. 
 
 April 1. — Began working and watching oystei-s. » * * Wo now have the ground all staked out, and find that the whips put down 
 last fall have all remained in their places, unbroken by ice, as were the larger. Hereafter we shall use whips instead of stakes. The original 
 stake on the south line is gone. 
 
 Ajn-il 10. — Mr. F began cleaning ground of the Virginia oysters planted last fall, and putting them inside of the eel-grass above 
 
 the creek. The mud in the ditch at Fort Hale has smothered a great many of the oysters under cultivation there, and all the shells spread 
 last summer have disappeared. The heavy gales last winter have destroyed the southwest sea-wall, and killed large quantities of fine 
 oysters put there for the purpose of multiplication. We shall, however, shell the ditch again this summer, aud keep up the cultivation. 
 
 Ajtril 20.— I find that the 108 bushels of seed-oysters planted .along the north line by Anson Sloulthrop, April 8, 9, and 20, have not 
 thrived well, as the sea-weed grew up and choked them ; many, also, have been eaten by the sea-drills. 
 
 Ajn-il 22. — Have carefully examined the lots planted with shells, except the two most southern ones, and have not found one single 
 young oyster.* 
 
 May 18. — Began taking up and planting, and am pleased to find the different beds looking so fine. 
 
 June 24.— I find that on the acre No. 414 (planted in August aud SeptemVier, 1808, with Fair Haven river seed), where we laid down 
 2,595 bushels of oysters, we have taken off aud planted ou other acres 5,070 bushels. The gain, although considerable, is not as great as 
 it would have been had the oysters been transplanted last year. On some squares of 30 feet we took up 100 bushels. I find our great 
 mistake has been that of planting the oysters too thick. New Haven harbor seed, one year old, ou mud bottom, should be planted at the 
 rate of 12 bushels to 30 feet square. Then, when three years old, they will be fit to open, aud if allowed to remain four years, they wiU 
 take up at the i-ate of 75 bushels to the square. 
 
 Jutie 2ri, 1871.— I have this day taken several of the brick piers used in the foundation of the barracks, just taken down at Fort Hale, 
 
 and placed them at intervals of 30 feet along the north line of the oyster-tract adjoining land occupied by Mr. G audi B . 
 
 The ice having destroyed our stakes, I have taken this meaus to preserve our north line. 
 
 July 15, 1871.— I have carefully examined the shells this day, laid down July 7, by Goodale, and find a set of shells known as "bo.ats",t 
 which are the forerunners of the young oysters, aud look very much like them to the inexperienced. I have not yet been able to discover, 
 even with the help of a glass, any signs of spilt. 
 
 July 20.— The native oysters are now about half out of spawn, .and I notice on the shells laid down July 7 aud 11, a set of a greenish 
 color in spots, which may be the oyster-sp.at. It is my opinion, from careful observation during the last four years, that oyster-spawn, 
 after leaving the oyster, remains floating about, say a day or a week, until it matures, when it adheres to any clean, hard substance which 
 has been just thrown into the water, and is free from slime. After this the coating breaks and the spat takes the shape and form of an 
 oyster. Clean bits of wood, leather, bones, glass, iroO, and stone have been picked up covered with young oysters, which proves that 
 almost any substance thrown into the water, when it is impregnated with spat, will catch it. For catching aud propagating oyster-spawn 
 the French use brush, but we find that oyster-shells are better. Young New Haven native shells are considered the best, as they are thin, 
 and when the oyster grows large enough to keep out of the mud, the shells break asunder and the oyster grows in better shape. Where 
 there is mnch motion in the water, stones have been used, and where the water is quiet, scallop shells are preferred by some. 
 
 August 1.— The shells are becoming covered with some kind of spawn, green, black, and a silver color, which m.ay be the eggs of the 
 oyster just ready to break. 
 
 'An entry made July Ifi, 1871, reads: "I find, on examining again, the set w.as, in spits, good enough to pay expenses." 
 + The slipper limpet or deck-head, Crepidula; three species occur in Long Island sound, of which the C. foniicata is the best known, — 
 I. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. ^ 77 
 
 Jugiist 4. — I can uow safely say that tho spat lias Itegnn to adhere to the shells. I have several very fine specimens. The eg"-s at 
 first look (uufler tho glass) like very line pearls with a black spot, which adheres to the shell and seems then to break out and take the 
 form of an oyster. 
 
 August 5. — I notice to-day that the young oysters on shells laid down .July 31 are as large and abundant as on tho shells laid down 
 Jnly 7 and 15; and, from a careful examination, I am sure the little pearly specks with a black dot, noticed on the shells from, say, July 
 25, were really oysters in their iucipient state. On one shell I have counted, with tho naked eye, over 200 well-formed oysters ; and under 
 the glass they are too numerous to count with certainty. Calm and hot weather, from July 10 to August 10, is necessary to make the spawn 
 mature and adliero to the shells ])rop(^^ly. 
 
 August 7. — I have proved to-day, to my own mind, that the green spots first seen on the shells laid down early in July arc not oyster- 
 spat or spawn. The dark, ninddy substance on tho shells, I am inclined to think, comes from the oysters and envelops the spawn, 
 protecting it while drifting around until it becomes fit to adhere to a stool and hatch out. The eggs, when they leave this covering, look like 
 fine saud, transparent under the glass, with a black dot. I have proved this by opening several oysters on Saturday, August 5, and, after 
 removing the meats, carefully laying the shells down near a stake in the center of a bed of oysters just out of spawn ; to-day, August 7, 
 just 48 hours later, I find on these shells a fine "set" of youug oysters, some of them just formed, others just attaching themselves and 
 dropping off at the slightest touch. 
 
 I also notice that the young oysters which h.ave attached themselves to shells on Black Rock bar, and arc hardly ten day-i oM, have 
 an enemy in the small black winkle or snail,* and in the drill, which bores holes in the shell and destroys them by the hiindr^'d. 
 August 8. — I have decided to put down 600 bushels more oyster-shells, as I find the w.ater is full of spawn. 
 
 August 9. — Have put down 300 bushels to-day oft' Black Rock bar, along the edge sand and mud, and 400 bnshels to August 9, which 
 finishes spreading shells this year. Total anionnt 5, 190 Imshels. Shells b(Might at the copper-works have cost us 7 cents laid down. Shells 
 from Fair Haven 2^, and .'> ceuts boating, equals 7^ cents laid down. Shells from oysters opened by our own help 2^ cents laid down. 
 
 August 10. — Have examined carefully the shells laid down July 31, and tiud an increase in the set, and a very rapid growth. I find 
 that by opening oysters and laying down the shells, that in three tides we find a set of spat, which proves that the water is now full of 
 spat. I have also noticed that for tho first two days after the yoimg oysters have been taken from the water they seem to increase in size. 
 They then die and some drop from the shells. 
 
 I estimate the total amount of bushels now jilanted as follows : 
 
 Bnshols, 
 
 Spawns of 1868 planted in 1870, and now doubled by increase 16,200 
 
 lti68 seed (spawn of 1867) transplanted 6, 130 
 
 Fort Hale (spawn of 1866), jilanted on Black Rock bar 3,225 
 
 Oysters cm beds (sjiawn of 1869) transiilanted last year 1, 250 
 
 Fort ditch. Fair Haven, and Cove 1, 000 
 
 Young seed on shells of 1870 1,000 
 
 Total 28,805 
 
 Allowing the growth of this to increase one-fourth th's .season, and adding this 7,000 hnshels to the 28,805, we have 35,805 bushels of 
 oysters actually growing. To this may be added 5,190 bushels of shells well set, to say nothing of the set on the shells laid down in 1870, 
 which will amount to something. The estimate, therefore, sums up as follows: 
 
 Bnsliols. 
 
 Total oysters pl.anted 28. ':^05 
 
 Increase through growth 7,000 
 
 Stools and set 5,190 
 
 Total property 40,995 
 
 August 19. — The spawning-season is now over, and I find this year's experience should not advise laying down shells later than August 
 10 or earlier than Jnly 10. The spawn seems to have drifted in flakes. Some areas have a better set than others. The drills and small 
 black snails are killing the young oysters by the millions, and where it runs bare at low water it is worse. 
 
 Septcmher 1. — I notice that where the spat has set on oyster-stakes in the eel-grass, that the grass sweep the young oysters off the 
 stake; but out of the reach of the grass the oysters are solid and reach up within a few iuches of the water-surface at high tide, and the 
 grass seems to pn^vent the drill from getting up the stake to the young oysters. Oysters .ire very jioor, except those laid in the sluice. 
 
 •September 25. — We have caught up, sent to market, and laid on the flats, about 500 bushels three years old. Oysters over three years 
 old are now large enough for shell-oysters. I saved a specimen of oyster set on a stake, and will next year try brush for the spat to 
 set on. 
 
 Extent of oyster-culture m ISTew Haven. — Out of the seven or eight tboiLsand acres "designated" 
 in New na\eu harbor and its ofling, only from 3,000 to .3,500 are in actual use as yet. The largest possession is 
 Mr. H. C. Rowe's ; he operates upon about 1,500 acres. Several other planters have from two to six hundred, while 
 many have a huntlred acres under cultivation. The major part of this is in deep water, and is yet regarded to a 
 great extent as an experiment, particularly bj' those who live in other parts of the state. Thus far the success has 
 been encouraging. One gentleman calculates that he has 200,000 bushels of oysters of all ages on his offshore laud. 
 Another planter gives me his estimated wealth as follows: On 70 acres, 75,000 bushels, suitable to be sold as seed 
 in the spring of 1880, at an average of 50 cents a bushel ; on 50 acres, shells and a good set ; elsewhere, in one 
 tract, about 3,000 bushels of young spawners, on which shells are to be thrown ; on another tract, 20,000 bushels 
 of seed useful in ISSO; and, la.stly, an area holding about 5,000 bushels of "set". A 30-acre lot yielded this tirm 
 12,000 bushels in three years, which were sold at 70 cents. 
 
 * Tritia triinttata, or perhaps Ilfanassa obsolela. No doubt various of the small gasteropoda devour incipient oysters and other young 
 mollusks. 
 
78 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Eatages op starfishes and thieves. — As yet starfishes have not proved a resistless enemj' to the outer 
 beds, although individuals have suffered great harm through their ravages in isolated cases. There are not so 
 many rocks and hiding places for them here as exist in the western jiart of the state, which may account for the 
 jiresent partial immunity. It is feared, nevertheless, that continued planting will cause a gradual increase of the 
 plague, since elsewhere starfishes have increased in jiroportion to the expansion of the planting. A greater obstacle 
 to success here is the liability of the bottom to move in gales and bury or scatter tlie beds. The drawback from 
 thieving has already been touched upon. Tliis nuisance has been greatly abated, and a much healthier public 
 sentiment prevails, but tiiere still remain lawless men who will watch their chance to push out from some cove, or 
 come in from the sound, and steal the bivalves. Hence a watchtower has been built at Long Wharf, in jSTew 
 Haven, in which a man is kept night and day. Another is built on the flats that run out from the West Haven 
 shores. Still others are kept off the Light-House point, and at a point off Branford harbor. The oyster-planters 
 share the expense of such provisions for keei)iug their property from thieves, each paying according to the amount 
 he has at stake. 
 
 QuAtJTY OF OYSTERS IN 1879-'80. — The present season (1879-80) the native oysters grown in all parts of 
 river and habor, especially in the neighborhood of Morris cove, are of very unusually poor quality. I have heard 
 suggested but one plausible explanation of this. DiU'ing July and August, 1879, a series of heavy inland storms 
 occurred, and the Qninepiac and its tributaries were swollen with successive freshets; as a consequence, the water 
 of the harbor, throughout its whole extent, was so roily that in place of its accustomed purity it was thick and brown 
 for weeks together; it does not seem improbable that such an unusual condition not onl3' proved fatal to tlie spawn 
 in all parts of the harbor, as something certainly did, lor no set was obtained, but cut off also the food of the adult 
 oysters to such an extent that they were unable to recuperate from the long fast. The fact that oysters will "fat 
 up" in a day, under good circumstances, is oi)posed to this theory, which is worth only so much as a suggestion. 
 
 31. OTSTEE-CULTITEB AT MILFOED. 
 
 History of Milford as a fishing to'wn. — Leaving IsTcw Haven, the first stoppage for oyster-studies is at 
 Milford, one of the most interesting and beautiful places in the state. It was settled in 1039, and long ago had an 
 extensive West India trade and ship-building industry. The business in that Hue declined forty years ago. The gulf, 
 harbor, and estuaries have always beeu more or less prolific of shelllish. IMilford long-clams have a good 
 reputation. Milford point, at the mouth of the Housatouic river, was a famous oystering place many years ago. 
 Old citizens remember a row of huts, built of wreckage and covered with banks and thatching of sea- weed, which 
 used to border this wild beach. In these huts lived fifty or sixty men, who made here their home during a greater 
 or less part of the year, and devoted themselves to clam-digging and oyster-raking. Many of these men, who 
 were utterly poor, thus got together the beginnings of a fortune, which, invested in active agriculture, placed 
 item among the most influential inhabitants. But for the last thirty or forty years such sea iudustiies as these 
 have been declining, until nothing whatever was done on the water by Milford people, except the catching of 
 menhaden, for the utilization of which two large factories have beeu built. 
 
 Experiments of Mr. William H. Merwin. — About eight years ago, however, Mr. William H. Merwin, 
 knowing what had been done about New Haven, began his valuable experiments in cultivating native oysters. 
 He and some others had once before started au enterprise of raising oysters in the "Gulf pond" at the mouth of 
 the Indian river. But the other stockholders, being older men, disregarded his advice, though he had always lived 
 by the shore, and the effort failed. They insisted ui)on damming the river, so that the sediment brought down by 
 the stream was deposited upon and smothered the oysters. It is this episode that gave rise to section 10 of the 
 oyster-statute. 
 
 Eight years ago Mr. Merwin resolved to try oyster-plantiug for himself. He took up a few acres off the shore 
 in water 8 feet deep at low tide. He had just got his oysters well plai.ted aud had high hopes of success, when a 
 storm destroyed them all. His labor and money got no return but costly experience. He then tried again, further 
 out toward the sea, in 18 feet depth of water, near the government buoy. He got so heavy a set, and his young 
 stock grew so well, that he estimated his crop at 10,000 bushels. Cultivators from Providence and Boston came 
 down and bargained with him to take it all about the middle of April, but the last of March there came a gale 
 which drifted so much sand upon the oysters that they had not strength, after the severe winter, to "spit it out", 
 aud before they could be taken up so many died that only 3,000 bushels were sold. There had been an immense 
 excitement over the seeming success of oyster-culture ; a joint stock company had been formed and the whole harbor 
 taken up; but this storm put an end to the enthusiasm, and everybody, except Mr. Merwin and his two sous, 
 retreated. Mr. Merwin, however, saw that the trouble lay in the shallowness of the water. He therefore went 
 down to Pond point, eastward of the harbor, and buoyed ott' liOO acres in water from 25 to 40 feet deep, upon a 
 hard, gravelly, and sandy bottom. He placed upon this ground a (piantity of full-grown oysters aud shells and 
 secured a large set, which has been augmented each year since, until he now has 100 acres under cultivation. In 
 1877 there was a very heavy set hereabouts; in 1878 less, aud in 1879 least of all. 
 
Plate XXXI. 
 1 VI %? M 
 
 Monograph- OYSTER-IJ^D USTE Y. 
 
 TinrTTT' 
 
 Oystkr Tongs and Nippers. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 79 
 
 The Milford oystersteasiek. — Having thus got assurance of a profitable farm, for storms no longer seemed 
 able to aflcct him, Mr. Merwiii saw that he needed more rapid and sure means of harvesting his crop than the row- 
 boats and skifi's afforded. He therefore emploj-ed the firm of Lockwood & Co., of Norwalk, to build him a steamer 
 for the express purpose of dredging, and introduced the proper machinery for that work. With this steamer, which 
 is, to a large degree, independent of wind and weather, he can do three times the amount of work possible for the 
 same number of dredges worked without steam (.500 bushels is not an uncommon day's result with two dredges), 
 and do it best on the "dull" days, when it is too calm for his neighbors' sloops to work. Its owners often find 
 profitable employment for their leisure in chartering the steamer to other oystermcn, who desire aid in dredging or 
 in raking oft' the .starfisli that infest some beds. One single instance of the advantage tlie use of steam was to this 
 firm will be pardoned. In the spring of 1879 a Ehode Island phinter sent a sloop, capable of carrying 1,500 bushels, 
 to New Haven to buy small seed. The Merwins were invited to contribute to the cargo, the captain of the sloop 
 buying on the principle of "tii'stcome, first served", until he had filled up, haste being the great desideratum. It 
 happened, that upon tlie very day tlie sloop arrived a dead calm fell, and not a sloop from Fair Haven or Oyster 
 point could haul a dredge. Meanwhile Mr. Merwin's steamer was putiting back and forth through the quiet sea, 
 without an hour's cessation, and in two days placed 1,200 bushels of seed upon the sloop's decks. 
 
 Local opposition to oystek-cultuee. — There are two rivers which come down to the sea at Milford, the 
 pleasant Wepawaug, along whose banks the town lies, and whose upper waters turn numerous mills; and Indian 
 river, whicli empties into the harbor close by the mouth of the former stream. Indian river debouches in an estuary 
 called the Gulf, or Gulf pond. Except in one little spot no oysters grow now, or ever did grow, in this inclosed 
 salt-water pond, although it would be the best possible place to cultivate them. But the popular feeling of the 
 town is so strongly against the utilization of these advantages by private effort, that no ground is permitted to be 
 set off, and any oysters put down there arc liable to be seized as public plunder. Once, indeed, the oyster-committee 
 assigned to Mr. ^lerwin a tract in the gulf; but as soon as it was found out, an indignation meeting was held and 
 mob law was loudly threatened. Cooler judgment overruled that, but any cultivation of this valuable ground, 
 otherwise wholly useless, was sternly interdicted. 
 
 Present state of oyster-culture at Milford. — Inspired by Mr. Merwin's success and pluck, various 
 persons have taken up ground in the vicinity of his tract off' Pond point, amounting in the aggregate to about 750 
 acres, divided among eight owners. One of these gentlemen, in addition to 100 acres h'^re, has several smaller tracts 
 at different points along the shore to the westward ; in all, about 400 acres, upon which some thousands of bushels 
 of young oysters are growing. There is plenty of good bottom still remaining off' this shore, however. 
 
 32. METHODS OF CATCH AND DISPOSAL. 
 
 How ground is obtained. — The mode of obtaining ground under the new law of 1881, says a correspondent 
 of the New York >S'»«, will be as follows: The person desiring ground must make application in the prescribed form 
 of a blank, legally approved by the chief justice of the state, setting forth the quantity of ground he wishes, 
 prescribing exactly where it is, and showing that it is not and has not been within ten years a natural oyster, clam, 
 or mussle bed. A notice, which includes an exact copy of that application, is sent to the town clerk of the town 
 opposite which the ground asked for lies, and must be posted in a conspicuous place in his office for twenty days, in 
 which time objectors to the grant, if there are any, must file their objections with the town clerk. If no objections 
 appear, the commissioners are authorized to give the applicant a deed of the ground, upon his paying the state $1 
 per acre therefor and the expense of surveying and mapping the lot, which is covered by a charge of ten cents per 
 acre. If any objections are tiled with the town clerk they must be returned witli the ai)])lication to the state fish 
 commissioners, who will institute an investigation and decide the case as seems to them just and lawful. The 
 grounds for objections are, either that the grounds applied for are natural beds, or that some person claims ownership 
 by virtue of many years' possession and enjoyment, or under a deed from the town. Fifteen years' possession is 
 held to confer rights of ownership. In the matter of forbidding the designation to private individuals of natural 
 shellfish beds, the law is especially severe, prescribing that the commissioner who knowingly does such a thing 
 shall be subject to a fine of not less than $100 nor more than $500, and that the person illegally obtaining such 
 natural bods knowingly shall lose his designation and forfeit all he has paid for it. Provision is made for the return 
 of a pmchaser's money in case his designated ground proves to be unfit for the cultivation of shellfish, and to 
 prevent speculators from getting possession of ground and holding it indefinitely for a rise in value instead of for 
 honest work, thei-e is a clause compelling the cultivation of ground within five years from its allotment. A clause in 
 the bill prescribes that no jierson can hold ground taken from the state, or from a grantee (>f the state, unless he has 
 been a resident of the state for one year prior to his entering upon such possession. This clause the commission 
 will probably ask the legislature to strike out. Xot only is its narrow proscrii)tiou an offensive feature, but conditions 
 are easily conceived in which it would work great injury to persons desirous of retiring from business, and to heirs, 
 beside shutting out much desirable capital. The law provides for the plain marking out of designated grounds by 
 the grantees by permanent "stakes, buojs, ranges, or monuments", so that hereafter, or, rather, after operations are 
 fully commenced under this law and commission, there need be no more confusions of i)roperty rights to ground 
 under water than respecting real estate high and dry on a hill. 
 
80 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Tongs, rakes, and dredges. — In gathering seed near shore, and somewhat otherwise, tongs and occasionally 
 rakes (those with long curved teeth) are used ; but the marketable oj'sters are nearly all brought from the bottom 
 by dredges of various weights and slight differences in pattern. In the case of all the smaller sailboats, the 
 dredges having been thrown overboard and filled, are hauled up by hand — a back-breaking operation. The oysters 
 themselves are very heavy, and frequently half the amount caught is composed of shells, dead oysters, winkles, and 
 other trash, which must be culled out, thus compelling the oystermen to twice or thrice the work which they would 
 be put to if there were nothing but oysters on the ground. The work of catching the oyslers by any of these 
 methods is, therefore, very tiresome and heavy, and various improvements have been made, from time to time, in 
 the way of labor-saving, from a simple crank and windlass to patented comijlicated power-windlasses, similar to 
 those commonly used in the Chesapeake boats. When a proper breeze is blowing, dredging can be accomplished 
 from a sail-boat, with one of these windlasses, with much quickness and ease. In a calm, or in a gale, however, the 
 work must cease, as a rule. 
 
 Under these circumstances, and as the business increased, it is not surprising that the aid of steam should have 
 been enlisted; nor, perhaps, is the controversy which has ensued to be wondered at, since the introduction of novel 
 or sui)erior power into some well-traveled walk of industry has ever met with indignant opposition. 
 
 Boats. — In former times all oystering was done by means of small row-boats. That this has not been wholly 
 abandoned is shown by the fact, that there are yet to be found fifteen or twenty dug-out canoes at and about Jl^ew 
 Haven, devoted to catching both seed and marketable oysters. Some of these canoes are of large size and good 
 pattei'u, but few or none are now made new, so that their number diminishes, and they will before long disappear. 
 These canoes are to be seen nowhere else along our coast between Maine and the Chesapeake, and with their decay 
 goes a monument, not only of old oystering, but of all aboriginal life in New England. 
 
 The substitute for the old canoe is found iu the square-ended skill", which is only a small scow-boat. Of these, 
 which are worth perhaps $10 each, a walk along the Quinepiac will disclose a hundred or more, all devoted to 
 oyster- work, chiefly as tenders on the sail-boats in the planting of seed, the bedding down of Virginia stock, and 
 the transporting of cargoes. Many of these small boats, however, are used by planters of small means, who cannot 
 afford to run a sail-boat. 
 
 The sail-boats of New Haven harbor are almost universally of the sharpie model, which is well known for its 
 speed-giving and room-aflbrding qualities. It is the boast of the Connecticut oystermen, and to them the world 
 owes the perfection of this admirable craft, which has been developed to supply the need of a large-stowing, swift- 
 running craft, which, at the same time, should be flat-bottomed and draw so little water as to run safely over the 
 scarcely submerged oyster-beds. There are nearly 100 sharpies in the harbor, worth perhaps $15,000. 
 
 Oyster-steamers. — The first utilization of steam in this business, so far as I can learn, was by Capt. Peter 
 Decker & Brother, of South Norwalk, about 1870. They first put a boiler and engine in the sloop Early Bird, to 
 turn the drums in which the dredge lines were hauled, still retainiug the sails for the propulsion of the vessel. 
 After a time they extended their facilities, by inserting a small screw in their sloop, to assist in propelling her when 
 the wind was light, and at length, after further trial, they took this machinery out and put in a larger boiler and 
 engine, with special winding apparatus, and discarding sails altogether. These changes cost $1,.'?00, and now, at 
 an expense of 3 to 4 bushels of coal a day, this little steamboat hauls two dredges, and can take up 150 to 200 
 bushels i)er day. 
 
 After the Messrs. Decker's experiments, Mr. W. H. Lockwood, of Norwalk, not an oysterman, but an enthusiatio 
 believer in steam-dredging, built f he steamer Enterprise expressly for the business. Her length is 47 feet; beam, 14 
 feet; she draws 4 feet of water. She handles two dredges; has a daily capacity of 150 or 200 bushels. 
 
 These were followed by several other steamers. Mr. Joshua Levinness, of City island, has a very large boat 
 built for the purpose, and fitted with very heavj' machinery; but it is said to be inconveniently arranged and 
 expensive to run. She hauls four large dredges over the stern, and caught oysters so fast on the public oyster- 
 grounds in the state of New York, that the owners of sailing-boats induced the New York legislature to forbid the 
 use of steam on the public grounds. 
 
 The Merwins, of Milford, and Mr. Wheeler Hawley, of Bridgeport, also have steamers of large capacity, so 
 that there are now iu all seven in Long Island sound, but it is generally acknowledged that the most thoroughly 
 equipped boat for this purpose, of the fleet, is owned by H. C. Kowe & Co., of Fan- Haven, Connecticut. It is named 
 the ''William H. Lockwood", and is comparatively new, and cost between six and seven thousand dollars. The 
 dimensions of this boat are: length, 63 feet; beam, IG feet; draught, 5i feet. Her boiler is larger and her engine 
 more powerful than usual in a boat of her size, and she can therefore be used for towing, and can force her way 
 through heavy ice in the winter, so that her owner is sure of a supply of oysters for his customers when other 
 dealers may be unable, with sailing-vessels, to get them. Beside her regular propeller engine, she has a double 
 engine for hauling dredges, which hauls all four dredges full of oysters at once, and lands them on deck, two on 
 each side, at the rate of 800 bushels a day, if needed. This employs a crew of ten men, who are protected from 
 the weather by a housing which covers iu the whole deck. 
 
 Opposition to steam-dredging: Grounds or objection. — Those who were not in possession of the 
 steamers, however, (piickly began to look askance at the rapidity and comprehensiveness of their worlc, and eaily^ 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 81 
 
 bewail to attemi)t to form i)ul)lic opinion aiul secure legislation teudiug to repress this dangerons competition. An 
 early success was had, in so far that steam-di-edging was permitted on public seed-ground in the sound only on two 
 days of each week. Not satisfied with this, however, laws were sought which, if they did not prohibit the use 
 of steam altogether, should at least restrict it to the designated planting-groinid of the owner. The controversy 
 which ensued then was long and bitter. In my inexperience it would be in-esumptuous in me to assume a 
 Judicial function; and here, as elsewhere, I shall restrict myself to a brief presentation of the arguments ojjposed, 
 merely pointing out, before I begin, that this contest is apparently the same whicli has always been waged by luuid- 
 labor against machinery, and by poor machines against those more adequate to the work — a tight originating in 
 ignorance and unprogressiveness, and perpetuated through jealousy and personal feeliiig. I do not say this of this 
 controversy alone, but of the whole history of invention and i)rogress in the arts. I have no doubt the Indians 
 and first settlers thought the mollusks of the coast would be exterminated, when some enterprising I'uritau or 
 Knickerliocker brought the destructive rake and tongs or the terrible clamhoe to bear upon them ; and the 
 owners of these again were filled with dismay, when the first cb-edge was explained to them and boldly thrown 
 over, first from a row-boat and then from sloop and schooner. The transition to steam-power seems only another 
 similar step, and the conii)laiuts against it are eqiially valid against superseding steam cotton-looms to hand- 
 weaving, or the swift circular-saw to the old pit method. There is hardly any branch of the seine-fisheries now 
 where steam is not ])rofitabIy enqtloycd, having overcome opjjosition, and its service is widening every day. And 
 as steam has won before, and appro^ ed its title to the crown by its results, so I feel confident it will again be 
 victorious — for the world does move. 
 
 The arguments by which the emi)loynu'nt of steam-power on Connecticut's jjublic oyster-beds is sought to be 
 abolislied are about these, as 1 gather them, chiefly fi'om a minority report to the legislatiu-e of 1881, on a bill 
 before that body : 
 
 There are within the boundaries of the waters of Connecticut, at various points along the northern shore of 
 Long Island sound, in the aggregate about C,000 acres of "natural oyster-beds" of the state. 
 
 On a comparatively small portion of this area, l^iug in the channels of rivers and in shallow waters near the 
 shore, oysters are customarily allowed to grow to maturity, and are gathered for market and for their own 
 consumption by the poorer classes of the people. On a much larger i)ortion of the natural oyster-beds the oysters 
 are ordinarily collected when small, to be iilanted by oyster-cultivators as seed upon their private beds. The 
 gathering of these seed-oysters is accomplished by means of dredges attached by ropes to boats in motion, and so 
 drawn along the bottom over the oyster-lieds. 
 
 There are directly interested in this business of gathering and planting oysters, about 3,000 citizens of the 
 state, most of them small operators with limited capital, owning from two to twenty acres of designated ground 
 for oyster planting — and small vessels propelled by sail or oars. Some of them own no groiind at all, but gain 
 their livelihood by gathering the seed and selling it to larger jiroprietors. Seven individuals of the entire number 
 of our citizens engaged in this puisuit employ steam tugs or i)ropellers ui dredging. The state, by previous 
 legislation, has prohibited this use of steam-power on a tract which includes about G33 acres of the public natural 
 growth, knning a tract which includes about 5,100 acres subject to such use. The olyectof the desired legislation 
 is to prohibit the further use of tliis steam-power, and to place all our citizens on an equality in the means employed 
 in the collection of this their common pi'operty from this common or piiblic domain. Such legislative prohibition 
 seems to be called for as a matter of fairness and justice to all persons who, by virtue of their common pro])rietorshi]i, 
 are equally entitled to gather oysters and other shellfish from the public domains of the state, and more particularly 
 to that large class of our citizens who depend upon the prosecution of this business for the livelihood of themselves 
 and their families. It has been found, I'roin evidence submitted to state-authorities under oath, that by reason of 
 the limited resources of this large class of cmr citizens but very few, if any of them, are, or are likely to be, able 
 to provide themselves with steam power ; that by the use of this power a single A'essel can, in a given space of time, 
 collect of this common public ])roiier1y a quantity twelve times larger than can be gathered by an average sailing- 
 vessel; thus being independent of Mind and tide, a steamer can prosecute its work about twice as many days in 
 each week, and many more hours in each day; that the earlier part of the dredging season is equally subject to 
 calms, and that by a combination of these variiuis causes, together with the fact that the annual crop of seed- 
 oysters is limited, and in any given season is liable in a great measure to be exhausted, the favored few, if steam- 
 dredging on the pid)lic property is allowed to continue, will inevitably gain a vast and unjust advantage over the 
 larger and poorer class, and practically drive them fiom the field, deprive them of their employment, in many 
 cases reduce them to destitution, and create a monopoly of the business in the hands of a few individuals. 
 
 To this view of the case, it is ol)jected, that though these facts may be undeniable, yet it is counter to the spirit 
 of the age, and a blind and inequitable suppression of private enterprise, to deprive any individual of the free use of 
 all the improvements which science and his own resources have placed at his (command. Tliis would have weight 
 if the subject under consideration were simply a matter of private rights, if it were sjj^ply a question what 
 improvements might be employed by individuals in connection with the use of their own private property. 
 o 
 
82 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 But it is to be remembered, that tliis is a matter of public and common right, and that it is not only the 
 privilege but the duty of the state, in relation to this common i)roperty, to see that it is fairly and evenly distributed 
 among those to whom it equally belongs, and that no person or class of persons shall obtain more than a just share 
 of its benefits. This principle is invariably recognized and acted upon in our legislation, relative to our inland 
 fisheries; relative to game; relative to steam-dredging on private grounds in certain localities; relative to the taking 
 of mature oysters, and even in the designation of grounds for the planting and cultivation of oysters, and any 
 legislation that ignores this principle, by favoritism in the granting away of public land, or any other public laroiierty, 
 is justly subjected to the reproach of its constituents. 
 
 Further, it is for the preservation of the public oyster-grounds. We have seen that the area was limited, there 
 being in all only about 5,728 acres of the 500,000 acres covered by the waters of this state. This comparatively small 
 fraction of the whole is the sole natural nursery of all our oyster-growth; and the existence of this natural oyster- 
 ground depends entirely upon the condition of the bottom. 
 
 In order that any portion of the bottom may constitute a natural oyster-bed, it is essential that it should be 
 composed of cobble-stones, gravel, shell, or other similar hard substance, from which, by the action of the water, 
 slime and other impurities are naturally removed. Without these conditions the spawn, which is floating in the 
 water, will not be deposited and adhere; no germ will be deposited; no oyster-bed be formed. 
 
 It is obvious, therefore, that any practice which tends to remove, diminish, or cover up this indispensable 
 foundation for the bed, inevitably leads to the destruction of the bed itself, and reduces the area of the natural 
 oyster- grounds of the state. The jirocess of dredging necessarily removes, together with the seed gathered, some 
 l)ortion of this essential foundation of the bed; but by the style of construction and the comparatively light weights 
 of dredges ordinarily employed by sailing-vessels, this objectionable feature of the business is in a large measure 
 obviated ; while we find that by the different style of construction and much greater weight of the dredges naturally 
 and almost invariably used by the steamers, they sink deei)er and penetrate further into the bottom ; they more 
 readily overcome resistance ; they gather up and remove much larger quantities of the foundation-material of the 
 beds, leave the surface in a broken and uneven condition, more liable to be buried in sand and rendered barren by 
 the action of the waters in a storm ; and they plough under, smother, and thus destroy the Seed-oysters they do not 
 gather up. We find, from the evidence, that such has actually been the result of steam-dredging on certain portions 
 of public oyster-growth. 
 
 Prior to the fall of 1878, on the tract known as the " Sbippen" bed off Stamford, there had been for years a good 
 annual growth. 
 
 In the fall of that year a steam-dredge was worked over a very considerable portion of that bed, which portion, 
 since that time, has been tried and found totally unproductive; but on other portions of the bed, immediately 
 adjoining the place other operations, a good supply has since been annually obtained. 
 
 Prior to the fall of 1879 the " jS^oroton " bed, a tract of some 300 acres, was for the most part yearly covered with 
 an ample "set" of seed. A steamer dredged on a portion of that bed in the summer of that year, and thereafter 
 the ground on which she dredged was found unfruitful. 
 
 For many years off Fairfield bar there had been a valuable bed. Two steamers worked it, and since that time 
 no ojsters have been found there. 
 
 In 1879 two steamers dredged upon a small tract of natural ground known as the "Pond point" bed, off the 
 month of Milford harbor, which before that time had borne large quantities of oysters. It has since yielded 
 nothing. 
 
 The owners of steamers argue that they will go into deep water and make beds, and assert that " only a few 
 years ago the natural bed off Bridgeport was only a little patch. By the work of the vessels it has been spread out 
 until it is five miles long and nearly a mile wide. There is no reason why it should not be made four times as large 
 by the introduction of steam". 
 
 In respect to this a citizen of South Norwalk remarks as follows, claiming to know whereof he speaks : 
 
 The Bridgeport bed was discovered in July, 1867. Then it extended from Black Eock harbor to Point-No-Point, at least fonr miles, 
 and was from one-half to one mile wide, covering about three thousand acres. Capt. Saniuel Byxbee, Joseph Coe, and William M. 
 Saunders were the first to go on it from this town. In one drift, in a light breeze, they caught over 300 bushels of seed. Capt. J. 
 Leviuness, in going across the bed three times, took 1,000 bushels. Capt. Barnes piled the deck of a fifty-ton sloop in one drift. Catching 
 seed there was a constant letting go and hauling, and men became so exhausted they fell down from sheer fatigue. At one time 450 sails 
 were counted at work on the bed and they had plenty of room. That number of vessels could not be set on three acres, place them side by 
 Bide. Now the bed does not actu.ally cover 40 acres, and is in small patches, scattered over the ground of the former bed. It has been 
 worked almost to death, and it only needs one season of steamers to exterminate it entirely. 
 
 This same gentleman expressed the sentiment of many of his neighbors, too, when he wrote to the Sea World 
 in 1879: 
 
 Permit me to say that your eoiTespondent uses sophistry in his argument that steam and machinery have the right of way, and that 
 aiauuul labor ninst quietly submit to be displaced by it. It is the right and duty of every citizen of this state to ask that the legislation 
 be for the benefit of the, many and not the few; in the interests of labor rather than capital; the weak rather than the strong; and that 
 the public domain be reserved for the benefit of all its citizens. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 83 
 
 On the otlier hand, in the language of the minority report referred to above : 
 
 No evidence has lieen offered to show, aud it Las not been claimed, that similar disastrous consequences result, or have anywhere 
 resulted, from the operation of dredges drawn by sailing-vessels, but, on the contrary, sailing-vessels in the act of dredging, being 
 comi)elled to pass beyond the borders of the beds (a movement not necessary or customary in vessels controlled by steam), thereby enlarge 
 the borders of the natural ground, and so far work a common public benefit.. 
 
 As to the effect of steam-dredging on the general public, it appears to us that in the event, either of the 
 monopoly heretofore suggested, or of the gradual extermination of the natural oyster-grounds menaced, the price of 
 oysters would ultimately advance, to the detriment of the consumer. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing considerations, aud as a fact of very great consequence, it is to be observed that 
 some states of the Union having large oyster-interests, jiarticularly New York and Maryland, have totally 
 prohibited steam-dredging within their waters; and other states, to wit, Ehode Island, New Jersey, Delaware, aud 
 Vii'ginia, have gone even further and prohibited all dredging of every kind upon their natural beds. 
 
 Lastly, it is asserted that one or two considerable dealers have tried steam, and given it up as unprofitable. 
 
 Argujients in support of steam-dredging. — Opposed to this, those in favor of the use of steam as a 
 motive-power in dredging, set forth the following facts and arguments : 
 
 The number of steamers now in use is seven only, yet this small number has extended the cultivation, increased 
 the production, and as a consequence, has materially reduced the price of oysters. 
 
 Prior to the introduction of steam, oyster- dealers of Connecticut were obliged to purchase oysters in other states 
 to supply the home demand; now the production within the state is sufiticient, not only for local demands but also 
 for a large export. A business so increasing is of benefit to the whole state, particularly in enlarging the supply 
 and reducing the cost of an important article of food. 
 
 The owners of sailing-vessels engaged in this business, and having interests on the shores of Long Island 
 sound, west of Bridgeport, are the only opposers of steam, and they have local, political, and selfish reasons, outside 
 of the merits of the case. Is it the duty of law-makers to pass a law prohibiting this use of steam, to the injury of 
 the peojile of the state, to gratify the jealousy of a class, aud thereby hinder the development of the oyster-culture 
 and discourage euteri)rise and progress? In the same way the introduction of steam in the manufacture and 
 transportation of cottons, woolens, grain, and for many other purposes, was bitterly opposed by those with whose 
 labor it came into competition; yet no one doubts the wisdom of its introduction, because the sequel has proved that 
 the api)]ication of steam-power to any branch of industry decreases the cost of the product. The claim that steam, 
 as applied to this business, was objectionable, is effectually disposed of by these indisputable facts : 
 
 1st. That the steamers are used by their owners on their own private beds ten months of the year. Does any 
 man of sense believe they would be so used if they damaged the beds? Aud if the private beds are not damaged, 
 how should the public ground suffer? 
 
 2d. It is ridiculous to claim that an iron bar, dragged on the bottom by steam-power, will have a materially 
 different effect than if dragged by wind-power. On the contrary, the motion of a steamer is more steady and 
 certain than that of a sailing-vessel, and a dredge drawn by it must, of necessity, leave the bed smoother than one 
 drawn by any power less steady and certain. The dredges used by steamers are not heavier than those used upon 
 the larger-sized sailing-vessels without objection by any one. " It was proved that twenty -two sailing-vessels fi-om 
 New Haven aud vicinity dredged on the Bridgeport bed during 1880, using a dredge as heavy as the average dredge 
 used by steam vessels."* 
 
 3d. The "Bridgeport bed" has yielded a larger catch this last season; was greater than it has been since the 
 year of its discovery. Sleara-vessels had dredged all over this bed during the preceding season, and seem to have 
 increased rather than diminished the size aud productiveness of the bed, while many of the beds from which the 
 steamers were excluded had an iuferior set. 
 
 <ltli. The statements made against steam have been assumptions. It has been asserted that the dredging 
 iconld injure beds and oystermen not thus operating ; but no evidence appears that it has hurt eitlier in any part 
 of the state. 
 
 5th. To follow the example of New York aiul other states woirld be anti progressive, since before they adopted 
 this pobcy they sold thousands of bushels annually to Connecticut; whereas now Couuecticut largely suppbes the 
 seed for the beds in both those states. 
 
 * These are the ■words of a majority report made to the Connecticut legislature in 1881, but it is extremely difficult to get at the 
 truth. A year previous a letter from South Norwalk contained the following statements: 
 
 " Sailing-vessels use dredges weighing from 15 to :?r) pounds, which hold at the most but three pecks. Steamers use dredges weighing 
 from 60 to 100 pounds, holding a barrel. One goes over the bottom lightly ; the other sulisoils it, burying everything it does not caich. 
 In the fall of 1878 \V. R. Lockwood's steamer worked three weeks on the Shippen bed, taking oft' 1,(;00 bushels of seed. During the entire 
 summer period Adison Jlerrill worked with a 2'2-feet sail-boat on the same Ijed and caught but 500 bushels. After the steamer left sail-boats 
 could not dredge at all. The bottom had been so subsoiled the light dredges filled with sand and could not be hauled. During that 
 spawniug-season men with small boats worked on ita long time for the sole purpose of cleaning the bottom for the spawn. As soon as the 
 8i)awu set the steamer came, cauglft, aud destroyed it all. The next sjiring nothing could be caught on that bed. In the summer the 
 sailing-vessels stirred it up again. The spawn set — Hoyt Brothers' steamer worked on ita few d.ays and the seed was either on their 
 private beds «r siihilliered. The same thing was done at l!i)ton point, destroyiug that bed entirely." 
 
84 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Connecticut laws regulating- steam-deedging. — The existing law at the time of this controversy was 
 the "Compromise Act". It allowed sailing-vessels only to dredge on uatnral oyster-beds west of the Bridgeport 
 bed, and permitted all classes of vessels to dredge npon Bridgeport and other beds. This law was accepted as 
 satisfactory to all interested, and was regarded as finally settling the controversy in this business between steamers 
 and sail-vessels ; and, acting uiion that assumption, investments have been made in steamers by various persons 
 who asserted that they would suli'er greatly if steam was prohibited in dredging. Nevertheless the legislature of 
 Connecticut, at their spring session in 1881, adopted in place of it the foUowing, which is now the law : 
 
 AN ACT regulating the dredging for shellfish and shells. 
 Be it enacted, etc. 
 
 Section 1. It shall not he lawful for any person or persons to use a boat, or any other contrivance, dragged, operated, or propelled by 
 steam In taking np or dredging for oysters, oyster-shells, clams, or other shclltish in any bay, river, or other waters within the boundaries 
 or jurisdiction of this state ; Provided, however, that this section shall not be so construed as to x^reveut the use of steamboats in taking up, 
 or dredf'iug for, oysters on private, designated grounds in any such waters, by the owners thereof. 
 
 Sf.C. 2. Any person who shall violate the provisions of the preceding section shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be 
 punished, in the discretion of the court, by a fine not exceeding the sum of one hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail not 
 exceeding six months, or by such fine and imprisonment both. 
 
 Sec. 3. Prosecutions under this act may be heard ami determined by a justice of the peace, subject to the right of ajipeal by the 
 accused to the superior court, as in other criminal cases. 
 
 Sec. 4. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent herewith are hereby repealed. 
 
 Sec. !>. This act shall take eiiect from its passage, but shall not att'ect any suit or prosecution now pending. 
 
 Freshening oysters. — It is customary, on bringing the oysters in from deep water, to throw them overboard 
 into the fresh flood of the Qninepiac and " give them a diiuk", as the oysterman expresses it. To this purpose some 
 idanters devote wholly their river lots. Others have small areas near their shore-houses where the bottom is 
 planked ; while some put the oysters in large fioats which are moored by the wharf or shore. 
 
 New Haven prices. — During January and February of 1880 the following prices were asked at Fair Haven: 
 
 For Virginias, clear, per gallon 75 to 85 cents. 
 
 For Virginias, mixed, per gallon 90 cents to ijl 00. 
 
 For natives, clear, per gallon $\ 00to$I 25. 
 
 For natives by the bushel $1 00. 
 
 Oyster-opening and oyster-openers. — As nearly all of the trade in Virginia oysters is carried on at Fair 
 Haven, so to this locality alone is confined the l)usiuess of opening the oysters for shipment to any considerable 
 extent. The oi)eners or "shuckers" are mainly women of all ages, though some men are constantly at work. 
 Tliey are mainly American in nationality, and many of them are in good circumstances and only work to provide 
 themselves with pin-money. It is an occupation no refined girl would choose, nevertheless, for the whole person 
 becomes at once spattered Avith mud and water, and the liands are inevitably bruised and lacerated beyond repair. 
 The method used in opening the shell originated liere, but h;is sjiread elsewhere, and is known as "breaking" or 
 "cracking". The shucker stands or sits before a stout bench (which may be a long table partitioned oft" into 
 working spaces for each one, or may be an individual bench that can be moved about) and has her oysters in a pile 
 before lier. Immediately under her hand is a block of wood into which is firmly inserted an uinight i)iece of iron 
 about two inches long, one inch high, and a quarter of an inch thick, called the "cracking-iron". The shucker is 
 also provided with a square-helved double-headed hammer, and a stiff shari) knife in a round wooden handle. 
 On her left hand she wears a rough woolen, rubber, or leathern half-mitten, known as a "cot", to protect the skin. 
 Seizing an oyster in her left hand, with the hinge in her palm, she places it upon the cracking-iron, and with one 
 blow of the hammer breaks oft' the " bill" or growing edge of the shell. In the fractm-e thus made the strong knife 
 is inserted and pushed back between the meat and the shell until it cuts off the attachment of the adductor muscle 
 to tlie flat "upper" valve, after Avhich, with a quick, dexterous twist, the other "eye" is severed, the meat tossed 
 into the receptacle, which stands handy, and the shells are dropped through a hole in the bench into a barrel or tub 
 placed underneath. Practice teaches extreme celerity in this operation. The knife and hammer are held in the 
 same hand when the oyster is cracked, which does away ^vith the expense of time and trouble in dropping one to 
 l)ick uj» another; and the knife hilts very soon have a long spiral groove worn in tliem by the chafing of the 
 hammer-handle. The oysters, as fast as opened, are flung into a tin receptacle called a "measure", holding five 
 quarts. Mucli of the liquor of the mollusk also goes in M'ith the meat, and when the measure is full it is taken to 
 the foreman and jioured into the "skimmer", the shucker receiving in exchange a tin or brass check, entitling him 
 to a shilling or 12J cents, at the rate of 2^ cents a quart. There are also "half-measures" of 2J quarts. This is 
 called "liquor" measurement; if all the liquid was strained out only about two-thirds of the measiu'e would be 
 filled. One shucker told me that five quarts of large-sized oysters counted about 475 in number. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 85 
 
 A good daj's earnings for an oyster-opener at Fair Haven is $1 50; this, of course, is often exceeded, but the 
 books of one firm showed mo that the average wages for a whole season was only about $20 ijer month. It very 
 freiiueiitly happens that no work is done at one or another establishirient ior several days, or only a little opening 
 each day. Hence about 350 openers serve the whole business by moving around. Men, as a rule, earn more than 
 women. 
 
 In regard to the population supported by the oyster-business in this neighborhood, I find it extremely difficult 
 to get accurate statistics. It is a variable and partial cpiantity. I estimate the number of principals— planters, 
 dealers, and shippers in and about New Haven— at 125 ; of laborers (men), at 135 ; and of openers (chiefly women), 
 at 340. 
 
 Packing and shipment of oystees. — As soon as the oysters are opened they are placed in a flat pan with 
 a perforated bottom, called a skimmer, where they are drained of their accompanying liipior. From time to time 
 a quantity is dipped out and put into a large cohinder, or conical basin with perforated bottom and sides, 
 whi(!li is placed over a tall cask. Here a stream of water is turned upon them, and they are stirred about until 
 washed clean, after which they are put into wooden tubs for shipment, or tin cans for local traffic. The tubs are 
 all labeled with the name of the owner, and are returned by the customer. Their covers fit with exactness, and 
 lock with rivet and seal in such a way that they cannot be opened on the road without certain discovery. 
 
 The expressage of oysters from Fair Haven to the interior of iSxnv England is so large that the afternoon trains 
 have one car, and sometimes two cars, devoted exclusi\ely to the carriage of these goods. Large shijmients 
 were formerly made in wagons to Albany and thence westward, especially to the large towns in central New York. 
 Now these oysters go by rail, of course, but also much farther westward, even to Cincinnati, Chicago, and San 
 Francisco. 
 
 Statistical recapitulation for New Haven haebor, Connecticut : 
 
 Number of plantCTs, wholesale-dealers, and shiitpers 135 
 
 Extent of ground cultivated - acres 2,600 
 
 Value of shore property JilOO, 000 
 
 Number of vessels and sail-boats engaged : 
 
 Steamers - 2 
 
 Sail-boats 100 
 
 Row-boats 150 
 
 252 
 
 Value of same, about $30, 000 
 
 Number of men hired by planters or dealers 200 
 
 Annual earniugs of same $50, 000 
 
 Number of women hired - 275 
 
 Annual earnings of same |30, 000 
 
 Total number of families sui>ported, about 400 
 
 Annual sales of— 
 
 I. Native oysters bushels 1'28,250 
 
 Value of' same $130,000 
 
 IL Chesapeake "plants" bushels.... 450,000 
 
 Value of same $350,000 
 
 Total value of oysters sold annually $480,000 
 
 G. THE HOUSATONIC AXD SAUCxATUCK EEGIONS. 
 
 33. OYSTER-FISHERIES OF BRIDGEFORT AND WESTFORT. 
 
 Natural beds and seed oysters.— Having passed to the westward of New Haven and Milford harbors, we 
 come upon a new feature of the oyster-business. This is the systematic dredging of natural beds in the sound and 
 along the inlets of the shore, for seed to be placed upon the artificial beds in the eastern part of the sound, in the 
 East river, and on the south shore of Long Island. This department of the business will demand more and more 
 attention, as I progress toward its headquarters at Norwalk. The most easterly natural bed which these tkedgers 
 attack is one off Clark's point, just east of the mouth of Oyster river. (In Oyster river itself, by the way, no oysters 
 have ever been known, witliin the memory of tradition, although that name appears in a map dvavra prior to 1700.) 
 The next natural bed consists of a reef, five acres in extent, on the western side of Pond point. Beyond that, off 
 Milford point, at the mouth of the Housatonic, lies the Pompcy bed, which afforded sustenance to the sea-hut colony 
 that used to frequent Milford point, and where now a crop can be gathered about once in five years. 
 
86 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Upon the opposite side of the entrance to the Housatonic lies one of the principal seed-grounds in the sound ; 
 that side of the Housatonic river is one vast natural oyster-bed all the way from Stratford light np to the bridges, 
 a distance of about tlircQ miles. There are many persons who live along the shore in Stratford, who de\'ote almost 
 their whole time to the gathei-ing of the young oysters and selling them to the vessels, which in summer throng the 
 bay. They get from 15 to 25 cents a bushel, and there are perhai>s 50 men who make this a business. 
 
 Seed-gathering at the moxjth op the Housatonic. — In May sloops and small schooners begin to come 
 after the seed, which is of a year's (or less) growth. They hail principally from Norwalk and its vicinity. This fleet 
 gradually increases, until in mid-summer there are sometimes to be seen from 75 to 100 vessels at once in the 
 mouth of the river. These vessels do not dredge for the seed. They anchor near the l)ed and send out slciffs, with 
 a crew, who tong the oysters up until their skiff is full, when they take it to their -s-essel to be unloaded. From 
 one to half a dozen skiffs are employed by each vessel, which is thus able to load up quickly, go home with its 
 cargo, and be ready to return. To avoid any loss of time, however, in voyages back and forth, some owners of 
 beds keep one or more vessels anchored in the Housatonic all the while, upon which the crews live, who load other 
 vessels that are constantly passing back and forth. The rapidity of this work is shoAvn by the fact, that one man 
 with two assistants will put upon his sloop a full cargo of 500 bushels in two days, and be off and back in another 
 two days, ready to go at it again. Pei'sons who live upon the sliore, and who claim to found their estimate on 
 trustworthy facts, say that 400,000 bushels of seed were taken off these Housatonic beds between May and 
 November, 1879. 
 
 Objections to present method of seed-gathering. — Notwithstanding this heavy and long continued 
 drain, these nurseries do not seem in danger of depletion. Few oysters, of course, manage to reach maturity, but 
 there are enough to furnish spawn to repoi)ulate the district, which the constant scraping fits in the best possible 
 manner for securing a set. The people of Stratford, however, are beginning to object to longer allowing an 
 unrequited privilege to everj'body to rake the beds. Such an indiscriminate crowd embraces many loose characters, 
 and frequent petty annoyances, with some serious trespasses, have occurred on shore. There seems no way to get 
 rid of the nuisance, however, except to declare the whole ground available for culture, and stake it off. This is 
 urged by some of the shoremen, who thiidc they see in this jdan some cliance of making the meadows and river- 
 bottom a valuable property, and a blessing instead of a curse to them. This meets with considerable oi)position, 
 however, and the old foolishness about "natural beds" seems an insurmountable obstacle. Every year the 
 staking-oflf and cultivation of this river-bottom is delayed Stratford loses by it in a way she will one day legret. 
 Stratford also possesses along her front very good deep-water ground, running from Stratford point to the Middle 
 Ground, whicii remains to be utilized. The Housatonic seed, however, could not be utilized on this outer ground, 
 since it is the long, fresh-water variety, which would not flourish in water so salt as that of the outer sound. 
 
 Oyster-business at Bridgeport. — At Bridgeport there is a small but flourishing oyster-business, participated 
 in by three firms of planters. The natural oyster-producing ground off this harbor extended from Stratford to 
 Black Eock, a distance of about five or six miles, but by 1850 it had become exliausted of all salable oysters, and 
 even became of little value as a seed-producing atea. Previously to that seven boats were owned at Bridgeport, 
 all of which, since 1850, have been obliged to go elsewhere or change their work. Long ago, however, a Fair Haven 
 man utilized ground at the point of the beach at tlie mouth of the harbor, to bed down southern oysters, and his 
 example was followed in a small degree by Bridgeport men. The first planting of native seed, however, was not 
 until 1811, young oysters being brought from the Saugatuck and from Westport. At present Stratford and 
 Housatonic seed is chiefly used. For opening i)urposes the Housatonic river seed is regarded as tlie best, because 
 it becomes salable one year quicker than the sound seed ; but for shipping in the shell the dceii-water seed produces 
 more i)roflt, though of slower growth, the mature stock being single, shapely, and of large size. 
 
 The iiractice of catching seed-oysters on shells j^revails here with much success, but will be so fully discussed 
 in a future chapter, that I refrain from doing more than mention the fact here; and add that Mr. Wheeler Hawley, 
 the largest planter at Bridgeport, believes himself to have been one of the first, if not the first, to adopt this method 
 of oyster-culture in Long Island sound, putting the date of his experiments at 1853. 
 
 Eeplying to my questions in regard to methods and cost of following this practice in this harbor, one of the 
 planters informed me that, in his case, he counts expenses per acre in preparation of oyster-bottom as follows : 
 
 500 busliels shells ("stools") at 5 cents $25 00 
 
 50 bushels of "spawners" (uuculled) 1'2 00 
 
 Total cost of seeding 37 00 
 
 From this, he thought he ought to take up 1,000 bushels of seed to the acre of marlcetable oysters after two 
 years, with a remahider left for the third year. The cost of taking up would be about 20 cents a bushel. If seed- 
 oysters are bought to be i)laced upon the ground, from 25 to 00 cents a bushel must be paid for them. 
 
 The total acreage under cultivation at Bridgeport, for wliich a rental of $2 an acre is paid to the town, is about 
 110 acres. On this ground there were raised in the winter of 1879-80 about 8,000 bushels, which were mainly sold in 
 the shell to New York buyers, at an average of about $1 12 J a bushel. These oysters were large and fat, often 
 opening six quarts to the bushel, as I was informed. In 1857 they brought $12 a barrel. 
 
THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 87 
 
 The fleet employed by the oystermen here consists of nine sailboats, worth, perhaps, $2,500 in total ; the care 
 of the beds and riiuniuf;- of the boats give support to about a dozen families, and occasional wages to others at 
 the height of the season, the pay being about $2 a day. 
 
 Oyster-business at Westport. — Westi)ort, Connecticut, is a little harbor on the Saugatuck river, one of the 
 most beautiful of the uiauy charming streams that debouch along this ])art of the coast. The river has long been 
 celebrated for the abundance, large size, and excellent flavor of its natural oysters. They grew almost continuously, 
 in favorable seasons, from the mouth of the river up to the village bridge, a distance of about four miles, and the 
 fai-mers who lived along the river were accustomed to gather them in any desired quantity, without a thought of 
 exhausting the supplj'. The depletion came at last, however, and now few marlietable oysters, native to the 
 Saugatuck, are ever procured. 
 
 Some years ago, when attention was first called to the desirability of transplanting oysters and raising them 
 upon artificial beds, the AVestport men staked off a large area at the mouth of tlie Saugatuck. No ground within 
 the river, llowe^•er, was allowed to be assigned, the town reserving all this as " common ground", where seed might 
 be gathered by poor men and everybody, to be sold to the planters. The amount of seed thus procured annually 
 varies greatly with different years. The highest trustworthy estimate given me for any one year (and this not 
 recently) was 50,000 bushels. Last year, however, only about 4,000 bushels were caught ; half was planted locally 
 and half sold to outside buyers. In midsummer a score or so of men in skiffs may olteu be seen in the river at 
 once, raking seed oysters, but these work only occasionally, and there are less than a dozen men who really derive 
 their support " by following the creek" (chielly oystering), in the whole town. Tiie seed used is between one and 
 three years of age, and it is sold by the skiffuien for .35 or -10 cents a bushel. Sundler mixed stuff sometimes sells 
 for 20 cents. There are oidy two or three sail-boats devoted to this work. 
 
 The first efforts at planting were made in the mill-pond east of the village — a pond of salt water about 40 acres 
 in extent. The bottom of this pond is a soft mass of mud ; not barren, clayey mud, but a flocculent mass of decayed 
 vegetation, etc., apparently inhabited tlirough and through by the microscopic life, both vegetable and animal, 
 which the oyster feeds upon. Although the young oysters i)laced there sank out of sight in this mud, they were not 
 smothered, on account of its looseness, but, on the contrary, throve to an extraordinary degree, as also did their 
 neighbors, the clams and eels, becoming of great size and extremely fat. Ten years ago oysters from this pond sold 
 for $3 a bushel; and for one lot $10 50 is said to have been obtaiued. Before long, however, a rough class of 
 loungers began to frequent the pond, aud the oysters were stolen so fast, that planting there has almost wholly 
 ceased, and prices have greatly declined. 
 
 Something over 500 acres of oyster ground have been set apart in the waters of the sound belonging to 
 Westport. This ground lies in the neighborhood of Sprite's, Hay, Calf-pasture, and Goose islands. Two-thirds of 
 it is owned by Norwalk men and other non-residents, and therefore the town has derived no revenue of consequence 
 from it. 
 
 The principal planter in town is Mr. Eli Bradley, who gave me the most of the information obtained here. He has 
 been long engaged in the business, and has planted many thousands of bushels of seed upon his beds, as, also, have 
 his neighbors, but there has been so much litigation concerning boundaries, so much actual thieving, and so 
 incessant persecution by the starfishes and drills, that not much has been realized. Last year (1871)) no oysters 
 whatever of consequence were placed in the market from these beds. Outsiders, however, shifted certain oysters into 
 Westport waters, temporarily, and saved a good crop, the figures relating to which appear elsewhere. All the 
 residents at Westport assert strongly tiie extreme suitability of their ground for successful oyster-raising, barring 
 the damages inflicted by the starfishes, which, they think, they can keep free from with sufficient labor. 
 
 Statistical recapitulation por the Housatonic and Saugatuck region: 
 
 Number of planters and shippers 6 
 
 Exte it of ground cultivated acres.. 110 
 
 Value of sUore-property $3, 500 
 
 Number of vessels aud sail-boats engaged 12 
 
 Value of same |3,000 
 
 Number of men hired by planters .., 15 
 
 Annual earnings of same $5,000 
 
 Total number of families sujiportcd 21 
 
 Annual sales of — 
 
 Native oysters bushels.. 9,000 
 
 Value of same $11,000 
 
 Total value of oysters sold annually $11,000 
 
88 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 H. THE EAST RIVER AND PECONIC BAY. 
 
 34. OYSTEE-INTEEESTS FEOM HELL GATE TO PORT JEFFERSON, NEW YORK, AND NOEWALK, 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 East eivee DEPmED. — To oystermen, and for all the pui'iioses of the present report, the East ri^er is 
 that narrow part of Long Island sound, at its eastern end, which extends from Hell Gate to the Norwalk islands 
 on the Connecticnt shore, and to Port Jefferson on the Long Island side. It is a district very old in the annals of 
 oyster-gathering and culture, and one which contributes largely to the trade. 
 
 Early history of oysteeing. — Traditions concerning the beginning of oystering as a regvdar industry are 
 very few and faint. I am indebted to Mr. Theodore S. Lowndes, of Eowayton, Connecticut, for some pleasant 
 reminiscences. 
 
 It seems not to have been until about 1814 or 1815 that much attention was attracted to the oyster-beds of the 
 East river, as a source of business advantage. At that time it was considered a degrading thing to rake oysters 
 for a living, yet the father of my informant, Mr. Edward William Lowndes, went energetically into the enterprise, 
 with several of his neighboi\s — William Price, Drake Sopers, Stephen Jeuuiugs, James Jennings, and Beujainiii 
 Totten, the last named having retimied from loyal participation in Couimodore Perry's victory on lake Erie. 
 All of these gejitlemen lived on City island, and their descendants are still to be foiind among the leading citizens 
 of that community. At that time there was no occasion to plant oysters, the bivalves being plentiful upon their 
 natural beds, and easy of access with dredges, rakes, and tongs, very similar to those now in use. Mr. Lowndes 
 writes me as follows: 
 
 The oysters cauf^ht nearest Hell Gate were in Flushing bay, between Barien's island and Fisher's point, and I've heard my father say 
 that he had canght oysters below Blackwell's island, on the edge of the llats at Newtown creek, on the Long Island side, but they were 
 only a small lot. 
 
 My father was often annoyed, in his day, by local laws and prejndices against oystermen. On one occasion, as I have heard him Icll, 
 while ho was at work off Shippcn jioint, on Long Island sound, he was taken ashore at Stamford, and had a ride given him into the country. 
 When brought back his vessel was unloaded, and he was told to get out as soon as possible, which he was glad to do. On returning to 
 New York, he went to the collector of the port, General Morton, who sent Captain Calhoun, connuanding a revenue cutler in the United 
 States navy, to inform the eajitaius of some packets that plied lietweeu New York and Stamford, that if any oystermen should be disturbed 
 again in that locality, he would come up with the cutter and jirotcct them; hut there was no I'urther trouble. My father was concerned 
 in several such vexatious adventures. 
 
 Mr. Lowndes and his fellow-citizens showed it possible to work at this with so much diligence and iiecuniary 
 success, as to put .this occupation in a more favorable light, and caused many more of their neighbors to enter it. 
 The result is, that probably two-thirds of the population of City island, to-day, derive their sitpport from the oyster- 
 iuterests owned there. The same is true of the north shore of Long Island. 
 
 Natural oyster-beds once existed in greater or less abundance all along the shore of Westchester cottnty, New 
 York, and the ojjposite coast. Though the Harlem river and the region near Hell Gate have loug been abandoned, 
 through over-raking and the unfavorable conditions which have followed the incessant couiraercial use of these 
 waters, now within the great city of New York; a little farther up, the raking is still practiced. The passenger on 
 the Harlem and New Rochelle railway, can see from the cars, the boats of men catching oysters in all the little 
 nooks and corners of the coast above Port Morris, and across toward College point. The steamboats run daily 
 across seed-ground, and make landings auiid plantations. 
 
 East Chester bay. — The first oyster-ground of any consequeuce, however, going up the river, is found in 
 East Chester bay, which surrounds City Island. Oft' Throgg's point, at the southern end of this bay, are great 
 natural banks, which have withstood long and steady raking. In these waters are the oldest artificial beds in the 
 East river, for the regular planting of oysters (inaugiu-ated, according to tradition, by Mr. Orrin Fordham) was 
 begun here half a centurj- ago. 
 
 The planters all have their homes on City island, and are about sixty in number. In addition to these sixty 
 planters, there are ijerhaps a dozen more men M'ho get their liWng out of the business. It is safe to say, at any 
 rate, that half a hundred tamilies derive their support from the oyster-industry in this one community. 
 
 The total production of East Chester bay, last season (1S79-'S0), may be placed approximately at 55,000 bushels. 
 In order to catch the seed of these oysters and carry them to the New York market, where all the crop is sold, 
 there is owned here a fleet of one steamer, specially fitted, about 45 sloo])s, some 25 floats, and at least 100 skiffs. 
 All of these craft are of excellent quality, and represent a vahie of something like 835,000, which, with an 
 addition of about $5,000 for shore-property, may be taken as the amount of the investment in the industry at City 
 island, exclusive of the vahie of the stock now lying under the water, on the various beds, and which is a sum 
 hardly possible even to guess at. 
 
 Pelham to Milton. — At Pelham, New Rochelle, Mamaroneck, Eye, and Milton, the business does not attain 
 nuich dignity, although a large number of families, fuUy 100, are supported partly Ity it and partly by digging 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 89 
 
 dams (mainly Mija nranaria), catching- lobsters, and in other sea-shoro occupations distinct from regular fishing. 
 The ground occupied is embracied in little bays and sheltered nooks, for the most part, and is not of great extent. 
 There are about liO planters, who, at an average of 250 bushels — a large estimate, probably — would furnish a 
 total of r),()0() bushels a. year. Nearly if not quite all of this goes into the hands of peddlers, who dispose of it 
 from wagons throughout the adjacent villages. Many of the planters, and some summer residents in addition, 
 lay down seed wholly for jirivate use. There is a largo seed-bed oft" this part of the (^oast, which furnishes small 
 stock, not only for local use, but for the towns both east and west. About $5,000 would no doubt cover the 
 investment between City island and Port Chester. 
 
 Port CnESTEB. — Port Chester is the last town in the state of New York, East Chester, Just across the 
 bridge, belonging to Connecticut. The exact boundary of the two states was long undecided, and was the cause 
 of nuudi annoyance and dispute among the oystermeu of the coutiguous waters, who were incessantly charging 
 one another with violation of law and their neighbor's rights, by crossing the imaginary line, and so invading 
 the property of the other state. In consequence of this a joint commission was appointed to settle the boundary 
 between the states, the definition of which, so far as it relates to the waters of Long Island sound, is as follows : 
 
 Beginning at a point in tlm center of the channel about (!00 feet south of the extremo rocks of Byrani point, marked Tso. on the 
 appended United States' coast survey chart; theuce rnnniug in a true southeast course three and one-quarter statute miles: thence in a 
 straiglit line (the arc of a grcarcircle) northeasterly to a poiut four statute miles true south of New Loudou light-house ; theuce northeasterly 
 to a point marked No. 1 (m the annexed United States' coast survey chart of Fisher's Island sounds, which point is in the longitude E. 
 three-quarters N. sailing course drawn on said map, and is about 1,000 feet nm-therly from the Hammock or N. Dumpliug light-house; 
 thonce following the said E. threo-qnarters N. sailing course as laid down on said map, easterly to a point marked No. 2 on said map ; 
 th(!uce southeasterly toward a. poiut marked No.'.! on said map, so far as sai<l slates are continuous. Provided, howevta-, that nothing in 
 the foregoing agreement contained shall be so construed to att'ect existing titles or jiroiierty, corporeal or incorporeal, held under grants 
 heretofore made by either of said states, nor to aft'ect existing rights which said states or either of them, or which the citizens of either 
 of said states, may have by grant, letters-patent, or prescription of fishing in the waters of said sound, whether for shell or floating fish, 
 irrespective of the boundary line hereby established, it not being the purpose of this agreement to define, limit, or interfere with any such 
 right, rights, or privileges, whatever the same may be. 
 
 At Port Chester and East Chester lives a considerable colony of oyster-planters. In all, about 25 families 
 derive their chief maintenance from this industry ; but four-fifths of the planters find it necessary to supplement 
 their profits from this source by other labor, in order to get a living. The total product of the locality was about 
 9,000 bushels last year, only a fraction of whi(di is sent to New York. The price is now 80 cents for the small and 
 $1 for large size. In 1878-'79 it was 20 per cent., and in 1877-'78, 40 per cent, higher. There are eight sloops, with 
 floats, arks, etc., owned here, which foot up an invested capital of about $7,000. 
 
 Before leaving the New York waters of East river, however, it will be well to mention some laws applying to 
 this coast. In the Revised Statutes of 1875, under Title XI, Fisheries, are the following sections applying here, in 
 addition to the general important law prohibiting steam-dredging : 
 
 Skction 5. Forbids taking oysters in Harlem river during June, July, and August. 
 
 Sec. (>. Provides jiu-isilict ion iu case of olfeuse against section 5. 
 
 Skc. 7. Permits auj' o-ivncr or lessee of lands adjoining Harlem river to jdant oysters in front of their projierty, where the groun<l is 
 not occupied ; but ho must put up a plain sign, stating (with owner's name) that this is a private oyster-bed. No person except the owner 
 .shall take up oysters on niich ground. Penalty, iJiJO. 
 
 Sicc. 8. Empowers coustaliles of either Westchester or New York counties to seize boats and implements of otfonders against section 7. 
 
 Sue. y. Defines how arrests .are to be made and otlcnders prosecuted. 
 
 Greenwich. — The next poiut eastwarti is Greenwich, where, at Greenwich, Old Greenwich, Greenwich cove, 
 Cos Cob, and Mianus, a large business is done and a large number of persons is engaged, though oysters are not 
 now raised here to as great an extent nor of so fine quality as formerly. 
 
 The mouths of all the rivers and each of the many coves that indent this rocky coast are filled with planted 
 oysters, thougli a general feeling of discouragement, arising from various causes, prevails. In all about 800 acres 
 are under cultivation, all in shaUow water, and the total annual i)io(luct for last year, of the whole region, may be 
 set down at 33,000 bushels, the majority of wliicli was taken to New York in the boats of the respective owners, and 
 sold to the dealers at the foot of Broome street. 
 
 The number of families supported in this township, out of this occupation, it is hard to state. I estimate it at 
 about forty. The craft employed amounts to one steamer, about 30 sloops, and perhaps 100 small open boats. 
 These, with other estimated fixtures, foot up an invested capital approaching $30,000, exclusive of oysters now 
 growing on the beds. 
 
 Stameord. — The next oyster-producing point is Stamford, where, also, I found the planters bewailing the 
 decline of their fortunes. The number of men raising oysters is about a dozen, and perhaps as many more are 
 employed. From about 150 acres of improved harbor-bottom Stamford yielded ibr market, in 1879, about 5,500 
 bushels of oysters, the majority of which was shipped to New York. Their fleet counts iip 9 sloops, which, with 
 boats, floats, and so forth, are stated to be worth about $15,000. The principal men at Stamford are A. M. Prior 
 and Cai)t. John Decker. • 
 
 Darien and Kowayton. — At Darien, three miles beyond, about 3,000 bu.shcls a year are sold from about 250 
 aores. They have ten or a dozen sail-boats, and a value in oyster-interests, genei-ally, of perhaps $5,000. 
 
90 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The next point is the very important station known as Five-Mile-River or Eowayton, where the cultivation of 
 oysters has been systematically pursued for many years. In all, at present, there are about 35 planters or firms, 
 and nearly or quite as many families are supported. The little creek-mouth is perfectly filled with oyster-boats, 
 and the other conveniences of this pur.suit. I find upon my list of the oyster-fleet 28 sloops and sailboats, which 
 belong here, some of them very large and well built. I estimate the value of these "sail" and the other floating 
 and shore-property at Eowayton, directly concerned in the oyster-trade of the port, at not far from $30,000. 
 Eowayton produced, in 1879, which was considered a very poor year, something near 50,000 bushels. How far 
 beneath occasional crops, if not beneath the recent average, this is, is shown hy the statement made to me, that 
 about five years ago a single dealer in New York city bought 32,000 bushels of Eowayton oysters. Little of the 
 stock raised at this point foils to reach New York, and within the last three years Eowayton has supplied a large 
 proportion of the oysters sent to Europe, partly by direct shipment. Like all other parts of the East river, the 
 oysters are sold here wholly in the shell; and almost always by the barrel or bushel — the selling "by count" 
 belonging to the region further west and to the Long Island shore. 
 
 South Norwalk. — Just eastward of Eowayton lies the city and harbor of Sonth Norwalk, one of the most 
 important oyster-producing localities in Long Island sound, as well as one of the "oldest". The bay at the mouth 
 of the Norwalk rtver is filled with islands, which protect the shallow waters from the fury of the gales. This whole 
 bay, in old days, was full of native oysters from the sound, all the way np to Norwalk itself. Long before the 
 elaborate means for growing oysters, at present in vogue, were thought of, therefore, Norwalk supjilied the people 
 of that region with fine, large, natural oysters, just as it had for centuries been a storehouse of shellfish food to 
 the Indians, th^ remains of whose feasts and feasting- places are still to bo found. 
 
 About forty years or more ago, however, the natural beds in the vicinity of Norwalk harbor had become so 
 depleted that they no longer aftbrded to anybody employment that amounted to anything; nor was it until toward 
 the year 1850 that any transplantation of seed, or anything in the shape of the propagation, was attempted. The 
 business of oyster-growing here, therefore, which at first sight seems of humemorial age, is only about thirty years 
 old. The history of its growth need not be given here. It will be sufficient to publish the statistics I have 
 accumulated in regard to the present status of the business at this point. 
 
 The principal planters and shippers at South Norwalk (with which I include its snburb. Village Creek) are the 
 Hoyt Brothers, Graham Bell, Oliver Weed, C. Eemsen, Eaymond & Saunders, Peter Decker, the Burbanks, and 
 several others who raise more than 1,000 bushels a year. In addition to these there are many men who have small 
 beds, which they keep increasing as fast as circumstances permit, and who make a part of their living by working 
 at wages for planters whose operations are more extensive than their own. There is one firm, fin- instance, which 
 emi)loys the services of 18 or 20 men nearly all the time, and in some seasons largely increases this number. These 
 smaller planters sell their little crops of from 100 to 1,000 or 1,500 bushels to the half a dozen shippers, chief among 
 whom are the Hoyt Brothers and Mr. G. Bell, wisely preferring cash, at a small discount, to the trouble and risk of 
 themselves taking their oysters down to New York, or elsewhere, in hoi^es of a slightly larger price. During the 
 present season (1879-80) the price paid at the boats has averaged about $1, taking little and big together. The 
 culling, as a rule, is done afterward, and the prices the shippers have received, after culling and packing, have 
 been as follows — it is understood, of course, that these are sold in the shell and shipped in barrels, going chiefly to 
 New York : 
 
 Per Iiunilred. Per IwrreL 
 
 Extras $1 40 |5 25 
 
 Bos 90 to 1 00 5 25 
 
 Culls 45 to 50 4 25 
 
 Cullenteens 35 4 25 
 
 Barrels are valued at 25 cents each. 
 
 The total number of bushels produced in 1879 (to which time my statistics refer for the sake of completeness), 
 as well as this year (1880), makes a sum which is asserted to fall far short of what is considered an average or 
 a high estimate. Nearly every man said to me: "Well, this year was a j^oor one." How much of this is to be 
 attributed to modesty and a timid desire to behttle the figures, and how much is truth, it is hard to tell. I am 
 inclined to think it i^retty nearly true. Prices, at the same time, are much lower than formerly, owing to the 
 unusually poor quality of the oysters of these waters this year and last; but I do not think that this is a permanent 
 depreciation in fixtness and excellence of taste (as I fear is the case from Stamford to Port Chester), but only a 
 temporary misfortune. Between scarcity and inferiority, the oystermen of Norwalk find themselves much less 
 cheerful just now than they are wont to be. The total production of this locality, during the season of 1878-'79 (the 
 present season, 1880, will probably be found not greatly to dift'er from it), is given at about G5,000 bushels. 
 
 These oysters, as I have said, were the property of 50 planters, which gives an average of 1,300 bushels to each 
 one. It is probable, however, that as many more persons got their living out of these oysters, from first to last, so 
 that I do not hesitate to say that 100 families in South Norwalk and its immediate vicinity, are supported by the 
 cultivation and sale of oysters there. The estimate of 200 families, which I have often heard made, is undoubtedly 
 too high. This question is ever a hard one to answer, because, in many cases, the head of the family depends only 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 91 
 
 partially upon his professional means of support, the attention he pays to it and the income he derives, varying 
 with each good oi' bad season. IMost oystermen are also farmers or lisherrneu. Many of them, also, keep summer 
 hotels, and thus add largely to their income during the dull season at the beds. 
 
 Every supposed available sjiot for oyster-operations, probably, is now set apart for that purpose, not only 
 inside of the Norwalk islands, but also in the outside waters of the sound off the mouth of the harbor. Only a 
 liortion of this is in use, however ; in all, about 080 acres out of 2,300, in round numbers, which ha\-e been designated 
 in Norwalk harbor. The average i)roduction at present, therefore, is less than 100 bushels to the acre of land 
 actually cultivated, and only about 28 bushels to the acre of bottom held for the purpose of oyster-cultivation. I 
 see no reason why future years ought not to see ten times as large a proportion. 
 
 The lleet of Norwalk used by the oystermen in their business, consists of 2 steamboats, a dozen sloops, and 
 about 30 sharpies and sail-boats, of less size and value than the "sloops", most of them being without decks. 
 Besides this there are skiffs inuumei'able. This disparity in the number of large sloops between so important a 
 place as Norwalk and some of the small ports westward, is explained by the fact that the planters here do not often 
 themselves take their goods to New York. 
 
 What shall be given as the amount of the investment at South Norwalk is a difficult question. The answer 
 can hardly be more than guessed at. There ai-e several large warehouses and offices devoted to the work. 
 Extensive wharves have been built, and arrangements for lauding are made. There are 25 or 30 "arks", as they 
 are termed, or floating oyster-houses, made by housing in half a canal-boat, a scow, or some old hulk, and there is an 
 extensive outfit of boats and tools. I judge that the lollowiug table represents nearly the truth of the case: 
 
 2,300 acres oyster-ground, worth |6, 000 
 
 Shore-property for business-use 10, 000 
 
 "Arks" au(Vscow-houses 5, 000 
 
 Sloops and other boats 25,000 
 
 Steamers 0,000 
 
 Floats, dredges, tools, etc 3, 000 
 
 55, OOO 
 
 This, of course, leaves out all estimate upon the value of the oysters now upon the beds, or the money which 
 has been spent (and sunk) in improvement, up to this time. This is a matter which it would be exceedingly difficult 
 to ascertain, and of small importance, because constantly varying and undecided. I suppose about $50,000 a 
 year are reinvested iu the beds at Norwalk, counting the time of the planters as so much money ; if it were cash 
 expended, however, instead of their own labor, they could not follow it. Few can aflbrd to hire help, except 
 occasionally, for a few days at a time. Wages, in that case, are from $1 to $2 per day. 
 
 Saddle-rock oysters. — From a particular part of Norwalk harbor, many years ago, came to Tom Donan's 
 famous old shop in Broad street, New York, the original " Saddle-rocks", named from the reef around which they 
 grew. These oysters were so large that 25 would fill a bushel basket; yet they were tender and luscious, and 
 often sold for from 15 to 30 cents apiece. But they were not very numerous, and the raking of them was so 
 profitable that the supply was quickly exhausted. Like the generous host who gave them name and fame, they 
 have long ago departed, except from the branding-iron and sign -board of the dealer, whose "Saddle-rocks" now 
 may have come from anywhere except Norwalk. 
 
 That is the story as I was told it at South Norwalk ; since writing it I have seen an article on the subject, taken 
 from the New Yorlc Observer, and vouched for by the Eev. Samuel Lockwood, who s])eaks of the writer as " our 
 friend. Dr. O. E. Willis ". This article places Saddle rock on the opposite shore of the sound. It reads thus : 
 
 The original Saddle-rock oyster was not only very large, but possessed a peculiar, delicious flavor, which gave it its reputation. 
 And it received its name because it was discovered near a rock known as Saddle rock. A high northwest wind, continued for several 
 successive days, alw.ays causes very low tides in Long Island sound and its bays. On the farm of David Allen, situated near the head of 
 Great Neck, on the eastern shore of Little Neck bay, is a rock about 20 fec^t high, and from 15 to 20 feet in diameter. The shape of the 
 top of this rock resembles somewhat the form of a saddle, and from that circumstance is called Saddle rock. At low water th»^ upper or 
 laud side of this rock is left bare, while the opposite or low^r side is iu the water. In the autnnm of 1827, after a strong northwest wind 
 had been blowing for three days, a very low -tide occurred, and the water retreated far below the rock, leaving a space wide enough for a 
 team of oxen to pass quite around it. This (^xfraordiujiry Ion- tide revealed a bed of oysters just below the rock. Tho oysters were very 
 large, and possessed the most delicate flavor; we <-ollected cart-loads of them, and i)la(e<l them in our mill-poud (tide-mill). The news 
 of the disco^■cry s])read among the oystermen, an<l boat-loads soon found tlu-ir way to the city, where, on account of their excellent fla\or, 
 they commanded fancy prices, even reaching §10 a hundred! — an enormous price for those days. In a very short time the locality was 
 exhausted, and for more thau forty years there has not been a real Saddle-rock oyster in the market. 
 
 South shore of East river. —On the southern side of Long Islaud sound the " East river" extends as far 
 as Port Jefferson, which lies nearly opposite Bridgeport. Beginning at the Narrows abo\e Ilell Gate, as before, 
 we find the remains of ancient native oj'ster-beds all along the shore. This was one of the favorite points of 
 market supidy for New York years ago. Its traditions remain, as witnessed by the following paragraph Irom 
 DeVoe's MarJcet Assistant: • 
 
 In the numth of September, 1809, a discovery of a great oyster-bed was made at Eaton's Neck, on the Long Islaud shore, by five 
 fiBhermeu from Daiieu, Connecticut.. It is staled that " they found themselves too far out, and dropping overboard an oyster-dredge to 
 
92 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Ijring their boat to anchor", when ready to draw it in again on board, tliey found it very heavy, and after raising it to the snrface they had 
 it fdled with fine large oj'sters, when they soon loaded their boat, and entered into a nuitnal compact of secrecy, but it was broken ; the 
 information was sold [for $500], and the valuable discovery was soou made public. Thousands of bushels were taken and replanted, and 
 those which were planted in deep water produced some extra fine large oysters, which found a ready sale in our markets. 
 
 For liel]) in calculatiug the oyster-riches of tliis southern shore of the East river, I am indebted to the labors 
 of Mr. Frederick JMather, of the United States Fish Commission, who also acted as a special agent of the Census 
 there. 
 
 Flushing bat and vicinity. — The first point, beginning at the western extremity, is Flushing bay. Twenty 
 men are engaged here in oystering and clamming, almost insejiarable em])loyments along this shore. There are 
 oyster-beds staked out here, worth, counting seed and ai)pliances, $8,000, and they produced last year 10,000 bushels 
 of oysters. Six boats of four or fi'^-e tons, cat-rigged, are employed. In addition to this four men, supi)()iting tliree 
 families, oyster in Flushing bay, but live at College Point, and sent to market 8,000 bushels last year, using two 
 boats. All shipments are by boat. 
 
 In Little Neck bay the oyster-beds are free of cost, but are staked off in private claims and ]ilanted, a condition 
 respected by neighbors, but giving no legal sanction. The seed is obtained from near by, and is worth 25 cents a 
 bushel. "There is a desire," says Mather, "on the part of some of the oystermen to pay for their grounds and 
 get some protection in return. Now their only claim is on the seed, and they can sue or prfisecute a man for 
 stealing that. I found a great difference of opinion among the oystermen on the bay in regard to the laws. Some 
 holding that the statutes did, and others that they did not, protect the claimants of oyster-beds. A man's heirs 
 claim his beds and the claim is respected, but it does not appear that the beds are salable in the sense of giving 
 a deed for a consideration. In a discussion on this point, which I encouraged in order to get at the facts, one man 
 said, derisively : ' I would like to see a good bed found and have the town attempt to sell it. There'd be fun, and 
 somebody would get hiu't, siu-e, for when there's a find we all go for it, and the one that gets the most is the best 
 fellow.' "' 
 
 One of the towns on this bay is Whitestone, from whence 4,500 bushels of oysters are sent; another is Little 
 Neck, where 30 men make a living by oystering and clam-flshiug, and raise an annual crop of 10,000 bushels. 
 One sloop, over 20 tons, and seven over 5 tons, are engaged. 
 
 Geeat Neck and vicinity. — At Great Neck there is considerable business — about 5,000 bushels a year, 
 which go to market in boats owned at Little Neck. 
 
 Oft' this coast, between Great Neck and Hell Gate, are very persistent natural beds of oysters, which annually 
 furnish fair raking-ground, whence the planters in the vicinity obtain nearly all their seed. In the lower part of the 
 river the oil and deposits from the petroleiuu refineries at Hunter's Point, have injured or wholly destroyed the beds. 
 The best ground is directly in the steamboat channel, where the cinders falling from the innumerable freight, 
 " sound line", and excursion steamers that pass daily, furnish a capital cultch for the oyster-spat to attach itself 
 to. This ground is gradually exteiuling itself into a productive tract half way to Norwalk. The seed lies 
 particularly thick here in a bed about three miles long, off Eaton's Neck. In summer this whole region is excellent 
 clamming-ground. I have counted 100 boats, doing well, at once between Sea Clift" and Tlirogg's Neck. Many 
 boats had two men, and this number was not unusual. This scraping of the bottom with the big, deep-cutting, 
 dredge-lilvo clam-rake undoubtedly contributes to the growth of young oysters as well as young clams there, by 
 jtreparing the ground to retain the spawn, which is at that very season floating about. 
 
 For oysters raised west of Great Neck, buying agents of New York houses paid the planters last season an 
 average jirice of 75 cents per bushel. 
 
 Poet Washington. — Port Washington, on the other hand, a village upon Cow bay, in one of the most 
 beautiful districts of Long Island, is the seat of a very large oyster-planting interest. It is a fine sight to look 
 down from the iTill upon the bay, crowded with its miniature shipping, dotted by the large floats which are anchored 
 all along the shore, and its sunny surface enli\-ened by countless small boats moving about here and there in eager 
 haste. At the wharves are usually to be found two or three sloops from New York buying oysters, with the names 
 and advertisements of their owners painted in huge black letters on the broad mainsail ; or at a favorable condition 
 of season and tide the whole trim fleet spreads its canvas and sweeps out to the dredging grounds in beautiful 
 array. 
 
 It is more than thirty-five years since George Mackey first began the planting of oysters in this bay ; now 
 this industry is the main business in the town, and commands two-thirds of all the influence — out of 320 voters on 
 the rolls, 200 being oystermen. Nearly all of these are heads of families, and as representative names I might 
 mention the Mackeys, the Jarvises, J. J. Thompson, A. Thatcher & Co., Tliomas Allen, Peter H. Holt, J. Van Pell, 
 and various others. In order to carry on their business they have, perhaps, $10,000 worth of shore-fixtures, and 
 from $40,000 to $50,000 worth of floating property, embraced in 70 sloops and sail boats, averaging -$500 in value, 
 and in floats, skiffs, tools, etc. The amount of ground under use it would be imjjossible to say — I could get no 
 notion of it — since it is scattered and is not measured for allotment as it is in Connecticut. Guessing at it, I should 
 say there are 2,000 acres. The water is tolerably shallow — 28 feet is the deepest told me of— and tongs are nminly used. 
 The bottom, almost uuiversiilly, is muddy, and no spring-shifting is resorted to. The total production last year (and 
 
TPIE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 93 
 
 substantially the same will be true of 1S80) was 75,000 bushels. These were sold on the spot, for the most part, to 
 New York buyers, who paid an average of 75 cents a bushel. The yield of these beds this year was said to be 
 unnsuall>' good, both in quantity and quality. These oysters were sold mainly at home, to buyers who came in 
 sloops fioiii New York. When disposed of by the bushel, they brought an average of 75 cents, or even less. 
 Culled out and sold carefully by count, as was done often, the prices were : For the largest, §0 jier 1,000 ; medium 
 size, $3 per 1,000; i>oorest, .91 per 1,000. One firm alone in New York, at the Broomestreet wharves, is reputed 
 to have taken over 10,000 bushels. Formerly they nuist have paid 20 per cent, more than the schedule of prit;es 
 given aboA-e. 
 
 Hempstead bay and vicinity. — Hempstead bay seems to be not so prolific in molluscan life as the preceding 
 indentations of the coast. The planters go elsewhere for seed. In Eoslyn about 30 inen occasionally rake oysters 
 and clams, and half as many iamilies are thus partially supported. The year's catch is reported at 15,000 bushels. 
 
 At Glenhead 50 men are in the oyster and clam business, supporting 35 families. The product was about 
 15,000 bushels in 1880, nearly all of which went to New York by boat. 
 
 Glen Cove is the home of 15 oystermen, wlio say they have $5,000 invested at present in seed-oysters, and $2,500 
 more in boats and tools. The shipment is wholly by water, and amounts to 20,000 bushels annually. 
 
 Concerning the next inlet. Oyster bay, Mr. Mather writes that "it is a famous locality for oysters, ami 
 notwithstaiuling that the line between Queens and Suffolk comities strikes the bay at its eastern end, leaving 
 Cold Spring on one side and the other villages on the other, the same law prevails. The oyster-beds are leased by 
 the towns at 50 cents an acre; number of acres not limited. Some oystermen object to this, and a few of the 
 principal ones refuse to pay, but stake off their claims and hold them by force. About three-fourths of the bay is 
 staked off, and the greater portion is ])lauted. The seed is obtained from Bridgeport, Connecticut, at 25 cents per 
 Imshel of (averaging) 5,000 oysters. It is not necessary to buy much when the spawn 'sets', as it did this year 
 [18S0] aud last. A few shipments are made by rail, but mainly by boat, and a few have been packed for Europe." 
 
 BayviMe is the first village on Hempstead bay to be considered, its railway station being Locust Valley. The 
 oyster-interests here are said to contain an investment of $00,000, and 00,000 bushels go to markets in New York and 
 Connecticut aaiuially. As the yearly revenue from tliis is only •'3)15,000, a large portion must be designed to seed 
 other beds. The shellflsheries are said to support here about 75 families, aud many women find ii-regular 
 em])loymeut in opening oysters and clams. Thirteen sloops, of from 30 to 10 tons each, are employed, the total 
 value of which is $13,000; 4 cat-boats, $400; aud 100 row-boats, at $15, $1,500, making a grand total value of 
 $14,900. Much of this is employed in clamming, however. 
 
 At Oyster bay, $25,000 are invested in oyster-beds, and 75,000 bushels of oysters are taken annually. There 
 are 23 sailing-boats, large and small, owned by these men, and to a large extent, at least, dev(jted to oystering 
 and clamming, which together are estimated as worth $15,000. 
 
 In Cold Spring there are 45 men oystering in the season, half of whom have families. The harbor is three 
 miles long by one mile wide, and three-fourths of it, or about 500 acres, is planted with oysters. The total 
 shipments reported from these beds in 1880, amounted to 25,000 bushels. Most of these went to New York by 
 boat, exce])t in freezing weather, when the lailroad carried some. Seven sloops, counting 50 tons in all, and worth 
 $G,000, belong at this port. 
 
 Huntington bay and vicinity. — Crossing over now to Htintington bay, another good mollnskdistrict is met 
 with. The principal town is Huntington, which is well landlocked. Here the investment amounts to about $8,000, 
 and $1,800 in suuill boats, by means of which 15,000 bushels of oysters are got up for nuirket yearly. Perhai)s 20 
 families are thus supi)orte(l. 
 
 Centreport contributes a larger corjjs of general fishermen and oystermen, 100 men being reported as engaged 
 in the season, GO of whom are married. Twenty-five sail-boats belong here, aud are worth $15,000; while $100,000 
 are said to be invested in oyster-beds, that yield 50,000 bushi'ls annually. 
 
 In Northport and East Northport, 15 men are engaged, half having families, but their additional investments 
 and contributions are already accounted for above. 
 
 Veiy large interests are owned in Huntington bay by the Lowndes Brothers and others, of Norwalk, Connecticut, 
 but the yield of their beds is not considered in the present account, because already counted at Norwalk. The 
 ground is leased under lo;-al regulations at 60 cents a year per acre ; and there is no tax ui)on it until it becomes 
 of distinct value to the owner. The town treasuries receive a considerable revenue from this source. Should all 
 lessees pay properly, the sum would be larger; but here, as frequently elsewhere, a legal doubt exists as to the 
 right of the town of Northport to rent the bottom of the bay, since these waters and the bottom are claimed by 
 the adjoining town of Huntington, under charters from King George III. The matter now is ])ending decision in 
 suit. A similar plea on the part of Brookhaven, in respect to the eastern end of the Great South bay, has been 
 upheld by the courts, notwithstanding that the land fronting on much of the water iu question was long ago set 
 apart from Brookhaven into the town of Islip. 
 
 The oyster-interests of Sinithtown bay are very small, and chiefly centered at Stony Brook, where there are 
 10 sloojjs, worth $10,000, employed, and a further oyster-in\-estment of about $20,000. The amount of oysters sold 
 last year was 18,000 bushels. Out of the proceeds of this, large clatu-grouuds, and some fishing, 300 persons made 
 a living here. 
 
94 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Port Jefferson harbor. — Going over to Port Jefferson litirbor, we find several villages united in the 
 improvement of a single piece of water. At Setauket are two planters, with two sloops, $3,000 invested, and 
 3,000 bnshels produced. At East Setauket 50 men go oystering, 35 of whom are heads of families. There are 
 $25,000 invested in the beds here, but business has been poor of late, only 30,000 bushels having been taken. 
 From Port Jefferson 35 men are engaged on the bay, of whom 20 are married. The oyster-ground here is leased 
 by the town at $3 an acre, and only four acres allowed each planter. This is the first season any systematic 
 planting has been done, the seed being obtained from the Connecticut shore. At Mount Sinai, a little beyond, 
 800 bushels of oysters were sold in 1880. This is the last point of oyster- culture on the north shore of Long 
 Island ; beyond, the coast is abrupt and uncut by those sheltered and shallow bays so suitable for the business, 
 with which the western end of the island is furnished. 
 
 General condition of the oyster-business on the north shore of Long Island. — In conclusion, some 
 words of explanation or caution slionld be uttered in respect to the statistical statements relating to this north shore. 
 The large array of men engaged (806), families supported (500), and sailing-craft (105) in use, does not compare well 
 with the total of bushels raised, which is only 377,500, worth from $300,000 to $350,000. Bnt it must be remembered 
 that, in the large majority of cases, the oystermen are also farmers, and besides are engaged in the menhaden-fishing 
 and various other sorts of seine-fisliing; while they add to their income from their oyster-beds something like $250,000, 
 derived from the sale of about 181,000 bushels of quahaugs, or hard clams, and 293,000 bushels of soft clams, 
 annually. It therefore happens that many, most, indeed, of the " oystermen", are really at work only a portion 
 of their time. 
 
 New York oyster-laws, applicable to East river. — Certain enactments by the legislature of New York 
 must be quoted, applying to the East river and the north shore of Long Island. These are substantially as foUows : 
 
 Any person who shall * * * in any manner catch, interfere with, or disturb the oysters of another now or hereafter lawfully 
 planted upon the bed of any of the rivers, bays, sounds, or other waters within the jurisdiction of this state, shall be deemed guilty of a 
 misdemeanor. Penalties, tine not exceeding |1250, imprisonment not more than six months, or both. 
 
 No person who has not been a resident of the state for six months may rake or gather clams, oysters, or shellfish, in any waters of 
 this state ; but au actual resident may employ any person to gather shellfish for his benefit. 
 
 No dredging for clams or oysters within the state " with a dredge, operated by steam-power ", is permitted, and 
 no dredges are to be used exceeding thirty poimds in weight. 
 
 In the general statutes the following sections apply to Queens county : 
 
 Section 78. Persons who have been for six months or more inhabitants of Queens county, may plant oysters in any of the public 
 waters of that county, except Hempstead harbor, Jamaica and Hempstead bays, and Oyster bay harbor; and may acquire exclusive 
 ownership of such beds. 
 
 Sec. 79. Any person as aforesaid may use land under public waters iu Queens county, as aforesaid, " not to exceed three acres in 
 a bed, and on which there is no natural or planted beds of oysters, for the purpose of planting oysters thereon"; but he must clearly mark 
 and define the portion so selected by him, as a notice to the public, and shall not hold possession unless he puts oysters upon it, within 
 six months, to the extent of at least .50 bushels to the acre. 
 
 Sec. 80. Forbids any persons taking or disturbing oysters on beds mentioned in section 79. 
 
 Sec. 81. Penalty for violation of section 80, fine not to exceed $100, or 00 days in prison, or both. 
 
 Sec. 82. Process of arrest and trial. 
 
 Sec 83. Oyster-ground is forfeited in Queens county by ceasing to use it for one year, or at the end of two years from his removal 
 from residence in the county. 
 
 Sec. 84. Forbids dredging for oysters in any waters of Queens county, except in Oyster bay harbor, and in Cow bay ; and no person, 
 unless a resident of North Hempstead, shall dredge in Cow bay. Penalty, fine not exceeding $100, imprisonment not over 60 days, or 
 both.* ' . 
 
 Sec. 85. Repeals previous laws inconsistent. 
 
 Sec 8(). "The natural growth or bed of oysters in » • * Little Neck bay, in said [Queens] county, is hereby defined as being 
 between low-water mark and a distance of 500 feet therefrom, into the waters of said bay toward its center, Ijeyond which, in the planting 
 of oysters » » » the word 'natural' shall not apply." 
 
 Methods of oyster-culture. — The East river is the scene of probably the most painstaking and scientific 
 oyster-culture in the United States, and the methods in use there merit careful notice. It is impossible to ascertain 
 when it first became a custom there to trausi)lant oysters from the abundant natural beds along the shore to staked-iu 
 tracts off shore, nor is it of much importance to inquire. Probably the very first of this was done in the Harlem 
 river. Half a century ago, however, City island was populated by oystermen ; and in 1853 the New Yorlc Herald 
 reported that the largest proportion of all the East river oysters, used in New York, came from there, "where there 
 are extensive artificial and natural beds ". The same article stated that then City island owned a fourth of the 
 100 boats engaged in conveying East river oysters to the metropolis, and that 100 men and families on the island 
 obtained a living by oystering. The whole amount of property invested there was estimated at $1,000,000. This 
 included the value of the beds, and was supposed to rei)resent one-third of the capital of all the East river interest. 
 
 * Section 84 was repealed by chapter 402, laws of 1879, " in so far as the same relates to the waters of the county of Queens, lying on 
 the north side thereof, except that portion of the waters of Heniiistead harbor lying south of a line drawn from the center of Sea Clilf 
 dock, on the east side of said harbor, to the center of Mott's dock on the west side thereof." 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 95 
 
 This writer asserts that twenty j'ears previous — wliicli would make it about 1833 — East river oysters were almost 
 nnlvno\vii in New York markets ; and that it was not until about 1843 that any planting was engaged in. The 
 character of this planting is not indicated; but I have no doubt that, whatever was the date of its oi-igin, the 
 credit of first truly iii-opagating oysters from seed caught upon artificial beds or prepared receptacles, belongs to 
 the men of City island. It had been a matter of common observation, that any object tossed into the water in 
 summer, became covered at once with infant oysters. The sedges along the edge of the marshes, and the buoys, 
 stakes, and wharf-piles were similarly clothed. If the circumstances were favorable, this deposit sur\ived the 
 Avinter, and the next spring the youngsters* were large enough to be taken and transi)lanted. It was only a short 
 step in logic, therefore, to conclude, that if objects were thrown thickly into the water, on puri)ose to catch the 
 floating spawn, a large quantity of young oysters would be secured, and could be saved for transplanting at very 
 sliglit exi)ense. The next question was: What would liest serve the purjiose? Evidently nothing could be better 
 than the shells which, year by year, accumulated on the shore from the season's opening trade. They were the 
 customary resting-places of the spawn, and at the same time were cheapest. The City island oysterman, therefore, 
 began to save his shells from the lime-kiln and the road master, and to spread them on the bottom of the bay, 
 hoping to save some of the oyster-spaAvn with which his imagination densely crowded the sea- water. This happened, 
 I am told, more than fifty years ago, and the first man to put the theory into practice, it is remembered, was the 
 father of the Fordham Brothers, who still pursue the business at City island. In 1855, Captain Ilenry Bell, of Bell's 
 island, planted shells among the islandsoif the mouth of iforwalk river, and a short time after, under the protection 
 of the new law of 1855, recognizing private property in such beds, Mr. Oliver Cook, of Five-Mile river, Mr. Weed, 
 of South JTorwalk, Mr. Hawley, of Bridgport, and others, went into it on an extensive scale. Some of these 
 gentlemen app(!ar never to have heard of any i)revious operations of the sort. Discovering it for themselves, as 
 it was easy and natural to do, they supposed they were the originators ; but if any such credit attaches anywhere, 
 I believe it belongs to the City island men. It was soon discovered that uniform success was not to be hoped for, 
 and the steady, magnificent crops reaped by the earliest planters were rarely emulated. Many planters, therelbre, 
 decried the whole scheme, and returned to their simple transplanting of natural-bed seed; but others, with more 
 consistency, set at work to improve their chances, by making more and more favorable the opportunities for an 
 oyster's egg successfully to attach itself, during its brief natatory life, to the stool prepared for it, and afterward to 
 live to an age when it was strong enough to hold its own against the weather. This involved a closer stuily of the 
 general natural history of tlie oyster. 
 
 The first thing found out was, that the floating spawn would not attach itself to, or " set" (in the vernacular of 
 the shore), upon anything which had not a clean surface; smoothness did not hinder — glass-bottles were frequently 
 coated outside and in with young shells — but the sm-face of the object must not be slimy. It was discovered, too, 
 that the half-sedimentary, half- vegetable deposit of the water, coating any submerged object with a slippery film, 
 was acquired with marvelous speed. Thus shells laid down a very few days before the spawning-time of the oysters, 
 became so slimy as to catch little or no spawn, no matter how much of it was floating in the water above them. This 
 taught the oystermen that they must not sin-ead then- shells until the midst of the spawning-season; that one step 
 was gained when they ceased spreading in May and waited until July. Xow, from the 5th to the 15th of that 
 month is considered the proper time, and no shell-planting is attempted before or after. This knowledge of the speed 
 with which the shells l)ecame slimy was turned to account in another way. It was evident that the swifter the 
 current the less would there be a chance of rapid fouling. Planters, therefore, chose their ground in the swiftest 
 tideways they coidd find. 
 
 The mere manner of spreading the shells was also found to be important. If they are rudely dumped over, 
 half their good is wasted, for they lie in heaps. The i>roper method is to take them from the large scow or sloop 
 which has brought them ashore, in small boat-loads. Having anchored the skiff, the shells are then flirted 
 broadcast in all directions, by the shovelful. The next boat-load is anchored a little farther on, and the process 
 repeated. Thus a thin and eveidy-distributed layer is spread over the whole ground. Just how many l)usliels a 
 man will place on an acre depends upon both his means and his judgment. If he is shelling entirely new ground, he 
 will spread more than he would upon an area already improved; but I suppose 250 l)ushels to the acre might bo 
 recommended as an average quantity. Ilaving spread his shells in midsummer, the planter, by testing them early 
 in the fall, can tell whether he has succeeded in catching upon them any or much of the desired spawn. The young 
 oysters will appear as minute flakes, easily detected by the experienced eye, attached to all parts of the old shell. 
 If he has got no set whatever, he considers his investment a total loss, since by the next season, the bed of shells 
 will have become so dirty that the spawn will not take hold if it comes that way. Su]>posing, on the contrary, 
 that young oysters are found attached in millions to his cultch, as often happens, crowding upon each old shell 
 until it is almost hidden, what is his next step? 
 
 • *There is no word in the northern states for infant oysters, except the terms "set", "spat", "spawn", etc., all of which Ijelong 
 originally to the eggs or spawn of the oyster, and not to the yonng. lint are frequently and confusedly applied aa well to the half-grown 
 nioUusks. In the south the name "blister" (referring to its smooth, puU'ed-up appearance) is given to the infant oysters, and serves to 
 distinguish them from "seed", "culleus", and "oysters", which represent the successively larger sizes and stages of growth. 
 
96 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The ordinary way in tlie East river and elsewhere, is siniply to let the bed remain quiet, until, in the course 
 of three or four years, such oysters as have survived are large enough to sell, when the bed is worked — at first, 
 probably, with tongs and rakes, getting up the thickest of the croj). This done, dredges are put on, and 
 everything that remains — oysters, shells, and trash — is removed and the ground left clean, ready for a second 
 slielling, or to be planted with seed, perhaps right away — perhaps after the area has lain fallow, exposed uncovered 
 to the influences of the sea for a year. Oystermen have an idea (probably well founded, though badly theorized 
 upon) that this improves the bottom for oyster-culture, as much as a similar rest would the soil of an upland field 
 for agiiculture. 
 
 In the process of growth of the young oysters lodged upon the fields of cultch, when left midisturbed, there is, 
 and must of necessity be, a great waste imder the most favorable circumstances. Leaving out all other adversities, 
 this will arise from over- crowding. More " blisters" attacli themselves upon a single egg than can come to maturity. 
 One or a few will obtain an accession of growth over the rest, and crowd the others down, or overlaj) them 
 fatally. E-\'eu if a large number of young oysters attached to a single stool do grow uj) together equally, their close 
 elbowing of one another will probably result in a close, cral)bed bunch of long, slim, unshapely samples, of no value 
 save to be shucked. To avoid these misfortunes, and, having got a large quantity of young growth, to save as 
 much as possible of it, the more advanced and energetic of the planters, Uke the Hoyts, of Norwalk, pursue the 
 following plan: When the bed is two years old, by which time all the young oysters are of sufiicient age and 
 hardiness to bear the removal, coarse-netted dredges are put on, and all the bunches of oysters are taken uji, 
 knocked to pieces, and either sold as " seed ", or redistributed over a new x^ortion of bottom, thus widening the 
 planted area, and at the same time leaving more room for those single oysters to grow which have slipped through 
 the net and so escai>ed the dredge. The next year after, all the i)lantation, new and old, is gone over and suitable 
 stock culled out for trade, three-year-old East river oysters being in demand for the European market. This 
 farther thins out the beds, and the following (fourth) year the main crop of fine, well-shaped, well-fed oysters will 
 be taken, and daring the succeeding suiuuier, or perhaps after a year, the ground will be thoroughly well cleaned 
 up, and prepared for a new shelling. 
 
 All these I'emarks apjjly to a reasonably hard bottom, which requires no previous jireparation. In portions of 
 Long Island sound, especially off New Haven, it has been needful to make a crust or artificial surface upon the mnd 
 before laying down the shells. This is done with sand, and has been alluded to in the chapter on New Haveu 
 harbor. 
 
 Just what makes the best lodgment for oyster-spawn intended to be used as seed, has been greatly discussed. 
 Oyster-shells are very good, certainly, and as they are cheap and almost always at hand in even troublesome 
 quantities, they form the most available cultch, and are most generally used. Small gravel, however, has been 
 tried on parts of the Connecticut coast with great success, the advantage being that not often more than one or two 
 oysters M'ould be attached, and therefore the evil of bnnchiness would be avoided, AVhere scallop shells, as in 
 Narragauset bay, or, as in northern New Jersey, mussels and jingles, Anomia, can be procured in sufiicient 
 quantities, they are undoubtedly better than anything else, because they not only break easily in culling, but are so 
 fragile that the strain of the growth of two or more oysters attached to a single scallop or mussel-\alve, will often 
 ci'ack it in pieces, and so permit the several members of the bunch to separate and grow into good sliape, singly. 
 I am not aware that any of the elaborate arrangements made in France and England for catching and preserving 
 the spat have ever been imitated here, to any practical extent. The time will come, no doubt, when we shall be 
 glad to profit by this foreign example and experience. 
 
 Although the eflbrt to propagate oysters by catching drifting spawn upon prepared beds has been tried nearly 
 everywhere, from Sandy Hook to Providence, it has oidy, in the minority of cases, perhaps I might say a small 
 minority of cases, proved a profitabk> undertaking to those engaging in it; and many planters have abandoned the 
 process, or, at least, calculate but little upon any prepared beds, in estimating the probable income of the prospective 
 season. This arises from one of two causes : 1st. The failure of spawn to attach itself to the cultch ; or, 2d. In case 
 a "set" occurs, a subsequent death or destruction. 
 
 The supposition among oystermen generally has been, that the water everywhere upon the coast was filled, 
 more or less, with drifting oyster-spat during the spawning-season, whether there was any bed of oysters in the 
 immediate neighborhood or not; in other words, that there was hardly any limit to the time and distance the spat 
 would drift with the tides, winds, and currents. I think that lately this view has been modified by most fishermen, 
 and I am certain it greatly needs modification ; but, as a consequence of the opinion, it was believed that one place 
 was as good as another, so long as there was a good current or tideway there to spread shells for spawn, whether 
 there were any living oysters in proximity or not. But that this view was fallacious, and tliat many acres of shells 
 have never exhibited a single oyster, simi)ly because there was no sjiat or sources of spat in their vicinity, there is no 
 reason to doubt. 
 
 Having learned this, planters began to see that they must place with or near their beds of shells, living 
 mother-oysters, called "spawuers", which should supply the desired spat. This is done in two ways, either by 
 laying a narrow bed of old oysters across the tideway in the center of the shelled tract, so that the spawn, as it is 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 97 
 
 emitted, may be carried up and down over the breadtli of sbells waiting to accommodate it, or by sprinkling spawners 
 all about the ground, at the rate of about 10 bushels to the acre. Under these arrangements the circumstances 
 must be rare and exceptional, when a full set will not be secured upon all shells within, say, 20 rods of the spawners. 
 Of course fortunate positions may be found where spawn is produced from wild oysters in abundance, or from 
 contiguous planted beds, where the distribution of special spawners is unnecessary; yet even then it may be 
 said to be a wise measure. 
 
 The successful capture of a plenteous "set", however, is not all of the game. This must grow to salable 
 maturity before any profits can be gathered, and it so often happens that the most promising beds in September are 
 utterly wrecked l)y January, making a total loss of all the money and labor expended, that more than one jilantcr 
 has decided that it does not pay to attempt to raise oysters upon shells, so long as he is able to buy and stock his 
 grounds with half-grown seed — a decision which maybe based upon sound reasoning in respect to certain localities, 
 but which certainly will not apply to all of our northern coast. 
 
 To what causes the well-flUed artificial beds of infant oysters owe the destruction which seems often to overtake 
 them in a single night, cannot always be told ; we are not sufiiciently acquainted either with the oyster or the 
 conditions under which he lives, to detect the fatal influence. It is easily perceived, however, that these propagation- 
 beds offer an unusual attraction to all the active enemies of the oyster, such as winkles, drills or borers, and 
 starfishes, since they find there food not only in a superabundance, but thin shelled and tender, so as to be got at 
 in the easiest manner. It has very frequently happened in the East river, that starfishes alone have not oidy eaten 
 up many acres of young oysters in a single season, on shelled ground, but so colonized there as to ruin utterly that 
 tract for any further use, so long as they remained. It is certain that the half grown transplanted seed is less 
 attractive to oyster-enemies than the propagation-beds ; but when, as frequently occurs, the latter survive misfortune 
 and attack, the yield of profits is so great as amply to compensate for the risk. Those who do not catch any or sufficient 
 seed for their purposes, upon areas of shells or other cultch, annually procure young oysters of natural growth, or 
 " seed " with which to stock their beds. To this end they send their sloops from Norwalk eastward to the 
 Housatonic beds, as has been described in a previous chapter, out into the sound off Bridgeport and to Shippeu 
 point, while the more westerly planters get their seed in the East river and off the Long Island shoi-e. There 
 seems to be little lack of supjily, but the scene of good dredging and the amount gathered are continually changing. 
 On the whole, however, there is a decrease of sujiply brought about by the largely increased number of boats now 
 fishing every fall. More or less of the seed gathered here is sold by those who catch it, to local planters, and some 
 goes to beds in Khode Island and New York bay, or the south shore of Long Island. On the contrary, some little 
 foreign seed, chiefly from the North river, is brought to Connecticut beds. The deep-water sound seed is the best. 
 The seed is not usually culled, but is sold to the planter at about 25 cents a bushel, and distributed upon his grounds 
 just as it is caught. In a bushel of it, consequently, not more than one-fourth (in a fair run) wiU consist of living 
 oysters, the remainder being dead shells and trash of all sorts. Of this mixed stuff' from 300 to 400 bushels are put 
 on an acre lot. If it were culled, even roughly, it would bring from 40 to 50 cents, and one-half the quantity would 
 be enough for the same ground, since the danger of planting too thick must be avoided. Frequently this is done. 
 Some planters here never disturb their beds until they begin to take them up for market ; but others make a 
 practice of shifting their transplanted oysters, when two or two and a half years old, to a new spot. There they lie 
 for one year, and are then ready for sale. The cost of shifting is from 10 to 15 cents a bushel ; but the increase, 
 both in size and flavor, is thought to compensate for this extra outlay. 
 
 The great drawback to East river oyster-planting of every kind, is the abundance of enemies with which the 
 beds are infested. These consist of drum-fish, skates, and, to a small degree, of various other fishes ; of certain sponges 
 and invertebrates that do slight damage ; and of various boring mollusks, the crushing winkle, and the insidious 
 starfish or sea-star. It is the last-named plague that the planter dreads the most, and the directly traceable harm 
 it does amounts to many tens of thousands of dollars annually in this district alone. Indeed, it seems to have here 
 its headquarters on the American oyster-coast ; but as I shall devote to it a special description in my chapter on the 
 Enemies of the Oyster, I will only mention here the fact of its baleful presence, which has utteily ruined many 
 a man's whole year's work. 
 
 Destruction of East ri\T!;r oysters. — Nearly all the East river oysters are sold in the shell in New Tork. 
 Those from the Connecticut shore aiul City island are generally taken to the city in the sloops of the owners, and 
 sold to dealers at the foot of Broome street. This is partially true also of those raised on the Long Island shore ; 
 but there the New York firms, themselves often co-planters mth the countrymen, send boats to buy up cargoes 
 at the beds at a small discount from city prices. 
 
 35, PECONIC BAY, OE EASTERN LONG ISLAND. 
 
 The eastern end of Long Island. — The whole extent of bays and inlets contained between the t-^o 
 promontories, Montauk and Orient, which terminate Long Island at its eastern end, is subdivided under several 
 names, the principal being Gardner's, and Great and Little Peconic bays. Though this region is highly productive 
 in respect to the swimming fishes, and to several kinds of edible mollusks, yet oysteys are not commonly found 
 
 7 o 
 
98 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 there, uor do they flourish when planted. This dearth seems to be due to the unfortunate abundance of enemies, 
 especially starfishes, since there is evidence that anciently oysters were indigenous and plenty. At the extremity 
 of the northern cape " Oyster pond" and " Oyster Poud point" still preserve the recollection of what was once good 
 touging ground. Mr. Sanderson Smith, of the United States Fish Commission, once told me that he had found near 
 there an extensive bed of dead shells of very large size, perforated throughout by boring-sponges. It is not 
 surpiising to learn these facts, biit they point to a state of things now past, for there is no oyster-catching or 
 planting at present in Peconic bay, which has any commercial importance. 
 
 The collector of the port at Sag Harbor, Mr. W. S. Havens, has for several years kept statistics of the yield 
 of the fisheries in this series of bays, from which it appears that in lS79-'80, 5,000 bushels of oysters were taken; 
 their value was $5,0U0. Of other shellfish (chiefly scallops), $22,400 is given as the value of the catch, which 
 seems to me too low. 
 
 At Riverhead a comjiany of six men was formed in the sjiring of ISSO. They put up $50 each, and stocked 
 one acre a short distance below the village with 075 bushels of seed from I^ew Haven; but it did not grow well. 
 
 New Suffolk, Mattituck, and other towns in that neighborhood, do a large bustaess in selling scallop-shells to 
 Ehode Island and Connecticut fishermen, to be used as cultch on the propagating beds. The price is 2i cents a 
 bushel, at which rate the 75,000 bushels of shells sold all alongshore brought in $1,875. 
 
 At Southold oyster-culture has been begun by one man, who has ]ilanted 50 acres. 
 
 At Orient 800 bushels of oysters were taken last year, and an insignificant quantity on the Napeague shore, 
 inside of Montauk. In the center of Montauk point is a large fresh pond, which it is proposed to turn into an 
 oyster-pond, by opening a sluice so as to admit the salt water. At Sag Harbor 500 bushels are reported as the 
 local catch, and another 500 bushels at Southampton. These three reports add up oidy 1,800 bushels. I supi)ose 
 the remainder of Mr. Havens' total of 5,000 bushels were picked up at chance times by fishermen in various 
 parts of the bays, and locally used. 
 
 Statistical eecapitulation for East eivek (and Peconic bat): 
 
 Number of planters, wholesale-dealers 958 
 
 Value of shore-property $347, 200 
 
 Number of vessels aud sail- boats engaged 1, 268 
 
 Value of same $218,800 
 
 Number of men hired by planters or dealers 125 
 
 Annual earnings of same , $67,500 
 
 Annual sales of — 
 
 Native oysters bushels.. 669,800 
 
 Value of same |708,925 
 
 I. THE SOUTH SHORE OE LONG ISLAND. 
 
 36. THE GREAT SOUTH BAY DISTRICT. 
 
 Topography op Great South bat.— "Every schoolboy knows," as Macaulay used to say with his fine 
 contempt for illiteracy, that all along the shore of Long Island, between the outer fence of the rigid and pitiless 
 surf-repelling beach and the habitable shore, lie a series of shallow lagoons. The largest of these — thirty miles or 
 more long and from one to five miles wide— is the Great South bay. This water is the salvation of all southern 
 Long Island. If the land ran straight to the sea, and Fire island was not an island but simply a shore, the whole 
 great extent would be as uninhabitable as the bleak rear of Cape Cod, all the way from Prospect Park to Moriches. 
 But the bay furnishes an abundance of harbors ; it abounds in fish profitable to catch ; it tempts the ducks to its 
 sedgy shore, and so invites an annual migration of money-spending sportsmen; it is paved with the "luscious 
 clammes and crabflsh" which the old Dutch poet extolled; and it furnishes to the world that marvel of delicacies, 
 the oyster. Hence, in place of a pine-barren and a howling, friendless coast, we find a string of poprdous and 
 thriving villages, the winter-havens of thousands of mariners, and the summer resort of city pleasure-seekers. 
 
 This shallow sound communicates with the ocean through Fire island inlet and a few more openings to the 
 westward. The eastern part communicates through a narrow pass at Smith's point with East bay, which has no 
 communication with the sea, and is almost fresh. The depth of water in the bay does not exceed two fathoms in 
 its deepest part, and the rise and fall of the tide are very small, probably not more than a foot at the average. 
 The bay receives considerable supplies of fresh water from a number of streams, celebrated for their fine trout. 
 The western part of the bay has a sandy bottom, and its water, being in more direct communication with the ocean, 
 contains more salt than that of the eastern part, where the bottom is a mixture of black mud with sand. 
 
 Abundance op oysters, past and present. — This Great South bay has been called the most popidous 
 oyster-ground nortU of the Chesapeake bay, but the natural beds are all confined to the eastern end, where the 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 99 
 
 nuid-bottoin is. Tliey do not occur much eastward of Smith's poiut, uor westward, iu general, of a line drawn from 
 jSTicoll's poiut across to Fire island. Occasionally temporary and inconsequential beds "strike" in the tideways of 
 iidets farther east, but nothing with reguhuity or of importance. This south-shore locality has been celebrated from 
 time inunemorial, and as early as 1079 had become an object of an extensive industry, as is witnessed by the following 
 local ordinance, which I find stated in Watson's Annals of New Toric, (p. 284): 
 
 Oysters: To prevent the destructiou of oysters iu South bay, by the unliraited lumiber of vessels employed in the same, it is ordered 
 that but teu vessels shall be allowed, and that each half-barrel tub shall be paid for at the rate of 2d., according to the town act of 
 Brookhaveu. 
 
 This right of the town of Brookhaveu to dictate regulations in this matter exists to the present day, and arises 
 from an ancient colonial grant to the town by patent from the king of England. Eecognizing this grant, there was 
 made an agreement in 1707 between William Smith, who was at that time the holder and representative of the rights 
 and interests of the fishing in Great South bay, whereby the town, in exchange for the right to control the bay, 
 contracted to give to him and his heirs forever one half of all net income accruing to the town from the use of the 
 bottom of the bay. This, of course, applied almost exclusively to oyster-culture, and the agreement has been kei)t, 
 the revenue of the town from that source, in 1880, amounting to $1,032 95, half of which went to the heirs of old 
 William Smith. 
 
 Oyster-laws of Great South bat. — The present laws regulating oyster-matters at the eastern end of the 
 bay are as follows : 
 
 Section 10. The owners and lessees of laud bounded upon that part of Shinnecock bay lying west of a line drawn due south from Pino 
 Neck point, in the town of South Hampton, in the county of Suffolk [Long Island], may plant oysters or clams in the waters of said b.ay, 
 opijosite their resi)ective lands, extending from low-water mark into said bay not exceeding four rods in width. 
 
 No planting upon any " beds of natural growth ", however, is authorized, or will be protected ; nor can any person 
 hold oyster-ground unless it is planted and occupied " in good faith ". The locality of such planted beds must be 
 designated by stakes and a monument on shore. To plant oysters or clams on such designated ground, without 
 permission of the owner, subjects the ottender to a forfeit of $12 for each oflense, under stated processes of law. 
 Heavy penalties also are inflicted upon persons who remove or deface boundary stakes. [This law, or legal permit, 
 is practically a dead letter, since it has been found useless through the too great freshness of the water, aud for 
 other reasons, to plant in Shinnecock bay.] 
 
 Sections 100 and 101 of the Eevised Statutes of 1875, Title XI, forbid dredging in the Great South bay. Long 
 Island, or having in possession instruments for that purpose. 
 
 Sections 102 and 103 enjoin that "no person shall take any oysters, clams, mussels, or shells, or any substance 
 growing on the bottom, from any public or private bed, or in any of the waters of the said South bay, except between 
 sunrise and sunset on any day". 
 
 Section 101 forbids "catching any oysters, spawn, or seed-oysters" in Great South bay between June 15 and 
 September 15. 
 
 Tlie penalties for violation of the above-given regulations are a fine not to exceed $250, imprisonment up to six 
 months, and an additional forfeiture of $200 for each offense ; half the penalty goes to the informer, the remainder 
 to the poor-fund. 
 
 Eegtjlation of otsteb-culture in Suffolk county. — In 1879 a law was passed regulating the 
 formation of corporations for oyster-culture in Suflblk county, Long Island. Whether this law has ever been 
 taken advantage of I am unable to say. It is as follows: 
 
 Section 1. Five or more persons who have leased or hold oyster-lots in Suffolk county may organize a company for the promotion of 
 oyster-culture upon those lots, and shall become a corporate body, after filing prescribed statements, in writing, with the county clerk. 
 
 Sec. 2. There shall lie not less than three nor more than nine trustees, holding office one year. By-laws shall be made to regulate the 
 business of the corporation. Every lot owner shall have one vote, and a majority of votes shall control all questions. 
 
 Sec. :!. The trustees shall have the superintendence of the several oyster-lots held by the members, and shall regulate the methods of 
 conducting the business by by-laws, which shall bo publicly entered on a book, and which may be changed at annual meetings by a majority 
 vote of the members of the company. The trustees may employ persons, and make monthly assessments upon the members, for money to 
 meet the expenses of the company ; and any member failing to pay such an assessment within 30 days may be sued by the corporation. 
 
 Sec. 4. If any member violates a by-law of the company, he forfeits $25, which may be recovered in an action against him by the 
 corporation. 
 
 Sec. .'). A\Tienever, under the laws of this state, an action shall accrue to any member of said company for trespass, or for penalty by 
 reason of any act or thing done or committed by any person, to or in or about the oysters, upon the lot leased, occupied, or held by such 
 member, aud said member shall assent thereto in writing, said action may be brought iu the corporate name of said company, and all 
 recoveries iu said actions sh.all be the property of the company. 
 
 Sec 6. The oysters upon the several lot.s of the several members of said company shall be and remain the separate property of the 
 said several members, except that any and all shall bo liable to levy and sale, under execution, for all judgments recovered against the 
 company. 
 
 Regulations of oyster-culture by town-laws of Brookhaven.— It will be known, of course, that 
 Brookhaven does not consider any of these state laws as applying to her, since she regards the bottom of so much 
 of the Great South bay as lies within her boundaries, as being wholly under her own control, and not amenable to 
 state jirrisdiction. The trustees of the town, therefore, make all the regulations thought necessary, which are not 
 nianv in number. 
 
100 THE FISHP]RIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 A supervisor is appointed, who has charge of the letting of ground, in lots of one acre, to each male applicant 
 of age, who is a resident of the town. The supervisor inspects the ground to see that it is not " a natural bed ", 
 ])laces it -upon his map, looks after its proper staking-out, and collects a personal fee for his services. The owners 
 of 03 ster-grounds then i)ay to the town $1 a year rent per acre, and pay taxes upon their floating personal property 
 engaged in the bnsiness, and upon oysters admitted to be upon their ground. In achlitiou to this, every man, 
 cultivator or not, who wishes to wield oyster-tongs on Brookhaven oyster-grounds, must pay $1 a year license-fee to 
 the town for the privilege. This fee is known by the curious name "toleration", and it arose in tbis way: When 
 the town ordered that every citizen might hold a lot, upon the conditions outlined above, it meant that no person 
 should hold more than one. If, however, A got the use of B's name, and so acquired the control of two or more lots, 
 no one objected. The theory was that every man worked his own lot; but soon men began catching seed-oysters iu 
 Bellport bay, around Smith's point, and elsewhere, and selling to the planters, who paid from 25 to 40 cents a bushel. 
 In order to derive a revenue from this also, the town therefore ordered a "toleration-fee" of $1, to.be paid by every 
 man who handled a rake. In the fiscal year 1879-'80 these license-fees amounted to $371 50, while the rental of 
 oyster-ground iu Brookhaven during the same time was $1,05G ; total receipts of the town, $1,427 50, of which "the 
 poor" got one-half. Any seeming lack of sufficiency in the amount of the toleration-fees must be charged to the fact, 
 that many, no doubt, took advantage of the custom of commuting for the fee, by throwing upon the public ground 
 eight or ten bushels of seed, pro bono puhlico. 
 
 IJesteictioxs of OYSTEii-FisiiiNG BY TOWN-LAWS OF BROOKHAVEN. — The Stated restrictions placed by the 
 town upon oysteriug are: that no dredging shall be done; no oystei'-raking at night, nor between June 15 and 
 October 1 ; and that no one not a citizen of Brookhaven shall be allowed to rake iu her waters, or any person take 
 or dispose of any oysters to be transplanted elsewhere. These regulations, being considered by those inside only as 
 protective measures due to themselves, and being branded as an illegal and unkind selfishness and monopoly by 
 tliose outside, have naturally caused considerable conflict between the oystermen of Brookhaven and their neighbors — 
 a large part of the town of Islip, separated from Brookhaven before the full value of the oyster-bottom of the bay was 
 appreciated. Brookhaven now claims that the water 0])posite Eastern Islip was not granted to Islip at the time of 
 the separation, and that she retains control of it. To this Eastern Islip objects, and, with an additional reason, 
 claims, with Western Islip, Babylon, and the state at large, the free right of Brookhaven waters. Brookhaven offers 
 to let Eastern Islip men, in consideration of the old connection, rake with her own citizens, by paying a toleration- 
 fee of $2, and anybody else for a fee of $3. This is paid by few or none, and Islip brought suit, which has long been 
 pending, intended to break the monopoly. Meanwhile she and all the rest steal as much seed as possible — nearly 
 all they need, in fixet — from Brookhaven waters, the evidence required by the law being so very definite that the.y 
 run small risk, even if caught, of being proved guilty in court. At the same time Islip and Babylon procured 
 legislation authorizing the leasing of the bay-bottom in four-acre plots to citizens of those towns, for the purpose of 
 planting oysters thereon, and it was made a misdemeanor for non-residents to tong oysters in any of the waters 
 within their jurisdiction. This exclusion was a matter of iudifterence to everybody acquainted with the fact that 
 no seed-beds of value existed in either town to tempt non-resident tongers. Brookhaven is now endeavoring to get 
 aid from the state iu securing to itself more protection. At a late town meeting one trustee made the astonishing 
 statement, that during the spawning-season thi'ce thousand tubs of seed are weekly stolen from the bay and 
 transplanted in the protected beds in other waters, those of Connecticut included. "As the seed is worth $1 a tub, 
 the injury to the oyster-interests in Brookhaven is readily seen. While the oyster planters of other towns are 
 growing ricli, those of Brookhaven are being made i)0or, and the time to seek i)rotection was while something 
 remained that was worth pocketing." One speaker said he controlled several hundred acres of excellent oyster- 
 bottom, but was prevented from utilizing it by the depredations of non-residents; at which the said non residents 
 grinned with saturnine glee. What will be the result of the struggle between exclusion and free-raking, remains 
 to be seen. 
 
 Beookhaven bay OR "Blue Point" oysters. — Having thus stated the conditions and regulations under 
 which oyster-culture exists in the Great South bay, let us turn to a consideration of the natural sujiply there, the 
 methods of artificial increase, and the restdts in market-produce and active prosperity. 
 
 The natural, original growth of oysters in this sound, as I have already stated, is confined almost wholly between 
 Smith's point and Fire island — practically to the waters east of Blue Point, known as Brookhaven bay. This was , 
 the home of the famous celebrity, the Blue Point oyster, which was among the earliest to come to ISevf York 
 markets. The present oyster of this brand is small and round; but the old "Blue Points", cherished by the Dutch 
 burghers and peaked-hatted sons of the Hamptons, who toasted the king long before our Eevolution was thought 
 of, was of the large, crooked, heavy-shelled, elongated kind with which one becomes famdiar all along the coast 
 in examining relics of the natural beds, and which even now are to l)e found by the thousand in all the mussel- 
 lagoons of the gulf of Saint Lawrence. Now and then, a few years ago, one of these aboriginal oysters, of which 
 two dozen made a sufficient armful, was dragged up and excited the cirriosity of every one; but the time has gone 
 bj- when any more of these monsters may be expected. 
 
 In 1853 the New York Herald reported that the value of all the Blue Point oysters, by which name the Great 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 101 
 
 Soutli bay oysters were generally meant, did not exceed yearly $300,000. "They are sold for an average of ten 
 shillings ($1 25) a hundred from the beds; but, as they are scarce and have a good reputation, they sell at a 
 considerable advauce upon this ))rice when brought to market. At one i)eriod, when they might be regarded as in 
 theii- prime, they attained a rema-rkable size; but now their proportions, as well as their numbers, have been greatly 
 reduced. There are about two huudred persons engaged in the business, including the proprietors and the hands 
 eui])loyed in working the beds." 
 
 Extent of South hay beds in 1873. — Tv>euty years later (in 1873) Count Pourtales, of Cambridge, made 
 an examination of the oyster-producing districts near New York, at the request of the superintendent of the coast 
 survey. In respect to this great bay south of Long Island, Count Pourtales wrote: 
 
 Tho beds are of various extent, from a few acres to a liuntlred or more. They form large accumulations of tlead shells, ou the top of 
 which the spawn attaches itself and produces a succession of crops. « • • Among the beds visited by me, the following deserve 
 particular mention : Smith's point has been mentioned as being the eastern limit of the oysters. The water was found there to bo only 
 brackisli, and tho bottom of clear quartz pebbles, otfering attachment to a small variety of oysters, tasteless though fat. They are only 
 used for planting.* 
 
 The Great bed (subdivided into North and South beds) off Patchogue appears to be one of the oldest. Tho tongs bring up largo 
 quanlities of dead oyster-shells of great size, siich as have been mentioned before. Tho living oysters obtained by a fleet of boats at work 
 on it appeared to be generally about three years old, and were intended for planting at Rockaway until fall. Auother celebrated bed is off 
 Blue I'oint, which has a celebrity for the quality of its oysters in the New York and Boston markets. The California bed oti' Sayville is one 
 of the largest, about 100 acres in extent. It is the westernmost natural bed, and was formerly extremely productive, but has been very 
 much reduced by over-tishiug. The oystermen recognize the oysters from that bank by the abundant growth of red sponge and sertularias 
 on them. The mussel-beds are the nearest to the inlet, and the greater saltucss of their flavor is a eon.seqnence of it. The lower shell is 
 more froijuently ribbed and the edge scalloped in tho oysters of these Ijcds than those from beds in the eastern part of the bay. To the 
 westward and between these latter beds, the bottom is more sandy, and the scattering oysters found on it are known as "sand" oysters; 
 they are easily recognized by their clean sliclls, scalloped on the edge and somewhat striped with dark colors when young; the growing 
 edge is very thin but hard, while further east it is generally flexible. This would indicate a greater projiortion of lime in the water, but 
 the reason is not obvious, since the easteru pnvt of the bay contains a much larger quantity of shells in a state of decomposition. 
 
 Signs of exhaustion in the oyster-beds. — It is nearly ten years ago that this inquiry was made by Count 
 Pourtales, since even then apprehensions were felt, lest the supply of native oysters, once thought inexhaustible, 
 should speedily find a sudden end. For a hundred years no one had thought anything like protection to the 
 beds, or even moderation in raking, necessary. Boats had come from Rhode Island and Massachusetts, year 
 after year, and had taken away unnumbered loads to be transplanted there, in addition to all the home niark(;t 
 consumption and the supply for Eockaway and Staten Island beds. Only 10 to 25 cents a bushel was asked for the 
 seed by the ea.syworking catchers, and there seemed no bottom to the mine. This .state of things attracted more 
 and more men into the business of dredging seed and tonging marketable beds. All at once young oysters began 
 to be hard to get, and the increase seemed to be almost at an end. The young men had little knowledge of the great 
 armies of infant mollusks which the old men had seen speckling the gravel beaches and rocky shoals all over the 
 bay a few years pre%'ious. It began to be seen that if any oysters were to remain, none must be sold out of the 
 bay, and all oystermen must hasten to organize beds and encourage growth. Then came the attempts at help 
 from legislation, but the trouble was too deep for that, and the oystermen of the present generation suffer a 
 scarcity that their grandfathers would have thought it impossible should ever occur. 
 
 Extent of oysteb-inditstey'' at the present day. — Nevertheless, the beds are not exhausted yet, as is 
 evident from the great fleets that spring and fall operate to advantage in the waters between Moriches and Blue 
 Point. I suppose that no less than 500 sail-boats spend their time on the bay at these seasons in gathering seed, 
 carrying it away, and buying it for outside planters. To every one of these 500 sail-boats, mainly well-built sloops 
 and cat-boats, three men may be counted, so that 1,500 men are probably employed in this industry alone at these 
 times. How much seed is procured each season — the fall of 1879 or spring of 1880, for instance — it is impossible 
 to state ; but I should judge it to l)e not less than 100,000 bushels, or twice that amount for the annual yield ; yet 
 the amount is not large enough to su])ply the demands of the South Shore planters, who were comjielled to bring 
 in last year (1879) about 100,000 bushels of seed procured in the Newark bay, the North river, East river, and New- 
 Haven, Connecticut. This estmiate is too small, if anything. 
 
 Disposition of seed-oysters : Prices. — The poorer seed caught is sold to a great extent in the rough — 
 stones, shells, dead stuff, and all— just as it comes up, since on much of it there is clinging " spawn"; that is, young 
 oysters too small to be detached. For this 25 cents was the ruling price last year. . Jluch, however, is culled, boys 
 going in the boat and ]>icking the tongfuls over as fast as they are poured out upon a board, which is placed across 
 the middle of the skiff, from gunwale to gunwale. For this from 40 to GO cents is paid. The buyers are planters 
 at Bellport, Patchogue, Blue Point, Sayville, and the towns farther we.st, and occasionally a man from Ehode Island 
 or Connecticut, who wants this seed to work up into a particular grade ou his home-beds. Count Pourtales 
 mentions something I did not learn of in this connection, namely, "a class of men intermediate between the 
 lishermen and the marketmen. They use sloojjs and small schooners, and buy up from the oystermen the produce 
 of each day's fi.shing as they come in at niglit. A basket hoisted to the masthead is the signal indicating a wish to 
 
 ' This seed, however, makes the hardiest and most preferred oysters for the European trade, aud is much sought after. 
 
102 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 purchase." This looks as if he referred to the well-known packers, of whom I shall speak later; but he shows that, 
 partially at least, it is seed they buy, for he continues : " The price paid at the time of my visit was about CO cents 
 a bushel for all sizes and qualities mixed. These oysters are carried to Eockaway, Hempstead, and other bays near 
 the west end of Long Island sound, near Captain's island, where they acquire rapidly a better appearance and 
 flavor. The men who simply carry them there to resell to planters, realize a profit of 15 cents a bushel for freight." 
 
 Scarcity of seed and increase of price. — The insufficiency of native seed to supply the cultivated beds, 
 complained of this year to a greater extent than ever before, is to be traced mainly to the cause which might long 
 ago have been anticipated, and whicli has before been so ruinous to our oyster-interests — over-fishing. So long as 
 oysters are permitted to grow for a proper time — say till they are four or five years old — before they are raked up 
 for market, so long will they, in favorable places, increase with a rapidity that it would hardly be possible for a 
 scarcity to occur. To an extent safe against ordinary demands, the more an oyster-bottom is "tonged" the more 
 stock will be found. This is due to the fact that constant raking stirs up the bottom, rinses off the shells and gravel 
 there, and so prepares it to receive the floating spawn. But here in South bay the oysters gathered for market- 
 use are exceedingly small, many of them not larger than a silver quarter. They have not yet spawned, iu most 
 cases, and hence their removal is like digging plants up before they have left any seeds behind ; it is destroying 
 the root as well as the brandies of oyster-growth. The seed imported from outside the island is of a different 
 quality, if not inferior — two opinions exist on this point — not producing stock of precisely the flavor esteemed most 
 highly on the South shore, and to which the original Blue Point and Oak Island bivalves owe their high reputation 
 with epicures. Moreover, where formerly seed was to be had for the catching, or bought at 10 to 20 cents a bushel, 
 30 to CO cents must now be paid for it. Such an outlay at the beginning makes an increase of the selling-price 
 necessary. The shippers are loth to give the increase, since they do not see wherein the profit will retuin. Lately, 
 indeed, money has been lost rather than made on oysters from the south side of Long Island, at least upon those 
 grown at the eastern end of the bay, whence the stock is almost wholly sent to Europe. The question, therefore, 
 as to the best way to restore the natural beds to their ancient productiveness, or whether it is possible to induce the 
 formation of new seed-banks, is a very important one in this locality, and I endeavored to collect all possible 
 information bearing uj^on it. 
 
 Eemedies foe the exhaustion of the seed-supply. — To begin with: It appears that there has been no 
 season when there was a wide spread and abundant catch of spawn and successful growth of young oysters in 
 Brookhaven bay since about 1870. In 1872, it is said to have failed altogether. Every year, however, there is more 
 or less spawning observed, and it is the belief of the baymen, that every fourth year this exceeds in quantity the 
 intermediate three years ; but the misfortune is that the spawn seems, year after year, to go to waste, or, if it 
 attaches itself at all, to be kiUed by the winter-storms, which stir up and shift the mud of the too shallow bay, or 
 by some other accident. 
 
 It is my opinion, however, that nothing like the required number of adult oysters exist, undisturbed, in Brookhaven 
 bay to supply naturally sufficient seed to keep pace with the accidents of bad weather and the fall-raking. It is a 
 well-known fact, that the oysters upon the transplanted beds do not propagate successfully. Though all the 
 surrounding circumstances seem favorable, the shock they have sustained in being transplanted, or some other 
 reason, limits their spawning ; and if they do emit eggs, there is usually nothing near by for them to catch upon. 
 It is to the wild oysters, then, that the planters must look for the annual renewal of the seed-beds. They are few 
 in number, and every circumstance is against them. 
 
 One source of trouble lies, I believe, in the laws intended to be beneficial, which, perhaps, present the only 
 difficulty in the way of an entire restoration of the old productiveness. I consider that the prohibition of dredging 
 is bad policy ; that, on the other hand, dredging should be permitted all the year round, at least half of each week. 
 It seems to me, also, that beneficial effects would follow the opening of the beds to free-fishing in summer, dredging 
 included, and the closing of them, at least for a few years, from the 15th of July until the following spring, say up to 
 March 1. The reasons for this have been indicated in previous chapters. The continued raking and dragging 
 of the ground in summer, spreads and thins the thi(;ker beds, keeps the bottom clean, and prepares the shells, 
 gravel, and scraps there for the attachment of the spawn, by turning over and rinsing them, and this at the very 
 time most necessary, when the oysters are spawning and the eggs are making their brief floating search for a 
 foothold. But having thus been provided with resting places in abundance, over a continually widened area, it is 
 necessary that the disturbance immediately cease and the young oysters be permitted to rest entirely quiet, until 
 they have become strong enough to withstand the shock of change to new, private beds. This will not occur until 
 they are at least six months old. The present custom of seed-gathering iuthe Ml saves that which is a year old, 
 but it ruins an enormous quantity of small seed of the year only three months old, which has not grown to 
 sufficient strength to withstand the change. I believe that the only seed which should be removed from its 
 birthplace in the fall, is that whi(!h catches on gravel beaches between tide marks or elsewhere, where it would 
 surely be killed by cold during the ensuing winter ; and that the abundance the succeeding spring would more 
 than make up for the apparent loss of the opportunity at present made use of. If such a course as this were deemed 
 impracticable, then would it not be w^ell to adopt a system of raking one part of the bottom one year and another 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 103 
 
 tlie next? Perhaps not more than a single year's interval would be required ; but I should hope that only a third 
 of the bottom might be raked annually, so that each bed would have two years' rest between times. 
 
 The general characteristics of the Great South b?iy having thus beeu mentioned, it remains to describe 
 particular districts, and ofler such statistics as I have been able to collect. 
 
 Bellport and MoRicnES.— The most eastern point at which any oyster-operations are conducted on the 
 south side is Bellport, and there they are only begun. East of this, in Moriches bay, seed beds exist— there are 
 no oysters in Shinnecock bay— but at Bellport land is now being staked off and planting has begun. Bellport 
 l>lanters will have the advantage of the best and hardiest seed close at their own doors, but are three miles or more 
 from the railway. 
 
 Patchogue and vicinity. — The next point is the important town of Patchogue, the center of the Brookhaven 
 bay interests. More than any other of the thriving towiis on the south shore, it owes its existence to the bay, 
 but has distanced them all in point of size. Every other man you meet is a captain, though the craft he commands 
 is rarely better than a sloop. With few exceptions, to be born and bred here means to be a bayman, and a curious 
 result follows socially. The women of tlie \inage know a vast deal more than the men. As soon as a boy is old 
 enough he is sent to school; but by the time he gets acquainted with the manners of the school-house, he has 
 become big enough to " go cullin' " in an oyster-boat, aud that is the end of his education. Henceforth he sits in 
 a skitf on the bay and assorts oysters, until he is old enough to handle a pair of tongs, when he "goes tongin'" 
 until he dies or has energy and savings enough to become a buyer and shipper. The alternatives to this are to 
 go to New York to seek his fortune, or to become a clerk in a village shop. The girls, on the other hand, stay 
 lu school long after their brothers are taken away. They are pretty— that goes without saying— and healthy, 
 because nobody is anything else down here, and are acquainted with fashion through seeing so many stylish 
 people in the summer. Then they admire the honest, rugged frame and heart of a bayman, marry him, aud 
 become his confidential clerk in business. 
 
 The chief business of the bayman at this eastern end, is the catching and cultivation of oysters, aud there are 
 about 1,000 acres of bottom under cultivation in front of the town. This area includes all the coast from Patchogue 
 to Bayshore, thus taking in the settlements aud railway stations, Bayport, Youngport, Blue Point, Sayville, and 
 Oakdale. A part of these lie in the town of Islip and the rest in Brookhaven, and thus come under slightly diflerent 
 regulations, but otlierwise they form together a homogeueous district, and the oysters they raise go to market 
 under the general brand-name of " Blue Points ". The artificial beds upon which these oysters grow are all near 
 shore, and in water rarely more than two fathoms deep, and often less. The bottom varies, but, as a rule, consists 
 of muil overlying sand. The preference is iu favor of water 6 to 10 feet in depth, which is deep enough to escape 
 ordinary gales, aud is not too expensive to work. The oysters fatten better there than in shoaler water, one planter 
 said. The seed consists of the native growth, eked out by cargoes from New York bay, the East river, and 
 elsewhere. The experiment of planting Virginia oysters as seed has proved a failure. The result is a shell which 
 grows closely to resemble the natives, but the moment the oyster is opened the difference and inferiority of the 
 meat is apparent, both to the eye and the taste. It has therefore been discouraged. Southern oysters will survi\o 
 the winter iu this bay, grow, and emit spawn ; but most planters consider that they tend to reduce the quality and 
 price of the native stock, and hence have almost ceased to bring any. To raise and sell them as " Vu-ginias" would 
 not pay, since this region cannot compete with Staten Island. Whether native or outside seed grows faster is another 
 undecided question, but all whom I asked said they preferred to plant all home-seed, if possible, on general 
 considerations. The differences in the experiences related to me are no doubt due to the differences iu the particular 
 localities whence the seed was brought. It is generally understood that oysters taken from the eastern to the western 
 end of the bay grow more rapidly thau those not changed. Count Pourtales remarked upon this district as follows : 
 
 These beds produce oysters of difFereiit qualities, according to the locality; the cause of the variation is not known, but depends 
 probably ou the density of the -o-ater, supply of food, etc. The oysters grown on the beds are called bed-oysters, by the fishermen, to 
 distinguish them from the broken-bottom oysters. The former have generally a rounded shape ; the second, which grow in scattered 
 bunches on broken or muddy bottom between the beds, assume an elongated or spoon-shaped form, evidently produced by their tendency 
 to sink iu the mud by their own weight as they grow. The beds have probably originated in the same way, as the tongs bring up from 
 them frequently old and very large spoon-shaped shells of oysters, such as are not now found living there. The broken-bottom oysters 
 have a much more rapid growth thau the bed-oysters, being two or three times as largo as tlie latter at the same age. The greater supi)Iy 
 of food will no doubt account for it. At the same time the meat is more watery and held iu less estimation until after it has improved by 
 l)lauting iu other localities. 
 
 The ordinary amount of small seed put on an acre is 500 bushels, chiefly laid down iu the spring. In the fall the 
 owner goes over them and thins them out, finding a great nmny which are large enough for market, though no 
 bigger thau a silver dollar. The rest remain down longer, and meanwhile constant additions of seed are made 
 alongside. 
 
 Bayshore. — As you go westward to the extremity of the " Blue Point" district, in the neighborhood of Bayshore, 
 you find a feeling of discouragement. Tlie oysters there do not grow as fast or be<;ome as finely flavored as those 
 to the eastward, and all the seAl must be bought or poached stealthily from Brookhaven. Large quantities of ground 
 there, whic^may be procured iu four-acre lots at $1 a year rent per acre, are not taken up, although with the help 
 
104 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of capital it might be made productive, and there are very few out of the many planters in Bayshore who depend 
 to an\- considerable degree upon their oyster-beds for their support, even if you add to this the profits they derive 
 
 from clamming. 
 
 The use of "stools" to receive oyster-spat. — Following the lessening product of the seed-beds and 
 the increasing appreciation of the oysters of this region, attention was tiu'ued some years ago to the possibility of 
 saA-ing a portion of the wasted spawn with which the imagination filled the waters of the whole bay, by giving it 
 suitable "stools" upon which to rest. 
 
 It has been the custom, therefore, for several years in Broobhaven bay, to spread down shells, scrap-tin, and 
 other cultch, in hopes of catching a quantity of oyster-spawn and so getting ])lenty of seed. This seems to 
 have succeeded just in proportion to the contiguity of mother-oysters to the recei^•ing-bed, and the success has 
 generally been so imcertain, that no great dependence has been placed upon this soiu-ce of supply, nor has the 
 practice been systematically engaged in, as at New Haven and Norwalk. The experience of Mr. King Benjamin, of 
 Sayville, for instance, may be given as that of tlie average planter in this respect. He told me that it was his custom 
 to spread his shells at the middle of the spawning season, which here comes early in July, where the tide-currents 
 were tolerably swift, and spread tliem lengthwise of the current. Then across the tide, near the middle of the bed, 
 he puts a rank of spawning-oysters from the North river, and has rarely failed for ten years past to get a good set 
 to a distance of 15 or 20 rods, but no farther. The risk now begins, and it is rare that any considerable quantity 
 of the seed so caught smnives the breaking up of the winter, when the ice goes out and the northeast gales churn 
 up the bottom of the shallow bay. A large proportion of all the oysters, large and small, in Brookhaveu, which 
 have lain in health all winter, are destroyed every spring. This is one argument used to sustain the propriety 
 and profit of fall-raking for seed. 
 
 The spreading of shells, without placing among them mother-oysters, is steadily i>racticed, in the hope of some 
 day catching a fortune, but up to tliis time this practice has hardly repaid the small expense incurred. On the 
 other hand, in spite of ill-luck, those planters who have worked more cautiously, placing spawners among their 
 shells instead of trusting to chance, have got plenty of young. There seems no reason, therefore, why the race of 
 "Blue Points" should become extinct for loss of seed, and no doubt a more urgent necessity than now exists will 
 introduce into that locality the better methods of sa\aug spawn and safely raising the young, which are surely 
 possible. At present it is preferred to purchase seed of natural growth, or of somebody else's raising. 
 
 That the Brookhaveu men consider the putting down of stools worth the efibrt, is evinced by their petition to 
 the town-authorities in May, 1880, for additional ground for this purpose on the southern, and as yet, useless 
 shore of the bay. After long discussion, this petition met with the following response, which opens a new field of 
 industry to Patchogire, which there is every reason to suppose will prove of profit. The town decreed as follows : 
 
 Whereas, there is a large portion of the Sonth hay adjoining the South beach which is clean saii<t-hottbm, and couhl he made 
 availahle for raising seed-oysters hy the spreading upon said ground shells for seed to catch upon, thereby making the flats and shoal- 
 water ground productive to our citizens, and an increased revenue to our town : Therefore, be it 
 
 Iitsolved, That this hoard of trustees lease four acres of such ground to the west of Blue Toiut and east of aline drawn south from 
 Munsell's landing, (o any citizen of the town of Brookhaveu, for the purpose of propagating and raising seed-oysters thereon, whether a 
 lot for growing oysters in said hay has already been leased to him or her, or not, at the annual rent of 84 for the term of one year, with the 
 privilege of renewal annually for nine successive years thereafter, and on the other conditions upon which the board of trustees are now 
 granting leases for the purpose of growing oysters. 
 
 Oyster-vessels and oystermen at east end of Great South bay. — The fleet and the number of 
 persons supported by the oyster-industries of the eastern end of the Great South bay are very large, but it was 
 impossible for me to get exact statements in respect to either. At Patchogue and neighborhood, however, an 
 estimate of 250 boats was concluded upon after much inquiry. Eastern Islip will add to this 200 boats, and the 
 shore from there westward to Bayshore from 100 to 150 more; say the lesser number. All of these boats are 
 sloops or cat-rigged, and are of good size and quality, so that they will range from $(J00 to $1,G00 in value. The 
 minority, however, are of the more expensive pattern, and about $750 would probably fairly cover the average 
 value. This would make the 550 sail-boats, built for the oyster-business and used from two-thirds to the whole of 
 the time in that business, owned from Bellport to Bayshore, represent a present cash value of about 8125,000. 
 
 In addition to this must be counted, say 500 skiffs, worth, perhaps, §25,000. It is probable that $50,000 more 
 would not more than cover the \'alue of ground, sheds, implements, packing-tools, etc., required, so that the floating 
 property of the oyster-planters from Bayshore eastward to Bellport, concerned in that business, must be estimated 
 as high as half a million of dollars. This, however, is distributed among about GOO planters, 400 of whom live in 
 Brookhaven and the rest in Islip. These are all, supposably, heads of families, and they employ, or otherwise 
 support, perhaps COO more men and boys to help them in the busy season, half of whom thus support families. It 
 may thus be said that in Brookhaven GOO families, and in Islip 300— total 900— derive their sustenance directly or 
 intlirectly from oysters, though most of them, at the same time, are, to a considerable extent, farmers, or fishermen, 
 or both. 
 
 ^'lELD of Blue Point oysters in 1879-'80.— The past year (1879-'80) has been a very poor one, both 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 105 
 
 in resi^ect to quantity and quality, for Blue Point oysters, both the amount sold and the price received being small. 
 The crops gathered at the difi'erent ports were approximately as foUows : 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Patcliosnc to Blno Poiut, about 55,000 
 
 From Oakrtale, about 80,000 
 
 From Sayvillo, about 00,000 
 
 From Bayshoro, about 20,000 
 
 215, 000 
 
 About half of these were sent by rail, and the other half, or a little more, by water-sloops sailing to New York 
 with loads of barrels. This traflQc is very important to the railway, and the water competition has served the 
 shippers the good turn of keeping freight-charges at a low figure, particularly as there were many advantages to be 
 gained in shi])ping by boat. The average receipts by the railway, i)er bushel, for oysters transported in 1879, to 
 Jfew York, from all stations on the Great South bay, was between 8 and 9 cents. 
 
 ExpoKTATiON OF "BLUE PoiNTs" TO EUROPE — The principal market for "Blue Points" is now, as for some 
 years past, for the European trade. Their superior flavor, round, thin shell, and small size, commended them when 
 this shipping business was first begun, and they have retained their supremacy over all other brands, until the 
 unfortunate season of 1879, when they proved so poor that the " Sounds" beat them in the estimation of the epicures 
 abroad, and money was lost by shippers on Long Island. Another unfortunate thing which detracted from their 
 success, was an attempt to substitute southern oysters, nurtured for one sea.son in the bay, for native "Blue Points." 
 As has been said before, the southern seed takes on in growth so close a semblance to the geuuine Brookha-ven product 
 as to deceive any but the most expert eyes, so far as the shell is concerned; but the meat never looks nor tastes 
 so well as that which is imitated. On this account, the leading shippers looked upon the advent of Virginia 
 oysters to the bay with some anxiety, fearing that weak-kneed or unscrupulous persons would some day foist the 
 imitation upon the London market, under the brand of genuine "Blue Points." 
 
 One day an agent of one of the Xew York houses suspected that such an attempt was being made, but could 
 not easily verify it. At the station, however, while the suspected barrels of oysters were being placed upon the 
 freight cars, he procured an opportunity, unobserved, to look at their contents, and found them nearly all "Virginias" 
 mixed with a few natives. He telegraphed at once to his principal in New York, who forwarded a cipher dispatch 
 to his agent in Liverpool. That merchant gave a hint to the customs authorities, and a watch was kept. When the 
 adulterated consignment arrived they were seized by officers, their inferior character proved, and the whole stock 
 confiscated; moreover, the agents of these people in Liverpool were arrested, charged with fraud in selling food 
 under a false label, which is an offense visited with heavy penalties under the English law, and they only escaped 
 through the intercession of American oyster-dealers there, who explained that the shippers probably thought 
 southern oysters laid down in Blue Point waters might properly pass as "Blue Points." Such a construction is 
 plausible, but the inferior nature of the stock was well-known nevertheless, and would have tended to injure the 
 reputation of these fine oysters irretrievablj^ 
 
 Mr. George H. Shaffer, of New York, one of the pioneers in shix)ping to Europe, preferred "Blue Points" at 
 first, and has continued ever since to be a very large buyer of them. To the kiuilness of his agent at Patchogue^ 
 Mr. More, I am greatly indebted for assistance in my investigations. Mr. More and all his brother-agents are 
 known as "packers". They are very busy men, traveling along the shore every day, in all sorts of weather, and 
 striving against one another in the purchasing-boats for friendly advantages. Each packer has a sloop and crew with 
 which he cruises on the fishing-grounds. That he has come to their vicinity, and is ready to purchase, is known to 
 the oystermen by the signal of a basket hoisted at his masthead. They row uj) to him, measure out the "tubs", 
 each of which holds two bushels, and receive their cash-pajTuent on the spot. Several thousand dollars a day are 
 thus disbursed in this region all winter through. When this market -boat is full slie makes for the shore and lands 
 her cargo in her owner's shanty, which, firmly secured against the wind and banked up with sea-weed, occupies a 
 place just out of reach of the tide on the sandy beach. Here the oysters are "culled": that is, assorted into three 
 sizes. The largest ones, of small amount, are reserved for the home trade, while the two small sizes are snugly 
 packed in barrels, well shaken down, to be sent abroad. The barrels used are old flour-barrels, sui)plies of which 
 are sent down from New York, and they Mill hold a scant three bushels; but in the course of packing, discarding 
 and waste occur, until it is estimated that every barrel of Long Island oysters sent to Europe represents fully four 
 bushels taken from the beds. I presume the same will hold true at Perth Amboy and elsewhere. The residue of 
 the packing, big and little, the packer throws overboard upon a plot of ground reserved for the purpose, near his 
 house, whence he occasionally takes up such as are suitable for market, so that really there is little waste. 
 
 Advance-contracts for oystek-crops. — The system of contracting for a planter's crop a season ahead, 
 has been followed here by the packers to considerable advantage. The planter judges what he will be able to rake 
 or procure from his neighbors during the winter, and contracts to deliver so many bairels to the shipper at such a 
 price. Last season was disadvantageous for the contractors, owing to scarcity of stock, but as a rule they have done 
 fairly well. The packers also sometimes advance capital to a man with which to start an oyster-bed, on condition 
 
106 THE FISPIERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tliat he will sell only to them and share the profits equally. This sort of bargain is encouraged by the shippers, 
 and a diligent man need never fear to undertake such an obligation, since it is bound to be mutually profitable, if 
 properly conducted; yet many cases have occurred where the offer has been refused, for no apparent reason better 
 than lazy shiftlessness. Indeed, it is an unfortunate characteristic of too many of these seemingly shrewd and 
 certainly hardy and adventurous baymen, that they are contented with the small supplies of the happy moment, 
 unwarned by past scarcity to i)rovide against future suffering, and are as reckless of advantages which might be 
 impi'ovcd, as they are of saving the money in hand. To this indifference may be traced their slowness to experiment 
 toward the imijrovement of their oyster-grounds, or the preservation of more of the vast abundance of spat which, 
 they all believe, whether it is the fact or not, is drifting just under the steely-blue surface of their beautiful 
 midsummer bay. 
 
 Prices of Blue Point oysters. — The prices of Bine Point oysters have never been lower than at present; 
 even a hundred years ago more money was paid for them than now, which shows the general public advantage of 
 cultivation. During the season of 1879-80, the prices paid the producers by the packers ranged from $1 50 a 
 bushel for small lots of "best selected", to 60 cents for poor stuff. Much was sold at a dollar, but a fairer 
 average would be 00 cents. Twenty years ago, according to Count Pourtales' report, "$2 to $3 a bushel" was 
 the selling price. For those destined to form foreign shipments, from $3 50 to $4 a barrel was paid, the highest 
 prices ruling near Patchogue, and the lowest westward. This was from 20 to 30 per cent, above the ])rices paid at 
 the same time for the "Sounds", although the latter were better received and worth more in the English market 
 than those costing more here. The profits in " Blue Points" and " East Elvers", therefore, were small, while those 
 in "Sounds" were fair, if not large. 
 
 Aggregate value of Blue Point otster-crops. — Multiplying the 215,000 bushels sold between Bellport 
 and Bayshore ("Blue Points") by 90 cents, the average price, gives $198,500 as the approxiunite amount of money 
 put into the pockets of the oystermen along a strip of about 20 miles of shore. Dividing this among 900 families 
 (see page 101) gives an average of about $215 as the season's income for each. This takes no account of the two 
 or three hundred single men, who earned $2 a day at oystering during a portion of the season, but a considerable 
 part of whose earnings reverted to their employers or neighbors, in payment for board and supplies. 
 
 Babylon: "Oak Island" oysters. — At Babylon the business of oyster-cultivation is compai-atively a modern 
 institution, though Messrs. Udall and Oakley, with some others, have been at it for ten years or more. 
 
 No natural oyster-beds are to be found in this town, or nearer than Brookhaven bay ; ?ior have they ever 
 existed, except that in the inlets and tideways through the beaches and marshy islands opposite the village of 
 Babylon, as in the neighborhood of Fire island, occasional scattering patches of young sometimes "catch". Unless 
 taken up the same fall, however, they rarely survive, and no dependence is placed upon this chance supply. Now 
 and then a few at Oak Island will manage to live and grow. They develop a remarkably fine Jiavor and bring 
 extraordinary prices in the market. 
 
 There are said to be about 1,000 acres of bottom belonging to the town suitable for oyster-culture, but only 
 about 200 acres are at present improved. These are all alongshore and almost wholly around Oak Island, on the 
 southern shore of the bay, since the central i^art of this broad, shallow lagoon grows full of eel-grass in midsummer, 
 the bottom everywhere being muddy. The water is nowlrere more than or 7 feet deep at high-tide, and the larger 
 part of the grounds are laid bare at low water. On this account there is great risk in trying to keep any oysters 
 upon the beds through the winter, the i«e often settling upon the beds at low tide, freezing fast to mud and oysters, 
 and carrying both away when it drifts off upon the rising tide. The winter of lS7S-'79 was destructive of nearly all 
 the beds in this way. Such complete devastation is rare, however, and the winter of 1879-'80 was so mild that no 
 harm was done. Men who cross to the beaches, shooting or wrecking in winter, often find a feast in the oysters 
 which are frozen into the cakes of ice piled up on the shore, and these are the best, too, for the shallowest water 
 produces the finest quality. 
 
 There are at Oak Island 30 planters, each of whom cultivates 4 acres under the special state law enacted for 
 Babylon and Islip. This law, which, in 1878, was made to take the place of previous statutes, comprises several 
 sections, and reads substantially as follows : 
 
 Section 1. Any person of full age, -who has been an inhabitant of Islip or Babylon, Suffolk county, for one year, upon complying 
 with tho ensuing conditions, may "locate a lot not exceeding four acres in extent under the public waters of the Great South bay, in either 
 of said towns, where the taluug of clams cannot be profitably followed as a business", and shall liave exclusive ownership. 
 
 Sec. 2. "For the purpose of ascertaining and determining what * » * portions of said bay may be talcen for the purpose of 
 planting oysters as aforesaid, a board of comnussioners, consisting of two from the town of Islip and one from the town of Babylon, wlioso 
 official titles shall be 'oyster-commissioners', shall be appointed each by the board of town-auditors * * * of his or their said town, 
 respectively". They hold office one year, their appointment to be certified to l)y the auditors and filed with tho town clerk. 
 
 Secs. 3, 4, 5. Each oyster-commissioner must take an oath of office and furnish a bond of $200 or more for the faithful porfonuanco of 
 his duties ; in case of refusal to serve, or vacancy, the auditors may appoint a substitute. 
 
 Sec. 6. It shall be the duty of said commissioners * * * to attend and examine the lot applied for, and ascertain and determine 
 whether tho taking of clams can or cannot be profitably followed as a business thereon ; and if they shall determine that it cannot, then, 
 and not otherwise, they shall locate the lot for him, which shall be clearly marked and defined. The commissioners must also secure maps 
 and surveys of all ground allotted, and on all questions of boundary the decisions of tho commissioners shall be final. On payment by 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 107 
 
 .any applicant of tlio expense of locating his lot, which shall be determined by said commissioners, but shall in no case exceed the sum of 
 $10 and the additional sum of $1 per acre as y<'arly rent, they, or a majority of them, shall give to such applicant a certilicate • • • 
 which certificate shall entitle the person named therein to the possession of said lot, for the purposes of this act, so long as ho shall keep the 
 said lot clearly defined in tlia manner so directed by said commissioners; but if such person shall neglect to plant his lot with at least 100 
 bushels of oysters and shells during the period of one year from the date of his certificate, or shall neglect to pay said yearly rent on or 
 before the first day of April in each and every year, his rights to the possession of said lot may be terminated at the option of a majority 
 of said commissioners. Certificates of this fjict (as well as all other documents) nmst be made in duplicate and filed with the town clerk. 
 
 Sec. 7. Each of said commissioners shall be allowed the sum of %5 per day for his services actually rendered under this act, the 
 same to be paid only out of the fund received for locating lots » * • and shall not receive any additional fees or compensation from 
 any person or persons whomsoever ; and each of said commissioners shall, at the usual annual auditors' meeting of said towns, account for 
 and pay over all moneys in his possession » » » . 
 
 Sec. 8. It shall not be lawful for any person to retain possession of any such lot after he shall cease to be a resident of cither of said 
 towns of Islip or Babylon, but ho may sell and assign his interest in any such lot to any iuhabitant of either of said towns for one year; 
 but no person shall accjuire possession of more than one lot by purchase or otherwise. 
 
 Skc. 9. A penalty of fine not exceeding $100, or imprisonment not over 60 days, or both, is provided for taking or disturbing of oysters 
 on such lots by unauthorized persons. 
 
 Of the thirty planters alhitled to above, twenty-two have formed themselves into a protective association, and 
 hire a watchiiian at $-10 a month ; but, in spite of this, complaints of theft are friMincut. 
 
 The old way of planting at Oak Island was to buy small seed and plant it in the spring. The following antnmn 
 the bed was thinned out, and more than half of it taken up and sold, chiefly to planters fi^om Rhode Island, to be 
 laid down again. What remained grew to better advantage and was ready for market the following spring, if the 
 ice did not haul it off before then. About 1S70 seed could be procured in Brookhaven bay in abundance, simply 
 by the trouble of catching, or could be bought for 10 to 20 cents a tub. About 1875 Mr. Edward UdaU told me 
 young oysters were so iilenty off Patchogue and Smith's point, that a man cotild work profitably at 5 cents a tub. 
 In 1877 he bought seed largely for 10 cents a tub, but in 1880 the same was worth 25 cents at Patchogue, and 10 
 cents when delivered at Babylon. 
 
 The growth of oysters transplanted to Oak Island waters is extremely rapid. They have been known frequently 
 to double theii- size in a single season, and are often sent to market at the age of fifteen months ; that is, the second 
 fall after their birth. This rapidity of growth is attributed to the freshness of the water, but undoubtedly is duo 
 to the excess of confervoid and other food in the water. I know no place where it is more abundant ; and it is 
 quite possible that the fishermen are right when they attribute the circumstance that oyster-spawn never catches 
 west of NicoU's point, except around the mussel-beds in the inlet, to the great prevalence of slime in the water; 
 for this "sUme" is the vegetable and hydroid growth that fnrnislies so much nourishment to the adult oysters, and 
 everywhere covers the bottom with a slippery growth and deposition. 
 
 The planting of southern oysters was tried here, but did not yield a profit, since a large proportion of the 
 oysters died. They grew well enough, but few lived, the supposition of the oystermen being that the water is too 
 salt. 
 
 Experiments have been made to a limited extent in catching spawn upon artificial beds of shells. When it 
 has always been possible to buy Bi'ookhaven seed at 10 to 20 cents, and secure in one or one and a half years' 
 growth enough upon it to pay the planter from 75 cents to $1 a bushel, no other method was considered necessary. 
 Now, however, there threatens to be such a scarcity of seed that sheU-beds wiU probably be laid do^\^l extensively, 
 and I see no reason why good returns shoiUd not follow. 
 
 The enemies to be contended with are the ice, as before mentioned ; rare easterly gales of suflacient power to 
 disturb the beds ; the borers, which are on the increase, and two years ago nearly extinguished the beds opposite 
 SajAille; and the common crabs. In respect to the crabs, I had not heard before that they were injm-ious, but 
 was assured that immense damage by them annually happens to the young oysters on planted beds ; one man losing 
 500 bushels in one week. This matter is more particularly discussed under "Oyster Enemies". 
 
 The Oak Island planters put down in 1880 between 15,000 and 20,000 bushels of seed, and tlieir next crop will 
 probably be a large one. This season, however, though their oysters were of superior quality, the amount was so 
 small that not more than 2,000 bushels were sent to market. These chiefly went into the export trade, and were 
 sold to Sayville shippers at $1 25 to $1 50 a busliel, which was a large advance upon the previous year's prices. 
 There is a feeling of discouragement at this locality. 
 
 Amityville, South Oyster bay, Freepoet, and Baldwin. — Going west from Babylon, the small 
 ])roducing points of Amityville and South Oyster bay are passed, and then you reach Freeport, where there is an 
 old and extensive Inisiness in oyster-culture. 
 
 The beds opposite Amityville, the most westerly point on the Great South bay, are a new property, and as yet 
 yield small crops. The situation seems favorable, however. There are ten or a dozen planters (and as many sail- 
 boats), the principal of wliom are the Messrs. Ketcham. They obtain most of their seed at present from the East 
 river, and liave now planted alxmt 5,000 bushels. In addition to tliis, about 1,.500 bushels of Virginia oysters were 
 laid down this year. The ^op reported sold last winter amounts to 2,000 bushels. "ISTo drawbacks" is the 
 encouraging r('])ort. 
 
 At South 0,yster bay, finir miles westward, a planting interest has grown up only of late. Tlie name of the piece 
 
108 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of water ciiid the village is derived from its being the southern part of the town of Oyster Bay, which owes its 
 name to the ancient productiveness of its harbor, on the north shore, in our favorite mollusks. There are 22 
 planters here, IS of whom are joined in an association for mutual protection. They rent ground under the laws of 
 South Oyster bay, although many of the members are residents of lEempstead. They can each have as many 
 acres as are wanted, for simply the trouljle of staking out and recording. They have pursued a somewhat different 
 coiu'se from their neighbors, buying this year (the spring of 1880) two-year-old seed at New Haven, whicli cost 
 them CO cents, put down. This they propose to take up and sell the succeeding fall, and expect by that time it will 
 have doubled its size, so favorable arc these grounds regarded for oyster-growth. These planters intend in future, 
 nevertheless, to buy small seed, that is, when they can procure it at less cost and trouble than was possible last 
 spring. I should think this locality ought to become a profitable oyster-depot. 
 
 Five miles westward of South Oyster bay lies the considerable hamlet of Frecport, where oyster-planting has 
 long been followed in the shallow bay of the same name opposite the town, about 40 acres of bottom being in 
 use? About 35 planters are engaged here, all of whom live at Freeport, and make a pretty prosperous village of 
 it. Besides tliese 35 owners, probal)ly 25 families get their li^ing out of the trade, so that the industry is very 
 «H)nsi(lerabk>. here. The method of culUvation is similar to that employed eastward, except that considerable seed 
 is got at Staten Island and in the Bast river, but no southern oysters are iilanteil. The crop last season amounted 
 to about 30,000 bushels. It was of high quality, and brought an average price of about $1 35 in New York. 
 Nevertheless the Freeport men complain of a poor business and dim prospects. 
 
 At Baldwin's, two miles west of Freeport, there are IS planters, occupying an acre ench of the bottom of 
 Hempstead bay, an inlet separated from South Oyster bay by islands, and about as many more who find steady 
 employment. These planters get seed mainly from the westward, and in 1879-'80 sold about 11,000 bushels at $1 50. 
 They report their beds in "very fine condition" aiul their "prospects very bright". 
 
 At Christian Hook is a small business, also in the waters of Hempstead bay, in respect to which I was prevented 
 by accident from getting and saving many particulars. I judge, however, that the business there is much the 
 same as at Baldwin's, and, therefore, credit its productiveness at about the same rate— 11,000 bushels annually. 
 
 37. THE EOCKAWAY DISTRICT. 
 
 Topography.— At the western end of the south shore of Long Island is a series of interlacing channels, 
 through a great marshy lagoon, protected outwardly by Lougbeach from the rage of the Atlantic, and separated 
 from Hempstead bay, east of them, by large islands. This confushig net work of shallow, tidal creeks, ramifying 
 in all dii-ections through an immense expanse of sedge, lies on the eastern side of tlie to^vnship of Eockaway. 
 West of the town spread the more open waters of Jamaica bay. In both these waters oysters ar^ grown in great 
 quantities ; and as every village, beach, inlet, and channel in the whole region has the name Eockaway attached 
 to it in some shape, it is not surprising that these oysters should take the universal name, too, in the New York 
 markets, whither they all tend. The annexed map will show what an amphibious kind of region this is, and its 
 relation to other localities. 
 
 History of planting: Laws.— All of the planters live at the village of East Eockaway, and within a mile 
 of it on the western side, and are a different class of men, socially inferior to the oystermen of the Great South 
 bay. Thongh a large number are engaged, no one among them is an extensive dealer, three or fom- thousand 
 bushels being the largest amount raised by any one man, while the majority of the planters produce less than 500 
 
 bushels a year. 
 
 The first planting was done here about thirty-five years ago, by Captain Samuel Pearsall and Mr. James 
 Murray, as tradition relates. There were never any natural beds here, and they procured their seed at Patchogue, 
 or wherever they could get it most easily. Nor were they particidar as to grouiul occupied. Later, however, when 
 the business became one of importance, special laws were enacted by the state of New York, at the instance of the 
 towns of Hempstead and Jamaica, to apply to these waters. These legal regulations, which illustrate the selfishness 
 of all oyster-laws, govern not only the Eockaway oystermen, but also those all along the shore fiom South Oyster 
 bay to Fort Hamilton. They are as follows : 
 
 Section. 78. Exempts Jamaica and Hempstead bays from the "public waters" of Queen's county. 
 
 Secs. 79 to 87 are irrelevant. 
 
 Sec. 88. Persons for one year inhabitants of Jamaica and Hempstead, Queen's county, may plant oysters in the waters of those 
 towns, as heretofore provided ; but no person not a resident shall be allowed such privilege. 
 
 Sec. 89. Inhabitants of Jamaica and Hempstead can use three acres, hut must mark, define, and make use of, as stated in section 79^ 
 
 Sec. 90. " Before any person shall occupy any lauds under the puhlic waters aforesaid, for the purjiose of planting oysters, 
 he shall prove to the satisfaction of the board of auditors of town accounts * * * that the land selected is not a planted bed of 
 oysters, or, if planted, is not planted by any person other than the applicant, and shall also prove, by at leastfive reputable residents and 
 freeholders of said towns [Jamaica or Hempstead], that he is, and has been for one year preceding, an inhabitant of the town. All 
 the aforesaid proof shall he talveu in writing, and signed and sworn to. Such board of auditors, or a majority of them, shall thereupon 
 give to such person a certificate under their hands, " embodying the facts stated above, which shall ho filed with the town clerk. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 109 
 
 Sec. 91. rersons obtaiuiiig .and using oyster-gronnd iu Jamaica or Hempstead sliall pay to the supervisor of the town .an annual 
 rent of $5 an acre. This money shall go to pay current annutil expenses of the town. Any oysfcering or clamming on ground so set apart, 
 without authority of the owner, is forbidden. 
 
 Si-.c. 92. Pen.alty for taking oysters, or disturbing beds in Jamaica or Hempstead, $100, to bo recovered by the owner. 
 
 Sec. ",):{. DcQnes process of arrest and recovery. 
 
 Sec. 94. Forfeiture ensues when the owner of ground in Jamaica or Hempstead waters ceases to use the ground for one year, or at the 
 end of a year after he ceases to be a resident. 
 
 Sec. 95. Tersons given until January 1, 187^, to remove their oysters from the waters of Jamaica or Hempstead, or to acquire new 
 
 rights. 
 
 Sec. 9G. Forbids dredging in the waters belonging to Jamaica or Hempstead, under pcualtles of pOO fine, or UO d.ays imprisonment, or 
 
 both. 
 
 Sec. 97. Repeals the .act of April 8, 18f!5, relating to this subject. 
 
 Under these closely protective laws tlie whole town, nearly, has turned itself into oyster- growers, and tlie 
 coming generation are taking the beds their fathers leave. They pay into the town treasury of Hempstead about 
 $900 a year, and into that of Jamaica about $400, which, at $5 an acre rent annually, shows that few of tlie 
 planters occupy the three acres which they are permitted to. This is not for lack of room, however; plenty of 
 good ground remains. 
 
 Oysteemen's wages.— The total number of planters that one may count up in Eockaway varies from time to 
 time, but there are not less than 150 constantly engaged, and devoting their whole time to their beds, except in 
 midsummer. Besides these planters, properly speaking, there are as many more men who support their families by 
 picking up the oysters that have drifted on to public ground from the planted beds, and selling them for market or 
 for seed ; who catch crabs, dig clams, and meud boats and tools, when not directly employed in assisting the 
 planters make their beds or harvest their crops. It is particidarly at the harvest-time that this help is emi)loyed, 
 and the laborers receive from 20 to 2.5 cents a bushel for getting up and bringing in the oysters and culling them 
 for market. It may safely be said, therefore, that 250 families, and many single men, in this village alone, obtain 
 their support from the local oyster-iudu.stry. 
 
 Methods of culture. — Eockaway men get their seed from Brookhaven and Newark bay, but prefer East 
 river seed to any other, and use the largest quantity of it. It is brought to them in sloops. Eockaway itself owns 
 few large sailboats; its channels are too shallow and devious to admit of easy navigation, but every man has a 
 skiff, and all the planters, flat planting-boats. Virginia oysters have been tried, but have never done well. Now 
 none are i^hinted. They say the water is too salt for them. The growth of Eockaway oysters is extremely rapid. 
 The mud in the bottom of these marshy channels, which is only sufQcieut to hold the oysters from being smothered, 
 seems to be full of nourishment, and the oysters are always large and fat. Some few men deal only in " box" size ; 
 but the majority of the planters sell, nowadays, much smaller oysters than formerly they were wont to, so that the 
 average shipments now will run about 275 to the bushel. Lately, also, Eockaway has been able to contribute 
 considerably to the European trade, selling what they term "French" stock, measuring from 1,500 to 1,700 to the 
 barrel, and receiving $1 a hundred for it. I understand that these oysters have given very good satisfaction abroad. 
 
 Markets and prices of Eockaway oysters. — When Eockaway oysters first began to get a name in the 
 city markets, they were sent there by the packet-sloops that used to run for fast freight and passenger traffic from 
 the south shore to the metropolis, in rivalry with the lumbering stage-coaches on the .shore, and brought about 75 
 cents a basket. When the war of the Eebellion cut off the southern supply, northern oystermen profited, and 
 " Eockaway s" were so good and regular, that at the close of the war they were worth $4 for ordinary stock at the 
 boats, after which they were carted to the city in peddlers' wagons. This rate dwindled, however, very rapidly; 
 yet Eockaway oysters have always held a good place, and last season were sold readily at $1 25 for small and $2 
 for the larger sort. The quality was uiuisually poor this season. The total quantity raised annually by this community, 
 I estimate, after much study, at 100,000 bushels, judging that 700 bushels is the largest average permissible, and 
 counting 150 planters. 
 
 Northwest Point.— On the eastern shore of Jamaica bay is a little oyster-settlement calling itself Northwest 
 Point, which disposes of its oysters as " Eockaways". The beds here are in a swift tidal channel, where the water is 
 shallow, and many beds are left bare at low tide. Here are from 40 to 45 families, chiefly supported by the business. 
 Four or five of these are planters, raising from three to five thousand bu.shels annually; but the majority are small 
 planters, who get from $150 to $400 a year out of their beds. They own here about 20 oyster-sloops, which do also 
 a good deal of coasting, and in summer enter into the pleasure-excursion business at the beach hotels. The total 
 crop of the locality, therefore, does not exceed ten or fifteen thousand bushels. Last year these were of poor quality, 
 and were sold on the shore at $1 25 a bushel. As a ride, most of the oysters are taken by water to the foot of West 
 Tenth street, New York, and there disposed of, generally to good ad\antage. Mr. Henry Wanser, to whom I am 
 chiefly indebted for information, prophesied that the crop of 1S80-'81 would be a good one in quality, because the 
 mollu.sks had spawned early, and therefore had time left them to get strong and fat before the cold autumn weather 
 began. He thought oysters i^ust be in good shape by August 20, or they would not bo good at all. 
 
 A few other planters are .scattered singly about the shores, but they are of no importance, and cater chiefly to 
 the hotels and local trade in summer. 
 
110 THE FISPIERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Geavesend. — Ou tlie western shore of Jamaica bay is a small interest centering at Gravesend, in procuring 
 an account of which I was greatly assisted by Mr. E. L. Van Kluk, postmaster of that village. 
 
 There are no natural oyster-beds in this region, except that a few bushels are caught every fall in Garrettsou's 
 creek, between Gravesend and Flatlands. Between Gravesend on the west and the western shore of Jamaica 
 bay on the east, there are 22 or 23 planters, all of whom get their seed from Newark bay. This business and 
 clamming, together, support about 25 families. Last season the crop amounted ta between 15,000 and 20,000 bushels, 
 sold in New York at an average price of $1 25. 
 
 Statisticax, recapitulation for South Shore of Long Island: 
 
 Number of plauters and shippers 800 
 
 Extent of ground cultivated acres.. 2,000 
 
 Value of shore-property, about $25, 000 
 
 Number of vessels 170 
 
 Value of same $136,000 
 
 Value of small craft (800 boats) $100,000 
 
 Number of men hired by planters or dealers 400 
 
 Annual earnings of same $150,000 
 
 Annual sales of — 
 
 I. Native oysters bushels.. 400,000 
 
 ( Value of same $400,000 
 
 Total number of families supported 1,200 
 
 J. NEW YORK BAY. (EXCLUDING THE CITY OF NEW YORK.) 
 
 38. HISTORY OF OYSTEE-INDUSTEIES OF NEW YOEK BAY. 
 
 Allusions to oysters in early Colonial literature. — Among the riches of a new country enumerated 
 to the Old World by discoverers, the products of the sea always have held a prominent i^lace. They were not 
 forgotten in the case of the shores of the island of Manhattan, the splendid river to which Uudson left his name, 
 and the great bay where it finds entrance to the sea, and the bright expanse of which is the scene of the story of 
 the present chapter. 
 
 The fishes of these waters attracted the attention of the earliest voyagers in a marked degree, and the moUusks — 
 a part of them in popular estimation — were not neglected. 
 
 Whether the wealth of oysters would have been ajipreheuded so speedily had it been necessary to "discover" 
 the beds, is doubtful, though the fact that they then grew abundantly all over the edges of New York bay, and the 
 entering streams — Shrewsbury, Earitan. Passaic, Hackensack, Hudson,, and East rivers — must have been ai)parent 
 to the most careless observer; but the explorers and colonists were saved auj- trouble in the mattei", for the Indians 
 were in the habit of gathering clams and oysters at all practicable seasons, and depended upon them largely for 
 their food. In a poem by an early Dutch settler and poet, this very thing is celebrated, with seemingly strict 
 attention to truthful details : 
 
 Crabs, lobsters, mussels, oysters, too, there be, 
 So large that one does overbalance three 
 Of those of Europe ; and in quantity, 
 No one can reckon. 
 
 Then, as now, it appears that all the hard work of obtaining the delicacies fell upon the women. A quaint 
 old book, written by William Wood, and published in London in 1034, entitled Hl'cvv Englands Prospects, etc.? 
 contains a poem upon the kinds of shellfish, in which the following elegant verse occurs : 
 
 The luscious lobster, with the crab-fish raw, 
 
 The brinish oyster, mussel, perriwigge, 
 And tortoise sought by the Indian Squaw, 
 
 Which to the Hatts dance many a wiuter's jigge, 
 To dive for cockles and to dig for clams, 
 Whereby her lazy husband's guts she cramms. 
 
 How greatly this molluscan abundance was valued by the first colonists, is plainly shown by frequent allusions 
 in the early descriptions of the country. In 1021 "very large oifters" were too common at Nieuw Amsterdam to find 
 a mai ket, everybody being able to supply themselves without charge. A few years later (1671) Arnoldus Moutanus 
 speaks of "oysters, some a foot long, containing pearls, but few of a brown color", as one of the common 
 advantages of the youug settlement. Sir George Carteret, as one of the inducements in advertising the region 
 about the mouth of the Earitan, where he wished to establish colonies, tells intending emigrants that "the bay [i. e., 
 of New York] aud Hudson's river are plentifully stored with sturgeon, great bass, and other scale-fish, eels, and 
 shellfish, as oysters, etc., in great plenty, and easy to take". This was in ICSl. Three or four years later letters 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. Ill 
 
 were written home to Englaud from what is now Perth Amboy, which are preserved in Smith's History of New 
 Jersey, which bear out the truth of Carteret's assertions handsomely, as proved by these extracts : 
 
 And at Amboy point and fcveral other places there is abundance of brave oyftera. 
 
 Oyl'ters, I tbiuk, would ferve all England. 
 
 We have one thing more particular to us, which the others want alfo, which is vaft oyfter-banks, which is the conftant frefh victuals, 
 during the winter, to Euglif h, as well as Indians ; of thefo there arc many all along our coafts, from the fea as high as against New York, 
 whence they come to fetch them. 
 
 Oyftcr f hells upon the point, to make lime withal, which will wonderfully accomodate us in building good houfes [of stone] cheap, 
 wanu for winter, and cool for summer. 
 
 We have ft ore of clams, efteemed much better than oyfters ; on feftivals the Indians feaft with them ; there are fhallops [scallops], 
 but in no great iilenty. 
 
 Oysteus m THE Hudson eiver and in the "Kills". — Just how far up the Hudson river this "store" of 
 "brave oysters" extended is hard to determine. In his manuscript notes, furnished me with a liberality which 
 his known regard for science and his native generosity would lead those who know him to expect, the Eev. Samuel 
 Lock wood says, that five or six miles above Teller's point, near Sing Sing, is the uppermost spot "where they ever 
 flourished". Captain Metzgar mentioned Rockland lake as the northern limit. The distance from here to Sandy 
 Hook is no less than 50 miles, and all the way it was an almost continuous oyster-bottom. Bedloe's island, in the 
 harbor, was first known as Big Oyster island, and some rocks and tide-bars south of it as Little Oyster island, the 
 latter still keei)ing its name. 
 
 In the neighborhood of Staten Island the circumstances were especially favorable, and there were numerous beds. 
 Staten Island lies in a mainly east and west direction, filling the southwestern corner of the bay; the northern shore 
 is rocky and unfit for oyster-growth for a considerable distance, but the southern and western sides are eminently 
 favorable. Between the island on the west and the contiguous shore of "S^ifr Jersey, at Bergen and Elizabeth, the 
 strait is narrow and was long ago called by the Dutch Kil von Kol, or the Kol, which has been corrujited into 
 modern Kill von Kull, or shortly, the Kills. Everywhere in these swift tide-ways oysters grew abundantly. South 
 of the island there is a broad expanse of shallow water separating the island from the Jersey shore of Monmouth 
 county, into which the Earitan pours a heavy flood of fresh water. To the Staten Islanders and New Yorkers, this 
 part of the bay is known as Staten Island sound, and the oysters grown in it receive the market name of "Sounds". 
 Jerseymen more often speak of it as Earitan bay, and sell the oysters they raise on their shore as "Amboys" and 
 "Keyports", the former town being the ancient village at the mouth of the Earitan river, and the latter, a modern 
 town, several miles eastward. To the eastward of Keyi)ort again, near the base of Sandy Hook, Shrewsbury river 
 comes in, and here was another oyster-center, famous at one time, but now declined. The only other locality worthy 
 of special mention is Prince's bay, on the southea^stern shore of Staten Island. 
 
 Fisheries and legislation in the eighteenth century. — With reference to oyster-matters history is 
 mute during the close of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth century, except that chance allusions 
 here and there show that large numbers of persons — nearly everybody in fact — took advantage of this natural 
 storehouse of food to supplement their luxuries in summer, and victual their cellars for winter. It is also evident 
 that the fame of Carteret's "great plenty and easy to take", had spread abroad, and so many aliens sailed into the 
 placid bay to rake upon the "vast banks", that at last the colonists became alarmed for the continuance of their 
 precious supply. Thus it arose that as early as 1715 was passed the tirst colonial law in relation to oysters, 
 Ijrohibiting — 
 
 That from and after the Pirblication of this Act, it fhall not be Lawful for any Pcrfon or Perfons whatfoever (Native Free Indians 
 only excepted) from and after the firft day of May, until the firft day of Septemha; Annually, to gather, Rake, take up, or bring to the 
 Market, any Oyfters whatsoever, under the penalty of Twenty Shillings for every Olience, to be recovered before any of His Majefty's 
 Juftices of the Peace, who are hereby Authorized and reqidred to hear and finally Uetenuine the fame, one half thereof to him, her or 
 them, that fhall bring the fame to Efl'ect, and the other half to the Poor of the place where the Offence fhall be committed. 
 
 And * * * That it fhall not be Lawful for any Negro, Indian, or Mulatto Slave to fell any Oyfters in the City of Xew Tori; at 
 any time whatfoever, upon the penalty of Twenty Shillings for every Ofi'encc, to be paid by the Matter or Miftrefs of fuch Slave or 
 Slaves, to be recovered and apiilied as aforcfaid. This Act to be [in] Force from the Publication hereof, during the term of Five Y^ears 
 and no longer. 
 
 Four years later (1719) the colony of New Jersey saw the matter in the same light, for the legislature 
 resolved : 
 
 "Whereas, it is found by daily experience, that the Oyfterbeds within this Province arc wafted and deftroyed by Strangers, and 
 others, at unfeafonable Times of the Year, the Preservation of which will tend to the great Benefit of the poor People and others 
 inhabiting this Province ; Be it TiiEnEFOUE exacted," etc. 
 
 The provisions were that no gathering of oysters should take i)lace between May 10 and September 1, and 
 that no oysters should be put upon any vessel or boat not wholly owned within the Province. For the enforcement 
 of these acts special otficers were named,* and legal provisions for seizure and punishment were arranged. 
 
 New York and New Jjirsey laws of 1730-'75. — In 1730 New York again found need to make a second 
 
 " The Perfons appointed being all dead it is thought improper to fwell the Volume by inferting their Names. — Laws, 177C. 
 
112 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 law in respect to shellfish, and in 1737 a third, owing to the too great demand made npon the beds around Staten 
 Island by crews of boats from New England, New Jersey, and elsewhere, special protective legislation for these 
 waters was obtained from the colonial legislature. The preamble of this act of 1737, states the necessity for the 
 law, " since it has been found by daily experience that the Oyster-Beds lying at aud near Eichmond County, 
 within this Colony, are wafted and Deftroyed by Strangers; the preventing of which will tend to the great Benefit 
 of the poor People and others inhabiting the aforefaid Colony." The Act therefore forbids any one "directly or 
 indirectly, to rake, • * * any Oyfters within this Colony, and put them on board any Canoe, Periauger, Plat, 
 Scow, Boat or other Yeffel whatsoever, not wholly belonging to, and owned by, Perfons who live within the aforesaid 
 Colony ", under penalty of having the craft and all its con ten's seized. This law is almost an exact reproduction of 
 the New Jersey statute of 1719. It then names ten citizens of Eichmond county — many of whose names still figure 
 in the oyster-business of Staten Island — as a police to carry out the law, and empowers them for that purpose. 
 The method of condemning and selling the goods seized are then prescribed. 
 
 In 1775, New Jersey, finding that to have her beds and markets open till May 10, when New York stopped 
 work May 1, did not work well, changed her close-day to May 1 also; aud in addition a new provision was enacted, 
 in view of the fact that " a Practice hath prevailed of raking and gathering great Quantities of Oysters with Intent 
 to burn the same for Lime only, whereby great Waste is made, and the Oyster-Beds thereby in danger of being 
 entirely destroyed". The penalties against an offender under this new law were very severe. 
 
 Both states made their laws somewhat in a spirit of mischief and retaliation, for Jerseymen then, as ever 
 since, came in contact with Staten Island planters, often to the extent of mutual belligerency. 
 
 Beginnings of oyster-culture, 1810-1835. — In spite of this protection, however, all the natural beds 
 gradually gave out, and it was long ago found necessary to supplement them by artificial means. The precise date 
 when oyster-planting began here it has been diflicnlt to fix. Captain Cornelius Brittain, of Keyport, New Jersey, 
 tells me, that his fiither was the first man to plant in York bay, about 1810. This was at Bergen point. Opposite 
 his place, just below Bedloe's Island, was "Oyster Island", a flat covered by high water, where previously some 
 natural oysters used to be got, but hardly within Captain Brittain's remembrance. Captain Beuj. Decker, of 
 Keyport, places the first bringing of Virginia oysters to Prince's bay at "55 years ago", that is, iu 1825. Long 
 before this, certainly as early as 181G, as I learn from a newspaper advertisement at that time, cargoes were brought 
 to New York from the Chesapeake; at first, though, none were laid down to wait for growth. 
 
 As to native oysters at Staten Island, I was told that they were certainly cultivated in Prince's bay at least 
 sixty years ago. In some localities on the opposite shore the industry is probably older, since a suit was brought 
 about seventy-five years ago, in old Shrewsbury township. New Jersey, originating in the question, whether or not 
 a man had exclusive right to the oysters he had planted. At Keyport, planting of native oysters is probably not 
 more than forty or fifty years old; and at Amboy, according to report, it was not until fifty years ago that any 
 beds were staked off. 
 
 The use of these waters for planting occasioned an immediate effect upon the villages of the neighboring 
 coast which was very striking. "In fact," remarks a cotemporary chronicler, "the prosperity and rapid increase 
 of the poi)ulation of that island [Staten] is owing, in a considerable degree, to the oyster-trade of this city. Before 
 Prince's bay was laid out iu oyster-plantations there were very few persons living on it, and it was almost wholly 
 uncultivated * * *. A few years after the first beds were planted an extent of coast of from five to ten miles 
 was covered with oysters taken from the 'rocks' of Virginia." 
 
 The number of men employed upon the beds in 1853, and who lived upon the island, with their families, was 
 computed at 3,000. 
 
 State laws for the protection of oyster-planters. — To encourage this new productive-industry, which 
 had thus suddenly come into existence. New York and New Jersey both enacted laws calculated to protect the 
 planters. They have been the object of much change and amendment, as experience ripened the judgment and 
 new circumstances arose. 
 
 At present the laws of New York applying to this subject and locality are as follows : 
 
 General statutes : 
 
 Forbidding any natural bed being staked off for private use, or being planted upon; forbidding any person, not 
 for six months previous a resident of the state, from taking any shellfish within the state (but an actual resident 
 may employ any non-resident); and prohibiting the use of any dredge weighing over 30 pounds, or operated by 
 steam-power. 
 
 Special statutes : 
 
 I. Asserting that no person not an inhabitant of the state may plant oysters in the waters surrounding Staten 
 Island, "except the consent of the owner first be obtained"; and no non-inhabitant may take oysters or clams 
 "from tiieir beds of natural growth in any of said waters". 
 
 II. Forbidding dredging or dragging for oysters in the neighborhood of Staten Island "ui>on beds of natural 
 growth of oysters (not planted) ". 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 113 
 
 III. Forbids any person taking up or distnrbing oysters planted under all the waters of this state surrounding 
 Staten Island, without previous permission from the owners. 
 New Jersey's laws, applying here, are substantially similar: 
 
 I. No summer raking or sale of oysters allowed on ijublic ground. 
 
 II. No dredging in any shape allowed. 
 
 III. No oysters to be gathered to be made into lime, or to be used in iron manufticture. 
 
 IV. No person, not a resident of the state for six months previous, may gather oysters or clams in state waters 
 for himself or for his employer. 
 
 V. Any owners or licensed persons may plant oysters or clams upon any flats or coves (not natural beds) and 
 one chain beyond the same, along the shores of Newark bay and Staten Island sound, under prescribed conditions 
 of staking out, etc. A penalty is fixed for taking oysters without authority from such inclosures. 
 
 VI. Prohibits taking " from any natiu-al oyster-banks or beds in this state any old shells other than sur^h as 
 cannot be removed or separated from the oysters without injuring the same; and all such shells shall be culled 
 and thrown back again upon the said natural banks or beds"; but this does nob apply to private beds. 
 
 Law-making: Quaueels and litigations. — These laws grew up one by one, and at first were misunderstood 
 and willfully disregarded on all sides. Between New York and New Jersey, in the persons of the Staten Islanders 
 and Jerseymen, there were constant quarrels, and even open war, now and then, owing to alleged infringements of 
 the vague boundary -line, by one party or the other. If one side thought they discovered that an oysterman from 
 the opposite shore was placing his oysters within their waters, they felt no hesitancy or compunctiou in at once 
 raking his stock up, claiming that he had no right to this ground, and consequently the oysters he had bought and 
 placed there were public plunder. Arrests for larceny woidd follow, tedious imi)risonments ensue, armed guards 
 patrol the domains of the respective states, a few men get shot, perhaps, and much trouble to the whole connnuiiity 
 be caused. This state of afl'airs has not yet ceased ; and I suppose it never will. The accusation was constantly 
 beiug made, also, chiefly by the penniless and shiftless, against prosperous planters, that natural-growth ground 
 had been staked off and was being used privately, to the detriment of the general welfare of the community. Then, 
 too, there were plenty of persons who altogether disputed any rights of property in planted oysters, and failed by 
 their conduct to recognize the law which said there were such rights. Nor, in northern New Jersey at least, was it 
 until fifty years had elapsed after the laws relating to planted oysters had first been published, that the subject was 
 finally and clearly settled by the supreme court. On an appeal from Cape May, tried in 1858, it was charged that 
 Thomas Taylor had stolen oysters to the value of $18 from George Hildreth. This time the question of the right to 
 oysters planted where there was no natural growth was reached and decided. The counsel for the defendant 
 (Taylor) pleaded that " oysters being animals /era- naturw, there can be no property in them unless they be dead, or 
 reclaimed, or tamed, or in the actual power or possession of the claimant". 
 
 The chief justice, in giving the opinion of the coiirt, said : 
 
 Tlie principle .advanced by defendant's counsel, as applied to animals ferm naturw, is not questioned. But oysters, though usually 
 included in that description of animals, do not come within the reason or operation of the rule. The owner has the same .absolute 
 property in them that he has in inanimate things or domestic animals. Like domestic animals, they continue perpetually in his occupiition 
 and will not stray from his house or person. Unlike animals fcra; nalitra', they do not require to be reclaimed and made tame by art, 
 industry, or education, nor to be confined in order to be within the immediate power of the owner. If at liberty, they have neither the 
 inclination nor power to escape. For the purposes of the present inquiry they are obviously more nearly allied to tame animals th.an to 
 wild ones, and perhaps more nearly allied to iuauim.ato objects th.an to animals of either description. The indictment could not aver th.at 
 the oysters were dead, for they would then be of no value ; nor that they were reclaimed or tamed, for in this sense they were never wild 
 and were not capable of domestication ; nor tha.t they were confined, for that would be absurd. 
 
 It was the decision of the court that the owner has the same absolute property in oysters that he has in 
 inanimate things or domestic animals, and that an indictment woitld lie for stealing oysters planted in a public or 
 navigable river, where oysters do not grow natm-ally, and the spot designated by stakes or otherwise. 
 
 On the other hand, courts decided that action does not lie for taking oysters claimed as planted in a common 
 navigable stream in which others were; found. The court seemed to consider the throwing of oyster-plants where 
 there is a natural growth as an abandonment, and compared it to a man "who should take a deer in a forest and 
 be simpleton enough to let it go agaiu in the same forest, saying, ' this is my deer, and no man shall touch it ;' it 
 woidd never be asked by the next taker what was the intention of the simpleton; the very act of letting it go was 
 
 an abandonment." 
 
 YiKGiNiA SKED AND NATIVE SEED.— In early days Virginia oysters were mere largely planted than now, except 
 by a few New York dealers, and the beds of natives were supplied by seed found at home or at most in York bay, it 
 merely being necessary to gather it up from tlie scattered spots where it lay or had "struck", and place it ujion the 
 private beds ; the immediate waters of Staten Island or the neighboring coasts have furnished httlc or no seed. It 
 is seventy years, I was told by Capt. Benjamin Decker— to whom I am greatly indebted for information— since any 
 young oysters have " struck "along the southern shore of the island, in (piaiitities worth getting. The great natural 
 "beds there and in the mouth of the Itaritan and the beds off Shrewsbury, were exhausted years and years ago, and 
 although now and then small deposits of young oysters are found in various parts of these waters, no reliance is 
 8 o 
 
114 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 placed upon such a source of seed. Sixty years ago old oystermen remember working npou tlie "Chingora" bed, 
 two miles below Keyport; and upon the then famous "State-beds" just at the Earitan river light-house. Now 
 artificial planting covers both these banks. Fifteen years ago a bed of wild oysters was discovered down near the 
 southwest buoy, and is supposed to have originated from spawn drifted across from Fort Hamilton, where the rocks 
 conceal u:anj' oysters in their crevices. Since then small patches are occasionally found elsewhere. This sporadic 
 growth seems entirely due to the native oysters planted in the sound, for during all the years previous that " Virginias" 
 were planted in the greatest profusion, nothing of the sort occurred. Though the southern oysters would survive the 
 winter, as a rule, and were even kept over two winters, when it was undesirable to sell them, they never spawned 
 effectually, and are considered by the oystermen incapable of doing so, who attribute all the " set" which occurs 
 anywhere in that vicinity to northern stock. I have had no opportunity of pro\ing this, right or wrong, but am 
 inclined to believe it true. This year a ruinously large proportion of the southern stock planted died. 
 
 I may mention, iji this connection, that on the New Jersey shore much oyster-spawu "catches" every year in 
 all the creeks, and a certain portion of it survives. A common experience is to find it attached to the sedges. By 
 autumn such will become so heavy as to fall in the water, and the main part of it will die. What survives, however, 
 will be as big as half a dollar, and are caught for seed. Enough remains, nevertheless, to tempt a few fishermen to 
 return the very day the summer close-time expires, and rake again. What they get are "yellow as gold", and of 
 extraordinary quality. These oysters are called "naturals", and are only enough to supply the home-tables for a 
 few days, at extravagant prices. I see no reason why the judicious throwing of shells or other cultch in these creek- 
 mouths would not save large quantities of this fine seed. It would be objected to by the populace, however, no 
 doubt, on the plea that it was " natural ground" — an argument that might serve for any part of all these shores, 
 whicli have occasionally been covered with the spawn along their whole extent. 
 
 The southern oysters that formerly made the chief business of these shores were variously known as "Virginia 
 seed ", " Chesapeakes", " soft", and " fresh" oysters. I restrict myself in the use of the word " seed ", however, to 
 the very small native northern oysters which were transplanted to private beds, and allowed from eighteen months' 
 to two years' growth. The business was certainly very extensive for the condition of the oyster-market; nor has 
 it yet more than declined, since probably 300,000 bushels are annually laid down even now. . 
 
 Methods op culture, past and present. — The methods of work were and are not different from those 
 pursued elsewhere in resi^ect to southern oysters, and need not be redescribed in detail. Eajjpahaunock and York 
 river stock seems to have been preferred always in this district, and a large number of slooi)s and schooners ran 
 each spring to and from those rivers. The crews of these vessels were not only native Jerseymen or Staten 
 Islanders, but often Chesapeake men, who came up for a brief season's work, and then returned to their homes. 
 
 "They are required," says an account written in 1853, "in the transplanting of a bed, to heave the oysters 
 overboard, to clean the bed about once a year, and perform various other work of a like description. The cleanuig 
 of the beds takes place generally every fall, and is accomplished by means of 'scrapers', singular looking 
 instruments, somewhat resembling scythes, with this exception, tliat at one side of the blade a large bag, constructed 
 of iron ring-work, like many purses we have seen, is attached. Into this all the scourings of the bed, cleaned off 
 with the fi'ont of the blade, fall, and the whole is haided up at regular intervals and deposited in the boat, to be 
 afterward thrown into the current. In this manner the whole floor of the bed is scraped quite clean, after which 
 it is considered fit for the reception of the oysters. The process of cleaning a bed is performed by the vessels under 
 full sail. It is a very laborious task. 
 
 "The oyster companies have to pay about $1 a year each for the privQege of planting in a portion of Prince's 
 bay, called Ward's point, which is regarded as admirably adapted for the purpose. As many as 1,000,000 bushels 
 of oysters are scattered in this favorite locality yearly ; but it is the only part of the bay for which the dealers are 
 required to pay. Each company have their own ground marked out, and the whole space thus occupied extends 
 over ten miles in length by about five in breadth. The depth of water varies from 8 to 25 feet. Besides the 
 Virginia oysters, there are several other kinds planted in this baj^, among which are the East river and Delaware 
 oysters." 
 
 The war of the Eebellion interfered greatly with this industry, and had a great influence in turning the current 
 of oyster-planting toward the cultivation of home-stock. 
 
 39. OYSTEE-mDUSTEIES OF NEW YOEK BAY, 1879-'80. 
 
 Culture of transplanted native oysters. — Turning now to the consideration of the growing of 
 transplanted native oysters, I find that this is gradually superseding the other (southern) planting, the objection 
 to that being that, witU higher prices at tbe south and lower selling-rates in the north, too many risks are attached 
 to make it profitable. The planters of old, elated by their profits, which, during the war of the Eebellion were 
 very large, over-crowded the grounds and each other, until the business nearly collapsed. The present revival 
 in the line of growing natives is likely to prove equally profitable in a sounder way. But this planting of native 
 seed-oysters in New York bay is an old industry. In 1853, for example, it was stated that there were at least 1,000 
 men employed in cultivating "York Bays" for the purpose of shipping them. "The hardness of their shell and the 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 115 
 
 peculiar saltness of the meat render them better adapted for shipping than any others, and they are, therefore, used 
 almost wholly for the western trade. The boats employed in transporting them from the North river and Newark 
 bay to the artificial beds are open, and are each generally manned by three or four men * » *. These men work 
 in sloops and skiffs owned by themselves. The owners of each boat are also proprietors of one or more beds planted 
 by themselves. There are about 200 boats, altogether, each of which is valued at an average of $800." 
 
 Oyster intekests of Staten Island in 1853. — In reviewing the interests, during the same year, of the 
 south side of- Staten Island, whence came the "Sound" oysters of the markets, the Herald estimated the business 
 as follows : 
 
 From 150 to 200 men are employed in their cultivation, or in bringing them to market, and the value of the whole amount sold 
 during the year does not exceed ^50,000. The boats used in transplanting and in transporting them to this city are sloops and skifl's, or 
 open boats, each being manned by three or four hands. The average value of each boat is about §200, and the whole amount of capital 
 invested in the sound-trade, including boats .and beds, may be estimated at §250,000. 
 
 It is added that one-third of all the seed planted at that time came out of the North river, from beds " which 
 extend at intervals from Piermont to Sing Sing", where the growth was said to be exceedingly quick and abundant, 
 but the oysters, especially those from the higher beds, of inferior quality, and whollj' useless until transplanted.* 
 
 Oystek-cultuee about Staten Island. — The home resources along the shores of Staten Island, in York 
 bay and the North river, having long ago been exhausted, or greatly depleted, the planters in Prince's bay and on 
 the Jersey shore now get "seed" oysters, with which to stock their beds, wherever they can. The chief source is 
 Newark bay and Raritan river, though the North and Bast rivers and Long Island sound are drawn upon. A 
 considerable quantity of seed is brought from as far away as Fair Haven and Blue Point. In most cases the planters 
 themselves gather what they use, by going after it in their own sloops, taking a small boat and a man to help. 
 There is no reason why they should know precisely the number of bushels they cull out of their tongs and carry 
 home, or why they should endeavor to calculate its exact cost. It would be difdcult, therefore, for them to answer 
 precise questions as to how much they got, or what it cost them, let alone how much they had upon their beds at a 
 given time. For what they buy, from 30 to 40 cents a bushel was paid last season, to the many persons who made 
 a practice of catching seed to sell. 1 maj mention here an incidental custom. 
 
 Whenever the tides are especially low, there is a hurried concourse of people along the shore to pick up the 
 mollnsks, old and young, disclosed by the retreating flood, who work as far out as they possibly can. Such a 
 general turnout is an interesting sight and an important fact to the planters, many of whose beds are bounded on 
 the shoreward side by ordinary low-water mark. Though an extra low tide discloses grounds and beds of planted 
 oysters legally held, the eager populace regard it as no infringement to pick up from such planted grounds, whenever 
 they can reach them unobstructed. The truth is, this ground, occasionally exposed by the tide, is debatable 
 territory, and the planters find it prudent not to contest the matter, but to be especially vigilant over their property, 
 lest unscrupulous persons, of whom there are many, shall wade in to the beds and make a wholesale theft, under 
 excuse of low water. 
 
 Oystek-cultuke at Keypokt and Perth Amboy. — The seed usually gathered at Keyport and vicinity 
 grows on soft mud and in sedgy places, and hence is long, slender, crooked, and ill-shaped. It is roughly culled on 
 the boat, as soon as caught, and sold by the basket or bushel. Planted in from 10 to 15 feet depth of water, purer, 
 Salter, and upon a better bottom than before, it rounds out into good shape, and grows \^^th considerable rapidity, in 
 good seasons. The best bottom is a thin layer of mud overlying sand, and the best time for planting is in March, 
 April, and IMay. As a total of the bushels of seed planted last spring, nothing better than an estimate is possible, 
 and I consider the best way to make this estimate, is to consider that the crop, each year, is about equal to what is 
 planted, the gTowth making up for the loss. I know the croi) of northern oysters of the region under review amounts 
 to about 250,000 bushels, which may also be taken to represent the amount of seed put on the beds. Multiplying 
 this by 35, the average price per bushel, you have $87,500 as the total amount. of cajntal sunk in stocking the beds. 
 From 100 to 150 per cent, added, gives the amount of sales, after two to three years' waiting, and the expenditure of 
 a considerable outlay in handling. 
 
 * Before leaving this point, I may add an opinion expressed by the late Count L. F. de Pourtales, in a report to the Coast Survey, about 
 ten years ago, in respect to the oyster-beds of the United States, regarding the North river. He wrote : 
 
 " Having been informed that oysters are obtained for purposes of planting, from the Hudson river, I visited Sing Sing, which had been 
 indicated as about the highest point at which oysters are found. My visit was, unfortunately, after the close of the fishing season, the Ist of 
 June ; but I had the good fortune to be referred to the oldest fisherman of the vicinity, a colored man named Brady, at Sparta, from whom 
 I obtained some valuable information. He had found oysters as high up as Cruger's, above Croton point, but they were subject to 
 considerable vicissitudes there, being at times entirely destroyed by freshets or ice. From another informant I learned, that olT Croton 
 point there existed considerable beds of oysters, but all dead. According to Mr. Mitchell's observations, the specific gravity of the water 
 at the bottom off Cruger's is L003 at the end of llood, and only 1.001 at the cud of ebb. The best and largest oysters are now found in 
 the deepest parts, 20 to 25 feet, but they aro rather scarce now. Formerly they were abundant and grew close to the shore, where none 
 are found now. This Brady attributed to the construction of the railroad skirting the shore — a plausible explan.ation— since the w.ashiug 
 of the eml),aukment must have produced a layer of mud, in which they have become smothered. The clearing of the forests in the basin 
 of the Hudson must have had, also, a'considerable influence in checking the growth of oysters by mud deposits. There is no regular 
 business of oyster-catching as high up as Sing Sing, as the town laws prohibit strangers from taking oysters, and the inhabitants take 
 only a few for their own use." 
 
116 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The method pursued in this region has grown to be careful and systematic, and furnishes employment to a 
 considerable number of men not planters. In the spring, as soon as the weather gets fairly settled, the "natives", 
 intended to be sent to market the following fall, are taken up from the place where they lie, culled over, and 
 cleaned, if needful, and relaid, more thinly, on a new bed. Usually this is a movement from a soft to a haixler 
 bottom, and sometimes to a region of fresher water. At Perth Amboy, however, oysters shifted are placed further 
 down the bay. It operates advantageously in two ways: by repressing the tendency to spawn, which is 
 nudesirable; and by giving them the benefit of a change of water and food. Moreover, on the sand they will tend 
 to grow round and shapely beyond their ability to do so when crowded in the mud, while the fresher water will 
 make them fatter. The actual result, nevertheless, is sometimes disappointing, particularly if there be no current 
 over the new bed to bring a steady supply of fresh food. 
 
 The man who has only a few hundred bushels will do this "shifting", as it is termed, himself ; but for the large 
 planters it is usually done by a contractor, either for a lump sum or for an amount of pay based upon an estimate 
 of the quantity, or at the rate of 10 to 15 cents per bushel, according to the density of the oyster-beds, and hence 
 the time to be consumed. In either case the cost is about the same. One gentleman told me he paid $1,300 to 
 have 11,000 bushels shifted under the tirst-named arrangement. While this is going on the southern cargoes are 
 being laid upon the beds, and at Keyport a score or more of negroes, from Norfolk, annually appear as laborers, 
 returning, at the end of the work, to their homes. 
 
 Growth of oysters in New York bay. — The growth of oysters transplanted to these New York bay waters 
 is reasonably rapid, though not as fast as occurs in the Great South bay of Long Island. The usual expectation 
 is to leave the beds undisturbed for three years, then shift in the spring and market in the fall. As planting of 
 seed occurs both spring and fall, the crop of every year is thus the iii'st of a series of six. All "natui-als", that is, 
 local oysters, planted, will outgrow foreign seed, doubling in size in a single season. This, manifestlj', is because 
 they suffer no change of locality, and do not need to become acclimated. The oysters from the sound, however, 
 have been used largely for European trade for the last two or three years, and have acquired a high reputation. 
 These do not require to lie three years, since they are wanted of small size. 
 
 Captain Benjamin Decker, whom I have quoted before, relates that some years ago he had a stiange experience 
 in this direction: a bed of oysters, which he planted at Keyport, doubled their size in a single month! "I sold 
 these oysters in the New York market," he says, "and they sold well. The shells were so thin you could see the 
 light through them. They beat anything in the market. The growth was wonderful. I sowed them thin, and yet 
 they choked one another. I should think at least half of them died from this cause." 
 
 Summer rest and autumn work in Keyport and vicinity. — By the end of May all work upon the 
 beds ceases, beyond taking up an occasional boat-load to supply the weak summer-demand. The condition of the 
 beds is watched closely, however, by the anxious owners, since it is the midsummer months that determine whether 
 the oysters will rejiort themselves "good" in the fall, or the reverse; which means a profitable business, or the 
 reverse. If the season is hot, equable, and reasonably calm, all is expected to go well. Heavy storms and great 
 freshets in July and August, on the other hand, produce thin and poor oysters, which will not bring a good price. 
 The ill success of the beds along the Keyport and ll'aritan shores last year is attributed to this cause. 
 
 Early in September th% business of taking up the oysters for market begins. This is done by longing, from 
 small boats, near which a sloop anchors upon the bed, in which the men are quickly carried out and home again, 
 and easily transport their load. Thus the larger part of the harvest is gathered, until the oysters become scarce 
 upon the ground. Then a dredge is thrown over from the sloop, which cruises back and forth across the ground, 
 until it is wholly cleaned up. Tonging over the side of a skiff is hard enough work, and requires sturdy, broad- 
 chested men; but dredging is a still more terrible strain upon the uuiscles, when it comes to dragging the heavy 
 iron frame and bag uyt from the rough bottom, and lifting it and its load over the rail on to the deck of the vessel. 
 Many of the newer and larger sloops are now provided with a windlass, specially adapted to dredging, which 
 relieves the crews to a great extent of the old hand-over-hand back-breaking labor. Di'ag-rakes are also used very 
 frequently on these grounds, having very long, limber handles. 
 
 " Giving the oysters a drink." — A sloop-load of oysters — from 200 to 800 bushels, according to the size 
 of the boat — having been secured, the owner's next step is to "give them a drink". This he does by throwing 
 them overboard, for a short time, in the fresh or partially fresh waters of some creek. The Amboy and Staten 
 Island men find this largely in the vicinity of Rahway, New Jersey, where they lay their cargoes on the shore or 
 sometimes in floats. The work is largely done by men belonging there, who are paid in oysters, receiving a bushel for 
 about two hours' helping, which is usually what each master requires of them. The Keyport men have a little 
 creek running through the town, which is crowded with floats, skiffs, and the implements of work. It is a scene of 
 extraordinary activity, which may be witnessed here in autumn every day, as the oysters are being culled and 
 prepared for sale. 
 
 The object of this "drinking" is to allow the oyster to become cleansed and freshened in taste. Finding 
 themselves once again in the water, the oysters all open, and, as the men say, "spit out" all the imparities which 
 are to be found clinging to the edges of the mantle and gills of a sea-oyster, just within the shell, and they do this 
 at once, so that usually a single tide is a long enough time to leave them in the fresh water. Moreover, imbibing 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 117 
 
 the fresb water causes tliem to change in color somewhat, making the flesh a purer white; and it bloats them into 
 an appearance of extreme fatness, which is very appetizing. Most persons believe this to be a true increase of 
 substance and weight, bnt it is no more than a pulling up. 
 
 PiCKixCr AND ci'LLiNG. — Before the oysters are thrown into the fresh water they are picked over somewhat, 
 and the worthless stuff is thrown upon the banks of the stream — dead oysters, periwiidvles, conchs, stones, and 
 much other useless matter. Another more particular sorting remains to be done after the stock is taken from the 
 stream, and before being sent to the city. This consists in knocking buuches to pieces and assorting into the various 
 sizes kno'mi to the trade, aud is technically known as "culling". All of the refuse-stuff resulting from these 
 manipulations is heaped u])on the bank, and is used to fill in low spots, or carted away to be burned into lime. 
 Late iu the fall this is terribly cold work. Nowadays the oysters are dipped out of the shallow water with forks, 
 similar to the farmers' dung-forks, and the men wear rubber-boots that reach to their waists, but the old oystermen 
 remember very well the winter terrors of the time before rubber-boots were invented and when they picked up the 
 oysters with their fingers. 
 
 Winter gleanings. — The main crop has been gathered by the time Christmas is near, but many scattered 
 oysters yet remain, that have escaped both tongs and dredges. The grounds are then given up to the laborers, who 
 have been employed, during the summer and fall, and under a new impulse these men go over the grounds again 
 Mith tongs and dredge. They work on shares usually, returning to the owner of the beds one-half of the results, 
 which makes a really handsome thing for the gleaners, whose work, in this way, lasts from two to three weeks, 
 making three or four days a week, each man often clearing as his portion from four to five dollars a day. At any 
 rate, such generally is the practice, with its results, at Keyport, New Jersey, "where for many years the principle 
 of the good old biblical rule, of not foi-getting the gleaners, is almost religiously observed in the last gathering of 
 this harvest of the sea." 
 
 New York oyster-laws. — At the principal poi-ts of this oyster-region New York firms have agents who buy 
 and pack oysters for shipment to the west, to Europe, to New York, or Philadelphia; city dealers also cruise about 
 the beds iu vessels and buy loads of stock from the various i^lanters; and the planters themselves carry their stock 
 to the New York market in their sloops, to be- disposed of at the best advantage, or vie with one another in noisy 
 rivalry in preparing the bivalves and getting them first to the steamboat for the city. 
 
 The Albany oyster-jiarket fifty years ago. — A pleasing tradition has been preserved of the days long 
 ago, before the oyster-business became organized into the commercial system, which now handles the enormous supply 
 that finds its way into every county of every state in the Union. It is contained in the Rev. Samuel Lockwood's 
 articles upon American oysters, published in the Popular Science Monthly for 1874. One of the great markets for 
 oystermen forty to fifty years ago was Albany, New York. The sloops would sail up the river, and sometimes forty 
 of them, loaded to the rail, would lie at the wharves of that city disposing of their living cargoes. From Albany, 
 which also derived a large amount of oysters aud clams from Fairhaven, at the same time, they would be taken back 
 into the country in wagons, over the Erie canal as far as Buffalo, or sent northward by stage to Lake Champlain. 
 If unsuccessful in selling to good advantage at Albany, the shippers would sail dowu and peddle their stock through 
 the towns along the banks. Out of this arose the systematic practice which Professor Lockwood describes iu the 
 following i^aragraphs: 
 
 Before the railroad days, our oyster-growers used early Id the fall to cauvass the villages on the Hudson river for orders, to be tilled 
 just before the river should be elosed with ice. The meaning of this is, that these men committed themselves to supply oysters in the shell, 
 with the guarantee that the bivalves thus supplied should uot die before their time came. The oysters were actually kept alive during 
 the greater part of the long winter. The fat bivalves were handled with some care, and were spread on the cellar-floor, the round or 
 lower side down, so as not to allow the liquor to escape. 
 
 That such a life required a great change of capacity or habit in the bivalves is evident ; and it needed a training, yes, an education, 
 ere the oyster attained to such ability. And this was the way it was done : Beginning early in the fall, the cultivator of the oyster took 
 up the fat bivalves from their bed where ho had planted them, and laid them a little higher up on the shore, so that for a short time each 
 day they were exposed out of the water. After a few days of this exposure by the retreating tide, they were moved a little higher still on 
 the shore-line, which gave them a little longer exposure to the air at each low tide. And this process was continued, each remove resulting 
 in a longer exposure. And with what results '? Two very curious ones : inurement to exposure, and the inculcation of a provident habit 
 of making preparation for the same. What ! providence iu au oyster ? Yes, when he's educated. When accustomed to this treatment, 
 ere the tide retires, the oyster takes a good hard drink, and retains the same until the tide returns. Once, while waiting for the stage at 
 a countrj' hostelry, we overheard the following between two rustic practitioners at the bar: "Come, Swill, let's take a drink!" " Well, I 
 don't know. Ain't dry myself. Hows'ever, guess I will take a drink, for fear I might get dry!" With better iihilosophy on their side, 
 these educated oysters, twice in every twenty-four hours, took their precautionary drink. 
 
 The Freuch method of oyster-training is much more laborious. The adult hi valves are carefully spread out in the water, and periodical 
 lessons are given to each one individually. Each oyster, on this occasion, receives a tap, not with a ferule, but with a small iron iustrnnieut. 
 This causes the bivalve to close tightly. Finally the last d>ay conies with its last premonitory tap. Its education thus linislied, it takes 
 passage, with its fellow-graduates, for Paris. As a result of its education, it knows how to keep its mouth shut when it enters society ! 
 
 Prices of oysters, past and present. — The prices reported as received for oysters iu 1840, did not greatly 
 differ from the present figures ; they were : 
 
 For the poorest .*. - 50 cents per bushel. 
 
 For"Cullens" $3 50 to §5 00 per 1,000. 
 
 For "Big ones" $7 00 toSl()00i)er 1,000. 
 
 For "Extras" |15 00 to $25 00 per 1,000. 
 
118 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Virginia oysters sold for about 20 per cent, less than the above-given, wliieli were aU "hard", in the parlance 
 of the period. 
 
 During the war of the Rebellion, -n-hen the southern fields were cut off from the northern markets to a great 
 extent, the Staten Island planters reaped a rich harvest. Their beds were unusually productive, and the prices 
 were double what they now are, in many cases. At present the receipts are about the same as have prevailed for 
 several years, except that the season of 1878-'79, foUowiug upon a period of financial depression, and characterized 
 by misfortune in the growth of the moUusks, showed lower rates paid than ever before or since. Prices depend 
 largely upon the quality of the different beds, and vary with localities. Virginia oysters from Prince's bay are 
 considered the best. Of natives, those grown in the sound are favorites ; these supplied a large part of the shipments 
 to Europe in 1879-80, and gave better satisfaction than any others sent. Perth Amboy and Kej-port were the 
 packing-points. The prices received by the planters for the different kinds of Staten Island oysters last year (1879) 
 were from 10 to 20 per cent, less than the i)revious year, up to which time the price for a long time has averaged $1 
 per bushel, taking all grades and sizes together. In 1878, one man told me his whole crop averaged him $1 30 i)er 
 bushel, but this was exceptionally good. In the fall and winter of 1879-'80, however, lots sold at $1 were rare, 
 and the average price of "Sounds" and the best "Prince's Bays" (natives) did not average over SO or 90 cents, while 
 TotteuviUe oysters, with few exceptions, failed to come up to this even, 75 to 80 cents being reported for the most 
 jjart. . This will no doubt revive shortly. 
 
 In Perth Amboy, for the European stock, $2 to $2 50 per barrel was jiaid by the shippers ; but this was called 
 a very poor price, and, it is well known, proved highly profitable to shii^pers. For other oysters from 60 to 80 
 cents a biishel was paid for medium stock, and from $1 to $1 25 for larger, of which not much was sold; but the 
 average i>robably would not exceed 90 cents. 
 
 In Keyport, for " bushels", 40 cents, $3 to $3 50 per thousand for " culls", and $6 to $7 for "box" size. A large 
 number of Keyport's oysters go by rail to Ocean Grove, Ocean Beach, Long Branch, and other summer resorts on 
 the coast. 
 
 Deawbacks to oyster-cultivation. — The ^^sible drawbacks to oyster-cultivation between the East river 
 and Sandy Hook, are not very numerous, but liliely to be unforeseen and significant when they occur. One 
 misfortune, however, to which the last remark does not well apply, is the fact that the sewage and waste pollution 
 of the factories of Jersey City have so corrupted the shallow water along the Bergen shore, called York bay, as to 
 ruin those planting grounds. At present the only way in which they can be utilized by oyster- growers, is to raise 
 there large seed, which shaU be taken elsewhere and given a year's growth and pimfication. Whether this trouble 
 is exaggerated or not, I cannot say from personal experiment. 
 
 "Hairing up." — I was told by Captain Wood, of Pleasant Plains, Long Island, that his oysters nowadays 
 "haired uji", by which he meant that a growth of hydroids, and perhaps also of sea-weed, grew upon them to such 
 an extent as to keep them poor. This might operate thus in two ways : a luxurious hydroid wonld both consume 
 and tend to keep from entering its mouth a part of the mollusk's food-supply; and it might also form eddies, acting 
 as an impediment to catch drifting matter, weeds, and the like, until the mollusks were partially buried and 
 smothered. I believe, however, that the danger from this source is of little account ; while some fishermen assured 
 me that to have the red-beard, and gray-beard, Sertularia aryentea, and several other hydroids and brj'ozoa, which 
 pass under the general name of "scurf" and "yellow moss", appear iJlentLfuUy on the beds, was a sure sign that 
 the oysters were doing well. 
 
 Mussels. — A more serious cause of disquietude, and one I here met with for the first time, is the fastening 
 of great quantities of young black mussels, Modiola pUcatula, on the oyster-beds. This hapi^ened last year in certain 
 parts of Prince's bay to a formidable extent. It is liable to occur also in the lower part of the East river, but I 
 ha\-e heard no complaint from there. It is not my purpose in these chapters to do more than mention the enemies 
 present at a particular point, reserving a fuller description of each for a special chapter. This nuisance varies 
 somewhat with different years, and at Keyport, perhaps owing to favorable currents, seems not to haj^pen at all. 
 
 Brums, skates, and rays. — A less constant though more openly destructive agent of evil is the drum-fish, 
 Pogonias ckromis, which is here at its worst, and once in a few years completely devastated many beds, jiicking up 
 thousands of mollusks, crushing them in his powerful teeth, and drojiping the fragments, heedless of mischief. 
 Thirty years ago was the weU-remembered drum-fish year, and since then only occasional forays have been 
 committed by them. 
 
 The skates and the sting-ray — especially the latter — are a source of constant damage, the amount of which 
 aggregates a large sum every year. The clever device, described in the chapter on the oyster's enemies, by which 
 the drum-fish seem to have been frightened away, avails nothing in the case of the "stingaree", whose devastations 
 seem unavoidable and of the most importance of all oyster-foes. 
 
 Starfishes and drills. — Starfish very rarely occur, and the periwinkles and conchs are of small account in doing 
 harm, but in 1878 the drill, Urosalpinx cinerea, pro^•ed himself a great nuisance about East point, injuring many 
 beds there beyond rei)air. Since that time, however, little has been seen of him. 
 
Plate XXXll. 
 
 Monograph -O TSTEK-IJVD USl'R T. 
 
 Ixci.osi-.i) Dock kou OystekVksski.s at Pkuth A.muoy, N. J- 
 
 TiiK Crkkk" Ai Kkvi'oki, N. .1., WITH Oystek-Buats, Skiffs, ani> Scows. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 119 
 
 Easterly gales. — Eastward gales are likely to more the bottom of Staten Island sound in an unfortunate 
 manner, and every planter has his tale of beds lost by being buried under drifted sand, or swept out of existence. 
 This kind of a wind is rare, however. Winters hard enough to kill the oysters have occurred, but not lately, 
 except that in 1878-79 cold weather, high winds, and low tides coming together, have exposed the Raritan beds and 
 destroyed large portions of them. In the Raritan river, particularly at Perth Amboy, the oystermen are obliged to 
 erect strong quadrangular slips or docks, inside which they may crowd with their sloops and oyster-boats and cull 
 their oysters in peace, since the winter-sea in the harbor is likely to be too rough to permit work. This is an 
 important item of expense to them. In tliis connection I may quote Mr. Samuel Lockwood's words, written in 1873 : 
 
 It will be news to many to learn that the business of the oyster-producer is one of great risk. All is not gain to these industrious 
 people, for often capital is sunk in the waters that is never taken np. Many years ago we remember the then small village of Keyport 
 suffering ,a loss iu one season of $50,000. Even a severe storm, continued unusually long, has smothered the beds by agitation of the mud, 
 for the oyster must keep its nib out of the bottom. But two seasons ago, in one of the branches of Shrewsbury river, a crop was almost; 
 entirely lost, the supposition being that it was poisoned by the washing from a new turnpike, in the construction of which a peculiar 
 ferruginous earth had been used. Formerly the oyster throve as a native as high uj) the North river as Peekskill, and probably its limit 
 was not below lifty miles from the mouth of the river. They are now, however, exceedingly scarce, even as high as Croton. The belief 
 exists that tTie railroad has destroyed them by the washing from the necessary working of the road, which is constantly finding its way 
 to the river-bed. So long ago as 1851, Col. John P. Cruger, of Cruger's Lauding, a very intelligent observer, called our attention to the 
 fact of the mischief thus done. 
 
 And there are meteoric causes which affect the oyster. We have known an unusually severe winter to kill the bivalves iu great 
 numbers. And even the seed, iu its transport from Virginia, has been destroyed — whole valuable cargoes — by foggy weather and atlverse 
 storms. 
 
 Vessels. — The Raritan planters are also troubled by vessels grounding upon their beds and ruining from 100 
 to 500 bushels at once. There are no authorized buoys or light-houses to point out the proper channel to strangers, 
 and there is, 1 believe, no redress. The planters complained to me sharply concerning this matter, and thought 
 that legal protection should be given them, but I did not learn precisely what they wanted from the federal 
 government. 
 
 Thieves. — Another sort of trouble arises from the ubiquitous thief, who is said to flourish greatly in the 
 neighborhood of Staten Island. In those waters which lie between the island and the New Jersey shore, there 
 has always been contention and litigation, resulting in constant arrests and bad feeling back and forth, through 
 alleged violations of state boundaries and the rights which each state reserves to its own citizens. One planter 
 at Perth Amboy wrote me that "in spite of all \igilance and paying watchmen, we lose all around about 10 per 
 cent, every year by thieves". 
 
 The oystermen. — Notwithstanding these obstructions to perfect success, the oyster-interests of New York bay 
 are the livelihood of a considerable number of people, though it is probable that the population at present supported 
 by them is reduced by at least a quarter from the total of ten years ago. All the inhabitants of the southern half 
 of Long Island may be called oystermen, since many of them have invested a little iu the beds in some shape, or 
 work more or less on hire for the regular growers. Exactly how many real planters there are on the island I 
 could not ascertain iu the time at my command ; they are scattered everywhere, but chiefly live at Pleasant Plains, 
 Tottenville, Rossville, and Chelsea. On the north shore live many New Tork merchants, Mke the Van Names, etc., 
 who plant southern oysters almost entirely. Their capital, also, with that of many other New York dealers, whose 
 names do not appear, aids a large number of outside planters who are, in fact, only managers of the under-water 
 estates which they apparently own and operate. This is not derogatory to their personal worth or dignity, but 
 only one of the methods of trade, shaped by i^eculiarities of the laws bearing upon the subject. 
 
 By the operations in oyster-culture iu and about the various centers within the range of this chapter, I 
 conclude the number of families wholly supported to be somewhat as follows : 
 
 Famjliea. 
 
 At Prince's bay, Stateu Island 50 
 
 At TottenviUo, Staten Island 75 
 
 Remainder of Staten Island 25 
 
 Perth Amboy 75 
 
 Keyport and south shore 400 
 
 Total 625 
 
 It must not be supposed that each one of the heads of these 625 families plants and harvests enough oysters to 
 supply his expenses, not to say profits, Bvery year. That would be true only of the minority. But each one owns 
 a piece of ground and works on it to the extent of his means. At other times he hires his services to his richer 
 neighbors, or digs and rakes clams. Bach man owns a small boat, worth from $20 to $75, and the most of them 
 have a sail boat, which, if for practical use alone, will be worth from $200 to $500, but if intended to answer the 
 larger purjiose of dredging, carrying oysters to the city, and pleasure-excursions in summer, may be valued as high 
 as $2,000. The boats of all sorts hereabouts are of superior workmanship. Tlie wages received by laborers, who 
 require a certain degree of skill, range from $2 to $2 50 a day, the men bringing their own boat and tools. Twelve 
 
120 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and a half cents a bushel is the usual price paid in "catching up" for market. The seed-planting, spring and fall, 
 the watching of the beds, and culling of the oysters on shore, are the chief requirements of work done on days' 
 wages, for the shifting is chiefly done by contract. 
 
 The oyster-fleet. — The oyster-fleet between New York city and Sandy Hook is very large. Almost 
 innumerable crafts, with trim sails, crowd the bay on working-days. The sail-boats used here are of good build, 
 and often cost $3,000, while an unusually good quality of clinker-built, shallow-draft keel-boats, called skifl's, worth 
 from $75 to $125, are used. A third sort of small boat is flat-bottomed and straight-sided, like a small Connecticut 
 sliarpie ; this is known as a bateau, and costs from $15 to $30. Two skiffs and a bateau may be counted for every 
 regular oyster-sloop or cat-boat. 
 
 The net results. — The total product of Staten Island beds, so far as I could ascertain, is as follows, the time 
 being the season of lS79-'80. This enumerates only the native oysters, since I could learn of only about 15,000 
 bushels a year of southern oysters planted at present around Staten Island, except those brought north by Xew 
 York city dealers, and counted in the chapter devoted to the metropolis. The total product is : 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 At Prince's bay 50,000 
 
 By Tottenville planters 55,000 
 
 By Chelsea planters 25,000 
 
 Total 130,000 
 
 Add to this : 
 
 For Perth Amhoy 100,000 
 
 For Keyport and South shore 25,000 
 
 Total 255,000 
 
 Southern oysters not counted for New York city planters 175,000 
 
 Grand total of all kinds 430,000 
 
 Estimates in eecapitulation: 
 
 'Native." 
 
 "Virginia.' 
 
 Pamilies. 
 
 Perth Amboy 
 TottcnvUle .. 
 Prince's bay . 
 
 Cbelaea 
 
 Keyport 
 
 100, 000 
 55, 000 
 60, 000 
 25, 000 
 25, 000 
 
 10, 000 
 5,000 
 
 265, 000 
 
 175, 000 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 50 
 25 
 400 
 
 625 
 
 *Many more Virginia oysters are planted in Keyport, but the rest are owned and counted in New York city. 
 
 Statistical eecapitulation for New York bay: 
 
 Number of planters, wholesale dealers, and shippers 500 
 
 Extent of ground cultivated, about acres.- 2,250 
 
 Number of vessels and sail-boats engaged, about 400 
 
 Value of same, with equipment J1200, 000 
 
 Number of men hired by ]ilanters or dealers 125 
 
 Annual earnings of same $62,500 
 
 Total number of families supported 625 
 
 Annual sales of — 
 
 I. Native oysters bushels. . 255, 000 
 
 Value of same $250,000 
 
 II. Chesapeake "plants"' ,, * bushels.. 175,000 
 
 Value of same .„„„..... $12.5,000 
 
 Total value of oysters sold annually,..,.. „ .,.„ , ,... $375,000 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 121 
 
 K. OYSTEE-TRADE OF NEW YORK CITY. 
 
 40. HISTORICAL SKETCH OP THE OYSTEE-TEADE OF NEW YOEK CITY. 
 
 Historic otster-fiems. — Most of the New York oyster-firms are of long standing, and the same names 
 appear which are conspicuous in the oyster-annals of City Island and Staten Island, for these two localities have 
 supplied the most of them. Van Name, Houseman, Silsbee, Wright, Burbauk, Boyle, Frazer, Woglom, Decker, 
 and others, are examples. Many of the gentlemen now conducting the business under these names only succeeded 
 their fathers and graudfathors, who established the trade they enjoy. The growth of the opportunities of business, 
 liowever, has been very rapid, and has brought in many new men, conspicuous among whom are George H. Shaffer 
 & Co., of Fulton market. 
 
 Van Kortlandt's treasure-trove. — When the sage Van Kortlandt, surnamcd CHoffe the Dreamer, after 
 his dreadful shipwreck in the goblin-haunted whirljiools of Hell Gate, had brought the remnant of his command to 
 land on the southern end of Mana-hata, an island which divided the bosom of the bay, his first anxiety was for 
 something to eat, for "Van Kortlandt was a devout trencherman ". How he fared we learn from the veritable history 
 of Diedrich Knickerbocker : 
 
 The stores wliich had been provided f<ir the voyage by the good hon-sewivos of Communipaw were nearly exhausted, but, in casting 
 his eyes about, the commodore behelil that tlie sliore abounded with oysters. A great store of these was instantly collected ; a fire was 
 made at the foot of a tree ; all hands fell to roasting and broiliug and stewing and frying, and a stiraptuous rei)ast was soon set forth. 
 This is thought to be the origin of those civic fcasls with which, to the present day, all our public affairs are celebrated, and in which the 
 oyster is ever sure to play an important xiart. 
 
 Dutch oystermen of New Amsterdam. — A historical retrospect of the oyster-business in New York city 
 affords many interesting facts. In 1021 it was recorded in a letter to the old country that " very large oifters" were 
 so abundant at New Amsterdam, that they could not be sold. "Oysters are very plenty in many places," asserted 
 the traveler Von der Donk, in 1041. "Some of these are hke the Colchester oysters, and are fit to be eaten raw; 
 others are very large, wherein pearls are frequently found, but as they are of a brownish color they are not valuable. 
 The price for oysters is usually from eight to ten stivers per hundred." The inference is, that every man could easily 
 gather for himself all he wanted. That a few years of this sort of thing greatly enhanced their value, however, is 
 shown by the fact that in 1058, the Dutch council, in making an ordinance against the cutting of sods in and about 
 the town, found it necessary also to enact a law forbidding " all persons from continuing to dig or dredge any oyster- 
 shells on the East river or on the North river, between this city and the fresh water ". This " fresh water" was 
 the pond which is now occupied by the leather district of the city, of which Spruce street is the center. 
 
 The digging of shells was for the purpose of making into lime, and also for the jjuriiose of paving the streets, 
 and in the course of dredging for them great quantities of living oysters were wasted. Pearl street received its 
 name because it was paved with oyster-shells, which the Dutch called "garlen", and is the only street in the city, 
 Judge Daly tells me, that retains its original name, all the others having been changed by design or accident, during 
 the subsequent English occupancy. 
 
 In those early days the trading-place for oysters, as well as fish generally, was the "Strand", near the market- 
 place. This was then an inlet which had been newly constructed into a graft or canal, where the sloops and canoes 
 had a fairly good harbor and place to do business. This old " graft" is now the wealthy and speculative Broad 
 street. At least as late as 1G75 Indians regularly brought oysters to sell at this place in their canoes. 
 
 A little later, in 1071, Aruoldus Montanus speaks of " oysters, some a foot long, containing jjearls, but few of 
 a brown color". 
 
 In 1079-'80, Jaspar Dankers and Peter Slyter made a visit to the colony, and wrote an elaborate account of it, 
 under the title: Journal of a Voyage to New Yorlc. This has been repuljlished by the Long Island Historical 
 Society, and contains a description which I should be sorry to omit in this connection, so vivid and warm is the sense 
 of homely hospitality it conveys. The passage to be quoted is the ensuing, and refers to their first landing in the 
 country : 
 
 We proceed<^d on to Gouanes [Gowanus, now in Brooklyn], a place so-called, where we arrived in the evening at one of the best 
 friends of Gerritt, named .Synion » » » . We found a good fire, half way up the chimney, of clear oak and hickory, of which they made 
 not the least scruple of burning jirofusely. We let it penetrate us thoroughly. There had been already thrown upon it, to be roasted, a 
 pail full of Gouanes oysters, which are the best in the country. They are fully as good as those of England, and better than those we eat 
 at Falmouth. I had to try some of them raw. They are large and full, some of them not less than a foot long, and they grow sometimes 
 ten, twelve, and sixteen together, and are thou like a jiiece of rock. Others are young and suiall. In consequence of the great quantities 
 of them, everybody keeps the shells for the purpose of burning them into lime. They i)ickle the oysters in small casks and send them to 
 Barbiidoes and the other islands. 
 
 This W'ill recall the .similar statement, in 1689, that pickled oysters were an established article of export from 
 Boston to the West Indies. A- few years later we find Peter Kalm writing out a full account of this trade, quoted 
 further on. 
 
122 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Early laws. — The law of 1715, quoted above, was the first legal enactment designed to protect the oyster-beds 
 of the harbor, after the Dutch ordinance of 1058, heretofore quoted. It was instigated by the common people of 
 the city, to whom these molluslis afforded a very iuiportant means of subsistence, botli for themselves and as an 
 article of sale to the well-to-do, for the classing of oysters among luxuries was the device of a far later day. The 
 law of 1715 was limited, in its eflect, to five years. For ten years after freedom, which amounted to license, was 
 had for New Yorkers, and then came the protective law of 1730. In the colonial documents there is found a note 
 under the record of this law, which explains its necessity, as follows : 
 
 There was an act of this kind formerly past in this province, during the continuance whereof the Oysters encreased to that degree 
 that the City of New York was constantly snpplyed in the jjioper season at easie rates, but since the expiration of it, the people being under 
 no restraint, the Banks are almost destroyed. To preserve what is left, and to procure an increase is the design of this Act, which will be 
 greatly to the advantage of this City, if it be diiely observed. 
 
 That the theory of tiiis preamble, if such it was, was not wrong, is shown by the testimony of Kalm, who wrote 
 in 1748. Eeferring to the great quantities of fish in New York harbor, Kalm says : 
 
 Nor ought our vast plenty of Oysters to pass without particular Observation. In their Quality they are exceeded by those of no Country 
 whatsoever. People of all Ranks amongst us in general prefer them to any other Kind fif Food. Nor is any Thing wanting save a little 
 of the filings of copper to render them equally relishing even to an Euglish Palate, with the best from Coh-hexter. They continue good Eight 
 Months in the Year, and are for two Months longer the daily Food of our Poor. Their Beds are uitbiu view of the Town, and I am 
 informed that an Oysterman industriously employed may clear Eight or Ten shillings a Day. Some Gentlemen, a few Years ago, were at 
 the pains of computing the Value of the Shellfish to our Province in general. The Estimate was made with .Judgment and Accuracy, and 
 their Computation amounted to Ten Thousand Pounds per Annum. Their Increase and Consumption are since very much enhanced, and 
 thus also their additional Value in Proportion. I confess it has often given me great Pleasure to reflect how many of my poor countrymen 
 are comfortably supported by this Article, who without it could scarcely subsisr, and for that Reason bi;g to be excused for the length of 
 this Reflection on so humble a subject, tho' it might justly be urged, to the honour of our Oysters, that considered in another View they 
 are serviceable both to our King and Country. 
 
 Kalm on abundance of oysters in 1748.— In another place Kalm returns to the subject in a way for which 
 we ought to be grateful, for information upon our theme is rarely to be had from the early writers. He says : 
 
 About New York they find innumerable quantities of excellent oyfters, and there are few places which have oyfters of fuch an 
 exquiiite tafte, and of fo great a fize: they are pickled and lent to the West Indies and other places; which is done in_ the following 
 manner: As soon as the oyfters arc caught, their f hells are opened and the fifh wafhed clean ; fome water is then poured into a pot, the 
 oyfters are put into it, and they muft boil for a while ; the pot is then taken off from the fire again, the oyfters taken out and put upon a 
 difh, till they are fomewhat dry ; then you take fome mace, allfpice, black pepper and as much ^^neg.ar as you think is fnfficient to give a 
 Bourifh tafte. All this is mixed with half the liquor in which the oyfters were boiled, and put over the tire .again. While you boil it, 
 great care is to be taken in fcummiug off tho thick fcum ; at laft the whole pickle is poured into a glafs or earthen vesself, the oyfters 
 are put to it, and the veffel is well ftopped to keep out the air. In this manner oyfters will keep for years together, and may bo sent to the 
 moft diftant parts of the world. 
 
 The merchants here buy up great quantities of oyfters about this time, pickle them in the above-mentioned manner, and fend them 
 to the Weft Indies: by which they frequently make a confiderable profit : for the oyfters, which coft them five fhillings of their currency, 
 they commonly fell for a piftole, or about fix times as much as they gave for them ; and foraetimes they get even more : the oyfters which 
 are thus pickled have a very fine flavor. The following is another way of preserving oyfters : they are taken out of the shells, fried with 
 butter, put into a glafs or earthen vefsel with the melted butter over them, fo that they are quite covered with it, and no air can get to 
 them. Oyfters prepared in this manner have likewife an agreeable taste, and are exported to the Weft IiicVes, and other parts. 
 
 Oysters are here reckoned very wholefome ; some people affured us, that they had not felt the leaft inconvenience after eating a 
 confiderable quantity of them. It is likewife a common rule here, that oyfters are beft in thofe months which have an r in their name, 
 fuch as September, October, etc. ; but that they are not fo good in other mouths ; however, there are poor people, who live all tho year long 
 upon nothing but oyfters with bread. 
 
 The fea near Nexo York, aflords annually the gre.ateft qu.intity of oyfters. They are found chiefly in a muddy ground, where they lie 
 in the flime, and are not fo frequent in a fandy bottom : a rocky and a ftony bottom is feldom found here. The oyfter-f hells are gathered 
 in great heaps, and burnt into lime, which by fome people is made ufe of in building hoiifes, but is not reckoned fo good as that made of 
 limeftone. On our journey to New York, we faw high heaps of oyfter-f hells near the farm-houfes, upon the fea f hore ; and about New York 
 •we obferved the people had carried them upon the fields, which were fown with wheat. However, they were entire and not crufhed. 
 
 The Indians, who inhabited the coaft before the arrival of the Europeans, have made oyfters and other fhell fifh their chief food ; and 
 at prefent, whenever they come to fait water, where oyfters are to be got, they are very active in catching them, and fell them in great 
 quantities to other Indians, who live higher up the country: for this reafon you fee immenfe numbers of oyfter and mufele fhells piled up 
 near fuch places, where you are certain that the Indians formerly built their huts. This cireumftanco ought to make us cautious in 
 maintaining, that in all places on the fea fhore, or higher up in the country, where fuch heaps of fhells are to be met with, tho latter 
 have lain there ever fince tho time that thofe places were overflowed by the fea. 
 
 Oysters in New York in 1755-'G8. — An intelligent writer gives a good article on fish and oysters, which 
 is found in The Independent Reflector, November 22, 1753, a few years after Kalm: 
 
 The' we abound in no one kind of fish sufficient for a staple, yet such is our h.appiness in this article, that not one of the colonies 
 affords a fish-market of such a plentiful variety as ours. Boston has none but sea-fish, and of those Philadelphia is entirely destitute, 
 being only furnished with the fish of a fresh-water river. New York is sufficiently supplied with both sorts. Nor ought our vast plenty 
 of oysters to pass without particular observation ; in their quality, etc. 
 
 Oysters were still sold from vessels at Broad street, though the ancient canal was gone, up nearly if not quite 
 to Eevolutionary days, and perhaps later. In 1703 I find they are given as worth two .shillings a bushel in New York, 
 clams at the same time selling for ninepence per hundred. The favorites were "Blue I'oiuts'' and "Sounds." The 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 123 
 
 most of them were eaten raw. A "stew" was an expensive luxury then, and the fancy styles of cooking in vogue 
 now hardly heard of. Most of the venders were colored men ; and the only oyster eating-houses, little cellars under 
 the sidewalk, stalls in the markets — particularly the old Catherine market — or a little movable stand on a wharf. 
 
 A piCTUKE BY Washington Ikving. — VVasliington Irving, in his Enivkerbocler^s History, describing a scene 
 in New York harbor in 1804, says that in the imiversal repose of the afternoon " the fleet of canoes at anchor 
 between Gibbet island and Comniunipaw slumbered on their rakes, and suffered the innocent oysters to lie for a 
 while unmolested in the soft mud of their native banks". 
 
 New York makket in 1825-'o0 and 1845.— Even as late as 1825-'30 the whole city supplied only custom 
 enough for one wholesale establishment, according to the information kindly given me by Mr. Thomas DeVoe, whose 
 historical knowledge in respect to New York city is widely known. Benjamin Story at that time kept a provision 
 store at No. 64 Barclay street, and in the fall used to stow away in his cellar from two to five hundred bushels of 
 oysters, which he would sell during the winter to the few eating-stands in Washington market or to grocers. Mr. 
 DeVoe told me that the report at that time was, that Story fed his stock and so kept them alive; but how often, or 
 witli what pabulum, he could not say. Prices at that time, DeVoe remembered, were about two shillings and 
 sixpence to thi'ee shillings (30 to 37 cents) a bushel on the boats which came to the city wharves; but Story sold 
 his at from $1 to $1 25 a hundred in bad weather, when boats could not bring any. 
 
 In Watson's Annals, 1845, I find the following paragraph : 
 
 Mr. Brower * » » remembered well when abimdauce of the largest Bhie Point oystera could he bought opened to your haud 
 for 2». a hundred, such aa would now [184G] bring three or four dollars. 
 
 New York markets in 1853. — In the spring of 1853 there appeared in the New Tori' Herald a series of 
 articles on this trade in the metropolis, which bore the impress of accuracy to a greater degree than is usual in such 
 communications. It asserted that then the oyster-trade might be called only thirty years old, yet that there were 
 a thousand vessels, of from 45 to 200 tons, engaged in winter in supplying the dealers in Oliver slip and other 
 depots with Virginia oysters. The value of these vessels, on an average, was $3,000 each. This statement must, 
 of course, have included all bringing southern oysters to any portion of New York bay, and, at best, seems 
 exaggerated. "The crew," continues the account of these vessels, "is composed generally of four hands and the 
 cook, and the monthly wages given to each person varies from $12 to $30 # # *. Unlilie the fishermen of 
 Fulton market, they do not own shares in the boats upon which they are employed." 
 
 The account continues : 
 
 The amount received for Virginia oysters, sold by the dealers in Oliver slip alone, is estimated at $250,000 a year. This, however, ia 
 not more thau ouo-third of the quantity disposed of in the vicinity of Catherine market ; for the space in the slip is so limited that the 
 business of the dealers is greatly retarded and' cramped. In consequence of this the principal supply is furnished direct from the boats to 
 the retail -dealers throughout the city. About $.'jOO,000 worth of all kinds of Virginia oysters are sold by the boats, which, added to the 
 sales of the dealers, make a total of three-quarters of a million of dollars. This is an immense amount of money, but it is not more than 
 one-eighth part of the value of all the oysters sold during the year in this city.* 
 
 During the months of December, January, February, and March about $500,000 worth are sold from the boats at Coenties slip. There 
 are no scows or oyster-stands at this place, on account of the transient character of the trade there, and the dealers are consequently obliged 
 to sell them oft' the boats. There are some days when from 20 to 30 vessels are in dock together, and * * » the wh.arf is thronged with 
 wagons waiting to receive their loads, while the hands on the boats are straining every nerve to supply the incessant demands of 
 customers. The business of the day commences about six o'clock in the morning, and continues until four in the afternoon. 
 
 Of East river oysters alone about §500,000 worth is sold during the year in Oliver slip. The supply comes from Bridgeport, Norwalk, 
 Greenwich, Stamford, Darien, Sawpits, City island, and a few other places along the western shore; and from North port. Oyster bay, 
 Lloyd's harbor, Huntingdon, Cold Spring, and Cow bay on the southern side. The largest proportion come from City island, where there 
 are extensive artificial and natural beds, which furnish some of the best oysters obtained in the East river. 
 
 The reporter then mentions that of the 100 boats employed in carrying East river oysters to Oliver slip in 
 1S53, 25 belonged to City island, where 100 families were supported by this industry. "The whole amount of 
 property invested in the oyster-trade with this island," he states, " including the boars of the oystermen and of the 
 dealers, the value of the beds, etc., is estimated at $1,000,000. And this is not more than one-third of the whole 
 amount invested in the entire trade of the East river." 
 
 The same ^vl■iter mentioned that the annual sales of a single dealer in East river stock amounted in 1852 to 
 $100,000; and complained that the conveniences ottered by the city to the business at Oliver slip was very 
 inadecpiate, although a fee of $75 a year was paid as scow- wharfage. He enumerated nine scows there then, valued 
 at about $4,000, total. These scows were 30 by 12 feet in dimensions, and would hold from l,ti00 to 1,500 bushels 
 each. Out of these scows, ho says, is sold yearly about $500,000 worth of oysters, exclusive of the amount bought 
 from boats direct, which dealers estimate at $1,000,000. "This estimate is derived from a calculation of the 
 number of boats arriving during each year, and their capacity." 
 
 At Washington market, according to the same chronicle, there were at this time twelve scows, having a total 
 value of about $15,000. They had not even the scanty wharf accommodations vouchsafed at Oliver slip, but lay 
 exposed so that they were knocked about by every high wind with great force, and damage was done which now 
 
 * Here, again, I should say the estimate was large — two or three times too high, at least. — E. I. 
 
124 TPIE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and then amonnted to total wreck, and always caused bitter complaints against the city. The total sales in and 
 about Washington market were estimated at $3,000,000 annually, which, again, I must beg the reader to regard as 
 an overestimate. 
 
 "It is only within the last five or six years," says this writer, "that the dealers commenced shipping in the 
 shell, and at present a most extensive trade is carried on with Cincinnati, St. Louis, and several other western 
 cities. Before this they were sent in kegs hermetically sealed * * * as far as California * * *. Pickled 
 oysters are sent to every part of the United States by our dealers, and immense quantities are bought for shipment 
 by vessels." 
 
 The recapitulation with which these newspaper reports closed is annexed: 
 
 Number of boats of all sizes C50 to 250 tons) in tlie Virginia oyster-trade 1,000 
 
 In the East and North river trade 200 
 
 lu the Shrewsbury trade 20 
 
 In the Bine Point and sound trade 100 
 
 In the York bay trade ,. 200 
 
 Total 1,520 
 
 Sales of Virginia oysters, including those planted in Prince's bay $3,000,000 
 
 E.ast and North river oysters 1,500,000 
 
 Shrewsbury oysters 200,000 
 
 Blue Point and Sound oysters 200,000 
 
 York bay oysters 300,000 
 
 Total sales 5,200,000 
 
 Oyster panics in 1839 and 1855. — In 1839 a law was i)assed prohibiting the sale of oysters in New York 
 from May 1 to September 1. This law became a dead letter, but was about to be enftn-ced by Mayor Henry Wood 
 in 1855, when the oystermeu, alarmed, urged its modification, saying that when the law was framed little or no 
 transplanting was done; that transplanted oysters (from Virginia) did not spawn, and therefore were not harmful, 
 even if all milky oysters were to be regarded so, the correctness of which view sevei-al dealers denied with an 
 intelligence in advance of their hearers. The discussion waxed warm, and in the spring of 1856 the board of 
 health had hearings before them upon the matter, in which certain interesting facts came out. It was stated that 
 there were nearly 800 persons in New York (no doubt including the whole tributary neighborhood) who at that 
 time imported oysters from Virginia, employing 200 vessels — a number much nearer the truth than the "1,000 
 vessels" of the HerahVs story. All the summer oysters sold in the city were southern; all agreed they were 
 perfectly healthy. The counsel for the oystermen read a statement, in which he asserted that in Clinton market 
 alone oysters were sold as follows: 1853, $885,000; 1854, $911,000. "Add other markets, and the trade involved 
 a yearly capital of over $5,000,000 iu New York city." 
 
 DeVoe's Market Atmistant contains the ensuing account of the notorious " oyster riots ": 
 
 An uunsu.al excitement, or rather an " oyster panic ", occurred iu New York city in October, 1855, which prevailed against the use of 
 oysters as an article of food for several weeks. Several highly-esteemed citizens died very suddenly by cholera, which it was thought w.as 
 occasioned by eating diseased oysters. Various causes were assigned for their poisonous quality ; some attributed it to drought ; others, 
 that the oysters had been taken up during their spawning-time, and thus become diseased. The same comi>laint and fatal instances 
 existed .at Baltimore, Alexandria, Georgetown, and other places. 
 
 Dr. James R. Chilton, a noted chemist, after making a chemical examination of them, s.ays : " It is not .an unusual circumstance that 
 oysters and other shelllish, when e.ateu after having been kept long during the w.arm season, will jiroduce serious illness resembling 
 cholera; but no such ill-eft'ects would be likely to arise when they are received fresh from our waters.'' 
 
 Sever.al years ago oysters were seldom seen for sale in their general spawning-season ; it was not only against the law, as it is now 
 [1863], but the people would not buy or have them in their possession. An ordinance was passed in 1839 which reads as follows: "No 
 person shall bring into the city of New York, or have in his or her possession, in the said city, any oysters, between the first day of May 
 and the tirst day of September, in any year, under penalty of |5 for any quantity not exceeding one hundred, and the further penalty of $9 
 for every hundred. " 
 
 Fulton and Catherine markets in 1855. — This discussion brought out many si>ecial articles in the daily 
 press of the city, which are now of historical interest and large credibility. The Tribune of June 21, 1855, contained 
 the following, in respect to Catherine market : 
 
 Next to the meat-trade, a more extensive business is done in oysters and clams than in any other .article of food in the market. Tlie 
 stands, of which there arc five, are situ.ated .at the southerly side of the street, occupying the entire front of the ilsh-market. Each dealer 
 Bells on an average about ijdOO worth of all kinds every day, making a total of $3,000 a week. The fish are generally sold out of the shell, 
 and a large proportion are cooked. 
 
 The account concludes with a table crediting Catherine market with yearly sales of oysters and clams of 
 $150,000 out of a total meat, fish, and produce business of $521,000. Another account in the Herald says $140,000 
 worth of moUusks were sold there in one year, four-fifths of which are oysters. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 125 
 
 lu November, 1855, the Trihune "wrote up" Fulton market, and described eight stands devoted to the sale of 
 shellfish, the total annual sales of which aggregated $200,000, of which about one-sixth was for clams, etc. 
 
 "The trade in oysters," said this account, "is retail, and not more than one-tenth are sold in the shell. Some 
 shipments are made to Ijiveri)ool during the winter-season by the Cunard steamers ; but the quantity disposed of 
 m this way is very limited, not exceeding eight barrels a month. There is only one company which exports oysters, 
 and they sent more than $20,000 worth last year to California. The same company pickled in one week 15,000. 
 As the oysters are not sold in the shell, a large number of persons are employed in opening them. This is a business 
 by itself, and the persons engaged in it are paid at the rate of about 50 cents a thousanil. Some, who are well practiced 
 in the art, can open 3,000 in one day, but 2,500 is considered a good day's work. Nearly all the oysters sold in this 
 market are obtained at Oliver slip, near Catherine market, which is the principal rendezvous of the oyster-boats. 
 No adequate conception can, however, be formed of the extent of the oyster-trade in this city from the business 
 done in the markets, for immense quantities are bought from the boats without ever passing through the hands of 
 the dealers." 
 
 The number of retailers in the city, at this time, was placed ^t 5,000, all of whom would lose a large measure of 
 support if a prohibition of oyster-selling daring the summer months were enforced. There was one feature, however, 
 of the trade heartily condemned, but unfortunately not extirpated. I refer to the rufilaus who, in the most dirty 
 way, peddle oysters from an old wagon at one cent each. Their furniture consists of stentorian lungs, from which the 
 most ear-splitting cries disturb the peace of every street and the temper of all the denizens, a pail of nasty water, a 
 soda-water bottle of vinegar and another of a ferocious compound called pepper-sauce, and a box of salt, pepper, and 
 street-dust mixed. Buying and selling only the cheapest oysters in the dirtiest way, they offer many spoiled ones — 
 very likely to be productive of disease, and otherwise engender and minister to ill-health. 
 
 Oystek-booths. — Only a grade higher are the fixed street stands for opening oysters to eat, of which a 
 clever description appeared some years ago in the New York Evening Telegram, in the following language : 
 
 All along the [East] river front are places, rudo huts, paralytic shanties, where oysters are sold at a penny apiece. You can stand 
 on the outside and fish them up from the shells that are passed through the window to a ledge, or you can go in and have a 10-cent stew 
 behind the red-hot stove. A man with a check.-d jumper on attends you and juggles the porter bottles containing catsup in so artistic a 
 manner, that the thought of his being a base-ball player minus a position, will not bo "put out". The frequenters of these al fresco 
 oyster-houses are longshoremen, truckmen, stevedores, sailors, and others of that ilk, and a very large bowl of oyster soup, not stew, can 
 be obtained for 5 cents. 
 
 Markets in 1861.— It will be observed that in all these accounts the city markets are mentioned as the 
 wholesale depots for shellfish. It is only within the last twenty years that Broome street and West Tenth have 
 become the headquarters of oyster-dealings. When Lieutenant De Broca was here in 1801, he found that the " two 
 most important markets for the wholesale trade in these mollusks are Catherine market, on the East river, and 
 another at the foot of Spring street, on the Hudson river. As to the retail sales, they are made in all the markets 
 of the city indiscriminately, in the oyster-houses, and in markets intended especially for the sale of fish". Then 
 follows a description of the " floating-houses, constructed on rafts", which were the same then as now. Eleven 
 at Catherine market and twenty-three on the opposite side of the river are enumerated. He continues : 
 
 These floating-houses possess one great advantage, which is, that the oysters can bo preserved in them alive for several days during 
 the winter-season, however low the temperature may be; and also in summer during the greatest heat, since the part underwater is 
 always cool. The oysters, or clams, placed in baskets containing about a bushel, are stored in the cellar and attic of the oyster-boat. In 
 the room are placed i.uly specimens of the diU'erent qualities for sale, from which samples purchasers make their choice. Here, too, all 
 the pacliing which the necessities of the trade require is done. 
 
 Although there are always a great many oysters in these establishments, they never remain more than a few days, and arrangements 
 are made with the plantations for constant and regular supplies. The number of boats of all kinds employed by the merchants and the 
 planters of the bay, including those engaged in fishing for the oysters and clams, is estimated at 15,000. 
 
 Prices in the past. — Prices of oysters in New York in the past, at least for half a century, do not seem to 
 have greatly differed from those at present, save that then, as now, periods of excessive storm or other unfortunate 
 contingency would produce a momentary scarcity, which would cause a sudden and temporary increase in price. 
 Such a "famine" occurred in January, 1857. (Juotations from files of newspai)ers, courteously opened to me by 
 Thomas F. DeVoe, since 1850, show that for all sorts and grades of oysters in general sale the price at wholesale 
 ran from 35 cents (rarely so low) to $2 per hundred. The large majority of quotations gave "cuUens" at 35 to 40 
 cents; "boxes" at 62J cents to $1, and "extras" at $1 25 to $2. An inferior grade to all, sometimes sold as 
 "bushels", brought 50 cents. More recently (1870) the newspaper market reports give the following prices for 
 oysters lu Fulton and Washington markets in midwinter: 
 
 ■^ ° Per too. 
 
 Saddle-Rocks fsl 75 to $3 50 
 
 East Rivers 1 00 to 2 00 
 
 Blue Points 1 00 to 1 50 
 
 Prince's Bays 1 00 to 1 75 
 
 Virginias 1 00 to 1 75 
 
 These were all, however, gi-ades above the average quality sold. 
 
126 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Demand and stjpply, past and present. — The history of the great city's progress in availing itself of 
 this important article of food has thus been sketched. From heing the common food of the poor man, so plenteous 
 and vulgar that uo feast ever saw its name upon the metiu, the oyster became only a luxury for the well-to-do, 
 and the prime feature of holiday banquets. Recovering from the scarcity which had brought this change about, by 
 means of the artificial cnltivatiou of immense quantities, oysters a second time have become abundant as an article 
 of food, enjoyed alike by rich and poor. Those who live in the interior or abroad can hardly appreciate how 
 extensive is the demand and supply in the coast cities. "Oysters pickled, stewed, baked, roasted, fried, and 
 scalloped; oysters made into soups, patties, and puddings; oysters with condiments and without condiments; 
 oysters for breakfast, dinner, and supper; oysters without stint or limit, fresh as the pure air, and almost as 
 abundant, are daily offered to the palates of the Manhattanese, and appreciated with all the gratitude which such a 
 bounty of nature ought to inspire." 
 
 41. THE OYSTEE-TEADB OF NEW YOEK IN 1880. 
 
 Location of the oyster-business. — The oyster-business of the city of New York, as at present conducted, 
 is confined almost exclusively to two localities, the trades of which are to a certain extent distinct. One of these 
 centers is at the foot of Broome street. East river, and the other at the foot of West Tenth street. North river, 
 nearly opposite. The method of business at each is substantially the same, the difference consisting in the character 
 of the oysters handled. In addition to this, a few firms are engaged at wholesale in Fulton market, and three fii-ms 
 near Washington market import oysters, opened, from the south. This includes all of the original wholesale and 
 shipping business in the city— and the statistics of it, though represented by large figures, and though it took 
 much time to obtain them, are not complicated. 
 
 Scows and barges. — All of the dealers on the East and North rivers occupy floating places of business 
 known as "scows", "oyster-boats", or "barges", being flat-bottomed boats, made with unusual strength and of the 
 most durable materials, and which closely resemble the conventional "Noah's Ark" of the toyshops, and the Sunday 
 school picture-books, except that they have flat roofs. 
 
 The size of these scows varies, but fair dimensions are these : 
 
 Feet. Feet. 
 
 Length of hull 75 Height of first story or deck 11 
 
 Width 24 Height of attic 9 
 
 Depth of hold 6 
 
 The deep hold, well-floored, serves as a cellar, cool in summer and warm in winter; oysters will never freeze 
 there when the hatches are closed. Over the whole craft, flush with the outside, is built a house, two stories in 
 height, as I have indicated. The floor of the first story is the deck of the scow. This is the general business 
 apartment, and gives room for storage, the opening of oysters, and transaction of business. Above is a loft M'here 
 are stored barrels, baskets, and machinery. In the rear, usually — sometimes in the front end — is fitted up an 
 office. The daily capacity of such a barge is about 700 bushels. 
 
 These scows are securely moored, side by side, to the wharf, or rather to the water-wall of the city, and are 
 reached by broad swinging platforms, which allow them to rise and fall with the tide. At the rear end, therefore, 
 they can always be closely approached by the sloops and boats which bring to their owners their stock. Such a 
 barge is worth from $1,500 to $1,000, and, with an annual overhauling and caulking, will last as long as a man is 
 likely to need it. There are 30 of these barges, rei)resenting at present, a value of $75,000. To these barges 
 at the foot of Broome street come the oysters from East river and Long Island beds ; also somewhat from Staten 
 Island and Virginia, but to a small extent compared with the west-side business in these two classes. 
 
 Character op the trade. Three sorts of trade are carried on, as follows: 1. Some dealers are also planters 
 and sell their own oysters; 2. Dealers buy from planters and sell; 3. Dealers sell on commission. 
 
 The planting of oysters by the New York dealers is almost wholly by partnership methods, and the statistics of 
 the amounts they raise are credited to the totals at the point where the oysters are produced. New Y'^ork furnishes 
 a large part of the ca])ital which operates the beds in all parts of the neighborhood, from Keyport, New .Jersey, to 
 Norwalk, Connecticut. It is very rare, however, that this planting is done in the capitalist's name, and it would be 
 idle, and the cause of the greatest confusion, to try to ascertain to just what extent the score of oystermen in New 
 Y'ork produced native oysters, apart from the share which country capital had in it. The arrangement between 
 the New York man of money and his rural partner is usually this : The former furnishes the needed money, the 
 latter does all the labor, and the cost of taking up and the i)rofits are equally divided. The reason why the 
 capitalist's name does not appear, which would redound to his credit as an extensive operator, is, that the beds 
 are usually in Connecticut or in New Jersey, while he is a citizen of New York, and in both those states the 
 law forbids a non-inhabitant to i^lant oysters. The same law holds even in respect to towns, so that a man must 
 live immediately at his beds if he intends to work them himself. But, of course, no legislation can forbid partuershiii 
 or borrowing money, or hiring out one's services, even if the other party concerned be not a citizen of the state or 
 township. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 127 
 
 Under this system the country partner reports to the census what amount he raised and sold, saying nothing 
 about where liis means came from — which is something the inquirer did not care to know. It only remains to ask 
 the city man the number of oysters that pass through his hands, without (piestion as to what part of tliese were 
 raised out of his money — a question it would be almost, or quite, impossible for him to answer. ^N'or could he 
 tell what these cost him, since a part of the investment which has been made long ago, is known to have been lost, 
 a part remains ungathered on the beds — always an incalculable quantity, for accident may destroy all of it — 
 and the harvest comes in by piece-meal. He cannot teU what these oysters have been worth precisely. He only 
 knows, in a general way, whether his ventures in a certain place have been profitable or not. 
 
 A large proportion of the oysters handled by these New York fii-ms, however, are bought from planters who 
 own beds on the Connecticut or Long Island shore, in Prince's bay, Staten Island sound, or elsewhere. The owner 
 may load up his slooi) and bring his crop to the city to dispose of to him who will pay best; or the dealer may 
 send out his own sloops to the jjroducing-grouuds, and with his business-card painted all over the mainsail, cruise 
 about until he has bought a cargo at a satisfactory price. The more usual method, however, is to have it 
 understood beforehand that certain dealers will take all the oysters certain planters can raise. Often money is 
 advanced upon this understanding, or other help given, so that there is a closer business-relation than ordinary 
 between the buyers and the planters — an intimacy (and confusion in the matter of statistics) to which the 
 extensive partnership system lends itself. 
 
 The third method — of sales on commission — explains itself. It is not extensively followed, since the planters 
 do not have faith in it, and the dealei's do not care to encourage it. 
 
 Some dealers are shipi)ers wholly, others find their whole custom in the city and suburbs. The former require 
 less men and dispose of larger packages at each order ; the latter require many trucks and delivery carts, though 
 most of their customers themselves come after their supplies. I believe the shipping trade is generally thought 
 more desirable. 
 
 Extent of New York oystek-teade in 1880. — The procuring of statistics of the amount of oysters handled 
 in New York city was a matter of slow and painstaking inquiry. It was difiicult, to begin with, to make the dealers 
 understand the full purport of my inquiries, even when, as too frequently occurred on the east side, there was no surly 
 indifference or active opposition to my investigations. Few of the oyster-dealers keep track of their sales, nuich 
 less of the amount, in bushels or by the thousand, of the stock which passes through their hands into the city retail- 
 trade, or out into the country. I desired to keep the northern distinct from the southern oysters, and here began 
 another difficulty, and so on. It is with an apologetic feeling, therefore, that I venture upon the publication of these 
 totals, which are founded only upon careful estimates of the annual transactions at the present time of each firm. 
 Eound numbers had to be used everywhere, and the whole matter is an approximation. I believe, nevertheless, 
 although it falls far short of all previous estimates, that it is more nearly correct than any account of the 
 wholesale-trade ever ventured upon heretofore, since it is supported by inherent probability, and by comparison 
 with other statistics; for example, the rei)orted total of the oysters produced at the beds which find their market at 
 New York. 
 
 The quantities of oysters handled each year in the city of New York, then, are approximately stated in the 
 following figures: 
 
 Southern, in shell 1,065,000 bushels. 
 
 Northern (natives), in shell 1,634,000 bushels. 
 
 Opened, from (he south 600, 000 gallons. 
 
 By count, in shell, at 250 to the bushel 765,000,000 
 
 The selling value of these oysters may be estimated as — 
 
 Of southern $800,000 
 
 Of northern 1,500,000 
 
 Of opened 458,700 
 
 Total 2,758,700 
 
 Scenes at the barges. — The scene at the barges on both rivers, during the busy months of autumn and 
 winter, is a very lively one. The slooi)s, veiy trim craft, bringing oysters to be sold, will sometimes lie a dozen deep 
 opposite the barges, with plank walks across their decks from the outer ones to the shore. The captain and crew 
 attend to the getting up of the cargo out of the hold and putting it into baskets, sorting it at the same time. In 
 the case of East river and Staten Island ousters, they are sold by the hundred or the thousand, as a rule, and must 
 all be counted. An expert uuxn will count them accurately as fast as they can be carried ashore. Long Island 
 stock is generally sold by the "basket", this measure holding somewhat less than a bushel; but some dealers 
 compel the sloops to measure by baskets furnished them, which hold a full bushel, or a triHe over. Even then no 
 great measure is given, for care is taken not to shake the contents down. Virginia oysters may be measured by 
 the basket, but are paid foi^ by the cargo or fraction of a cargo, except where, as in the case of Staten Island 
 planters, southern oysters, having laid a few months in Prince's bay or the sound, are brought to the city to be sold. 
 
128 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 A newspaper account, written ten years ago, depicted the scene graphically, and it is still unchanged: 
 
 When the wind changes, the fleet comes up the bay, and then there is a busy scene in the neighborhood off pier No. 54. The dork 
 and its approaches are covered with cartmen, wagons and horses, stevedores, and oyster-dealers. The vessels are fastened to the wharf 
 by means of strong hawsers, and the hatches are off fore and aft. In the hold are men filling baskets rapidly, and others stand on the 
 deck, rail, and pier-string, ready to pass them to the cart being loaded. All is rush, bustle, and trade, llavored with copious dashes of 
 profanity. In front of the scow-warehouses are men coniinnally employed on these days, filling barrels with oysters and heading them 
 up. Inside of the scows dozens of men are opening, while others can them ready for transmission by rail to Canada, country hotels, and 
 restaurants. But the city trade creates the hurry visible on every side. All day long, until the cargoes, which are always bespoken, are 
 lauded, the work goes ou, and when they are discharged the vessels are sent away immediately for more. 
 
 Policy of the dealers in buying. — One dealer discoursed to me knowingly upon the best policy of buying, 
 accoi'diug to his long experience in the East river, as follows : 
 
 I sell only superior stock, which will average, all through, from Ifl to |1 50 a basket. There are three sizes, "extras, " "box," and 
 " cullen". Cullens sell for four to five dollars a thousand. Six months' more growth makes boxes of them, numbering about 150 to the 
 basket, when they sell for seven or eight dollars. After that the growth is so slow that it requires eighteen months longer to make extras 
 out of them, but they are then worth fifteen to twenty dollars a thousand ; the extras used to bring fifty dollars a thousand. This long 
 waiting makes it more profitable to sell the two smaller grades, the most profit being in the best quality of box-oysters. All of the 
 foregoing refers to E.ast river "plants". In Rockaway oysters the dealer can make the most by selling them small, because the growth is 
 rapid. Seed need lie there only from four to six months, whereas the same seed would have to lie on an East river bed from two to three 
 years to attain the same size. Hence in Rockaway stock the dealer turns his money quickly. The prospects of business are good, because 
 a scarcity of oysters is coming, which will raise the price. 
 
 Another dealer, who sells only oysters of his own raising, writes: 
 
 In planting natural seed-oysters (i. e., natives') in northern waters, it is necessary that they lie at least three years to attain growth 
 sutficient to have them run, by count, one-third " box" aud two-thirds " culls". We plant each spring and fall, and therefore make at 
 least eight plantings before the first crop of that series is taken up. 
 
 Oyster-carriers. — The carrying of oysters from the vessels into the barges affords employment to a distinct 
 class of men, known as " carriers". There are from 25 to 40 of these on each river. They do not work on salary, 
 but get 10 cents a thousand for the oysters carried, reckoning seven small and four large baskets to the thousand. 
 This seems very small wages, but I was assured that they averaged from $25 to $30 a week during half the year. 
 They are paid by the owners of the oysters sold. 
 
 Opening oysters. — The opening of oysters by the trade in New York city is not systematically carried on, as at 
 Providence, Fair Haven, and in the south, and scarcely any is done until after the holidays, all the trade previous to 
 that being in the shell. I doubt if more than 100 or 1.50 men are ever employed at once in the whole city in opening 
 for the wholesale-trade. All the openers are men chiefly drawn from the ranks of longshoremen, and those wbo in 
 summer get their living as deck-hands on steamboats and by other marine occupations. The rate of pay is 10 cents 
 a thousand, at which rate about $3 a day is regularly made when work is plentiful, and even as high as $0 50 has 
 been earned on a spurt. The openers are ignorant men, and, witii the carriers, form a much "harder" class than 
 those who are regularly employed to help aliout the barges, form the crews of the .sloops, or do the work required 
 at the planting beds. The oysters opened are mainly "Virginias", but also some "natives" — mainly from Staten 
 Island beds. These are kept separate, at least by the most reputable dealers, and are of various qualities and many 
 inices, ranging last year from 05 cents to $1 40 per gallon. 
 
 Pickling and packing. — Beyond the i^ickling of an inconsiderable quantity by various dealers, and nowhere 
 in a large way, I could not learn of any " packing" of cooked oysters in Ifew Yoi'k. It has been tried more than 
 once, I believe, but the competition of Baltimore and Norfolk, where the facilities of doing it cheaply are greater, 
 stands against success in New York. This competition is exercised, also, in the way of offering in this market 
 oysters which have been opened at Baltimore, Norfolk, Crisfield, or elsewhere in the Chesapeake district. This 
 trade, and its influence upon the general business of the north, has been fully discussed in the chapter upon Boston, 
 and need not be rediscussed here. 
 
 Eeceipts of opened oysters. — There are two principal firms in New York devoted to the importing of opened 
 oysters, and their combined receipts amounted to perhajjs 500,000 gallons during the winter of 1879-'80. A large 
 portion of this amount, however, was consigned through to points in New England, chiefly to the city of Boston. My 
 memoranda from tliese dealers give an estimate of 335,000 gallons as the consumption of the city and its suburbs, 
 much of which was re-exported by express to the interior towns of New York and western New England. The prices 
 of tliese oysters were as follows in the spring of 1880: Standard, 55 to G5 cents; medium, SO to 00 cents; select, $1 25. 
 The ])ro|)ortion in which they were sold was, live gallons of the "standards" to ten of "mediums", and ten of 
 "standards" to one of "selects". Perhaps, then, an average price of 80 cents would produce a fair result, in dollars, 
 in estimating the value of the receipts, which would thus amount to about $208,000. This trade is increasing, and 
 gives better satisfaction in general in New York than in Boston, both because the stock itself seems generally of 
 better quality, and because the shorter distance and superior accommodations in transit bring the oysters here in 
 better condition. The reshipments tire very widely scattered through the country, especially northward. Occa- 
 sionally, however, orders come from the distant west. In February of 1879, for example, G. E. Maltby & Co. filled 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 
 
 129 
 
 an order from Prescott, Arizona, which deserves notice. A man desired some of their choice bivalves for the 
 entertainment of his friends. When they got the order, and learned how much the expressage would cost, they 
 hesitated. In answer to their telegram of inquiry, they were told to send them along. There were twelve gallons 
 sent. It took them fourteen days to reach their destination. The expressage came to $96 25. The telegrams cost 
 some $30. The oysters reached their destination without delay, and in excellent condition. Opened oysters have 
 also been sent to Great Britain, and gave good satisfaction there. Long transportation, without harm, has been 
 made possible by various improved and jjatented contrivances for refrigeration, in the shape of barrels, cans, and 
 smaller packages. 
 
 The eetail oyster-teade. — An attempt to ascertain some of the statistics of the retail-trade in oysters — the 
 eating-saloon business — proved vei-y unsatisfactory. I got the names of about 250 oyster-houses, and dispatched to 
 each a circular asking the kinds and amount of oysters, clams, and scallops used, number of persons employed, 
 wages paid, and capital invested. Of these 250 circulars, only about one-tenth came back, and these, I believe, did 
 not represent an aA^erage of the whole, since few or none of the establishments of large size reported themselves, 
 and in many cases the questions seem to have been misunderstood. 
 
 In general, it may be said that in the cooking of oysters the southern kinds are used, because these are cheapest, 
 a sjiecial price being charged for a " stew" of northern oysters. For fried oysters, on the other hand, which require 
 to be of larger size to make a show, the " box " size is used, and these are generally " Sound" or " East Ei ver " oysters. 
 Oysters sold to be eaten raw may be anything and everything of respectable size; but the old brand names, 
 "Saddle-Hock," "Shrewsbury," "Sound" "Blue Point," "Keyport," etc., the popularity of which was won long ago, 
 are still attached. I supQpse, for example, that twenty times as many "Shrewsbury" oysters are sold every season 
 in New York as are raised each year in that river. 
 
 The largest oyster-saloons have always been in Fulton market, and have a world-wide reiiutation. Now they 
 are so well rivaled by up-town establishments, that much of their prestige has disappeared. 
 
 As to how many persons are concerned in the retail oyster-business of the city, only a mere guess is possible, 
 since a very large proportion of them are temporarily engaged, or have their business so inextricably mixed with 
 the liquor-trade, or the business of selling fish and general provisions, that it is out of the question to define it 
 separately with any exactness. Twenty-five years ago, when the "oyster-riots" attracted attention to the matter, 
 the number of persons supported by the restaurant-trade in oysters was estimated at 5,000. Whether it is not 
 double that at this time it is impossible to say ; but I consider it safe to say that 5,000 families, at least, find their 
 chief or exclusive support in selling or prepai-ing the mollusks for immediate consumption in the metropolis and 
 its closely adjacent cities. 
 
 The wages vary immensely, depending on employer, sex, age and capacity of the emi^loyed, amount of working- 
 time, kind of work, etc. Women receive from three to six dollars per week; boys and men from four to twenty 
 dollars. A correct average is abiiost impossible, and a total approximate summation of the wages paid out in the 
 course of a year in the retail-trade is imiiossible. Of course this information might be accumulated, but the time 
 allowed by the Superintendent of Census for this investigation, did not admit of such study of the retail-trade 
 as would have been necessary in order to estimate its total values. 
 
 The OYSTEii-FLEET OF 1879. — The following is a list of vessels engaged in the oyster-business in 1879, and 
 hailing from the custom-bouse of New York : 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Arrow 7. "^5 
 
 AnsleyBcacll 7.13 
 
 Ally 7.33 
 
 Adelaide 11.29 
 
 Alice 5. 74 
 
 Alarm fi. 74 
 
 AIouzo E. Smith 16.98 
 
 Amity 7. 47 
 
 Alert 15. 87 
 
 Am. L. Barnes 15. 20 
 
 Amico 7. .50 
 
 Army 9.12 
 
 Antoinette 5. 11 
 
 Barnet Jones 18.00 
 
 Blanche 18.95 
 
 Belle 7.90 
 
 Banner 10. 54 
 
 Bine Koclc 10.00 
 
 Cornelins Cole 10.79 
 
 Crystal Fountain » 8. 1 
 
 B. B. Alt,'or 19.41 
 
 Charles Wall 8.79 
 
 9 O 
 
 UNDER TWENTY TONS. 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Cnpid 14.87 
 
 Continental 7. G8 
 
 Catharine W. Burbank 16.82 
 
 Celia Ward G. 37 
 
 Carrie 7. .58 
 
 CyrnsF. Pell 15.87 
 
 Daniel E. Egbert 17.96 
 
 David Crowell 12.43 
 
 D. Bennett 12. 42 
 
 D. Joline 13.18 
 
 Delpliinia 11.66 
 
 Dolphin 6.28 
 
 Elizabeth J. Wright 19. 19 
 
 Express 7. 32 
 
 Ella Fleecer 13.23 
 
 E. C. Page 8.07 
 
 Emmogene 11.86 
 
 Ella Wesley 12.41 
 
 E. R. v. Wright 10.04 
 
 Edith Thnrber 9.09 
 
 Emma 7. 58 
 
 Emily Rohbiu 15.54 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Edgar Barnard 16. 42 
 
 Etta 10.69 
 
 Elizabeth Rowe 7. 13 
 
 Euphenuia 18.39 
 
 Emma 5. 49 
 
 Eliza Snedker 5.90 
 
 ElizaRhodes 13.35 
 
 Edna 7.09 
 
 Eliza and Jane 9.03 
 
 First 19.89 
 
 Fannie Scofield 7.07 
 
 Fawn 10.13 
 
 Flaunt .5.39 
 
 Fear Not 5.57 
 
 Flag .' 7.92 
 
 Frank Hopkins 8.73 
 
 Favorite 8.89 
 
 Flying Cloud 9.48 
 
 Fannie Fern ,5.79 
 
 Georgiana 19. 07 
 
 George B. Wood 7.28 
 
 Georgiana 5.11 
 
130 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Knme. Tons. 
 
 General Taylor 9. S4 
 
 General Putman 11. CO 
 
 Golden Rule 6.40 
 
 George D. Allen 1.5.81 
 
 George F. Roger.s 11. 92 
 
 George P. Putman 8. 37 
 
 Howard Harrison 11. 48 
 
 Helena 11.90 
 
 Henry Miller 9.ii-2 
 
 Harmon Sierses 12. 90 
 
 Harp i:i.l5 
 
 Hickory Bud 9.81 
 
 Hope 7. 93 
 
 Harriet Elizabeth 11. OS 
 
 Henry Clay 10.02 
 
 HattieJenlcs 10.68 
 
 Izaak Walton 11.85 
 
 Isora 7.36 
 
 Idlewild 15.45 
 
 Imogene 14. 39 
 
 Imperia 19.25 
 
 James H. Larkin 10. 24 
 
 James Campbell 8.20 
 
 Jolin P. Evans 12.63 
 
 Jacob A. Apply 5. 70 
 
 John Florence 7. 79 
 
 John Manning 13. 42 
 
 Janie Baker 6. 04 
 
 Josephine 10.07 
 
 James K. Polk 6.43 
 
 J.Wood 13.70 
 
 Jo.scph Francis 15. 04 
 
 James Henry 5. 22 
 
 Jennie C. Benedict 10. 05 
 
 John Wright 13.04 
 
 John T. Capmau 10.21 
 
 Jennie 8.75 
 
 Jane and Elizabeth 11.89 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Joshua Lerines 80. 97 
 
 Cornelius C. Jones 20.36 
 
 Elizabeth Ann 22. i6 
 
 Agnes 49.86 
 
 Harriet Dart 21.13 
 
 Mamie Higgins 77.49 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Jennie McFarland 9.10 
 
 John J. Moffott 6.20 
 
 Kattie 16.85 
 
 Katie Wood 12.95 
 
 Kate Wade 10.15 
 
 Katie W.08 
 
 Katy Did 10.00 
 
 Leader 13.22 
 
 Lottie Elwood 14.84 
 
 Lanra Frances 7. 46 
 
 Louisa - 7.36 
 
 Lillie 9.11 
 
 Lewis Weakes 7.14 
 
 Leona 9.04 
 
 L.J. Daytou 12.07 
 
 Little Kate 6.22 
 
 Lydia Vau Name 12. 37 
 
 Lizzie Pearl 6. 21 
 
 Moonlight 11.80 
 
 Minor 8. 35 
 
 Millard F. Housmau 11.94 
 
 Marietta 11.04 
 
 Minnie Vau Name 16. 08 
 
 Mary Elizabeth 13. 99 
 
 M.iy Flower 7.35 
 
 Minnie and Irwin 14. 13 
 
 Music 7.42 
 
 Mermetora 9.48 
 
 May Elizabeth 5.45 
 
 Nellie Frank 8.66 
 
 Nellie C. Powell 19.01 
 
 Only Daughter 5.90 
 
 Paragon 16. 18 
 
 Paciiic 19.11 
 
 Pride of the Wave 10.05 
 
 Peruvian 18. 96 
 
 Peerless 5.79 
 
 VESSELS OVER TWENTY TONS. 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Harriet M. Laskey 22. 14 
 
 Elizabeth Jones 22.44 
 
 Christiana 39.94 
 
 Josie Reeves 45. 35 
 
 Sylvan Glen 21.65 
 
 Vau Rensselear 22. 41 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Plymouth Rock 11.37 
 
 Robert H. Coles 10.33 
 
 Syble 7.64 
 
 Semi)ronia 16.74 
 
 .Sarah M. Rogers 6. 03 
 
 Samuel P. Billar 16.59 
 
 Sarah E. Miller 8.95 
 
 Stella 19.22 
 
 Sidney Dorlon 8.32 
 
 Teazer 14.20 
 
 Three Brothers 6.23 
 
 Tillie..- 7.22 
 
 Thomas Collins 13 50 
 
 Thomas C. Barnes 9.13 
 
 TwoElises 6.47 
 
 Trimmer 9.78 
 
 Two Brothers 6. 35 
 
 Uneas 10.27 
 
 Undine 10.01 
 
 Vesta 6.92 
 
 Victoriue 11. 37 
 
 Viola May 13.52 
 
 Wm. H. Ho^t 10..52 
 
 Willie 16.60 
 
 Willow Bark 11.30 
 
 AValter S. Lamance 16. 23 
 
 Wm. H. Sh.imott 5.45 
 
 Wm. H. Lissenden 7.16 
 
 W. M. Negns 11.68 
 
 Wm. Hillnian 15.05 
 
 Wm. H. Merseau^ 11.16 
 
 Wm. H. Phillips 10. 04 
 
 Wm. Chard 9.91 
 
 Willard 10.85 
 
 Water Lilly 16.25 
 
 Wave 1.5.17 
 
 WeU Spriug 11.12 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Captain 22.80 
 
 LastOne 20.07 
 
 GustavusA. Ratz 22.41 
 
 Sophia Van Name 20.62 
 
 Caroline Augusta 21.92 
 
 These vessels are classified as coasters, but took out a special fisliing- license, in order to avoid hospital dues 
 and some other inconveniences. The customs-authorities have now decided that oysteriug is not fishing within the 
 meaning of the law, and vessels engaged in this trade no longer take out a license. Each license was good for one 
 year, and cost 45 cents, thus yielding to the Kew York custom last year $82 SO. Even if chartered for a single 
 voyage a license was required. It is e\adent to me, however, that either the list is defective or vessels went without 
 licenses, since I have a note of many additional schooners which ran to Virginia, among them the following: 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 H. W. Race 80.40 
 
 Jacob I. Housmau 89.26 
 
 Robert Center 68.41 
 
 Minnie Still 58.13 
 
 Mary Parker 34.32 
 
 Amelia 71.41 
 
 Sophia Behrmaun 49. 43 
 
 Also the steam-propeller Minnie and Irvin. 
 
 The jurisdiction of New York extends southward to Port Johnson, New Jersey; eastward to Patchogue, on the 
 south shore of Long Island, and to Sag Harbor on the north side ; and northward to Troy and Albany. In this large 
 area a very much larger number of sloops than 177 are used in oyster-operations, but only so many are permitted 
 or accustomed to bring cargoes of oysters to market. 
 
 The European expoet-trade. — For many years tlie captains and passengers of steamers sailing from New 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Excel 40.52 
 
 Harry Doremns 48. 23 
 
 Wm.H. Vau Name 97.04 
 
 David Carll 124.95 
 
 Wm. Mazyick 7.5.62 
 
 Wm. McGee 85.99 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Wm. Young 67. 81 
 
 R. Mason 50.98 
 
 Baruett Jones 92.91 
 
 Mary Emma 74.39 
 
 S.E.Barnes 44.12 
 
 Sidney Dorlon 36.03 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 131 
 
 York to Liverpool have been accustomed to take with them a barrel or two of oysters in the shell, to be eaten on the 
 voyage. Passeusers did the same, and occasionally an American living in England would have them sent over to him 
 as a treat. In 18(51, Lieutenant De Broca succeeded in shipping safely a large consignment, by way of England, to 
 the French Acclimatization Society iiT Paris. With these facts as a guiding suggestion, about ten years ago Mr. 
 George H. Shaffer, of Fulton market, New York, requested an intelligent friend of his, who was going to England 
 upon business, to try to introduce American oysters into the English market, and sent over a dozen barrels as an 
 experiment. They retained their freshness, were landed in good condition, and speedily sold. The agent telegraphed 
 Mr. Shafl'er to forward a larger consignment, which also was sold advantageously, and a regular trade was 
 established. Mr. Shafl'er, however, enjoyed a monopoly of it, and the large proiits, which at first accrued, only a 
 short time, for his competitors were wide awake, and also began shipping to Europe, so that almost at a bound the 
 exportation of oysters reached its full strength as a profitable business — that is, about as many were sent as there 
 are now — all the foreign markets will bear. 
 
 The kind of oyster required for export is such as has not found favor in this country, where the " SaddleKock" 
 and " Shrewsbury " are lauded above all others. The native European bivalve is small, rarely exceeding the size of 
 a silver dollar, and is more popular than the American oyster. The English, with whom most of our trade is 
 conducted, do not consider anything larger good to eat, and therefore we were obliged to accommodate this taste 
 or prejudice, if we wanted to find ready sale. The oystei-s sent abroad, therefore, are all single (since they are to 
 be eaten on the haU" shell, and not cooUed), small, and round ; they are selected from the " cuUens" or smallest of the 
 three classes into which our oysters are usually assorted, and have received the trade appellation of " Loudon 
 stock ". 
 
 It is a much more fortunate thing for us that the foreign taste is for small oysters than for large ones, since, 
 hitherto, there has been a slow market and cheap price for cullens, which now find a ready sale, if clean and of 
 good shape. It enables a man to turn his money quickly by selling his stock before it has lain more than a year 
 in the water, and also to avoid the ever-present hazard of total loss by some storm or other of the many accidents 
 to \\ hieh oyster-beds are always subject. On the other hand, I have heard many persons complain, with some justice, 
 that the export business had been decidedly harmful to the general interests of the oyster-trade, because it took 
 away from the beds great quantities of young, which had not yet had time to spawn, as they would do if allowed 
 to remain enough longer to make them of sufficient size for the home trade. This was cutting off not only the 
 present, but the future of the oyster-beds which supplied London stock ; and, as the harm to one bed was indirectly 
 harm to all its neighbors, the general good of the planters was imperiled. 
 
 While this argument, which may be condensed into the ancient simile of killing the goose that lays the golden 
 egg, is pcrliaps good for limited areas drawn upon with extraordinary persistence for the foreign market (Blue Point, 
 for example), I do not consider that in general it overbalances the greater benefits derived. Nor do I apprehend, alter 
 a careful examination of the matter, that the European demand— even though doubled— is likely to overtax and 
 ruin any American oyster-beds which are properly watched and scientifically operated. 
 
 Because the oysters, native and cultivated, which are grown at the eastern end of the Great South bay, on 
 the south shore of Long Island, best fulfilled the conditions, they were the first to be exported to England, and 
 have most largely, perhaps, entered into the trade. They are known both at home and abroad as "Blue 
 Points", and acquired a reputation in England superior to all others, up to the season of 1879, when there was a 
 falling ofl' in their quality and a consequent loss of esteem. 
 
 Besides the "Blue Points", great quantities of oysters from the East river (particularly Eowayton, Norwalk, and 
 Bridgeport), have been shipped, chiefly through J. & J. Ellsworth; a less number from Eockaway and Fire island; 
 and large quantities from Staten Island waters, under the brand of "Sounds". These last became the favorites 
 abroad during the past season, the " East Rivers" coming second, and the unfortunate "Blue Points" third; and, 
 inasmuch as they cost less than either of the other brands, money was made upon them liberally, while no one 
 who forwarded "Blue Points" received much if any profit, and many shippers lost money. 
 
 The London stock having been picked out by the planter, is purchased by the shipper on the ground, where 
 he sends his boats to buy daily, or keeps a ])ermanent agent and packer. He culls it a second time, discarding 
 about one-fourth, so that it is estimated that four bushels of oysters are caught for every barrel exported, since 
 the barrels (second-hand flour barrels) hold scantily three bushels. The useless residue is not wasted, but thrown 
 back upon the packer's own bed to grow farther. The number of oysters in a barrel varies from twelve hundred 
 to two thousand; the more there are the better the English retail-buyer likes it, since he sells them by count. 
 This has had the effect of a steady reduction in the size of the oysters sent, until now much smaller stock is sent 
 than at first, and more ground is given the grumblers than ever lor their complaints against this line of business; 
 but the limit has probably been reached in this direction. 
 
 In packing the oysters they are placed as snugly in the barrel as possible, and well shaken down. Attention 
 is paid, also, to placing the oyster with the deep shell down, so that the liquor shall not so readily escape. Some 
 kind-hearted persons were greatly distressed, a few years ago, at the supposed suffering which the mollusks 
 
132 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 underwent in their close quarters and long seclusion from the world while on the passage ; they loudly demanded that 
 holes should be left in each barrel and the contents deluged with fresh water daily, and that a plentiftil supply of 
 bran should be mixed with them to serve as food during the trip ! This was an astonishing example of Berghisra 
 run wild, and did more credit to the hearts than the heads of the ijhilanthropists, who were so concerned in the 
 welfare of their bi valvular brethren. 
 
 The length of a voyage to Europe in cold weather is no feat worth mentioning to a well-constituted oyster. 
 In Prince Edward island I found it to be the common practice for citizens to purchase fifteen or twenty bushels 
 of oysters, pile them in their cellars between layers of sea weed, and use them gradually all winter, finding the last 
 ones alive and well in the spi-ing. This used to be the universal custom iu New York before restaurants c'lme in 
 fashion. Southern oysters en route from Chesapeake bay to Boston and Portland are frequently a month out of 
 water, yet do not suffer, and grow well enough when returned to the water, though it is so different a latitude. 
 Stock is frequently kept several weeks iu the holds of the "arks" in New York, or iu the cellars of wholesale 
 depots, waiting for profitable sale. One gentleman assured me that he kept a quantity of " Blue Points" 107 days in 
 his cellar, losing but a few of them, and these are not generally considered so hardy as some other sorts — those 
 from the East river, for instance. The hardiness of the " Sounds" is well shown in the article upon the oyster-beds 
 of New York bay, in relating the old custom of peddling them up the Uudson river in the fall. 
 
 Packed so as to prevent injurious jarring, and stowed in the extreme forward part of the vessel, where they 
 keep cool — the score or so of barrels of oysters smashed when the Arizona collided with an iceberg, found it really 
 chilly! — the mollusks therefore find it a pleasant experience rather than a cruel hardship to cross the Atlantic. 
 No time is lost in getting the oysters, when packed, into the steamer, and many are taken iu sloops directly from 
 the producing points to the steamer's wharf, and thus escape the bother and expense of a second or third handling 
 in New York. 
 
 Some American firms have regular agents abroad who care for and dispose of the oysters sent to them. In 
 other cases they are consigned by the shijjpers to commission merchants on the other side. Liverpool has been the 
 great receiving point for Great Britain, because it was the nearest port. It was found that the extra time required, 
 and the port charges on cargoes sent direct to London by steamer, more than overbalanced the slight saving 
 effected in freight over those forwarded by rail from Liverpool. The amount of oysters sent each week, though 
 not large, has sometimes been more than could be disjiosed of before the next shijiment arrived. To provide 
 against loss in this contingency, the largest dealers own spaces of sea-bottom, where the surplusage is thrown 
 overboard to keep in good condition and drawn upon as required. Some thousands of barrels are sent annually, 
 which are intended to lie and grow there from one to three years. American oysters laid down thus in foreign 
 waters have never been known to spawn, so far as I could learn, but the conditious have never been favorable ; 
 and no experiment, that I am aware of, has been tried, to ascertain whether seed-oysters from the United States, 
 properly planted, would not grow into good health, emit spawn, and establish their race upon the Euro])ean coasts. 
 I see no reason why such an experiment should not prove entirely successful. It is said that the English beds <are 
 becoming so depopulated as practically to have become worthless. The eighth edition of the Encyclopccdia 
 Britannica, speaking briefly of oysters (vol. xv, p. .348), under "Mollusca", says that only about 30,000 bushels of 
 "natives", or oysters from artificial beds, and about 100,000 bushels of "sea-oysters", are annually sent to the 
 London market. This seems extremely small, but the English people have not yet learned to regard the bivalves 
 as anything more than a luxury, and heretofore they have always been beyond the purses of any but the wealthy. 
 The demand, however, is increasing through the cheapening of this excellent food, and the acquired habit of eating 
 and enjoying it. Nevertheless, it is easy to overstock the European market, and no little harm has hapi^ened to 
 consignments, with dead loss to the owners, through being delayed too long before being sold, in consequence of an 
 oversupply. This happened more frequently some years ago than it now does. 
 
 One large shipper gave it to me as his belief, that London could not use more than 500 barrels a week, at the 
 present time, nor the whole United Kingdom consume more than 3,000 barrels. Occasionally this year the market 
 has been so crowded that sales at 5 shillings a barrel have been niade, to avoid total loss. On the other hand, it is 
 not always easy to obtain supplies in New York for the European trade, in midwinter, with necessary promptness, 
 in which event those planters who are able to run into New Y'^ork good stock realize large profits, and the agents 
 in Europe niake handsome returns to their principals. The winter of 1879-80 was so mild and "open" a one that 
 this difficulty was not experienced, but previously it has been an important element in the trade. 
 
 The prices received for American oysters sent abroad have been very various, ranging the past year from 5 to 
 40 shillings a barrel. Leaving out the various deductions necessary, it is considered fair to estimate $5 to be the 
 average cash returned to this country for each barrel. At this rate the stated total of 63,300 barrels (about 175,000 
 bushels) would net the United States no less than $316,500 in gold, an amount which would by no other means be 
 brought into our pockets, and which enriches the country by so much, since the value exchanged for it does not, 
 in any degree, impoverish the country, but is a product ot labor which would not otherwise be employed, and the 
 disposal of a product not otherwise to be used. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 
 
 133 
 
 Comparing this Tvitb the exportations in previous years, it will be seen that there is no loss, but a rapid gain. 
 A statement of the value of oysters exported from the United States from 18G4 to 1879, inclusive, reads as follows : 
 
 1804 $85,089 
 
 18(55 122,169 
 
 1866 200,409 
 
 1867 181,271 
 
 1808 121,946 
 
 1869 89,266 
 
 1870 134,604 
 
 1871 168,122 
 
 1872 $173,711 
 
 1873 243,723 
 
 1874 223,733 
 
 1875 170,277 
 
 1876 214,196 
 
 1877 431,230 
 
 1878 '. 393,061 
 
 1879 453,306 
 
 The different customs-districts from which these exportations were, are as follows : 
 
 Alaska $7 
 
 Baltimore 44,871 
 
 Bath, Me 9 
 
 Boston 2,278 
 
 Brazos de Santiago 265 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y 41,289 
 
 Cape Vincent, N. Y 4,210 
 
 Castice, Me 6 
 
 Champlain, N. Y 11,680 
 
 Chicago, 111 74 
 
 Corpus Christi, Tex . 4 
 
 Detroit 1,746 
 
 Duluth 62 
 
 Genesee, N. Y 573 
 
 Minnesota -- --- 5, 065 
 
 New Orleans $103 
 
 New York "302,732 
 
 Oswegatehie, N. Y 
 
 Paso del Norte, Tex 
 
 Passamaquoddy, Me 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Portland and Falmouth, Me . 
 
 Puget Sound, Wash 
 
 Saluria, Tex 
 
 San Francisco, Cal 
 
 Saint John, Fla 
 
 Vermont 
 
 12, 278 
 
 9 
 
 712 
 
 9,468 
 
 5,224 
 
 1,673 
 
 26 
 
 4,157 
 
 20 
 
 4,556 
 
 453, 097 
 
 Of these almost exactly one-quarter were sent to Canada, leaving about $360,000 worth to be sent to Europe, 
 and, in trifling quantity, to Mexico and the East Indies. Dismissing these latter, it is interesting to inquire 
 somewhat into the statistics of our exportations to Great Britain and the Continent. The number of shipments in 
 1879, between ifovember 1 and May 1, were: 
 
 To Liverpool 27 
 
 To Hamburg 18 
 
 To Bremen 7 
 
 To London 11 
 
 To Havre 9 
 
 To Glasgow 9 
 
 To Bristol 5 
 
 To Cardiff 1 
 
 This gives an average shipment to Great Britain of 2,161.5 barrels; to Germany and France of 86 barrels. The 
 date of the largest shipment was December 6, 3,558 barrels. The amount shipped from New York was 59,565 
 barrels, and the value returned by the New York custom-house, $315,933, which gives an average valuation per 
 barrel of $5.30. These shipments were distributed, in consigning, as follows: 
 
 Barrels. Bushels. 
 
 To Liverpool 59,777x3 = 179,331 
 
 To Hamburg 2,321 X 3 = 
 
 To Bremen . . 
 To London.. 
 To Havre... 
 To Glasgow. 
 To Bristol . . . 
 To Cardiff'... 
 
 2,321 X3 = 
 
 6,963 
 
 331 X3 = 
 
 993 
 
 328 X 3 = 
 
 984 
 
 268x3 = 
 
 804 
 
 200X 3 = 
 
 600 
 
 70X3 = 
 
 210 
 
 5X3 = 
 
 15 
 
 Total 63,300X3= 189,900 
 
 At an average of 1,200 oysters in a barrel, this shows the total shipment by count to have been nearly 
 76,000,000. This average of 1,200 is too low, no doubt, as a multiplier, but is on the safe side; moreover, it will 
 "sum up" a deficiency in putting not quite three bushels into some of the barrels. Taken altogether, this figure 
 (76,000,000) is inside the truth, and a fair estimate. This year (1879-'80) was, however, a poor year for the oyster- 
 exporting trade in the north, because of the mildness of the weather. Oysters could be got in the greatest 
 abundance all the winter through, and glutted the market. Sometimes, on account of ice, there will be a scarcity 
 of stock at a suitable time for shipping. 
 
 The general opinion among New York men is, that the European demand is going to increase steadily, while 
 there will not be an overplus of stock here, since the East river beds are slowly failing and are more and more 
 required to furnish a seed-supply. The shippers are, therefore, hopeful of profitable prices in future. 
 
 •The books of the custom-honsc in New York place this figure at $315,933. 
 
134 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Since writing the above I have been favored by C(n-tis & Freeborn, freight brokers, New York, with a 
 statement of the exports for 1880-'S1, as follows. It will be seen that it shows a slight increase over the previous 
 season : 
 
 Statement of amount of oysters exported to Europe from New York, between October 9, 1880, 
 
 AND May 14, 1881 — one season. 
 
 Date. 
 
 To Liver- 
 pool. 
 
 Various 
 ports. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 Date. 
 
 To Liver- 
 pool. 
 
 Various 
 
 ports. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 
 838 
 
 10 
 
 1,012 
 
 43 
 
 1,087 
 
 40 
 
 1,179 
 
 35 
 
 915 
 1,601 
 
 
 25 
 
 2,183 
 
 40 
 
 4,172 
 
 131 
 
 4,056 
 
 
 3,308 
 
 54 
 
 3,907 
 
 25 
 
 4,216 
 
 100 
 
 4,094 
 
 64 
 
 1,441 
 53 
 
 
 
 
 68, 140 
 
 2,628 
 
 Total. 
 
 October 9. 
 
 IG. 
 
 23 
 
 30. 
 November 6. 
 
 13 
 
 20, 
 
 27 
 December 4. 
 
 11. 
 
 18. 
 
 25 
 January 1. 
 
 8. 
 
 15. 
 
 22. 
 
 29 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 298 
 652 
 1,288 
 1,930 
 2,420 
 2, 622 
 2,444 
 1,817 
 2,454 
 2,932 
 2,001 
 2,380 
 1,601 
 2,120 
 2,740 
 2,322 
 1,937 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 78 
 
 100 
 
 140 
 
 76 
 
 431 
 
 250 
 
 194 
 
 219 
 
 184 
 
 9 
 
 77 
 
 36 
 
 302 
 672 
 1,294 
 2,008 
 2,520 
 2,762 
 2,520 
 2,248 
 2,704 
 3,126 
 2,220 
 2,564 
 1,010 
 2,197 
 2,770 
 2,421 
 2,069 
 
 February 5 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 March 5 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 April 2 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 May 9 
 
 14 
 
 Total 
 
 848 
 1,055 
 1,127 
 1,214 
 
 915 
 1,626 
 2,229 
 4,303 
 4,056 
 3,422 
 3,992 
 4,316 
 4, l.'JS 
 1,441 
 53 
 
 L. COAST OF NEW JERSEY. 
 
 42. OYSTEE-IEDUSTEIBS OP THE NEW JERSEY "BAYS". 
 
 Topography. — The coast of New Jersey, south of Sandy Hook, like that of Long Island, and for similar 
 reasons, forms a favorable region for oyster-growth. Long, desolate beaches stand without, and between them and 
 the mainland stret(?h great salt lagoons, protected from the sea and receiving a constant supply of fresh water into 
 their shallow and marshy basins. These " bays " extend in almost unbroken continuance from the southern line of 
 Monmouth county to Cape May, while in Monmouth county itself there are several indentations of the otherwise 
 abrupt coast-line, which afford the oyster-grower an opportunity to practice his profession. 
 
 Oyster-legislation in New Jersey. — But before proceeding to a particular descrii^tion of these points, a 
 recapitulation of the statutes of New Jersey (already alluded to under the heading "New York Bay"), which are of 
 general application to the oyster-interests of the state, may prove of interest. They are substantially as appended, 
 according to the revision of 1817, the latest authorized, "Title XVI, Fisheries, Chapter 8": 
 
 I. Forbids raking on any oyster-bed, or gathering any oysters or shells, or offering any oysters for sale, between 
 May 1 and September 1, in Bergen, Essex, Middlesex, Monmouth, Cape May, Salem, and Gloucester counties; 
 between July 1 and Sei>tember 1, in Hudson, Union, and Cumberland counties ; and between May 1 and October 
 1, in Burlington, Atlantic, Ocean, and Cape May counties. In case of violation, whether oysters be taken or not, 
 the offender shall pay $10 for each offense; but persons may at any time take and sell oysters from their private 
 planted beds. In Cumberland county, moreover, it is forbidden any person to take oysters in any manner on 
 Sunday, or between 8 p. m. and 4 a. m., under liability to imprisonment and a fine of from $50 to $500. 
 
 II. No person, residing within or without the state, shall rake for or gather oysters in any waters of the state, 
 with a dredge or any sort of instrument answering the pui'poses of a dredge, under penalty of $50 fine ; provided 
 that this and the sixth section shall not apply, so far as regards persons residing in the state, to the Delaware bay, 
 except within Burlington county. 
 
 III. Justices of the peace shall issue warrants, and constables arrest those violating the preceding sections. 
 
 IV. Forbids selling or offering for sale oysters in this state, between May 1 and September 1, except that in 
 Cape May county the time is extended to October 1 ; provided, that owners of planted oysters may take up and 
 seU at any time. Penalty, $5 fine. 
 
 [There seems to be an inconsistency between this and § I.] 
 
 V. Forbids gathering oysters in this state to be made into lime or to be used in the manufacture of iron. 
 Penalty, $50 fine. 
 
 VI. No vessel or craft of any sort permitted even to carry an oyster-dredge, or anything to be used for that 
 purpose, under penalty of $50 fine. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 135 
 
 VII. No one who has not been an actual resident or inhabitant of the state for six months, may rake or 
 gather claius, oysters, or .slicllfisli, for himself or employer, in any waters of tlie state. Violation of this law is a 
 misdemeanor, punishable by imprisonment, or line not exceeding JJiloO, or both, with forfeiture of boat and all 
 apparatus. Eesisting an otticer engaged in enforcing this statute, subjects each person implicated to an added fine 
 of $30. 
 
 IX. Makes it lawful for " any person owning marsli or meadow in this state, within the boundaries of which there 
 shall be ('recks, ditches, or ponds, where oysters grow or will grow, and where such creeks or ditches do not lead to 
 any public landing, to lay or plant clams or oysters therein, * * * and for the preservation of which to erect a 
 fence, hang or affix gates or locks aci'oss said creeks or ditches, to prevent any person or persons from entering the 
 same ". 
 
 8vc. 12. If any unauthotized jjerson be found with a boat inside any fence or gate as aforesaid, where clams or 
 oysters have been planted, or shall break down any such fence or boundaries, he shall be liable for every oifense to 
 imprisonment of not more than six months, or to a fine not to exceed $100, or both; provided, that the free 
 navigation of no thoroughfare or channel may be obstructed. 
 
 X. No persons, under any pretense whatever, shall take away " from any natural oyster-banks or beds in this 
 state, any old shells, other than such as cannot be removed or separated from the oysters without injuring the same ; 
 and all such shells shall be culled and separated from the oysters and thrown back again upon the said natural 
 banks or beds". Penalty, tine of $10 and forfeiture of offending boat and tools. But this does not prohibit persons 
 taking shells from their own private beds. 
 
 Many statutes exist in addition to this, which have only a local application, and hence are quoted at the points 
 where they are in force. It would seem difficult to enforce these laws upon reading them ; but the reader must take 
 into account the extreme jealousy which causes every man to watch his neighbor as a cat would watch a mouse, if 
 not hoping to find him derelict, at least resolved to catch him, expose him, and so thin the ranks of rivalry as well as 
 share the reward. Every oystermau is thus as good as a special constable, and the law takes care of itself. The 
 attention to the laws, however, varies in different parts of the state, and entirely different constructions are i)ut 
 upon statutes in different counties. 
 
 SniiEWSBUKV. — The most northern of the indentations of the northern coast of New Jersey, to which I have 
 alluded, is that just at the heel of Sandy Hook, and at the base of the Navesink Uighlands, comprising the Navesink 
 and Shrewsbury rivers. Shrewsbury is one of the oldest oyster- regions in the neighborhood of New York, and its 
 product has always enjoyed a high reputation in her markets. 
 
 In 1S53 the HirahVa review of the oyster-interests in the vicinity of New York, heretofore quoted from the files 
 of Mr. Thomas De Voe, contained paragi'aphs relating to Shrewsbury, which are so interesting that I quote them at 
 length : 
 
 The number of men engaged in the oyster- fisheries at Shrewsbury is compnted at 250. Of these more than one-half are employed in 
 transplanting from the natural beds in Newark bay to the artificial beds on the coast of Shrewsbury. 
 
 Shrewsbury oysters are said to be inferior even to those pr()cure<l from the best beds of the East river. Their flavor is a little more 
 pungent ; they have a yellowish tint, and the shell is generally whiter. They are a smaller oyster, but in proportion to their size, they 
 contain more meat. The peculiar color, by which they may be easily distinguished from all otiier kinds, is doubtless imparted to them by 
 the nature of the bottom of the river. The beds cover an extent of two or three miles, and are owned exclusively by the farmers along 
 the banks of the Shrewsbury ; and the beds extend across the river, which is between two and three huiidj'ed yards wide. When the tide 
 recedes the oysters are exposed to view, and may be gathered with an ordinary pitchfork. The operation of " longing" is only necessary 
 with those that lie in the bed of the river, and therefore comparatively few boats are required. The larger part of those sent to New 
 York are transported by steaml)oat. The farmers employ persons to take them up at low tide and send them to market to be sold, on their 
 own account. In some few instances they enter into a sort of partnership with oystermen owning sail-boats, who obtain one-half tho 
 profits in consideration of taking them from the beds with tongs and carrying them to the city. 
 
 There are two branches of the river in which they are planted, but those procured from the bods in the southern branch command 
 the higher price. The bottom of the river is covered with a rich black mud, to the depth of from 4 to G feet, and it is this which gives 
 the oyster its yellow color and peculiar flavor. 
 
 An oyster-bed there is almost as valuable as a gold mine, less injurious to health, and easier to work. Their owners are not only 
 well-to-do in the world, but are considered by those in the trade wealthy. They are not required to pay any tax for their privileges, and 
 there is very little risk attending their business, comjiared to that to which others are subject. About ;j;200,000 worth are sold duritig tho 
 year, and this amount is inadi'(|Uate to the demand. There is no possibility of an increase in the sujiply, however, for the only part of tho 
 river capable of growing them is already laid out in beds, and its productive jiowers are now taxed to their fullest extent. 
 
 The trade in Shrewsbury oysters differs very materially from all others; there are less oystermen engaged in it, in consequence of a. 
 large portion being sent to this city by steamers in place of sloops and other sail-lioats. The capital invested in it is perhaps less, in 
 proportion to tho article, than that invested in the East river and Virginia trades, and the profits are more considerable. 
 
 Shrewsbury never possessed any natural beds of oysters, and its celebrated stock always was, and still is, raised 
 from transplanted young, obtained now largely in Keyport. "At present," wrote Professor Lockwood, in 1873, "the 
 ' Shrewsbury' is accounted by many as the emperor of the bivalves, and will fetch in market at wholesale from $1 50 
 to $3 50 a hundred." But for several years their production has grown less and less, and probably ten times as 
 many rejuitod " Slircwsburys" were sold in the nuirkets as annually <'am<' out of that river. During the winter of 
 1879-80 only about I'O.OOO bushels were harvested, by about 15 planters. About one-third of these are northern 
 
136 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 oysters, mainly bought at Keyport, and transplanted to Shrewsbury river, where they will grow in two years to a 
 large size. These oy.-iters chiefly go to supply Long Branch, which, a dealer informed me, used from his depot 
 alone 125,000 oysters and 40,000 clams each season. The two largest hotels consume 25,000 oysters each, weekly. 
 In early days a special law was passed applying to these waters, as follows : 
 
 It shall uot be lawful for any person or persons to rake * * » or carry away any oysters other than by wading in and picking 
 up by hand tlie same, within the following bounds, in the river commonly called * » ' the North or Navcsink, lying within the 
 coiintv of Monmouth, » • » above a direct line from the store-house of Eseck White, on the Shrewsbury side of the river, to the 
 dwelling-house of Thomas Layton, on the Middletowu side of the river aforesaid. Penalty, |;10 tine for each offense. 
 
 There is also a law extant against erecting stakes, or any other means of using " wares" or fyke-nets for taking 
 fish on the bottom of Shrewsbury river where oysters are planted. 
 
 SiiABK RIVER AND ITS LOCAL LAWS. — The iiext point southward that concerns us is Shark river. It was once 
 thought that this bay would be exceedingly productive, and there was really a considerable industry, which gave 
 rise to enactments in the legislature as follows, being the amended statute of 1S70, revising the previous laws of 18G1 : 
 
 This law (1) authorized the board of chosen freeholders of Monmouth county to occupy, during twenty years, 
 for oyster culture. Shark river, within the following boundaries: Beginning at low- water mark at Search point, in 
 the township of Ocean, and running thence in a straight line to Bukey's point in the town.ship of Wale; thence 
 down the shore at low-water mark to a stake standing on low-water mark and on a line with the east end of James 
 W. White's dwelling-house ; thence northerly and on a straight line to a stake standing at low-water mark on the 
 west side of Long point opposite Yellow bank, in the township of Ocean ; thence up the shore of said river at 
 low-water mark to the beginning. 
 
 II. The board of freeholders shall appoint commissioners, holding office one year, to survey and subdivide 
 the above space of river into two-acre lots for oyster-culture ; but no individual shall own more than two acres, and 
 no company more than five. 
 
 Sec. 3. These lots shall be rented at public auction, to the highest bidder, for from one to five years, the sum 
 bid to be paid annually and secured to the commissioners.. ]!fone but citizens may hold ground. The commissioners 
 may renew a lease for five to ten years, but at a rate not less than previously paid. 
 
 III. Makes it the duty of the commissioners to enforce the protective laws, and to collect and devote to the 
 school fund the rents due and penalties assessed ; they must also make a sworn report to the board of freeholders. 
 
 In 1877 about 200 lots were said to be leased, at an average rental of $2 a year, and many persons were 
 employed ; but at present the business has declined, and only enough remains to supply the local consumption in 
 summer at Ocean Beach and other neighboring summer hotels. 
 
 Barnegat bay. — Beyond Shark river no oysters exist or are cultivated until Barnegat bay is reached, where, 
 in its broad waters, an immense and ancient industry of this kind is followed. 
 
 Here, as at other points, the Indians had been wont to come, generation after generation, in search of shellfish. 
 This is attested by the remarkable heaps of shells left as monuments of their feasts, and which are again worthy of 
 special description. 
 
 The natural beds in Barnegat bay begin about three miles above the village of Barnegat, with an occasional 
 " strike" a little lower down, and extend for about ten miles northward, with a width of about two miles. They 
 are known as the Cedar Creek grounds. The bottom here is gravelly and more or less sprinkled with dead shells, 
 and this is one of the great sources of seed for all the coast southward. Boats also come in considerable numbers 
 from the Earitan, Staten Island, and Blue Point districts, but less now than formerly. From this part of the bay 
 came the once famous "Log Creeks". These beds are reported to be constantly losing strength. The carelessness 
 or entire neglect in culling the seed taken away, returns so few shells to the water that the cultch upon which 
 spawn may rest is growing very scarce. This is suicidal to the whole community, but selfish greed prevails every 
 season over prudence. Laws designed to protect these beds are inoperative to a great extent, except that a 
 stranger will feel their force if he attempts to tong in the summer, as the natives permit themselves to do, or tries 
 to carry away oysters so small that more than 350 of them will be needed to fill a bushel. This last is an almost 
 forgotten law of the three shore counties. Ocean, Burlington, and Atlantic. 
 
 A second large ground for gathering oyster-seed is what is called the Gravellings, a shoal of gravel occupying 
 a space several miles square in the mouth of Mullica river. This is the name the river had of old, and still goes 
 by, among the local sailors ; but on the late maps I find no such name, the water meant being denominated Great 
 bay, and forming the expanded outlet of Wadiug river, Atsion river, and several creeks. Egress iuto the ocean is 
 had through " New " inlet, which opens between " Old " and Brigantine inlets ; the three passages, with their 
 dividing, sedgy islands, separating Brigantine beach from Long beach, which is unbroken, save by Barnegat inlet, 
 all the way northward to Squan. 
 
 The " Gravellings" extend up the Mullica river from the head of Great bay for six or eight miles, to just above 
 the mouth of Bass river, and produce seed regularly every year, though m varying abundance. 
 
 Tiie seed from the Cedar Creek beds is preferred, however, hy the West creek and Manahawken planters, as it 
 seems to live and grow into better shape on the local beds. The Gravellings are thus raked chiefly by i)lanters to 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. • 137 
 
 the southward. There seems no diminution in the quantity to be gathered there from year to year, although 
 enormous quantities of cultch are taken away at each seed-gathering, and nothing returned. 
 
 Planting was long ago— perhaps fifty years— well under way in this region, and formerly, perhaps, was more 
 widely followed than at present, but no more successfully. Leaving out of view the attempts just begun to foster 
 the interest at Forked river, Barnegat is the northernmost place in this district where oyster-culture is followed. 
 To aid and protect this industry these laws were long ago made by the legislature, as annexed : 
 
 1. Be it enacted » * » , That it shall be lawful for any person, being a citizen of the state of New Jersey, and resident of tlie county 
 of Ocean, within the boundaries hereinafter described for the purpose, to stake off any quantity of laud covered with water, not exceeding 
 two acres, marking the boundaries thereof by stakes or other marks, plainly visible to persons navigating the waters so occupied, to plant 
 oysters ; provided, that the share-owners shall have the right and preference to stake off as far as their deeds allow, by running their lines 
 for that purpose. 
 
 2. Ai:d be it enacted, That the boundaries within which land may be so staked off and occupied shall be as follows: Beginning at 
 Cedar Creek point at low-water mark on the west bank of Barnegat bay, along said bank to the south line of Ocean county, running off 
 300 yards distant from the shore. 
 
 3. And be it enacted, That oysters within the boundaries of all said waters shall be the private, personal property of the persons so 
 occupying said land * » * ■ aud any person who shall » » • injure or carry away the same, while said boundaries are so marked, 
 shall be guilty of larceny « * » and shall forfeit * * ' all the implements used for taking the same » • • . 
 
 It would seem as though this language was plain enough to protect the interests of any one who availed 
 himself of the privileges alluded to under its promise. However, there does not exist the public sentiment to 
 secure the execution of the law. No man is wiUing to risk his money in planting, when he has no surety that 
 he will be able to reap any reward for his outlay. Hence, oyster-raising at Barnegat, where there are hundreds 
 of acres of perfectly good but idle bottom, and plenty of capital ready to be thus employed, has dwindled, until 
 the entire crop last season was reported at less than 8,000 bushels, all of which was consumed locally. As this 
 small crop was divided among forty or fifty growers, one can easily see that nothing of a business is carried on here. 
 
 The sentiment of the town opposes any change which shall protect individual planting. Night-thieves and 
 foggy-day oystermen, therefore, control and ruin the oyster-interests, making it so risky to plant that men of means 
 will not put their money into it. Without some betterment, oyster-planting must continue to be a failure here as 
 a business, though thousands of acres of good bottom remain unutilized, where both native and southern seed 
 would grow to great advantage and a most profitable industry, employing steadily all the now idle laboring element 
 of the shore-towns, here and northward. 
 
 To show how profitable oyster-planting may be here. Captain Cox told me that some years ago he laid down a 
 lot of young oysters which cost him $13. After two years he procured a man to take up and sell all that were 
 upon the beds, giving his agent one-half. The returns to him were $57, his agent taking the like amount, showing 
 an increase of about 1,000 per cent. In addition to this, a dozen or fifteen bushels were eaten by each of the two 
 families. 
 
 The experiment of '' shelling" has been made with great success, and it is said that any one might reasonably 
 expect to get 100 bushels of seed from 20 bushels of stool laid down anywhere in the upper half of the bay. 
 Popular construction, however, makes such cultch-beds "natural ground", and everybody will go and rake. It has 
 even occurred that a man's oysters taken ofi' his private bed and placed on staked ground in a creek to "freshen", 
 have been raided upon by thieves, and though he could prove the facts he was unable to recover in local couits. 
 
 Manaiiawken, TucitERTON, AND VICINITY.— To the south of Barnegat a different sentiment prevails, and at 
 Manahawken, West Creek, Tuckerton, and intermediate villages, live a large number of oyster-planters who have 
 beds opposite their homes to a considerable extent, and also down in Great bay, below the islands, almost meeting 
 the Absecon men, and associating with the planters at Bass river and Port Republic. 
 
 The West Creek and Manahawken men, as I have said, get the most of their seed at Cedar creek. The precise 
 number of planters, large and small, it was difficult to ascertain. I was assured, however, that two-thirds of all 
 the men in the town were directly engaged, which would give to Manahawken about 125 and to West Creek about 
 100 planters, a- considerable portion of whom get all the money they ever see out of the oysters they catch and 
 plant for themselves or other people. Most of them are married, and it is safe to say that at least 200 families in 
 the two villages derive their support from this industry. Their best planting-grounds are off Horse point. 
 
 Tuckerton, according to the late census, had about 1,800 inhabitants. A thousand of these, it is certain, if not 
 more, live by means of the oyster- aud clam-fisheries, with little outside resources. It is the one industry which 
 keeps the town going, for little else is possible ; and it is undoubtedly true that the area of bay -bottom devoted to 
 this work is much more productive than any equal area of adjacent sandy and pine-covered shore. At Tuckerton 
 and northward, therefore, from 2,000 to 2,500 people get their support out of oyster-culture. On the Mullica river 
 are two other settlements, Bass River and Port Republic, which will add from five to seven hundred more. All 
 of these men get the main part of their seed early in the fail at the mouth of the Mullica. During all day of 
 September 30, and during the night, schooners, sloops, cat-boats, sail-scows, trim yachts, and shapeless, ragged 
 tubs, have gathered there, chosen a spot out of what was left of the space, and anchored. Once the anchor down, 
 no movement elsewhere couUl be made. Each sail-craft towed behind it one or two small scows termed "garveys", 
 and hiid n])<)n its deck one or more small skiffs, or those ingenious ducking-boats, peculiar to this region, called 
 "diukies". 
 
138 ■ THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 It is a common thing for the first of October's results to show 100 or 150 bushels of seed to the man, on the 
 most favorable ground. If the owners keep all this seed for their own use, two days will generally load their 
 vessel and send them to their planting beds, after which they may return or may go elsewhere. If they prefer to 
 sell it to the larger planters, who are all ready to buy, they were paid, this year and last, 10 cents per bushel. 
 The second day yields more poorly, and at the end of a week 12 or 15 bushels to the man is considered a good days' 
 work. To compensate for scarcity, 15 cents is paid by buyers. This seed consists almost wholly of the growth of 
 the year, or at least of the previous year, and cannot be separated from the shells to which it is attached. The 
 careless culling which is done, therefore, gives little back. On the upper part of the river-grounds, however, the 
 spawn grows upon the gravel of the bottom, and there are few shells. There are also brought up a few marketable 
 oysters, that have escaped heretofore until they have attained a considerable size. Though very finely flavored, 
 these large natural oysters are not of good appearance, and bring only GO to 80 cents a bushel in market. 
 
 Statistics of Baenegat, Tuckerton, etc. — Oysters in these waters grow only moderately fast, and must 
 lie three or four years before being taken to market. From Tuckerton large quantities are sold to Atlantic City 
 men, who fatten them on the sand-bars and sell them the same season. The best of all the oysters at present are 
 said to come from in front of Horse point, Manahawken, bringing considerably more money than the others. They 
 are planted more thinly there than in Tuckerton bay, which is said to make the profitable difiference. Prices in 
 1879-80 were $3 for large and $2 for small sizes, per 1,000, for Tuckerton plants, while Manahawkeu's stock brought 
 a large advance upon this. 
 
 This year (1880) has proved very good for this district, both in abundance of seed and in the quality of the 
 planted stock which is now (October, 1880) being sent to market. The summer of 1879 was a poor one for growth 
 and prices, and much of the seed died, so that the crop which was gathered in 1879-80, and reported upon for my 
 use, is not considered as high as before, or probably up to this year's product. The statistics are as follows: 
 
 Oysters raised for market, 1879-80. 
 
 Bashels. 
 
 In Barnegat 3,000 
 
 In Manahawken 5,000 
 
 In West Creek 30,000 
 
 In Tuckerton 30,000 
 
 In Bass River 10,000 
 
 In Port Eeimblic 10,000 
 
 Total 88,000 
 
 Families supported. 
 
 In Tuckerton 200 to 250 
 
 In West Creek and Manahawken ,. 175 to 200 
 
 lu Bass River 50 to 75 
 
 In Port Reiiublic 50 to 75 
 
 Total 475 to 600 
 
 Number of sail-vessels, about 500; value of same, about .$125,000. 
 Number of small boats, about 750; value of same, $7,500 to $10,000. 
 
 The list of vessels reported by Mr. George W. Mathis, collector at Tuckerton, New Jersey, as registered iu this 
 district and employed in the oyster- or clam-fishery, reads as follows : 
 
 Name. Tons. Name. Tons. Name. Tons. 
 
 Sarepta 5.02 Louis D. Senat 9.04 Henrietta J 7.35 
 
 Hero 5.17 I Wonder 9.06 Mary Grey 15.96 
 
 William H. Mills 11.83 Lidie Jones 12.37 Ehoda amlJane 6.57 
 
 Golden Feather 6.91 GeneralJ. L. Selfridge 21.36 AUco Eldgway 5.49 
 
 H-lO-W-8 5.04 .Sunbeam 22.16 Dart '. 5.11 
 
 Maggie Bell 12.83 Foiu- Brothers 11.34 Kate Becker 17.3 
 
 Laura V. Stiles 5.78 John A. Parks 10.73 
 
 Absecon and VICINITY. — Reed's bay. Little bay, Absecon bay, and the other thoroughfares through the salt 
 marshes behind Brigantine beach, afford good oiiportunities for growing oysters, and have long been utilized. In 
 the neighborhood of the town of Absecon thei'e are said to be one hundred men, part farmers, part fishermen, who 
 regularly plant oysters and supply the market. Only a very few of these, however, devote their main time to it. 
 It was to meet the case of these inclosed and almost dooryard waters, that section 14 of the revised statute 
 relating to oysters was made, which enacts that peisons owning flats or coves along the shores of the tide-waters 
 between Great Egg Ilarbor and Little Egg Harbor, Atlantic county, inclusive of the shores of the rivers that lie 
 within that county, may mark out ground by stakes of a iirescribed size and number, for the planting of oysters 
 or clams, but no stakes can be set beyond ordinary low-water mark. Section 16 also applies to Burlington county, 
 but seems to add nothing to section 11. These planters get their seed (small) by going after it in their own sloops to 
 Barnegat ba.\ , the Gravellings, or Egg Harbor. It is put down in shallow water, on a soft bottom, and allowed three 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY 139 
 
 years' growth. This brings it to "box" size, and no oysters are sold from Absecon less than this size. Until last 
 year the price was $8 a thousand, but last year some lots were sold as low as $0, because not up to the usual 
 quality. The shipments are all made by rail to Philadelphia, and sold there on commission, a system which has 
 lately given rise to much complaint on account of alleged frauds. 
 
 In addition to the northern oysters, bred as I have described, other stock is also brought from Virginia and 
 given a season's growth. Tlie total raised for market during tlie past, however, of both kinds, by Absecon. 
 jilanters, would not exceed 20,000 bushels, three-fourths of which were from the Chesapeake. This would hardly 
 represent an average crop, since many planters preferred to let their oysters lie to selling them at so poor pi-ices. 
 
 Ati.antio City. — At Atlantic City there are three lirms of oyster-planters and dealers, consisting of five men. 
 They deal more or less in fish and i)rovisions also. The oysters handled at present consist of southern stock 
 (six or seven thousand bushels), which do well here, if they can be procured in good order. Besides this about 18,000 
 bushels of full-grown, marketable oysters are bought at Absecon and Barnegat and laid down here on a hard 
 bottom, in shallow water, wlicre the beds go dry at low tide, simply for summer use in the large seaside hotels 
 which make Atlantic City famous. It is probably not fair to count these in statistics of production. 
 
 At Brigantine beach there is a similar industry, seUiug at Atlantic City, but not of much account, and hardly 
 to be reckoned as a point of original production. 
 
 Lake's bay. — Just behind the island upon which Atlantic City is built, and to the southward, is an extensive 
 sheet of inclosed water known as Lake's bay, which is continued southward in numerous channels through the salt- 
 marshes behind Absecon beach, until it reaches the inlet and mouth of Great Egg Harbor river. Along the shore 
 of this bay are various villages that carry on extensive operations in oyster-culture, and have done so for many 
 years. I refer to Pleasantville, Smith's Landing, Bakersville, Leedsville, and Soraer's Point. The best part of the 
 bay is said to be what are called the "muddy beds", directly in front of Smith's Landing, and about a quarter of a 
 mile distant. The advantage of these beds is said to lie in the fact, that the drainings from the " platforms " flow 
 over them at low tide, giving them a bath of fresh water twice daily. Much damage occurs here, however, whenever 
 northwest gales occur, the soft mud in the marshes being loosened and drifted off into the bay to settle on the beds. 
 The only enemy of the oyster reported here as of much consequence, is the Urosalirinx, called by the natives " snail- 
 bore"; these mollusks become very troublesome some years, but had not occurred in great numbers during the 
 season of mj^ visit (1880). 
 
 Lake's bay platfokms. — ^The "platforms" to which I have alluded, are in some cases nothing better than a 
 mere plank floor, set in the bank in such a way that a boat-load of oysters, which are always extremely muddy and 
 foul when first talven from the beds, may be floated alongside at high tide, and the oysters shoveled ovei'board 
 upon it. The receding tide leaves this bare, and at the same time opens sluice gates, which allow a stream of fresh 
 water from the land to cover the oysters, under the genial influence of which they rid themselves of the distasteful 
 brine contained within their shells, and also puff out their forms to an appearance of fatness very pleasing to the 
 epicure. 
 
 Frequently, however, an elalioration of the i^latform is constructed, which is worthy of special note. The bank 
 is dug into and piles are driven, until a floor can be laid at a proper level below high-water mark. Over this a tight 
 shed is built, sometimes 75 feet long by 25 feet wide, and of considerable height. On one side of this shed a canal 
 is dug, into which a boat may run, and its cargo is easily shoveled through large openings in the side of the shed 
 on to the floor within. On the opposite side of the shed, both within and without, run floors or stages above the 
 reach of high water, where the oysters can be piled after freshening, packed in barrels and loaded on boats or drays 
 for shipment. When the tide goes down it leaves the oysters upon the platform within the shed nearly bare, a 
 depth of 8 or 10 inches of water being retained by a footboard at the seaward end of the shed. An arrangement 
 of sluices now admits the fresh water, and the freshening begins. Over the space devoted to the platform or vat, 
 at a sufficient height to let a man stand underneath to shovel up the oysters for packing, in which work he uses a 
 dung-fork, is a broad shelf or garret, where barrels, baskets, boat-gear, and other small propeity can be safely 
 stowed, since the whole shed, platform, oysters, and all, can be locked up. I have given an illustration of one of 
 these houses at Smith's Landing. 
 
 Shipments of oysters from Lake's bay to Philadelphia. — From these settlements on Lake's bay two 
 lines of railway run to Philadelphia, side by side. One is the Camden and Atlantic, and the other the Philadelphia 
 and Atlantic City (narrow gauge). Since the recent comi)letion of this latter road, all the Lake's bay oysters have 
 been sent by its line, which offered superior advantages; and as none go to Philadelphia (the almost exclusive 
 market) by any other means, the railway's account of transportation of oysters may be accepted as supplying the 
 statistics of the annual product of the region. The agent at Pleasantville gave me the figures for the season of 
 1879-'80, which are as follows : 
 
 Oysters sent to Philadelphia. 
 
 624 car-loads, at TO liarrols barrels.. 4^!, tiHO 
 
 4:t,0H0 liarrclH, at. about ^^ bushels to 1 barrel bushels.. l;iO, 000 
 
 43,GS0 barrels, at 500' oysters to 1 barrel oysters.. 21,810,000 
 
 4:i,f.S0 barrels, at 240 pounds to 1 ban.! |ionn.ls - 10, |s:t,-i00 
 
 4;.i,(W0 barrels, at 2tl cents trojglit .ii;ll,;;5li SO 
 
140 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 These oysters were sent by from 100 to 120 shippers, which represent the number of planters. There are from 
 50 to 75 men in addition, who are hired, and so getting a living out of the oyster-interests here. The narrow-gauge 
 railway company proposes to run a line, which may be finished by the time this report is jiublished, down the bay 
 shore to Somer's Point, Beesley's Point, and Ocean City. This will furnish so many additional facilities for shipping, 
 doing away with the present necessity of hauling the oysters by team from one to seven miles to the station, that 
 a large increase of oyster-production is anticipated. Many new men are engaging iu planting, and the expectation 
 seems well founded. 
 
 Although I have reckoned all the shipments in the table printed above in barrels, yet in fact the use of sacks 
 of gunny-cloth is common here. The sacks, I was told, cost from 8 to 9 cents, and will last for ten or fifteen trials, if 
 they can be got back from the consignee in Philadelphia. Barrels are cheaper, since they can be bought at 10 cents 
 apiece, in Philadelphia and Atlantic City, where the summer hotels consume enormous quantities of imported flour, 
 and they will genei'ally be returned for several triiis. Two sacks are counted to the barrel, or 250 oysters to the sack. 
 
 The prices received for Lalic's bay oysters last season averaged 40 cents, at which rate the total value of the 
 crop, which may be very closely estimated at 130,000 bushels, would come to $52,000. Divided among 100 jtlanters 
 this would give an average income of about $520. 
 
 Oystek-fleet of Sosiek's Point district. — I counted at Smith's Landing about 33 pretty good sail-boats 
 and about 50 garvies, etc. I judge from inquiries, that this was one-third of all owned between the railway and 
 Somer's Point, and that $200 apiece would be a large average estimate for the value of the sail-boats. Many of 
 them devote much of their time, in summer, to raking clams from the extensive grounds at the lower end of the bay. 
 In the custom-house of this district, situated at Somer's Point, I find reported as registered on July 1, 1880, 59 
 vessels engaged in oystering and clamming, as follows: 
 
 Name. 
 A. Robinson , 
 
 Tons. 
 
 30.87 
 
 22.25 
 
 20.24 
 
 41.75 
 
 21.50 
 
 Name. 
 Mary Ella 
 
 Tons. 
 28.92 
 
 Name. 
 
 L.C.Wallace 
 
 Lela 
 
 Linuie Norcross ...... . 
 
 Tons. 
 16.61 
 
 Alfred C. Harmer 
 
 R. B. Leeds 
 
 34.79 
 
 9.17 
 
 Belle 
 
 Susan Leach . .. .,.., 
 
 22.00 
 
 8.50 
 
 C. P. Hoffman 
 
 Two Sisters 
 
 Wallace M. French 
 
 Alert 
 
 26.48 
 
 23.19 
 
 7.46 
 
 9.67 
 
 Little SaUie 
 
 13.90 
 
 Charles Lawrence . . 
 
 Lizzie...... ........... 
 
 7.28 
 
 Cordelia R. Price 
 
 , 42.30 
 
 22.64 
 
 
 16.48 
 
 
 
 17.51 
 
 Estella 
 
 George S. Courtney 
 
 H. M. Somers 
 
 Hattie J. ...... ...... ...... . 
 
 40.25 
 
 25.15 
 
 31.23 
 
 30 03 
 
 Belle , 
 
 Charles Haight 
 
 Dan Sooy , 
 
 EllaM 
 
 11.93 
 
 14.70 
 
 15.49 
 
 15.49 
 
 13.09 
 
 Malcom 
 
 Margaret Ann 
 
 Manetta Sheldon 
 
 Nautilus 
 
 Ocean Star 
 
 Rhoda S 
 
 5.63 
 
 8.51 
 
 9.35 
 
 10 95 
 
 Henry J. May 
 
 25.42 
 
 61.25 
 
 43.32 
 
 35.41 
 
 20.88 
 
 29 36 
 
 12.69 
 
 Express 
 
 Golden Light 
 
 Huutcr 
 
 Idelwild 
 
 J. F. Knapp 
 
 loetta 
 
 John Wesley 
 
 Julia A. Reid 
 
 7.32 
 
 16.00 
 
 14.02 
 
 9.73 
 
 16.24 
 
 12.60 
 
 15.76 
 
 11.41 
 
 ■ 18.05 
 
 J. G. Crate 
 
 J. &C. Merritt 
 
 S. M. Daugherty 
 
 U. S. Grant 
 
 Uncle Dan 
 
 10.99 
 
 8.47 
 
 11.49 
 
 
 Volant 
 
 7.44 
 
 Joseph 
 
 Margaret A. Amelia 
 
 31.70 
 
 23.85 
 
 33.18 
 
 William Albert 
 
 Wonder 
 
 Total 
 
 6.22 
 
 7.49 
 
 Mary Disston 
 
 1.165.60 
 
 The collector of the district, Mr. Thomas E. Morris, adds : " In addition to the above there are some hundreds 
 of small boats, under five tons, engaged in catching clams and oysters in this district, of which I can give no 
 account." I should say that about $75,000 would represent the total value of all the floating property, large and 
 small, devoted to the shellfisheries in this neighborhood, which includes the coast of Burlington and Atlantic 
 counties, but is practically restricted to Lake's bay and Great Egg Harbor. 
 
 Great Egg Habor and Dennis. — Having crossed the Great Egg Harbor river, you find yourself in Cape 
 May county, and still among oystermen. 
 
 The Great Egg Harbor river and bay, with its tributary, the Tuckahoe river, contain large and ancient seed-beds, 
 which supply a large part of this coast with all the seed transplanted. These beds have been greatly extended in 
 area since they began to be tonged, and do not seem greatly to suffer in consequence of the yearly raids made upon 
 them. In the Great Egg Harbor river several men have, within a few years, undertaken to raise young oysters by 
 planting cultch (shells) and catching spawn. They do not use this themselves, but when it is a year old sell it to 
 planters, who paid this year about 40 cents a bushel. There is no difficultj^ in securing such a supiily of spawn 
 every season. The abundance of seed-oysters iu this bay formerly is liroverbial. I was assured by more than one 
 person, that years go it was the custom, at the beginning of the season, to anchor a scow upon the ground and not 
 move all day. Continuous tonging in one spot, from sunrise to sunset, would not exhaust the bottom. The seed lay 
 several inches deep, ajiparently, and from 100 to 200 bushels could be caught by one nmn in a single day. Now the 
 seed is far thinner, but the beds are spread over a largely increased area, due to incessant tonging. 
 
 Adjoining Great Egg Harbor and the neighboring coast is Upper township. South of it lies Dennis, which 
 stretches across to tlie Delaware bay, and is bounded southerly by Townsend's inlet. My information in respect to 
 both is chiefly from Mr. Peter Watkius, a shipper, and one of the largest planters iu the district. 
 
I 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 .si 
 c 
 
 ■^ 
 
 .0 
 
 
 > 
 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 
 <D 
 
 m 
 
 f5 
 
 
 -3 
 
 a 
 
 -5 
 
 o 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 141 
 
 Dennis township contains Dennis creek and West creek on its Delaware side, both of which abound in a natural 
 growth of oysters every year, and in neither of which, consequently, is there any i)lauting, more than perhaps a little 
 desultory " laying out" in tributary creeks for private use. The laws of 1857 forbade dredging for oysters iu Dennis 
 creek, aud forbade any taking of oysters from natural beds there "to be sold outside of Cape May county", with an 
 especial injunction against nonresidents. The natural oysters caught there grow in the mud, in a crowded condition, 
 and hence aie long, slender, aud strap-shaped. They get the name " Stuckups" in consequence. Their shells are weak 
 aud thin, because of an absence of carbonate of lime in the soil of the surrounding region. The water here is very 
 fresh ; but the best of the full-grown oysters are annually peddled about the neighborhood, and regarded as of 
 superior quality as a fresh oyster. 
 
 The business, then, of this district, comprised in these two townships, lies in the sounds and thoroughfares on 
 the eastern shoi'c, between the mainland and the outer (Peck's and Ludlam's) beaches. The bottoms of these sounds 
 are muddy — some tough, some soft — except upon the bars, which are hard sand. The ordinary depth at low water 
 is less than two feet, while the bars go dry every tide. Oysters are planted in both places, but chiefly on the mud. 
 The seed used all the way from Townsend's inlet to Great Egg Harbor, is for the most iiart gathered in that harbor 
 and its rivers. The price varies greatly. Planters used to give 45 cents a bushel, and got a heaping half-barrel for 
 measure. In 1879 they paid 37 cents, measured in a scant basket, and this year the price has been 40 cents on the 
 grounds, with 5 to 7 cents freight to be added. This is the year-old and larger clean seed, known locally as "plants"; 
 the small "blisters" being little used here, since they never do well, nine-tenths of them failing to survive the winter. 
 
 Nearly every man who lives along the shore is more or less concerned in the oyster-planting, yet as a regular 
 business it is hardly more than ten years old. My informant counted 30 planters along the eastern water-front of 
 the two townships, but not all of them depend upon oystering for eveu a majority of the support of their families. 
 There are none, indeed, but who also conduct a farm ; many are concerned in the fisheries, others employed half 
 the year at the life-saving stations, and another portion spend the summer-leisure in raking clams. A large crop 
 is not, therefore, to be expected from this coast, and it is estimated as follows : 
 
 Two planters raisu 1,500 busliels 3,000 
 
 Four planters raise GOO bushels 2, 400 
 
 Twenty-four plauters raise 300 bushels 7,200 
 
 12, 600 
 
 The planting of southern stock has not, as a rule, been profitable in this district. It is considered better policy 
 to wait longer for the more hardy but slow-growing Egg Harbor plants, than to risk the easily killed, tender but 
 more rapidly-matured, Chesapeakes. Although the original expense of planting the northern oysters is largely in 
 excess of that of the southern stock, the price received is larger in market at the end, and the risk of loss far less. 
 Yet every few j-ears some adventurous spirit makes a success of his southern imi>ortations, and wins very large profits. 
 This chance is alluring, and a thousand or fifteen hundred bushels are brought up every year from Virginia. 
 
 All of the oysters raised here go to Philadelphia by rail. They are prepared for market by the usual freshening 
 on platforms at ebb-tide, and bring high prices. This season (1880) from $4 25 to $5 a barrel have been received 
 by the shippers, who paid the small planters $3 30 at the shore, or $3 50 delivered in barrels at the railway station. 
 The freight into the city is 40 cents, with an added 10 cents for cartage. 
 
 Early oyster-business of Cape May county. — Before the railway was put here all the oysters (chiefly 
 natural growth) were sent to Philadelphia and New York by water. From the diary of Jacob Spicer, quoted in 
 Dr. Maurice Beesley's £arly History of Cape May County (Geol. Surv. of jST. J., 1857), occurs the followiug item : 
 
 There is at least ten boats belonging to the county wliich carry oysters; aud admit they make three trips fall aud three trips spring, 
 each, and carry 100 bushels each trip, that makes 6,000 bushels, at what4bey neat 2s. per bushel, £600. 
 
 Six hundred pounds sterling was about $3,000 ; now the annual resources of the county in oysters approach 
 $60,000 in value, aud the shipping involved on the ocean shore of the county alone, consisting of a dozen small 
 vessels in the Chesapeake carrying-trade, and perhaps 40 sail-boats for local service on the beds, are worth not less 
 than $30,000. A portion of this wealth, however, remains to be accounted for. 
 
 Oyster-fleet of the Bridgetown district. — The custom-house of the district is at Bridgeton, and the 
 collector has taken the trouble to furnish me with a complete list of the vessels oystering and registered in his ofiico 
 in 1880. The district comprises all the coa.st from the Tuckahoe river, Cape May county, around to AUoway's creek, 
 iu Salem county, aud the list is as annexed : 
 
 OYSTER-VESSELS REGISTERED AT BRIDGETON. 
 
 SCIIOOKEKS. 
 
 Name. Tons. Name. Tons. Name. Tons. 
 
 A. S. Mulford 21.81 Arctic 34.32 D.C.Adams SlL-'iO 
 
 AliceC.Ogden 34.39 Calvin Dilks 2.5.62 D. P. Mulford 27.00 
 
 Alice M. Ridgway 26.08 Caroline H. Mcars 32.06 Dove 22.20 
 
 Almedia 21. ,51 Cashier 24.49 E. Fowler 33.85 
 
 Annie C. Moore 27.27 Charter 22.64 Edna M. Lore 33.71 
 
 Anna Mary Newcomb 20.11 Cecelia B. Sh.-pp.ard 29.98 Elanora 33.23 
 
 Amanda B. Lore 21.30 Dawniug Light 22.67 Elizabeth B 21.78 
 
142 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 SCHOONERS — continued. 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Laura Parsons 24.59 
 
 Lizzio M. Weaver 33.42 
 
 Mary A. Eogers 24. 03 
 
 Mary F. Sheppard 32.06 
 
 Mary H. Lake 31.83 
 
 Mary W. Meara 34. 12 
 
 Mary A. Hand 33. 55 
 
 Mary & Margaret 21.34 
 
 M.ircusL. Godfrey 24.17 
 
 Mattie L.Ford ^ 32.20 
 
 Messenger 23.34 
 
 Milton E. Studams 59. .59 
 
 Nettie and Lena 31. 89 
 
 North Star 20. 10 
 
 Prize 28.61 
 
 E. Blackman 29.98 
 
 E. D. Bateman 29.51 
 
 N.arae. Tons. 
 
 Ellsworth 26.36 
 
 Equal Eights 25.25 
 
 Falcon .*. 21.28 
 
 G. Gaudy 29.11 
 
 G. W. Crist 21.81 
 
 General McClellan 23.81 
 
 General Palmer 26.42 
 
 Harriet Smith 27.46 
 
 Hannah and Ida 40.68 
 
 Hattie E. Johnson 29.13 
 
 Ida Marts 24.98 
 
 Irene A. B. Crawford 20.86 
 
 J. B. Taulane 25.16 
 
 Jacob Eivell 35.61 
 
 James H. Nixon 32.27 
 
 Jennie E. Fow 25.84 
 
 Julia B 25.96 
 
 Most of these vessels are new, and cost $5,000 each. A present valuation of all, however, would reduce 
 amount to an average of $2,000, which would make the total $144,000. 
 
 SLOOPS AND SCHOONERS UNDER TWENTY TONS. 
 
 N.ime. 
 
 E. S. Burney 
 
 Eichard B. Jones . . 
 
 Eichard Vaux 
 
 Sallio and Ceola .. 
 Samuel P. Button - 
 
 Senator 
 
 Snow Flake 
 
 State Eights 
 
 Sarah Elizabeth .. 
 
 S. C. Kemble 
 
 T. B. Husted 
 
 T. 0. Ladow 
 
 Tidal Wave 
 
 Village Belle 
 
 Volant 
 
 \\Tiite Wing 
 
 William C. Lore .. 
 
 Tons. 
 24. 96 
 23.97 
 24. 63 
 32.00 
 20. 99 
 
 24. 75 
 35.24 
 23. 18 
 26.00 
 25.15 
 27.08 
 24.86 
 30.66 
 28. 26 
 26.28 
 
 22. 76 
 31.85 
 
 that 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Acasta 13.97 
 
 A. Hulings 8.31 
 
 Advance - 6. 55 
 
 Addy Lee 6.62 
 
 AliceM 14.65 
 
 Amanda & David 13.99 
 
 AnuaB 7.90 
 
 AnnaM 10.44 
 
 AnnieN. Carey 8.24 
 
 Annie Neary 9.36 
 
 Annie M 5. 11 
 
 Arctic 11.46 
 
 Bay Queen 19.48 
 
 Belle 16.56 
 
 Bell Sage 10.10 
 
 Black Dart 7.30 
 
 Callena 12.62 
 
 Charles T. Sheppard 14.98 
 
 Charlie Smith 18.52 
 
 Caroline 17.81 
 
 Carrie M. Edwards 6.55 
 
 Clara 14.07 
 
 Colfax 11.05 
 
 Cygnet 14.72 
 
 DanielF 14.81 
 
 Daniel B. Harris 14.96 
 
 Detector 17.08 
 
 Dove 9.43 
 
 Echo 6.13 
 
 EllaC 8.36 
 
 EllaD 14.05 
 
 Ellen H.Weeb 9.58 
 
 Eliza Carlisle 6.74 
 
 ElmiraH. Lake 9.95 
 
 Emily E.Green 14.04 
 
 Emily and Eebcoca 10.79 
 
 Franklins 18.07 
 
 G. H. Vansciver 13.72 
 
 George L. Broom 17. 90 
 
 George & Morton 16. 67 
 
 Glide 9.63 
 
 Golden Feather 7.57 
 
 H. Schellinger 11.30 
 
 HannahM. Bell 6.30 
 
 Harry C 7.97 
 
 Harriet Elu>er 12.03 
 
 Hattie B 5.56 
 
 Henry and Howard 14. 31 
 
 Henry S. Lutts 10.08 
 
 Name. Tons. 
 
 Ida 7.77 
 
 Ida Florence 9.61 
 
 Ida May 11.62 
 
 James D. Godfrey 15.95 
 
 James W. Nale - 6.63 
 
 James Howard 11.51 
 
 Jacob B.Lee 6.50 
 
 Jesse L. Eutter 6. 24 
 
 JohuP. Prifold 19.59 
 
 J. Lippincott 10. 33 
 
 Joseph J. Dughan 6. 28 
 
 Kate and Melissa . 13. 73 
 
 Kate and Sarah — 1.5.29 
 
 Laurel 15.66 
 
 Leader — 7.84 
 
 Leader - 14.85 
 
 LillicD 17.21 
 
 Little Giant 9.03 
 
 Little Harry 6.64 
 
 Little Moses 5.70 
 
 Linnet 5.82 
 
 Lizzie Liber 14. 63 
 
 LorellH. Sharp 7.85 
 
 LucyP 10.96 
 
 Lucy 14.47 
 
 Lucy Turner 16.27 
 
 LydiaB 14.84 
 
 Lydia and Sylva.... 15.83 
 
 Lucy Hopkins 9.50 
 
 M. P. Ogden 10.50 
 
 M. andW. Eobinson 13.73 
 
 Madora & Emma 8. 93 
 
 MaggieD 9.85 
 
 Mary E. Davis 7.39 
 
 Magnolia 16.97 
 
 Mary A. Bickley 13.23 
 
 Mary & Phebe 11.61 
 
 Mary & Eliza 10.19 
 
 Mary Ella 7.61 
 
 Mary & Emma 19.54 
 
 M.ary & Ellen 6.61 
 
 M.ary Fans 6. 76 
 
 Maria & Francis 16. 67 
 
 Mary Ann 19.55 
 
 Martha E 7. 89 
 
 Martha C. Campbell 15.25 
 
 MargaretHall 9.43 
 
 Mattie Holly 8.04 
 
 Lee. 
 
 Name. 
 Melvina . 
 Morris E. 
 
 Nellie 
 
 Nip Cat 
 
 Northern Light . 
 
 Only Son 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Passport 
 
 Pathway 
 
 Polka 
 
 Pilot 
 
 E. D.Mitchell .. 
 
 Eay 
 
 Eattlesnake 
 
 Eebeeca 
 
 Eebecca 
 
 Eichard Silsbee . 
 
 Eolliu S 
 
 Sarah Cos 
 
 Sarah Jane 
 
 Sarah Jane 
 
 Sarah Sullivan 
 
 Sarah & Hannah . . . . 
 
 Sea Flower 
 
 Samuel Hanners 
 
 Sharp Shooter 
 
 Spencer C 
 
 Star of the West 
 
 Star Light 
 
 Sun 
 
 Sue 
 
 Trader 
 
 Trade Wind 
 
 Trimmer 
 
 Thomas E. Berry . . . 
 
 Two Friends 
 
 Tryphenia 
 
 Union 
 
 United States 
 
 Vand.alia 
 
 Vigelauce 
 
 Victory 
 
 War Eagle 
 
 Willi.ara A. Brooks -. 
 William B.Foster... 
 William Stevenson.. 
 William Vanuemau . 
 
 Tons. 
 
 11.89 
 
 6.33 
 
 1L93 
 
 7.53 
 
 18.69 
 
 8.22 
 
 12.98 
 
 11.37 
 
 18.08 
 
 16. 57 
 
 8.43 
 
 7.30 
 
 10. 82 
 
 6.37 
 
 16.13 
 
 6.17 
 
 7.48 
 
 19.38 
 
 12. 03 
 
 11.43 
 
 9.82 
 
 9.52 
 
 16.22 
 
 18.24 
 
 8.98 
 
 10.45 
 
 6.11 
 
 8.47 
 
 18.94 
 
 5.24 
 
 16.19 
 
 9. 62 
 
 12.56 
 
 6.32 
 
 7.63 
 
 9.98 
 
 9.92 
 
 16.99 
 
 18.88 
 
 15.72 
 
 19.82 
 
 , 5.76 
 
 , 10.69 
 
 , 7.11 
 
 , 13.61 
 
 . 9.56 
 
 . 16.05 
 
 . 10.31 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 143 
 
 Many of these vessels are old and of less value than they once were. They are all of remarkably pretty 
 model, however, and completeness of equipment. Experts assured me, that for those over ten tons (of which there 
 are 81) an average value of 8000 would be a fair estimate. This would yield $48,000. Probably the sum of $30,000 
 would cover the remainder. The discrepancy of 38 between this list and that of the oyster-association in the 
 Delaware, described on a subsequent page, is due to the fact that many of the association vessels are registered 
 elsewhere. Of boats less than five tons, and unregistered, there are probably 100 used in the district for oystering 
 and clamming, and their value would add perhaps $20,000 to the figures above, making a total of nearly $100,000 
 invested in lloating property by the Cape May and Delaware oystermen. 
 
 Middle and vicinity. — Next below the district represented by Mr. Watkins' statements, foregoing, comes 
 the township named " Middle", where I happily supplemented my own observations by the intelligent statistics of 
 Mr. Edward Hand. This district includes a great extent of sounds and thoroughfares upon its seaward shore, and 
 there are also opportunities for oyster-growing along the western coast. The general characteristics of ground and 
 methods of planting do not ditier from those above. In this district there are enumerated about 83 planters, three- 
 fourths of whom may be said to sujiport their families in this way. This is more comi)letely true than in Dennis 
 townshi]), because the business here is more extensive, takes more time, and yields larger results. 
 
 The Bay shore is occupied by 14 planters, all of whom use exclusively southern oysters. They are brought as 
 " seed " (small) almost entirely from Hog island, and (of somewhat better quality) fi'om Chincoteague. These men 
 own ten sloops, of from 30 to 60 tons burden each, which are used wholly in bringing oysters by the outside passage 
 from the South, not onlj' for their own use, bat also to supi^ly the men on the eastern shore and below them, and 
 also to cany to Cape ]May or Philadelphia their own harvest, since the ocean-side men ship their crop by rail. 
 
 On the sea-shore nine-tenths of all the oysters raised are of small southern seed, the rest being plants secured 
 in the marshes about home (only about 4,000 bushels of this will be saved a year all the way from Townsend's inlet 
 to Cape May) and in Great Egg Harbor. It will be seen by this, that the planters of this district have a different 
 idea of the profits in southern stock from those of Dennis. This arises from the fact, that they find their chief 
 market in supplying the summer hotels and population of Cape May, aiid can sell an oyster of inferior quality to 
 those raised in Dennis, all of which go to Philadelphia for "prime" trade. The argument of the "Middle" men 
 is this: Last year (1879) we could buy Chesapeake seed at 18 cents, which became fit for market in two years. 
 For northern seed, at the same time, we had to pay 42 cents first cost and freight, and had to wait three years for it 
 to grow, all the time at the risk of destruction by ice. The selling-price of the two will not differ at the end in 
 favor of the northern stock more than $1 25 a barrel. A glance shows how much more profit lies in the southern 
 stock. One planter, a year ago, bought tolerably large southern seed at 38 cents a bushel. They are doing well, 
 and he expects that eigliteen months after putting them down he will sell them for $4 50 per barrel. Granting that 
 he takes up as many bushels as he put down (highly probable), he will make $1 42 per bushel profit. 
 
 Of the planters in this township — 
 
 26 sell a present average of 1,000 bushels a year 26, 000 
 
 67 sell a present average of 250 bushels a year 16,750 
 
 Total annual crop 42,750 
 
 The planters get $1 per bushel at the shore for their oysters this season, many selling on contracts previously 
 made with shippers to take their whole crop. A few send to market themselves. About one-fourth or one-third of 
 this crop goes to Cape May ; the rest (chiefly from Delaware shore) is sent to Philadelphia. 
 
 Statistical eeoapittjlation foe New Jersey (ocean shoee): 
 
 Number of planters .and shippers 855 
 
 Extent of ground cultivated acres.. 1,300 
 
 Value of shore-prnpcrty f75, 000 
 
 Number of vessels ami sail-boats engaged 675 
 
 V.aluo of same. Including small boats, etc $270,000 
 
 Number of men hired by planters and dealers 150 
 
 Anniial earnings of same 860, 000 
 
 Total number of families supported ..' 900 
 
 Annual sales of — 
 
 I. Native oysters bushels.. 250,000 
 
 Value of same $250,000 
 
 II. Chesapeake "plants" bushels.. 77,500 
 
 Value of same $60,000 
 
 Total value of oysters sold annually $310,000 
 
144 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 M. DELAWARE BAY. 
 
 43. NEW JERSEY AND DELAWARE SHORES OF DELAWARE BAY. 
 
 Eaely history. — The oysters of Delaware bay were prized by the earliest settlers, and there are frequent 
 allusions to this resource in the early narratives. Thomas Campanius Holm, chaplain to Governor Printz, in 1C4:2, 
 for instance, mentions " various kinds of shellfish, as oysters, lobsters, sea and land turtles, cockles and muscles ". 
 Speaking of Delaware bay, more particularly, he says : 
 
 There are oyster banks and an oyster strand all the way to Bomptie's Hook [now Bombay Hook] on both sides of the river; 
 these oysters are so very large that the meat alone is of the size of our oysters, shell and all. 
 
 Maxjeice cove: Topography and characteristics. — The center of the present oyster industry in the 
 Delaware bay and river, on the New Jersey shore, is at Maurice cove, in Cumberland county, which is reached 
 by the Cumberland and Maurice river railroad from Bridgeton. This shore is bordered all the way by extensive 
 marshes, through which innumerable small creeks find their way from the interior, and which contain many open 
 places called "ponds". Throughout these creeks and ponds, in the tide- ways and along the edges of the sedge- 
 plats and islands, oysters have always grown in great profusion. In addition to this the bottom of the bay and of 
 the Delaware river, from Cape May beach clear up to and a little above Cohansey point, at the southern end of 
 Salem county, a distance of not less than 50 miles, is everywhere spotted with oyster-beds. The same is true of 
 the opposite (western) shore, which will be considered in another chapter. These oyster-beds are not confined to 
 the shallow waters near shore, or to the sedge-plats, but are apparently scattered over the whole bottom of the 
 bay. Even the ship-channel, 90 fathoms deep, contains them, as experimental dragging shows. How this might 
 have been a century ago 1 know not; but such is the present condition. In Watson's Annals of Philadelphia, 1843, 
 I find some interesting facts stated in regard to this district. Mr. Watson says : 
 
 Having been at some pains to learn something of the present and past state of our oyster-beds in the bay, I have arrived at sundry 
 conclusions, such as these: that our fields of oysters, notwithstanding their constant delivery, are actually on the increase, and have 
 been augmenting in extent and quality for the last thirty and forty years. This fact, strange to the mind of many, is said to be 
 imputable to the great use of the dredging-machines, which, by dragging over a greater surface, clears the beds of impediments, and trails 
 the oysters beyond their natural position, and thus increases the boundaries of the field. These dredges are great iron rakes, attached to 
 the vessel by iron chains, and which trail through the oyster-beds while the vessel is moving over them by the force of the wind in her 
 sails. In this way many more oysters are dragged and loosened from the mud than the rake will take up, and thus are left free to 
 propagate another future supply. 
 
 It is said to bo a false kindness to oysters to let them alone, as they did in New York to their famous "Blue Points", by a protecting 
 law, which served only to have them so covered with mud as to actually destroy them. 
 
 An old oystorman informed me, as au instance of the increase of oyster-beds, that he used to visit a little one, thirty years ago, of 
 one to two hundred feet long, and growing, known as the new led. There is a field of size, also beds of size, off Benj. Davis' point, and 
 Maurice river, New Jersey, and off Mahant's river, Delaware side. Since the formation of the Breakwater, lobsters and black-fish have 
 come there iu quantities. By and by we may exi)eet much increase of them there. It is discovered to be a fact, in all the ponds foimd 
 in the sedge marshes lining the two shores of the Delaware, that in them are found the best oysters, and that in one of them called the 
 Ditch, which is au artificial canal cut into the marsh, fine oysters are always to be fished out. It has been remarked by my informant, 
 and corroborated by others, that although oysters are found in salt-water, they will not bear to be removed to water which is s.alter. 
 Experiments have been made of hanging a basket of bay oysters over the vessel's side exposed to the Salter sea-water, and they have 
 been found to die iu twelve hours. Hence the necessity of i>lanting them in waters less salt, or at least not Salter than their native beds. 
 Those caught after a copious rain are said to be much finer than those taken from the same place before the rain. 
 
 The oyster is of a tenacious nature, attaching its gelatinous substance to almost all bodies with which it comes in contact — such 
 as wood, iron, or stone. When they are found attached to glass bottles, they arc always found much fatter for it. 
 
 Those who make a business of transplanting come early in the season, and carry them away in their boats to the inland waters 
 about Egg Harbor, etc., from whence they are taken in the fall quite fat, and carried overland to the city market .and sold as Egg 
 Harbor oysters. 
 
 Not all of this quotation may be wholly relevant, but there is so much in it that I have thought it no harm to 
 give it all. 
 
 Special legislation previous to 1856. — So important had the oyster-fisheries in this region become thirty 
 years ago, that they were the subject of much special legislation, which appears in the revised statutes of 1856. 
 These laws are substantially as follows : 
 
 Section 1. Authorizes the board of chosen freeholders of Cumberland county to occupy for twenty years, for the use hereinafter stated, 
 Maurice river cove within the following boundaries: " Beginning at low- water nuark, directly opposite East point, in the township of 
 Maurice river, Cumberland county, and running thence a south course to the main ship channel ; thence by a straight line to low-water 
 mark, directly opposite to Egg Island point, in the township of Downe, in said county, and thence by low-water mark the several 
 courses and distances of the shore bordering on the said cove, and covering the mouths of the sever.al streams that empty into said cove, 
 to the place of beginning." But the "natural oyster-beds in Maurice river cove or Delaware bay, known severally as the Eiist point 
 beds, Andrews' ditch beds, the Pepper beds, and the Ballast beds, and the beds that fall bare .at low tide, shall not be occupied for planting 
 oysters, nor dredged upon, nor shall oysters be taken from the said beds, nor from any of the rivers or creeks of Cumberl.and county, for the 
 purpose of planting (but all citizens of this state shall have free access to thim to catch oysters for their own use)", under heavy 
 penalties for violation. 
 
 Sec. 2. Authorizes the board of chosen freeholders of Cumberland county to appoint one or more persons, holding ofSce for one year, 
 to stake ofl' the said cove and m.ike a survey anil map of the shores and laud covered with water, a copy of which shall be filed in the 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 145 
 
 couuty clerk's office, and "to lay off and cause to be marked by stakes sncli siilidi visions of said cove, not exceeding ten acres each as in 
 their discretion shall si'ciu best designed to promote the jilauting and growth of oysters; provided, the navigation of said cove be in no 
 wise ()l)structe<l thereby; 2>''oi'kled, that no iterson shall own more than ten acres, and no company more than thirty acres." 
 
 Sec. 3. And it shall be lawful for the said commissioners, after subdividing the said cove, as aforesaid, to lease the same at public 
 vendue to the highest bidders, for not less than one nor more than five years; the bidders shall in all cases bo citizens of the state and 
 shall pay the sum bid annually during the term of the lease. Upon the payment or securing the payment of this annual rent the bidder 
 shall he entitled to the exclusive use of the designated laud for the purpose of plauting oysters during the term specified in the lease. 
 
 Sec. 4. Makes the penalty for trespassing upon or removing oysters from the leased oyster-lots, without written permission of tho 
 owner, liability to treble damages; for second otienso fine not exceeding $100, imprisonment for 60 days, or both. 
 
 Sec. 5. Enjoins upon the commissioners the enforcing of penalties and forfeitures against non-resident oflenders and the collection 
 of rents due; after paying needful expenses and receiving compensation awarded by the board of chosen freeholders, the residue of money 
 collected shall he applied to the public school fund. 
 
 Sec. 6. The commissioners shall make an annual report, under oath, of their proceedings and money transactions. 
 
 Sec. 7. Excepts all natural beds from the operation of this law, which took effect April 1, 1857. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTS. 
 
 Sec. 8. Every boat or vessel lawfully catching, pl.anting, and growing oysters on the flats and grounds of Delaware bay and Maurice 
 river cove, adjoining the counties of Cumberland and Cape May, shall be assessed anuually $5 upon all boats and vessels not exceedinn- 
 five tons, and $1 per ton, custom-house measurement, upon all boats and vessels exceeding ten tons. This assessment to be paid by the 
 master of the vessel to the collector of the oyster-fund, between March 1 and May 1 of each year. 
 
 Sec. 9. Appoints G. Compton special officer, to enforce the law, at a salary of $.500 per year. 
 
 Sec. 10. Pro\'ides that the said special officer shall occupy an office at Port Norris, where complaints of the violation of the oyster- 
 laws may be made. This officer may " arrest any person or jiersons found stealing oysters in Maurice river cove or Delaware bay, or from 
 the banks in Maurice river, or in any of the rivers or creeks of Cumberlaud county; and any person or persons convicted of such oftense 
 shall, for every bushel of oysters found in his or their possession, pay the siim of $1 50, and shall also, for every such oftense forfeit and 
 pay the sum of .§100. It shall be the duty of all citizens, when called upon, to aid the special officer in making seizures or arrests, and 
 any citizen, or captain, or commander of sail- or steam-vessel who refuses said aid shall pay §50 fine. 
 
 Sec. 11. Appoints a collector of the oyster-fund of Maurice river cove, who shall assess and collect all dues from vessels ; shall issue 
 certified Licenses, holding force for one year, to all captains of boats and vessels who shall pay the taxes heretofore required, permitting 
 them to engage in catching or planting oysters ; shall refuse licenses to all boats or vessels not complying with tho conditions of this act" 
 shall pay the salary and expenses incurred by the special officer; and shall himself receive for this service 5 per centum of all moneys ho 
 collects. 
 
 Sec. 12. The collector shall keep true records of his transactions, record all licenses, etc., and furnish bonds in $-i,000 for the faithful 
 performance of these duties. 
 
 Sec. 13. Every captain, upon taking out the beforementioned license, sh.all take oath that he will at all times diligently aid in tho 
 enforcement of tho laws of New Jersey for the preservation of clams and oysters, and will promptly report to the special officer any 
 knowledge of any violation of said laws : and .any captain refusing to take out said license and m.-ike said oath, shall forfeit his right to 
 catch or plant oysters in Delaware bay or Maurice river cove, and if found doing so shall inciu; the penalties of a trespasser as heretofore 
 prescribed. 
 
 Sec. 14. The proceeds of all property seized and sold shall be paid to the collector for the benefit of the oyster-fund. (As a rule, 
 one-half of all fines are similarly appropriated. ) 
 
 Sec. 15. All persona growing oysters in Maurice river cove are authorized to meet annually on the first Tuesday of March, at Port 
 Norris, and, having organized into a meeting, they may elect by ballot aspecial officorand a collector, to serve for one year ensuing, .at a 
 aahary which m.ay then be fixed; and shall elect an auditing committee of five members, whose duty it shall be to examine .and audit the 
 accounts and vouchers of tho collector of tho oyster-fund, and report upou them at each annual meeting. This meeting is also authorized, 
 by the consent of two-thirds of those present and entitled to vote, to raise a tax of $1 ]>er ton per annum upou all boats of over five tons 
 measurement, in addition to the (ax heretofore imposed by this act ; said additional tax to be imposed for one year only at a time, and not 
 to be continued except by consent of two-thirds of the voters at a subsequent meeting. 
 
 Sec. 16. Whenever, at the end of a fiscal year, the oyster-fund, after expenses are paid, shall exceed .$3,000, the collector shall p.ay 
 the same to the state treasurer, to be apjilied to the 8upi>ort of the schools of the state. 
 
 Sec. 17. Forbids catching oysters "in Maurice river cove, or on any planting-ground in Delaw.are bay", between sunset and sunrise, 
 under penalty of .$50. 
 
 Sec. 18. Enacts that every boat or vessel lawfully catching or planting oysters in Delaware bay, to which a license is given (as 
 heretofore), " sh.all wear in the middle of the mainsail, * • ♦ a number painted in black, 18 inches long, and to be designated by the 
 license ". 
 
 Sec. 19. Superseded by act of 1880. 
 
 Sec. 20. Makes it lawful for any person who has been a resident of the state for six months to make a written application to the clerk 
 of the court of common pleas of the county in this state, whore the applicant resides, for a certificate setting forth that the applicant is a 
 resident (as above), is not engaged in planting oysters or clams, but desires to rake shellfish within the waters of this state from the natural 
 beds in Delaware b.ay, .and designating the boat which he intends to make use of. 
 
 Sec. 21. The clerk aforesaid having satisfied himself of the truth of the applicant's statements, shall thereupon issue to him a 
 certificate stating the facts as above. 
 
 Sec. 22. Upon presentation of tiiis certificate to the oyster-fund collector of Cumberland county, it shall be the duty of that officer 
 to issue to the applicant, without charge, except for fees, a license to gather clams, oysters, and shellfish upou the natur.al beds in Maurice 
 river cove aud Delaware bay, on board the boat named in the license. 
 
 Sec. 23. Stipuhates small fees. 
 
 Sec. 24. Nothing herein shall affect the force of section 1 of the act of 1846. 
 
 The OTSTER?iTEN's ASSOCIATION : SPECIAL LICENSES.— Under ibis law an association of oystermcn was formed 
 
 and i.s still in existence. Each year tlie board of twelve directors, of whom Mr. Daniel Howell is president, fixes 
 
 the rate of taxation npon the vessels in the association, Avhich is deemed needful to cover the expenses of the 
 10 o 
 
146 THE FISHERIES OF TPIE UNITED STATES. 
 
 association. The cLlef outlay and main object of the association and fund, is the jiroviding of a watch-boat and 
 police crew, which shall watch the beds in the cove against thieves and arrest all boats that do not show, by a 
 munber ui the middle of the mainsail, that they have a license. Last year (1870) from 227 boats licensed, aboiit 
 $2,000 was collected by Mr. Benjamin Camjibell, the collector at Port Norris. This year (1880) the fee is 50 cents 
 per ton, custom-house measurement, and the total fees will amount to more than before, since 255 boats are already 
 licensed. 
 
 The license given by the association reads as follows : 
 
 Special license, No. . 
 
 By autbority of tlic state of New Jersey : 
 
 of county, state of New Jersey, having paid the sum of dollars, license is hereby granted to the 
 
 said to catch, plant, and grow oysters in Delaware bay and Maurice river cove, in the state of New Jersey, one year from 
 
 date, in conformity with the provisions of an act of the legislature of New Jersey, entitled "An act for the better enforcement in Maurice 
 river cove and Delaware Ijay of the act entitled ' An act for the preservation of clams and oysters ', apjiroved April fourteenth, eighteen 
 hundred and forty-sis, and the supplements thereto", which act was approved March twenty-hrst, eighteen hundred and seventy-one. 
 
 This license is to bo used by the said as captain or commander of the called the , of , state of New Jersey, 
 
 of tons burden, and numbered in the middle of the mainsail. 
 
 Given under my hand and seal of office, at this day of eighteen hundred and eighty . 
 
 . [L. S.] 
 
 Annexed to the counteqiart of this license, which is filed in the office of the collector, is a printed oath, by 
 which the captain swears that he will obey and help enforce the laws of the state for the protection of the oyster- 
 fisheries, upon all occasions. 
 
 The obligations of living up to these regulations are avoided by many irresponsible boat-owners, who, rather 
 than i)ay the assessment and enter the association, prefer to take their chances of arrest, and forfeit whatever 
 advantages the association may have to offer. The watch-boat is therefore kejjt busy looking after home 
 delincjuents, rather than thieves from abroad. The captain of this watch-boat receives $130 a month pay, and 
 pro\i(les his <iwn crew out of it. He carries three to five men, but in case of any emergency calls upon anybody 
 at hand to render help, and he is bound to obey. 
 
 In the case of the oyster-boats controlled wholly at home, it is a general rule that the men go on shares. The 
 vessel takes one-third of all receipts and the crew divide the rest, paying the captain's "grub bill" in addition. 
 If each man makes $500 a year by this arrangement, he does very well. The crews are made up of residents of the 
 state, at least of residents of six months' standing. When a crew is hired, the wages are from $20 to $10 a month 
 and board. 
 
 As usual, where the oyster-business has become of great dimensions and planting is carried on on a large scale, 
 there are a number of persons who are, to a greater or less extent, dejirived of real or imaginary benefits and 
 jirivileges which they enjoyed under a more primitive condition of things. From the inclosed river and ponds, 
 and also from the outside waters of the bay sotithward of Egg island, large numbers of large-sized and sweet 
 oysters have always been taken and sent to market or peddled through the neighborhood. When planting-beds 
 were so greatly increased in Maurice river cove, the shore peojile found that the diligent search for young oysters 
 through the marshes, and the persistent dredging during three-fourths of the year, were sensibly diminishing the 
 supply of marketable oysters attainable by the small open boats. Of these there are fifty or more owned along 
 shore. They are too small to come under the association's tax ; do not belong to planters, but are owned by men 
 who live near the shore, and gain a large part of their livelihood by longing and hand-dredging. These peoi)le, 
 owing to misfortune or improvidence, are too poor to i)lant ; but can do well if they are allowed to catch all the 
 year round in the sonthern part of the bay, where all the oysters taken are of marketable size. For the protection 
 of this class, therefore, against any possible rapacity of more fortunate and powerful neighbors, the legislature this 
 year jiassed a law which gives general satisfaction. This makes it unlawful "to catch oysters from any of the 
 natural beds in Delaware bay, north of a line bearing southwest from the mouth of Sow and Pigs creek, in the 
 county of Cumberland, from the last day of June in each year to the first day of April in the succeeding year, and 
 no oysters shall be caught south of said line for the purpose of planting at any season of the year; and any person 
 offending against either of the provisions of this section shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor". Punishments 
 are a fine of $100, or imprisonment, with forfeiture of the craft and all its furniture. 
 
 Oysters and oysteeing at Maitkice coye. — A large part of the oysters sold from Maurice cove are of 
 natural growth and do not become improved by transplanting. Many of them do not even require to be freshened 
 on the "board-banks" before being taken to market. This is the case with those obtained ofl' Egg island. These 
 excellent wild oysters are dredged from all dei>ths, six to eight fathoms of line being the ordinary amount used, 
 however. Successful dredging has been done, however, in all parts of the southern half of Delaware bay, even in 
 mid-channel, where the water is more than 500 feet deep. This deep dredging is unprofitable, however, and not 
 practiced; but that oysters exist there has been shown by experiment, as I was positively assured by Daniel T. 
 Howell, esq., of IMauricetown, who gave me many interesting notes upon this region. 
 
 While the dredging for natural oysters can only be done by the large boats properly fitted with improved 
 windlasses and deep-water appaiatus, large quantities of seed are furnished the planters from the creeks and 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 147 
 
 marshes, by men who pick them up or tong them, using small boats. This seed varies according to locality. In 
 Dividing creeli and southward it is very poor, with thin shells, and is used to be replanted in inclosed ponds. 
 From the Maurice river and northward better seed is brought, and good, natural- growth oysters are tonged up and 
 sold to wagoners, who peddle them through all the southwestern counties of the state at from 50 cents to $1 a 
 bushel. One man in Mauricetown, who worked alone and in an open boat, is said to have sold between five and 
 six thousand dollars' worth of this stock in a single season, recently. 
 
 The Unlit of natural growth northward on the New Jersey shore of Delaware bay, is a little above Cohansey 
 point. All along the shore from here to Cape May the growth is solid, but out in the middle they grow in isolated 
 patches. All the northernmost beds are useful only as seed, and the protective law hitherto quoted was made in 
 the interest of about 1,000 families, who find their support in oystering along shore. This estimate of the number of 
 families supported is probably too low, and is derived from a pretty exact estimate of the number of men employed 
 in the vessels, obtained by the following survey: 
 
 In planting on the Jersey shore of Delaware bay, or, in other words, in Maurice cove, it is entirely fiiir to 
 estimate 300 boats engaged, since 255 are registered, and aboiit fifty, under five tons, are regularly working 
 unregistered, though all these do not plant, w^hile there are several others of large size which defy or neglect 
 registration. Most of these 300 boats are of good model and excellent build, as has already been hinted. Some 
 exceed 40 tons in burden, and an average value of $1,000, big and little, is not too high. This would give $300,000 
 as the total worth of the fleet on the western shore. 
 
 Now in planting native seed in the spring, for no southern seed of consequence is put on the eastern shore, 
 each of these 300 vessels will put down 20 deck loads of seed ; at 4:00 bushels to the deck load, this sums up 
 24,000,000 as the amount planted, in 6,000 trips. 
 
 These planting operations, and the subsequent marketing of the crop, cause the employment in these 300 
 vessels as crews, during ten months every year, of no less than 1,500 men, at five to each craft. All these are 
 required by law to be citizens of New Jersey. They receive an average of $25 a month and board as wages ; and 
 since it is impossible to separate those who work on shares, from those who accept a salary — something which is 
 incessantly changing — it is safe to calculate as though all were hired. Fifteen hundred men at $25 a month, for 
 ten months, gives the sum of $375,000 annually expended as wages by the owners of the Maurice cove beds. In 
 addition to this the board of the crews, at the rate of about $40 a month in each vessel, aggregates $120,000. The 
 cost of repairs upon a vessel engaged in such a work as these are, and of their size, will be stated low at $300 a 
 year for the first five or ten years ; I believe it to be more. At that rate $90,000 a year, in cash, is paid out for 
 "running expenses". 
 
 If you should ask one of these planters how his crop compares with the amount of seed he put down, probably 
 you would be told he could not tell. From much study of the matter, I believe the following statement to represent 
 nearly the truth : 
 
 To bring the oysters raised on the Jersey shore of Delaware bay to market, each one of those 300 boats makes ten 
 trips a season, and on each trip brings 500 bushels. This is an average estimate, but it is so far below the line of 
 safety, in my opinion, that to the total I propose to add 17,000 bushels, in order to get a "round" figiire. Multiplying 
 3,000 trips (300 boats by 10) into 500 bushels a trip, gives 1,500,000 bushels as the total of oysters that are sent to 
 the Philadelphia market by water from Jlaurice cove. By rail, as I have said, came 83,000 in 1879 ; but in 1S80 
 this was reported increased, and to it may be safely added 17,000, making an even 100,000, or 1,000,000 bushels as 
 the total product. 
 
 Now what is this worth? I have used, heretofore, in general calculations, a dollar as representing a bushel. 
 It will hold from the Delaware capes to Boston. See how near an actual calculation brings it here. All the west 
 Jersey oysters that go to market are either " primes" (first quality) or " cuUens" (second), and in the ratio of one 
 of the former to two of the latter. The ordinary price for cnlleus has been 80 cents, and of primes $1 50 ; adding and 
 dividing gives $1,033 as the average value. This, remember, is the amount paid to the planters, and, consequently, 
 distributed to a great extent at home in New Jersey, but not wholly, for a large part of the ownership of the oysters 
 is held in Philadelphia. Summarizing the foregoing produces the following tabulation : 
 
 Number of vessels , - 300 
 
 Value of same |300,000 
 
 Number of boats 800 
 
 Number of meu employed 1,600 
 
 Wages ($375,000) and board ($120,000) S49r>,000 
 
 Amount of seed planted bushels.. 2,400,000 
 
 Amount of crop raised bushels.. 1,000,000 
 
 Value of same $1,600,000 
 
 Amount of ground necessary acres... 6,000 
 
 Probable actual value . .'. $50,000 
 
 Western shore of Pelaware bay. — Let us now cross over to the western shore of Delaware bay, which 
 is equally suitable with the eastern, and h;is long been employed in planting oysters. The business now is on the 
 increase, but it is ehietly in the hands of Philadelphia firms. 
 
148 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The natural beds of oysters— "rock-oysters" is the local term— are confined practically to the shore between the 
 mouth of Mahon river and Bombay hook. Though formerly far more productive, probably, than now, it is from 
 an area of little, if any, greater width that Philadelphia, and the states of Pennsylvania and Delaware generally, 
 have always obtained their oysters. Not forgetting this great food-resource, in advertising the advantages of his 
 colony, the astute William Penn wrote, in 1G83 : 
 
 Of fhcU-lifb, we liavo oyfters, crabs, coccles, conchs, and mufcles; Jtbme oyfters fix inches long, and one fort of coccles as big as tlie 
 ftewiiig oyfters. Tliey miilco a rich broth. 
 
 In Smith's History of New Jersey is quoted a manuscript from the British Museum, and written in 1669, which 
 notes : 
 
 Two leagues from Cape Cornelius, on the west side of the river [the Delaware], near its mouth, there is a certain creek called the 
 Hoeren Kill. ' » * There are two small islands in it, the first very small, the last about half a league in circumference. • » * The 
 two islands are surrounded with a muddy ground, in which there grows the best sort of oysters, which said ground begins near the first 
 island, for the mouth of the channel has a sandy bottom, being also very deep, and therefore there are no oysters there. 
 
 The locality of this is evidently Lewes-Town, at the mouth of the bay. Somewhat later, under date of October 
 8, 1745, Kalm records that " the shore of Pennsylvania has a great quantity of the finest oysters. * * * They 
 come from that part of the shore which is near the mouth of the river Delaware". Three years later Kalm writes : 
 Aged people » » • complaiued here [Pliiladelphia] and everywhere of the decreafe of fif h. Old people afferted the fame in 
 regard to oyfters at New York ; for though they are ftill taken in confiderable quantity, and are as big and as delicious as can be wif hed, 
 vet all the oyfter-catchers own that the number dimiuif hes greatly every year ; the moft natural caufe of it is probably the immoderate 
 catching of them at all times of the year. 
 
 Only portions of this bottom, which extend over about 16 miles, are now productive when dredged, however, 
 and Capt. D. C. Montgomery, whose experience is very large, considers that 500 acres would probably cover the 
 total area of " oyster- rock " in the whole distance. These beds are not now as productive as formerly, and are not 
 spreading to any extent. This is considered due to the excessive working of them in both spring and fall, combined 
 with absence of any dredging in early summer. They are thus allowed to become covered ^^^th drifted matter, and 
 coated with slime for several weeks prior to the spawning season (July), and are thus in no condition to catch and 
 save the floating youug. As a consequence the greater part of the northern-born seed used is imported from outside 
 waters. South of a line drawn eastward from Mahon river the law (of 1871) recognizes no natural beds, "except 
 such as may not be more than three feet below the surface at an ordinary low water". 
 
 Delaware oystee-laws. — The laws regrdating oyster and clam catching and cultivation on this Delaware 
 shore are voluminous, and I quote them with particular care, as annexed : 
 
 State of Delaware— Digest of 1873 — Chap. 55. 
 
 Section 1. Forbids any person not a citizen of the state to take oysters or clams or terrapins in the waters of the bay without having 
 a license, which license shall be granted at a cost of $50 by a county clerk of the peace, and shall be good for one year for the boat named. 
 Viohition of this section shall be a misdemeanor, fined $50, and the boat and tackle sh.all l)e detained for trial before any justice of the 
 peace. Powers are given to sheriffs to seize, and penalties for resistance of process are decreed at length. 
 
 Sec. 2. Makes it unlawful for <iny person not a citizen of the state to take oysters, clams, or terrapins from .any "river, creek, or pond 
 within this state, and put them on board of any boat cr vessel not wholly belonging to and owned by citizens of this state ". Penalties for 
 violation as in section 1. 
 
 Sec. 3. All oysters caught in any such river, creek, or pond (except Misspillion or Murderkill creeks), shall be culled at the place where 
 they are caught ; and the young and refuse oj'sters there deposited. 
 
 Sec. 4. Forbids taking away from any river, creek, or pond (except Delaware and Indian river), more than 20 bushels of oysters or 
 clams at one time ; and no vessel in any waters of this state shall be loaded from any vessels authorized by this section to carry 20 bushels 
 or less. 
 
 Sec. 5. It shall be unlawful for any person to take oysters from any river, creek, or pond in this sLate, between April 30 and September 
 1, or at any time to be planted anywhere else in or out of the state, or to use a dredge there. Violation incurs fines and confiscation of 
 vehicle and oysters obtained. 
 
 Sec. 6. Prohibits selling more than five bushels of oysters from Misspillion creek to be taken out of the state. 
 
 Sec. 7. Any citizen of the state may appropriate to his own use not exceeding an acre of bottom for planting oysters, and, having 
 marked the same by st.akes or other visible bound.aries, and planted oysters therein, it shall be unlawful for any other person to take 
 oysters therein growing, under penalty of forfeiting .^50 to the owner of such plantation. But no place shall be so .appropriated where 
 oysters are growing, or so as to impede navigation ; nor shall more than 40 feet square of Lewes creek be appropriated by any person. 
 
 Sec. 8. Forbids laying out or bedding oysters on the flats, shore, or bank of any stream. 
 
 Sec. 9. Protects terrapin eggs. 
 
 Chap. 551. 
 
 Section 1. Every person or comp.any engaged in the business of opening oysters in this state for exportation, amounting to more than 
 $500, shall take out a license. 
 
 Sec. 2. This license shall be granted by a clerk of the peace for $30, good for one year. 
 Secs. 3 to 7. Instructions to officers, etc. 
 
 Laws of 1871— Ciiap. 9. 
 
 Section 1. All oyster-plantations, not exceeding 15 acres, heretofore made in Delaware bay, shall be deemed the possession of the 
 respective planters of them, and the oysters thereon shall be their private property, on condition that rent sh.ill be paid .as hereinafter 
 provided, beginning May 1, 1871. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTEY. 149 
 
 Sec. 2. Any person may appropriate not exceeding 15 acres of the free liottoni of Delaware bay, south of Keedy island and west of 
 Blake's channel, for planting oysters, which shall be properly designated by stakes. This ground, and the oysters planted thereon, shall 
 be private property. " Bnt before any one shall avail himself of this privilege he shall apply, in writing, to the said collector for a license 
 for that purpose, and pay to said collector the snm of §25 as tlie fee and price therefor, and also the sum of $3 per ton (custom-house 
 measurement) for the vessel to be employed iu the business of planting. The said license shall last only for one year. » » • fhe 
 pri-iilege granted by this, and the lirst section, shall not embrace any porti<m of the bottom which is a natural oyster-bed, and has been 
 hitherto used and worked as such, nor shall it be extended beyond the mere right to plant oysters and hold them as property." 
 
 Sec. 3. No person not a resident of the state, or a regularly licensed planter, shall dredge or otherwise take oysters from any public oyster- 
 bed of this state ; penalty, 8100 for each day's offense and forfeiture of all boats and tackle. " The fee for license to dredge the public bods 
 shall be $3 per ton (custom-house measurement), * » * but such license shall not be taken to authorize the planting of oysters." 
 
 Sec. 4. " The dift'erent plantations shall be treated as numbered in the order iu which the licenses to plaut are issued under this act, 
 and the boat or vessel used » ♦ • shall wear that number painted in black, at least 18 inches long, iu the middle of her mainsail." 
 And also " shall wear, in the middle of her mainsail, a Roman letter iiainted iu black, 18 inches long, to be designated iu the license". 
 
 Sec. 5. For the purpose of protecting the oyster-beds iu the bay, and those who i)lant oysters under this act, the collector of license-fees 
 is iustructed to purchase or hire out of the money collected a suitable " watch-boat", manned by a captain and two men. She shall bo 
 employed night and day from March 1 to September 1, or longer, and may call upon any other boat's crew to help her as a jiosne comiialus, in 
 the enforcement of this act against trespassers. The jiroceedings to be taken subsequent to arrest and upon conviction, with disposal of 
 tines, are fully stated. 
 
 Secs. 6, 7, 8. Instructions to captain of watch-boat as to powers and duties, and statement of form of proceedings against offenders, 
 and penalties for those wlro resist the police. 
 
 Sec. 9. Forbids anii one dredging in July or August, or on Sunday, or between sunset and sunrise. 
 
 Sec. 10. Taking of oysters from another's plantations is designated to be larceny, and punished accordingly. 
 
 Sec. 11. Forbids deijositing oysters iu any streams iu this state and taking them up in July or August, except with tongs. 
 
 Sec. 12. An oath is required of every person taking out a license, that he will not violate or allow his vessel to bo used in violation 
 of this act. 
 
 Sec. 13. A license applies to only one vessel, whose name must be stated therein. 
 
 Sec. 14. The governor shall furnish suitable licenses in blank to the collector. 
 
 Sec. l.'j. The collector shall bo appointed by the" governor of the state ; he shall take oath of office and give penal surety. 
 
 Sec. 16. The duty of the collector shall be to enforce this act ; when so engaged the watch-boat shall be under his ortlers, and he is 
 clothed with all needful powers. 
 
 Sec. 17. Creates a new justice of the peace at Little Creek Landing, Kent county, specially to admiuister this law. 
 
 Sec. 18. Compensation of collector fixed at 5 per cent, of moueys collected, not to exceed §1,000 ; of captain of watch-boat, $80 per 
 month ; and of crew, .'jjilO per month each, they finding their own board, to be paid out of funds collected. 
 
 Sec. 19. Moneys collected to be for the use of the state, except what is needed for expenses under the act. 
 
 Sec. 20. Publication of the act. 
 
 Sec. 21. In case of the use of a boat of only two tons burden, the license shall cost only $25. 
 
 Laws of 1875. 
 
 Section 1. Instructs all oyster-boats acting under Delaware laws not only to cease their occupation, but to be taken " within the land " 
 at or before sunset, and the captain of the w;xtch-boat must enforce this. A signal for retiring shall be given from the watch-boat; and 
 when that is shown there shall be an end, until sunrise next day (not Sunday), of all work upon the oyster-plantations or upon the public 
 beds. Such signal shall be the lowering of the watch-boat's flag. This flag shall be of navy-blue bunting, six feet by four iu leugth, 
 with a diamond of white in the center, having a diameter of two feet between the jioints farthest apart. She shall always wear it at her 
 maintopmast head duriug the working hours, and she shall never leave the plantiug-grouuds,^ but sh.all cruise up and down the same, if 
 the wiud will allow, except when she is compelled, liy floating ice, severe stress of weather, accident, or want of repairs or supplies, from 
 remaining in the bay, it beiug the design of passiug this act, as it was of passing prior acts, that honest parties who plant oysters under 
 the shield of the state authority, shall be protected in the rights which were intended or are hereby meant to be secured to them; and 
 that offenders against such authority shall be brought to condign punishment. 
 
 Secs. 2, 3. Prescribes as penalties for violation of section 1, annulment of license, forfeiture of boat and equipment, and refusal of 
 license for two years succeeding the oft'euse. The exact method of procedure before the court, in executing trial and penalties, is set 
 forth at length. 
 
 Sec. 4. Where a plantation license has been issued and a plantation appropriated, and the fee for any year is in arrear, no right to 
 dredge or dispose of said phintaf ion shall exist until all the back fees are paid up, and no sale or disposal of an oyster-plantation, or right 
 to dredge it, or plant upon it, shall bo valid until first approved by the collector, who shall not give his approval if, in his judgment, it 
 will bo prejudicial to the interests of the state, or of planters whose plantations lie in the neighborhood. 
 
 Sec. 5. No boat whatever shall be allowed to work, until her owuer has complied with the law in regard to wearing her number, of 
 legal dimensions, upon her mainsail; and if she attempt to do so she shall be seized by the collector or captain of the watch-boat, and 
 held until her number is painted upon her sail. 
 
 Sec. 6. It shall be the duty of the person for the time beiug in charge of the watch-boat, to report at once to the collector all 
 violations » » » ^ ^nd a failure to do so shall be a forfeiture of any wages that may be due him ; and further, he shall not bo allowed 
 any longer to have charge of the watch-boat, and his place therein shall be vacant * » » . The possession or having the care and 
 management of any oyster-boat shall, for the purposes of this act, be deemed and taken to be conclusive proof of ownership * » * , and 
 all persons on board of her at the time of such violation, shall be deemed and taken to bo principal offenders, and be dealt with 
 accordingly. 
 
 Sec. 7. It shall be the duty of the collector and the captain of the watch-boat to see that the name of any boat employed in planting 
 or dredging for oysters, is plainly painted on her stern, and failure to do thi.s, or a eonccaliuent of the name, shall be punished by annulment 
 of license and a refusal of license ever after. 
 
 Sec. 8. It shall be the further duty of the collector and captain to ascertain, at least once every month, and keep a record thereof, 
 the name of the owner of every boat employed in the oyster-business, and those on bo.ard of her shall give it to him, aud the name given 
 shall be taken to be the true namfe of such owuer, who shall be held » * » an accessory before the fact to any violation * * * of 
 this or the aforesaid acts, aud liable accordingly. In case refus.al be made to furnish the name of the owner, or there should be reason to 
 believe that the true name is not given, it shall bo the duty of those ofiicers, respectively, to immediately take the boat itself into his 
 
150 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 custody, and detain her until the proper and rif;bt name Tie furnished ; and to that end he shall have power to call upon and require, as he 
 may in every other case of necessity, the sheriff of the county to aid him, which sheriff may employ any force or means whatever for tliat 
 purpose. 
 
 Sbcs. 9 and 10. No license to plant oysters shall he granted, until the applicant shall furnish the collector with a statement of the 
 boat or ho.ats to be employed by him in the business, giving separate name and tonnage, and the name of the owner and the persons who 
 are to work her. 
 
 Sec. 11. The state treasurer shall require from the collector » * » information, on the first day of June and September, of each 
 year, of the names and residences of all persons having license to plant oysters or dredge for them, and the names of the boats used in 
 the business. 
 
 Sec. 12. When the captain of the watch-boat has knowledge of a violation of any of the provisions of this, or the other acts with 
 which this is connected, he shall proceed immediately to seize the boat or boats employed in such violation, and hold her or them in his 
 custody, until the collector has proceeded to enforce the provisions of this and the other of said acts. 
 
 Sec. 13. Neither the captain of the watch-boat, nor any of her crew, shall receive any jiay for time not actually and actively spent 
 in the discharge of the duties required by this act, and the act to which this is a supplement, but such time shall be deducted in the 
 computation of their wages. 
 
 Sec. 14. The captain and crew of the watch-boat shall be practical seamen, and part of their duty shall be to keep the boat, her 
 apparel, tackle, and furniture, in good repair and con<litiou, and this without extra charge; and no repairs involving extra expense, shall 
 be made without the concurrence of both the collector and captain, and then only such as are authorized by law. 
 
 Sec. 15. The collector shall issue no license, nor permit any boat to dredge, until tlie price or fee for said license has been actually 
 paid, and the collector violating this provision shall not only be responsible for said license fee, but shall, in addition thereto, forfeit a 
 like sum to the state. 
 
 Sec. 16. The collector shall keep a true, accurate list of all licenses issued by him, giving the name of every boat and captain 
 thereof, respectively, with the amount paid for each license, which Hat he shall publish in at least one newspaper in Dover, the first week 
 in Ajiril and October each year. 
 
 Sec. 17. The collector shall keep n separate account, in the Farmers' bank at Dover, of all moneys received by him for license issued, 
 and shall deposit weekly all moneys received by him therefor ; and all disbursements which he is, or may be, authorized by law to make, 
 shall be by checks drawn on said fund in his official capacity. 
 
 Sec. 18. When the boundary stakes required by the act to which this is a supplement, have once been set, it shall be neither a defense 
 nor excuse for any person prosecuted for a violation of any of the provisions of this act, or the act to which this is a supplement, that they 
 were not stauiling or visible at the time the alleged offense was committed ; but if the person accused be proved to have taken oysters 
 anywhere but on his own ground, ho may be properly convicted. 
 
 Sec. 19. Repeals section 6 of chapter 363, laws of 1873. 
 
 Sec. 20. The sum of $300 is to be set apart annually, from the oyster- fund of Kent county, to the improvement of certain roads along 
 the shore. "And in order to facilitate such improvement, it shall be the duty of all oystermen to land and deposit their oyster-shells on 
 shore, at some convenient place to said road, so that they may be used in said repairs, and it shall be unlawful to empty or throw such 
 shells into the water, unless the distance from the place shall be so great as to make it unreasonable to land and deposit them as aforesaid, 
 of which unreasonableness the collector and road-overseer shall concurrently be the judges." 
 
 Sec. 21. The foregoing act to be printed and distributed to owners of boats. 
 
 Under the operation of these laws there were registered, in 1879, 62 boats. The proceeds of their license-fees 
 amounted to $5,324. The statistics for ISSO were not available iu time for this writing, but will not greatly differ 
 from those of the previous year. Many of the boats take out a dredging-license only, and do not pay the extra $25 
 which entitles them to jjlant. Out of the whole C>2 boats, only six or eight belong at Little Creek Landing, the 
 headquarters of the native oyster-business, and probably there are not more than a dozen sail-boats, employing 50 
 citizens, iu all Delaware, owned and engaged in thie shellflsheries, the remainder belonging at Philadelphia and 
 elsewhere. To a great extent, thei-efore, this trade is operated out of the same capital, by the same men, and 
 contributes to the same total means of support, as the West Jersey planting. 
 
 Oyster-PL ANTING: West shore of Delaware bay. — The western shore of Delaware bay is the great 
 scene of planting the sourhern oysters, which are brought annually from the Chesapeake and intended for the 
 Philadelphia market; but, for the present, I will pass by this, and confine myself to an account of the less imjiortaut 
 business of raising northern oysters from native seed. 
 
 As no work is done during summer, the oysterman's year of labor begins on the 1st of Septeml)er. It is in the 
 fall that he procures nearly all the native seed that he proposes to plant, and his time is very fully occupied at that 
 season. Tliough continual dredging is pursued on the home-beds where natural oysters grow, by no means 
 sufticient seed is gathered there to supply the demand along this shore. I was informed that the inshore creek 
 beds along the coa.st of the state furnished la.st year about 40,000 bushels of seed, which would count 800 to the 
 bushel. The oft-shore beds, in the deeper waters of the bay, but within state limits, yielded about 170 000. In 
 addition to this, there were planted about 100,000 bushels of seed that grew on the New Jersey side of the bay, the 
 ])rocuring of which, and sale by the Jerseymen, was an evasion of the New Jersey law, and was managed in this way: 
 The New Jensey law prohibits talsing any seed from her beds to be planted outside of the state. The Jerseymen, 
 therefore, get a cargo of small oysters or halfcuUed drcdgings, and take it to the general market in Philadelphia. 
 If a buyer takes their cargo at a satisfactory price, it is regarded as no part of their business to inquire what he 
 proposes to do with it; nor can there be urged any valid technical ol)jection to this proceeding, .since the law does 
 not define what kind or size or condition of oysters shall be sohl ; or that oysters sold in open market shall not be 
 replanted by the buyer, if he chooses, outside the state. So long as he is not a resident of New Jersey, the law 
 can ofcour.se exerci.se no control over his actions in such a matter. This CA^asion, and its method, are perfectly well 
 understood by everybody concerned, and if there is a way to put a stop to it — the extreme desirability of which 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 151 
 
 does not appear — no one exerts himself to do so. Another method in vogue, is, for the regularly licensed boat 
 and crew of some man, who wishes to plant on the Delaware shore, to run out with the day's dredgiugs and, 
 under cover of Jiight, transfer the deck-load to some old schooner chartered in the Chesapeake or elsewhere out of 
 this region, for the purpose. The ostensible purpose, if discovered, is merely the trade in these oysters, but really 
 she runs across to the western shore, and lias thrown over her load before daylight, and returns the next night for 
 a second venture in blockade-running. The courts and the sentinels are very vigilant and strict, however, and 
 every now and then some of the Philadelphia men or some of the Jerseymen themselves are arrested and fined. It 
 is a widesijread opinion, however, that some of the provisions of the New Jersey law are unconstitutional, being 
 violations of inter-state comity, and an attempt at jurisdiction beyond the state's limits of power. The plea in 
 defense is, that when New Jersey entered the Union she relinquished none of the old colonial rights reserved to her 
 under the king's charter. It is not my intention to discuss this matter, which remains to be decided some day by 
 the Supreme Court of the United States. 
 
 The Delaware, or "western shore" planting-grounds, lie chiefly opposite the central part of the state, the 
 villages of Little Ci-eek Lauding and Mahon's Ditch, close to Dover, being the homes of most of the oystermen. 
 There is some desultory catching in Indian river at the southern extremity of the state, but of little consequence. 
 The beds are chiefly so near shore as to be in less than 10 feet depth of water, though some are as deep as 15 feet 
 at low tide. Various sorts of bottom occur, but stiff mud is preferred. In the course of a dozen years' planting 
 on such a spot, the mud, by accumulation of shells and refuse, is converted into a solid surface. It thus is made 
 suitable for the deposit of spawn and the growth of young oysters, which, proceeding continuously, reijlaces the 
 formerly barren bottom with a genuine natural bed or "oyster-rock". The title to the plot is not disputed, 
 however, as it would be in some districts, because of this change, and the ground becomes extremely valuable, 
 since it forms a natural nursery for the farm. 
 
 It is the custom to allow all northern seetl to lie over two winters before sending to market. There are 
 occa^-ional exceptions, but to dispose of a native bed at the end of a single year's growth is generally condemned, 
 and with wisdom. Under this arrangement, however, a large part of the plantation must lie idle every alternate 
 year ; and in view of this, many of the Delaware men comjilaiu that the limit of 15 acres, defined by the state-law 
 as the size of a single farm, is too small. It may be, considering the fact that, as I was assured, all the farms are 
 cultivated at present up to their full capacity. The growth of the business may now properly call for an 
 enlargement of the privileged holdings. 
 
 Taking up oysters: Season and tviethods. — The season for taking the crop opens in September, and 
 produces from Delaware waters fi-om five to ten thousand bushels annually of natural growth, large sized, 
 marketable oysters, but these are not always kept separate in shipment from the planted stock. In taking up 
 the jilanted beds of northern oysters, it is calculated that they shall yield, at the least, an equal measure to the 
 amount of seed put down. By count, however, there will not be more than half as many, showing that 50 per 
 cent, of the blisters perish. The profit, then, is almost wholly on the growth ; but as, after from eighteen months 
 to two years' waiting, the stock which cost, put down, say 25 cents, sells, bushel for bushel, at from 75 cents to 
 $1 25, the return is a very fair one. It is not always, however, that as much (by measure) comes up as goes down, 
 and I have estimated my total accordingly, at a deduction. 
 
 In the process of taking up a bed of oysters, here, each dredgeful is culled immediatelj' on board, and all the 
 " trash", that is, undersized oysters, shells, and refuse is saved, and at the end of the dredging is taken to the "idle- 
 ground", where afield of seed is growing, and emptied upon it. Much of this trash is aliv^e and will mature. 
 When, six months (or perhaps not until eighteen months) later, this idle-ground is overhauled and culled out for 
 miirket, it will be found to have been considerably reinforced by the " trash". A second good effect of this system 
 is, that it thoroughly scrapes clean the ground from which the season's salable crop is gathered — an advantage not 
 to be lightly estimated. 
 
 The season ends about May 1, when the sloops cease taking any more cargoes to market, for lack of stock to 
 carry. It is needless to say that nothing but occasional lots, by express, goes from this coast to Philadelphia by 
 rail. 
 
 In accordance with the law, a watch-boat, in the shape of a fast schooner, once a pleasure yacht, and hence 
 comfortably fitted up, patrols the beds every day and at night, whenever any danger is exijected, but ordinarily 
 comes into dock at Mahon's ditch each evening. 
 
 A r6sum6 of the facts given above, in regard to the planting of native oysters on the shores of the state of 
 Delaware, is as follows : 
 
 Location of beds off Little Creek landing. 
 
 Source of seed, both shores of Delaware bay. 
 
 Market, Philadelphia. 
 
 Price, 80 cents to $1 50 per bushel. 
 
 Number of vessels (partially) engaged, C5. 
 
 Number of bushels " natural growth" sold, 5,000. 
 
 Number of bushels " northern plants ", about 300,000. 
 
152 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Enemies and disasters. — The only enemy of consequence on these beds, seems to be the small boring-snails, 
 chiefly Urosalpinx, to which I have already frequently referred. The overhauling of the whole farm once every two 
 or three years ought to give ample opportunity to keep thi.s pest well in check, if suflicient care is taken to pick 
 out the borers of every kind and carry them ashore. Incessant attention to this, for a few years, by all the planters, 
 would practically extirpate an enemy which is likely at any time to become extremely destructive. 
 
 Starfishes are unknown here, and couchs not regarded as anything to be specially apprehended. There are 
 several fishes, however, allied to the weakflsh and the drumfish, which at intervals make a raid on the beds and do 
 much havoc. Occasional gales from the southeast also drift the mud injuriously. 
 
 A strange manifestation in September, on these beds, is the abundance of what is known to the fishermen as 
 " sea-grapes", and which seems to be the clustered egg-cases of some one or more species of squid. For a few days, 
 at the beginning of the season, these clusters of eggs so cram the dredges as to interfere with and delaj* the work. 
 Moreover, a hard storm, or even the disturbance made by the movement of the dredge, causes them to rise to the 
 surface, so buoyant are they, and to float aw-ay, carrying with them the oysters to which they were attached. 
 Considerable loss is thus occasioned at times. Otherwise they do no harm to the mollusks, so far as I know. 
 
 This shore is exposed to a long sweep of the winds and is wholly unsheltered. Gales, formidable enough to stir 
 up the deep water in which the oysters are laid, are therefore liable to work great mischief. This is most likely to 
 occur in the autumn. For exami^le, in the latter part of October, 1878, a great storm destroyed many thousands of 
 bushels by drifting them off the beds, or burying them under a bank of sand or sheet of mud. So violent was this 
 gale, that 27 oyster- vessels went ashore at Mahon's ditch alone, and several of them were set high and dry upon the 
 marshes. Most of these could be relaunched by making a canal from their involuntary drj^-dock ; but one or two 
 never could be got back to the water without more expense than they were worth, and were therefore dismantled 
 and left to decay. 
 
 Planting southern oysters in Delaware bat. — There remains now to be considered the great business 
 of transplanting and maturing southern oystei's in the waters off this shore. Though this stock is chiefly owned 
 in Philadeli)hia and operated by Pennsylvanians, yet its consideration belongs properly here, since the beds are 
 wholly in Delaware's %vaters. 
 
 The statistics I give in respect to this, were furnished me chiefly by Mr. J. C. Cleaver, collector of the 
 Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Company at Chesapeake City, Maryland, and refer to the last half of 1879 and 
 the first months of 1880, completing an "oyster-season". 
 
 All the southern oysters which are brought to Delaware bay or to Philadelphia, both for planting and for 
 immediate consumption, come through this canal, which leads from the Chesapeake. There may possiblj' be half 
 a dozen outside trips made (all from Chincoteague island), in the course of the year, but this is a small exception. 
 
 The vessels, as a rule, engaged in this traftic are " wood-droggers", schooners of light draught, and able to carry 
 from ."300 to 1,500 bushels. During the planting season they will average about 1,300 bushels per load, but when 
 running direct to market, in winter, carry only 900 bushels, the difference arising largely from an absence of any 
 deck-load in the latter case. The number of schooners thus used varies from year to year ; but the number of 
 trips during the season reported upon by Mr. Cleaver, was 808. At $100 a trip, charter-pay, these schooners earned 
 that year, therefore, $80,800. Sometimes an even $100 is given to make the trip, and sometimes a rate of about 
 $10 a day is paid, but it amounts substantially to the same thing. lu addition, the charterer pays the canal 
 expenses, consisting of entrance-toll, towage, and dues of 8.5 cents a ton on cargo, amounting in all to about $50. 
 The canal thus receives an annual revenue from this source of about $1,340. 
 
 The schooners range in value from $1,000 to $6,000. The owners pay the captain of such a schooner, who must 
 know all the little creeks and oyster-buying nooks along the whole Chesajieake coast, and be a capable man at a 
 bargain for his employers, about $50 i)er month. The men in the crews get $25. The provisions supplied by the 
 owners are said to be abundant and of good quality. 
 
 Among this fleet are about twenty-five " role captains ", who ow^n their vessels entirely, hire their own crew, 
 get cargoes from the south with their own money, and plant on beds claimed and prepared by themselves. 
 Attending to their plantations personally, they bring their cargoes to the market in the fall in their own schooners 
 or sloops, and leave them to be sold there on commission. They are thus both [)lanters and carriers. 
 
 During the fall and winter months most, if not all, of the vessels go directly to the Philadelphia market, 
 and their cargoes enter into the immediate consumjition of the city. Sales are made from the hull of the schooner, 
 without unloading into a warehouse. The number of trips made for this direct market consumption, makes only 
 about one-fourth of the total recorded as passing through the canal. Three-fourths of the oysters brought out of 
 the Chesapeake ai'c intended to be planted, and find their destination in the beds along the western shore of the 
 bay. The large dimensions of these receipts appear in the succeeding table from the Canal Company's books : 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 
 
 153 
 
 EeCOED of OYSTEBS in shell which passed THEOtJGH THE CHESAPEAKE CANAL IN 1879-'S0. 
 
 During months — 
 
 May . . 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September. 
 
 October 
 
 November . 
 December . 
 
 1870. 
 
 January , . 
 February . 
 
 Marcli 
 
 April 
 
 1880. 
 
 From Virginia 
 
 waters. 
 
 31,080 
 7,740 
 
 1,080 
 3,780 
 10, 200 
 10, 800 
 
 8,280 
 11,340 
 30, 400 
 160, 400 
 
 287, 760 
 
 From Maryland 
 waters. 
 
 If 6, 720 
 30, 960 
 
 4,320 
 15, 120 
 41, 040 
 43, 200 
 
 33, 120 
 45, 360 
 145, 600 
 166, 400 
 
 651, 840 
 
 Total. 
 
 158, 400 
 38, 700 
 
 5,400 
 18, 900 
 51, 300 
 54,000 
 
 41, 400 
 
 66, 700 
 
 182, 000 
 
 332, 800 
 
 939, 600 
 
 Number of oys- 
 ter-vessels. 
 
 176 
 
 43 
 
 None. 
 
 Kone. 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 57 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 03 
 
 140 
 
 256 
 
 From — 
 
 Maryland waters . 
 Virginia waters. .. 
 
 For planting. 
 
 488, 880 
 215, 820 
 
 For Philadelphia 
 and other markets. 
 
 162, 960 
 71, 940 
 
 The plaiiting of this 700,000 and more bushels of Chesapeake seed, is not attended with any features greatly 
 different from the same industry and investment at Fairhaven or Stateii Island. When a load of oysters for 
 ]jlanting arrives from the South, the owner of the cargo seuds on board the vessel all the men he has, and the 
 schooner then sails back and forth around and over the designated ground. The effort in loading is to have as 
 much as possible of the cargo on deck. It is an easy matter, then, as the vessel proceeds, to shovel overboard ; 
 and as she is constantly changing her position, and the men shovel uninterruptedly until the whole load is 
 overboard, the oysters are pretty evenly distributed. An ordinary crew of five will thus unload 400 bushels in an 
 hour, for five or six hours in succession. Adding this expense to his first cost and charges, a planter, who puts 
 down large quantities, expects the cost of his various lots of oysters, big and little together, will average about 
 25 cents a bushel. 
 
 These Chesapeake oysters, it is scarcely necessary to say, are left down only until the succeeding fall, before 
 being taken up for market. They have then grown into larger anil fuller proportions, and have assumed a far 
 better flavor than they originally possessed. Sometimes accident or circumstances will cause a bed, or a portion 
 of it, to be saved through the winter and not harvested until the second fall ; but this is rare, very risky, and not 
 attended by a large increase of profits. Making a recapitulation of the western shore produce, I derive the 
 succeeding particulars : 
 
 Statistical recapitulation foe westeen shoee of Delaware bay: 
 
 Extent of natural "oyster-rock" acres.. 500 
 
 Extent of cultivated ground, alioiit acres.. 3,000 
 
 Number of planters, not counted elsewhere 40 
 
 Number of men employed, about ""^ 
 
 Earnings and board $117,000 
 
 Number of men partially employed 400 
 
 Earnings of same -•- $30,000 
 
 Number of trips made after southern seed, about 620 
 
 Freight earned by same $62,000 
 
 Canal charges on same $:U,000 
 
 Southern seed planted bushels.. 704,700 
 
 Cost of same, about '. |170, 175 
 
 Northern seed planted - bushels.. 370,000 
 
 Cost of same, about $150,000 
 
 Southern oysters sold annually bushels.. 050,000 
 
 Value of same $500,000 
 
 Northern oysters sold annually bushels. . 300,000 
 
 Value of same $325,000 
 
 Total statistical eecapitulation foe Delawaee bay: 
 
 Number of planters, wholesale dealers, and shippers — • 350 
 
 Extent of ground cultivated acres.. 9,000 
 
 Value of same, about , ■^I'^i ""^ 
 
 Value of shore-property* $123, .)00 
 
 Number of vessels and sail-boats permanently engaged 1' •'"'* 
 
 Value of same $350,000 
 
154 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Number of vessels partially engaged 100 
 
 Niimljer of meu hired by planters or dealers 1,915 
 
 Annual earnings of same $614,000 
 
 Number of sailors employed on Chesapeake vessels 400 
 
 Annual earnings of same -- - f30, 000 
 
 Total number of families supported, about 2,000 
 
 Annual sales of — 
 
 I. Native oysters bushels.. 1,900,000 
 
 Value of same $1,9-25,000 
 
 II. Chesapeake "plants" bushels.. 650,000 
 
 Value of same $500,000 
 
 Total value of oysters sold annually $2,425,000 
 
 N. OYSTER-INTERESTS OF PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 44. THE MERCHAJSTTS AND OYSTEE-BUSINESS OP PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 Philadelphia as an oystee-center. — It wiU already have impressed itself ttpon the mind of the reader, 
 that this whole region is dependent npon Philadelphia for its market, and hence, for a large part of the capitul 
 emjjloyed in carrjang on the daily operations of the business. The city of Philadelphia, therefore, takes a 
 l)rominent position as an oyster-center, and deserves a careful survey. Yet here, more even than in New York, is 
 the business centered and compact ; or else it acts simply as <i silent i)artuer — a power behind the throne — in so 
 many operations that have already been described in the review of Delaware bay, that little remains to be said 
 except barren statistics condensed into small space. 
 
 The region directly trilnitary to Philadel])hia as a marketing point, extends from Barnegat around to and 
 inchiding the whole of Delaware bay ; and it yields two millions and a half bushels annually, one quarter of which, 
 probably, are transplanted from the Chesapeake seed-grounds. 
 
 Transportation and its statistics. — The transportation to the city from New York and the Atlantic 
 coast of New Jersey is by rail, as also to some extent from the Delaware bay shore of the same state. This supply 
 is carried almost wholly by three railways, the various sub-lifles of the Pennsylvania corporation, the New Jersey 
 Central, and the Philadelphia and Atlantic City uarrow-guage road. Railway statistics, in all cases, were given 
 me without hesitation by officers of the roads. The combined receipts reported by these roads for 1879-'80, from 
 New York and New Jersey, amounts to nearly 300,000 bushels, counting somewhere near 70,000,000 oysters. These 
 cargoes weighed over 12,000,000 pounds, and gave an income to the roads aggregating over $27,000. By steamers 
 from Baltimore, Norfolk, and Chesai)eake landings, there were brought nearly 20,000 busliels, or perhaps 6,000,000 
 oysters, while the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore railway eclipsed all other lines, by reporting receipts 
 for Philadelphia (including Southwark and Gray's Ferry) of 182,980 bushels in shell, and 70,000 gallons of shucked 
 oysters. For these figures I am indebted to Mr. Charles K. Ide, master of transportation. Adding these two 
 sums, on the basis that a gallon is equal to a bushel, and that each will contain (of such stock as this road 
 transports) an average of 300 oysters, we find that 71,000,000 oysters is the number annually brought to the city, 
 by this line alone, every year. The net revenue derived from this freight in 1879-'80, by this road, approached 
 $30,000, while as much more accrued to its treasury from other carriage of oysters not coming within the scope of 
 the present inquiry. 
 
 Coming by sail-vessel from the eastern shore of Delaware bay, I find about one and a half million bushels 
 yearly, while the western shore of the bay produces nearly another million bushels, a large part of which are 
 southern oysters transplanted to those beds. Lastly, in winter, about 2.50,000 bushels are taken by sailing-vessels 
 through the canal from the Chesapeake to Philadelphia, for immediate use. A summation of the supplies from 
 all these sources gives as the total quantity annually handled in Philadelphia, as shown by the statistics of 1879 
 and 1880, to be in the close neighborhood of 2,680,000 bushels, or more than 800,000,000 oysters, worth, in round 
 numbers, not less than $2,.500,000 at wholesale. 
 
 Distributing trade. — But, of course, only a portion of these oysters are consumed within the limits of the 
 city of Philadelphia. A large part is distributed widely throughout a region which includes the Delaware valley, 
 the state of Pennsylvania, and to some extent the West, where Philadelphia competes in the shell-trade with New 
 York and Baltimore. The Pennsylvania railway, for instance, reports that nearly 60,000 bushels went to Pittsburgh 
 and intermediate stations, in 1879. Pittsburgh becomes, thus, a distributing point for its neighborhood, augmenting 
 this stock by large receipts from Baltimore and New York. Philadel|)hia sends to New York and intermediate 
 points, by the same railway, more than 100,000 bushels, and Camden distributes ten or fifteen thousand bushels in 
 western New Jersey. There remains the draught made by the exi)ress companies and various railroads, from whom 
 there is no report. To have ascertained, with complete exactness, the proportion of this two and a half millions of 
 bushels which is sent out again, and consequently the proportion which is left to be consumed here, would have 
 required weeks of time and needless trouble. But from all that I can gather in the way of data, I believe that the 
 city of Philadelphia and its large suburbs, which together contain 1,000,000 people, will consume annually an equal 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 155 
 
 unmber of bushels or gallons, counting 300,000,000 oysters. This would require each inhabitant to eat about six 
 per week the year round, or a dozen per week for half the year. A single " stew " would include this number ; and 
 for the few who would not And upon their tables one mess of stewed or otherwise cooked oysters in a week, I beli('^-e 
 there are many who would see them in some shape every other day for six or eight months, especially auiong the 
 working classes. 
 
 Effokts at Packino: SnucraNG: SnirPiNG.— It has been found that the extraordinary advantage which 
 Baltimore enjoys in that direction, has made it useless for Philadelphia to attempt to compete in the packing-trade. 
 The few attempts that have been made have all met with ill-success. Some fresh oysters are canned here, however, 
 and sent out, chiefly to near neighborhoods. There is not enough of this done, however, to furnish employmeut to 
 more than TjO shuckers among the whole shipping-trade of the city. These are mostly whites, and perhaps half of 
 them are married. Tiiey come from the most ignorant laborers, and are reckless in behavior. Some are hired by 
 the week at $10, others prefer to work by the piece, and receive 60 cents a thousand. 
 
 The fresh oysters shipped are sent mainly in wooden " buckets" of variable capacity, but often holding several 
 gallons, a large piece of ice being thrown into the oysters aiul the cover locked. 
 
 In addition to this there is some shipping of Maryland stock, opened at Seaford, Crisfleld, etc., in sealed tins. 
 These are square cans, holding one or two " quarts ", but the measure is somewhat short. They are filled with 
 four-fifths of solid oysters and one-fifth pure water. A " case " of these cans may hold two or four dozen. The 
 cans are not manufactured in Philadelphia, but in Baltimore, where the large local demand enables them to be 
 made from one-half to three-fourths of a cent cheaper than elsewhere. 
 
 Wholesale teade.— The total wholesale trade of Philadelphia is now divided, so far as can be ascertaimnl, 
 among about 50 firms, which, if all dealt alike, would give to each a business of about $00,000 yearly. Of course 
 there is no such equality. iMost of these dealers are also planters, furnishing the capital with which their boats, 
 registered in New Jersey and Delaware waters, and manned by crews, residents of those states, plant upon ground 
 outside of Pennsylvania's waters, and conse(piently held in some other name than that of their actual owners and 
 operators. A large part of all the floating and shore-property credited to the shores of Delaware bay, and estimated 
 in the preceding chapter, is really owned, therefore, in Philadelphia. To separate from this inter-state and 
 partnership aggregate the cajiital invested by the oyster-dealers of Philadelphia, becomes as great a problem, 
 therefore, as in New York. Some elements for the calculation appear in the following items : 
 
 Value of wharf-property devoted to oyster-vessels, exclusively, about !5i400, 000 
 
 Value of sheds aud shore-property 100,000 
 
 Value of perh.aps '250 vessels, etc .300.000 
 
 Floating capital - 400,000 
 
 But all these are hardly more than guesses, and it is out of the question, under the circumstances, to separate 
 the oysters planted by Philadelphia capital from those outside of it, I suppose. It is perhaps safe to say, roundly, 
 that in the city of Philadeljihia a million dollars are concerned in the oyster-business, outside of the estimates of 
 values already credited to New Jersey and Delaware. Of this sum about $400,000 consists of outstanding credits 
 aud the bank balances needful to be maintained by the dealers. 
 
 The fifty firms represent about 75 members. Each may be said to employ an average of five men as clerks, 
 teamsters, aud porters, amounting to 2oO in all. To this again must be added the 50 shuckers heretofore s])okeu 
 of, making a total of 375 men, representing from 300 to 350 families, finding their support out of the wholesale 
 handling of oysters alone in the city. 
 
 Eetail trade.— As to the number supported by the retail trade, that can be approximated with even less 
 exactness. The latest business directory of the city gives: hotels, 150; oyster-houses, 370; restaurants, •141; 
 lager beer saloons, 1,452. 
 
 Supposing we say, that in order to meet the demands of the guests for oysters, cooked or raw, these establish- 
 ments find it necessary to employ extra help as follows : 
 
 150 hotels, 2 persons each 300 
 
 376 oyster-houses, 5 persons each — 1,H80 
 
 441 restaurants, 1 person each 441 
 
 1,452 lager beer saloons, one-half person each 721 
 
 Total 3,S42 
 
 Add peddlers and curbstone-stands, 158 158 
 
 3,500 
 Many of these 3,500 persons are women and children, some of whom, nevertheless, assist in supporting others 
 than themselves. lu other cases various duties are combined with the serNdce of oysters. But I thiuk it within 
 bounds to estimate 3,000 families maintained by this retail industry. 
 
 DeaUugs in oysters in I'hiladelphia are chiefly carried on at the foot of Spruce street, at the foot of Vine street, 
 and at the Brown street whgrves. In each case the locality is determined by the i)resence of a large provision- 
 market, aiul the business in general fishing c<-nters near it. At Brown street there is an association of the owners 
 of boats sclliug there for mutual protection on (juestions of wharfage and the like. Most of the business is done at 
 Spruce street, where the Jersey boats chiefly go, aud where some of the heaviest dealers have their oliices. 
 
156 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Stat[Stical eecapittjlation for Philadelphia: 
 
 Number of planters, wholesale dealers, and shippers 75 
 
 Value of shore-property $100 000 
 
 Number of vessels and sail-boats engaged (registered in other States) 250 
 
 Number of men hired by planters or dealers 250 
 
 Annual earnings of same $150,000 
 
 Number of restaurant servants, etc 3, 500 
 
 Annual earnings of same $1,000,000 
 
 Total number ot families supported 3 250 
 
 Annual sales of — 
 
 L Northern oysters bushels 1,740,000 
 
 Value of same $2,000,000 
 
 XL Chesapeake "ijlants" bushels 940,000 
 
 Value of same 1750,000 
 
 Total value of oysters sold annually $2,750,000 
 
 0. MARYLAND AND BALTIMORE. 
 
 45. OYSTER-FISHERIES OF MARYLAND. 
 
 The investigations of Mr. R. H. Edmonds. — In respect to Baltimore and Maryland, the information to 
 be given is due almost entirely to the labors of Mr. R. H. Edmonds, of Baltimore, who investigated the subject in 
 the capacity of special agent of the Census. His report for this special region was published in the Journal of 
 Commerce, Baltimore, of which Mr. Edmonds was an editor during the summer of 1880, and gave much satisfaction 
 to those who were interested in the matter in that city and down Chesapeake bay. If some of his expressions are 
 too enthusiastic, they can easily be pardoned. The men of Chesapeake bay believe that their waters cover the very 
 best oysters in the world, but my note-books contain a record of a dozen localities, all along the coast, where the 
 same assertion is fondly made and sincerely believed. He is a wiser man than I, who attempts to decide among 
 their claims and, ex cathedra, to award supremacy to any one district. 
 
 I shall have little to add to Mr. Edmonds' history of the oyster-interests of Maryland, and include all of his 
 report in quotation marks : 
 
 General considerations : Introductory.—" The Chesapeake bay and its numerous salt-water tributaries, 
 contain prolitic and valuable oyster-beds, probably about equally divided between the two states of INIaryland and 
 Virginia. Notwithstanding the great importance and value of the oyster-trade of the Chesapeake bay, it is a 
 subject upon which there has been no trustworthy information, either as regards its extent, the amount of capital 
 invested, or the past and present condition of the business. The legislatures of Maryland and Virginia have, at 
 every session for many years, revised and re-revised tlie laws upon this subject for their respective states; but 
 have always been content to work in the dark, knowing nothing practically, and never seeing the value of obtaining 
 full information upon so important an industry. There is, perhaps, no subject of such vital importance to either 
 state, that is so little understood. By some it is as greatly overestimated as it is underestimated by others. Many 
 who have never lived near the water, and who gain their information from the rose-colored pictures, drawn by 
 correspondents who see only the best features of the trade, imagine that an oyster-bed is a mine of wealth, from 
 which every oysterman may gather a liberal competence with but little labor. Nothing could be moi'c erroneous. 
 
 "The present report must, at the best, be but the basis for a more elaborate and thorough scientific examination 
 of this subject. From the chaos in which I found the business, so far as regards statistical information, I have tried 
 to evolve some facts and figures which, by showing the importance of the trade, may cause a more careful study to 
 be made of the means to arrest the present depletion of the beds, and provide ways for increasing the natural 
 supply of oysters. Until this is done, it is almost useless to hope for wiser laws than those now in existence, many 
 of which are not worth the paper upon which they are written. There are so many widely-differing interests, 
 each seeking, through its representatives in the state legislatures, to have such laws enacted as will protect its 
 own particular branch of the trade, regardless of what may be desired or needed by other branches, that it is 
 utterly useless to expect to please all. Politicians, however, dependent uijon the votes of the unlearned as well as 
 the learned, must seek by all means to please their constituents, however unwise may be their desires. The 
 carrying out of this doctrine results in a conflict of opinion among legislators, and no one being willing to relinquish 
 his own pet theories, much time is wasted in useless discussions; and, at last, when a bill is proposed, it is subjected 
 to so many amendments that, when finally passed, it would scarcely be recognized by its originator. In this way 
 the laws both of Virginia and Maryland, bearing upon the oyster-trade, are often worse than useless; and, if by 
 chance a law should be good, the means of enforcing it, and the penalties for violating it, will be so inadequate 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 157 
 
 that no good results will follow its passage. It is a lamentable fact, that a large part of the oystermen, many of 
 whom are negroes, are so ignorant as to be easily led by demagogues. I have been informed by a prominent and 
 reliable geutleiuan in Virjiinia, that during a late political canvass for the state legislature, one of the candidates, 
 in an address to the oysterincu, promised, upon condition of their voting for him, that, should they desire to break 
 any of the oyster-laws, he, as a lawyer, would defend them free of cost. My own observation leads me to believe 
 tliat this is by no means an exceptional case. I am inclined to think that just here lies one of the greatest 
 hindeiances to the enactment and enforcement of suitable laws. 
 
 "The oyster- trade of the Chesapeake bay is of vast extent, giving employment to thousands of workmen and 
 millions of invested capital; and yet there are many intelligent men who believe that the blessings so lavishly 
 bestowed by nature upon the tidewater counties of IMaryland and Virginia, in the abundant supply of oysters and 
 fish, are in reality productive of more harm than good. This belief is based upon the non-progressive character of 
 the oystermen, who, as a class, are illiterate, indolent, and improvident. As the great natural productiveness of 
 the soil in tropical countries has tended to retard man's improvement, by taking from him the necessity for constant 
 labor, so has the abundant supply of oysters in the Chesapeake tended to make the oystermen unwilling to engage 
 in any steady occupation. A tongmau can, at any time, take his canoe or skiff and catch from the natural rocks 
 a few bushels of oysters, for which there is always a market. Having made a dollar or two, be stops work until 
 that is used up, often a large part of it being spent for strong drink. When his money is all gone he can repeat 
 the same course. Unless spent in the indulgence of intemperate habits, a small amount of money will enable an 
 oysterman to live in comparative comfort. He can readily, and at almost no expense, supply his table in winter 
 with an abundance of oysters and ducks, geese and other game, while in summer, flsh and crabs may be had simply 
 for the catching. So long as they are able to live in this manner, it is almost impossible to get them to do any 
 steady farm-work. This cannot, of course, be avoided, as they have a right to live in the manner which best suits 
 their taste, although several laws have, at different times, been enacted, which, while not so expressed, were really 
 intended to have the efifec^t of making the tongmen, and especially the negroes, engage in other occupations. Could 
 this be done without restricting the rights of citizenship, it would prove a great blessing to the negroes themselves, 
 as it would lead them to regular work iu the cultivation of land; and it is well known that as soon as these people 
 are possessed of a house and a few acres of land, they become more law-abiding and industrious. 
 
 "It has generally been a favorite idea of the legislators, both of Maryland and Virginia, that each state should 
 derive some revenue from the natural oyster-beds belonging to it. To this end many laws have been passed, but 
 no satisfactory results have ever been accomplished. The expense of enforcing laws over such an extensive body 
 of water as the Chesapeake bay, is necessarily very great. In 1879 the entire amount received from licenses to 
 tong, to scrape, and to dredge in Maryland, was less than the cost of maintaining the oyster-police force. This, 
 however, was an exceptional year, and very little was collected from dredgers, for reasons given elsewhere." 
 
 The Maeyland oyster-police. — The oyster police, to which Mr. Edmonds alludes, was organized in 18G8, 
 according to the law of the Maryland legislature at its session that year, which appropriated $22,000 for its 
 establishment. This money was to be expended in purchasing " a steamer and two tenders to be propelled by 
 steam, sail, or oars, as the commissioners deemed best". The management of the force was ini rusted to a 
 committee composed of the governor, the treasurer, the comptroller, the superintendent of labor and agriculture, 
 and the clerk of the court of appeals. The salary of the commander of the force was fixed at $2,500 (now reduced 
 to $1,500) and his bond at $20,000 (now reduced to $10,000). The police-boats were required to be kept constantly 
 cruising in search of violators of the oyster-laws, who, when caught, were taken before a magistrate for trial. The 
 vessels of the force have been increased from time to time, till they now number one steamer and eight fast-sailing 
 sloops and schooners. The sailing-vessels are assigued to certain parts of the bay, and are required to be constantly 
 on the alert (except at night and Sunday) to prevent any violation of the laws by dredgers. The steamer is 
 geneially traveling as rapidly as ])ossible, tiom one part of the bay to another, always trying to arrive in a locality 
 before she is expected, thus hoi)ing to catch illegal dredgers when they least expect it. This steamer, the Leila, 
 Captain Travers, was generously placed at the service of Mr. Edmonds, by the fishery commissioners of the state, 
 enabling him to obtain information of great value, which could not have been got at otherwise; and the tlianks of 
 Mr. Edmonds not only, but of the Census Bureau itself, are therefore due and gladly tendered to the commissioners. 
 
 All the boats of the police fleet are supplied with cannon and a large quantity of small-arms, and quite often 
 there is need of the latter, as a fight with the dredgers will occa.-ionally occur. Of late, however, these battles are 
 becoming less frequent. 
 
 As appears elsewhere in this report, there has been dissatisfaction with the force ever since it was first 
 organized, as it has never been possible to prevent illegal dredging ; but the complaints largely come from those 
 who know nothing of the difficulties encountered by the oyster- police. The number of dredging-boats is so great, 
 and the territory over which the force must exercise supervision is so extensive, that it is impossible to aiTcst all 
 who break the laws. Tlie oyster-beds of Maryland " extend from Swan point, Kent county, opposite Baltimore, 
 southward down to and up the Potomac — total distance, 125 miles ; and east and west across the bay and Tangier 
 sound, uj) all their tributaries as far as salt water reaches, in all depths of water — iu fact, wherever there is salt 
 
158 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 water in Maryland, we have oysters". This is the last oflBclal report in regard to the oyster-beds ; since it was made, 
 the beds have increased, and large quantities of oysters may now be caught in localities where a few years ago 
 there were none. 
 ■^ Moreover, as will be exhibited subsequently in this report, the laws have never been in satisfactory shape for 
 the operations of the force, and uncertainty, confusion, and jiositive hiuderance in the carrying out of their obvious 
 intention, has often arisen, through some misfortune in technical wording. 
 
 "Since the oyster-police force was first established," Mr. Edmonds continues, "up to September 30, 1879, the 
 amount collected from dredging-licenses, measurers, and fines, exceeded the expenses of the force by $235,15(3 59. 
 In addition to this, there is a county tax upon tongiug and scraping, which averages about $10,000 a year. This 
 amoxint is, by law, paid to the public schools of the respective counties. It would be necessary for the state to 
 maintain the police force, even if it had to be done by appropriation from the general treasury. Disband the force, 
 and in a few weeks the bay would be a battle ground for tongers and dredgers. This was plainly demonstrated 
 last winter, on the Eappahannock river. Virginia having abolished dredging on natural rocks, it was decided to 
 do away with the police force. In the winter of 1879-80 about forty dredging-boats entered the Eappahannock 
 and began work. The native tongmen, incensed at this depredation upon their beds, undertook to drive the 
 dredgers away. In this, however, they signally failed. The dredgers, being well supplied with rifles, opened fire 
 upon the tongmen. For several weeks the appearance of a tongman at any time, was certain to draw forth a volley 
 from the dredgers. The legislature being in session at the time, it was decided to supply the tongmen with a cannon, 
 a large number of rifles, and a supply of ammunition. Before the arrival of these, however, the dredgers had left. 
 Such is but a sample of what would be constantly occurring, if the dredgers of Maryland were not overawed by the 
 police. 
 
 "In Virginia there are some laws for taxing oysters, but as there are no means of enforcing them, they are 
 worthless. The total amount of license-money received during 1879 was only a few hundred dollars. When 
 gathering the statistics of the oyster-trade in Maryland, the matter seemed perplexing enough ; but when the eft'ort 
 was made to obtain the same information in Virginia, the task was found to be even worse. State oflicials, from 
 county clerks to auditor, knew nothing definite about the business. There was no license, as in Maryland; no 
 record of the number of boats or men; in fact, nothing upon which to begin laying a foundation. The county 
 officials, however, willingly rendered all the aid in their power, and to many of them I am greatly indebted for their 
 kind assistance. 
 
 Dredging. — " There are really but two ways of catching oysters practiced in this state : dredging and tonging. 
 Scraping is but dredging on a smaller scale. 
 
 " Before discussing the merits and faults of our present method of dredging, it may be well to give some 
 description of this manner of catching oysters, which, while very familiar to Marylanders, may not be so well 
 understood by those who have never witnessed the practical working of it. Dredges are bags made of iron rings 
 linked togetlier, forming meshes similar to those of an ordinary seine, the mouth being held open by an iron frame, 
 from the four corners of which project four iron bars converging to a point at a distance of a few feet from the 
 mouth; to this point a short chain is attached, and joined to the chain is a long rope which winds around the 
 windlass. Projecting downward from the bar, attached to the lower edge of the mouth, are iron teeth, which, as 
 the dredge is drawn over the bottom, scrape up the oysters and guide them into the bag. Every vessel is supi)lied 
 with two dredges and two windlasses, the latter being made stationary about midway of the deck on each side of 
 the vessel. At the point where the windlass is screwed to the deck, a portion of the rail, three or four feet long, is 
 removed, where, fastened to the side of the vessel, is an iron bar, over which the chain and rope run when the 
 dredge is being worked, saving wear and tear. The windlasses are so arranged that each is worked by four men 
 at the same time. When the boat reaches dredging-ground the captain takes the helm and the men prepare for 
 their laborious task. The dredges are thrown overboard, and the vessel continues on her course until it is supposed 
 that the dredge, which usually holds two or three bushels, is full, and then it is hauled up and its contents, 
 consisting of oysters, stones, shells, cnibs, fish, etc., emptied on deck. If the vessel has passed across the bar, she 
 tacks and recrosses the ground, and continues sailing over the same bar for hours. 
 
 Culling and loading. — "If dredging is done in the day-time, the oysters are at once 'culled', but when 
 working at night this is deferred until morning. 'Culling' consists in separating the oysters from the other things 
 brought up by the dredge and throwing the latter overboard, while the former are placed in the hold of the vessel. 
 In this manner the work continues until the vessel is loaded, when she at once proceeds to market. A trip will 
 generally take about twelve or thirteen days. The effect upon an oyster-bar of dredging, has been thoroughly 
 studied, both in this country and in Europe, and the conclusion almost invariably reached is, that it is beneficial 
 to the beds when properly conducted as to time and manner; and my own investigations have satisfied me that 
 this is correct. An oyster-bar, when left undisturbed for a number of years, has a tendency to solidify into an 
 almost imi)enetrable rock. Dredging prevents this, and, by scattering the oysters over a wide area, greatly 
 extends the bar. 
 
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THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 159 
 
 Probable injttuious effects of dredging. — " But there is great clanger tha,t dredging may be carried 
 to such an extent as to leave only an oyster bere and there ; and then the yield is too small to be profitable. Such 
 is by some believed to be tlie present condition of a large part of the bay; and they hold that there is an abundance 
 of oysters, although so widely scattered that it is very difficult to catch them. In a report upon the 'oyster-beds 
 of the Chesapeake bay', made in 1872, by Mr. O. A. Brown, to the auditor of public accounts of Virginia, it is said 
 that 'the dredging of oysters is as necessary to their development and propagation, as plowing is to the growth of 
 corn ; the teeth of the dredge take hold of the rank growth of the oyster-beds, and, by being dragged through them, 
 loosen them (which is done by hand in Franco in the management of their oyster-parks), and give them room to 
 grow and mature properly; moreover, beds are continually increased in size, for when the vessel runs off the rock 
 with the chain-bags filled with oysters, the oysters are dragged off on ground where no oysters existed, and thus 
 the beds are extended, and when the vessel is wearing or tacking to get back on the oyster-beds, the catch just 
 taken up is being culled off, the cullings thrown overboard to form new cultch for drifting spat to adhere to. 
 Eeliable oystermen tell me, that since dredging has been carried on in Tangier and Pocomoke, the beds have more 
 than doubled in size, and, with the moderate force that worked upon them prior to the war, were continually 
 improving. During the war the waters were thrown open to every one who would pay the military officials for a 
 permit to oyster ; the consequence was, that the oyster-beds were scraped bare, and it was two years before they 
 could recuperate.' 
 
 " While dredging, properly conducted, is no doubt beneficial to the beds, I am inclined to think that it is 
 being carried too far, and that its ultimate effect will be the same as in every European country where it has been 
 unrestricted by proper laws. By some it is believed that the oyster-beds of the Chesapeake bay are of such vast 
 extent, and the number of young annually spawned so great, that it will be impossible to destroy them. In view 
 of the experience of Great Britain and France, and of the almost complete destruction of many of the once famous 
 beds of the Chesapeake, such an opinion is without good foundation. The history of dredging in France and in 
 Great Britain is very instructive, and may be studied with much profit by those who are interested in the 
 l)reservation of the oyster-beds of the Chesapeake bay * * * ; 
 
 Prospective destruction of the oyster-beds. — " As the best-stocked and most productive beds of 
 Europe were quickly destroyed by unrestricted dredging, so may the hitherto seemingly exhaustless beds of the 
 Chesa])eake bay be depleted, if the present rate of dredging is continued. An illustration of this may be seen in 
 the almost total exhaustion of the once famous beds of Tangier and Pocomoke sounds. Year after year these beds 
 were dredged by hundreds of vessels, and even the summer-months afforded them but little rest. The result of 
 this has been plainly seen during the past few years, and more especially during the season of 1879-'80, in the 
 great scarcity of oysters in these sounds. Vessels having found it unprofitable to dredge in these sounds, since 
 the oysters became so scarce, have turned their attention to other parts of the bay, and will thus give the beds a 
 year or so of comparative rest. It is doubtful if they will ever again be as well stocked as in former years, for as 
 soon as oysters again become plentiful, there will be a rush of all the dredging-boats in the state. Thirty years 
 ago the depiction of these beds seemed almost impossible, and yet, at the present time, it is an admitted fact that 
 oysters have decreased at least four-fifths in Pocomoke sound and two-thirds in Tangier. If it were possible to 
 restrict dredging so as to give every bed an occasional year of rest, the result would prove the wisdom of such a 
 course. Owing to the great extent of the oyster-beds in the bay, and their immense annual production, it may be 
 some years before there is an oyster-famine, but sooner or later it is coming, unless there is a radical change in 
 some of the present phases of the business. Properly protected and cared for, the 'imbedded wealth' of the 
 Chesapeake might be increased many fold. It is a shaine that the gifts so lavishly bestowed by nature upon 
 Maryland and Virginia should receive so little practical appreciation. 
 
 Lawlessness of the Maryland oystermen. — "Dredging in Maryland is simply a general scramble, carried 
 on in 7(>(» boats, manned by .5,f!0() daring and unscrupulous men, who regard neither the laws of God nor nmn. 
 Some of the captains and a few of the men may be honest and upright, but it is an unfortunate fact, that such form 
 a very small minority. The tenure by which the captains hold their positions is such, that they are almost forced 
 to disregard the laws. Many of the boats are owned by unprincipled men, and I am informed that a number of 
 them are even held by the keepers of houses of ill-repute. An honest captain, who complies with the law by not 
 working on Sunday, at night, or on forbidden ground, will take at least a week longer to catch a load of oysters 
 than one who, disregarding the laws, gets his oysters whenever or wherever he can. The first captain, upon his 
 return, is informed in language more forcible than elegant, that unless he makes as quick trips as the second 
 captain, his place Avill be filled by some one less scrupulous. With such a system as this carried out by a large 
 number of the boat-owners, what but evasion of the laws can be expected of captains If When a premium is placed 
 upon law-breaking, and a man is taught by his employers that oyster-laws are only made to be broken, and that 
 the greater the skill displayed in evading them the greater will be his pay, it is scarcely to be expected that many 
 will be able to resist the temptation. It is now rarely the case that a dredger can be found who will admit that he 
 believes there is any wrong- in disregarding the oyster-laws, and such a thing as being disgraced among his 
 fellow- work men by imprisonment for violating the laws, is totally unknown. In the above facts will be found 
 
160 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 suiHcient reasons why it bas been impossible for the oyster-police, since its first organization, to enforce the laws. 
 Seven hundred well-manned, fast-sailing boats, scattered over such a large space as the Chesapeake bay, are rather 
 difiicult to watch, and especially at night." 
 
 Morals and manners op oystermen. — Mr. Edmonds continues in his bard, but, I believe, entirely just, 
 judgment upon his fellow-citizens, as follows: 
 
 "All blame for violating the laws does not, however, attach to the boat-owners, as some of them are prominent 
 gentlemen of the most upright character. It is the misfortune of such men that their captains have often been 
 trained by less honest employers, and having once acquired a love of ill-gotten gain, it is difficult to keep them 
 from continuing in the same course. As he usually has a share in the profits, it is of course to his interest to make 
 his trips as quickly as possible ; and while the boat-owner may be opposed to breaking any laws, his captain may 
 think and act otherwise. 
 
 "The unscrupulousness of the captain is well assisted by the character of his men. These men, taken as a 
 class, form perhaps one of the most depraved bodies of workmen to be found in the country. They are gathered 
 from jails, penitentiaries, work-houses, and the lowest and vilest dens of the city. They are principally whites, 
 many of whom are foreigners (almost every European country being represented), unable to speak more than a few 
 words of English. "When a crew, which usually consists of about eight men, is wanted, the vessel-owner or captain 
 a])plies to a shipping-agent, who then gathers these men wherever they may be found, drunk or sober. As one 
 large boat owner expressed it to me: 'We don't care where be gets them, whether they are drunk or sober, clothed 
 or naked, just so they can be made to work at turning a windlass.' The shipping-agent having placed the crew 
 aboard is then paid $2 for each man furnished. With such a crew as this, who neither know nor care for laws, the 
 captain is of course able to work wherever he desires to. As may be supposed, the life led by these men on board 
 of the vessels is of the roughest kind. When sleeping, surrounded by vermin of all kinds ; when working, poorly 
 clad and with everj" garment stiff with ice, while the wind dashes the fast-freezing spray over them, hour after hour 
 winding away at the windlass, pvdling a heavy dredge, or else stooping with backs nearly broken, culling oysters. 
 Eeturningfrom a trip, the men take their little pay and soon spend it in debauchery, amid the lowest groggeries 
 and dens of inftimy to be found in certain portions of Baltimore. It is a gratifying fact, though, that even amid 
 such surroundings as these there are some few who are respectable and honorable men. This is more esi)ecially 
 the case on the boats owned in the lower counties of Maryland. The crews of these are often gathered from the 
 surrounding neighborhoods, and even as a class are not as degraded as those on Baltimore vessels. 
 
 Pay, "Lay," and Profit. — " There are two ways in which these men are paid, the one most generally adopted, 
 at present, being to pay them a stated amount per month, although payment is usually made at the end of each 
 trip, the amount, of course, being proportioned to the length of the trip. The other plan is to allow the crew a 
 share in the profits. When this is done, the vessel at the end of each trip first pays the 'grub bill', wharfage, and 
 commission-merchant's charges; then, of the balance, one-third goes to the owner of the vessel, and a small bonus, 
 usually about $20, to the captain ; after which captain and crew all share alike, except the cook, who receives 
 something less than the others. When the first plan is adopted, the men receive their board and from $10 to $12, 
 and occasionally as high as $15, a month. Those working on shares will, during the season, average about the 
 same as those who are paid a certain amount. A fair average of the amount made by each man would be $11 a 
 month, making $77 for a season of seven mouths. Computing on this average, it will be seen that during an 
 oyster-season the 4,900 dredgers receive about $377,300, and the 700 captains, whose wages will average $uO a 
 month, about $245,000, making a total of $022,300. It would also be proper to add to this amount the cost of 
 boarding these men, since that in fact forms a part of their wages. This costs the vessels about $7 50 a month 
 for each man ; equal to $420 a season for each boat, or $294,000 for the entire fleet. This, added to $022,300, gives 
 a total of $910,300 paid to the dredgers of Maryland during every oyster-season. 
 
 Licenses to dredge. — "The law requires all boats engaged in dredging to obtain from the state comptroller 
 a yearly license, costing $3 for each registered ton." 
 
 The blank form of this license reads as follows : 
 
 No. . License to dredyefor oysters. 
 
 State of Mahyland, Treasury Department, 
 
 Comptroller'' s Office, Annapolis, , 187 . 
 
 License is hereby granted to , of , owner of a named , the tonn.age of which, according to its cnstom- 
 
 honse license (or "as sworn to"), is tons, and the master of which , of , to nse said in taliing and catching 
 
 oystera with scoop, scrape, drag, dredge, or any simihar Instrument, within the waters of the Chesapeake hay, from the \st day of Ocfohcr, 
 187 — , until the 1st day of May next, in accordance with the provisions of an act of the general assembly of Maryland, passed January 
 sessiou, 1674, chapter 181, entitled "An act to repeal article seventy-one of the code of public general laws, entitled 'Oysters', as amended 
 and re-enacted by chapter three hundred and sixty-four of the acts passed at January sessiou, eighteen hundred and seventy, and also 
 chapter one liundred and sixty-seven of the acts passed at the January session, eighteen hundred and seventy-two'', he having paid for 
 this license the sum of dollars. 
 
 This license sliall hold good for one year, and authorizes said vessel to he used in catching oysters with scoop, scrape, drag, dredge, 
 or any similar instrument, within the waters of the Chesapeake bay and in Eastern bay, outside of a line drawn from the southwest 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 
 
 161 
 
 corner of Second Kent point to Wade's point, lint not on any oyster-bar witbin one and a li.Tlf miles of Talley's point, Sandy point, 
 Hackott's point, Tbomas' point, Holland's Island bar, Tliree Si.sters, Swan Point bar, I'oplar island, oiie-qnarter of a iiiile we.st of and 
 between tbe island and tbe main land, nor witUin half a mile of Plnm point, and authorizes the said parties to buy and sell oysters in this 
 state, and docs not authorize any steamboat, stcam-vcssel, or steam-machinery to be used for the purpose of catching oysters, 
 lu testimony whereof I hereunto subscribe my name, and aiBx hereto the seal of the comptroller's office. 
 
 Comptroller. 
 
 Statistics of oyster licenses, 1870-'80. — "For reasons explained elsewhere," continues Mr. Edmonds, "this 
 law has never been fnlly enforced, and the records of the past season are entirely without value in determiuiuo;, 
 even to an approximate degree, the number of diedging-lioats, ssince more than one-half of them worked without 
 license. Through the kindness of the Hon. Thomas J. Keating, state comptroller, I have obtained the record of 
 the past ten jears, as shown in the following table : 
 
 A statement showing the number of louts liernsed to dredf/e, their aggrefiatc tonnage, and the amount oflicense-monei/ paid during the past ten ijearn, 
 
 compiled from the hooks of the Mmptrollefs offiee at Annapolis. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Number of 
 boats. 
 
 Aggregate ton- 
 nage of same. 
 
 Amount of li- 
 censo paid by 
 s.ime. 
 
 1870 '71 
 
 637 
 597 
 559 
 621 
 583 
 691 
 677 
 565 
 465 
 327 
 
 13, 862. 49 
 
 13, 013. 21 
 17, 604. 23 
 10,075.91 
 14, 118. 53 
 16, 156. 23 
 16, 012. 48 
 
 14, 469. 40 
 10, 391. 10 
 
 6 202. 17 
 
 $41, 587 46 
 39 039 62 
 
 1871 '72 . 
 
 187*' 73 .. 
 
 52 SI 2 69 
 
 1873-74 
 
 30,227 73 
 42, 355 58 
 48 4G8 68 
 
 1874_'75 ., ., _ 
 
 1875-'76 
 
 ]870-'77 
 
 49, 837 46 
 37 408 39 
 
 1877 '78 
 
 187fi-'79 
 
 31 173 29 
 
 1879 '80 .. 
 
 IS ficfi .r.n 
 
 
 
 
 
 391,517 40 
 
 
 
 
 ISTuMBER OP VESSELS IN THE FLEET: UNLICENSED TESSELS. — "It will be Seen by examining the above 
 table, that the highest number of lic-cnses issued in any one year was in 187o-'7G, when there were fiOl boats, 
 having an aggregate tonnage of 1(),15C.23, or an average tonnage of 23.38 each. Since that year there has been a 
 steady decrease in the number of licensed dredgers, although there has been no decrease in the actual number of 
 boats engaged in the business. Knowing this to be true, and also mindful of the fact, that even in 1875-70, there 
 were some unlicensed dredgers, 1 have thought it safe to place the number of dredging-boats working during the 
 season of 1879-'80 at 700. There are some well-informed persons who would make the figure as high as 800, but I 
 have based my statement upon informati(m gathered from many sources. Taking the average tonnage in 1875-'7(), 
 and multii>lying it by 700, we have 10,3(j<3 as the aggregate tonnage of the vessels now engaged in dredging. At 
 $3 per ton for license, this should have yielded the state, during the pest season (1879-80), a revenue of $49,098 
 instead of .§18,(300 50, the amount collected. The 327 vessels which, either from honesty or policy, paid into the 
 state treasury sBi 8,000 50, received no privileges or advantages not taken by the 373 which dredged without license. 
 
 OvsiEE DREDGING-BOATS. — "Drcdgiiigboats range in size from 5 to 75 tons, and in value from $500 or $000 
 to S8,000, some few owned in the lower part of the state being valued as high as $10,000. The boats owned in 
 Baltimore are, generally, in every way inferior to those hailing from the counties. The present value of these 
 boats, basing the estimate upon information obtained from all parts of the state, would be an average of not less 
 than $1,500, and is believed by many to be much higher. At this late, however, the 700 boats in the trade would 
 be worth, to-day, $1,050,000. In addition to this, the winders, dredgers, roller and chains, and dredge lines on each 
 boat may be valued at $100, altliDiigh costing considerably more. Adding this to the value of the boats, we have 
 $1,120,000 as the amount of capital invested in the dredging-boats. The total tonnage of the dredging-boats being 
 10,300, and tlie estimated \aliu' of the same being $1,050,000, the average value will be $04 15 per ton. As some 
 tonnage has lately changed haiuls in Ballimore at $07, the above estimate can scarcely be too great, -when the high 
 class of many of the boats is considered. 
 
 "The amount annually ex[)ended for repairing these vessels is about $105,000. 
 
 Scraping and tonging. — "Scraping, which is simply dredging on a smaller scale, both as to the size of the 
 boat and the dredge, is conducted only in shallow water; and while dredge-licenses are issued by the state, 
 scraping licenses are obtained from the counties, and hold good only in the local waters of the county in which 
 issued. Dorchester, Talbot, and Somerset are the only counties in which scraping-licenses are issued. In the first 
 two the charge is regulated by the tonnage of the vessel (being $2 per ton), while in the last there is a uniform 
 charge of $10 on each boat, regai'dless of size. The crews of these vessels average about four men each, the 
 majority of whom are able to return home after each day's work, as the boat does not go out of the county waters, 
 except to make an occasional run to a neighboring market. 
 11 o 
 
162 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Licenses op scraping-boats.— "The number of scraping-boats licensed during the past sei'en years is as 
 follows : 
 
 Counties. 
 
 1873-1874. 
 
 874-1876. 
 
 1875-1876. 
 
 1876-1877. 
 
 1877-1878. 
 
 1878-1879. 
 
 1879-1880. 
 
 No. of men 
 tniployeil on 
 sanjo (luring 
 Hi79-'80. 
 
 
 lOG 
 
 140 
 322 
 
 180 
 40 
 209 
 
 142 
 47 
 105 
 
 142 
 27 
 50 
 
 157 
 D4 
 151 
 
 134 
 29 
 
 57 
 
 536 
 
 
 116 
 
 
 224 
 
 228 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 330 
 
 530 
 
 420 
 
 354 
 
 228 
 
 342 
 
 220 
 
 880 
 
 
 
 * No scraping law until 1874-75. 
 
 Size of scKAPiNG-rLEET: Character of boats.— "The above figures have been kindly furnished to me by 
 the clerks of the respective counties, and, while they embrace all vessels that are licensed, they by no means 
 include all that are scraping. From personal inspection and from rei>orts of reliable persons, I feel safe in placing 
 the number of scraping-boats at 550, carrying 2,200 men. The additional 330 boats are working without license. 
 The pay of these men will average about $18 a month each, for the seven and a half months employed, amounting 
 to $135 for the season, and making a total of .$297,000 received by the 2,200 men, including the captains, whose 
 ])ay is of course larger than that of the men. 
 
 " The average value of scraping-boats, including their outfit, is $800, which gives a total of $440,000 invested 
 in scraping. About $27,500 is annually expended in repairing these boats. 
 
 Character and profits of oysteuing: Scrapers and tongbrs.—" Socially and morally the scrapers are 
 somewhat superior to the dredgers. Tonging, although employing less capital and fewer men than dredging, is 
 probably of greater value to the state than the latter, because the men engaged in it are of a better class, are 
 better remunerated for their labor, and are less prone t6 evade the laws than the dredgers. While this much may 
 be said in tbe tongmen's favor, it is yet an unpleasant truth that they, like all others engaged in the oyster-trade, 
 either as catchers or shuckers, are, as a class, indolent and improvident. The majority of them live near the water, 
 often owning a small house and an acre or so of land (the value of which depends upon the proximity of good 
 oyster- and fishing-grounds), and a canoe or an interest in one, used in winter for oysteriug and in summer for 
 fishing. Having secured a house, their ambition seems to be satisfied, and but little time or money is spent in 
 beautifying or improving it. It is too often the case that tongers, especially many of the negroes, who comprise 
 about one-third of the total number, will work only one or two days at a time, and then remain idle until necessity 
 forces them again to earn a few dollars. 
 
 "By others, however, tonging is pursued as steadily and systematically as the wind and waves will allow, and 
 wlien this is done I think it may safely be said, that the remuneration is equally as fair as in other trades. Those 
 who pursue tonging in this way, form the most intelligent class of oystermeu in the state. In some cases farmers 
 and others, holding prominent social positions, may be found oysteriug during several of the winter montlis, when 
 their legitimate business does not require close attention. Tonging necessitates very great exposure to the cold, 
 but is, however, hardly as severe in this respect as dredging, and moreover the tongers suffer less, from the fact 
 that they are generally better clad than tlie dredgers, and seldom work either during very cold or very windy 
 weather, on account of the smallness of their boats. From this cause I find that even the industrious ones will 
 lose, on an average, at least two days out of every week, and when the time wasted by the idle ones is taken into 
 account, it will be found that 120 days out of an oyster-season of eight months is about the average length of time 
 for each tonger. In this actual loss of at least one-half of their time, may be seen the cause which prevents the 
 tongers, as a class, from making any improvement in their financial condition, and upon their financial condition 
 depends their social position. 
 
 "While seeking information from the county clerks as regards the number of boats licensed, I also requested 
 answers to the following questions, with a view to obtaining home-opinion upon the character of the tongers: 
 
 "Eo. 1. What is the moral and social condition of your oystermen? No. 2. What is their occupation during 
 the summer-months ? 
 
 " In answer I received the following from Somerset county : No. 1. The oystermeu, as a class, are generally poor 
 men, residing near the water-courses, living in and mostly owning small houses, with an acre or so of land or less 
 attached to their premises, and in morals are equal to any body of men similarly situated. No. 2. In the summer, 
 oystermeu work on their lots and do some job work for their wealthier neighbors, but it is still to be feared that 
 much of their time is unemployed. From Worcester county: No. 1. Of a rather low order; some of them good as 
 to morals, but a large majority reckless and improvident. No. 2. Chiefly as day-laborers; others cultivate small 
 parcels of land. From Dorchester county: No. 1. As a class, only iair. No. 2. Most of them have small truck- 
 farms to cultivate. From Saint INIary's county : No. 1. Fair. No. 2. Fishing and agriculture jniucipally. From 
 Anne Arundel : No. 1. Unable to answer the question, but believe they compare favorably with other industrial 
 classes. No. 2. Crabbing and bedding oysters. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 
 
 163 
 
 Vessels engaged in tonging. — " Tonging, although generally confiued to shallow water, is in some of the 
 tributaries of the bay canied on in water varying in depth from 18 to 20 feet. 
 
 "Engaged in tongiug there are 5,148 men, using 1,825 canoes or other small boats. To obtain even an 
 approximate average of the amount of money made by each tonger is almost impossible, but I think it will be very 
 near correct to estimate it at $225 a season, at which rate the total amount made by the tougers would be $1,158,300. 
 Tiiere being 1,825 boats and 5,148 men, the average number of men carried by each boat is a little less than three. 
 Many of the laifger boats are held iu joint ownershii^ by two or three parties. 
 
 Statistics of tonging-licenses, 1870-'SO. — "A statement is available and furnished herewith of the number 
 of touging-liceuses issued during the past ten years, and the number of men employed on the boats in the season 
 of 1879-'80. 
 
 Countiea. 
 
 1870-1871. 
 
 1871-1872. 
 
 1872-1873. 
 
 1873-1874. 
 
 1874-1875. 
 
 1875-1876. 
 
 1876-1877. 
 
 1877-1878. 
 
 1878-1879. 
 
 1879-1880. 
 
 if 
 
 Figures furnished 
 
 i>y- 
 
 Anne Arundel 
 
 307 
 
 145 
 
 8 
 
 331 
 
 240 
 
 146 
 
 12 
 
 441 
 
 300 
 324 
 
 48 
 675 
 
 421 
 
 380 
 
 22 
 
 405 
 
 314 
 237 
 50 
 472 
 120 
 210 
 329 
 325 
 294 
 172 
 291 
 
 396 
 207 
 
 49 
 280 
 101 
 172 
 239 
 272 
 276 
 
 98 
 241 
 
 250 
 186 
 
 28 
 212 
 101 
 146 
 
 72 
 244 
 254 
 
 88 
 193 
 
 348 
 198 
 
 23 
 182 
 100 
 139 
 
 59 
 197 
 217 
 133 
 170 
 
 343 
 243 
 30 
 142 
 122 
 144 
 2 
 212 
 258 
 108 
 211 
 
 301 
 312 
 41 
 199 
 123 
 145 
 
 903 
 624 
 123 
 597 
 369 
 435 
 
 Sprigg Harwood. 
 S. Sellers. 
 
 Charles 
 
 B. a. Stoncstreot. 
 
 
 
 Queen Anne's 
 
 118 
 170 
 267 
 190 
 112 
 
 119 
 
 252 
 220 
 
 184 
 100 
 
 178 
 245 
 362 
 274 
 195 
 
 183 
 125 
 307 
 280 
 125 
 
 James Wootera. 
 Beni. F. Lankford. 
 J. Frank Ford. 
 
 St. Mary's 
 
 183 
 281 
 134 
 106 
 
 649 
 843 
 492 
 213 
 
 Talbot 
 
 
 
 S. P. Toadvine. 
 
 
 I. T. Matthews. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,720 
 
 2,501 
 
 2,248 
 
 2,814 
 
 2,331 
 
 1,774 
 
 1,772 
 
 1,815 
 
 1,825 
 
 5,148 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * No records farther hack than 1874. t No license required until 1874-'75. 
 
 "The information contained in the above table was kindly furnished to me by the gentlemen named, who are 
 the clerks of the circuit courts of the respective counties, and from whom all licenses to tong must be obtained. 
 
 Laws fob the kegulation of tonging. — "The law in relation thereto is, ' that any resident of this state 
 desiring to use any canoe or other boat in catching or taking oysters for sale, with rakes or tongs, in any of the 
 ■waters of this state, shall first obtain, by application to the clerk of the circuit court for the county wherein he may 
 reside, a license therefor, and such license shall have effect from the first day of June in the year in which it may 
 have been obtained, to the first day of June next succeeding; provided that such license shall not authorize the use 
 of said canoe or boat in taking or catcliing oysters in any creek, cove, river, inlet, bay, or sound within the limits 
 of any county other than tliat wherein the license shall have been granted, and that the boundaries of counties 
 bordering on navigable waters shall be strictly construed, so as not to permit the residents of either county to take 
 or calch oysters beyond the middle of the dividing channel; * * * and every applicant for such license shall 
 l)ay to the clerk of the court where such license maj- be granted, and before the issuing and deliverv of the same, 
 according to the following rates, viz: for any boat measuring in lengtii 20 feet or less, the sum of $2; measuring 
 fi'om 20 to 25 feet, the sum of $.'}; measuring from 25 to 30 feet, the sum of $4; and all over 30 feet, including sloops 
 under custom-house tonnage, the sum of §5 each ; and all oysters taken with rakes or toiigs shall be culled upon the 
 natural beds where they are taken ; the amount received from tonging license to be paid by the clerk to the school 
 commissioners for the public schools of the respective counties where such license is issued ; in-ovided the sum received 
 from white tongers shall go to white schools, and the sum from colored tougers to colored schools.' 
 
 Licenses and tiikiu value to the state. — "The money arising from licenses issued to tong and to scrape 
 during the year 1879, amounted to $8,950 89, which was turned over to the boards of school commissioners of the 
 various counties, with the exception of $210 received by Worcester county for licenses, and which was used by the 
 county commissioners in purcliasing 'plants' to be bedded iu the county waters. It may be well to exjilain, that 
 the laws in Worcester county are dilfereut from those iu the other counties, in respect to the disposal of license- 
 money, and also as regards the issuing of license. Iu this county the license is $1 ou each man in the trade, and 
 uo account is taken of the boat. 
 
 "Since 1874-'75, the number of licenses granted has decreased from 2,814 to 1,825 in 1879-'80. There are 
 several causes for this, the principal one probably being the unprofitableness of tonging, for several seasons past, 
 as compared with former years. From 1805 or 18G6 to 1874 or 1875, tonging was quite profitable, as oysters com- 
 manded a good price, but siiu^e the latter year prices have ruled very low, and many have turned their attention to 
 other occupations. It may be that some few tongers are working without license_. but from the testimony of those 
 
164 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 well posted in tlie business, I am led to believe that the number is comparatively small. Mr. I3enjaminr. Lauliford, 
 clerk of the circuit court of Somerset conuty, makes the following statement in regard to scraping-boats, which is 
 equally applicable to tongers : ' The oyster-business has been gradually declining in this county since 1873 ; 
 during that year the number of dredge [scraping] licenses issued was 327, and the money received' therefor was 
 $3,270, which sum was i^aid into the public school treasury. I do not think, however, that the great difference 
 exhibited between the years 1874 and 1879 shows the actual amount of the decline in the business. The present 
 oyster-law is inefficient or is inefficieutly executed.' By referring to the table showing the number of tonging- 
 licenses issued during the past ten years, it will be seen that in Mr. Lankford's county— Somerset — there were 
 329 in 1874-'75, while in 1879-'80 there was not a single license issued to tong. The size of the tonging-canoe ranges 
 from 15 or 16 feet to 30 feet or more, the larger ones being called ' bugeyes.' Owing to this divei-sity in size, it is 
 very difficult to estimate the value of these boats, but a fair average is about $100, which would cover the entire 
 outfit — making $182,500 the amount invested in tonging boats. 
 
 CAR11YIN& TRADE: "EuNNEKS". — " Gloscly connected with tonging, and each mutually dependent upon the 
 other, is another branch of the trade conducted by vessels, generally known as runners, of which there are owned 
 in this state 200, carrying about 800 men. The oysters caught by tongers are either sold to these vessels, and by 
 them carried to some market in the state, or they ai'e bought by boats owned in other states and carried to northern 
 cities. The runner will anchor near some tonging-ground, and an cmijty basket or a small flag will be hoisted to 
 the masthead as a signal that she is ready to receive oysters. In one or two days she will be loaded, and is at once 
 off for a market. On some occasions half a dozen or more runners may be seen in the same locality, surrounded 
 by forty or fifty canoes. As soon as a tonger has caught as many as his small boat will carry, he sells out to the 
 runner and returns to work. 
 
 Crews ofeunnners and their profits — "The men employed on runners will average about $18 a month, 
 including their board, which, with the pay of the captains (which is about $50 a month), will amount to $160,400 for 
 a season of eight months, that being the length of time that these vessels are engaged in carrying oysters. 
 Eeokoning the average value of the runners at $1,500, will give a total of $300,000 in this branch of the trade. 
 About $30,000 is annually spent in repairing the 200 runners. 
 
 Extent of the Maryland oyster-fleet. — " Summarizing the foregoing statistics as to the number of 
 vessels, their value, etc., it is seen that there are: 
 
 Boats. 
 
 DredgiBg .. 
 
 Scraping .. 
 
 Canoes 
 
 Kunnors . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 Number. 
 
 1,825 
 200 
 
 3, 27.5 
 
 Crews. 
 
 5,600 
 
 2,200 
 
 6, US 
 
 800 
 
 13, 748 
 
 Annual 
 
 wages. 
 
 $916, 300 
 
 207, 000 
 
 1, 158, 300 
 
 166, 400 
 
 2, 538, 000 
 
 Wages and profits. — " The totals of this table furnish an average of $184 GO for each man. It is utterly 
 impossible to obtain the number of people supported by this $2,538,000. Perhaps not one-half of the dredgers 
 support any family ; but with tongers aud scrapers it is different. Five is usually reckoned as the average number 
 of a family; but as very many of these men are single, it would be too high in the present case. It can scarcely, 
 however, be too much to reckon that for every oysterman there is an average of four individuals dependent upon 
 him. This would give 54,992" as the number of people supported by the catching of oysters in this state. In 
 addition to this, there are hundreds dependent indirectly, as shopkeepers aud in other ways, upon the oystermen. 
 
 Maryland capital invested in oyster-fishing. — "Invested in oyster-boats, the summary is: 
 
 700 dredgers, at $1,500 $1,050,000 
 
 Outfit of same 70,000 
 
 550 scrapers, at |800 440,000 
 
 200 rimuers, at .$1,500 300,000 
 
 1,825 cauoes, at $100 182, .500 
 
 Total.. 3, 275 2,042,500 
 
 " The amount annually expended for repairs for these vessels is, as near as I can calculate, from reports 
 received from shipbuilders, $162,500, of which probably $75,000 is received by carpenters, sailmakers, and other 
 workmen." 
 
 Mr. Maltby's estimate of the yield of Chesapeake bay, in 1805. — Before following Mr. Edmonds into 
 a new branch of the business — that of shipments in shell— it may be well to give briefly some memoranda by Mr. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 
 
 165 
 
 C. S. Maltby, of estimates upon the former yield of Chesapeake bay. The first of these is a table of oysters taken 
 iu Maryland waters aloue in 1865, which is as follows : 
 
 Oi/slers taken in Mart/land waters, 1865. 
 
 DestiuatioB. 
 
 Dredged. 
 
 Tonged. 
 
 Total 
 busliels. 
 
 
 2, 730, 250 
 178, 125 
 210, 000 
 131, 230 
 
 144, 750 
 9,375 
 105, 000 
 393, 750 
 262, 000 
 
 2, 895, 000 
 187, 500 
 315, 000 
 625, 000 
 
 
 
 Fair Haven, Connecticut 
 
 
 
 360, 000 
 27, 500 
 6,000 
 
 
 Seafurd, Delaware 
 
 247, 500 
 54,000 
 
 275 000 
 
 Salisburv, Maryland 
 
 60, 000 
 
 
 Total 
 
 3, 663, 125 
 
 1, 210, 375 
 
 4, 889, 500 
 
 
 Second, is given the following table of — 
 
 Oysters lalcen in Virginia waters, 1865. 
 
 Destination. 
 
 Dredged. 
 
 Tonged. 
 
 Bnsliols. 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 916, 750 
 59, 375 
 23, 334 
 43, 750 
 
 48, 250 
 3,125 
 
 n,C6G 
 131, 230 
 787, 500 
 
 965, 000 
 6"* 500 
 
 Washin'^on and Alexandria . ...... 
 
 Boston .... . 
 
 35 000 
 
 Fair H-iven, Connecticut ... . . . . 
 
 175, OUO 
 787 500 
 
 NcwTork . ... 
 
 
 40, 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1, 083, 209 
 
 9S1, 791 
 
 2, 0G5. 000 
 
 
 The coiisnmption of Baltimore that year was: by city and county trade, 025,000 bushels; by raw-packing, 
 1,<S75,000 bnshels; by "preserved", 965,000 bushels; total, 3,405,000 bushels. 
 
 Extent of the Chesapeake oyster-fleet of 1805. — The gathering of oysters in the Chesapeake iu 
 1805, according to the same notes, em]iloyed 1,000 boats in dredging. These would average 50 tons in size, and 
 were said to yield 8200,000 in tax, at Si per ton. The average dredgings of these boats are given at 4,710 bushels, 
 which, at 15 cents, yielded $2,135 70. In tongiug that year there were said to be engaged 1,555 canoes, distributed 
 as follows : 
 
 Canoes longing. 
 
 On N.TiiticoIce rivor 200 
 
 On Fishiug bay 150 
 
 On Wicomico river 125 
 
 On Little Anuaracssex 40 
 
 On Mauokin 50 
 
 On Poconiac and tribntaries 300 
 
 On Miles river 50 
 
 Ou Choptank and Sharp's islands 100 
 
 On Chester, including Swan Point 
 
 On Annapolis 
 
 On South and West rivers 
 
 Ou Herring 
 
 On Patuxent 
 
 On mouth of Potomac and Saiut Mary's . 
 
 125 
 
 50 
 50 
 40 
 200 
 75 
 
 Total 1,555 
 
 Each of these canoes should pay $14 a year tax. This, theoretically, yielded the state in 1865, $08,420. 
 
 46. PACKING AND SHIPPING TRADE OF MARYLAND. 
 
 Shipments op oystees in shell.— I now resume the language of Mr. Edmonds' report: 
 "From the prolific beds of the Chesapeake bay immense quantities of oysters are yearly taken for bedding in 
 northern waters, and also for immediate consumption iu the principal cities along the coast, from the bay to 
 Portland, Maine. It is not the West alone which is dependent upon the Ciiesapeake for oysters, for without the 
 supplies annually drawn from this bay the Atlantic coast, from Delaware to Maine, would be but poorly supplied. 
 The Chesapeake is the great storehouse from which several millions of bushels of oysters are annually carried to 
 restock the exhausted beds of other localities. INIore than two hundred vessels, averaging in value about $3,000 
 each, are for eight months of the year engaged iu the trade between the bay and northern markets. During the 
 winter the oysters which are taken north are used for immediate local consumption, while those taken in the spring 
 are used almost exclusively for bedding purposes. At Seaford, Delaware, there is quite an extensive ]iacking-trade, 
 Maryland oysters being used. It is well known that oysters are eaten during the summer at the North much more 
 extensively than in Maryland and Virginia. 
 
 "Among many intelligent men, both in IMaryland and Vii-ginia, there is great opposition to the shipment of 
 oysters iu the shell to northern markets. They claim, and justly too, that the packing trade of the two states. 
 
166 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 would be mncli more largely developed if northern cities were unable to hr.j oysters in the shell, and as the 
 shucking of oysters gives employment to such a number of people, they hold that it would be a wise policy to 
 heavily tax all oysters shipped in the shell. It is very questionable, however, whether such a measure would be 
 constitutional. 
 
 "Two great objections which might also be nrged against the system, are that the majority of oysters shipped 
 north are piu'chased late in the spring, when the packing trade is about over, at prices necessarily low, and that 
 the beds are seriously injured by being disturbed after the commencement of the spawning season. The oysters 
 purchased and taken north in the spring for bedding would, if allowed to remain until the fall and then sold for 
 immediate use, bring nearly half a million dollars more than they now sell for; that is, there would be a yearly gain 
 to the oystermen of Maryland and Virginia of nearly half a million dollars. 
 
 "There being in the spring no home demand for them, they sell sometimes as low as 4 cents a bushel, and from 
 that up to 12 and 15. In the spring of 1879 a vessel loaded in the Great Choptank,river with 16,000 bushels, cost 
 $240, or just 4 cents a bushel. These oysters are taken north and planted, where they grow very rapidly, and 
 during the following fall and winter they come in competition with oysters from Maryland and Virginia packers. 
 
 Statistics of shipments for northern planting in 1879. — "During the spring of 1879, Capt. Samuel 
 M. Travers, of the oyster-police force, directed his deputy commanders to board all vessels loading with plants for 
 northern waters, and obtain the number of bushels taken. He has favored me with the result, which is as follows: 
 
 Shipped north for planting in spring of 1879. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 From Tangier sound and tributaries 35;i, 750 
 
 Nauticoke river and Fishing bay 125,000 
 
 Little Choptank river 1^5,000 
 
 Great Choptank river 375,000 
 
 Eastern bay 62,500 
 
 Chester river 250,000 
 
 Anne Arundel county waters 112,500 
 
 Patuxent river and tributaries 150,000 
 
 Potomac river and tributaries 625, 000 
 
 Total 2,178,750 
 
 "The average price paid was 7 cents a bushel. Owing to the action of the state legislature, at its last session, 
 in forbidding the catching of oysters after April 15, the shipments from Maryland waters in the spring of 1880 
 were much smaller than for the previous year." 
 
 Estimates of shipments in 187y-'80.— The estimates made of shipments from Maryland waters to northern 
 ports from May 31, 1879, to May 31, 1880, are compiled by Edmonds, as follows. I think they are hardly to be closely 
 relied on, or of much value, but I annex the table : 
 
 Shipped to — 
 
 Portland, Maine 
 
 Fair Haven, Connecticut 
 
 Providence and Providence river 
 
 Boston 
 
 Delaware hay 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Seafoid, Delaware (for pacliing and for local use) . 
 Now York 
 
 Per rail and steamers . 
 Total 
 
 ^ 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 9,000 
 
 66, 000 
 
 110, 000 
 
 488, 880 
 
 JBitstids. 
 
 75, 000 
 50, 000 
 30, 000 
 80, 000 
 
 162, 960 
 200, 000 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 84, 000 
 116, 000 
 140,000 
 
 80, 000 
 488, 880 
 162, 960 
 200, 000 
 650, 000 
 
 1, 921, 840 
 100, 000 
 
 " 021, 840 
 
 I have thrown distrust on this table, because I hardly think it possible to tell, with any accuracy, what went north 
 from Maryland waters and what from Virginia. 
 
 SHIP3IENTS NORTHWARD IN 1805.— In 18C5 Mr. C. S. Maltby counted the shipments northward as follows : 
 
 Fair Haven, Connecticut 700,000 
 
 New York 1,050,000 
 
 Philadelphia 400,000 
 
 Boston, Massachusetts 350,000 
 
 Total 2,500,000 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 107 
 
 The vessels engaged in carrying oysters from the Chesapeake to the North are generally owned in the cities to 
 which they run ; and it would duidicate statistics to include theiu in the oyster-tleet of the Chesapeake. It would, 
 however, be equally an error to make no mention of them at all. P'rom the best information to be obtained by 
 correspondence with the owners of the vessels, 1 would put their number at liOO, with a present aggregate value of 
 $000,000. About 1,000 men compose their crews, and the wages of these will amount to about $140,000 a season. 
 
 The oysters taken North for immediate use cost, on an average, about 25 cents a bushel ; while plants, during the 
 past season, probably averaged 10 cents a bushel, about 3 cents more than the price during the previous season. 
 
 The dismissing of this subject will be excused by the reader, who has access to and has read the previous 
 cliapteirs, which treat of the use of Chesapeake "seed" and oysters in the waters of the Atlantic states. 
 
 Beginning op oyster-packing in IJaltijiore. — "Having given an account of the oystermen, their boats, 
 etc.," says Mr. Edmonds, "it is now appropriate to present some statistics of the number of bushels of oysters caught 
 and the disposition made of them. The most importaut factor in this connection being the packing-trade, I will 
 endeavor to show the extent of this business, as compiled from the books of the difl'ereut firms engaged in it. 
 
 "About 1834 or 183.5 a small packinghouse was opened in Baltimore, but it soon passed out of existence, and 
 no record of it can now be obtained. The first important enterprise in this line was the establishment of a 
 packing-house in 1.S3G, by Mr. C. S. JMaltby, a native of Connecticut. Mr. Maltby, who, by the way, is still in the 
 business, conlined his operations exclusively to the raw trade for a number of years. As his business increased, 
 he established a line of wagons from DaUimore to Pittsburgh, and was thus enabled to sup])ly the west with fresh 
 oysters long before the Baltimore and Ohio railroad had stretched out its track to that then distant region.* 
 
 Beginning of steamed oysters. — "Mr. A. Field was the first to develop in Baltimore the steam trade. He 
 began a few years after IMr. Maltby. His oysters weie steamed and then hermetically sealed in small tin cans. 
 
 "Having been once established, the trade increased quite rapidly, and for some years oyster-packing, both raw 
 and steamed, was very profitable;! but as there is an abundant chance of financial success through dishonest 
 means, with but little danger of detection, many unscrupulous firms engaged in the steamed-oyster business, and 
 by pacldng 'light weights', i. c, putting in a one-pound can about six or seven ounces of oysters, and filling the 
 remaining space with water, and about the same proportion of oysters and water in larger cans, and either selling 
 them under some fictitious brand, or else entirely omitting any nauie, they succeeded in gaining for the packing-trade 
 of Baltimore a by no means enviable reputation. To enable them to compete with these 'tricks in trade', reliable 
 houses were in some cases forced to follow their example, as in many places it was found impossible to sell standard 
 goods at fair prices, while Might weights' could, of course, be sold at much lower figures. In answer to the question 
 as to whether 'light weights' were sold extensively in the west, I was lately informed by a gentleman from that 
 part of the Union, that up to within a year or so it had been almost impossible to obtain full weights, but that some 
 improvement had lately taken place in this respect. The same gentleman, on returning to the West, sent me the 
 names of three ])acking-houses whose names appeared on the cans, and whose oysters were 'light weights'. An 
 examination i)roved the names to be fictitious, there being no such firms in Baltimore. 
 
 Tue Union Oyster Cojipany. — "Close competition, by causing a cutting in prices, helped on the trouble, and 
 for several years jji-evions to 1878 the business was very unprofitable. In 1878, to save themselves, the packers 
 formed a combination known as the 'Union Oyster Company', embracing all the leading firms engaged in the 
 steaming business, with the exception of three or lour, who, having well-known standard brands, preferred to fight 
 it out alone. The Ibrmation of the Union Company was, in itself, an evidence that the trade was in a deplorable 
 conditicm. The comiiany was established with a capital of $300,000, the stock being divided among the twenty-three 
 firms who entered it in proportion to the amount of business i)reviously done by them. The att'airs of the company 
 are managed by a president, a vice-president, a secretary, and the twenty -three firms, who constitute the board of 
 directors. In joining the company each firm entirely relinquishes their own steaming business (although they may 
 still conduct the raw trade) and act merely as agents for the union. All oysters are bought and packed by the 
 union, and then sold to the packers at a uniform price, thus placing every firm on exactly the same level. At the 
 same time the union may sell directly to the trade. 
 
 " The result of this combination has been to i)artially break up fraudulent packing, although it is still carried 
 on to some extent. Outside of the union there are three or four extensive firms, whose oysters sell on the reputation 
 of their brands, and it would obviously be impolitic for them to engage in packing light weights. 
 
 The raw oyster packing-houses.—" The raw-oyster busiaesshas always been more profitable and less subject 
 to the vicissitudes of trade, although there are many losses from spoilt oysters when the weather happens to turn 
 suddenly warm. liaw oysters, after being opened, are packed in small air-tight cans holding about a quart, and 
 
 *Iu 1850, .icconling to memoraiiila furnisluHl l)y C. S. JIaltby, there were six houses engaged in packing oysters, to the extent of 
 400,000 to 500,000 cans a year. The jnice was ^7 a ilozen, and five to ten cases to one purchaser was considered a large sale. Fruits, etc., 
 were packed to a still larger value by the same houses. 
 
 t Mr. C. S. Maltby records that in I8G.'), 1,875,000 bushels of oysters were packed raw in Baltimore, and 1,360,000 bushels were preserved. 
 In 1869 he numbers in ilarylaud .55 packers who, at 500 to 2,.500caus per day, put up twelve to fifteen nillious of cans in a season of seven 
 months, using 5,000.000 luisliels. ^ixty "raw '' Iiouscs that year euiijloyed :i,00O hands, wliile the packers gave employment to 7,500 persons, 
 Large quantities of canned oysters were annually sent, .at that time, by steamship to Havana. In 187-2 the same notes record as opening 
 oysters, 2,000 men; making cans, 300 men; box-makers, 50 men ; clerks and laborers, ;;oO. All these were in the "raw" trade of Baltimore. 
 
1G8 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 these tire arranged in rows in a long wooden box, with a block of ice between each row, or they are emptied into a 
 keg, half-barrel, or barrel made for this purpose. When the latter plan is pursued, the keg or barrel is filled to 
 about five-sixths of its capacity, and then a large piece of ice is thrown in, after which the top is fastened on as 
 closely as possible, and it is at once shipped to the West, usually by special oyster-trains or by express. Packed iu 
 this way, with moderately cold weather, the oysters will keep very well for a week or ten days. During the most 
 active jiart of the "raw" season there are daily oyster-trains of from thirty to forty cars from Baltimore to the West, 
 where nearly all the Baltimore oysters are consumed. From the shores of the Chesapeake bay, as far as Detroit, 
 there is scarcely a city or town (couuected with any of the great trunk lines) which is not supplied with jMaryland 
 raw-oysters. Farther west, and to a considerable extent in European countries, the demand is supplied by steamed 
 oysters. The oysters used in the raw trade are of a finer quality, and consequently command better prices than 
 steamed. In fiict, nothing iu the shape of an oyster is too small to be available for the ' steamed ' trade. And 
 from this arises one of the great sources of injury to the oyster-beds. So long as dredgers are able to sell their 
 entire catch, regardless of the size of the oysters, it will be useless to expect any improvement in the beds. Young 
 oysters of a very small growth can be disposed of almost as promptly as larger ones, and while this is the case, it 
 need not be expected that divdgers will have foresight enough to see the wisdom of throwing all small oysters back 
 on the bars. During the i)ast season the supply of oysters was often insuiflcient to meet the demand, and the 
 ' steamed' trade was compelled to susi^end work for a considerable length of time on account of a scarcity of 
 oysters, all that were received being quickly taken by the ' raw' men at prices which would be unprofitable for 
 steaming. 
 
 Statistics of the Baltimore packing-houses. — '' Baltimore, the great oyster-market of the United States, 
 annually packs more oysters than any other city in the world. It is the great center of the packing-trade, 
 surpassing in that particular all other cities, and yearly handling more oysters than all the other packing points of 
 Maryland and Virginia combined. During the season, extending from September 1, 1S79, to May 15, 18S0, the 
 number of vessels loaded with oysters arriving at Baltimore, was 9,.'543. (or a daily average of 37 for the 257 days), 
 bringing 7,252,972 bushels, which would make the average cargo 700 bushels. In addition to the amount brought 
 by sail vessels, there were 25,000 bushels received by steamers and consigned directly to hotels and restaurants, 
 making a total of 7,277,972 bushels, of which there were packed raw 3,709,353 bushels, hermetically sealed 2,';89,939 
 bushels, and used for city consumption 818,080 bushels. 
 
 "Engaged in oyster-packiug in Baltimore there are 45 firms, with a capital of $2,338,300, occupying, in their 
 business, houses and grounds with an estimated value of $1,300,900. During the summer these firms are generally 
 engaged iu fruit-packing, and their capital and buildings are thus in active use during the entire year. 
 
 "These firms employ 4,107 males and 2,400 females— total, 0,027 ; and during the season of 1879-80 paid to 
 them iu wages $002,427. The total number of bushels of oysters packed was 0,459,292, which required 25,540,780 
 tin cans and 929,014 wooden cases. The value of the oysters i)acked, including shucking, cans, etc., was $3,517,349. 
 For the tin cans $794,019 was paid, and for the wooden cases $102,022. 
 
 Ceisi'ield as a TACKING CENTER. — " Sext to Baltimore, Crisfield is the most important packing point in the 
 state. Had the oyster-beds in the vicinity of (Jrisfield not been so greatly depleted, I think the trade at that city 
 would have increased much more rapidly than it has. Crisfield is literally built upon oysters, or rather oyster-shells, 
 almost the entire space now occu])ied by the business part of the city having been under water. The shells from 
 the iiacking-houses have been utilized to make new ground, and gradually the city has pushed out nearly a half a 
 mile into the bay. At the present time some of the houses are built on piles, and are entirely surrounded by water, 
 having no means of communication with the land exceiit by boats. 
 
 Statistics of the oyster-packing in Maryland, 1879-'80. — " From the books of the 98 oyster-packing 
 firms of Maryland, the following table has been compiled, showing the amount of business done at each city from 
 September 1, 1879, to May 1, 1880 : 
 
 Oyster-packing in Maryland, season I879-'80. 
 
 
 fl ..V 
 
 
 O E3 
 
 n 
 
 o 
 
 « 1 
 
 .2 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 -a 
 
 <0 o 
 
 ■3 
 
 ■3 
 
 ^S 
 
 -a . 
 
 
 
 1'^ 
 
 V. Pi 
 
 £.2 
 
 a 
 
 •3 = 
 
 
 =1" 
 
 o a 
 
 = 6= 
 
 ■= 2 
 
 i 
 
 aj 
 
 
 J-S. 
 
 s. 
 
 Hi 
 
 ^a 
 
 ga 
 
 N" . 
 
 l« 
 
 QJ 
 
 
 Sa 
 
 
 s" 
 
 a 
 
 S"S 
 
 Bi^ 
 
 
 
 3 a. 
 
 
 "S-^ Pi 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 B P^ 
 
 a 
 
 "3 
 
 
 j^M 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 f^i 
 
 !2i 
 
 <1 
 
 |Zi 
 
 t> 
 
 Ealfciiuore 
 
 45 
 
 $2, 338, 300 
 39, 650 
 20, 300 
 59, 000 
 7,000 
 4, 5U0 
 23, 000 
 
 $1, 360, 966 
 23, 800 
 10, 000 
 
 4,107 
 078 
 385 
 
 2,460 
 
 $602, 427 
 
 3, 769, 353 
 
 $2, 272, 740 
 
 Crisfield ... . . 
 
 16 
 g 
 
 
 65, 481 
 28, 757 
 
 437, 270 
 205, 410 
 
 165, f:00 
 
 
 
 76, 638 
 
 
 8 
 
 315 
 
 
 26, 482 
 
 156. 703 
 
 09, 555 
 
 Oxford 
 
 7 
 4 
 10 
 
 5,760 
 3,000 
 15,000 
 
 156 
 
 91 
 
 387 
 
 
 23, 258 
 4,987 
 26, 387 
 
 108, 960 
 
 37, 788 
 
 224, 817 
 
 39, 986 
 
 
 
 14, 053 
 
 
 
 86, 945 
 
 
 
 
 Total -. 
 
 98 
 
 2, 4S2, 350 
 
 1, 436, 020 
 
 0,179 
 
 2,400 
 
 777,779 
 
 4, 930, 301 
 
 2,725,737 
 
 
 
Plate XXXVI. 
 
 Monograph- O YSTEE- IND VSTR T. 
 
 BaI.TIMORK OYSTKn-SlIUCKINC Tiioutni. 
 
 I 
 
 \J 
 
 \i 
 
 OYSTER-KNIVKS, DK DiVKHSK rATTKRNS, USER IN NeW ENCLAND, NeW YoUK. A\1> THE 
 
 ClIESAPEAKK KE«ft)N. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 
 
 169 
 
 Oyster-packing in Muf>j1and, season 187y-'80 — Contiuued. 
 
 
 •a a 
 
 
 Si 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 'A 
 
 
 Si 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 6 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 t3 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 Or: 
 
 « 
 
 c ^ 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 asii 
 
 O 
 
 
 •■P£ 
 
 O c 
 
 o 
 1- 
 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 
 JsE 
 
 o 
 
 §52 
 
 ■a 
 
 s 
 
 ■c 
 
 
 *C 
 
 
 
 o 
 a 
 ■3 
 
 3-1 i 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 ■s 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 !2i 
 
 (> 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 Izi 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 2 689 939 
 
 $1, 244, 609 
 
 6, 459, 292 
 427, 270 
 218,510 
 170, 855 
 108, 900 
 37,788 
 224, 817 
 
 .$3, 517, 349 
 165, 800 
 87, 978 
 81, 738 
 39, 986 
 14, 053 
 86, 944 
 
 25 546 780 
 
 $794, 919 
 
 929, 614 
 
 $102, 622 
 3,576 
 
 
 
 
 
 13, 100 
 
 11 320 
 
 
 
 
 
 20, 152 
 
 12, 183 
 
 
 
 
 11 097 
 
 K lortl 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 T)7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,530 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 2, 723, 191 
 
 1, 268, 112 
 
 7, 653, 492 
 
 *3, 993, 848 
 
 25, 546, 780 
 
 794, 919 
 
 929, 614 
 
 128, 812 
 
 
 " Baltimore is tlie only place where tin cans an,d wooden cases are used to any extent, shipments from other 
 cities being made almost exclusively in bulk — in barrels, half-barrels, and kegs — and it was thought better merely 
 to ascertain the cost of these without giving their number. 
 
 CuAEACTEBiSTics OF THK " o\STEE-SHUCKERS." — "As shown by the table, there are 0,170 males and 2,460 
 females employed in oyster-shucking in Maryland. During the season they receive as wages $777,779, this being 
 an average of only $90 06. Very few of the shuckers are regularly at work, and while in one week an expert 
 hand may make from $S to $15, during the next week he may be idle. 
 
 "Of the 6,179 males, nearly all of whom are employed in the 'raw' trade, about three-fourths are negroes, u^ )^ 
 the majority of them being comparatively steady workmen, while the whites are more generally disposed to be idle 
 and iutcmiierate. The few whites in the business are generally of a very low class of society. Within the past 
 year a few females have essayed to shuck raw oysters, but their number is still very small, and will probably so 
 continue, owing to the nature of the work. The 2,460 females are all employed in the steam oyster-honses of 
 Baltimore. They are mostly white girls of from sixteen to twenty-flve years of age, the projiortion of older ones, 
 as well as of colored, being small. These girls are almost without exception of foreign birth or iiarentage, the 
 largest proportion being of Bohemian origin, with Irish probably coming next. Few American girls, however poor, 
 will consent to engage in this occupation, as in it both sexes must mingle indiscriminately, withont regard to color, 
 class, or condition. Owing to the thorough steaming the oysters are very easily opened, and the amount of physical 
 labor required is comparatively light'; but during busy seasons the work begins about daybreak and lasts until 
 dark, and is of course exceedingly fatiguing. An industrious hand can make from 75 cents to $1 a day, bnt from 
 the great irregularity in their work they are probably not engaged over one half of the time. 
 
 " Considering the class of the people employed in the packing-houses, I do not think it safe to estimate more 
 than an average of two individuals dependent upon the wages of each shucker, at which rate there are in Maryland 
 17,278 people dependent upon oyster-shucking. 
 
 The oyster-packing firms. — " It may be well to say that there are about 225 men composing the 95 
 oyster-packing firms of the state. A noteworthy fact in this connection, is that the large majority of them are 
 of northern birth, and many of them, especially those in Crisfield and the smaller packing towns, reside in Maryland 
 only daring the oyster-season, returning every spring to their northern homes. More oyster-packers have come 
 from Connecticut than from all other states combined. It is a somewhat singular coincidence, that both Mr. C. S. 
 Maltby and Mr. A. Field, who respectively established the raw and the steam trade, were both originally from 
 Connecticut, and both are still living, the former in active business. There are about 1,125 individuals forming the 
 families of the oyster-packers. 
 
 " During May, June, July, and August the packers of Baltimore are engaged in canning fruits and vegetables; 
 and the same girls who in winter shuck oysters, in summer pare peaches and other fruits. The male shuckers of 
 Baltimore, as well as those of the cities in lower Maryland, having no regular employment in summer, work at 
 whatever odd jobs may be found. 
 
 The manufacture of cans and cases. — "The manufacture of cans and cases, an important indu.stry in 
 Baltimore, is so largely dependent upon oyster-i>acking, that an effort has been made to obtain some statistics 
 pertaining to it, although the exact figures will appear in the census of manufacturing industries. About $250,000 
 is invested in the business, which gives employment to 400 men (on oyster-cans), whose wages for eight months 
 amounts to about $100,900. This estimate is based on the number of cans used, as shown by the returns from the 
 packing- houses, the workmen being paid so much per 100 cans. It was very difficult to obtain any satisfactory 
 
 » Subtracting n-oni tliis, cost of labor iioil packing-cases, about $1,827,000, gives the original cost of these oysters, $2,166,848. Aihl to this the value of the oyster 
 "plants" sent north, $;;03,276. and you get $2,4 70, 124. This is not quite the whole product of Maryland waters, however, and in my general summary I place $2,500,000 
 as the total value annually of the state.— E. I. 
 
170 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 statistics regarding the number of ship carpenters occupied in building and repairing oyster-vessels, but from an 
 extensive correspondence with ship-builders iu various parts of the state, I think it will be placing the estimate 
 too low rather than too high, to say that there are 300 workmen, including carpenters and sail-makers, with yearly 
 wages amounting to $15(5.000. As can-makers, ship-yard workmen, etc., we then have TOO men, with about 3,500 
 people dependent upon them, receiving $256,000 in wages. 
 
 The retail trade of Baltimore and other cities. — " It was found impossible to obtain the number of 
 people engaged iu the retail trade of Baltimore and other cities, as any statistics gathered from restaurants and 
 hotels would be delusive, since they are not engaged exclusively iu handling oysters. Under the circumstances the 
 best estimates that can be made may be deduced from calculations based upon the local consumption in the cities. 
 In Baltimore the city trade is monopolized by a number of commission houses, which handle all the oysters taken 
 for local use, with the exception of the receipts by steamers. From the books of these firms it was ascertained that 
 the sales of oysters from September 1, 1879, to May 1, 1880, for consumption in the city and suburbs, amounted to 
 793,080 bushels. Add to this 25,000 bushels received by steamers, and the total retail trade is found to be 818,080 
 bushels. The average price paid for shucking raw oysters is 15 cents a gallon ; these beiug all of tine quality, will 
 open a gallon to a bushel, and hence the amount paid for opening 818,(580 bushels would be $122,802. Estimating 
 the average amount ma<le by the shuckers at $G a week, or $192 for the season, it is seen that there are CIO men 
 steadily employed for nearly eight months of the year in opening oysters for local consumption in Baltimore. There 
 is, in addition to these, a large number of men who sell oysters around the streets; others who rent a cellar room 
 and sell from there; some engage in driving oyster-carts; and a few are employed only during the oyster-season in 
 restaurants as extra help. As near as can be discovered, the number of these may be placed at 500, with wages 
 and earnings amounting to $90,000. Of these 1,140 men about 800 ?se negroes. 
 
 Consumption in Baxtimore of oysters prom other states. — " In addition to its own stock, Baltimore 
 annually uses a large quantity of 'fancy' oysters from northern cities. The Philadelphia, Wilmington and 
 Baltimore railway, in 1879, carried to that city 273,120 pounds of oysters in the shell, representing about 30,300 
 bushels. In addition to this, a firm of Baltimore men has lately opened a large establishment near Cape May, 
 New Jersey, whence last fall they shipped about 20 half-barrels of opened oysters daily, during September and 
 October. A similar importation from planting-beds near Providence, Ithode Island, has been heretofore described. 
 
 Local consumption of towns on Chesapeake bay. — "The local consumption of towns on the bay is 
 about 200,000 bushels a season, the shucking of which pays $30,000 to 150 men. Estimating an average of five to 
 a family, these 1,290 men who are engaged in shucking and selling oysters for local consumption throughout the 
 state, represent an aggregate of 6,450 individuals. Knowing the consumption per capita of Baltimore and suburbs, 
 and calculating that the inhabitants of the tidewater counties consume proportionately at least twice as many, it is 
 easy to obtain an approximate idea of the total number of oysters annually consumed in the state, and not found 
 in the returns from the packers. Of course the interior counties are not considered here, as they receive oysters 
 from the packers which have already been noted. The estimate that the tidewater counties consume locally twice 
 as many as Baltimore in proportion to the number of inhabitants, is based upon careful inquiry among well informed 
 persons. On this estimate, taking the population as returned by the present census, there are about 875,000 
 bushels annually consumed in the counties bordering on the bay, in addition to the 200,000 bushels consumed in 
 the towns on the bay. These oysters are generally opened by the families who eat them, and hence there is no 
 expense for shucking. 
 
 Oyster-currency. — " In some of the lower counties of the state, oysters often pass current as money, and 
 in one town there is a weekly paper (subscription price $1), about 50 of the subscribers to which annually pay in 
 oysters. As the editor thus receives from 100 to 125 bushels of oysters a season, all of which are used in his own 
 family, I readily believe his assertion that he ' was very fond of oysters.'" 
 
 47. STATISTICAL SUMMAEY FOE BALTIMOEE. 
 
 EECAPITULATION op NU3IBER OF 
 
 engaged in the oyster-trade, we have : 
 
 MEN EMPLOYED IN OYSTER-INDUSTRY. — Summing up the total of all 
 
 Occnpation. 
 
 Dredgers 
 
 Tongers 
 
 Scrapers 
 
 " Runners" 
 
 Employes of packing houses 
 
 Can-makers and sliip-yard workmen 
 Preparing for local consumption 
 
 Individual packers 
 
 Total 
 
 Number en- Wages and eam- 
 gaged. inga of same. 
 
 5,600 
 5,148 
 2,200 
 
 800 
 8,C39 
 
 700 
 1.290 
 
 24, 377 
 225 
 
 24, 602 
 
 $916, 300 
 1, 158, 240 
 297, 000 
 ICO, 400 
 777,779 
 250, 000 
 248, 802 
 
 3, 820, 521 
 
 Estimated num- 
 ber of })ersous 
 supported. 
 
 17, 278 
 3,500 
 6,450 
 
 82, 220 
 1,125 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 171 
 
 "lu tlie above enumeration no account has been taken of the number of owners of the dredge, the scrape, and 
 the running-boats, as any attempt to obtain such woukl be futile, since not even the names of the boats can be 
 ascertained. If it were ])ossible to gather this information, it would swell the above figures to much larger 
 proportions. From the SI, 8(50,000, the i)resent estimated value of these 1,450 boats (excluding canoes), there must 
 be a yearly proQt of at least several hundred thousand dollars. Some of the boats are owned by packers, others by 
 the captains, and the rest are distributed among all classes of society and almost all professions and occupations. 
 "When the number of these are taken into account, it will more than counterbalance any overestimates, if such there 
 be, in regard to the number of persons dependent upon the oyster-trade of the state. 
 
 Statistics of Seaford, Delaware. — " Seaford, Delaware, situated on the Nanticoke river, a tributary of 
 the Chesapeake bay, has quite an extensive packing-trade; and as all the oysters are carried from Maryland 
 watei's, it was considered advisable to include in this report the statistics of the trade at that city. Mr. D. L. 
 Eawlins, of Seaford, informs me that 'the oyster-packing business at Seaford was started by Piatt & Mallory (of 
 Fair Haven) in the fiill of 1859. Hemingways, Eowe, and other eastern packers came in 1SG3 and 18G4. They put 
 nearly all their oysters in small tin cans, which they shipped in cases holding about 52 cans each, a good proportion 
 being sent to Fair Haven, Connecticut, to be reship])ed from there. The business not proving as profitable as was 
 expected, by 1807 nearly all the original pacicers had sold out and left, since whicli time a fluctuating amount of 
 business has been kept up by various successive parties, with alteruatiug failure and success. No cans are used 
 now, shipments being made nearly altogether in bulk '. 
 
 "There are at Seaford seven oyster-packing firms, having an aggregate capital of $11,000, and occupying 
 buildings estimated to be worth $28,500. From September 1, 1870, to May 1, 1880, 184,500 bushels of oysters were 
 packed raw, giving employment to 170 males and 45 females, the wages of both for the season amounting to 
 $14,230. The estimated value of the oysters, after being shucked and packed, was $71,350. When shucked 
 oysters are shii)ped in bulk, the package (barrel or half-barrel) is returned after being emptied, and then refilled. 
 On this account only 1,400 packages, costing $1,000, were bought by Seaford packers during the season of 1870-80. 
 About 400 persons are dependent upon the oyster-trade of Seaford. The local consumption, added to the packing, 
 gives a total of 200,000 bushels handled at Seaford. 
 
 Capital and labor ejmployed in Maryland oyster-trade. — " The following general summary of the 
 whole trade in Maryland will give a good idea of its extent: 
 
 Capital in- 
 vested, real 
 and per- 
 sonal. 
 
 Number of 
 persona 
 employed. 
 
 In packing 
 
 In oyster-boats 
 
 In can-maliing, etc . 
 In local trade 
 
 $3. 928, 376 
 
 2, 042, 500 
 
 250, COO 
 
 *25, 000 
 
 8,639 
 
 13, 748 
 
 700 
 
 1,290 
 
 Total . 
 
 0,245,876 1 24,377 
 
 * Estimated. 
 
 Yield of Maryland oyster-fishery. — "The number of bushels of oysters caught in Maryland during 
 1879-'80, and the disposition made of them, is as follows : 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Packed in the state, of Maryland oysters* 6,653,492 
 
 Sliiiiped out of the .state 2,0:il,840 
 
 Local consumption iu Baltimore t'lt', 680 
 
 Local consumption in otlier cities of the state 20(1, 000 
 
 Local consumption in the counties 875, 000 
 
 Imiiorted " fancy" oysters - 30,000 
 
 Total 10,599,012 
 
 "Exactitude is not altogether possible; the 'round number', 10,600,000, will, therefore, express the total well." 
 The planting- interests of Maryland. — The planting interests of Maryland have heretofore been very 
 slight. Now attention is being turned to it more and more. In Virginia, however, considerable planting is done, 
 and under the chapter devoted to that state will be found a study of the planting of the whole of Chesapeake 
 bay. Important experiments are now being made at Saint James, under the directions of Maj. T. B. Ferguson, 
 commissioner of fisheries for the state, who intends to introduce the best methods of European oyster-culture: 
 Statistical recapitulation for Maryland: 
 
 Number of planters and shippers 7, 648 
 
 Value of shore-property $1,500,000 
 
 _ • ■ 
 
 *The total number of bushels packed iu the state was 7,653,492, but 1,000,000 bushels came from Virginia. 
 
172 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Number of vessels and sail-boats cugaged 3,275 
 
 Value of same $-2,042,500 
 
 Number of men hired by planters or dealers 6,897 
 
 Annual earnings of same $775,520 
 
 Number of -vv omen hired 2, 4G0 
 
 Annual earnings of same $259, 259 
 
 Number of men in canneries 6,400 
 
 Annual earnings of same $1,082,700 
 
 Total number of families supported 10,000 
 
 Annual sales of — 
 
 I. Native oysters bushels.. 10,600,000 
 
 Value of same $2,650,000 
 
 48. THE OYSTER-LAWS OF MARYLAND, 
 
 Oystee LAWS. — The oyster-laws of Maryland are too voluminous to be given in full, and an abstract has, 
 therefore, been made of them. Before giving this, I quote Mr. Edmonds' remarks upon them and their effect, as 
 follows : 
 
 "For the enforcement of these laws an oyster-police force is established, and for the use of the force one 
 steamer and eight fasi-sailing sloops are i)rovided; but owing to the character of the laws in force previous to the 
 last session of tlie legislature, it was impossible for the police force to carry out the purposes for which it was 
 intended. During the fiscal year ending September 30, 1879, the cost of supporting this force amounted to 
 $44,379 76, while the receipts of the 'oyster-fund' for the same time were $31,9CJ 12, thus leaving the force in 
 debt to the state for that year $12,410 G4. Previous to 1877 the amount received for dredging-licenses had been 
 more than enough to pay the annual expenses of the force; and when this was changed so that the receipts were 
 less than the disbursements, great dissatisfaction Avas manifested throughout the state. The oyster-police force 
 received the blame, although it did not deserve it. The loss of revenue was occasioned by the fact that more than 
 one-half of the dredging-fleet worlvcd during the past season [1879] without any license. This was mainly owing 
 to the failure of the legislatures of Maryland and Virginia to ratify the report made by a commission previously 
 appointed to determine the boundai-y line on the Potomac river between the two states. In consequence of this 
 neither state could claim jurisdiction over the waters of the Potomac, and hence dredgers could work without 
 license. Many of the unlicensed boats also caught tlieir oysters in Maryland waters on forbidden ground, and 
 escaped arrest, not through any fault of the police force, but in consequence of defective laws, which made it so 
 difflcult to convict the violators of them that it was useless to arrest the dredgers. 
 
 " During my investigation of this subject I spent a week oji board the police-steamer Leila, and about ten 
 o'clock one morning, while on this trip, I was called forward by Cajitaiu Travers, the commander of the steamer, 
 to watch the movements of a large fleet of dredgers some eight or ten miles ahead of us. Sixty-three boats were 
 counted, only five of which were licensed. It was useless to arrest any, since they had seen the steamer nearly an 
 hour before she reached them, and had taken in all their dredges. The wet oysters and ropes lying on deck should 
 have been prima facie evidence that the law had been violated; but repeated trials had demonstrated that it was 
 impossible to convict the captain of a dredging-boat, unless the officers of the steamer were able to swear that they 
 had seen the dredge hauled up; and not only that, but must also be able to swear that oysters, and not rofks or 
 stones, were brought up by the dredge. These two things were obviously imiiossible in nearly every case. In 
 many cases the police force were hindered and restricted by the rulings of illiterate magistrates, some of whom, 
 it is said, are interested in dredging-boats, while others., are more in sympathy with the dredgers than with the 
 police. Such was the working of the old law. It is to be hoped that the new one will prove of more value, 
 notwithstanding the fact that it is still imperfect. Under the old law the beds were allowed but little rest, tonging 
 and dredging continuing long after the spawning-season had begun. By the new law, however, it was intended 
 that the close-season should be extended, and it was made unlawful to take oysters from the waters of the state 
 'between the 15th day of April and the 1st day of September, except for private use, to the amount of five bushels 
 per day, or for sale of the same to any citizen or citizens of the neighborhood, and to them only for the purpose of 
 being consumed where sold, or for the puri)ose of replanting or bedding in the waters of the counties wherein they 
 are cauglit, or for sale to the citizens of the county wherein they are caught, and to them only for the purpose of 
 reijlanting or bedding in the waters of the said counties '. The meaning of this clause being somewhat obscure, 
 the courts have been called upon to interi)ret it, and by some means they have rendered decisions allowing the 
 tongmen to catch an unlimited quantity of oysters during what was intended to be the close-season. 
 
 " The two most im])ortant features of the new law are, that the penalty for illegal dredging, which was formerly 
 imposed u])on the captain and crew only, is now shared by the vessel, and that the evidence necessary for 
 conviction is made somewhat less difflcult to obtain than by the old law. It is, however, still defective, and its 
 force greatly impaired by the insertion of the words ' on deck ', in section 39, which says : ' That if any boat or 
 vessel shall be seen sailing over any of the waters of this state which are exempted from dredging by law, in the 
 same manner in which they sail to take or catch oysters with scoop, scrape, drag, dredge, or similar instrument, 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 173 
 
 tLe sail-boat or vessel sliall bo pursued by auy officer or officers authorized by this act to make arrests, and 
 if said boat or vessel aiiprcheiided by said officer shall be found to have on board any wet oysters ou deck', 
 etc. If the law had been framed in the interest of illegal dredging, it would have been hard to make a better 
 loophole of escape than the two words 'on deck'. The dredgers, by keeping a careful watch, can almost 
 invariably have at least thirty or forty minutes' notice of the appi-oach of a police boat, and in that time it will bo 
 very easy to throw all the oysters either into the hold or overboard. After this is done they are safe. It is 
 probable that the change in regard to lines will lead to a better enforcement of the laws relating to dredging, but 
 there will still be many unlicenseil dredgers, so long as the question of jurisdiction over the waters of the Potomac 
 remains unsettled. Under the old law the captain and crew of the vessel were held responsible for any violation 
 of the laws, while the vessel was allowed to go free. The captain and crew, if caught, were i^laced iu jail ; the 
 former, if a useful man, was bailed out by his employers, his fine eventually paid if the case went against him, and 
 he was placed on the same or another vessel, wliile the crew were left, often for many months, in jail, simply 
 imposing a heavy expense upon the counties. As many of the dredgers are foreigners, knowing nothing in regard 
 to the laws, it was manifestly unjust to make them suffer for obeying the orders of their captains. At the same 
 time, however, there were others wlio were not ignorant of the laws, or of the penalties imposed for the violation 
 of them ; but were specially trained in various devices and subterfuges, such as would enable them to escape arrest. 
 The crew coidd not be taken until the captain was seen ; if he could not show a license all hands were placed under 
 arrest. Sometimes, when an officer of the police force boarded a vessel and asked for the captain, he was told by 
 the very man who was himself the captain, that the captain was on shore and had all the vessel's papers with him. 
 At other times the captain would escape to the shore iu a small boat, and remain hid as long as the police-boat 
 was in sight, even if that was several days. The dredging-boats being well supplied with small-arms, are 
 sometimes dispose<l to show fight when approached by a police-boat, and in forcing a surrender some of the 
 dredgers have occasionally been severely wounded, and one or two have been killed. Happily, however, occurrences 
 of this kind have beeu very rare. As a result of the new law which makes the boat responsible jointly with the 
 captain and crew, much of this trouble will probably be avoided. 
 
 "From my investigations, I am inclined to think that the police force is well conducted, find that Capt. Sam. 
 M. Travers, commander, did all that could possibly be done to enforce the old law. The blame for illegal dredging 
 should be placed where it belougs — on the framers of the laws, and not on the executors of them." 
 
 ABSTRACT OF THE OYSTER-LAWS OF MARYLAND, PASSED JANUARY SESSION, 1880. 
 
 Chapter 198 — Oysters. 
 
 Section 1. Be if enacted hi/ the general asscmhlji of Mari/land, That chapter 181, of the acts passed at Jannaiy session, 1874, he, and 
 the same is, hereby repealed, and the following enacted iu lieu thereof, to be article 71 of the code of public general laws, title 
 " Oysters". 
 
 Sec. 2. No steamer shall be used iu catching oysters in the waters of this state, with scoop, dredge, or similar instrument, and no 
 other boat shall be so used, without lirst having beeu licensed as hereinafter provided. 
 
 Sec. 3. The comptroller of the treasury shall, upon application of any person who has been a resident of this state for twelve 
 consecutive mouths next preceding such application, and to uo other person, issue a license to such resident to employ such boat in 
 catching oysters with scoop, dredge, or similar instrument, within the Chesapeake bay, aud iu Eastern bay, outside of a line drawn from 
 the southwest corner of Second Kent point to Wade's point; provided, that nothing herein contained shall authorize the catching of 
 oysters with scoop, dredge, or-similar instrument, ou any oyster-bar within one aud a half miles of Tolley's point, Sandy point, Hackelt's 
 point, Thomas' point, Holland Island bar, Three Sisters, Swan Point bar. Poplar island, one-quarter of a mile west of, aud between the 
 island and the main-hand, nor within a half mile of Plum jjoiut, and to buy and sell oysters iu this state, which license shall hold good for 
 one year, but shall only authorize the catching of oysters between October 15 and Aiiril 1 ; liut it shall bo lawful for the owner of .any such 
 licensed boat, whenever said owner shall convej' by bill of sale for a hoiia fide consideration, said boat, unto any persou who has been a 
 resident of the state of Maryland for at least one year, to transfer the said license to said vendee with said boat : Provided, The said 
 vendee aud assignee shall appear before the comiitroller of the treasury aud make oath before him to all the I'acts and prerccjuisitcs 
 required, aud shall pay $5 to the state treasury. 
 
 Sec. 4. The owner of such boat shall make oath before the comptroller or his clerk, or if the owner be a resident of Baltimore city, 
 he shall make oath before the clerk of the court of common pleas, or if a resident of a county, shall make oath before the clerk of the 
 circuit court of said county, that he is the bona fide owner of such bo,at to be described iu tiie license; that he has been a resident of tho 
 state for the time beforementioned ; that there is no lien on said boat by a non-resideut ; and that the said boat is not held with an 
 intention to violate the provisions of this law. Such applicant shall produce before the comptroller, at the time of such application, tho 
 certilicate of tho taking of such o.ath, tho custom-house enrollment or license of such boat; and, if such boat is under custom-houso 
 tonnage, the owner shall swear to her tonnage. The master of such boat shall make oath that he has been a resident of the state of 
 Maryland for twelve mouths next preceding tho time of taking such oath. 
 
 Sicc. 5. Before granting such license, tho comptroller shall receive for it, from the applicant, at tho rate of $3 per ton for every tou 
 tho boat may measure; and the license shall be exhibited whenever called for by auy oflicer of the state of Maryland. 
 
 Sec. t). Any persou who shall violate any of the provisions of tlie preceding sections shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, aud, 
 upon indictment aud conviction iu .any circuit court, or before any justice of the peace of this state, before whom such case is tried, shall 
 be Gued not less than ij.'iO nor more than ftddO, or sentenced to the house of correlation for a term not less than three months, nor more 
 than three years; and the boat or vessel used iu said violation, together with the papers, furniture, and tackle on board of said boat or 
 vessel at tho time of l;he said vi *atiou, shall pay a penalty of not less than $50 nor more than f'200 for each and every violation of tho 
 preceding sectiou. 
 
174 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Sec. 7. Upon information given under oath to any judge of the circuit court or justice of the peace, of any violation of any of the 
 provisions of this act, he shall issue his warrant to the sheriff or any constable, requiring them to proceed forthwith to arrest the party or 
 p.arties alleged to have been engaged in the violation of this act, and to seize and take possession of any boat, canoe, or vessel, together 
 ■with all her tackle and apparel, and deliver the same to the judge of the circuit court, or a justice of the peace of this state, to be dealt 
 with according to the provisions of this act. 
 
 Sec. 8. Any person or persons who shall resist any officer authorized under this act to mal<e arrests, shall lie deemed guilty of a 
 misdemeanor, and upon conviotiou thereof, shall be imprisoned in the house of correction for not less than three months nor more than 
 three years. 
 
 Sec. 9. It shall be the duty of the sheriif, constable, or officers of the state fishery-force, to arrest any person or persons, and to seize 
 any canoe, boat, or vessel found violating any of the provisions of this act, and bring the offender or offenders before a judge of the court 
 having criminal jurisdiction, or a justice of the peace most convenient or accessible, to be dealt with as herein provided. 
 
 Sec. 10. The judge or justice of the peace before whom any person or persons may be brought, charged under oath with violating 
 any of the provisions of this act, shall either give the case an immediate hearing, or shall appoint some early day within the next ten 
 days thereafter, to hear the case, the party or parties charged giving good and sufiicieut bail for his or their attendance, and on conviction 
 of the offenders, the said judge or justice of the peace shall impose a fine of not less than .f50 nor more than ^200, or imprisonment in the 
 house of correction for not less tlian three months, nor more than three years, and the boat or vessel used in such violation, together with 
 all the apparel and tackle on board, at the time of said ^^oIation, shall be held until said fine and costs are paid ; provided, that if said 
 fine shall not be paid within twenty days thereafter, the said judge is hereby authorized to order any sheriff' or constable to sell said boat 
 or vessel, with all the apparel and tackle on board, to the highest bidder, for cash, after giving at least twenty days' notice of the time 
 and place of said sale, and the proceeds of said sale shall go to the payment of the tine and costs of such prosecution, and the balance, if 
 any, sh.all be paid to the owner of said boat or vessel; provided, the said owner shall have the right of an appeal to the circuit court. 
 
 Sec. 11. Any boat owned wholly or in part by any non-resident, used in catcliiug oysters in this state with scoop, dredge, or similar 
 instrument, shall be condemned by order of any jiulge of the circuit court nearest the place of her capture, and shall be sold by the sheriff 
 of the county where condemned ; one-fourth of the proceeds of such sale shall be paid to the party making the capture (except the oflicers 
 of the state fishery-force), and the balance shall be paid into the treasui-y of the state to be credited to the oyster-fund. 
 
 Sec. 12. The fines accruiug under this act shall be paid within ten days to the clerk of the county or city where such fine may 
 accrue, and be jilaced to the credit of the oyster-fund. 
 
 Sec. 13. It shall be unlawful, without authority from the owner, for any person or persons to take or catch planted or bedded 
 oysters; any person violating the provisions of this section shall, on conviction in the circuit coirrt of the county wherein the oysters 
 ■were bedded, be fined not less than |5 nor more than $50, or be sentenced to the house of correction for a term not less than three mouths 
 nor more than three years. 
 
 Sec. 14. It shall be unlawful for .any person or persons to take or catch oysters, except for private use, to the amount of five bushels 
 per day, or for sale of the same to any citizen or citizens of the neighborhood, aud to them only for the purpose of being consumed where 
 sold, or for the purpose of replanting or bedding in the waters of the counties wherein they are caught, or for sale to the citizens of the 
 county wherein they are caught aud to them only for the purpose of replanting or bedding in the waters of said counties, between the 
 15th day of April and the 1st day of September, in each and every year. Any person violating this section shall be deemed guilty of a 
 misdemeanor, and be fined by a justice of the peace of the county wherein the offense was committed, not less than $50, nor more than 
 $200, or imprisonment in the house of correction for not less than three months nor more than three years. 
 
 Sec. 15. It shall be unlawful for any person or persons to take oysters on Sunday or at night, or to carry oysters in the shell outside 
 the state, between April 1 and September 1. 
 
 Sec. 16. The comptroller of the treasury shall have painted in black figures, on white canvas, two sets of numbers, corresponding to 
 the license to catch oysters; each figure shall be 2'4 inches in length aud of proportionate width, and the figures at least 6 inches apart, 
 and he shall give to each person taking out such license two numbers thereof, one of which shall be firmly sewed upon the starboard side, 
 aud in the middle of that part of the mainsail which is above the close-reef, and the other number on the port side, and in the middle 
 part of the jib, which is above the bonnet and reef; these numbers shall be placed in an upright position, and worn at all times during 
 the dredging-season, and shall not be concealed or defaced, and no other number shall be exposed to view or used, than that which is 
 furnished by the comptroller. 
 
 Sec. 17. Any resident of this state, desiriug to use any canoe or other boat, in catching or taking oysters with rakes or tongs for 
 sale, in any of the waters of this state, shall first obtain, by application to the clerk of the circuit court of the county wherein he may 
 reside, a license therefor, and such license shall have effect from June 1, in the year in which they may have been obtained, to June 1 
 next succeeding ; provided that such license shall not authorize the use of said canoe or boat in taking or catching oysters in any creek, 
 cove, river, inlet, bay or sound within the limits of any county, other than that wherein the license shall have been granted, and that the 
 boundaries of counties bordering on na\igable waters shall be strictly construed so as not to permit the residents of either county to take 
 or catch oysters beyond the middle of the dividing channel ; I'rorhJcd, That nothing in this section shall be so construed as to prevent the 
 citizens of Saint Mary and Calvert counties from using the waters of the Patuxent river in common, or the citizens of Queen Anne and 
 Kent counties from using the waters of Chester river in common, or the citizens of Dorchester and Wicomico counties from using the 
 ■waters of the Nanticoke river in common, or the citizens of Queen Anne aud Talbot countiis from using the waters of Wye river and the 
 mouth thereof in common, or citizens of Dorchester or Talbot covmties from using the waters of the Choiitank river in common. 
 
 Sec. 18. Each and every license to take or catch oysters for sale, with rakes or tongs, shall state the name and residence of the 
 person to whom the same is to be gr.anted, the number, together with the length, to be oiitained by top, or over-all, measurement of the 
 canoe or boat licensed, the county in which the same is to be used, and the period at which said license will expire, and every applicant 
 for such license shall pay to the clerk of the court where such license may be granted, and before the issuing and delivery of the same, 
 according to the following rates, viz : For any boat measuring in length 20 feet or less, the sum of §2 ; measuring fiom 20 to 25 feet, the 
 sum of |3 ; measuring from 25 to 30 feet, the sum of |4 ; and all over 30 feet, including sloops under custom-house tonnage, the sum of |5 
 each ; and all oysters taken with rakes or tongs shall be culled upon the natural beds where they are taken ; the amount received from 
 tonging hcense to be paid to the clerk of the school commissioners, for the public schools in the respective counties where such license is 
 issued ; jjrovided, the sum received from white tongers shall go to white schools, and the sum from colored tongers shall go to the colored 
 schools. 
 
 Sec. 19. Every applicant fnr license to use any canoe or other boat in taking or catching oysters with rakes or tongs, shall be required 
 to make oath or atlirniafion before the clerk authorized to i.ssue the same, or some justice of tlio peace, on whose certificate of the taking 
 of such oath or afliruiation the clerk shall issue said license: that the facts set forth in said license are strictly true; that he has lieeu a 
 
THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 175 
 
 hona fitlc rosidont, of the county for tlif twclvo montlis noxt preceding his ajiplicatinn for saiil license ; that he desires and intends to nso 
 said canoe or boat only in the connty in wliich he resides, or in the waters nsed in connnon, as herein provided in this act; that he will 
 not allow the same to he used for taking oysters hy non-residents of the connty; that ho will comply with and obey »11 the laws of this 
 state, regulating the taking or catching of oysters ; and every person to whom such license shall have been granted, shall paint t he number 
 of his canoe or boat on the outside thereof, near the gunwale, in black figures, and not less than three inches in length, and of ])roportiiuiate 
 width, in a white gronml, and no number, other than that in the said license, shall be exposed to view on said canoe or boat; and any 
 person failing to comply with this provision before using said boat or canoe for the purpose aforesaid, shall, on conviction thereof before 
 a justice of the peace, be fined not less than five dollars, nor more than ten dollars, and any person who may refuse to pay said fine shall 
 be committed to the county jail for the period of thirty flays, or until said fine be paid. 
 
 Sec. 20. The comptroller of the treasury shall cause to be printed and delivered to the clerks of the circuit courts of the several 
 counties, the requisite number of such blank licenses; and the said clerks shall, on the first Monday of March and December, in each 
 year, return to the comptroller a list and account of such licenses issued by them ; and no licenses to take or catch oysters with r.akes or 
 tongs shall be issued to any boat or vessel which is licensed to take or catch oysters with scoop, drag, dredge, or any similar instrument. 
 
 Sec. 21. If any person shall use auy canoe or boat, not licensed as required by the preceding section of this article, in taking or 
 catching oysters with rakes or tongs, except for private use, he shall, upon conviction thereof, be fined not less than twenty nor more than 
 one hundred dollars ; and iu case of refusal to pay the said fine, said person shall bo confined in the house of correction not less than three 
 mouths nor more than three years. 
 
 Sec. 22. All moneys arising from fines, penalties, or forfeitures imposed under this article shall, upon warrant of the comptroller, be 
 paid into the treasury and placed to the credit of the oyster-fund. 
 
 Sec. 23. The owner or owners of any land bordering on any of the navigable waters of this state, the lines of which extend into and 
 are covered by said waters, shall have the exclusive privilege of using the same for protecting, sowing, bedding or depositing oysters or 
 other shellfish, within the lines of their own land; and any owner or owners of land lying and bordering upon any of the waters of this 
 state shall have power to locate and appropriate in auy of the waters adjoining his, her, or their lands, five acres, for the purpose of 
 protecting, preserving, depositing, bedding, or sowing oysters or other shellfish ; and any other citizen of the state shall have power to 
 locate and appropriate five acres iu any waters in said state not located or ai>propriatcd ; provided, thirty days' notice in writing shall be 
 given the owner or owners, occupant or occupants of land bordering on said water proposed to be located ; that the owner or owners, 
 occupant or occ>i])ants, may have priority of claim, and if they .shall fail to locate or appropriate the water mentioned in said notice 
 within thirty days after receiving the same, then it shall be open and free to any one under the provisions of this section ; provided, also, 
 that the said location or appropriation shall be described by stakes, bushes, or oth('r proper and visible metes and bounds, which 
 description shall be reduced to writing under the o.ath of some competent .surveyor, and recorded in the oliace of the clerk of the circuit 
 court of the county ; .and provided, also, that such location and appropriation shall not injure, obstruct, or impede the free navigation of 
 said waters; and provided, that no natural bar orbed of oysters shall be so located or appropriated, and that six months' peaceful 
 possession of all locations of oyster-grounds under the laws of this state shall constitute a good and suftieieut title thereto ; but should 
 auy one, within the sis months herein provided, bo charged with locating or appropriating auy natural bed or bar hereinbefore prohibited, 
 the question may be at once submitted, by any person interested, to the judge of the circuit court in the county where such questions 
 shall arise, who, after having given notice to the parties interested, shall proceed to hear the testimony and decide the case, aud if 
 decisicm be iu favor of the party locating said five acres, said decision shall be recorded with the original record of said five acres, and 
 shall in all cases be conclusive evidence of title thereto. 
 
 Sec. 24. If any creek, cove, or inlet, not exceeding 100 yards at low water in breadth .at its mouth, make into the lands, or that if any 
 creek, cove, or inlet of greater width than KlO yards at low-water mark, make into the lands, the owner or owners, or other lawful 
 occiipant or occupants, shall have fhe exclusive right to use such creek, cove, or inlet when the month of said creek, cove, or inlet i.s 100 
 yards or less in width, and when the said creek, cove, or inlet is more than 100 yards in width at its mouth at low w.ater, the said owner 
 or owners, or other lawful occupant or occupants, shall have exclusive right to use such creek, cove, or inlet, so soon as s.aid creek, cove 
 or inlet, in making info said laud or lands, shall become 100 y.ards in wiffth at low water, for preserving, depo.Hting, bedding, or sowing 
 oysters or other shellfish, although such cove, creek, or inlet may not be included iu fhe lines of any patent. 
 
 Sec. 25. Empowers the board of public works to purchase for each of the guard-boats arms and ammunition. 
 
 Sec. 26. For the more efficient working of the state fishery-force, the waters of this state shall be divided into .seven districts, of 
 which the waters of Kent county and Queen Anne shall be the first; the waters of Queen Anne and Talbot shall be the second; the 
 waters of Dorchester and Talbot, the third; the waters of Wicomico, the fourth; the waters of Son-erset county, the fifth; the waters of 
 Anne Arundel county, the sixth ; the waters of Saint Mary, Charles, and Calvert, the seventh ; each of the said districts shall be guarded 
 by one sailing-vessel, except the third and seventh, which shall bo guarded by two; and it shall be the duty of the deputy commander of 
 the first district to guard the waters of Chester river, belonging to Queen Anno county and the waters of Kent county, including Swan 
 Point bar ; and the duty of the commander of the second district to guard the waters of Eastern bay and its tributaries, and the waters 
 of Tall)ot county, as far down as Dlack Walnut point ; and it shall be the duty of one of the dc]iuty commanders of the third district to 
 guard the waters of Choptauk river aud its tributaries which lay iu Talbot county ; aud the duty of the conmiander of AWicomico county 
 boat to gu.ard fhe waters of Wicomico county, and the line between Somerset and Wicomico county; .and the remaining coumuuiders to 
 guard their respective districts; provided, that the board of public works or the coiunuiudcr of the fishery-force, are hereby authorized 
 aud empowered to order the deputy commanders to do duty in auy of the waters in this state, when, in the judgment of either, they may 
 deem it necessary. 
 
 Sec. 27. The board of public works shall appoint a suitable person to command said force, to appoint the deputy commanders for 
 their respective districts, .and the said conmiander and deputy commanders shall have power to appoint their subordinates and select their 
 crews; and the term of office of said commander and deputy commanders shall be for two years. 
 
 Sec, 28. The board of public works shall have the power to remove any ofiicer of said force for neglect of duty or incompetency, and 
 any officer commanding iu said force shall have the power to remove auy subordinate under his command, and appoint a person to fill rho 
 v.aeancy whenever the interest of said service may, in his judgment, require him to do so. 
 
 Sec. 29. The board of public works shall keep the steamer and said vessels in good order, and the treasurer of the state, npon 
 requisitiiMi of the said board, aud the warrant of the comptroller, is directed to p.ay sums necessary to carry out the provisions of this act. 
 Sec. no. The commanding officer of the steamer may be selected from the state at large, but the deputy commanders shall be selected 
 from fhe districts in which they are to serve. 
 
 Sec. 31. The commanding Officer is required to keep his vessel constantly cm duty when circumstances will permit; every locality 
 
176 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ■where a violation of the law is likely to occur shall be visited as often as the duties of the force and condition of the vessel will allow; 
 and every three months a report shall be made of all official action taken under the law, and of all moneys received for license issued to 
 parties engaged ia carrying oysters taken in this state. 
 
 Sec. 32. It shall be the duty of the dex)uty commanders to contine themselves ordinarily to their several districts ; but it shall also 
 •be their duty to enforce any of the provisions of this act in any waters adjacent to their districts, when a violation of the same shall come 
 to their knowledge. 
 
 Sec. 33. Commanders of said force shall, before entering upon their duties, take the oath prescribed by the constitution, and the 
 commanding officer of said force shall enter into bond to the state of Maryland in the sum of ten thousand dollars, and each deputy 
 commander in the sum of three thousand dollars, for the faithful performance of their duties. ' 
 
 Sec. 34. Fixes salaries of commander and various subordinates of police force. 
 
 Sec. 35. The officers and crew of the steamer shall each receive one ration per day of the qn.ality and quantity allowed by law to the 
 officers and crew of the Revenue Marine of the United States, but no rations shall be allowed to officers or crews of the sailing-vessels. 
 
 Sec. 3(5. The officers and crews aforesaid shall be paid monthly by the treasurer upon warr.aut of the comptroller, etc. 
 
 Sec. 37. All oysters in the shell disposed of in the state of Maryland shall be measured in a sealed measure of any capacity, from half 
 a bushel to three bushels, that may be agreed upon between the seller and purchaser; provided, that the said measure or measures shall 
 contain in quantity for each bushel thereof, according to the following dimensions, that is to say, IfiJ inches across, from inside to inside 
 at the bottom, 18 inches across from inside to inside at the top, and 21 inches diagoniil from the inside chime to the top, and the same 
 shall be even or struck measure. 
 
 Sec. 38. It shall be the duty of the purchaser or seller to have and use said measure or measures, duly inspected and sealed by the 
 proper officers, and no other measure shall be used under a forfeit of |50 for each and every offense. 
 
 Sec. 39. If any bo.it or vessel shall be seen sailing over any of the waters of this state, which are exempted'Jrom dredging by law, 
 in the same manner in which they sail to take or catch oysters with scoop, scrape, drag, dredge, or similar instrument, the said boat or 
 vessel shall be pursued by any officer or officers authorized by this act to make arrests, and if said boat or vessel apprehended by said 
 officer, shall be found to have on board any wet oysters on deck and properly equipped for taking or catching oysters with scoop, scrape, 
 drag, or dredge, or similar instrument, it shall be prima facie evidence that the said boat or vessel has been used in violation of this act, 
 and it shall be the duty of the officer to arrest the person in command of said boat or vessel and seize the said boat or vessel, together 
 with all her equipments, and bring the same before a judge or justice of the peace most accessible, to be dealt with according to law ; 
 provided, that nothing in this act shall bo construed to prohibit vessels from seeking harbor in any waters of this state. 
 
 Sec. 40. All oysters takeu from any of the waters of this state shall be culled upon their natural bed or bar, under risk of heavy 
 penalties. 
 
 Sec. 41. Any person convicted under this act, shall, in all cases, have the right of an appeal. 
 
 Sec. 42. Nothing in this act shall be construed to apply to Worcester county. 
 
 Sec. 43. It shall be the duty of the commanders of the steamer and sloops to diligently watch and guard, and to arrest all persons 
 dredging, tonging, or scooping without license: and any violation of duty in this respect shall be deemed a sufficient cause of removal. 
 
 Sec. 44. Nothing contained in this act shall bo construed to atfect any prosecutions under the existing law, now pending in this state. 
 
 Xo!(!8 of 1878, chapter 471. 
 
 Section 1. It shall not be lawful for any person or persons to take or catch oysters for any pnqiose, in any m.anner, or with any 
 instrument whatever, in the waters of the Patnxent river within the boundaries of Calvert county, between Point Patience and 
 Sheridan's point, in Calvert county, and between Town point and Long point, in Saint Mary county, from the 1st day of May to the 1st 
 day of October in each year after the passage of this act ; provided, however, that this act shall not be construed to prohibit the citizens 
 of C.ilvert county or Saint Mary county from taking from the waters thereof oysters for private use, or for the purpose of replanting or 
 bedding in the waters of said counties, or for sale to the eitii!en| of the county wherein they are caught. 
 
 Sec. 2. Upon information given upon o.ath to any justice of the peace in and for the counties aforesaid, of any violation of tho 
 provisions of this act, the said justice of the peace shall issue his warrant for the arrest of the offender or offenders, and the seizure of the 
 canoe or boat in his or their possession, or used in the commission of the offense, together with tho tackle, instruments, and all things on 
 board at tho time of the commission of the offense. 
 
 Sec. 3. Prescribes method of legal procedure for trial and for collection of penalties. 
 
 Sec. 4. Provides right of appeal. 
 
 Laws of 1870, chapter 405. 
 
 Section 1. Be it enacted by the general assemllij of Mariilavtl, That it sh.all not be lawful for any person or persons to r.ake, dr.ag, or 
 dredge for oysters within live hundred yards of either edge of the new channel at the mouth of Patapsco river, known as the " Craighill 
 channel ", extending from the Seven-Foot knoll to the mouth of Magothy river. 
 
 Sec. 2. Stipulates proceedings for arrest and punishment of offenders, closely similar to the foregoing laws. 
 
 BALTIMORE CITY.— Laws of 1864, chapter 3G8. 
 
 Section 1. All oysters carried lo tho city of Ballimoro for sale, shall be sold by the sealed half-bushel, or sealed bnsliol-and-half 
 measure, and each aiul every person offending against the provisions of this section shall be subject to a fine of $50 for each and every 
 offense, to be recovered before a justice of the peace of the city of Baltimore. 
 
 Laws of 1874, chapter 221. 
 
 Section 1. All oysters in the shell, disposed of in the city of Baltimore, or in the port of Crisfield, or at any oyster-packing 
 establishment in this state, shall be measured in au iron circular tub, of any capacity from one-half bushel to three bushels, as may bo 
 agreed upon between the buyer and seller ; said measure shall contain in quantity for each bushel thereof, according to the following 
 dimensions, that is to say, sixteen and one-half inches across from inside to inside at the bottom, eighteen inches across from inside to 
 inside at the top, and twenty-one inches diagonal from the inside chime to the top, and the same shall be even or struck measure ; all 
 oysters in the shell sold in the city of Baltimore shall be measured by a licensed measurer. Any person may obtain a license therefor from 
 the clerk of the court of common pleas, by paying therefor ton dollars and taking an oath before said clerk for tho faithful performance 
 of his duty; said license shall hold good for one year. A measurer shall receive for his services one-luilf cent per bushel, to bo paid 
 equally by the buyer and seller. 
 
THE OYSTER-TNDUSTRY. 177 
 
 Sec. 2. Tbo mcasiiro providod for abovo shall bo inspected and stamped by the proper officer in Baltimore, and it sliall be unlawful 
 to use any otbor measure, except for oysters shipped in the barrel on any steamboat, to be sold in the barrel. 
 
 Laics of 1878, cliapter 32.5. 
 
 Section 1. The act of January, 1871, relating to catching oysters with scoops or light dredges in Dorchester county, is repealed and 
 re-enacted to read as follows : 
 
 Sec. 2. It shall be lawful for citizens of Dorchester county to catch oysters with scoop or light dredge in boats not exceeding ten 
 tons burden, * * * in Honga river. Hooper's straits. Par bay, and that part of Fishing bay which lies to the southward and westward 
 of a straight line drawn from the middle of the mouth of Tedious creek to Clay island light-house, and in all the waters to the southward 
 and eastward of Clay island, in Dorchester county, and adjoiniug the Wicomico lines up to Sandy island ; Provided, That no boat or boats 
 licensed under the provisions of this act shall work within 200 yards of the shore; and the board of county commissioners for Dorchester 
 county shall piuchase two biK)ys of proper size and have Ihem properly anchored on said straight line, between Tedious creek and Clay 
 island light-house, and the captain of the oyster-sloop of the second district shall place thein in position. 
 
 Sec. 3. In order to avail themselves of the privileges of section 2, a license must be procured from clerk of circuit court, good for 
 one year, but not permitting any catching of oysters between May 1 and September 15, following. 
 
 Sec. 4. Every such license shall state the name and residence of the person to whom the same is to be granted, the number beginning 
 with two hundred, together with the true tonnage of said boat or vessel, according to the rule of custom-house measurement ; and every 
 owner of a boat or vessel shall pay $2 per ton for every ton said boat or vessel shall measure. 
 
 Sec. 5. The board of school commissioners of Dorchester county shall appoint a competent person to measure all boats licensed under 
 
 this act. 
 
 Sec. 6. Measurer must give S^OO bonds, and shall receive 50 cents per ton measured, as compensation. 
 
 Sec. 7. Any applicant for a license under this act, shall make oath that he has been a lona fide resident of said county for the twelve 
 months next preceding his application for said license, and that he intends to use said vessel only in said county, and that he will comply 
 with and obey all laws of this state regulating the catching of oysters; and any person to whom said license shall have been granted 
 shall paint the number of his boat on each beam, near the gunwales, on a white field, with black letters, seven inches in length. 
 
 Sec. 8. Enacts heavy penalties for use of any sort- of boat without a license, with right of appeal. 
 
 Sec. 9. Directs all moneys arising from fines and forfeitures to be immediately credited to the public-school fund of the county. 
 
 Sec. 10. Prohibits taking oysters with scoops or dredges in all waters reserved for tonging. 
 
 Sec. 11. Fees allowed clerk of circuit court. 
 
 Sec. 12. Adds Great Choptank river to ground privileged to be worked with scoops or dredges. 
 
 Laws of 18(38, chapter 228. 
 
 Section 1. Prohibits catching oysters "with rakes, drags, or dredge within the waters of Honga river, in Dorchester county, or in 
 the Nanticoke river at or abovo Roaring point, in Dorchester and Wicomico counties, in quantities over live bushels in any one day" 
 during June, July, and August. 
 
 Sec. 2. Forfeitures and fines fixed for violation of the above section to be paid into the school fund. 
 
 Laics of 1876, diopter 396. 
 
 Section 1. Forbids catching oysters in Dorchester county during June, July, and August, except five bushels a week for family use. 
 
 Sec. 2. Penalties upon conviction of \'iolation8: a fine of $10 and forfeiture of boat and canoe employed ; one-half the fines and the 
 proceeds of the sale of the boat to go to the informers, and the remainder to be paid into the free-school treasury of Dorchester county; 
 provided, that nothing in this act shall apply to catching oysters in either the Great or Little Choptank rivers or their tributaries in 
 Dorchester county. 
 
 Sec. 3. All boats condemned shall be sold at public auction to the highest bidder for cash, after ten days' notice of the time and 
 place of sale. 
 
 Laws of 1878, chapter 359. 
 
 Section 1. Repeals chapter 437, passed January, 1874, and chapter 405, passed January, 1876, and re-enacts as follows : 
 Section 1. The clerk of the circuit court of Talbot or Dorchester county shall, upon the application of any person who has been a 
 resident of such county for twelve months next preceding such application, and to no other x^erson, issue a license to such resilient to 
 employ any boat of a capacity of ten tons or under in taking oysters with dredge, scoop, or scrape in the waters of the Choptank river in 
 said counties, for sale to any person, between September 15 in each year and June 1 next following; Provided, That nothing in this act 
 shall authorize the taking of oysters with dredge, scoop, or scrape above a straight line drawn from Oyster Shell point, on the Dorchester 
 shore, to the Talbot shore, immediately opposite, or in any tributaries of said river above or below said Oyster Shell point ; and provided, 
 further, that the applicant shall pay to said clerk, before the issuing of said license, the sum of $2 per ton, which said license shall be 
 good for twelve months from the day of its issue ; and until such license is obtained it shall be unlawful to use or employ any vessel in 
 taking or catching oysters as hereinbefore described; provided, that the waters of Talbot county lying between Black Walnut point and 
 a line drawn from Tilghman's point to the southwest point of Parson's island, except the waters between Poplar island and the mainland, 
 lying within a line drawn from a point of land on the north side of Ferry cove, known as Lowe's point, to the northeru extremity of 
 Poplar island on the north, to a line from the northwest extremity of Tilghman's island to the southern extremity of south bar of Poplar 
 island on the south, which are hereby reserved for the use of tongmen, shall be oiiened to the citizens of Talbot county, licensed under 
 this act, between September 15 in each year and May 1 next following, but it shall be unlawful to take oysters with scoop or dredge in 
 any other waters of Talbot county ; provided, also, that the waters of Choptank river, lying north of a straight line running from Benoui's 
 point to Clora's jioint, are hereby reserved for tongmen, and it shall not be lawful to catch oysters with scoop, scrape, or similar instrument 
 to the northward of said line. 
 
 Secs. 3 to 11. Substantially reproduce the provisions of laws of 1876, chapter 405, heretofore quoted, as to terms of application for 
 license and penalties for violation. 
 
 CALVERT COUNTY.— Xai09 o/1870, chapter 188. 
 
 Section 1. Catching of oysters for sale prohibited in Saint Leonard's creek. Island creek, and Battle creek in Calvert county, except 
 such oysters .as have been "imbedded or planted". 
 '12 O 
 
178 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Sec. 2. Upon information given nnder oath, of any violation of this act, to any justice of the peace of Calvert county, he shall 
 forthwith issue his warrant directed to the sheriff', or any constable or military officer, requiring either of them to arrest the party or 
 parties alleged to have been engaged in violating this law, and to seize and take possession of any canoe, boat, or vessel, together with 
 all their tackle and apparel. 
 
 Sec. 3. Provides for a speedy hearing before q^ justice, and forfeitures and penalties in case of conviction, with right of appeal. 
 Moneys so arising to be devoted, one- fourth to the arresting officer, one-fourth among his assistants, and the remainder to the school fund. 
 
 Zaws 0/1878, clmpter 163. 
 
 Section 1. It shall not be lawful for any person to take or catch oysters for sale, with any instrument whatever, in the w-aters of 
 Mill creek, Back creek, or Saint John's creek, in Calvert county, for the period of three years from the passage of this act, except fiom 
 land in said waters located and appropriated, or which may be hereafter located and appropriated by virtue of any act or acts of the 
 general assembly of Maryland, authorizing the location and appropriation thereof for the purpose of protecting, preserving, depositing, 
 bedding, or sowing oysters, and any person violating the provisions of this law shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor. 
 
 Sec. 2. For the purposes of this act a line drawn from the steamboat wharf on Solomon's island, and running in a northeasterly 
 direction to Township point on Eousby Hall farm, shall be the dividing line between the mouth of Mill creek and the Patuxent river. 
 
 KENT COUNTY.— XdM's of 1872, chapter 359. 
 
 Section 1. Any resident of either Queen Anne or Kent county, having in his possession any boat under custom-house tonnage, and 
 desiriug to use said boat or canoe in taking oysters for sale, with rakes or tongs, in any of the waters of the aforesaid counties, shall first 
 obtain, by application to the clerk of the eirciiit court for that county wherein he may reside, a license, such as is now prescribed by the 
 general law, and which said license shall give him a right to take or catch oysters in the waters of either Queen Anne or Kent county; 
 and such license shall have eftect from October 1, in the year in which it shall have been obtained, to the first day of October next succeeding, 
 subject to the jirovisions of the general law as to the time in which oysters shall be caught or taken with tongs: Provided, That such 
 license shall not authorize the use of said canoe or boat in taking or catching oysters in any creek, river, cove, inlet, bay, or sound within 
 the limits of any county other than Queen Anne and Kent; and that the boundaries of the counties bordering on navigable water shall 
 be strictly construed, so as not to permit the residents of either of these counties to take or catch oysters beyond the channel of the creeks 
 or rivers lying between these and other contiguous counties ; and provided further, that this act shall not authorize the taking or catching 
 of oysters from grounds already located or apiiropriated for the jmrpose of preserving, deposiling, or bedding the same in the waters of 
 said counties, under the provisions of the general laws. 
 
 QUEEN ANjSTE COUNTY.— Xatcs of 1876, chapter 381. 
 
 Section 1. The following lines, to wit, from the south point of Wye island to the southeast point of Bennett's point, thence to the 
 south point of Pai son's island, are established as a boundary for the protection of the oyster-grounds in that branch of Wye river known 
 as " Back Wye", and the oyster-grounds lying on the land or Queen Anne side of that part of said bound;iry extending from the southeast 
 point of Bennett's point to the south point of Parson's island. 
 
 Sec. 2. It shall not be lawful for any non-resident of Queen Anne county to catch, or iu any manner to molest, oysters on Queen 
 Anne's side of the boundary here specified. 
 
 Sec. 3. The dividing waters of Wye river, and the waters of Saint Michael river, lying west of the boundary line described in 
 section one of this act, and the waters aronnd Herring island, are hereby opened to the citizens of Queen Anne and Talbot counties in 
 common, for the purpose of catching oysters with rakes or tongs. 
 
 Sec. 4. It shall be unlawful for any person to take or catch oysters with scoop, scrape, or any similar instrument, in the waters of 
 Queen Anne county, lying west of Kent island, between Kent's point and Cove point, within 400 yards of the shore. 
 
 Sec. 5. Penalties for violation. 
 
 SOMERSET COUNTY.— Code of p%Mk local laws, article 19. 
 
 Sec. 91. Prohibits taking oysters for manure in Somerset county. 
 
 Sec. 92. Prohibits purchasing any oysters for manure caught in the county. 
 
 Sec. 93. Penalties imposed. 
 
 Laws of 18G7, cliajyter 129. 
 
 Sec. 94. Permits citizens of the county to take oysters with a dredge or scoop in any waters of said county not parcel of any creek, 
 cove, river, or inlet, upon obtaining license therefor as hereinafter directed. 
 
 Sec. 95. The clerk of the circuit court for said county, upon application of any citizen of said county, shall issue a license to such 
 citizen, authorizing him to take or catch oysters with scoops, drags, or dredges in the waters of said county, subject to the provisions of 
 this law, for one year from the date of said license, for which said license the citizen ajiplying shall pay to the said clerk the sum of ten 
 dollars; provided, that the citizen so applying shall have first satisfied the said clerk that he has obtained from the comptroller of the 
 state license lo take or catch oysters in the waters of the Chesapeake bay. 
 
 Code ofpullic local laws, article 19. 
 
 Sec. 96. The person so applying for a license shall first be required to make oath that he is a lona fide owner of the vessel to 
 be licensed, that lie has been a bona fide citizen of the state for one year immediately preceding said application, and six months a resident 
 of the county, and that the license is intended for his use only. 
 
 Xoics of 1867, chapter 129. 
 
 Sec. 97. Any person taking oysters within the waters of said county with a scoop, drag, or dredge, without a license, or who is not 
 a citizen of said county, or otherwise, contrary to any law of this state, shall be subject to all the penalties provided by law against the 
 illegal taking of oysters in this state. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 179 
 
 Code of public local laws, article 19. 
 
 Sec. 93. In all cases where a vessel or individual shall be tried under this law and acquitted, the expenses of the suit shall be borne 
 by the county. 
 
 Sec. 99. Issue of warrant. 
 
 Sec. 100. Fees. 
 
 Sec. 101. Money from licenses to be paid to the county school fund. 
 
 Laws of 1878, chapter 373. 
 
 Section 1. Prohibits taking oysters with scoops, drags, or dredges, in Wicomico river, in Somerset county, on the eastern side of a 
 straight liue from the mouth of Rock creek to Clay island light-house, under liability to heavy penalties and forfeitures. 
 
 TAI.BOT COUNTY. 
 {See Dorchester county, laws of 1874, chapter 437 ; latm of 1876, chapter 405 ; laws of 1878, chapter 359.) 
 
 WICOMICO COUNTY. 
 
 (See Dorchetter counly, laws 0/I868, chapter 228.) 
 
 Laxvs of 1872, chapter 241. 
 
 Section 1. It shall not be lawful for any person to employ any canoe, boat, or vessel in taking oysters with scoop, dredge, or any 
 similar instrument, within the waters of Wicomico county, nor shall any person take oysters for sale within the waters of said couuty, 
 otherwise than with tongs, as restricted and regulated by the provisions of the general oyster-law iu force in this state. 
 
 Sec. 2. For the protection of the young oysters in the waters of Wicomico couuty, it shall not be lawful for any person or persons 
 to convey beyond the limits of said county any oysters from May 15 until September 1 in each year. 
 
 Secs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. Prescribe penalties and forfeitures, and regulate forms of official jiroceeding in anest and trial of offenders. 
 
 WORCESTER COUNTY.— Xaws of 1868, chapter 343. 
 
 Sec. 3. Prohibits taking oysters in this county for making into lime. 
 
 Secs. 4, 5, G, 7, 8, AND 9. Prescribe legal proceedings for arrest and the recovery of fees and penalties. 
 
 Sec. 10. If any person shall take, steal, or sell planted oysters of another, knowing them to be such, from any of the waters in this 
 act mentioned, he shall, upon conviction in said court, be fined not less than fifty nor more than one hundred dollars, and may, at the 
 discretion of the court, be contined in jail not less than one nor more than six months. 
 
 Laws 0/1872, chapter 131. 
 
 Sec. 2. It shall not be lawful for any person or persons, other th.au citizens or actual residents of Maryland, to haul or fish with 
 any seine or seines of any description; rake or catch oysters, clams, or terrapins, or plant oysters in the waters of Siuepuxent bay or any 
 of the tributaries thereof included iu the boundaries of Worcester comity. 
 
 Secs. 3 and 4. Refer to seine fishing. 
 
 Sec. 5. Provides fines and forfeitures in case of violation ; but provides that this act shall not restrict or prevent traders or other 
 persons from purchasiug from or selling to non-residents the shellfish in this act mentioned. 
 
 Sec. 6. If any citizen of Maryland shall be concerned or interested with any person not resident within this state in the taking, 
 catching, or planting of oysters in the w.iters of Sinepuxent bay, or in any of the tributaries thereof included in the boundiiries of 
 Worcester county, or shall knowingly permit any person not a citizen and actual resident within this state to take, catch, or plant oysters 
 in his name, he shall be liable to the penalties and forfeitures imposed for the violation of the preceding sections of this act, and shall bo 
 proceeded against in the same manner; provided, that nothing herein shall be construed to prevent the employment of non-residents as 
 day laborers for the above purposes. 
 
 Secs. 7, 8, 9, and 10. Forms of proceedings against alleged offenders, and disposal of condemned property forfeited. 
 
 Sec. 11. In case of persons unlawfully engaged fleeing from their boat, the boat or vessel shall be seized, which shall be condemned, 
 if the evidence shows it to have been illegally used. 
 
 Sec. 12. Money thus arising to be paid into the school fund. 
 
 Sec. 13. Prohibits taking any shells from the "rocks or Hats whereon oysters grow within the limitsof Worcester county". Penalty, 
 825. 
 
 Sec. 14. All oysters in the shell disposed of in the waters of Worcester county shall be measured in a sealed measure of any capacity, 
 from a half bushel to two bushels, that may be agreed upon between seller and buyer. Penalty, $25. 
 
 Sec. 15. It shall bo the duty of the purchaser or seller to have said measure or measures duly inspected and sealed by the standard- 
 keeper, under a forfeit of $25 for each and every ofl'ense. 
 
 Laws of 1876, chapter 277. 
 
 Section 1. Chapter 77, passed January, 1874, "for the protection of oysters in Sinepuxent bay and its tributaries, is hereby 
 repealed, but all violations of said act may be prosecuted and punished as fully as if said act had not been repealed". 
 
 Sec. 2. The clerk of the circuit court for Worcester county may issue to any citizen of said couuty a license to take or catch oysters 
 with rakes or tongs from the waters of Siuepuxent bay and its tributaries, until the first day of May next after the issuing of said license; 
 provided the applicant for said license shall satisfy said clerk, by his own oath or other sufijcient proof, that he is a citizen of sijifl 
 
180 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 county, aiuT sliall pay to said clerk the sura of one tlollar, to be paid l>y said cleric to the county commissioners of Worcester county, to be 
 expended in the procuring of seed-oysters to be planted in said bay as the commissioners aforesaid may direct, but no person licensed as 
 above, nor any other person, shall take or remove any oysters from the waters of said bay or its tributaries on any Sunday or in the night 
 at any season, nor during the day from the 1st day of May to the 1st day of October, or any shells from the natural rocks at any time; 
 provided, that nothing herein shall be construed to forbid any iiersou from taking or catching his or her own planted oysters at any 
 time and with any kind of instrument. 
 
 Sec. 3. No person shall catch, take, or remove any shells or oysters from the natural beds in the waters of Sinepuxent bay or its 
 tributaries with scrapes, scoops, dredges, or drags, or with any instrument in the working of which any other than hand jiower is used. 
 
 Sec. 4. It shall be lawful for any citizen of Worcester county to plant, or for any resident to lay down, oysters on not exceeding 
 five acres in any one place in any of the waters, except upon the natural rocks of the said bay or its tributaries, and that no person, 
 except the owner or his empIoy<5, shall work upon or among said planted or laid down oystere; provided, that portion of the said waters 
 so planted in be kept plainly marked with bushes, stakes, or buoys, and any x^erson maliciously removing said bushes, stakes, or buoys, 
 shall bo liable to the penalties of this section ; and provided, that nothing in this section shall atfect the rights of owners of laud to the 
 exclusive use of any creek, cove, or inlet, within their said lauds, not exceeding one hundred yards in width at its mouth, and any person 
 violating the provisions of this section shall be liable to be sued as for damage to any other property, 
 
 Secs. 5, C, 7. Regulate penalties, forfeitures, and proceedings against offenders. 
 
 P. COASTS OF VIEGINIA. 
 
 49. OTSTER-FISHEEIES AND OYSTER-PACKING. 
 
 General considerations. — Upon the study of the oyster-interests of the Chesapeake, incUidetl within the 
 state of Virginia, several persons contributed besides myself, notably Mr. R. H. Edmonds, of Baltimore, to whom 
 the credit of the Maryland chapter belongs, and Col. Marshall McDonald, of the United States Fish Commission. 
 The waters of Virginia being in many places separated from those of Maryland by imaginary lines only, it is 
 not to be expected, remarks Mr. Edmonds, that the conditions of the oyster-trade, and the class of people dependent 
 ni)on it, should show any very material difference in the two states. Different laws have of course exerted an 
 influence upon some features of the trade; but the essential and most imjiortant facts in regard to the trade, in 
 both states, is the same — that the oystermen are generally poor and illiterate, often intemperate and reckless. 
 
 Metdods of gathering oysters.* — Dredging on natural rocks was abolished in Virginia in 1879, and is 
 only allowed at present on private beds; few, however, avail themselves of this i^rivilege. In some parts of the 
 state, where planting is extensively conducted, there are a few dredge boats, but they meet with considerable 
 opposition, as it is very generally believed by planters who do not dredge, that the dredgers do not confine their 
 operations to their own beds. This belief is probably correct. The beds are staked oft" with poles, sometimes 
 lifty to a hundred yards apart, and the dredgers sailing over one bed can scarcely, even if so disposed, keep from 
 crossing the line which separates adjoining beds. The law entirely abolishing dredgiug on natural rocks, was 
 undoubtedly a mistake, since there are many localities in the state where, rightly restricted, it would prove very 
 advantageous to the beds; while there are other places where the water is so deep that longing cannot be carried 
 on, and the beds are thus lying idle, of no value to the state or to any individual. 
 
 The tonging interests of Virginia are far more extensive than the same interests in Maryland, and differ 
 slightly in a few other respects, the most important of which is, that the trade is greater in the former state than in 
 the latter. 
 
 Statistics of tonging and dredging in 1865. — As long ago as 1865, Mr. C. S. Maltby, the great oyster- 
 merchant of Baltimore, estimated that the total annual supply and disposal of oysters taken in Virginia was as 
 follows: 
 
 Oysiera taken in Virginia waters. 
 
 Dostination. 
 
 Dredged. 
 
 Tonged. 
 
 Total 
 busliuls. 
 
 Baltimore ............ .... 
 
 916, 750 
 59, 375 
 23, 334 
 43, 750 
 
 48, 250 
 3,125 
 
 11,666 
 131, 250 
 787, 600 
 
 905, 000 
 02, 500 
 
 
 Boston 
 
 35, 000 
 17.), 000 
 
 l^air Haven, Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 787. 500 
 
 Pliiladelphia ,. 
 
 40, 000 
 
 40, 000 
 
 
 
 
 Totalbnshela 
 
 1, 083, 209 
 
 981, 791 
 
 2, 065, 000 
 
 
 The oystermen of Virginia. — Previous to the late war the oystermen of Virginia were composed of negroes, 
 working for their masters, and of a very rough class of whites; but at the close of the war the demand for oysters 
 
 * Chiefly from notes by Mr. Edmonds. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 181 
 
 ■was very great, aucl liigU prices were paid, and many wLo had been reduced from wealth to poverty were glad to 
 avail themselves of the chance to make a support by oysteriiig, which was at that time a very profitable 
 emi)loyment. The four years of war, during which the oysters had almost a complete rest in many parts of the 
 state, gave them a chance for development, and when the trade re^'i\'ed, the beds were well stocked with large 
 finely-flavored oysters. Men from nearly all occupations, representing all classes of society, eagerly entered the 
 business, and soon there were hundreds of oystermen where formerly there had been but a dozen or so. Many of 
 the most extensive fiirmers in the tidewater counties found that the conditions of labor had so greatly changed, 
 that to make a living it was necessary for them to devote all spare time to the oyster-trade. This is still done to 
 a considerable extent by those whose farms border on some salt- water creek or river; but the great bulk of the 
 trade is in the hands of a rougher class, and in certain parts of the state it is almost monopolized by negroes. A 
 very noticeable fact in connection with the tonging interests in Virginia and Maryland, and especially of the 
 former state, is the almost total absence of foreigners. The entire trade may be said to be in the hands of native 
 Vii-ginians, sii;ee there are probably not 300 tongers in the whole state who were not born and raised there. Such 
 is not, however, the case in the other branches of the trade. The business of oystertonging is one involving 
 great exposure, hard labor, and some risk, and the men engaged in it are mostly adult males in the vigor of healtii. 
 The injury to health from exposure is so great, that few ever reach old age. The death-rate among oystermen, as 
 compared with other trades, is very great. Nor does oyster-tongiug give retTxrns in pi-oportion to labor expended. 
 The element of chance is a large one. A clear, smooth water, with its opportunities for coving, permits the 
 fisherman to gather in one day what he may not realize by a week's exertion in stormy and tempestuous weather. 
 The influence of these uncertainties upon the habits and thrift of the men is phduly marked, particularly in 
 dislike of steady industry. Few of them ever pretend to work on Saturday, Sunday, or Monday, those days 
 being consumed in going to market and returning, though there is nothing to prevent their going home on 
 Saturday night, or at least on Sunday morning. Many of them have a small piece of laud and a house, but their 
 eflbrts at accumulation do not seem to go beyond living "from hand to mouth". 
 
 The James rivek.— The most productive of all the tonging-grounds, at least in southern Virginia, are 
 doubtless those of the James river. Go anywhere in it, from its mouth up nearly to Jamestown, and you will 
 catch oysters. There are certain " shoals", however, where the oystermen usually work. Such a one was visited 
 recently by a correspondent of the New Yorlc Times, who records what he saw as follows : 
 
 The slioal from wliich the Dennis was loaded extended over a'.)Out 500 acres, and from this shoal, on the day that she was loaded, not 
 less than 10,000 bushels of " plants" were taken. To do this about 230 oystermen were employed, with about 100 boats. And this business 
 of gathering plants had been going on from off the same shoal for upward of two months, with the probability that between 300,000 and 
 400,000 bushels of oysters have been gathered, and fully 200,000 bushels more will be taken away l)elore the season ends, on May 20. This 
 gives a yield of 1,000 bushels to the acre, and yet nowhere on all this shoal would it lie possible to find a spot as large as a set of tongs will 
 c-over without oysters on it. The tongs are never pushed down and pulled back without bringing with them a number of oysters. In 
 September the oystermen will begin work .again on the same shoals and work for three or four mouths catching plants ; then, during the 
 winter until the 1st of April, they are engaged in taking up, assorting, and selling (he products of thesis plants. It seems as if the sui)ply of 
 oyster-plants in the James river could never be exhausted, yet the oystermen say they are growing less and less each year ; but if they 
 are correct in this assertion, it is difficult to conjecture in what abundance tliese oysters must have been when they were plenty. 
 
 To see the oystermen balancing themselves in one of their canoes, and working with so much energy at the same time, was quite a 
 novelty. Many of these canoes are so narrow that should a novice step into one it would most probably be overturned ; yet the oystermen 
 work in them all day long in smooth weather, and sometimes in pretty stormy weather, and apparently keep them properly balanced 
 without any effort. To propel them through the water they use a long paddle, and, balancing it over the stern (the canoes, of course, are 
 sharp at both ends, having no row-locks and no indentation to aid them in keeping their paddle in iilace), they move them swiftly. 
 
 Statistics op the Virginia oystek-fleet. — No records are kept in Virginia of the number of boats 
 engaged in the trade, and it was a very dififlcult matter to obtain any reliable information upon this subject. After 
 traveling through the tidewater counties, and gaining as near an estimate as possible, Mr. Edmonds sent out a 
 large number of circulars to the officials, and also to one or more prominent oystermen of each county, re(iuestiug 
 their aid in the work, and desiring them to give their estimates as to the number of canoes in their respective 
 counties. Many of these gentlemen, he reports, went to considerable trouble to work up the matter, and by their 
 aid he was enabled to correct some of his own figures, and he considers he is able to present reliable figures, 
 showing the number of canoes in each county engaged in the oyster-trade, and the number of men working on 
 them. In addition to this he succeeded in obtaining the number of schooners and sloops used for running oysters 
 to market. It is difficult to divide these latter according to the counties in which they are owned, but I think 
 the figures, as given in the following table, will be found very near correct. The number credited to Nortblk 
 county appears somewhat large, but the figures are furnished officially by Mr. Eusha Denise, county clerk. The 
 majority of these boats hailing from Norfolk county are owned in the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth. 0\-cr 
 three-fourths of them are quite small, being under ten tons register, while there are very few of the other fourth 
 that will register as high as fifteen tons. 
 
182 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 TaVle showing the nuviber of canoes and larger vessels, and the number of men on each, hij counties. 
 
 CoTmties. 
 
 Accomac 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 Esses 
 
 Gloucester 
 
 IsleofWight.... 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 Mathews 
 
 Middlesex 
 
 Nanaemond 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 Northampton 
 
 Noi-thumberland 
 Princess Anne. .. 
 
 Richmond 
 
 Warwick 
 
 York 
 
 "Westmoreland. . . 
 King WiUiam 
 
 Total 
 
 545 
 170 
 100 
 410 
 
 58 
 400 
 450 
 475 
 
 80 
 235 
 350 
 281 
 100 
 200 
 
 50 
 250 
 275 
 
 4,481 
 
 925 
 
 5)0 
 400 
 530 
 250 
 900 
 900 
 950 
 240 
 470 
 700 
 420 
 130 
 400 
 80 
 500 
 650 
 5 
 
 8,860 
 
 ^ > 
 
 a 
 
 282 
 40 
 6 
 28 
 22 
 35 
 20 
 12 
 39 
 
 700 
 38 
 27 
 
 1,317 
 
 1,176 
 160 
 
 24 
 112 
 
 88 
 140 
 
 80 
 
 48 
 225 
 2,800 
 144 
 108 
 
 104 
 20 
 7 
 
 Sa 
 
 a a 
 
 2,101 
 070 
 424 
 642 
 338 
 
 1, C40 
 980 
 998 
 465 
 
 3,270 
 844 
 528 
 130 
 480 
 140 
 604 
 570 
 12 
 
 14, 236 
 
 Number of oystermen in Virginia. — Of tlie total number of tongmen there are 5,900 colored and 5,954 
 wliites, while of those employed on the larger vessels only 1,792 are colored. The total number of each race 
 engaged in the trade is, of whites, 6,538, and of colored, 7,698. About 200 white men, with wages amounting 
 to 883,200 a year, are employed in building and repairing oyster- vessels, making cases, etc. 
 
 Profits and earnings. — Touging in Virginia is probably equally as profitable as in Maryland, but there 
 is more lime wasted by the tongmen of the former state than by those of the latter. This is explained by the fact, 
 that the proportion of negroes is larger in Virginia than in Maryland, and these peoiile are more generally inclined 
 to be indolent than the whites. There were many cases last winter where tongmen made as high as $500 during 
 the season, but their number is comparatively small when the total number of those engaged in this occupation 
 is taken into account. A close estimate of the average amount made during a season by each tonger would give 
 $200, or 625 less than the average amount made in Maryland. Calculating on this estimate, it will be seen that 
 the earnings of the tongmen of Virginia will yearly aggi-egate about $1,772,000. Those emj^loyed on the running 
 vessels receive during an oyster-season of eight months $1,022,172, including their board. 
 
 Canoes and boats. — The canoes used in Virginia are much smaller and less costly than those in Maryland — 
 their average value being about $50. At this rate their total value at present is $224,050. The larger vessels, 
 exclusive of those owned in Norfolk county, average about 16.13 tons; but when the large number owned in the 
 latter county is considered, the average is considerably reduced and amounts to only about 10 tons — making the 
 total 13,170 tons. The aggregate value of these vessels is about $460,950, and the amount of money annually 
 expended in reijairing them is in the neighborhood of $125,000. 
 
 A large part of the running trade in Virginia is conducted by boats owned in Maryland and in northern cities ; 
 but as the statistics of these have already apjieared in the Maryland report, it is needless to repeat them here. The 
 number of people engaged exclusively in handling oysters for local consumption in the cities of Virginia, is about 
 300 (nearly all colored), whose wages will aggregate about $57,600 a season. 
 
 Oyster-planting at Lynnhaven bay. — To the business of planting oysters Virginia men devote much 
 more attention than do the residents of Maryland. The planting consists of little more, however, in any case, than 
 the simple transferring of young "seed" oysters in the rough shape in which they are dredged from the beds of 
 natural growth, to certain spots where ground has been staked oft' as private property, and where they grow under 
 better conditions than in their native state. The extensive operations and elaborate methods of the northern 
 states are not to be found in these waters. 
 
 The southernmost, and at the same time one of the most famous localities for oyster-i>lanting in Virginia, is at 
 Lynnhaven, just inside of Cape Henry. The wide reputation and acknowledged superiority of the oysters raised 
 in this river and bay led Col. M. McDonald to examine particularly into the methods pursued there; and he has 
 kindly placed at my disposal the succeeding memoranda : 
 
 Lynnhaven river is simply a l)rancliiiig arm of Chesapeake bay, anci has been niarlo by the tidal ebb and flow. It is fed by very 
 little surface-drainage, the rain waters of the back country finding their way into it by percolation tUrongh the porous subsoils that form 
 the banks. When the tide is out the fresh water flows out on all sides by iiililtTation, and dilutes the salt water in the eovcs and.all 
 along the shores. When the tide is at the flood the saltness is in a measure restored. It is to these iucuisious of fresh water twice in 24 
 hours, that the extreme fatness and flavor of these oysters are probably to be attributed. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 183 
 
 Oysters for planting are obtained from Back bay and Linkhom bay, tribntaries of Lynnhaven river, in which there are natural beds. 
 They are also obta ucd from spawning-covcs in the river itself. Oysters from James river and other localities have been tried, but have 
 not done well. 
 
 The seed-oysters are carefully separated and planted evenly and thinly over the bottom, by a careful hand-sowing, broadcast, with a 
 shovel. Any bottom will suit, providud it is uot sandy, so as to shift with the action of the tide and bury the oysters, and is not too soft 
 to bear their weight. They remain in the beds six years or more, ami are then sent to the market, where they liriiig from §5 to $7 per 
 barrel, or from §2 to $3 per bushel. They are disposed of almost wholly at retail, in the shell, over the tables of saloons and hotels as 
 "fancy" stoclv. 
 
 The amount now planted in this river is about 200,000 bushels. The amount marketed varies, of course, with the demand. For 
 this year (1879-'80) it is estimated by Mr. Joshua Garrison, one of the largest plauters on the river, at 25,000 bushels, and the planters 
 receive on an average .$2 per bushel. 
 
 All the coves of the river and a greater part of the bed are occupied by plants, and it will probably be found iu the future that tliey 
 have overtaxed the capacity of the river. 
 
 Summarizing, we credit Lyunhaven bay with 25,000 bushels, valued at $50,000. 
 
 OYSTER-rLANTiNG AT Chincoteague. — Another point where planting has long been carried on successfully, 
 is at Chincoteague bay on the ocean side of the peninsula. As described briefly by Mr. Edmonds, the whole bay is 
 staked off in small plats, which are always salable should the owner desire to retire from the business of planting. 
 Oysters are bought in the Chesapeake bay at prices ranging from 10 to 20 cents per bushel, carried by vessels to 
 Chincoteague, and there planted, and allowed to remain undisturbed for two or three years. Sometimes they 
 will remain very poor for several successive seasons, and at times it happens that the entire bed will be found on 
 examination to be dead. The winter of lS70-'80 was the most profitable one that Chincoteague bay has known for 
 many years. The oysters were large, fat, and finely flavored, while for several pi-eceding years they had been 
 poor and almost entirely unsalable, and the trade, iu consequence, had been very unprofitable. Chincoteague 
 oysters are shipped almost exclusively to New York and Philadelpliia, and during good seasons command higli 
 prices. From September 1, 1879, to May 15, 1880, the shipments from the bay amounted to 318,113 bushels, of 
 which 160,113 bushels passed over the Worcester railroad, and 152,000 bushels were shipped in sail-vessels. Of 
 those shipped over the Worcester road, 71,184 bushels were taken directly from the bay, while 94,920 bushels were 
 taken from small creeks on the Maryland shore, where they had been transplanted and allowed to stay for a day 
 for the purpose of fattening. 
 
 During the season of 1879-'80, Chincoteague oysters were in active demand at high prices, the average for the 
 winter being not less than GO cents per bushel, and in the latter part of May 91) cents was readily obtained. A 
 feature of the Chincoteague trade is, that all oysters are sold by the thousand, and not by the bushel, as iu other 
 parts of Maryland and Virginia. This custom has been adopted in conformity to the usages of northern markets. 
 
 Oystering AT Chincoteague in 18G5. — The correspondent of the New Yorlc Times, whose letter I (juoted 
 a few pages back, accompanied the schooner to Chincoteague, describing the operations witnessed. Greenback 
 is a town situated near Franklin, on the Chincoteague bay, the southern terminus of the Old Dominion Steamship 
 Company's railroads on the peninsula. Nearly every man living iu Franklin, and every one in Greenback, depends 
 on the oyster-business for his support. Both of these villages have grown up since the war. Greenback being the 
 older place. It was so named by an old oysterman, one of three or four who first planted in the bay in front of the 
 place, because the first season's shipment of oysters returned to the oystermen such a rich reward in greenbacks. 
 This was in 1865, and since then the quality of the oysters produced in this part of Chincoteague bay has been 
 so generally good, that they have made a favorable impression on European shippers. Following is the quotation : 
 
 When the Dennis had secured 3,500 baskets— called by the courtesy of the oystermen half-bushel baskets, but really holding over 
 two-thirds of a bushel— the captain pronounced her loaded, and then all energy was used in getting under w.ay, because the sooner the 
 plants are returned to the water after they are removed from their natural beds, the less will be the mortality among them. In 36 hours 
 after leaving the James the Dennis let go her anchor on the idanting-grounds off Greenback, and one day sufficed to place all her cargo 
 on the beds, staked out, and, by Virginia laws, made the private property of those who so marked them. They will be left to remain on 
 these beds for upward of eighteen months, and, although many of those planted will die before the gathering time, yet it will be a poor 
 return that will not give to the planter a bushel and a half for each bushel planted, and sometimes as high as three and four bushels have 
 been gathered from each bushel of plants. These plants cost the planter in Virginia 5 cents per bushel, and about 6 cents to freight, 
 and, perhaps, 2 cents to plant, making 2,500 bushels of plants cost but about ijiijOO. 
 
 The cost of taking these oysters up and preparing them for the market is about 20 cents per bushel, and as 2,500 bushels will almost 
 always return 4,000 bushels, it will be seen at once that those planters who have favorable jdanting-grounds, have it always iu their iwwer 
 to make their energy pay them a good profit. At no time for the past ten years have Chiueotcague bay oysters sold, delivered on board 
 of vessels in the bay, for less than 50 cents per bushel, and mostly for GO cents. At the lower rate it will bo seen that any one at Greenback, 
 possessed of a working capital of §1,000, can realize a prolit (if he owns share-privileges) of .$800 a year from it, with a chance of doing 
 much better. Doubtless such also is the case in all the bays and coves celebrated for their tine oysters, yet mauy places along the James 
 and in the Chesapeake bay grow as fine looking oysters as can be produced anywhere, and quite popular at home, that will not sell for 
 enough to warrant the expense of planting. 
 
 Oyster-inditstry of Hampton and vicinity.— In Hampton, and Elizabeth City county generally. Colonel 
 McDonald spent much time in investigation of the oyster-industries, and reports as follows : 
 
 The fleet of larger vessels (Jiat fish, from Hampton, consist of 13 vessels, sloops and schooners, averaging about 25 tons burden. 
 These vessels employ 50 skiffs and 100 men, and allowing the same average per man per season as deduced from the actual operations of 
 
184 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 a crew in 1877, viz, 1,300 bushels, wo liave as tlio estimated product of this oyster-fleet 130,000 bushels. The number of canoes and small 
 sloops engaged in tonging for oysters in Hampton and Elizabeth City county, may be safely reckoned at liO. The number of men engaged 
 is about three to the boat, or 450 men and boys, each of whom takes au average of 400 bushels as his year's catch. 
 
 The planting interests in Back river, Hampton, and Mill creeks will add to the foregoing product about 30,000 bushels. 
 
 Summarizing Colonel McDonald's figures, I get : 
 
 Number of registered vessels 13 
 
 Number of small craft 200 
 
 213 
 
 Number of men engaged on vessels 100 
 
 Number of men in small craft 450 
 
 550 
 
 Bushels of oysters marketed 310,000 
 
 Bushels of oysters from plants 30, 000 
 
 Total crop 340,000 
 
 Value, at 20 cents per bushel $G8,000 
 
 Turtber particulars of this region appear as follows : 
 
 Back river is the dividing line between Elizabeth City and York counties. It was once extensively planted with oysters, and the 
 product bore a good reputation and brought good iirices. For some reason the ground became unproductive — attributed by my informant 
 to over-planting — and only in the last two or three years has it begim to recover. At the present time about 10,000 bushels are planted 
 annually. The capacity of the plantingrgrounds is estimated by Mr. Booker at 100,000 bushels. Poquosin river, a few miles to the 
 northeastward, in York county, has a planting capacity of about 175,000 bushels. The amount annually jjlanted there is from 25,000 to 
 30,000 bushels, and the amount obtained by tonging from the commons is about 5,000 bushels. 
 
 Natural and aetificial beds in Hampton eoads and Jasies river. — From another gentleman, 
 
 described as a "plauter of intelligence and varied experience". Colonel McDonald obtained information which 
 
 enabled him to plot upon his charts all of the natural "rocks" and the planting-grounds in Hamilton roads and 
 
 the James river. The plantings specified, with their products, are these : 
 
 In Mill creek back of Fortress Monroe : 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Now planted 5,000 
 
 Capacity 10,000 
 
 On Hampton flats, between Newport News and Hampton creek : 
 
 Now planted 5,000 
 
 Capacity 400,000 
 
 In Hampton creek : 
 
 Now planted 10,000 
 
 Capacity 10,000 
 
 On edge of Channel, back of Eiprajis : 
 
 Now planted 5,000 
 
 In Willoughby bay, back of Eipraps : 
 
 Now planted 50,000 
 
 Up the James river are a few plants — probably 25,000 or 30,000 bushels — but thousands of acres are available 
 for planting which, in a few years more, will be brought into productiveness. 
 
 Methods of oyster-culture about Hajipton. — The seed for this cultivation is chiefly obtained in the 
 James river, and the favorite points are high up the river near the upper limit of the natural-growth of the 
 oyster, which limit is at the Deep Shoals light-house, a few miles below Jamestown. The effort is always to get 
 round, single, deep, thin-shelled oysters for planting; the smaller the better, if they can lie until of mature growth. 
 The tongs employed are of three sizes — 24, 32, and 36 inches in breadth of "head". They are of the ordinary 
 pattern. The size employed dei^ends uiion the rankness of growth of the bed. Where single, or "cove", oysters 
 are sparsely scattered over the bottom, a small pair of tongs, with eight or ten inch jaws, is employed to gather 
 them. The use of these is impracticable, however, unless the water be clear and smooth, so that the oysters can 
 be " sighted ", or seen and aimed at. This can readily be done in water from 4 to 7 feet deep. Such oysters are 
 large, fat, and of good shape; they class as " selects", and bring "top" prices in the market, from 60 cents to $1 
 per bushel. The seed is obtained by the tongmen, who work with their own canoe or tools, or by the planters, who 
 hire crews and equip boats of their own to go after seed. In taking the oysters for planting, little or no culling 
 is usually attempted. The cost of planting oysters (culled) varies from 10 to 40 cents per bushel, depending upon 
 the character of the seed. Eough oysters — the run of the rock — may be planted for about 5 cents a bushel. 
 
 The amount planted on a given area is regulated by the time they are to lie. For one year about 30 square 
 feet is allowed to the bushel; when the plants are to lie for two years about 40 square feet to the bushel. Where 
 the oysters are simply shifted to freslier water to fatten, and lie but a few months, several thousand bushels to the 
 acre are often laid down. Ordinarily, the increase after lying fifteen months is one-fourth; for small single oysters 
 it is double, or 100 per cent. The rate of growth will vary with location and other circumstances. The best 
 judges, at Hampton, think that plants ought not to lie less than two years in order to get the best results. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 185 
 
 The "green-gill" disease. — In 1880 what the oystermen call the "green-gill" began to affect the planted 
 oysters in Back river, and Colonel McDonald inquired carefuUj^ into it. He learned that it began with the oysters 
 lowest down the river and traveled up the stream. It was snpiiosed by the planters to be due to the extremely 
 drj^ weather, which caused the water of the river to be unusually salty, since the condition appeared first where 
 the water was saltest. When the oysters of Back river were similarly affected many years ago, one man moved 
 several hundred bushels around to the Bay-shore, and allowed them to remain some time in the salty waters of 
 the bay without producing any change. The salient fact, if true, is that the change began in the salt water. 
 Furthermore, it is observed that this peculiarity only affects thciu when they are fat. The existence of it does 
 not imjjair the quality of the oysters, but it does materially affect the sale, because people generally are iguorautly 
 afraid of it. 
 
 Pkejudicial oysteu-laws. — One other feature of this district calls forth remarks from Colonel McDonald, 
 which I quote herewith: 
 
 The Hampton flats furnished a notable example of a condition of things that is beginning to prevail extensively in Virginia waters. 
 Formerly they were covered with a natural growth of oysters that had great reputation and commanded a high price in the markets. 
 They lay right at the doors of Hampton, and gave profitable employment to her fishermen ; now these Hats are exhausted, and though 
 possessing a productive capacity of nearly half a million bushels annually under judicious jilanting, the law of the state prohibiting planting 
 upon "oyster rock", keeps them barren, when an annual income of not less thau $125,001) is possible. There are not now, nor is it likely 
 there ever will be again, any natural, wild oysters growing there. Yet 2,C00 acres of fine planting-grouud, at the very doors of the 
 oystermen is compelled to lie idle through shortsighted prejudice. 
 
 Oyster gathering and planting in York river. — For information in regard to the oyster-fisheries and 
 industries of York river, I am again indebted to Colonel McDonald, whom I quote: 
 
 York river is the common estuary of the Mattaponi and the Pamunkey rivers. It is a broad arm of the Chesapeake, some 30 miles 
 in length. At the head of it stands West Point, the termiinis of the Richmond, York River and Chesapeake railroad, whence lines of 
 steamers ply to New York, Boston, and Baltimore. The average width of the river is about three miles. At its mouth, between Yorktown 
 and Gloucester point, the width rapidly contracts to less than 1,200 yards. Through this narrow gorge the tide rushes with great velocity 
 and has scoured out the channel to the depth of nearly 80 feet » » * . 
 
 The natural oyster-rocks of York river are uow. insignificant, compared to former days, and most of the oystermen who formerly 
 worked on this river every season, now go to the Rappahannock and the James. Relatively, the oyster-planting interests are of greater 
 importance, yet are insignificant now compared to what they were ten years ago. At that time the high jjrico of oysters caused 
 ovcri)lanting, which led to the impoverishment of the planting-grounds, while the sudden fall in prices ruined most of those who were 
 engaged in the business. 
 
 The plants for this river are obtained in part from James river, the larger part from the Potomac, and cost to bring and lay down 
 from l.T to 20 cents a bushel. The same conditions of " greening" characterize the oysters in this river as in Back river. The greening 
 begun with those lowest down the river, aud has traveled up. Captain Van Pelt states as a curious fact, that green oysters have never 
 been found on the York side higher up than Sandy point. 
 
 The planting grounds extend to about 25 miles above Yorktown, and are occupied by 15 or 20 planters, who 
 raised about 350,000 bushels for market during the past season. The ruling price was 35 cents, which would make 
 the total value $122,500. Including the hired help, a hundred families probably make a living out of oyster- 
 planting in York river, with the help of tonging, clam-digging, and various land-occupations. The product goes 
 in schooners to the New York aud Boston markets. 
 
 Planting in the Rappahannock. — In respect to the Rappahannock, what has been learned of the planting- 
 interests is rather discouraging. The extent of ground under use is a strip along the flats on both sides, 
 averaging 100 yards in width. These extend from Ware's wharf or Russell's rock, which is about eight miles 
 above the light-house, to the mouth of the river. The seed comes chiefly from the natural beds in the 
 Rappahannock and Potomac rivers, with a few from elsewhere. The planters are roughly estimated by Mr. 
 B. L. Farinholt, of Montagues, Essex county, Virginia, who kindly gave me much information on this district, at 
 about a thousand ; and taking into account the tongers who sell exclusively to the planters, and others employed, 
 Mr. Farinholt thinks no less than 5,000 men are supported by this industry. Many of these persons come to the 
 river from elsewhere to work daring the season, but very few arc hired at stipulated wages in any capacity. 
 
 Last seasou the planted crop is roughly estimated at about 100,000 bushels, which sold at an average price of 
 50 cents. The season of 1880-'81 was an exceptionally profitable one. Mr. Farinholt writes mo in conclusion, as 
 foUows : 
 
 Planting is largely on the increase. The natural beds are rapidly being destroyed, oysters are becoming scarcer, and prices aro 
 increasing from 20 to 25 per cent, each year for plants. Unless the seasou for catching is made shorter, or some heavy tax is laid on, or 
 both together, it is my opinion that within a few years this interest will become a verj- small one on this river, simply from the depletion 
 and destruction of the natural beds. 
 
 The packing-trade of Virginia.— The packing-trade of Virginia is of much later origin than that of 
 Maryland. About the year 1859 Mr. Edmonds states that Mr. Edward Fitzgerald opened an oyster-packing 
 establishment in Norfolk; but tlie war coming on, the business was greatly hampered and restricted, and it was 
 not until 1805 that the trade gave any evidence of ever becoming very extensive. As the transportation facilities 
 of the city increased, and the ill-effects of the war began to die out, the oyster-trade showed a very marked 
 
186 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 iraproTcmcnt, aud during the last few years it has developed very rapidly. Mr. Edmonds' report upon this phase 
 of the oyster-business in Virginia is very complete, and I quote him as follows: 
 
 In Norfolk, as iu Baltimore and otlier cities of Maryland, the trade is largely in tlie bands of northern men, one difference, however, 
 being quite noticeable, aud that is, tbat whereas iu Maryland the packers are priucipally natives of Connecticut, iu Norfolk they are 
 nearly all either New York or Boston men. The enterprise aud capital of these gentlemen has largely developed this business, which now 
 forms one of the most important branches of Norfolk's trade. The increase in the packing-trade of Norfolk has been instrumental in 
 decreasing the shipments of oysters iu shell by sail vessels from the bay to New York and Boston, as these two cities receive, by means of 
 the Old Dominion line and the Merchants' and Miners' Transportation Company lines, the great bulk of Norfolk oysters. This important 
 change iu the course of trade has been very beneficial to Norfolk, as the shucking and handiiug of oysters give employment to a large 
 number of workmen. 
 
 The trade of Norfolk is almost exclusively in raw oysters, there having been only 3,000 gallons of steamed-oysters packed during the 
 entire season. Shipments are made in bulk in barrels, and, .although, as previously stated, the largest part of the trade is with New York 
 and Boston, there are considerable shipments to all points of the North and West. 
 
 Although Baltimore is pre-eminently the great packing center of the bay, it is nevertheless true that, considering the amount of 
 
 capital invested in the business, Norfolk handles proportionately a much larger trade than the former city. The number of shuckers 
 
 employed and their wages are in about the same proportion iu the two cities. The number of oysters packed at Norfolk during the season 
 
 of 1879-80 was much larger than the combined totals of all packing points iu Maryland, excluding Baltimore. The exact figures are as 
 
 foUowB : 
 
 Bushels of raw 
 Packed at — oysU-rs. 
 
 Crisfield, Maryland 4d7,-270 
 
 Cambridge, Maryland - — - 205,410 
 
 Annapolis, Maryland - 156,703 
 
 Oxford, Maryland 108,960 
 
 Saint Michael's, Maryland 37,788 
 
 Sundry small places, Maryland 224, 817 
 
 Total 1,160,948 
 
 Norfolk, Virginia 1,370,855 
 
 Difference in favor of Norfolk --• 209,907 
 
 Outside of Norfolk the packing of raw oysters in Virginia is very light. At several places a light business is done, but too small to bo 
 noted separately. At Hampton aud at two places on the Eappahannock river quite an extensive trade iu steamed or cove oysters is con- 
 ducted. The word "cove", as applied to oysters, has two entirely distinct meanings. When used by tongers it refers to large oysters 
 caught in the small coves tributary to all creeks and rivers, while with packers and others it means oysters which have been steamed 
 aud hermetically sealed. 
 
 Table showing the packing trade of Virginia for 1879-'80 (by B. H. Edmonds). 
 
 "NumheT of firms 
 
 Capital invested 
 
 Eatimiited value of bnildinga and grounds occnpied . 
 
 Average number of hands employed 
 
 Wages of same 
 
 Ifumher of bushels packed raw 
 
 Value of same ^ -. •• 
 
 Kumber of bushels steamed 
 
 Value of same 
 
 Total number of bushels packed 
 
 Value of same 
 
 Number of tin cans used 
 
 Value of same -• 
 
 Number of wooden cases, ban;^ls, etc., used 
 
 Value of same ■ 
 
 At Norfolk. 
 
 $96, 
 
 $138, 
 
 1, 
 
 $154, 
 
 1, 370, 
 
 $589, 
 
 3, 
 
 $1, 
 
 1, 373, 
 
 $585, 
 
 91, 
 
 $3, 
 
 16, 
 
 $11, 
 
 Elsewhere 
 in Virginia. 
 
 12 
 
 $23, 000 
 
 $29, 000 
 
 501 
 
 $46, 367 
 
 58, 275 
 
 $22, 020 
 
 190,000 
 
 $119, 400 
 
 248, 275 
 
 $141, 420 
 
 620, OOO 
 
 $18, 500 
 
 1,000 
 
 $1, 939 
 
 Total. 
 
 25 
 
 $119, 350 
 
 $167, 500 
 
 1,528 
 
 $200, 951 
 
 1, 429, 130 
 
 $611,147 
 
 193, 000 
 
 $120, 900 
 
 1,622, 130 
 
 $726, 693 
 
 71 1, 000 
 
 $22, 115 
 
 17,871 
 
 $13, 058 
 
 Since Mr. Edmonds' visit to Norfolk, a large steaming-house has been put up there by representatives of the 
 Union Oyster Company of Baltimore. This employs many hands, additional to the number counted above, and 
 uses a large quantity of oysters which otherwise would rot, or at least not find sale to the " raw " houses. This 
 conduces to the general prosperity of Norfolk, in that it makes the chance of selling at some price more certain than 
 before, and thus induces a larger number of boats to come to the town and do their trading as well as sell their 
 catch there. The steaming-house also gives employment to many girls and women. Previously, very few females 
 had been employed in the packing-houses of Norfolk, but of the 501 shuckers in other parts of the state, 244 are 
 females. I suppose this new establishment would add at least 10 per cent, to the totals of the above-given table ; 
 but as I have no precise figures, I prefer not to enter into the summary of statistics. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 
 
 187 
 
 Shipment of oysters in the shells. — Although I have added from other sources a large additional 
 amount of local particulars, no better statistics are available for Virginia than those furnished by Mr. E. EI. 
 Edmonds, in connection with his report on Maryland. The summaries will be found in the succeeding tables : 
 
 Shipments of oysters in sliell from Virginia for year ending May 31, 1880. 
 
 To- 
 
 For plant- 
 ing. 
 
 For imme- 
 diate use. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 
 215, 820 
 
 5,000 
 
 180, 000 
 
 133, 000 
 
 9,000 
 
 223, 940 
 90, 000 
 60, 000 
 
 150, 000 
 75, 000 
 
 317, 317 
 1, 000, 000 
 
 218,113 
 
 439, 700 
 
 
 
 230, 000 
 283 000 
 
 Fair Haven 
 
 Portland, etc 
 
 84 000 
 
 
 317 317 
 
 
 
 1, 000, 000 
 
 
 
 216, 113 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 3, 315, 190 
 
 
 
 Yield of Virginia oyster-fisheries. — The number of bushels of oysters caught in the state during the 
 year, and the disposition made of them, may be summarized as follows : 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Packed in tlie state l,Ci!'2, 130 
 
 Shipped out of the state in shell 3,315,190 
 
 Used for local consumption in the cities of the state 275,000 
 
 Used for local consumption in the small towns and counties of the state 1,025,000 
 
 Total 6,837,320 
 
 Statement summary. — The average value of these oysters from first hands, would be about 28i cents a 
 bushel, or a sum total of $1,948,036 20. This is shown, by sections, in the following statement: 
 
 Department of work. 
 
 > 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 o o 
 
 ll 
 
 a 
 
 B . 
 
 i 
 
 Estimated number of 
 people dependent 
 uponlbe trade, cal- 
 cnlating fonr to 
 each worker. 
 
 
 $588, 300 
 
 286, 850 
 
 224, 050 
 
 460, 950 
 
 10, 000 
 
 50, 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,528 
 
 8,660 
 
 6,376 
 
 300 
 
 200 
 
 $200, 951 
 
 1, 772, 000 
 
 1, 022, 172 
 
 57, 600 
 
 83, 200 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1, 618, 150 
 
 16, 264 
 
 3, 135, 923 
 
 65,056 
 
 
 
 Eeducing this to the formula for summary used heretofore, it presents itself as follows: 
 Statistical recapitulation fob Virginia: 
 
 Number of packers, planters, and tongers . 
 Value of shore-property (.about) 
 
 , 10,439 
 
 $50,000 
 
 1,317 
 
 Value of same $460,950 
 
 Number of canoes and skiffs 4,481 
 
 Value of same $224,050 
 
 Number of men hired by planters or dealers .500 
 
 Annual earnings of same . $140,800 
 
 Number of sailors employed 5, 376 
 
 Annual earnings of same - |1,022, 172 
 
 Total number of families supported 16,264 
 
 Annual sales of — 
 
 I. Native oysters bushels-. 6,837,320 
 
 Value of same $1,948,636 
 
188 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Q. THE SOUTHERN ATLANTIC COAST. 
 
 50. THE OYSTER-PRODUCTS OP NOETH CAEOLINA. 
 
 General aspect op the industry. — In North Carolina the business in oysters and oyster-caltnre is of 
 small proportions, and is confined almost wholly to the Neuse river, Beaufort, and Wilmington. The census of 
 18G0, imperfect, of course, in both estimates, gives North Carolina only $2,100 worth of oysters, compared with 
 $53,145 credited to Virginia, and $15,305 taken in Maryland. The inside of the outer "banks", or the long line 
 of beaches that protect the inner submerged area of nearly fresh water from the demolishing force of the ocean, is 
 lined with oyster-growth to a greater or less degree along its whole extent, but these oysters are not always either 
 edible or available for commerce. Currituck sound was closed from the ingress of salt water forty years ago, and 
 of course all marine life has died out there. Albemarle sound is said to be the largest bod>' of fresh water in the 
 conntry, except the Great Lakes, and sometimes sweetens the water clear down to Roanoke island. Pandico sound, 
 on the contrary, has inlets from the Atlantic which make all its water, at least along its eastern half, thoroughly 
 saline, and permits a luxuriant oyster-growth. This is availed of by the simple fishermen of these desolate beaches 
 and islands in a way that shows how a primitive custom may survive for many years after the commonwealth in which 
 it grew up has passed on to something more complicated and better fulflUiug the same purpose. Of these fishermen 
 there are about 300 between the middle of Core sound and Roanoke island, as 1 am informed by Mr. R. E. Earll, of the 
 United States Fish Commission. Mr. Earll tells me that every winter, at intervals in their fishing, or in connection 
 with it, all of these fishermen are wont to take partial loads of oysters, gathered on the outer banks, to the shore 
 and river towns, perhaps 20 or 30 or more miles away, and there dispose of them, not for cash, but by a system of 
 barter. The exchange is ordinarily made for corn, and the rate last winter was one bushel of oysters in the shell for 
 one bushel of Indian corn in the ear. Taking this, together with what the families of the fishermen eat, and these 
 people live on oysters the year round, and with small interruption, Mr. Earll considers that forty and perhaps 
 fifty thousand bushels a year, worth, perhaps, $10,000, reckoned in money, would not be too large an estimate to 
 put upon this consnmption. One obtains from such a picture as this an appreciation of the importance of oysters, 
 and the oyster-trade, to the peoi)le who live in the neighborhood of the beds, and of which little or no statistical 
 account can usually be given. 
 
 ■ The vicinity op Beaufort.— The first point of inquiry, which develops any systematic or commercial use of 
 oysters, is in the vicinity of Beaufort and Morehead City, which lie at the lower end of Core sound, and on opposite 
 sides of Newport river, whose mouth and inlet from the ocean form Beaufort harbor, and separate Core sound on the 
 north from Bogue sound on the south. The oysters brought to Beaufort come chiefly from the two sounds mentioned. 
 They are almost always of natural growth, but the transplanting of seed has been done at a good many different 
 points, and there will, no doubt, be considerable cultivation in a few years. An attempt was made in ISSO by a 
 Baltimore firm to establish an opening-house at Beaufort, but inclination or circumstances caused its removal 
 to Newberne. There is little regular business at Beaufort, therefore. 
 
 I am in receipt of a letter from Dr. H. C. Yarrow, United States army, containing some notes on the oyster- 
 interests in this locality in 1864. Dr. Yarrow writes : 
 
 At the time I Tvas in Beaufort the oyster was not cultivated, and all I can tell you is, that the best ones were found about 25 or 30 
 miles west of Fort Macon, in Bogue sound. These oysters, which were famous, brought 40 cents a bushel ; ordinary ones only 25. Good 
 oysters were also got up the North river and in a river, running a little north of Harknesa island, which is near Cape Lookout. 
 
 Newberne. — More facts are to be ascertained at Newberne, where more business is now done. Newberne gets its 
 oysters from various points in Pamlico sound. The marshes of tlie lower part of the Neuse are full of them, but little 
 or no use is made of this seed. Bay river, on the shove of the mainland, gives a good thin-shelled and white Oyster, 
 with a deep " cup" and fine flavor, but the freshets in the Neuse are likely to ruin these beds. Smith's creek is also a 
 very good locality, and oysters of very fine flavor are caught opposite Fort Smith, but contain a great many crabs. 
 Good single oysters, capable of being made very fine by planting, are reported to abound in the vicinity of the 
 Royal Shoal rocks. Other good localities are Point of Marsh and Broad creek. The objection to all Core sound 
 oysters is, that though of fine shape and good flavor, they do not seem to thrive under transplanting. However, this 
 may be a libel upon them, since none but the crudest experiments have been made in cultivation. There is no reason 
 to doubt that it would succeed grandly, and with comparatively small trouble, for I have rarely seen shells come 
 up so comi)letely overgrown with infant oysters, as are those which are brought to Newberne. There is little hope 
 that the fishermen themselves, who now live along the shore and work upon the beds, wdl ever become cultivators 
 to any extent. Whether outside capital will ever find it profitable to undertake oyster planting in these apparently 
 highly favorable waters, depends upon a dozen outside considerations of market, means of transportation, possibilities 
 of procuring lal)or, etc., which it would be futile to discuss, because they are constantly changing. It appears then 
 that all the oysters— with occasional exceptions— sent to market from this district, are taken from the natural beds 
 without any intermediate process of transplanting, or fresh- water fattening. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 189 
 
 North Caeolina oystermen. — The men wlio supply the oysters are partly fishermen, few of them expecting 
 to derive as much as half of their support from this occupation. In all, I suppose there are from 300 to 400 men 
 tonging more or less in Pamlico sound, but it is out of the question to arrive at any definite average of what each one 
 earns. The main cash receipts go to the hundred or so chief oystermen. The boats are the same ones used in the 
 general fisheries, and will average $200 to $250 in value. They belong chiefly in Core sound, and in all there are 
 perhaps 50 or GO of them. In spite of this array of natural resources, men and boats, only about 25,000 bushels were 
 lauded at Newberne, and about 5,000 bushels more at Beaufort, during the winter of lS79-'80. It is said that about half 
 as much more (say 15,000 bushels) were bought by peddlers alongshore, who carted them back into the country and 
 sold them from their wagons. The total production of this district, therefore, is about 45,000 bushels, which would 
 be increased to 50,000 bushels if wc counted the immediate consumption on the shore. Not only ought there to have 
 been raised from the water a very much larger amount than this, when we consider the great area of the beds and the 
 number of men employed, but a vastly larger amount would have found an immediate market at Newberne. There 
 are two or three persons there who regularly ship in the shell as many good oysters as they can procure. Besides 
 this there has recently been opened a shipping-house, which would be glad to consume 1,000 bushels a day during 
 all of the cooler half of the year, if they could only obtain the stock. But ttnfortunately, the general laziness aud 
 improvidence of the oystermen are so great, that it is impossible to make a contract and expect to fill it. Not only 
 has it proved extremely difficult to obtain oysters in suificient quantity, and at the time they were needed, to make 
 the running of this new packing-house profitable, but when by good luck a stock was on hand, there was incessant 
 danger that the men hired as shuckers might suddenly desert their employer, without a single compunction as to 
 their duty or responsibility under the circumstances. When it is cold, or the weather is at all rough, no one of 
 these North Carolina oystermen can be persuaded or driven to go to work, notwithstanding that the beds are 
 near shore and well sheltered, and in spite of his manifest poverty. The fact that some discomfort will attend 
 his raking, is reason enough for him why he should stay home and sit over his miserable fire. Yet it is in cold and 
 stormy weather that the buyers are most anxious to get oysters, and will pay a higher price, because then there is not 
 only a greater demand produced by general scarcity, but the frosty air sharpens the appetite of their customers. 
 
 The question of labor in opening presented an obstacle to success of the same nature. These men are paid by 
 the gallon, aud it was found that no reliance could be placed upon a large number of them. Both white men and 
 colored were employed, but the latter have proved the moi-e reliable of the two, and have nearly superseded white 
 help. Many men would come to the house, beg to be taught the art of opening oysters, which was new to most of 
 tbem, and bo set at work.. For the first few days the novelty would keep them pretty steadily employed, then 
 suddenly, when perhaps their assistance was most needed in filling an order, they would knock off. After that their 
 promises proved worth nothing, aud no reliance whatever could be placed upon their staying longer than was 
 necessary to earn the 15 or 20 cents which would buy them a little corn meal and tobacco, to keep themselves and 
 their fanulies from starvation for a couple of days. So impossible have the proprietors found it to improve these 
 lazy, unbusinesslike habits of the people, upon whom they must rely for their stock and theii' labor, that Newberne 
 is likely to lose the benefit of an industry which, in a different community, would distriJjute much needed money 
 among hundreds of families of the poorer classes. 
 
 Some oysters bring as high as 50 and 75 cents a bushel in Newberne and Beaufort, but the average price during 
 this last winter was not above 35 cents, if quite as high as that. At this rate the 50,000 bushels credited to the 
 district was worth $17,500. 
 
 The use of oysters for manure. — I must not omit to mention a custom which prevails in Pamlico sound 
 in siunmer, and which has been described to me by Mr. Earll. It seems that when the weather becomes too warm 
 for the fishermen to safely carry their catch to market, and there is no other employment for their boats, they catch 
 up boat loads of rough "'coon oysters" and carry them to the farmers up the rivers to be sold and used as manure. 
 They receive from 3 to 5 cents a bushel for this strange, but doubtless highly nutritious, fertilizer, but what is the 
 total amount thus gathered and spread on the land each season, I am unable to estimate. 
 
 Oystering about New river.— South of Newberne and Beaufort oysters grow in nearly all the inlets, but 
 there is no regular production until New river is reached, about half way between Beaufort aud Wilmington. The 
 main location of the raking here is right opposite Sneed's ferry, beginning two miles from the bar and extending 
 for three miles. The water here is only brackish, and of a uniform depth of about 9 feet. The crooked channel is 
 full of "oyster-rocks". The oysters are of large size, fairly regular shape, and for the most part single. They 
 possess a most pleasing flavor ; but when now and then storms drive the salt water up the river, their exceUence 
 departs and the oysters take on a greenish appearance, locally called " green-gill". When in this condition they 
 ure not considered fit to be eaten, but the disafi'ection soon we.ars off. 
 
 The oystering here is done in skifis, of which from fifteen to twenty are constantly busy for four or five months in 
 the spring. As there are two men to each skiff or canoe, from 30 to 40 families get a living from the tonging. The 
 law permits every man owning a water-front to inclose a large space of the adjoining bottom, if he wishes to plant 
 oysters. About a dozen peflsons have taken such plots and raise planted oysters, but the total crop this year will 
 probably not exceed 2,500 bushels, and this stock was inferior to the natural growth. All these oysters, wild and 
 planted, are sold to carters, who buy them at $1 a bushel, or from CO to SO cents a gallon, for a large part of the 
 
190 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ■whole product is opened tliere to prevent the carriage of the extra weight of shells. The wagoners carry them to 
 interior towns and peddle them at various prices. It is thus that Wilmington is supplied, and the retail price there 
 is $2 a bushel. Wilmington also receives oysters in small quantities from Myrtle Grove sound, where some 
 experiments in planting have just been begun about two miles northeast of Fort Fisher. These are small, but fat 
 and very choice specimens. Another point whence oysters of good reputation come, is Winbury, on Topsail sound. 
 It is difficult to come at it, but I judge that from fifty to sixty thousand bushels is an estimate of all that the 
 production of the New river and Wilmington region would require annually. Out of the perhaps 50 men who busy 
 themselves regularly in this industry, as tongers, openers, carters, or shippers, there are none who are not also 
 largely engaged in other sources of daily bread. It is believed by those best informed upon the subject, that the 
 state law which prohibits dredging within the state is an injury rather than a blessing to the oyster-beds. They 
 are probably right. Under proper restrictions which shall save the privilege from abuse— something hardly to be 
 aiiprehended in this case, owing to the geographical conditions — dredging would aid both in the extension of the 
 oyster-bearing areas and in the better production of good single oysters on the grounds where they now grow, but 
 in a coarse, bunchy way. The permission of dredging might bring some evils, as in the Chesapeake, but the benefits 
 following to North Carolina would probably overbalance any harm. 
 
 Statements for North Carolina. — Keviewing this, furnishes estimated totals as follows, for the whole state: 
 
 Number of planters and tongers 1,000 
 
 Nnmljer of shippers - 1" 
 
 Value of shore-property - - $15,000 
 
 Number of vessels - • "" 
 
 Number of small boats : ^^^ 
 
 Value of fleet and tools - -" $53,500 
 
 Number of shoremen hired 10 
 
 Annual earuings of same ?il,300 
 
 Families supi)orted, partially 1,000 
 
 Native oysters annually sold bushels.. 170,000 
 
 Value of same $00,000 
 
 51. OYSTEE-PISHBRIES OF SOUTH CAEOLINA. 
 
 Charleston and vicinity.— At Charleston all the business is confined to a little desultory planting around 
 
 Sullivan's island, and it is doubtful if there is any shipping of oysters done there whatever. The same is true of 
 
 Port Royal; and I am convinced that 50,000 bushels, worth perhaps $20,000, would supply the yearly demand of 
 
 the whole South Carolina coast. The interior towns of the state derive their supplies from the North or else from 
 
 Savannah. 
 
 52. OYSTEE-FISHEEIES OF GEORGIA. 
 
 Savannah. — A somewhat unsatisfactory report of the oyster business in the neighborhood of Savannah, was 
 all that it was possible for me to obtain during my stay there; but it is a small industry at best, though the 
 most important producing and shipping point on the southern coast. 
 
 Savannah is situated upon blufi"s on the banks of the Savannah river, just where the salt meadows and sea 
 islands give place to the mainland. In the Savannah river, itself, no oysters grow above the immediate mouth. 
 This is due to the great volume of fresh water which it pours out. In time of freshet, the red, turbid current is 
 visible 25 or 30 miles at sea, and so completely freshens the water to the very outlet, that oysters will not flourish. 
 Off Potato point, however, and in the shape of two elongated banks, marked by beacons, in mid-stream, oy«terbeds 
 are to be found, and are raked for seed, or, more than that, for marketable oysters, which are brought to Savannah. 
 These beds in Tybee roads are mainly tonged by colored men, who are fishermen at other times, or do it in a 
 desultory way. Their number and catch varies endlessly. 
 
 Eaccoon oysters. — But everywhere in the thousand channels which intersect the marshy islands that border 
 the coast, making a perfect net-work of salt-water tide-ways, the raccoon or bunch oysters grow in endless profusion. 
 Let there be old shells, sunken fragments of castaway stuff, logs, or anything upon which it is possible for an oyster 
 to catch, and it will be surely covered with the young shells before a single season has gone by. The oysters spawn 
 here regularly from April till June, and scatteringly till a much later date. So prolific of spawn are they, and so 
 favorable seem to be the conditions for their safe growth, that such an object as an old shell will become completely 
 coated with the infant bivalves. As these grow (and with great rapidity) they sink and gather in the mud, and 
 crowd each other for lack of room to enlarge. All these effects produce their slender and irregular shape, they 
 being able to increase only in the narrow, outward direction. Before they are half grown a second season bestows 
 upon them anew collection of young oysters, which must struggle in a similar way, and thus there arise clusters or 
 bunches or columns of oysters, sometimes three or four feet high and several inches thick, which are closely 
 agglomerated and of very heavy weight. These are called raccoon or 'coon oysters, and are collected, knocked to 
 pieces, and sold in market, chiefly by colored men. Though some of them will not furnish a meat much larger than 
 the thumbnail, they are sweet and well flavored when brought from a good locality. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 191 
 
 Planting foe the Savannah market. — JTo oysters were jjlanted for the Savannah market until about 
 forly years ago, when, it is said, the first attempt was made by Mr. Andrew Nelson, wlio is still engaged in 
 the business at Vernonbiirg. Now there are iilanted beds, also, alongside of his, in Burnside river and at 
 Thunderbolt, about five miles south of the city. 
 
 The Thunderbolt planters go for their seed chiefly into Wilmington river and Wassaw sound, and particularly 
 along the southern end of Tybee island. The Vernon and Burnside planters go down the Vernon river and into 
 Ossabaw sound, especially along the northern end of Ossabaw island, and at the southern point of Big Wassaw. 
 Here they tong up their seed into batteaus, the water being so deep in some places as to require ISfeet handles. 
 The law of the state prohibits dredging, or "any other instrument than the oyster-tongs heretofore in general use". 
 These tongs do not differ essentially from those made and used in the north. Only a portion of the seed obtained 
 for planting, however, is tonged up from the deep-water beds, where it occurs singly, or nearly so. A larger portion 
 is obtained from the shores of the various sounds and salt-water channels, and consists of incipient bunches of 
 raccoon oysters. At low water the planter takes a bateau and four men and goes to the shore where he designs 
 to work at the time of low water. Getting out upon the exposed mud, one or two of the men pull or rake up out 
 of the mud the small bunches of oysters imbedded there, and the rest follow after and pick them up. The 
 instrument used is a rude piece of iron of convenient lengih, bent at one end so a3 to act (as it is called) as a 
 "hooker". Old wagon tire is a favorite material out of which to make this instrument. One of these bateaux will 
 carry 100 to 200 bushels, and four men can often fill it in a tide, breaking the bunches in pieces as they pick 
 them up. 
 
 Georgia oyster-laws. — It is only recently that the state has given legal sanction to oyster-culture. The 
 law is brief, but very much to the point, and reads as follows: 
 
 Wbere any person having taxable lands on the banks or shores of any of the rivers or creeks of this state, shall plant beds of oysters 
 upon them, it shall not be lawful for any other person to take from such beds of oysters : Provided, the same shall be distinctly staked 
 or marked. 
 
 When an oyster-bank, or beds of oysters, or natural formations, be within rivers or creeks, not exceeding 125 feet in width, and not 
 used for purjjoses of navigation, the persons h.aviiig the ownership of the lauds on both sides of such creeks or rivers shall have the 
 exclusive right to the usufruct of such banks or beds of oysters as aforesaid. 
 
 Pre-emption methods. — Under this law large amounts of public marsh and islands have been staked off, 
 much of which (it is widely complained of) is not properly done, since bona fide planting is not carried on, nor are 
 taxes paid. The truth of this charge of abuse, which must only exist by common consent, I did not investigate ; 
 but heard several planters say that large ])ortions of their most accessible seed-grounds had been thus shut off, 
 compelling them to go a long distance, with much labor and pains, for their "plants". The boundary marks 
 used are stakes, upon which is nailed a board with the letter "O" painted upon it. One of these oyster-signs at 
 the mouth of a narrow creek would prohibit any boat gathering oysters above it ; and it seems to be universally 
 respected, except by the vagrant negroes, who ca,tch and sell oysters when they want a little money to prevent 
 utter starvation, or to pay for some sport. 
 
 Methods of culture. — The seed thrown overboard is mainly about a year old; smaller takes too long to 
 grow, and a much larger growth will not survive transplanting. There are two classes of beds — shore-beds, 
 going dry at low tide, and channel-beds, always covered — the latter producing the finer oysters. The bottom is 
 mostly clay mud. After two years the oysters are taken up, the marketable ones picked out, and the rest thrown 
 back; then another lot of new seed is thrown on the same bed. A regular rotation of planting and harvesting 
 stated beds is not followed, and the best oysters obtained are of scraggy, poor shape (even where single), rough 
 shell, and small size. I saw almost none which would pass in New York as "box". Nevertheless, they are of 
 pretty good flavor, though not so salt as one would expect, and of too dark a tint to look as inviting as they taste. 
 Of those I tried, I like the Vernon samples best ; Thunderbolt seems not to have so clear a stream. They are 
 usually four years old when taken to market. 
 
 Each of the planters has a small hut built upon posts at the edge of the water, where he opens his oysters. 
 In these houses he opens almost all of the stock he sells, and only takes the meats to town, receiving about fifty 
 cents a solid gallon. The method of opening is the same as that used in New York, the knife and handle being 
 of one i)iece, and the latter very heavy. The shells are used to make causeways from the land to these huts, and 
 also to build roads. Two fine driveways, each several miles long, extend out of Savannah, which have been paved 
 with oyster-shells. 
 
 Each oysterman owns a .sloop, the hull of which is skiff-shaped and not at all handsome. They are only half- 
 decked, in many cases, but have a little cabin aft, and a hatchway to the hold; they are far from beautiful boats, 
 but are worth an average of $200 each. In this part of Georgia there are perhaps a dozen of these vessels in the 
 oyster-business, only one of which, I believe, is registered at the custom-house. 
 
 Extent of trade and consumption in Savannah. — In respect to the city trade, it is only to be said that 
 three or four men handle the majority of all the oysters brought to the city, and shii) them throughout this state 
 and South Carolina, Charleston competing very feebly. Very few oysters come from the North, perhaps 50 barrels 
 
192 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 a year in all. These are wholly in the shell, and go to the restaurants. In the case of every dealer, oysters form 
 only a portion of a general fish-trade, and so cannot be counted as " supported" by dealings in them. 
 
 It was very difficult to arrive at any just estimate of the annual consumption of oysters in and through 
 Savannah. From what 1 could ascertain, I judge the yield of the transplanted beds to be less, rather than more, 
 than 15,000 bushels. If you.add another 15,000 bushels of raccoon oysters gathered, I think the total will account 
 for all brought to Savannah. A planter told me he received 50 cents a gallon for opened oysters, and $1 per 
 bushel for the best single oysters. A leading dealer gave me present wholesale prices as CO cents to $1 per gallon, 
 and $3 50 a barrel for shell-stock. I suppose the value of the 30,000 bushels estimated to be handled annually in 
 Savannah, may be given as $25,000. 
 
 Lower Georgia. — Below Savannah all the sounds and lagoons and river mouths are more or less obstructed 
 with oyster-reefs, and furnish many good rakinggrounds. The denizens of Darien, Doboy, Saint Simon, Brunswick, 
 and Saint Mary, all procure oysters from their near neighborhood at small prices. Some intentions of planting 
 were once entertained at Brunswick, and I heard of an old county-ordinance that prohibited all outsiders from 
 tonging there. 
 
 Statistical recapitulation for Georgia: 
 
 Number of tougers, plauters, .ind ■wholesale dealers — — 300 
 
 Value of shore-property - $5, 000 
 
 Number of boats 100 
 
 Value of same, with gear. - • $13,500 
 
 Number of shuekers hired by plauters or dealers - — .. — . 50 
 
 Total number of families iiartiiiUy supported .* 200 
 
 Aunual sales of — 
 
 I. Native oysters . bushels.. 70,000 
 
 Value of same $35,000 
 
 53. OYSTEE-INTEEESTS OF EAST FLORIDA. 
 
 Fernandina and vicinity. — This abundance becomes more and more noticeable as you approach Fernandina, 
 Florida. Every bit of sunken log in the marshes, each fallen tree whose branches trail in the water, and row-boat 
 stake, becomes at once loaded down with "coons". Frequently large specimens are obtainable, and such are very 
 good, as I proved, but they are rarely eaten, and no attempt whatever is made to utilize the easily obtainable 
 seed for transplanting. There is no legal iHotection or proper sentiment to encourage planting. If a boat-load is 
 brought in and laid down over night, even, the probabilities are that it will be stolen. Fernandina, then, gets all 
 its home oysters from beds 10 to 15 miles distant, where they grow large and singly : the favorite spot, at present, 
 is Crooked creek, over towards Saint Mary. The oystermen are colored fishermen, and no estimate can be- 
 formed of the total catch. The price they receive is $1 per barrel. In addition to this an uncertain amount of 
 better oysters are brought to Fernandina from Cedar Keys, by rail. 
 
 On the point of land terminating Old Fernandina are remains of an extensive Indian shell-heap ; and in the 
 bottom of the harbor opposite the marshy shore between the old and new towns, was formerly an exceedingly 
 large bar of raccoon oysters. Latterly these have died, and now they are being washed up and are forming a long, 
 firm shell-beach. Here, as in Georgia, the barnacles appear to be troublesome. 
 
 Saint John's bar. — At the bar or mouth of Saint John's river good oysters are obtained, though of a very salty 
 taste. They are eaten locally and -'ent now and then to Jacksonville by the fishermen. Jacksonville, however, 
 is supplied chiefly by Cedar Keys and Apalachicola, the latter, in my opiiuon, sending the best oysters sold in 
 Jacksonville. The amount consumed is not large, and it frequently happens that the city will be wholly unsupplied. 
 Nobody seems to make an exclusive business of oyster-sales. 
 
 Saint Augustine. — At Saint Augustine the oyster-supply is chiefly derived from the immediate shores, since 
 they are abundant everywhere. They are, as a rule, small and poor, tiie best coming from Matanzas, some miles 
 below. They sell them to cart-men who peddle them about the streets. The supply is irregular and uncertain, and 
 no planting whatever is practiced, or is demanded. Kot more than 5,000 bushels a year, probably, are ever sold. 
 The boats used by the fishermen in oyster-gathering are small dug-out canoes. 
 
 I did not go down to Indian river, but have been informed that in many parts of the great system of estuaries 
 which extends from the upper end of Indian ri\'er down to Bay Biscayne, there are oyster-beds yielding edible 
 mollusks of large size and good flavor. I am willing to believe it. 
 
 Beyond a reminder that everywhere occur unlimited quantities of small, crowded 'coon oysters, at present 
 undesiraljle to eat, but always available as seed, and that undoubtedly it only requires further exploration to bring 
 to light many more good localities for gathering edible oysters, I close the account of the- eastern part of Florida, 
 and with it dismiss the Atlantic coast of the United States. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 193 
 
 R. THE GULF OF MEXICO. 
 
 54. OYSTEE-INTERESTS OF WEST FLORIDA. 
 
 » 
 
 General considerations. — The Gulf of Mexico presents an area of profuse and widespread oyster-p^rowth, 
 and of considerable cooimercial interests. Though the extent of coast is large, and the points of noteworthy 
 production are scattered, yet the whole Gulf can conveniently be considered together. In addition to my own 
 hasty investigations of this region, I am afforded the assistance of two very competent gentlemen — Mr. Silas 
 Stearns, of Pensacola, Florida, and Mr. Franklin F. Aiusworth, of New Yoi'k, whose contributions are sxiccially 
 and thankfully acknowledged, as they severally appear in the ensuing account: 
 
 Early abundance or oysters. — The immense abundance of oysters and oyster-reefs on the western coast 
 of Florida, astonished the earliest cxi)lorers, and their histories of ex[)lorations contain many allusions to it. 
 Charlevoix went there (or along the reefs) two centuries ago, and writes in his Voyatjes (II, 1255): 
 
 But this Coaft is the Kingtloiii of Oyfters, as tlio great Bank of Neu\foumUand, and the CJiilph and the River St. Lawrence are that of 
 the Cod-Fifh. All these low Lands, which we coaitcd as near as poffible, are Ixirdered with Trees, to which are faftcued a prodigious 
 Qnantity of little Oyfters, of an exquifiteTafte: Others, much larger and lefs dainty, are found in the Sea in fuch Numbers that they form 
 Banks In it, which we take at tirft for Rocks on a Level with the Surface of the water. 
 
 The trees to which Charlevoix's men found oysters attached were mangroves, and a short discussion of the 
 service these mollusks are doing in aggrandizing the commonwealth and territory of Florida will not be out of 
 place. 
 
 South Florida. — Among these now commercially worthless reefs of oysters, various beds or "rocks" have 
 been found, supplying those which are edible and locally put on sale, or at least sought by the shore-people from 
 time to time. Excellent oysters, lying singly and of large size, are thus found at several points in Whitewater 
 bay, at Cape Eomano, Gordon's Pass, and in Charlotte harbor. These are the beds which supply the "shell" 
 market of Key West*, the greater part coming from Punta Rassa (a steamer landing), and gathered in that 
 vicinity for the most part among the mangrove islands betweeu Pine island and Sanibel island. The average 
 number shipped from Punta Rassa is 5,000 a week from October 1 to April 1, making 120,000 (by count) in all. 
 At $0 50 a thousand these are worth $780. Occasionally lots of 5,000 to G,000 oysters are received from Caximbus 
 bay, which are sold at auction, generally at a value of $5 per thousand. The total value in a season will not, 
 however, exceed about $125, representing 25,000 oysters. This total of 14:5,000 oysters in shell, by count, equals 
 about 600 bushels, worth nearly $2 a bushel in Key West. Unfortunately I have no record of the number of men 
 or boats given employment. 
 
 Charlotte harbor. Little Sarasota, etc. — ITorthward of Charlotte harbor and Caximbus bay good 
 oysters are to be had in Little Sarasota bay, and are especially recommended. At the mouth of the Manatee river 
 there is an oyster-bar that produces the stock mainly used by the people who live at Braidentown, Manatee, and 
 on the river banks. These are of inferior quality in both shape and taste, but would doubtless be improved by 
 transplanting into purer and salter water. No estimate of the irregular supply from these reefs can be madej it is 
 of small consequence. Mr. Stearns also discovered large single oysters at Pal ma Sola. 
 
 Tampa and northward. — The town of Tampa and the villages at the head of Tampa bay get their oysters 
 from some famous reefs off Gadsden's point. These oysters are said to be single, and, though not of very large 
 size, to be admirable in flavor. No planting is done in any shape, nor are any oysters sent from here to Key West. 
 I was' told that three men and three boats found pretty steady employment in oystering there, and the catch 
 perhaps amounts to a total of 1,500 bushels a year, worth about $500. 
 
 As fast as settlement proceeds on the shores of this low and indented coast, more and more beds of oysters are 
 found available for local use, so that each settlement and nearly every farm, as a rule, has its jjarticular locality or 
 bed. These will multiply, of coiu-se, as people and explorations increase, and consequently a demand grows. 
 Thus far, however, no beds have been discovered, bearing an edible sort, in Big Sarasota bay or in Clearwater bay, 
 but that they formerly existed there, and at the lower end undoubtedly exist yet, is shown by the thousands of 
 good-sized specimens mingled with other mollusks in the mounds and shell-heaps at Point Pinellos and elsewhere 
 in this neighborhood. 
 
 About the Anclotes (inside), however, and thence, wherever they have been diligently sought for in the mouths 
 of all the rivers and suitable localities, they exist and are used up as far as Crystal river, where is found the first 
 real " fishery ", albeit of small proportions. 
 
 Between Crystal river and Cedar Keys there is little worth mention in the way of oysters, the Homosassa and 
 Withlacoochee beds sufiicing only for local demand, supplemented by the better stock from above and below there. 
 
 * The main consumption of oygtcrs in this reef city consists, according to Mr. F. F. Aiusworth, of canned stock from Baltimore, 
 shipped via New York by steamer. Nearly 25,000 cans (1 and 2 pounds) arc reported as used annually, the value of the sales in 1880 
 approximating $1,500. 
 l.J O 
 
194 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Cedar Keys oysters. — At Cedar Keys we come upon the first considerable town in our progress up tlie 
 coast, and the first harbor and railway terminus. It is not surprising to find, therefore, that here the oysters have a 
 commercial value. The banks where they are obtained are on Oragin's bars, which are exposed at low tide, five 
 miles soutli of the village ; and at a still better locality to the northward of the keys that shield the harbor. There 
 are four or five young men here who, in the season, devote themselves mainly to supplying oysters, which are sold 
 to various shippers, and sent to Gainesville, Jacksonville, Feriumdina, and lesser towns by rail. During ISSO the 
 railway reports carrying 2,710 barrels, equal to G,SOO bushels, for which, at G5 cents a barrel, or hardly 20 cents a 
 bushel, the catchers were paid $1,811 50, and the shippers received $3,387, making the average price about $1 25 
 per barrel. In Jacksonville these oysters sell at from 75 cents to $1 a bushel. If to this 6,S00 bushels we add 
 3,200 bushels for home consumption, the total of 10,000 bushels would probably represent the whole catch at Cedar 
 Keys. 
 
 The boats in use by the oystermen here are about 20 feet long and 8 feet wide. They are very roughly built, 
 but well suited to their work. They have center-boards and large sails, are sea-worthy, and in smooth water will 
 make very fair speed. 
 
 No attempt at any sort of cidtiva*ion has been made here, although it is said that the bivalves are far less 
 plentiful here than formerly. Popular theory ascribes this to the Idlling effect of cold weather. 
 
 The Cedar Keys oysters have a different taste from anything I have experienced elsewhere, and one which will 
 commend itself to those who like a saltish oyster; but there is a flavor about them, in addition to their saltness, 
 which distinguishes them at once (if those I ate were fair samples) from anything else. On the whole, they must 
 be pronounced good ; and usually they are of large size. 
 
 Here and there oysters exist in edible condition between Cedar Keys and the Suwannee river, and beyond 
 toward Apalachicola, but they only supply the sponge-fishermen and shore-farmers, except at Saint Mark, where 
 several large reefs impede navigation. In respect to these I quote jMr. Stearns' notes, which allege that out of the 
 many of these reefs of worthless oysters, only one or two produce mai'ketable stock, yet these probably fully supi)ly 
 the demand of Tallahassee and the neighborng Georgian towns that get their supplies from here. The beds 
 are about five miles west of the light house, near Shell point. The oysters are of small size, and four men, with 
 two large fishing-boats (with a sail) are all that work at gathering them, selling about 1,000 bushels, worth 8500, 
 annually. The tongs they use are home-made, and consist of wooden imitations of the stronger, iron-backed tongs 
 commonly seen elsewhere. 
 
 Apalaohicola. — Concerning Apalachicola, farther westward, Mr. Stearns also informs me : 
 
 This neighborhood has been highly favored with a large number of beds furnishing oysters of large size and fine flavor, which are 
 easily procured and distrilmted by means of ^i^■e^ steamers from Apalachicola, through a wide area inland. Besides a number of large 
 reefs in Saint George and Saint Vincent sounds and Apalachicola bay, there are scattered all through the deeper waters a great many 
 small beds. The depth of water here averages 7 feet, and it is brackish and full of sediment. The oysters from these beds are of superior 
 flavor ; I found none better in any part of the Gulf during my visit in 1881. 
 
 The reefs, or beds, are only an hour's sail from town ; therefore the outfits or preparations for a trip need not be very great. When 
 the tide is high the boat anchors over a bed, on which there is from 5 to 10 feet of water, and both men use tongs to bring up the oysters 
 with. As each tongful comes up, the worthless ones are culled out and the good ones are thrown into the hold. The tongs in use here are 
 made of iron, some galvanized and some not, in the same shape as those used on the Chesapeake. With these tongs, on a sjjot where the 
 oysters are abundant, and need but little culling, two men can ]>ut 50 barrels of good oysters into the hold in one day. 
 
 If the tide is very low, as is the case during "northers", the boat is run aground on an oyster-reef, a gangway-pliink is placed over 
 the side, and the oysters are picked up by hand and carried aboard in tubs. Oystering in this manner is said to be harder and slower 
 work than tonging them. When the boat is loaded she goes to town, and if there be a steamboat there, the oysters are turned over to 
 the dealer on board of her ; if not, they are not delivered until one does come. The oysters sell for 50, CO, and 75 cents per barrel, all 
 ready for shipment, that is, in barrels and covered with gunuy sack at the top ; but the oystermen seldom get barrels or sacks, which 
 have to bo furnished by the dealer, at the rate of 10 cents for sacks and 20 cents for barrels, leaving the oysterman but 20, 30, or 45 cents 
 per barrel for the oysters. It sometimes happens that barrels cannot be bought for any price in Apalachicola, and immense quantities of 
 oysters must either be thrown away or lie over until barrels can bo brought from neighboring towns. There are four steamboats running on 
 this river in the winter, two of which carry the mail ; but it frequently happens that the mail is not received here fortwo or three weeks, 
 and large amounts of oysters and fish have to be thrown away in consequeuce. A few vessel-loads of oysters are taken to Saint Jlark 
 during the vifinter, but it is a trade of not much consequence. The shipping season lasts from November to April. 
 
 The boats iu use are all small sloojis of 20 or 25 feet length, carrying each two men. Last year (1878) there were twenty of these 
 boats engaged in the oyster-fishing. With their outfit of tongs, etc., they are thought to be worth about $2,500. Between forty and fifty 
 men are engaged iu this business, out of which they make but little nuire than what they spend for food while earning it. If two men who 
 arc running a boat have a good contract with the dealer, good wages can easily be made ; but if they have no contract they are obliged 
 to cut the prices down in order to sell at all, and also are kept lying at the wharf about half their time. From ^b to %S per week, therefore, 
 is an oysterman's wages when working. 
 
 The principal dealer at Apalachicola states, that he and other dealers there shipped up the river, during the winter of 1878-'79, 15,000 
 barrels. These, at the rate of 30 cents a barrel, yielded to the oystermen $4,500. In addition, owners of vessels disposed of about 2,000 
 barrels at Saint Mark at 50 cents a barrel, equal to |1,000. The total value of the trade that winter, therefore, was |5,500. It is only 
 within five years th,it the trade has ajiproached even this amount. Now it is improving, and new markets, such as eastern Florida 
 towns (by steamer and rail), are opening. 
 
 Saint Andrew and Choctawhatchie bay'S. — Saint Andrew bay is the next place where edible oysters 
 are found. Here there are no large rivers, and the water is salt. The oysters lie in beds scattered all over the 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 195 
 
 upper parts of East, North, and West bays, and are most abundant in the deep and open water. These are the 
 favorites of the Georgian inland towns, where they chiefly find their way. 
 
 Choctawhatchie bay, next westward, contains very few oysters, but the hirge shell-heaps there show that 
 formerly they were taken in vast numbers. Now, the few that are got are found scattered over grassy shoals. 
 
 Pensacola. — Arriving now at Pensacola, I am again indebted to Mr. Stearns' studies for my facts. The 
 oyster-season there begins in September and ends in April. The banks worked (only with tongs) lie in Escambia 
 bay, and are scattering and very poorly stocked — not so well as formerly. The absence of shell heaps on the 
 adjacent shores show that the Indians did not resort to this for a supply of niolluscan food to any gn^at extent. 
 
 The boats serving here are open, flat-bottomed, roughly-made skill's, not exceeding 24 feet in length, and cat- 
 rigged or sloop-rigged. Two men form the crew, and consider fi'om five to twelve barrels a load, satisfying 
 themselves with one trip per week. As there are about seven boats, au averaged estimate of the season's total 
 production would give about 2,500 bushels. The selling-price being only 35 or 40 cents per bushel, the cash proceeds 
 will hardly exceed $1,000, to be divided among about fifteen fishermen. A system of sharing is in vogue, by which 
 the proceeds of each day's catch is divided into equal thirds between the boat and each of the two men who 
 constitute her crew. 
 
 "The catch at Pensacola," Mr. Stearns says, "often fails to supidy the local demand, and additional oysters 
 are obtained from Mobile and Saint Andrew bay. Nothing of consequence has been done here in oyster-culture." 
 
 Recapitulation for Florida. — A resume for Florida will not be out of place here, and will represent the 
 following facts: 
 
 Number of catchers anfl shippers 1C)6 
 
 Number of boats engaged 110 
 
 Vahie of same $8,000 
 
 Nuuiber of bushels sold ~'^- tiOO 
 
 Value of same $15,950 
 
 55. OYSTEE-INDFSTEIES OF ALABAMA. 
 
 The Mobile supply. — Crossing the line into Alabama, the port of Mobile offers opportunity for the sale of 
 many oysters, and more or less cultivation of this food-mollusk is carried on there. I cau here, also, supplement 
 my own notes by the records of Mr. Silas Stearns : 
 
 " The oysters that are brought to Mobile are obtained from natural and artificial beds in Mobile bay. Those 
 from the natural beds are called 'reefers', which are slight! j: inferior in size and quality to those from the artificial 
 beds, which are called 'plants'. They are obtained in a poition of the bay called the 'gully'; the only place 
 where they are naturally abundant. The planted oysters are originally obtained from the salt water, near Cat 
 island, between Mobile bay and Biloxi, Mississippi, and are deposited in front of the oysterman's land. 
 
 Oyster-culture. — " The state laws i)rovide that any settler on its bay shores shall have the right to use for 
 oyster-culture the water surface in front of his lands from low-water mark GOO yards outward. 
 
 "About thirty vessel-loads, or more than 2,500 bushels, are usually planted at first on new grounds, and are 
 allowed to remain two years before they are gathered up to be sold. The next and following times that deposits 
 are made it is not necessary to plant ^s many as at first ; for there are many small oysters that escape the tongs 
 which will soon grow large enough for market. 
 
 " It is calculated that in two years the small salt-water oysters will have so grown in size and so increased in 
 numbers, that there will be about twice as inany as when transplanted ; but this ratio can hardly be depended 
 ui)on, for it often has been proved that, to realize au increase of 50 per ceut., the location and circumstances must 
 be most favorable. 
 
 "Oysters as taken from salt water are in very poor condition, but in an incredibly short time, in fresh or 
 brackish water, they become large and fat. Still there are times, when the bay is almost purely fresh, that certain 
 injurious qualities in it (perhaps from the extensive swamps) either destroy oysters or turn them so red that they 
 are unfit for market. Invertebrate animals are probably the cause of many oysters being killed, though the 
 oystermen seem to be ignorant of it. Drum-fish are also very destructive. 
 
 Oyster-fisheries.— " Besides the 'reefers' and ' plants ', there is a kind of oyster called here ' sharpers', 
 from the fact that the ends of their shells are unusually sharp. They are a natural-growth oyster of very large 
 size (shells averaging 8 or 10 inches long) and superior flavor, that are found growing separately along the bay 
 shores, not far from the place where ' reefers ' are gathered. ' Sharpers ' are always in demand, though there is 
 some objection to them on account of their being so hard to open. 
 
 " ' lleefers ' aiul ' sharpers ' are caught by men who follow no other pursuit, and who are a quite distinct class 
 from the oyster-boatmen. They have small, flat-bottomed skifts of the roughest description, in which they go 
 'a-tonging', two men occupying a boat and taking turns at touging and culling. As fast as the stock is culled it 
 is placed in shallow, oblong b«xes holding one-fourth of a barrel each, and in these measures is sold to the boatmen 
 or carriers at the rate (during the winter of 1S80-'81) of 10 cents a ' box ', or 40 cents a barrel. The carriers having 
 
196 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 obtained a load for their sailboats, proceed at ouce to the city and deliver them to the dealer, by whom they are 
 employed to buy or with whom they have contracts. The measure, iu this transaction, is the same box as before, 
 but the price has nearly doubled, holding all last season at 75 cents a barrel. While the gatherers are paid per 
 measure for what they catch, the profits of the boatmen are divided among the crew by a 'lay' arrangement of 
 sharing, by which the crew pay provision bills and receive 60 per cent, of the proceeds. Of the owner's 40 per 
 cent, remaining, tbe captain gets 10 or 15 per cent, additional. In a few cases the captains own their vessels, and 
 prefer to hire their ci'ew at $20 or $25 a month. There are only two or three men in the whole crew of an oyster- 
 boat." 
 
 Mobile oyster-boats. — "They are small, light-draft vessels," says Mr. Stearns, "ranging from 3 to 20 tons in 
 size and are rigged as schooners or sloops (not much attention being given to the matter) in the common American 
 style. They are arranged so as to have as much deck and hold room as possible for the oysters; therefore, their 
 cabins are small and uncomfortable. From the cabin bulkhead to the mast the space in the hold is uninterrupted, 
 except by the center-baard case, and there the load of oysters is carried. It is not often that the deck is heaped 
 with oysters, but the clear, roomy space is useful in culling and handling the oysters as they are received and 
 discharged. These vessels are not graceful or pretty, for their light draft (not more than 2 or 3 feet) and full lines 
 destroy all intentions in that way. They are rather cheaply aud roughly built, too, but as they are not intended 
 for or used in rough water, they will last almost as long and earn quite as much money as finer and more costly ones 
 would. Twenty thousand dollars would buy the whole fleet, and another $20,000 represent all additional capital 
 invested." 
 
 Sale statistics for Mobile. — Trustworthy statistics of tbe production of Mobile bay are not available. 
 About 20,000 bushels I estimate as the sales of planted stock, and I consider that 60,000 bushels would cover the 
 whole consumption at Mobile. 
 
 This yields the following approximate returns to the respective classes engaged: 
 
 40,000 bushels "reefers", jit 15 cents a bushel profit, gives catchers $G,000 
 
 40,000 bushels "reefers", at 13 ceuts a bushel profit, gives carriers 5,i!00 
 
 40,000 bushels "reefers", at 15 cents a bushel profit, give shippers 6,000 
 
 The first value of this 40,000 bushels of " reefers", therefore, is $6,000 ; the second, $11,200 ; the third, $1 7,200 ; 
 and the retailer probably receives $25,000 or more iu dealing out to consumers. The value of the 20,000 bushels 
 of plants is about $17,500 to the planter and $20,000 to the wholesaler. For our purpose we may take the carriers' 
 price, paid by the dealer to the carrier and the planter, as our estimate, and say that the total first value of the 60,000 
 bushels is $28,700. The report of the board of trade, that in lS7S-'79 business in oysters to the amount of $95,400, 
 and iu 1879-'80 to the amount of $111,000 was done, no doubt represents sales additional to the strict limits of our 
 iur|uiry in this matter. 
 
 Oyster-trade of Mobile. — The oyster-dealing, wholesale and retail, and restaurant business in Mobile 
 no doubt supports 100 families, chiefly of colored persons, or at least forms an important part of their annual 
 resources. Many of these are openers, who work by the piece as work offers. Mr. Stearns refers to them in his 
 memoranda as follows: 
 
 The oysters, having been deposited in a pile in the dealer's warehouse, are next taken iu hand by the "ojieners", who are placed in 
 a circle around the pile, each with his stool, bucket, and oyster-knife. These men are principally negroes and Creoles of the worst 
 character, who find it hard to obtain other employment. Still they are very expert at opening oysters, and often make fair wages. The 
 knives used by them are all of steel, about six inches long, with heavy, flat handles, and wide, thick blades, rounded at the cud. To open 
 an oyster it is held in the left hand, lower shell down and lips outward, and the shells are quickly pried o])en at the hinge, the upper shell 
 being thrust oif. One more stroke severs th-.^ oyster from the lower shell, and into the bucket it goes, liquor and all. Some kinds of oysters 
 cannot be easily opened in this way, so they are broken first on the lip edge and entered from that side with the knife. The majority of 
 Moliile oyster-openers are very quick while opening either of these ways, but are probably more practiced in the first. The shells are 
 thrown one side in a pile, and the "openers", if left to themselves, will throw away many good, unopened oysters, in order to hasten 
 through their barrel, if they are opening by the barrel, or to get rid of small oysters, if they are opening by the gallon; therefore, it is 
 necessary to have a man employed to watch them and prevent this waste. 
 
 When an " opener" has filled his bucket he takes it to a clerk to be emptied into a strainer, when the oysters are measured and placed 
 to his credit. 
 
 The customary price paid for opening oysters is 35 cents per barrel, or 20 cents per gallon. At certain times of the year a barrel 
 of oysters in shell will yield more opened oysters than at others; for instance., in the fall hardly two gallons are obtained, while in the 
 winter and spring two to three gallons are taken from one barrel. 
 
 As soon as the oysters ha\-e been opened, measured, and drained of their liquor, they are emptied into a large vat that has a strainer- 
 like bottom, and .are kept cool by means of ice until needed for shipment or canning. To be shipped to .any place not far inland, they are 
 usually placed iu cans varying from one to ten gallons, according to the order, that are not hermetically scaled, but are kept in contact 
 with ice. To be shipped to more distant parts they are placed in square cans, containing from one quart to one gallon, and are hermetically 
 sealed. This manner is more costly to the purchaser, but is the safer way, for oysters so i)Ut up will keep a long time. 
 
 Pickling oysters has been of some importance here, but there is very little done at it now. The metho<l of treatment was, first, 
 to steam the oysters, and then to place them in small, square tin cans with spiced vinegar, the cans afterward being soldered up air- 
 tight. It is said that this business failed because of much poorly prepared goods being put on the market. In pleasant weather, when 
 the gatherers can work and the boats can easily get to the city with large loads of oysters, the Mobile market becomes overstocked, and 
 it is then difficult to dispose of the catch at auy price; but in stormy and cool weather the market is good, for then but few boat-loads 
 come in, partly owing to real difficulties and partly to the indolent indisposition of the oystermen to work when discomfort attaches to it. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 197 
 
 The oysters of Mobile hay hare a higli reputation for excellence. The water and soil of the bay, particularly 
 in the eastern arm, called Bon Secour, seem especially well adapted to theii- growth. The plautingbeds are all 
 higher up, where the seed thrives better than below. 
 
 The foregoing operations give employment for three-fourths of the year to about 175 men, and kept afloat, in 
 1879, 62 vessels. 
 
 Statistical kecapitulation for Alabama: 
 
 Number of vessels and sail-boats engaged 62 
 
 Value of same $10, nOO 
 
 Number of sailors (also planters) employed 250 
 
 Annual earnings of same (excluding their own sales) $10, 000 
 
 Number of restaurant servants and openers 100 
 
 Annual earnings of same S4, 000 
 
 Annual sales of oysters bushels.. 104,500 
 
 Value of same ^4,950 
 
 The Gulf of Mexico oyster company. — Early in 1880 a new concern, to be known as the Gulf of Mexico 
 Oyster Company, began oyster-canning and shipiiing at Mobile, for though their factory was many miles distaat, 
 at Scranton, Mississippi, yet the ofBcers were in Mobile, and the business contributed to the city. About 00 to 100 
 hands, of all ages and sexes, are employed. These live in a little village, which the company has built for the 
 purpose, in the neighborhood of their factory. While this company does something in the fresh-oyster trade, their 
 main business is in cooked and canned oysters, which are steamed and sealed in substantially the same way 
 as at Baltimore. One specialty, however, is the putting up of canned fi"ied oysters, after the following patented 
 method : 
 
 From the supply vat, where they are kept cool, the oysters are taken and rolled in meal and fine cracker-dust, 
 and then are dropped, a gallon at a time, into a large kettle of hot fat, which is a mi.xture of lard, tallow, and 
 stearine, where, they are allowed to fry crisi) and brown. Next, while still hot, they are packed in small, flat, square 
 tin boxes of about a quart cajiacity, and the unoccupied space is filled with hot fat. The opening in the top of the 
 box is round, and has a cap to fit, which is firmly soldered down, making the box air-tight. Afterward these boxes 
 are labeled and packed in cases, a dozen boxes in a case. It is asserted that oysters prepared in this manner sell 
 readily in all parts of the country, and the demand is much larger than was at first expected. 
 
 The "cove oysters" of this company are simply fresh oysters hermetically sealed in cylindrical cans. 
 
 The capital stock of this company is $25,000. (Another company has recently been projected with a capital 
 stock of $50,000.) Though the capacity of the Scranton factory is no less than 30,000 one-pound cans per day, the 
 product at the tiiiui of my visit had been iiisignifii'ant, owing to various delays in getting well under way. The 
 comijany will also can shrimps, fruit, and vegetables in season, so that not all the force, capital, and fixtures can 
 be credited to oysters alone ; and, inasmuch as operations have only begun, I have not added these figures to my 
 totals. The stock which they receive for canning is the wild " reefer " oyster, that grows in immense profusion all 
 along the coast of Mississii)pi. 
 
 56. OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF MISSISSIPPI AND LOUISIANA. 
 
 General characteristics of the oyster-fisheries op Mississippl — On the coast of Mississippi there 
 are several small ^^llages, more like watering-places than anything else, that do some business with fish and 
 oysters. The latter trade is of the most importance, for there are one or two firms in each place engaged in it, 
 while there is but one man on the coast who makes a business of shipping fish. The Mobile and New Orleans 
 fishermen and oystermen are fishing or oysteriug in the neighborhood at all times, and these, together with 
 unprofessionals who are striving to furnish their home tables, make quite a show, giving one an idea that the fish- 
 aud oyster-business must be very important at these towns. A great many of the New Orleans boats also land 
 their catch at these points to be shipped by rail to their home-ports. 
 
 The Mississippi oyster-fleet.— The number of oyster-vessels belonging in the state is given by Mr. Stearns 
 as 18, worth $3,000, to which can be added $700 worth of oyster-sheds and tools. There are seven dealers in the 
 state also, whose sales for 1879 were reported at 18,920 gallons. At the average price of 35 cents a gallon this would 
 amount to $(5,622. If these figures seem too low, it must be noted that they apparently do not include the shipments 
 in shell by express to interior towns, which from Biloxi, at least, and also from Mississippi City, Pass Christian, 
 and Bay Saint Louis, are considerable. It would be safe, probably, in point of value, to add to the $6,622 enough 
 to make an even $H),000, as an estimate of the annual yield of the coast of Mississippi, separate from the catches 
 of the Mobile and New Orleans boats in her waters, and of the sales of her own oystermen, who take their cargoes 
 by boat to those cities. 
 
198 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The oyster-trade of New Orleans. — At the southern metropolis, Xew Orleans, centers the most extensive 
 oyster-trade of the Gulf of Mexico, and some of the stock sold in that city is of %-ery high quality. There is no locality 
 in the whole United States where the business presents so many picturesque features, and the oyster-landing at the 
 levee is one of the most spirited and entertaining sights of the many haU'-foreign pictures to be got in that polyglot city. 
 
 My report upon the oyster-business here is made up of information communicated to me by Mr. Silas Stearns, 
 of the Census OfQce, by Mr. F. F. Ainsworth, and out of my own investigations ; but the necessity for my early 
 departure for duties in Washington, prevented my staying as long in Louisiana, or working as thoroughly in that 
 field, as I wished to do. 
 
 Sources of supply. — The New Orleans market is supplied with oysters from an extent of coast comprising 
 the whole water-front of both Mississippi and Louisiana, and embracing numerous tonging-grounds. The great 
 majority are taken fiom the natural and luxurious growth of the " reefs ", but the transplanting and consequent 
 improvement of oysters is being more and more engaged in. The delta of the Mississippi river forms a partition 
 between the two classes of oysters and oyster-localities tributary to New Orleans— a distinction which is perpetuated 
 in the city markets. The first of these divisions to be considered, is that which lies eastward of the delta, extending 
 from Lake Borgne, Point a la Hache, and the Chandaleur islands to Pascagoula and the end of Mississippi sound. 
 Though the Chandaleur islands, and some other points, produce an oyster of good reputation, the general quality 
 and size of the stock from this eastward portion is inferior to that from the western district. They are used for 
 cooking chiefly, and it is this stock which is being bought by the canuing companies lately started in the city. The 
 best grounds seem to be the Chandaleur islands, Bayou Muscle, Bayou Boulfen near Mobile, and the shell-bank 
 outside of Biloxi. " The Bayou Muscle oyster is peculiar. It is large, very black, and the shells are covered with hair 
 and barnacles. The Boulfens are round, rich, and fat, and sell very high." The Picayune stated that 30 boats came 
 to the city from Biloxi and along the sound, in the winter of 1879-'80, but this seems to have understated the case, 
 for our careful inquiries registered 50 boats of five tons and upward, and 200 boats of less than five tons, as 
 trading along the eastern coast; many of these, however, are otherwise engaged during a portion of the year. The 
 boats are generally small, rarely having more than two men, aud will be more fully described hereafter. 
 
 Turning to the district west of the delta, we find that oysters are i>rocured from all the marshes and bayous, 
 nearly as far as Galveston, Texas. The Picayune, in an article diu-iug the winter 1878-'79, gives a fair account of 
 this source of supply, as follows : 
 
 This portion of our state seems best suilied to the propagation of the best, and Bayou Chalons, Four Bayous, and Fontenelle are known 
 only for their oysters. Yesterday a representative of the Picaijuvr, iu order to place before its readers something more definite than the 
 confused ideas gencr.ally prevailing about our oysters, visited a number of veterans in the trade. Even among them there is still some 
 confusion regarding the merits of certain oysters, but what was agreed upon by all was taken as the basis of what we give. 
 
 There are engaged in the business of supplying the city about 120 luggers, with a carrying capacity each of 75 to 100 barrels. From 
 Barataria, which comprises Bayou Cook, Chalons, and Four Bayous, there are eight, making at least one trip a week. From the .Southwest 
 pass, Salina, or the Salt Works below Fort Jackson, about 30 boats. From Timbalier, including Bayou Cyprian, Fontenelle, aud Lake 
 Peliot, about 15. These vessels, and the labor at the fishing banks, give employment to over 4,500 men. « » » There has been a general 
 impression here that Bayou Cook furnishes oar best oysters, but that little water course has long since given up its natural supply, aud 
 those that are now received from there are only a few that are planted. 
 
 Our best oysters come from Bayou Chalons, Four Bayous, Bayous Fontenelle and Cyprian, and a small supply from Lake Peliot. These 
 rank the highest and are called the first-class. The Bayou Chalons oyster is a large, long oyster, with a clean shell ; the Four I'ayous are 
 ndddliug, round, and firm ; the Bayous Fontenelle and Cyprian are small, hard, and round, and nuich preferred by connoisseurs. The 
 Lake Peliot is a round oyster, very fat and salt, and on account of the hardness of its eye preibrred for frying. The second-class oysters 
 are the Timbaliers, where they are taken from the reef, not the one planted iu the bay. They are in bunches and are long. In the same 
 class are the Salinas, or those taken at the Salt Works near Fort Jackson. They are what are called the "summer", anil by restaurateurs 
 the "kitchen" oyster. They cook well, but are not as rich in flavor as those of the first-class. At the Southwest pass, proper, all the 
 bivalves are dead now, but near there, at East b.ay, they have a very good kind, with a light-colored shell and very white inside. Then 
 there are the Grand Lakes, from the vicinity of Fort Livingston, near Grand Terre. Although the supply is not very great there is always 
 a demand for them, as they have a peculiar flavor. 
 
 The number of boats bringing and catching oysters in this region is counted at 205, of which 40 are of over 
 five tons burden. Their business is mainly done during the winter, and in summer they are largely engaged iu 
 transporting fruit from the coast-plantations to the city, though some "lie up" for repairs. 
 
 Louisiana oyster-boats. — These Louisiana oyster-vessels are all of one class and are known, from their 
 Mediterranean rig, as " luggers". They are in model much like the common light-draft American center-board 
 sloops, and vary in size from 16 to 40 feet in length, the largest measuring about eight tons. Mr. Silas Stearns has 
 described them in detail, as follows : 
 
 They are decked over forward and aft, and for a foot or eighteen inches on each side, leaving the central part of the boat ojien and 
 unobstructed for freight. Hatches are usually provided to cover the undecked part from the weather. The oyster, fruit, and vegetable 
 boats of this class have a clear hold and stow their freights from one to the other, in bulk, but the fish-carrying luggers have zinc-lined 
 ice-boxes on each side of the center-board case, which are of the most simple arrangement, and are reached through trap-door covers, 
 after the outside hatches have been removed. When the Ijoats are loaded the crew sleep on deck, protected by an awning. 
 
 As to rig, they have one tall mast, placed in about the same position as a sloop's, a long yard, and a huge, nearly square, sail. When 
 in use the sail is hoisted aud stretched by the yard, aud the two lower corners are secured at bow and stern by sheets, which arc arranged 
 with travelers to work across the deck. The yard is so slung to the mast that about one-third is on one side and two-thirds on the other, 
 and the spread of canvas is so situated. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 199 
 
 The yard is hoistcfl by one halliard, besides which there is very little gear of any kind. To sail close to the wind, both forward and 
 aft sheets are hauled tight, which brings the yard and canvas nearly parallel to the boat, and also draws down the forward and short end 
 of the yard, giving the after-part of the sail some " peak". To sail before the wind, both sheets are slacked until the yard and sail swings 
 square. Boats rigged in this way are said to be very fast sailers, and do far better than sloops or schooners in beating to windward. 
 Considerable skill aud i>ractice is called for in their management, since the long, heavy yard is troublesome at times, and makes the danger 
 of a capsize very great. 
 
 These boats are built at New Orleans and other points near by, in most eases by their owners. The average cost of one measuring 
 six tons is about $800, and has been nearly double that amount until within the last three years. 
 
 A large fleet of these boats gathers at New Orleans, the majority of which are engaged in carrying fruit, vegetables, and other country 
 pioduce. As the oyster-season does not extend over the whole year, boats that carry oy.sters in that season are engaged in other work 
 out of it. It also happens that boats engaged in the oyster-lishcry one season are quite likely to be otherwise employed the next. 
 Considering this, I place the number of boats at present engaged in oystering for the New Orleans market at 43, employing I'H) men. 
 
 In respect to this same matter Mr. Ainswortli writes : 
 
 The peculiar lugger-rig of the boats (only one sail with no jib or bowsprit), the many rows of reef points, most of the sails being 
 fitted to reef down five times, enables them to work very close to the wind. As a rule, the sailors prefer a beam-wind or one on the quarter ; 
 they cannot work well with an after-wind. On return trips up the river, the ease and quickness with which they can be handled render 
 the luggers independent of the tug-boats, and it is only when they are in great haste to get first to market, because of a scarcity of oysters 
 in town, that they accept the help of steam. 
 
 The oystermkn of Mississippi and Louisiana. — In soinjj to tho lower coast, writes Mr. Ainswortli, the 
 luggers run down the Mississippi generally for about 60 miles, aud then through smaller outlets and bayous into 
 Grand Lake bayou and the various grounds on the coast. The men who are employed in this fishery, and also the 
 sailors who own the luggers, are almost altogether Italians and Sicilians, generally of a low order. Their swarthy 
 faces, long, curly hair, unfamiliar speech, and barbaric love of bright colors in their clothing and about their boats, 
 give a perfectly foreign air to the markets. There is not an American style of rig seen, nor hardly a word of English 
 spoken, in the whole gayly-painted oyster-fleet of Louisiana. 
 
 ]\Iost of the oysters brought to New Orleans are from naturally growing, uncultivated reefs, with which the 
 whole coast is barricaded, and to which, in a large measure, it owes its preservation from the teeth of the ocean. 
 These reefs are ridges of oysters, packed one above another, each generation supported on the compact and dead 
 shells of the preceding. In general the oysters are found not singly but in great clusters, some of which are half 
 as large as a barrel. When gathered in this shape there is a great waste of young oysters, for those that are 
 attached to the large ones are not separated until after the boat has left the grounds or is at town, when they 
 are thrown away as useless. At certain stages of low water such oysters as these can be picked up by hand. In 
 other places, ordinarily in the open bays, oysters are found in a more scattering condition, but are more readily 
 gathered and require less culling. In most cases they are procured with oyster-tongs from the lugger, as she lies 
 at anchor over the bed. One man uses the tongs while the other culls them; or, if there are three in the crew, two 
 use tonga and the third culls for both. 
 
 This is the method with all the smaller boats which tong their own cargoes. They have to go far from home, 
 and often the men do not get home once a week, or §ven every two weeks, and must lie exposed to many hard storms, 
 both when at the reefs and in going back and forth the 40, GO, or 100 miles to market. The owners of the larger 
 vessels, however, generally buy their cargoes direct of men who live in the vicinity of the reefs, and by making more 
 trips, having fleet vessels, can in a season make considerable money. In the summer time, those who have been 
 prosperous sometimes take their vessels down the river about 65 miles, and jiass through tortuous channels into 
 Mississippi sound, and lay up for the summer season in the vicinity of Biloxi, Alabama. 
 
 There is a "lay" system in vogue in many of these boats for the distribution of profits, by which the boat and 
 each man receives an equal share, after the bills are paid. 
 
 Oystee-cultuee. — Oyster-planting amounts to very little along the coast now under view, and what is done 
 is of the simplest character. I can form little notion of its extent or the number of planters. The reef-oysters 
 are taken from the natural beds by tongs in June aud carried up the half-fresh bayous, or inshore, where they 
 are laid out between tides until time to sell them in the fall. This improves them somewhat, but seems to be 
 chiefly serviceable in making them more readily accessible for market, and so saving time. The Picayune said 
 that in 1878, 4,.500 men were employed in making and assisting in making such tran.splantings. 
 
 OysTEE-MAETS IN New Oeleans. — There are three separate landing places and marts for oyster-boats in 
 New )rlcans : the Old Basin, the New Basin, and the French market levee. 
 
 To the Old and New Basins (chiefly the for.ner), in the rear of the city, reached by canals from Lake 
 Pontchartrain, come the boats from the eastward, bringing ''lake" and "reef" oysters, generally of inferior quality, and 
 intended to be sold to the canning establishments, or to be opened for cooking purposes. The boats average smaller 
 than those used in the river westward, and usually carry only two men. The price of the oysters — frequently 
 measured out in quarter-barrel boxes similar to those in use in Mobile — depends ui)ou the state of the market as 
 governed by the supplies received from the West, and often goes down to 50 or 60 cents a barrel, at which price 
 there is no profit, and the oystermen stop running until a rise occurs. The average price, however, is said to have 
 been $1 .50 per barrel last winter; and 65,000 barrels is said to have been the total of receipts on this side of the 
 city. This would equal about 170,000 bushels, at 39 cents a bushel. The men who bring oysters from the eastward 
 
200 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 say tliey must have higher prices than formerly, on account of the growing scarcity of oysters, and the longer time 
 it takes to get their load. Many more are oystering now than before the war. 
 
 At the levee opposite, or just below the famous old French market, is the other and greatest oyster landing- 
 place, mustering about 205 boats, with C15 men or more in the crews, and the picturesque scene I have heretofore 
 described. The estimate of annual receipts there at present gives 50,000 barrels, or 125,000 bushels, commonly sold 
 at $2 to $3 50 per barrel. All of these come from westward of the delta, and being larger and finer are, as a rule, 
 bought bj- the saloons and restaurants, and served to their customers on the shell. 
 
 Whaefmen on the levee. — A peculiar feature of the business on the levee, consists of an organization of 
 wharfmen, who form a species of close-corporation to do the work of carrying the oysters from the boats to the 
 wagon of the purchaser, who pays them 15 cents a barrel for the service. The boatman having sold his cargo, 
 he then has no further concern; his boat being taken in charge by the carrier, who might be called a 'longshore man, 
 iHid who delivers all the oysters and sweeps the vessel and puts her in proper condition for the crew. While there 
 is no society of these carriers, strictly speaking, they manage to make their business a close-corporation, since no 
 one is allowed to discharge a cargo of any kind from the luggers— oysters, oranges, or fruit — except one of the 
 members of the body. There is a man who is called the foreman, who receives all the money for the carriers and 
 who divides the proceeds equally among the difl'erent carriers, but just how this is regulated, as well as many other 
 of the details of this quasi-organization, is kept as mysteriously secret as possible. The body is an old one and 
 now consists of about 50 men in all, mostly Sicilians and low-grade Italians, and, as near as I can judge, the annual 
 receipts for the carriers amount to about $35,000, levied on the oysters, oranges, melons, and various fruits. Some 
 years ago the city designated a man to act as foreman, and he held the post for twenty-two years, not giving it up 
 until his death, when he was succeeded by his son, who now has the place. The system is beginning to be felt as 
 an unwarranted incubus on the trade, and a monopoly which should be opposed. In consequence it doubtless will 
 soon be broken up, and each purchaser will land his own oysters, or the boatmen deliver them to the wagons at 
 less cost than now. The levees are leased by the city to a firm, who collect $20 a year wharfage from the luggers. 
 
 Shipjients of oysters from New Orleans. — The shipment of oysters inland from New Orleans has 
 hitherto been of very small a;'count, and principally of fresh oysters. Now, however, at least two canning 
 establishments have been started in the city, which make a large item in their general preserving business of 
 cooked and hermetically sealed oysters, prepared substantially as in Baltimore. Several brands have been put 
 upon the market with good satisfaction, selling at $2 50 per dozen two-pound cans for first quality, and $1 80 for 
 second, and at $1 10 for one-pound cans. About $100,000 worth of these canned oysters are said to have been 
 put up during 1880, nearly all of which were taken by the trade of the city and immediate neighborho'od. The 
 capital invested is, perhaps, $75,000, but is applied to shrimp-, lobster-, and fruit-canning as well as oysters. In 
 these establishments only about 30 nmle adults are employed, the openers being girls, about 100 in number, all 
 white and chiefly German and American in nationality, who are paid ft-om 1 to C cents for each kettleful, a "kettle'" 
 holding two quarts. Work is irregular, because of the difficulty of getting oysters in sufiQcient quantity and when 
 needed (owing mainly to Ihe indisposition of the oystermen to work in bad weather), and the total earnings of the 
 openers and employes during the "oyster-run" in the factories, wUl probably not exceed $20,000. Those factories 
 have not been long enough in progress to furnish more exact information than is here given. Their capacaty 
 is far in advance of their present product, aiul they anticipate a highly successful future, confident that they can 
 secure the trade of the lower Mississijipi valley, to the exclusion of oysters canned in northern cities. 
 
 Statistics for New Orleans.— In summary, we have the following statistics for New Orleans: 
 
 Total number of boats emiiloyed IfiS 
 
 Viilne of same If 13, ".SO 
 
 Vahie of shore-property and tools, about $'^-^' 000 
 
 Total number of oystermen - 1,300 
 
 Number of shoresmen 100 
 
 Annual product, about bushels.. 29,5,000 
 
 Value of same, about 1^)0,000 
 
 Average price per bushel, about $0 70 
 
 Number of carriers ^ 
 
 57. OYSTER-INDUSTEY OF TEXAS. 
 
 Eeceipts at Galveston. — At Galveston, Texas, the receipts of oysters are composed in the main of small, 
 medium-flavored stock, obtained in Galveston bay and brought to the city in small boats. Mr. F. F. Ainsworth 
 writes me, also : 
 
 A considerable number are received by steamers, being brought in sacks from points to the west of Galveston, such as Indianola and 
 Corpus Christi. A few are brought also from Morgan City and points on the Louisiana coast, these last being very tine and of good flavor, 
 bringing rather better prices. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 201 
 
 Planting at Galveston. — Formerly, at Galvpston, it was the custom during the summer to plant oysters 
 from the reefs iu the numerous bayous, where they would fatten. This branch of oyster-industry was nearly killed 
 by the recent passage of a state-law prohibiting the gathering of oysters during the summer, from May 1 to 
 September 1. The oysters in October, and even until January, are for the most part poor and with little flavor, 
 so that it is not until February and March that they are really fine. The greater part of the receipts are sent 
 inland. 
 
 The Oyster-business op Galveston hay. — Concerning the business of Galveston bay, Mr. Ainsworth 
 reports that the boats used are smaller than the New Orleans luggers, the largest being of only about 40 barrels' 
 capacity, and the average 18 barrels. Their average value is $90. They make about 25 trips each between October 
 and April, and carry two men. These and other facts contributed by Mr. Ainsworth appear as follows : 
 
 Number of boats : 70 
 
 Value 16,750 
 
 Men employed as sailors 140 
 
 Men employed on shore 100 
 
 Receipts of oysters from bay , bushels . . 85, 000 
 
 Value $45,500 
 
 Receipts from Louisia-aa bushels.. 625 
 
 Value $450 
 
 RccciiJts by steamer bushels.. 2, 500 
 
 Value |1,800 
 
 Total receipts '. bushels . . 95, 625 
 
 Value P7,750 
 
 Average value per bushel (nearly) $0 50 
 
 S. THE PACIFIC COAST. 
 
 58. OYSTER INDUSTRIES OP CALIFORNIA. 
 
 SotTRCES OF information. — The writer was not allowed time from his other investigations to visit the Pacific 
 coast of the United States. He must, therefore, rely for an account of the oyster-industries there, upon what he 
 has been able to gather through the reports of the special agents of the Fish Commission and Census, Messrs, 
 Jordan, Gilbert, and Lockington ; from correspondence, and from conversation with gentlemen who are engaged in 
 business at San Francisco, or are otherwise familiar with the matters upon which information was sought. Under 
 these circumstances, the indulgence of the critical reader is sought, should errors find their way into this chapter. 
 
 Pacific oysters and their early utilization. — The oysters of the Pacific coast of the United States, as 
 might be expected, are of different species fi'om those common in our Atlantic waters. Instead of the large Ostrea 
 virffiniana, we find in California the little Ostrea conchopkUa (of which "varieties" ru/oides and expansa are 
 recognized by conchologists), and the more northern Ostrea lurida, commonly known as the Shoalwater bay oyster- 
 
 When the settlement of California first began, the oysters growing in San Francisco bay were used, but were 
 considered of small consequence. In March of 1850 was discovered a new locality for oysters at Shoalwater bay, 
 on the coast of Washington territory, just north of the mouth of the Columbia river. Though not as good as 
 eastern oysters, these were better than the very small ones of California, and began at once to be brought to San 
 Francisco. From a newspaper of that date, it appears that of Shoalwater bay oysters there were taken to San 
 Francisco 2,000 baskets in 1850, 1,700 baskets in 1851, and 21,052 baskets iu 1853. These went by sailing-vessels. 
 The business then became well organized and highly productive at that point, atid the towns of Oysterville and 
 Bruceport rose out of it, where from two to three hundred men had steady employment. The census of 1800 gives 
 the value of oysters in Washington territory at $14,597. Besides San Francisco, Portland, Oregon, and numerous 
 small ports and inland villages were supplied. 
 
 Oyster-planting in Siioalwatior bay. — The Shoalwater bay oysters were planted at home to some 
 extent — that is, they were raked oft" the natural beds and allowed to lie a few months on staked out beds nearer 
 shore; but they were also brought to San Francisco in their wild condition and replanted there, supplanting the 
 local stock. A variety of accidents occurred, however, to interfere with the success of these undertakings. In 
 1802, it is reported that a freshet on the Sacramento and San Joaquin brought in so much fresh water and mud 
 that all the oysters died. In 1807 a blight seemed to come upon the bay oysters, and they nearly all shriveled up 
 as though cooked. Next year came the great earthquake of 1808, and the death of the oysters was attributed to 
 the consequent heating of the bottom. Earthquake shocks have killed the western oysters, and left the thicker 
 shelled eastern stock unhurt. Since that time the northern " plants " have been poor when they came, and have 
 to fatten, as previously they had done. Now they grow steadily poorer. In the face of this they had to contend 
 with the recultivatiou of San Francisco oysters, with newly found plants of large size from Yaquina bay and from 
 Pugt't's sound, and, worst of all, with the imi)ortation of oysters from New York, which was begun when the 
 Pacific railways gave a through line across the continent. 
 
202 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED. STATES. 
 
 The lack of qnality of the Shoalwater bay oysters was not only noticeable in those sent to California, but 
 became sadly apparent at home, and the local business began to decline. In 1874^, before these efl'ects had made 
 much progress, it was stated in the San Francisco BiiUetin, " that not much less than half a million of dollars is 
 invested in working the beds and gathering the oysters at this point and in bringing them in schooners to San 
 Francisco. The four companies interested in these beds imported 125,000 sacks last year, at a wholesale cost of 
 $20 a barrel. About 150 men are employed in gathering the oysters at Shoalwater bay, and perhaps as many more 
 in working the beds and on the vessels ". Each sack contained nearly two bushels, so that 200,000 bushels would 
 not be an overestimate. To bring these, required fifty trips of schooners, carrying 4,000 bnshels each — an important 
 item of coast commerce. Now, I am told, the Shoalwater bay oyster-beds have largely ceased to be productive, 
 and such oysters as are got are of poor size and flavor. In place of the large exports of half a dozen years ago, 
 there are now produced less than 15,000 bushels, and the price paid to the planters is only from 50 to 75 cents. All 
 that are brought to the metropolis come by steamer, at the rate of about 100 sacks a week for half the year. What 
 is the cause of this sudden and excessive decay of the Shoalwater oyster-beds, no one can say. Of that stock 
 which is planted three-fourths now dies. 
 
 Shipments from the Atlantic coast: History. — Upon the completion of the transcontinental railways 
 an important epoch began in the history of the California oyster-business, by the introduction of living oysters 
 from tlie Atlantic coast. Whether this was at the instigation of Californian or eastern men, I am unable to 
 determine, further than that I was told in New York that it originated through A. Booth & Co., of Baltimore and 
 Chicago, who own extensive salmou-canning houses on the west coast. In the San Francisco Bulletin for Ai)ril 14, 
 1871, 1 find the foUowing : 
 
 Some months ago the BuUetin published the particulars of an experiment made to grow a better kind of oysters in the bay of Sau 
 Francisco, than the native breeds of this coast. Mark Winaut and son brought young New York oysters across the continent by rail, 
 transplanted them somewhere on the Alameda side of our bay, and after a year found that they had increased wonderfully iu size, while 
 retaining to the full the delicacy and richness for which the New York bivalves are famous. A company styled the Pacific Oyster Company 
 was then formed, with a capital of $20,000, for the purpose of going into the business permanently, on a small scale. » • » There is 
 no doubt that the business of growing oysters in our bay will become one of great Importance, and there is cause for congratulation iu 
 the fact. The native oysters obtained along the coast, except the few brought at great expense from Mexico, arc small in size, coppery 
 in flavor, and relatively scarce and dear. The addition to our markets of an article e<[ual to the eastern breeds, will be a fact of much 
 value to our menage and our commerce. 
 
 These first shipments were only experimental, at any rate, for it was needed to know whether the Atlantic 
 "seed" would grow inside the Golden Gate, whether it retains its natural flavor or acquires a bad one, and whether 
 it could be sold at a profit at the close of the process. It was not until 1875, therefore, that any San Franciscan 
 dealers felt Justified in ordering large quantities, but In that year large shipments began, which have been continued 
 with regularity and slowly increasing amount ever since, nntil now sometliing like $500,000 worth (a:lding freight 
 to first cost) are annually transported across the breadth of the American continent — an almost unexampled 
 movement of living food. The shipping season is from the middle of October until the middle of November, and 
 again from March 15 to the middle of May. In the spring the cost iu New York is a little higher than in the fall, 
 but the average at present is about $3 a barrel. 
 
 Present methods of shipping from the East. — The oysters sent to California are all procured from 
 beds in the neighborhood of New York, and are sent exclusively by the firm of J. & J. W. Ellsworth,- by whose 
 kindness and permission I am able to present the exact figures appended. 
 
 The oysters sent are of two classes : first, those of marketable size and designed for immediate use ; and 
 second, those intended to be planted. 
 
 For the first purpose stock is selected from York bay. Blue Point, Staten Island sound, Eockaway, Norwalk, 
 and occasionally from Virginia, and from Egg Harbor and Maurice cove, New Jersey ; but the whole amount of 
 this class constitutes less than one-fifth of the total shipment. These oysters are either placed on sale at once iu 
 the California markets, or are " bedded down " for a few days, to await a favorable sale. 
 
 The class of oysters sent as "seed" is entirely different, and is derived chiefly from Newark bay and the North 
 river, stock from there standing the journey better than the East river oysters, which otherwise seem preferable. 
 Beside these is sent seed from Earitau river. New Jersey, and Prince's bay, Staten Island. This seed is so small 
 that a barrel holds from ;?,000 to 5,000; this number, of course, includes even the "blisters", or oysters so young 
 that you cannot easily detect the double character of the shell, whicli looks like your finger-nail. Although the 
 average time of passage is only eighteen days by the fast-freight lines, it is expected that about one-fourth of each 
 barrelfuU will prove dead or too weak to survive transplanting at the end of the journey. The "blisters" will be 
 found to have died far more frequently than the larger oysters, none of which, however, are older than a few 
 months and larger than a silver quarter. The cars in which they are carried are double-walled, so as to preserve 
 an equality of temperature, so far as possible, and 22,000 pounds is the limit of the cargo allowed by the company. 
 The freight charges at present are about $10 a barrel. This makes it unprofitable to import any seed except that 
 which is very small, and which by growth can add very greatly to their size and consequent value. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 203 
 
 Planting beds in San Francisco bay. — The planting beds are situated in various parts of the bay, and 
 nearly all go dry at low water. Some of the localities mentioned are : Millbr;B, Saucelito, Alameda creek, Tomales 
 bay, Belmont, Oakland creek, and Sau Leandro. Slioep island, I believe, is no longer planted. The state owns 
 the bottom and sells it by auction to the highest bidder, the purchaser being given a patent title in perpetuity. 
 The state's nominal price was .$1 25 an acre, but most of the suitable ground was taken up long ago, and must now 
 be bonght at second-hand. Portions of it have been sold thus for 8100 an acre. The growth is extremely rapid — 
 fully three times as rapid as ordinarily takes place in eastern waters — and this growth tends toward the fattening 
 of the flesh rather than to greater weight of shell, a result highly desirable ; but the mollusk is not considered so 
 hardy here as at the East. The seed remains on the beds from two to four years before selling. 
 
 Practical failure of eastern planis. — From the very first, however, it was noticed that all attempts 
 to make tlicm spawn and propagate beds of the eastern species in San Fran(!isco bay, were frustrated by the death 
 of the intended parents. The state of the case was well desciibed in the BuUeiin : 
 
 Every effort to breed the eastern oyster in San Francisco bay bas resulted in signal failure. The grown oyster begins to fatten as 
 soon as it is laid down, and this process goes on very rajiidly for about six months, when the oyster suddenly dies, apparently of plethora. 
 The young oyster, or the oyster-plant, as it is called, develops (piite as well as on the beds from which it was taken, and in due course 
 attains its growth and a fatness and exquisite flavor not possessed by its brother at home. But the experience of the dealers, which is 
 confirmed by observatious t.akeu under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences, is that these oysters will not spawn in this bay. The most 
 careful investigation has failed to detect any indications of spat on the adult oyster; and the reason is plain enough. It is an axiom of 
 oyster-culture, as we have already pointed out, that oysters breed in salt water on a clean bottom, while they fatten in brackish water ou 
 a muddy or marly bottom. Fatlcning oysters do not breed where there is much mud. Now, the two great rivers -which empty into Sau Francisco 
 bay bring down a vast amount of muddy deposit, which forms a layer over very nearly the whole bottom of the bay. This deposit is fatal 
 to the breeding of the large oyster, though it is most conducive to fattening. At the same time the fresh water of these rivers is very 
 detrimental to the breeding process. The mud-flats at Oakland were experimented upon for four or live years, but entirely without 
 success. The same was the result of expcirimeuts made at Vallejo. All cfibrts to breed the eastern oyster ou this coast have now been 
 abandoned, and the com|)auies devote their attention to transphauting for fattening purposes. 
 
 While the facts above given are true in a commercial way, whatever may be thought of the explanation, it is 
 equally true, however, that a few young eastern oysters are now and then found. The excessive fatness is no doubt 
 due to the thick nutritiously muddy water of the bay, but I should say that this had only a secondary effect on the 
 spawning, which was re])ressed first by the shock of the long railway journey, ami secondly by the unnatural 
 coldness of the water to which they are transplanted. It is a parallel fact to the failure to spawn, in the case of 
 southern oysters carried to northern waters on the Atlantic coast. The summer temperature of the water at San 
 Francisco is much lower than that of the water around New York, although the mean winter temperature may be 
 higher. It is said, however, that considerable eastern spat caught and grew on beds of native oysters near San 
 Leandro last year. I am not sure of the truth of this. 
 
 Prices of eastern oysters in San Francisco retail trade. — The price of eastern oysters in San 
 Francisco at first was $15 a hundred ; now they have come down to $2 50, $2, and $1 to $1 50 a hundred, according 
 to grade. "The shoal- water bays," writes Jordan, "sell at abotit $2 50 per sack of a thousand. The Olympia 
 oysters sell at about .$2 50 per sack of the same size, but, being smaller, there are 1,400 or 1,500 in a sack. In 
 1876-'77 they were about $4 per sack ; in 1870-'71, and '72, $5 to $<). Previously they had been as high as $16 per 
 sack. This business, like almost every other in California, has been overdone. More oysters are now planted 
 than can be readily sold, and the shar[) competition keeps the prices low, and the .sales are disi)roportionately small 
 for the amount of capital invested. Oysters are a luxury, and with the hard times now in California, luxuries 
 have to be lopped off. The retail dealers refuse to reduce their prices proportionally, and the people go without 
 oysters. The reduction in prices made by the wholesale dealers increase.-) the coTisumption but little, as the retail 
 dealers and restaurant keepers do not follow. There are now enough oysters i)lanted to supply the whole coast 
 for some time to come. The half a dozen dealei-s in San Francisco are ambitious for a large business, and it takes 
 but very little of anything to overfill the Pacific coast market. There is scarcely anything in the line of food 
 which can be profitably exported in case of oversupjdy. Tlie ruling wholesale price for eastern <iysters is now 
 $15 to $25 ov $.'30 i)er thousand, and the whole business is .stagnant. No oysters are canned on the Pacific coast in 
 any amount. All are shipped alive in the sliell, and little is done except in winter." 
 
 Men and capital. — Tlie number of men supported in San Franci.sco and on the bay by the wholesale oyster- 
 trade is about 75 during the whole year, with an additional force in the busiest .season. About half of these are 
 married, so that we may estimate from 200 to 250 as the number of persons dependent upon this wholesale trade 
 aud production there. Only four firms, all in the market on California street, handle eastern oysters. There are 
 two other wholesale dealers, but their bu.siness is in "Shoalwater", "Yaquina", "Natard Bay", and "Olympia" 
 oysters, to the extent of only $20,000 or $25,000 a year combined. 
 
 The <lata furnished by Mr. Jordan give an estimate of $570,000 capital invested by these six firms ; total .sales 
 of $000,000, and auiouut of oysters sold (by count) at 45,000,(t00. It seems to me that this last item is much too 
 high. I cannot find warrant,for sales exceeding half that, or at the very most 25,000,000 oysters of all kinds, 
 equal at most to only 125,000 bushels ; and at an average price of $23 a thousand, this would yield as the total value 
 of cash sales only $575,000, It is i)robable an even half-million would cover it. 
 
204 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Statistics of ship^tent feom Kew Yokk, 1S74-'80. — A tabnlated statement of the oysters shipi^ed from 
 New York to Sail Eraacisco between 1874: and 1880, iucliisive, is given herewith: 
 
 statement of oysters sMpped from Neie York to San Francisco since 1874. 
 
 Kind of oysters. 
 
 York Bays barrels. 
 
 Newark Bays do... 
 
 Earitan Rivers do . . . 
 
 Uorth Eivers do. . . 
 
 Katural Growth do. . . 
 
 Blue Points do... 
 
 Rounds do •• 
 
 Maurice Rivers do... 
 
 Virginias, etc do... 
 
 East Rivers flo-- 
 
 PrincesBays ^o. 
 
 Eoekaways - tlo- 
 
 EggHtiibors do 
 
 Total annual shipment do . 
 
 Total shipment in car-loads do. 
 
 a.59 
 
 13, 064 
 
 1,212 
 
 573 
 
 248 
 
 5 
 
 1,132 
 
 133 
 
 83 
 
 17, 109 
 
 78 
 
 2,063 
 105 
 338 
 171 
 
 1,289 
 
 16 
 
 2,094 
 
 122 
 
 1,123 
 
 15 
 
 1,871 
 
 4,569 
 
 60 
 
 1878. 
 
 177 
 
 2,615 
 
 26 
 
 266 
 
 6,287 
 
 72 
 
 61 
 143 
 
 2 
 1,295 
 
 145 
 
 3,701 
 
 425 
 
 18 
 
 878 848 
 
 1 
 126 
 
 Total of 
 each. 
 
 1,042 
 23, 680 
 
 1,890 
 
 3,025 
 
 419 
 
 10 
 
 3,530 
 133 
 101 
 
 7,796 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 126 
 
 Purpose. 
 
 5,229 41,769 
 
 63 
 
 362 
 
 Market. 
 
 Planting. 
 
 Planting. 
 
 Planting. 
 
 Planting. 
 
 Market. 
 
 Market. 
 
 Market. 
 
 Miirbet. 
 
 Half planting, half mar. 
 
 ket. 
 Planting. 
 Market. 
 Market. 
 
 Oysters south of San Francisco. — To the southward of San Francisco bay no oysters of sufficient size and 
 flavor to have commercial iuiportance occur, except in the bay at San Diego, where Mr. Jordan notes that near La 
 Puuta, at the south end, some are got for use. These are of small size and " coppery " taste, however. Eastern 
 oysters have been tried there, but seem not to have succeeded. 
 
 Mexican oysters in California. — Concerning another proposition, namely, the introduction of Mexican 
 oysters, much was said a few years ago. I am not informed as to the practical outcome, but judge it to have been 
 of little or no account, since Mr. Jordan's notes contain no allusion to the matter. It will be well to review the 
 newspaper discussion, nevertheless. In a copy of the Bulletiti, about March, 1875, 1 find the following facts : 
 
 As long ago as 18.50 Dr. Johnson, now a resident of Sinaloa, tried the experiment, but although his vessel had a short passage, few of the 
 oysters reached this port alive. Captain William Randall, formerly master of several ves.sels plying between San Fraucisco and Guaymas, 
 made several attempts in the same direction, but without success. The oysters, however, frequently remained alive from fifteen to twenty 
 days. When the steamers first began to run between this port and the Gulf of California, hardly a trip passed without some futile attempt 
 being made to briug Mexican oysters here alive. But the first systematic attempt at importation was made by a comjiany which sank 
 116,000 in the enterprise, without any return. [The Alia California credits this to a Captain .Scoofey. ] Tanks holding about one ton each 
 of oysters were placed on the deck of the steamer, and refilled with pure salt water twice every twenty-four hours. The oysters were taken 
 on board at Guaymas ; thence across the Gulf of California until Cape Saint Lucas was reached, the sea was smooth and there was no violent 
 motion of the water in the tanks. The oysters remained in good condition, and were observed to be feeding whenever the tanks were 
 replenished. Just after the vessel passed Cape Saint Lucas the tanks were refilled. But now the vessel encotmtered a head sea, and the 
 water in the tanks was continually swashing back and forth. It soon became foul, and the result was that few oysters arrived alive in 
 San Francisco, and these were in a condition hardly fit for consumption. The enterprise was abandoned after a heavy loss to the projectors. 
 
 Many people will remember the circumstances under which C. J. Janson's oyster-expedition came to an untimely end. The steamer 
 Forward, which he fitted out and sent down to Mexico, was taken possession of by a party of revolutionists, and was afterward captured 
 and destroyed by the United States steamer Mojican, as a pirate. Emerson Corville, the well-known oyster-dealer of this city, organized 
 the latest Mexican expedition. His jjlan was to ship the oysters from Point Altata to Cape Saint Lucas, from which j)oint they were to bo 
 transported by steamer to Sun Francisco. Both the Holladay line of gulf steamers and the Pacific Mail Compauy's steamers were running 
 at that time. Mr. Corville's agent encountered the greatest difficulties on account of the revolution then going on in the country. It was 
 only after several months that he succeeded in getting a few oysters across the Gulf to Cape Saint Lucas by an eight days' voyage. But 
 the heat of a broiling sun pouring down upon the deck of the vessel, had killed nearly all of the bivalves. Those that were saved were laid 
 down in this bay, where they fattened very rapidly. Had the agent had a vessel at his own disposition, flying the American flag, the 
 enterprise might very likely have succeeded. 
 
 The feasibility of breeding the Mexican oyster in San Diego bay, and also in sever.al other of the bays, estuaries, and lagoons along 
 the coast of this state, has been pretty thoroughly di.scussed, and the prospect is now good that some practical results will soon flow 
 therefrom. A gentleman who has long taken great interest in the subject, and who was for many years a resident of the coast of the Gulf 
 of California, made an effort to get a legislative appropriation last winter to transport oysters from Mazatlan, to plant iu San Diego bay. 
 He was not successful iu this, but an act was passed " to encourage the planting and cultivation of oysters", which is intended to afi'ord 
 ])rotecti()u to the rights of those who may lay down oysters iu any of the bays, rivers, or public waters of the state, and to secure them in 
 the ownership of the property thus acquired. 
 
 This gentleman points out that the raccoon oyster, which is the native Lower California oy.ster, a bivalve of no mean merit, is found 
 iu great abundance in San Diego bay. There is far less fresh water there than in San Francisco bay, and the bottom is of that peculiar 
 character so much esteemed at the East for oyster-breeding. Ho says that iu those parts of Lower Califomia \\ here the laccoon oyster is 
 indigenous, the oyster of the Mexican gulf coast is found to thrive equally well. He is also confident that the Mexican oyster wonld breed 
 and thrive in numerous other bays along the coast of the state, notably at Wilmington, False bay, Trinidad, and San Buenaventura. In 
 fact, anywhere that there is a lagoon, the water of which is regularly changed by the tides, ho thinks that the Mexican oyster-cultivation 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 205 
 
 nii"lit lie profitably carried on. Hi' in not of opinion that foreshore cultivation will ever become anything like as extensive here as on the 
 coast of France and other Enrojioan conntries, because (here is not the requisite rise and f.ill of tlie tide. 
 
 Oysters can be had in unlimited quantities on the Mexican coast, from San Bias to Guaymas, for the mere cost of taking them away. 
 The people and the authorities are anxious to aid in the development of the industry. It can now be undertaken with more favorable 
 prospects of success than ever befoie. Every fourteen days a steamer leaves Mazjitlan, and within four or five days afterward touches at 
 San Diego. There are two estuaries between Mazadau and Sau Bias, one distant thirty and the other sixty miles from Mazatlan, where 
 oysters can be had in any quantity desired. The bivalves might be temporarily bedded at Mazatlau to await shipment. The gentleman 
 above referred to estimate that oysters, equal in size and flavor to the best eastern, can be laid down here at a cost of less than $25 per ton, 
 while it costs §100 a ton to get them here from New York. To insure success, ho thinks that the projectors should have at their entire 
 command a schooner of from 25 to 40 tons, the cost of victualing and manning of which would not exceed $125 a month. The cost of 
 gathering the oysters and putting them on board ship he estimates at $3 per ton ; cost of boxes, $2 50 ; cost of shipment to Mazatlan, $2 50 
 per ton; freight to San Francisco or San Diego, $10 per ton; total, $1S per ton; ami tho boxes could be used several times. If it were 
 decidi d to lje<l the oysters in San Diego, th(\v might, when nearly grown, be taken up and transplanted to this bay, where they would 
 perhaps become fatter and liner llavored than if brought directly to market from Sau Di(^go. The canning of turtle could be made an 
 adjunct to the business, ibr green turtles of the finest kind are found in the same lagoons with the oysters. 
 
 Another jilan suggested of getting the Mexican oysters here, is to ship them from La Paz by tho Colorado line of steamers, which 
 makes the trip in seven or eight days. The experiment of transplanting oysters from the opposite coast of the Mexican gulf and bedding 
 them at La Paz, has already been successfully tried. By this plan of shipment, Mexican oysters could be laid down at Sau Francisco 
 every twenty days. 
 
 It is to be hoped that the effort will be once more made, under the remarkably favorable condition now existing, to give our people 
 the benefit of the l>oundless su]>ply of splendid oysters possessed by our southern neighbor. It is quite possible that the Mexican oyster 
 may yet drive its eastern comi)etitor out of our market, and thus the money which is now being expended at the East be retained at home. 
 
 Commenting on the same subject, the Alta California (February 13, 1874) said that there was every evidence 
 that the Mexican oyster, "famous for its great size and fine tlavor," would thrive in the bay of San Diego, and asks: 
 
 But who will venture tho experiment? Not our own oystermen, certainly, for though tho successful introduction and breeding of 
 Mexican oysters might benefit the people of the state of California, it would be more than likely to take money out of the pockets of those 
 •who now enjoy the monopoly of the overland oyster-trade, by raising up a wholesome competition that would naturally reduce tho prices 
 of oysters in California, and more than probably make this an important state industry. Because our own bay is not favorable to the 
 breeding of oysters, this may not be the case with any other of our bays, harbors, and lagoons. These last, especially, should be tried; 
 and particularly the lake at Oakland ; this could, with flood-gates, perhaps, be made an excellent place for tho breeding of both fish and 
 oysters, and there are many other similar lagoons along our coast. Oysters can be brought from the coast of Mexico to San Diego iu four 
 days, and at a cost of $25 per ton, which is less than they can be bought for in the cities of New York. 
 
 A year later (January 27, 1875) the Bulletin, of San Francisco, announced the forming of a company "for the 
 purpose of transpUiuting oysters from the Mexican coast", which had selected San Diego as their principal depot: 
 
 The capital stock is placed at $1,000,000, divided into 10,000 shares. The Mexican oysters are now in fine condition, and will remain 
 so until the rainy season sets in, in July. Beside stocking the bay of San Diego with plants and laying down a quantity of large oysters 
 for summer supply, it is proposed to ship direct to San Francisco. Auxiliary to the shipping of live oysters, it is proposed also to dig 
 oysters for the China market, and eventually to can and pickle them for the interior of Mexico. The Mexican officials are favorable to 
 this enterprise. 
 
 T. UTILIZATION OF OYSTEll-SHELLS. 
 
 59. SHELL-LIME AND OTHER APPLICATIONS OF OYSTER-SHELLS. 
 
 FSES OF SHELLS.— The utilization of oyster-shells is extensive and various. They serve as "metal" for roads 
 and foot-paths; as "filling" for wharves, low lands, fortifications, and railway embankments; as cultch or stools 
 for new oyster-beds; as balla.st for vessels; as material for lime; and as a spreading for exhausted fields, or a 
 component in mixed fertilizers, bosules some minor uses, such as food for poultry, etc. 
 
 HiSTOEiOAL NOTES.— In Rces' Cyloixcdia of 1810, it is stated that a Mr. Homberg had found them to be a 
 valuable medicine in case of acid stomach, and gave the following prescription for their preparation : 
 
 Take the hollow f hells of the oyfters, throwing aw.ay the flat ones as not fo good ; wafh them perfectly clean, and then lay thera to 
 dry in the fun; when they appear dry beat them to jiieces in a marble mortar; they will be then found to contain yet a large quantity of 
 moifture; lay them again in the fun till perfectly dried, and then finifh the powdering them, and fift tho powder through a fine feivo. 
 Give twenty or thirty grains of this powder every morning, and continue it three weeks or a month. — Mem. Acad. Par., 1700. 
 
 One is astonished, upon first going to an oyster-locality, to .see the huge piles of .shells, and discover what 
 spacious areas have been raised above tide-level or otherwise filled in with these animal structures. If there are 
 23,000,000 bushels opened annually in the United States, that is an equal measure of shells, and amounts to no less 
 than ■J-i;,:iW\m() cubic feet. More than half of these are devoted to this ]nirpose, and would spread three feet deep 
 over a space more than 450,000 yards square, which would fill in a very respectable shallow. 
 
 The next largest portion gf the emptied shells are converted into lime. Time was when no other lime was used 
 by the early colonists. It is my opinion, from a careful examination, that the oldest structure of civilized masonry 
 in North America, the famous Tower of the Northmen, at Newport, Rhode Island, is laid up with shell-lime. 
 
206 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 What is supposed to be the earliest "poem" written in Penusylvanla, by cue John Holme, celebrates the 
 industry in language more explicit than floweiy : 
 
 A few years .since, it's known full well, 
 Here lime was burnt of oyster-shell. 
 No limestone in the.se parts was found, 
 But sinee by searching in the ground 
 Great store was seen in a short time. 
 Of which some now make good stone lime, 
 Which in its goodness doth excell 
 That which was made of oyster-shell, 
 And much cheaper 'tis at this time 
 Thau we i)aid for oyster-shell lime. 
 
 In New England, relics of its use abound in all the ancient settlements. At East Haven, Connecticut, for 
 example, stands a church one hundred and four years old, the stones of which broke sooner than the oyster- mortar, 
 when repairs were sought to be made upon the wall. 
 
 Kalm says it was abandoned in Philadelphia as soon as lime-stone was discovered, because of its tendency to 
 absorb water. "The people shewed me some houses," he says, "in this town which are built of stone, and to the 
 mason-work of which the lime of oyster-shells had been employed. The walls of these houses were always so wet, 
 two or three days before a rain, that great drops of water coidd plainly be perceived on them ; and thus they were 
 as good as hygrometers." 
 
 Shell-loie as a fertilizer. — At the present time it is as a fertilizer that shell-lime finds utilization, either 
 by direct application upon the laud, or by mixing it with barn-yard manure in the compost heap. This application 
 of oyster-shells, either whole or after burning, is so important a matter, that I may be pardoned for quoting at 
 considerable length the investigations made into its value at the Connecticut agricultural experiment station, in 
 charge of Prof. S. W. Johnson, at New Haven. Samples were given them in November, 1879, of oyster-shell lime 
 and screenings made by H. A. Barnes & Co., Fair Haven : 
 
 The slacked and unscreened lime which these two samjiles represent [says the report, in Bulletin 36, February 7, 1880] is sold by 
 measure and not by weight. The price in November, lh79, was 8 cents per bushel at the work, and 9J cents per car-load, shijiped in bulk 
 at the railway depot. The average weight of the screened slacked lime used for building purposes is stated to be 47 pounds per bushel. 
 As the screenings amount to 3 to .^ per cent, of the total, it is not far from the truth to assume that the unscreened will weigh 50 pounds 
 per bushel. The cost of this lime would be accordingly 16 cents per 100 pounds, at the kilns, or $3 20 per ton. Shipped in casks holding 
 16 to 25 bushels, the lime cost about li cents more per bushel, and the casks cost .$1 each, which would bring the cost of a ton up to about 
 $6 40, two casks included. 
 
 The screenings consist largely of imperfectly burned shells, entire or in fragments. They are not shipped, but are sold at the kilns 
 for 4 to 6 cents per bushel. 
 
 The unslaeked lime, of which we have no analysis, is stated to weigh on the average 70 pounds per bushel, and is sold in bulk at the 
 railroad depot for 17 cents per bushel, or about 84 cents per 100 pounds, or §4 80 per ton. Shipped in casks, its price is 19 cents perbushel, 
 the casks costing |1 each, which would make the ton cost §7 70. 
 
 Analyses of oi/ster-sheU lime and screenings. 
 
 
 Sample No. 
 328. 
 
 Sample No. 
 3-29. . 
 
 Sample No. 
 330. 
 
 
 Sample No. 
 328. 
 
 Sample No. 
 329. 
 
 Sample No. 
 300. 
 
 
 64.47 
 0.41 
 1. BO 
 10 
 0.04 
 7.79 
 0.52 
 
 53.60 
 0.32 
 1.43 
 0.27 
 0.00 
 8.89 
 0.69 
 
 53.82 
 0.24 
 1.14 
 0.15 
 0.03 
 
 22.34 
 0.23 
 
 
 0.04 
 0.17 
 2.24 
 5.08 
 0.05 
 16.93 
 
 0.02 
 0.19 
 2.41 
 2.85 
 0.94 
 28.33 
 
 0.01 
 
 
 
 0.15 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 Soda 
 
 Sand 
 
 \ 0.12 
 
 Potash 
 
 
 2.60 
 
 Carbonic acid 
 
 Water thv differoncei 
 
 13.17 
 
 
 
 
 
 100. 00 
 
 100. 00 
 
 
 
 100. 00 
 
 In the subjoined statement are given the proportions of the various chemical compounds that probably exist in the samples : 
 
 
 Sample No. 
 328. 
 
 Sample No. 
 329. 
 
 Sample No^ 
 330. 
 
 
 Sample No. 
 328. 
 
 Sample No. 
 329. 
 
 Sample No. 
 330. 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 17.45 
 68.64 
 1.12 
 0.37 
 4.33 
 0.41 
 0.06 
 0.22 
 
 19.73 
 52.34 
 1.48 
 0.41 
 4.06 
 0.32 
 0.09 
 0.43 
 
 50.52 
 
 33.29 
 
 0.49 
 
 0.33 
 
 
 0.07 
 1.00 
 
 0.03 
 1.43 
 
 0.02 
 
 Hydrate of lime . . 
 
 
 1. 14 
 
 Sulphate of lime 
 
 Silica 
 
 J 
 
 Phosphate* of lime 
 
 Sand 
 
 5.08 
 0.05 
 0.00 
 
 2.85 
 0.94 
 
 15.20 
 
 • 
 
 V 0.12 
 
 
 Coal 
 
 2.00 
 
 
 0.24 
 0.04 
 0.24 
 
 
 4.97 
 
 
 
 
 Carbonate of soda ._. 
 
 100. 00 
 
 100. 00 
 
 100. 00 
 
 
 
 * The small auionnt of pliospbonis in oyster- shells causes tluni sometimes tobephcsphorescrnt. and it is said tliat they hecorao distinctly so by boinsthoronphly 
 calcined. A kind of commercial phosphorus, known as Canton's, was anciently made of thtm, which had jteculiai' propeities, und was not so delicate as somu other 
 sorts. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 207 
 
 On referring to the results of tliese analyses, wo notice that the two samples of lime contain ahout 9 per cent, of sand and coal, or of 
 snlistances mostly derived from them, viz, oxide of iron, alumina, and silica. We have small qnautities of potash, soda, magnesia, 
 phosphoric and sulphuric acids, altogether amounting to l.o per cent. Both samples contain al.so nearly equal quantities of carbonic acid, 
 viz, 8.3 per cent. Lime, the chief ingredient, varies from 64.5 to 53.6, or nearly 11 per cent., and water from 17 to over '2S, also 11 per 
 cent. Looking now to the statement of the proportions of the compounds probably existing in the samples, we see that in the two samples 
 of slacked lime the chief ingredient is hydrate of lime (or calcium hydroxide) ; next to this in quantity comes carbonate of lime (or calcium 
 carbonate), followed by silicate of lime 4.115 per cent., sulphate 1.03 per cent., and phosphate 0.4 per cent. 
 
 The ciikmistry of li.mi; :ma>'UFacture. — A brief review of the chemistry of the lime manufacture may be serviceable. Clean 
 oyster-shells consist chielly of carbonate of lime. As they are used in lime manufacture they contain probably about 7 per cent, moisture 
 and organic matter, about 6 of soil and sand, and 87 per cent, of carbonate of lime. In passing through the kiln the carbonic acid is 
 mostly expelled. If completely expelled the loss would be 38 pounds of carbonic acid for 100 pounds of shells, leaving 49 pounds of 
 quicklime (calcium oxide). With this would of course remain the sand, mud, etc., that originally adhered to the shelLs, together with 
 the ashes of the eoal used in burning. The lime thus obtained is slacked by throwing on water, in order to reduce it to a powder. 
 In this process of slacking, water and lime enter into chemical combination, the 49 parts of lime becoming 64 parts of hydrate of 
 lime. In practice some carbonate of lime remains uud('comi)osed by the burning, and, in the slacking process, the use of insufficient 
 ■water may leave some quicklime unconxerted into hydrate, or excess of water may remain as moisture, as is the case with sample 329. 
 When applied to land, oyster-shell lime may act as a fertilizer, strictly speaking, or as an amendment. Commonly, both kinds of action 
 arc exerted, and the distinction between fertilizer and amendment is not generally recognized in practice, although very important in 
 considering the eftects of this substance. Lime is used as an amendment on heavy clay soils, two to three or more tons being sometimes 
 applied per acre. On loams or light lands 1,000 pounds, or 20 bushels of oyster-shell lime, applied once in two or three years, is a u,sual 
 application, equivalent to the addition of 300 to 500 pounds to the acre annually. It is evident that the small quantities of potash, 
 nuignesia, and phosphoric acid contained in such doses of oyster-shell lime can have no sensible effect upon crops. It is the lime alone, 
 therefore, to which any benefit must be ascribed. A cimsideration of the modes of action of hydrate of lime, when applied as a fertilizer, 
 will make it evident that it is one of the most valuable aids to the farmer, and deserves more attention from Connecticut land-owners than 
 it has received. Our cultivated crops contain, on the average, as much lime as iJotash. The necessity for the ajjplication of potash salts 
 is fully recognized, but probably the lack of lime is as common a cause of uufruitfuluess ; for while potash seldom wastes from the soil to 
 any serious extent, and is found in spring, well, and river waters in extremely small quantities, lime freely dissolves in water and 
 rai)idly wa.stes from the soil, so that, other things being equal, there is more need for its restoration. 
 
 Analysis of shell-marl and marine-mud. — Diverging slightly from this. Professor Johnson analyzes in 
 the same report sam[)les of shell-marl and mariue-iniid, which it was proposed to put on sale as manures, and it 
 seems worth while to quote the result of his important studies, as follows : 
 
 The sample of shell-marl examined came from West Cornwall, and was found to be composed of — 
 
 Moisture 23.92 
 
 Silica, sand, and insoluble matter 16.88 
 
 Oxide of iron and alumina 1.55 
 
 Lime 27.99 
 
 Magnesia 0. 97 
 
 Soda 0.59 
 
 Potash trace. 
 
 Sulphuric acid •. 0.46 
 
 Phosphoric acUl trace. 
 
 Carbonic acid 21.77 
 
 Organic matters* by difterence 5.87 
 
 100. 00 
 This shell-marl consists of carbonate of lime to the extent of 40 per cent., and contains 2 per cent, of carbonate of magnesia, also 
 0.9 per cent, of sulphate of soda, and 0.25 per cent, of carbonate of soda. The organic matter includes nearly 0.5 per cent, of nitrogen, 
 in organic combination. There can he no doubt that its employment, in liberal quantities, viz, one or more tons per acre, especially upon 
 gi'ass lands, would often be attended with decided and long-continued benefit, hut, in most cases, its action upon grain crops would not 
 appear at once in so decided a manner as is very commonly the case with good superphosphates or guanos. 
 
 The fertilizing effects of this shell-marl, as well as its commercial value, may be safely measured by the percentage of lime which it 
 contains. Its eti'ects on crops would be in general quite similar to those of oyster-shell lime, although .somewhat less pronounced, since 
 carbonate is a less energetic agent than hydrate of lime. Its content of lime, 28 per cent., is less than one-half as much as that of the 
 two samjjlcs of slacked uuscrei>ned oyster-shell lime described on a previous page, whose average is b9 per cent. As 1,000 ])ouuds of the 
 latter costs, at New Haven, .shippeil in casks, |3 20, it is evident that the proposed price of the marl, §15 per ton, is much too large, even 
 after making the most liberal allowance for cost of handling. 
 
 A sample of black mud, containing some seaweed from salt water at Saylirook, was sent to the station by George M. Denison, esq., 
 who states that it is exposed at low tide, and can be got upon the laud for about 25 cents per load. Chemical analysis assigned to it, of — 
 
 Water 71.32 
 
 t Organic and volatile matters 2.79 
 
 Saud, clay, and substances insoluble in acid 20. 82 
 
 i Oxide of iron and alumina 2.62 
 
 Lime 0.26 
 
 Magnesia 0.52 
 
 Soda 0.60 
 
 Potash 0. 17 
 
 Chlorine 0.51 
 
 Sidiihuric acid 0. :!9 
 
 Phosjjhoric acid trace. 
 
 100. 00 
 " Containing organic nitrogen, 0. 44. t Contains nitrogen, 0.14 per cent. t Most of the iron exists as protoxide. 
 
208 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 This mnd, says Professor Johnson, contains, in fertilizing elementa, the small amounts of nitrogen, lime, magnesia, soda, potash, 
 chlorine, and sulphuric acid given in the analysis, altogether amounting to ahout 2|^ per cent, of the total. But stahie manure — the 
 standard fertilizer— contains ahout the same amount of plant-food, and of the same kinds, except that it has less sulphuric and more 
 phosphoric acid, less soda and more potash. The mud, when used judiciously, will prove an excellent fertilizer. Doubtless other samples 
 might contain more phosphates. In any case, the mud, used copiously, together with iish, which are rich in nitrogen and phosphates, 
 and with seaweed, which contains abundant potash, will supply all the plant-food that crops require, and serve to maintain or increase 
 fertility of the soil to the fullest degree. The only drawback to the use of the marine mud lies in the considerable proportion of soluble 
 salts, mostly common salt, which it contains, being nearly 1 per cent. If thrown out in heaps and exposed to the rain this s;ilt will be 
 mostly removed. The mud may also be apjilied directly to the root-crops or grass in moderate quantities, without damage, if well 
 distributed. As an amendment the tine mud must have an excellent efi'ect on coarse-textured soils. 
 
 Shell-heaps and their use.— Iu Florida and the Gulf states, the best farms and gardens are those located 
 upon the shell-mounds, where the finest trees grow ; and in the northern states these old heaps have long been 
 resorted to by farmers as a storehouse of top-dressing for their fields. The immense banks at Damariscotta, 
 described in the chapter on the Gulf of Maine, are constantly utilized for this purpose. The shells are first 
 burned, and the remains of various rude kilns exist, one of which greatly excited the antiquarians who first 
 exhumed it, who were sure they had hit upon an aboriginal, prehistoric home, until they found half a brick in the 
 bottom. Within a few years Mr. Charles Metcalf has built a more substantial kiln and has burned there a large 
 quantity of shells ; but he was unable to give me any estimate of what this manure cost him, or the probable 
 value of the heaps, if used for this purpose. He had never sold any shell-lime either for use iu mortar or on the 
 fields. Hereafter these deposits may prove an important aid to agriculture in the district, and they are practically 
 inexhaustible. Similar great heaps of half-decayed shells exist iu northern New Jersey, fi-om one of which au 
 immense mass of material has been hauled for road-making, and also to be used as ballast in oyster-vessels bound 
 for the Chesapeake bay, where it would be thrown and serve as the best cultch for any spat which might float by. 
 
11. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE OYSTER. 
 
 U. GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 60. THE GROWTH AND HABITS OF THE AMERICAN OYSTER OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 
 
 Number op species on the Atlantic coast. — The question of the specific unity of all the oysters of our 
 Atlantic coast has probably been placed beyond dispute now, and it is settled that the name Ostrea virginiana 
 includes the whole. Says VeiTill, in his Invertehrates of Vineyard Sound: 
 
 All tho various forms of this species, upon wliich the several nomiual species, united above, have been based by Lamarck and 
 others, often occur together in the same beds in Long' Island sound, and may easily be connected together by all sorts of intermediate 
 forms. Even the sanies specimen will often have tho form of horeaVis in one stage of its growth, and then will suddenly cha'ige to tho 
 viryiniaiHi styh^ and, perhaps, later still, will return to the form of borenlia. Or these dift'erent forms may be assumed in reverse order, 
 fircat variations in the number and size of the cost;p and undulations of the lower valve occur, both in ditterent specimens from the same 
 locality, and even in the same specimen, at different stages of growth. All these variations occur in precisely the same way in the shells 
 taken from the ancient Indian shell-heaiis along our entire coast, from Florida to Maine. 
 
 In another place he alleges: 
 
 I am unable to lind any specific differences between the northern and southern oysters, such differences as do exist being due merely 
 to the circumstances under which they grow, such as the character of the water, abundance or scarcity of food, kind of objects to which 
 they are attached, age, crowded condition, etc. All the forms occur both among the northern and southern ones, for they vary from 
 broad and round to very long and narrow; from very thick to very thin ; and in the character of the surface, some beiug regularly ribbed 
 and scallopod, others nearly smooth, and others very rough and irregular, or scaly, etc. When young and grown under favorable 
 conditions, with plenty of room, the form is generally round at first, then quite regularly oval, with an undulated and scalloped edge and 
 radiating ridges, corresponding to the scallops, and often extending out into spiue-like projections on the lower valve. The upper valve 
 Is flatter, smooth at first, tlien with regular lamelUe or scales, scalloped at the edges, showing the stages of growth. Later in life, 
 especially aftei' the first winter, the growth becomes more irregular and the form less symmetrical; and the irregularity increases with 
 the age. Very old specimens, in crowded beds, usually become very much elongated, beiug often more than a foot long, ami perhaps 
 two inches wide.* In the natural order of things this was probably the normal form attained by the adult individuals, for nearly all the 
 oyster-shells composing the ancient Indian shell-heaps along our coast are of this much-elongated kind. Nowadays the oysters seldom 
 have a chance to grow to such a good old age iis to take this form, though such are occasionally met with in deep water. The young 
 specimens on the rocks are generally mottled or irregularly radiated with brown. 
 
 Geographical distribution. — The geographical distribution of the oyster along our coast has already been 
 learned in detail, and need only be sketched. It is to be found almost without interruption — except at wholly 
 unsuitable localities — from Florida, and the northern shores of the Gulf of Mexico, to Massachusetts bay; local 
 farther north, off Damariscotta, Maine, and in the southern psirt of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, at Prince Edward 
 island, in Northmuberlaud straits, and bay of Chaleur. " Not found along the eastern shores of Maine, nor in the 
 bay of Fuudy. Abundant in the ancient Indian shell-heaps on the coast of Massachusetts, on the islands in Casco 
 bay, and at Damariscotta. The shells, in a seiui-fossil state, have been dug up from deep beneath the mud in the 
 harbor of Portland, Maine, in large quantities, but native oysters appear to be entirely extinct in Casco bay. Very 
 abundant in Long Island sound; in the upper ])art of IJuzzard's bay; rare and local in Vineyard sound; very 
 altundaiit on the shores of Maryland and Virginia. Mouth of St. John's river, and in Tampa bay, Florida 
 (Conrad). Texas (Roiiner)." 
 
 Fossil oysters. — In the history of the world, as shown by the record of the rocks, the oyster has long played 
 a part. The oldest fossil of this family known was discovered by Professor Winchell in carbouiferous strata, an4 
 
 * "The large oyster taken by Xavier Fraufois, while oystering on Monday last, was brought uj) from the wharf on a dray last evening, 
 An oyster measuring 3 feet 1 inull in length, and 23^ inches across tho widest part of it, is a curiosity." — Alobile (Ala.) Itigintti; APV'li 
 1840. 
 
 ''An East river oyster," says Do Voe, " was openeil by Braisted, of Jeft'erson market, New York, January 27, lb65, which contained a, 
 butter-fish IPuroiiotiis Iriacanlhus?} measuring Ij iuches iu length. It was quite dead." 
 
 U o 209 
 
210 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 named Ostrea imtermla. Asceudiiig to the Jurassic, oysters are found to have been somewhat plentiful, and, iu 
 the Cretaceous, the family reached its culmination. Never before nor since have these mollusks been more 
 abundant in point of species or numbers of individuals, or more widely diiierentiated in their characteristics. 
 They are of large size, also. In subsequent ages the Ostreadw.yvere abundant, out tlie kinds were few, many 
 genera, for example Grypliwa and Exogyra, disappearing altogether with the close of the Mesozoic era. The fossil 
 remains of these old oysters are found everywhere throughout the world where the ancient oceans had tlieir 
 margins, and iu the United States coextensively with the range of brackish-water formations, from the (Jretaceous 
 upward. 
 
 Anatomy of the oystee. — The brief sketch of the anatomy of the oyster which follows, was written by my 
 friend Dr. W. K. Brooks, of the Johns nojikins University, of Baltimore. It prefaced his account of his successful 
 embryological studies upon the oysters of Chesapeake bay, and is the best and most recent description of this 
 luollusk with which I am acquainted. Therefore I prefer quoting it to writing an imperfect duplicate of the facts. 
 As Dr. Brooks says, it is hardly possible to write such a description without using a few technical words, such as 
 " anterior", "posterior ", "ilorsal", and "ventral", but these can all be found in any dictionary, and will present 
 no ditiiculty to any ordinary reader, however unaccustomed to scientific terms. "As the end of the body where 
 the mouth is ])laced is not marked by a head, it must be spoken of as the anterior end, not as the 'head', and the 
 opposite end as the posterior. As tlie oyster lies on one side, the top and bottom of its body do not correspond to 
 the regious which occupy these i)ositions iu an upright mussel or clam, and it is most convenient to speak of that 
 part of the oyster's body which answers to the upper surface of a clam as dorsal, and the opposite as ventral.''^ 
 
 Dr. Brooks' anatomical outline sketch* is as follows: 
 
 The fjeueral structure of au oyster may be ronjjhly represeuted liy a long narrow nietnorandum book, with the bade at one of the 
 narrow ends instead of at one of the long ones. The eovers of such a book represent the two shells of the oyster, aud the back represents 
 the hinge, or the area where the two valves of the shell are fastened together by the hinge ligament. This ligament is au elastic, dark- 
 brown structure, which is placed iu such a relation to the valves of the shell that it tends to throw their free ends a little apart. In order 
 to understand its manner of working, open the memorandum book and place between its leaves, close to the back, a small piece of rubber 
 to represent the ligament. If the free ends of the cover are pulled together the rubber will bo compressed aud will throw the covers 
 apart as soon as they are loosened. The ligament of the oyster-shell tends, by its elasticity, to keep the shell open at all times, and while 
 the oyster is lying undisturbed upon the bottom, or when its muscle is cut, or -when the animal is dying or dea;d, the edges of the shell 
 are separated a little. 
 
 The shell is lined by a thin membrane, the mantle, which folds down on each side, aud may be compared to the leaf next the cover 
 on each side of the book. The next two leaves of each side roughly represent the four gills, the so-called "beard" of the oyster, which 
 hang <luwn like leaves into the space inside the two lobes of the mantle. The remaining leaves may be compared to the body or visceral 
 mass of the oyster. 
 
 Although the oyster lies upon the Viottom, with one shell above and one below, the shells are not up<in the top and bottom of the 
 body, but ui)0u the right and the left sides. The two shells are symmetrical in the young oyster, but after it becomes attached, the lower 
 or attached side grows faster than the other, and becomes deep aud spoon-shaped, while the free valve remains nearly flat. In nearly 
 every case, the lower or deep valve is the left. As the hinge marks the anterior end of the body, an oyster which is held on edge, with 
 the hinge away from the observer and the flat valve on the right side, will be placed with its dorsal surface uppermost, its ventral surface 
 below, its anterior end away from the observer, and its posterior end toward him, and its right and left sides on his right and left hands, 
 respectively. 
 
 In order to examine the soft parts, the oyster should be opened by gently working a thin, flat knife-blade under the posterior end of 
 the right valve of the shell, and pushing the blade forward until it strikes and cuts the strong adductor muscle, which passes from one 
 shell to another aud pulls them together. As soon as this muscle is cut the valves separate a little, and the right valve may be raised up 
 and broken off from the left, thus exposing the right side of the y)ody. The surface of the body is covered by the mantle, a thin membrane 
 which is attached to the body over a great part of its surface, but hangs free like a curtain around nearly the whole cLrcumfcrence. By 
 raising its edge, or gently tearing the whole right half away from the body, the gills will be exposed. These are four parallel plates 
 which occupy the ventral half of the mantle cavity and extend from the posterior nearly to the anterior end of the body. Their ventral 
 edges are free, l)ut their dorsal edges are united to each other, to the mantle and to the body. The space above, or dorsal to the posterior 
 ends of the gills, is occupied by the oval, Arm, adductor muscle, the so-called " heart". For some time I was at a loss to know how the 
 muscle came to be called the heart, but a friend told me that he had always sui)posed that this was the heart, since the oyster dies when 
 it is injured. The supposed "death" is simply the opening of the shell when the animal loses the i>ower to keep it shut. Between this 
 muscle and the hinge the space above the gills is occupied by the body, or visceral mass, which is made up mainly of the light-colored 
 reproductive organs and the dark-colored digestive organs, packed together in one continuous mass. 
 
 If the oyster has been opened very carefully, a trausparent, crescent shaped space will be seen between the muscle and the viscera] 
 mass. This space is the pericardium, aud if the delica/e niembraue which forms its sides be carefully cut away, the heart may be found 
 without any difficulty, lying in this cavity, and pulsating slowly. If the oyster has been opened rcmghly, or if it has been out of water 
 for some time, the rate of beating may be as low as oue a minute, or even less, so the heart must bo watched attentively for some time in 
 order to see one of the coutiactions. 
 
 The heart is made up of two chambers, a loose, spongy, transparent auricle, which occupies the lower part of the pericardium, and 
 receives Idood from the gills through transpareut blood-vessels, which may usually be seen without difficulty, ruuniug from the gills 
 toward the heart, aud a more compact white renlricle, which drives the blood out of the iiericardium through trausparent arteries, which 
 .are usually quite conspicuous. 
 
 The visceral mass is prolonged backward over the pericardium and the adductor muscles, and here contains the rectum, surrounded 
 by i>Tolougations of the white rejjroductive organs. Still farther back, on the middle of the posterior face of the adductor muscle, is the 
 anus, a long, vertical slit, opening into the space between the lobes of the mantle and above the posterior ends of the gills. 
 
 ' Jie])ort of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Muri/laiid, January, 1880 ; Annapolis, W. T. luglehart & Co., State Priuters, 1880, pp. &-10. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 211 
 
 In front of tie gills, tliat is, between them and tlie binge, there are four fleshy flaps — the lips — two on each side of the body. They 
 are much like the gills in appearance, and they are connect(^d with each other by two ridges which run across the niiddli! of the body 
 close to tlie anterior end, and between these folds is the large oval moutli, which is thus seen to bo situated, not at the open end of tho 
 shell, but as far away from it as jjossiblc. As tho oyster is immovably fixed upon the bottom, and has no arms or other structures for 
 seizing food and carrying it to the mouth, the question how it obtains its food at once suggests itself. If a fragment of one of the gills 
 is examined with a microscope, it will be found to be covered with very small hairs, or cilia, arranged in ro\v.s. Each of these cilia is 
 constantly swinging back and forth, with a motion something like that of au oar in rowing. The motion is quick and strong in one 
 direction and slower in the other. As all the cilia of a row swing together, they act like a line of oars, only they are fastened to the gill, 
 and as this is immovable, they do not move forward through the water, but produce a current of water in the opposite direction. This 
 action is not directed by the animal, for it can bo observed for hours in a fragment cut out of tho gill, and if such a fragment be supplied 
 with fresh sea-water, the motion will continue initil it begins to decay. While the oyster lies undisturbed on the bottom, with its muscle 
 relaxed and its shell open, the sea- water is drawn on to the gills by tho action of the cilia, for although each cilium is too small to be seen 
 without a microscope, they cover the gills in such great numbers that their united action produces quite a vigorotis stream of water, 
 which is drawn through the shell and is then forced through very small openings on tho surfaces of the gills into the water-tubes, inside 
 the gills, and through these tubes into tho mantle cavity, and so out of the shell again. As the stream of water passes throngh the gills 
 the blood is aerated by contact with it. The food of the oyster consists entirely of minute animal and vegetable organisms and small 
 particles of organized matter. Ordinary sea-water contains an abundance of this sort of food, which is drawn into the gills with the 
 water, but as the water strains tliroui;h the pores into the water-tubes, the food-particles .are caught on the surface of the gills by a layer 
 of adhesive slime which covers all the soft parts of the body. As soon as they are entangled the cilia strike against them in such a way 
 as to roll or slide them along the gills toward the mouth. When they reach the anterior ends of the gills they are pushed oft' and fall 
 between the lips, and these again are covered with cilia, which carry the particles forw.ard luitil they slide into the mouth, which is 
 alw.ays wide open and ciliated, so as to draw the food through the U'sophagus into the stomach. Whenever the shell is open these cili,a 
 are in action, and as long as the oyster is breathing, a current of food is sliding into its mouth. 
 
 The cilia and particles of food are too small to be seen without amicroscojje, but if finely powdered carmine be sprinkled over the gills 
 of a fresh oyster, which has been carefully opened and placed in a shallow dish of sea-water, careful observation will show that as soon as 
 the ccdored particles touch the gills they begin to slide along with a motion which is quite uniform, but not nmch faster than that of tho 
 minute-hand of a watch. 
 
 This slow, steady, gliding motion, without any visible cause, is a very striking sight, and with a little care tho particles may be 
 followed up to and inlo the month. 
 
 In order to trace the course of the digestive organs, the visceral mass may be split with a sharp knife or razor. If the split is 
 pretty near the middle of the body, each half will show sections of the short, folded O'soph.agns, running upward from thi' mouth, and 
 the irregular stomach, with thick semi-transparent walls, surrounded by thc^ compact, dark-greenish liver. Back of the liver and stomach 
 the convoluted intestine will be seen, cut irrcjjLilarly at several points by the section. 
 
 The coils of the intestine are imbedded in a light-colored nuiss of tissue — the reproductive organ — which forms the greater part of 
 the visceral mass. The reproductive organ varies greatly according to the season, and forms most of what is known as the "fat" of the 
 oyster. 
 
 There are no accessory organs of reprodnctiou, and the position, form, .and general appearance of the reproductive organ is the same 
 in both se.xes. There is no characteristic by which a male oyster can be distinguished from a female, without microscopic examination. 
 As the reproductive organ has an op lung on each side of the body, it is usually spoken of as double, but in the adult oyster it forms one 
 continuous mass, with no trace of a division into halves, and extends entirely across the body and into all the bends and folds of tho 
 digestive tract. 
 
 Eepeoduction and embuyology. — An account of tbe life-history of tlie oyster sltotild begiu witli the 
 besinuiuft — the egg— out of which this luollusk, like everything else from mussel to man, is born. And in this 
 matter of oyster-breeding, I must rely upon and again quote at length the researches of Dr. Brooks, since he is 
 easily in advance of all stiulents in his knowledge of this subject. During the summer of ISSII, at his seaside 
 laboratory., Crisfleld, Maryland, and subsequently, Dr. Brooks made tnicroscopic stiulies on the embr.yology of the 
 oyster, which were ])ublislicd, with flgures, in the Rejjortof the Maryland Fisheries Commission for 1880, and in the 
 Memoirs of the J<iluis Ilopkins University. Tliese investigations were of the most painstaking description, and 
 may be accepted as satisfactorily ijortraying the true method of reproduction of the American oyster, Ostrea 
 vir(/ini((na, although showing it to be essentially different from that of tlie oyster of Europe Oxtrca ediiUs. It is my 
 duty as well as pleasure, consequently, to set forth with as great accuracy as condensation and a popular treatment 
 of the subject will i)ermit, the statements of Dr. Brooks. 
 
 If several oysters are opened during the breeding-season, which varies, as will hereafter be shown, a few will 
 be found with the reproductive organ greatly distended and of a uniform opaque white color. These are oysters 
 which are spawning or ready to spawn, that is, to discharge their eggs. Sometimes the ovaries will be so gorged 
 tliat the ripe eggs will ooze Irom the openings of the oviducts before the mass is (juite at the point of being discharged. 
 If the lioint of a knife be pushed into the swollen ovary, a milk-white tinid will How out of the cut. Mixing a little 
 (if this with sea water and placing it on a slide underneath a cover, a lens of IHO tliameters will show, if the 
 specimen is a female, " that the white tluid is almost entirely made up of irregular, pear-shaped, ovarian eggs 
 (Figure 49), each of which contains a large, circular, tran.sparent germinative vesicle, .surrounded by a layer of 
 granular, slightly opaque ,\olk." Perfectly ripe eggs will be seen to be clean, sharply tlelined and separate from 
 each other. If the .si>eciiiien be male, ;i glance through the microscope shows sonu'thing (jnite different from tlic 
 fluid of afemale. "There arc no large bodies like the eggs, but the fluid is tilled with innumerable numbers of minute 
 granules (Figure 48), which are so small tliat they are biuely visible when magnilied one hundred diameters. They 
 are not unilurndy distrilmttSl, but are much more numerous at some i)oints than at others, and for this reason the 
 fluid has a cloudy or crudled api>earance. By selecting a place where the granules are few and pretty well scattered, 
 
212 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 very careful wateliing will show tliat each of tliem has a lively dancing motion, and examination witli a power of 
 500 diameters will show that each of them is tadpole-shaped (Figure 50), and consists of a small, oval, sharply 
 defined 'head', and a long, delicate 'tail', by the lashing of which the dancing is produced." These are the 
 spermatozoa., or "male cells", whose union with the eggs or ovaoi the female is necessary to the fertilization of the 
 latter, and the consequent hatching of living oystei's. 
 Again quoting from Dr. Brooks : 
 
 The nimiber of male cells v^hieh a siugle male will yield is great teyond all power of expression, but the numljer of eg«s which 
 an average female will furnish may be estimated with sufficient exactness. A single ripe egg measures about one five-hundredth 
 of an inch in diameter, or five hundred laid in a row, touching each other, would make one inch ; and a square inch would contain 
 five hundre<l such rows, or ."lOO by 500=:-2r)0,000 eggs. Nearly all tlie eggs of a perfectly ripe female may be washed out of the ovary 
 into a bealcer of sea-water, and as they are heavier than the sea-water, they soon sink lo the bottom, and the eggs of a medium-sized 
 female will cover the bottom of a beaker two indies in diameter with a layer of eggs one-twentieth of an inch deep. The area of the 
 bottom of a beaker two inches in diameter is a little more than three square inches, and a layer of eggs one-twentieth of an inch deep, 
 coveriu" three square inches, is equal to one three-twentieths of an inch deep and two square, and as a single layer of eggs is one live- 
 hundredth of an inch thick, a layer three-twentieths of an inch thick will contain seventy-live layers of eggs, with 250,000 eggs in each 
 layer, or 18,750,000 eggs. It is difficult to get the eggs perfectly pure, and if we allow one-half for foreign matter and errors of measurement, 
 and for imperfect contact between the eggs, we shall have more than niue millions as the number of eggs laid by an oy.ster of average 
 size, a number which is probably less than the true number. 
 
 Mobius estimates the number of eggs laid by an average European oyster at 1,01'2,925, or only one-ninth the number laid by an 
 ordinary American oyster, but the American oyster is very much larger than the European, winie its eggs are less than one-third as large, 
 so the want of agreement between these estimates does not indicate that either of them is incorrect.* Another estimate of the number of 
 eggs laiil by the Euroiiean oyster is given by Eyton {Histor// of III c Oijster and Oyster Fisheries, by T. C. Eyton, London, 1858). He says, 
 p. 24, that there are about 1,800,000, and therefore .agrees pretty closely with Xliibius. 
 
 An unusually large American oyster will yield nearly a cubic inch of eggs, and if these were .all in ab.solute contact with each other 
 and there were no portions of the ovaries or other organs mixed with them, the cubic inch would contain 500\ or 125,000,000. Dividing 
 this, as before, by two, to allow for foreign matter, interspaces and errors of measurement, we have about 60,000,000 as the possible number 
 of eggs from a single oyster. 
 
 Although each male contains enough fluid to fertilize the eggs of several females, there does not seem to be much difference in the 
 number of individuals of the two sexes. When a dozen oysters are opened and examined, there may be five or six ripe females and no 
 males, but in another case a dozen oysters may furnish several ripe males but no females, and in the long run the sexes seem to be about 
 equally numerous. Oystermen believe that the male may be distinguished from the fem.alo by certain characteristics, such as the presence 
 of black pigment in the mantle, but microscopic examination shows that these marks have no such meaning, and that there are no 
 differences between the sexes except the microscopic ones. It is not necess-ary to use the microscope in every case, however, for a little 
 experience will enable a sharp observer to recognize a ri])e female without the microscope. If a little of the milky fluid from the ovary of 
 a female with ripe or nearly ripe eggs, be taken upon the point of a clean, bright knife-blade, and allowed to flow over it in a thin lilm, a 
 sharp eye can barely detect the eggs as white dots, while the male fluid appears perfectly homogeneous under the same circumstances, as 
 do the contents of the ovary of an immature female, or one which has finished spawning. When the eggs are mixed with a drop of water, 
 they can be dilfused through it without ditficulty, while the nuile fluid is more adhesive and difficult to mix with the water. By these 
 indications I was able, in nearly every case, to judge of the sex of the oyster before 1 had made use of the microscope. 
 
 Sexual Differences. — This question of sex, and the condition under which impregnation takes place in 
 oysters, must next be considered. To this question Dr. Brooks devoted hiai.self witli special attention. 
 
 About all the published information upon the subject referred to the European species, and stated that, by means 
 of spermatozoa, discharged into the water by neighboring oysters, and sucked within the shell, the eggs are fertilized 
 inside the body of the parent, and that the young are carried inside the parent shell until they are quite well 
 advanced in development and provided with shells of their own ; tliat they swim about after they are discharged 
 from the parent until tliey find a place to attach themselves, but that they undergo no cbange of structure between 
 the time wlien they leave tlie parent and the time when they become fixed. IMisled by tlicse statements. Dr. Brooks 
 opened many oysters during the summer of 1878, and carefully examined the contents of the gills and mantle 
 chambers, but found no young oysters. "I concluded," he says, "that the time during which the young are carried 
 by the ])areiit must be so short that I had missed it, and I entered upon the work this season with the determination 
 to examine adult oysters every day, through the breeding-season, in search of young, and at the same time to try 
 to raise the young for myself by artificially fertilizing the eggs after I had removed them from the body of the 
 parent." The result of a diligent practice of the first of these resolutions surprised him. In the first place he 
 proved anew the generally admitted doctrine, that oysters are not hermaphroditic ; in other words, that each oyster 
 is, at the breeding-season, either a male or a female. He writes : 
 
 During my investigations I submitted more than a thousand oysters to miscroscopic examination. My studies were carried on during 
 the breeding-season, and I did not find a single lieruiapluodite. The male cells are so small compared with the eggs, that it would be 
 impossible to state that a mass of eggs taken from the ovary contained no spermatozoa, although they could not escape detection if they 
 were at all abundant. 
 
 On the other baud, a single egg in the field of thc^ microscope, in a drop of male fluid, would be very conspicuous, and c(Tuld not 
 escape detection ; and the fact that not a single case of this kind occurred, is sufficient to establish the distinctness of the sexes at the 
 breeding-season. 
 
 *Mobius' measurement, from 0.15 to 0.18 millimeters, is given (Anstern und Austern-wirtschaft, 1877) as the diameter, not of the egg, 
 but of the embryo, but his figures show that the European oyster, like the American, does not grow much during the early stages of 
 development, but remains of about the same size as the egg. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 213 
 
 Partlier than this, he discovered that although the American oyster seems well adapted to follow the European 
 species, and various other marine and fi-esh-water Lamellibranchs, to draw into its mantle chambei', with the 
 sea-water, the spermatozoa «li.scliars'('d from the mantle chambers of neighboring oj'stei's, and thus to Ining al)()ut 
 the IVrtdizatiou of the eggs inside the cavity of the shell, this does not seem to occur. Ue allirms tins very positively, 
 and scientifu! meu generally have accepted the conclusions as facts. I quote the words of oue paragraph relating 
 to it : 
 
 I have caivfnlly starched the n'"s anil mantles of moTo t haii a thonsaiul oysters, at a time when the reproductive organs were jilainly 
 seen to he (liseharjiinj; their ripe eontents, and have not found a single fertilized egg or embryo in .any part of the mantle ehanilier, in or 
 on the gills, or anywhere else inside the shell. This negative evidence, together with the fact that the eggs can be hatched after they 
 have been artilicially removed from the ovaries, seems sufficieut to prove, in tho absence of all evidence to the contrary, that the eggs of 
 the American oyster undergo development in the open ocean.* 
 
 That is to say, during all the period when the young of the European oyster is being safely nurtured inside the 
 mantle-cavity of its parent, and protected from all harm by its strong shells, our infant oysters swim at large in 
 open ocean — if lucky enough to get himself born at all from the egg which is sent abroad unfertilized, to meet a 
 chance male cell and so become impregnated and start into life, if fortune favors. 
 
 Experiments in artificial fertilization. — As has been hinted. Dr. Brooks spent much of his time and 
 efibrts at the laboratory iu experimenting upon the artificial fertilization of oysters, by mixing eggs extracted from 
 a female with sjiermatozoa from a male. He found it an easy matter to secure their union, and made his 
 embryological stiulies from eggs and embryos thus cultivated, in a watch crystal or iu a glass beaker. lie gives 
 miuute directions as to the proper method for repeating these experiments, which those having a microscope can 
 easily undertake, but which may be omitted as not pertinent here. 
 
 Developjient of the young oyster. — The next step, having got the eggs, or learned their nature, is to 
 examine their fertilization and development. Dr. Brooks wi-ites: 
 
 The body of the oyster, like that of all animals, except the very simplest, is made up of organs, such as the he.art, digestive organs, 
 gills, and reproductive organs, and these organs are at some period iu the life of the oyster made up of microscopic cells. The 
 eggs showu in Figures 49 and 5:i will answer to illustrate the character of the cells which compose the body. Each of these consists 
 of a layer of protoplasm around a central nucleus, which, in tho egg, is a large, circular, transparent body known as the germinativo 
 vesicle. Each cell of the body is able; to absorb food, to grow and to multiply by division, and thus to contribute to' the growth of tho 
 organ of which it forms a part. The ovarian eggs are .simply the cells of an organ of the body, the ovary, and they difl'er from the ordinary 
 cells only in being much larger and mori^ distinct from each other; and they have the power, when detached from the body, of growing 
 and dividing up into cells, whiidi shall shap<> themselves into a new organism like that from whose body the egg came. Most of the steps in 
 this wonderful process may be watchinl under the microscope, and owing to the ease with which the eggs of the oyster may be obtained, 
 this is a very good egg to study. 
 
 About fifteen minutes after the eggs .are fertilized they will be found to be covered with male cells, as shown in Figure .'il. In about 
 an hour the egg will be found to have changed its shape and appearance. It is now nearly spherical, as shown in Figure 1, and the 
 germinative vesicle is no longer visible. The male cells may or iu.ay not still be visible upon the outer surface. In a short time a littlo 
 transparent poiut makes its appearance on the surface of tho egg, and increases in size, and soon forms a little projecting transparent 
 knob — the polar globule — which is showu in Figure :! .and in succeeding figures. 
 
 Recent investigations tend to show, that while those changes are taking place, one of the male cells penetrates the protoplasm of tho 
 egg and unites with the germinative vesicle, which does not disappear, but divides into two parts, one of which is pushed out of the egg 
 and becomes the polar globule, while the other remains behind and becomes the nucleus of the developing egg, but changes its appearance 
 so that it is no longer conspicuous. The egg now becomes pear-sh.aped, with tho polar globule at the broad end of the pear, and this end 
 soon divides into two parts, so th.at the egg (Figure li) is now made of one large mass and two slightly smaller ones, with the polar globule 
 between them. 
 
 Tho later history of the egg shows that at this early stage the egg is not jierfectly homogeneous, but that the protoplasm which is to 
 give rise to certain organs of the body has separated from that which is to give rise to others. 
 
 If the egg, at the stage shown iu Figure G, were split in the plane of the paper, we should have what is to become one half of tho 
 body in one part and the other half in the other. Tho single spherule at the small end of the pear is to give rise to the colls of the digestive 
 tract of the adult, aud to those organs which are to be derived from it, while the two spherules at the small end are to form the cells of the 
 outer wall of the body and the organs which are derived from it, such as the gills, tho lips, and the mantle, and they are also to give rise 
 to the shell. Tho upper jjortion of the egg in this aud succeeding figures is to become the ventral surface of the adult oyster, and the 
 surface which is on tho right side in Figure 6, is to become tho anterior end of the body of the adult. The figure, therefore, shows the half 
 of the egg which is to become tho left half of the body. The npper portion of the egg soon divides up into smaller and smaller spherules 
 until at the stage shown in Figures 24, 2o, aud 2(j we have a layer of small cells wrapped around the greater part of the surface of a single 
 large spherule, and the series of figures shows that the latter is the spherule which is below iu Figui'e (i. This spheride now divides up into 
 a Layer of cells, and at the same time the egg, or rather the embryo, becomes ilattened from above downward, and assumes the shape of a 
 flat oval disk. Figures 29 aud 30 are views of the upper and lower surface of the embryo at about this time. In a sectional view, Figure 
 :il, it is seen to be made up of two layers of cells; an ui)per layer of small transparent cells, ec, which are to form the outer wall of tho 
 body, and which have been formed by thi' division of the spherules which occupy the upper end of the egg in Figure 2."), and a lower layer 
 of much larger, more opaque cells, <j, which are to become the walls of the stomach, and which have been formed by the division of the 
 large spherule, a, of Figure 25. 
 
 * Writing concerning his work in 1881, Mr. .Tohu A. Ryder remarks: "No evidence to show that our oyster is hermaphrodite was 
 fonud during the eutin^ season, nor were my searches for emliryo or eggs in the mouth or iu the gills, more successful than tho.se carried 
 <iu two years befori' by Professor Brooks. There is no d(uiht whatever that the oyster of Europe nurses its youug on its mantle or gills 
 for some time, nor can we well question the very high authority of MiJbius, for saying that in most cases the sexes are separate, aud that 
 only ono kiud of products, viz, either cgg.s or spermatozoa, are at any time found in tho generative organs. Lacaze Duthier's observations 
 seem to coulirm IIk' courlusions of Miibins." — Keporl of T. li. Fcrgiimn. a rommisswiicv of fishiriis of Manjlaiul, Junuarij, 1881, p. 14. 
 
214 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Tliis layer is seen in the section to lie pushed in a little towartl the npper layer, so that the lower surface of the disk-shaped embryo 
 is not flat, but very slightly concave. This concavity i.s destined to grow deeper until its edges almost nie(^t, and it is the rudimentary 
 dii'estive cavity. A very short tiiue after this stage has been reached, and usually within from two to four hour.s after the eggs were 
 fertilized the embryo undergoes a great change of shape, and assumes the form which is shown in three difierent views in Figures 32, S.i, 
 
 34, and ^^:}. 
 
 A circular tuft of Ion"- h.airs, or cilia, has now made itsappcar.anceat what is thus marked as the anterior end of the body, and as soon 
 as these hairs are formed they begin to swing backward and forward in such a way as to constitute a swimming organ, which rows tho 
 . little animal up from the bottom to the surface of the water, where it swims around very actively by the aid of its cilia. This stage of 
 development, Figure ;{2, which is of short duration, is of great importance in raising the young oysters, for it is the time when they can 
 best be siphoned off into a separate vessel aud freed from the danger of being killed by the decay of any eggs which may fail to develop. 
 On one surface of the body at this stage, tha dorsal surface, there is a well-marked groove, and when a specimen is found in a proper 
 position for examination, the opening into the digestive tract is found at the bottom of this groove. Figure 33 is a sectional view of such 
 an embryo. It is seen to consist of a central cavity, tho digestive cavity, which opens externally on the dorsal surface of the body by a 
 small orifice, the primitive mouth, aud which is surroundod at all points, except at the mouth, by a wall which is distinct from the outer 
 wall of the body. Around the primitive m^nith these tvv.> layers are continuous with each other. 
 
 The way iu which this cavity, with its wall aud extcnial opauiug, has be^m formed, will be understood by a com])arison of Figure 
 33 with Fi"-ure 28. The Layer which is below in Figure 28 has been pushed upward in such away as to convert it into a long tube, aud 
 at the same time the outer layer has grown downward and iuward around it, and has thus constricted the opening. The layer of cells 
 which is below in Figure 23 thus becomes converted into the walls of the digestive tract, aud the space which is outside and below the 
 embrvo, in Figure 28, becomes converted into an inclosed digestive cavity, which opens externally by the primitive mouth. 
 
 This stao'e of development, iu which the embryo consists of two layers, an inner layer surroundiug a cavity which opens externally 
 by a mouth-like opening, aud au outer layer, which is coutinuous with the inner around tho margins of the opening, is of very frequent 
 occurrence, and it has been found, with modifications, in the most widely separated groups of animals, such as the starfish, the oyster, 
 and the frog, and some representatives of all the larger groups of animals, except the Protozoa, appear to pass during their development 
 throui'-h a form which may be regarded as a more or less considerable modification of that presented by our oyster-embryo. This stage of 
 development is known as the //astnila stage. 
 
 Certain full-grown animals, such as the fresh-water hydra and some sjionges, are little more than modified gastrulas. The body is a 
 simple vase, with au oi)ening at one end communicating with a digestive cavity, the wall of which is formed by a layer of cells, which is 
 continuous around the opening with a secDud layer, which forms the outer wall of the body. This fact, together with the fact that 
 auimals of the most widely separated groups pass through agastrula stage of development, has led certain naturalists to a-generalizatiou, 
 which is known as the " gastrula theory". This theory or hypothesis, is that all animals, except the Prolo::oa, aro more or less direct 
 deseondants of one common but very remote aucestral form, whoso body consisted of a simple two-walled vase, with a central digestive 
 cavity opening externally at one end of the body. 
 
 The edi'es of the primitive mouth of the oyster continue to approach each other, and finally meet and unite, thus closing ap the 
 opening, as shown in Figure 36, aud leaving the digestive tract without any communicatiou with the outside of the body, and entirely 
 surrouuded by the outer layer. Tho embryo shown iu Figures 32 and 35 are represented with the dorsal surface below, in order to facilitate 
 comparison with tho adult, but in Figure 37, and most of the following figures, the dorsal surface is uppermost, for more ready comparison 
 with the adult. The furrow in which the primitive mouth was placed still persists, aud soon a small irregular plate makes its appearance 
 at each end of it. These little plates are the two valves of the shell, and in the oyster they are separated from each other from the first, 
 and make their appearance independently. 
 
 Soon after they make their appearance, the embryos cease to crowd to the surface of the w-ater, and sink to various depths, although 
 they continue to swim actively in all directions, and may still be found occasionally ciose to the surface. The region of the body which 
 carries the cilia now becomes sharply defined, as a circular projecting pad, the velum, and this is present and is the organ of locomotion 
 at a much later stage of development. It is shown .at the right side of the figure in Figure 37, and in Figure 45 it is seen in surface view, 
 drawn iu between the shells, and with its cilia folded down aud at rest, as they are seen when the little oyster lies upon the bottom. 
 
 The two shells grow rapidly and soon become quite regular in outline, as shown in Figures 37 and 44, but for some time they are 
 much smaller than the body, which projects from between their edges around their whole circumference, except along a short area, tho 
 area of the hinge, vipon the dorsal surface, where the two valves are in contact. 
 
 The two shells continue to grow at their edges, and soon become large enough to cover up and project a little beyond the surface of 
 the body, as shown in Figure 44, aud at the same time muscular fibers make their appearance and are so arranged that they can draw the 
 edge of the body and the velum in between the edges of the shell, in the manner shown in Figure 45. In this way that surface of the 
 body which lines the shell bec(mies converted into the two lobes of the mantle, and between them a mantle cavity is formed, into which 
 the velum can be drawn when the animal is at rest. While these changes have been going on over the outer surface of the body, other 
 important internal modifications have taken place. We left the digestive tract at the stage shown in Figure 36, without any communi- 
 cation with the exterior. 
 
 Soon the outer wall of the body becomes pushed inward, to form the true mouth, at a point (Figure 37) which is upon the ventral 
 surface, and almost directly opposite the jioint where the primitive mouth was situated at an earlier stage. The digestive cavity now 
 becomes greatly enlarged, and cilia make their appearance upon its walls, the mouth becomes connected with the chamber which is 
 thus formed, aud which becomes the stomach, and minute particles of food are drawn in by tho cilia, and can now be seen inside the 
 stonuich, where the vibration of the cilia keep them iu constant motion. Up to this time the animal has developed without growing, and 
 at the stage shown in Figure 36 it is scarcely larger than the unfertilized egg, but it now begins to increase in size. The stages shomi in 
 Figures 44 and 45 agree pretty closely with the figures which European embryologists give of the oyster-embryo at the time when it 
 escapes from the mantle chamber of its parent. The American oyster reaches this stage in from twenty -four hours to six days after the 
 egg is fertilized ; the r.ate of development being determined mainly by the temperature of the water. 
 
 Soon after the mantle h.as become connected with the stomach, this becomts united to the body wall at another point a little behind 
 tho mantle, and a second opening, the anus, is formed. The tract which connects tho anus with the stomach lengthens and forms tho 
 intestine, and, .soon after, the sides of the stomach become folded off to form the two halves of the liver, as shown in Figure 44. 
 
 Various muscular fibers now make their appearance within the liody, and the animal assumes the form shown iu Figures 44 and 45. 
 All my attempts to get later stages than these failed, through my in.ability to find any w.ay to change the water without losing the 
 young oyster, aud I am therefore iiuableto describe the niiinner in which the swimming-embryo becomes converted into the adult, but I 
 hope that this gap will be filled, either by future observations of my own or by those of some other embryologist. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 215 
 
 Such is the scientific history of the oyster- embryo. The practical utility of the knowledge, however, to the 
 most of ixs, is that tlie American oyster lays a vast number of eggs, but that tliey are exposed to dangers so 
 constant and innumerable, that under ordinary conditions few ever come to life, or at any rate succeed in living 
 long enough to anchor themselves and take on the protection of shells. This is only another example of a fact well 
 known to naturalists, and occurring widely among animals of low grade. The number of eggs laid, or even of 
 individuals born, has very little to do with the abundance of a species, which is "deteruiiued, mainly, by the 
 external conditions to which it is exposed". 
 
 Life of the young oyster. — The young American oyster leads a peculiarly precarious time, since it is 
 first thrown out an unfertilized egg, and the chance that it will immediately meet with a male cell must be very 
 slight; yet if it does not it will perish, for the sea-water destroys unimpreguated eggs within a few minutes after 
 contact with it. Having by good chance become fertilized by meeting a male cell, the next period of great danger 
 is the short time during which the embryos swarm to the surface of the water. They are so perfectly defenseless, 
 and so crowded together close to the surface, that a small fish, swimming along with open mouth, might easily 
 swallow, in a few mouthfuls, a number eijual to a year's catch. They are also exposed to the weather, and Dr. 
 Brooks found that a sudden cold wind or fall in teuiperature, as occurred several times during his experiments, 
 killed every embryo in his care. The number which are destroyed by cold rains and winds must be very great 
 indeed. As soon as they are safely past this stage and scatter and swim at various depths, their risks from 
 accidents and enemies are greatly diminished. Up to this point, which is reached in from twenty -four hours to 
 six days, there is no difficulty in rearing them in an aquarium, provided uniform warm temperature be preserved. 
 "Miibius," according to Brooks, "has estimated the number of adults which spa\vii each year, and multiplying this 
 numl)er by the average number of eggs laid by each, and dividing by the number which grow up, he reaches the 
 conclusion that each oyster which is born has -i,tt5;oot of ^ chance of reaching maturity. In the case of the 
 American oyster the number of eggs is very much greater and each one's chance of survival is accordingly very 
 nuu'h less, and it is evident that the great fertility of the oyster will not protect a bed from destruction by 
 excessive dredging." 
 
 In all these early stages, both as egg and as larva, the young swimming oyster is designated popularly as a 
 "spaf, "spawn", or "set". Perhaps spnicn is the best of these terms to be used for our purpose, covering the 
 time from the discharge of tiie egg until the oyster has attached himself and appears with shells, as a visible speck 
 upon the shell or other anchorage which he has chosen. From this time until he distinctly shows the double 
 bivalvular character of his shells and is an oyster, the infant is usually spoken of most expressively as a "blister". 
 
 DiSTUTBUTiONS OF SPAWN BY WIND AND TIDE. — Regarding uow ouly the vicissitudes of wind and weather, 
 bow far will the spawn drift from the parent, under favorable conditions, before it is destroyed, or else sink down 
 and attach itself? This is one of the subjects in respect to which we have small accurate information, and about 
 which there is necessarily much mystery. A few years ago it was accepted as true, that masses of spat were 
 drifting back and forth with the tides and currents all around the coast, and it was only deemed needful to place 
 something on the bottom for this spat to attach itself to, in order to catch a full "set" and obtain thousands of 
 bushels of young oysters. In case of liiilure, the currents were blamed in an indefinite way for not bringing spawn 
 to the beds. We have seen, though, how delicate and sensitive to harm Dr. Brooks ascertained the young oyster 
 to be, and furthermore, that, even after the vivifying influence of fertilization, it would float only a few hours before 
 becoming ready to attach itself to some support. Now, under ordinary circumstances, the summer drift of tidal 
 currents does not exceed half a mile to a mile an hour, and there would, therefore, not be time for the spat to be 
 carried a very long distance before its turn. If the aid of a strong wind is called in, it must be remembered that 
 any harsh breeze would kill the spawn. 
 
 Observation has shown, moreover, in many cases, that a district contiguous to an existing bed of natural or 
 transplanted oysters caught a set, while another area not far away did not, the opposite being never true. "When 
 a region — at least everywhere outside of Chesapeake bay — has become depleted of its natural growth of oysters, it 
 is extremely rare that any spawn ever catches there, though on each side close by and in the line of direct currents, 
 there may be productive tracts; by "close by ", I mean witliiu two or three miles. Such an instance is found iu 
 Warren river, Rhode Island, where there has not been a "set" for ten years. Men there will explain that it is only 
 once in several years that "the right combination of temperature and degree of saltness in the water hnppens at 
 the moment when the spawn comes in", but it is evident that formerly a growth of young oysters occurred regularly 
 every season, and no "combination" was required. The siuiple truth is, that there are now no parent oysters native 
 to AVarreu river, or acclimated in it, to furnish spawn, which does not now drift in from the outer bay. Practical 
 men, therefore, in ])laiining their work, put little trust in fickle currents and the feeble vitality of drifting spawn, 
 wliilc sonu^ deny wholly that it drifts at all. One of these latter theorists — and the view is too extreme, I have no 
 doubt — who lives at Providence, Rhode Island, showed me at his wharf in the Seekonk river a float containing a 
 hundred bushels of oysters. The fide was running beneath it and beside it with great force, as, evidently, it always 
 does at that spot. On the 1st of August, 1877, he had that float filled, as now, with native oysters that he had 
 brought from this bed. Suddenly he saw one shoot out a milky substance. "There's an oyster spawning," he 
 cried out, and called his son to witness it. In an instant another exuded the spawn, shot it far out, aiul then, 
 
216 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 as tliougli by concerted action, all began to tbrow out the spawn until all the float was white with it, hiding 
 the bottom beneath a milky cloud. He continued to watch, and in fifteen or twenty minutes the cloud had 
 disappeared, and the few inches of water in the float had resumed its former cleai-uess. 
 
 In the autumn of 1878, about fourteen months after this occurrence, some men begged permission to rake 
 beside the wharf, and found there a solid bank of oysters of small size. There could not be a shadow of doubt, that 
 they were the direct growth of the spawn emitted by the oysters in the float the preceding year, which had sunk 
 straight down, despite the swift current of the oat-going tide, unless we are to believe it had floated out iuto the 
 bay and been brought back again — the more difticult alternative of the two, I think. Three hundred bushels were 
 taken of these young oysters under tliis old float, within a space 100 feet square. 
 
 Preparing beds for the reception of spawn. — It has come to be the wise practice, therefore, iu 
 preparing beds of cultch for the catching of spawn and the rearing of oysters artificially, to place upon the bed 
 of cultch a quantity of adult breeding-oysters called "spawners". These are sometimes placed in a gronp athwart 
 the tidal current at that place, and sometimes are scattered about the bed promiscuously. The quantity varies, 
 but it is considered that one bushel of spawners to ten bushels of she'ls or other "stool" is quite enough. 
 Exi^eriments in this practice are alluded to in the preceding chajjters on Xarraganset bay, on New Haven, and 
 on the East river; and it is there shown, that even with these precautious, a planter cannot count on catching any 
 mentionable quantity of spawn more than 20 rods away from his spawners, even in a swift tideway, so soon does 
 it settle or perish. Within this limit, however, the catch of an abundance of infant oysters is almost ceitain. The 
 elaborate processes of oyster-culture carried on in France and the channel-coast of England, are based ui)on the 
 practice of placing mother-oysters under the most favorable conditions that can be devised for their health, and 
 then closely surrounding them with objects and surfaces — such as tiles stacked loosely over each one — best 
 calculated to ofler immediate opportnnity for attachment to the spat as soon as it is emitted. The difference in 
 the nature of our mollusks precludes the following of these foreign methods, but it is certain that they may be 
 imitated with profit, so far as the placing of spawners along with the cultch is concerned. 
 
 Nature of best bottom for oyster-beds. — It has long been well understood that the infant oyster, 
 swimming about iu search of a resting-place or anchorage, never chooses a soft, uuiddy bottom, or a surface which 
 is slimy and foul; or, if the volition implied makes the use of the word "chooses" objectionable (we do not know 
 how much control the larva has over the matter), let me say, that whenever the little creatures settle upon such 
 a soft or slimy surface, they do not attach themselves, or, unable to go farther, perish. Little better thau the 
 shifting, soft mud is a bottom of clay, with its soapy consistence. Gravel, on the other hand, offers advantages to 
 the oyster whenever it is clean ; therefore a hard gale or an unusually high tide, or any other marine disturbance 
 calculated to scour the bottom of a piece of water tenanted by oysters, is greatly welcomed just before their 
 breeding-time. About 1SG7 a terrible storm cleaned all the ground in the mouth of the Uousatonic river, 
 Connecticut, right in midsummer. The result was, that where there had rarely been profitable oystering before, 
 was originated the present great "Stratford" seed-bed. The ridge-like character of most old oyster-reefs, breaking 
 the slow and even flow of currents, aud so tending to increase their force, no doubt causes them to be kept better 
 cleaned than the adjacent lower bottom, aud thus helps to make these reefs the best of all natural oyster-growing 
 spots. 
 
 In fact, there is no doubt that the great secret for a successful spat is extreme cleanliness. Given this quality, 
 there seems to be nothing to which infant oysters wiU not adhere — the shells of their neighbors and of other 
 mollusks, living crabs, turtles, and terrapins, rocks aud pebbles on the shore. 
 
 " On shell or stone is dropM the embryo seed, 
 Aud quickly vegetates a vital breed." — Crabbe. 
 
 Equally well, also, on the piles supporting biidges and piers; on rafts, boat-bottoms, and floating timber; on 
 buoys and stakes, and iu enormous abundance on the leafless head of a tree fallen into the water, or on the roots 
 and limbs of living trees (as notably in the case of the " mangrove oysters " of Florida) ; on sedges and eel-grass 
 (whence in the south they drop off to make fine " cove" and " single " oysters, and in the north to be frost-bitten 
 and perish in winter); and upon all sorts of odd objects, gravel (valuable in producing single, round stock), bricks, 
 bottles, broken crockery, tinware, shoes, anything, and eA'erything, the surface of which is free from that slippery 
 coating, partly sediment, partly organic growth, which so rapidly accumulates under sea-water, especially in some 
 localities. 
 
 Artificial stools. — It was long ago understood, therefore, that when artificial beds for the capture of spawn 
 were proposed to be prepared, the substance of the cultch did not so greatly matter as its position and condition 
 at the time of spawning. In Europe, rough stones set on edge or piled in loose stacks, crib-work of tiles or slate 
 or strips of stone, suspended bundles of faggots, called "fascines", the bushy heads of dead trees, and various 
 other "stools", were employed. In America it is customary to use nothing but oyster-shells, which sometimes 
 have accumulated on the bed in sufficient numbers, and sometimes are expressly provided for the purpose, as has 
 been described in the body of the present report. 
 
 The chief reason for this adherence to oyster-shells, is probably found in their cheapness and convenience. 
 
Plate XXXVII. 
 
 Monograph- O YSTER-IXD USTR Y. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 FiK. 2. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 FiK. 9. 
 
 FiK. 10. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 FiK. 13. 
 
 FiK. 14. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 Figures i 
 
 uf the egg ..!• Ibe oyster and the .yonug oyster in progressive stagen of growth, illustrating tin. studies of Dr. W. K. Brooks. 
 
 [From the report of T. B. Fi-ryuson, comniissioDcr of flsherii-,i for Marjluii.l] 
 
Plate XXXVIII. 
 
 Monograph - O } ST [■: a - rj^DUSTRV 
 
 Fijj. 17. 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 Kig. --'CI. 
 
 PC 
 
 
 Fig. ^1. 
 
 Fig. ■.'•->. 
 
 I / 
 
 Fig. :>:!. 
 
 Fig. •-'.'■>. 
 
 
 «. 
 
 Fig. --'fi. 
 
 ec- 
 
 Fi". -2? 
 
 
 /»41^ffl^'^"^'«V, 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 Figures of ilii' egg <it' the oyster and the. yoimg oyster in progressive stages of growth, illustrating the studies of Ur. \V. K. lirooks. 
 
 (FrniM tin- ri'port of T. B. Feri^iii^on. cuuiniis.sitiner <if fislicries for Muryland.) 
 
Plate XXXIX. 
 
 Monograph- O YSTER-IXD VSTIi F 
 
 
 // 
 
 iTi 
 
 [\ 
 
 V. 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 
 6 
 
 /^^4;x 
 
 Fis. 35. 
 
 I 
 
 "-#^ 
 
 / Ui'j; 
 
 FiK. 36 
 
 FifT. 37. 
 
 Fig. 31). 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 Fijr. 41. 
 
 Fi.r. 42. 
 
 Figures of tlio egg of the oy.ster ami tlie young oyster in progressive stages of growth, illustrating the studies of Dr. \V. K. Brooks. 
 
 IFnini llic report uf T. B. Ferguson, lonimissioncr ul" tialieries for Maiylaiiil.J 
 
Plate XL. 
 
 Monograph- O VSTER- IJVD USTR F. 
 
 s st 
 
 Vig. 43. 
 
 Ki"-. 4(5. 
 
 
 Fifr. 47 
 
 KiK. 4rt. 
 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 FiK. 4.'5. 
 
 Fiu. 49. 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 ^/1 
 
 li'. 
 
 -'/ 
 
 fAS-. 
 
 Fit;. •'■'I'- 
 
 Fi.r. .52. 
 
 (lyster ami the ymiDi; oyster iu progressive stages <if growtli, illii.sl rating the studies cif Dr. \V. K. lirooks. 
 [Fiuui the leport of T. H. Fprjiimou, cimimissicnifr of tialu-rics liir Miir\ hiiitl. 1 
 
Plate XLI. 
 
 Monograph- O YSTER- IJ^B USTR Y. 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 FiK. O.--.. 
 
 FiK. 50. 
 
 Fig. 57 
 
 Fiff. 58. 
 
 Fig. CO. 
 
 Fig. 5'J. 
 
 .51^ 
 
 Fig. 01. 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 Fig. 02. 
 
 Fig. (Ki. 
 
 Fi.r. 04. 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 Fig. 00. 
 
 Figures of tlie egg of tlie oyslcr ami the young oyster in progressive stages of growtli, illustrating tlie studies of Dr. W. K Brooks. 
 
 [From Ihe report of T. B. Ferguson, eommissionei of tisheriea for Marjlaud.) 
 
Plate XLII. 
 
 Monograph- OrSTEIi- rM) USTK Y. 
 
 csDDoax 
 
 ^^Wxmoox) 
 
 Fi-. 67. 
 
 Figures of the egg of the oyster an.l the young oyster in progressive stages of growth, ilhistrating the studies of Dr. W. K. Brooks. 
 
 [From the report of T. B. Ferguson, commissioner of fisheries for Maryland.) 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. . 217 
 
 Some more fragile shell, sncli as a scallop or mussel or jiugle (Anomia), is certainly better, because the growth of 
 the attached oysters wrenches the shell to ]iieces, breaking up the cluster and permitting the singleness and full 
 development to each oyster that is so desirable; or. if the old shell does not break of itself, the culling of the bunch 
 it supports is far more easy than when the foundation is as thick and heavy as an oyster's or clam's shell. To aid 
 this same end, tiles liave been used as collectors of oyster-spat, which were covered with a certain composition which 
 easily i)eels ofl', but which is finn enough to hold the young. When they have attained a size and age fit for 
 removal, they can be stripped oil" without difiBculty, removed to other quarters, or deposited in the localities used 
 for growing or fiittening, and the tiles can be re-covered with the composition and used again. (In the Chesapeake 
 it is Ibund that the under-side of the tiles catch the most spat.) Possibly, for a permanent bed, nothing is better 
 than the natural shells, but, to catch the tioating spawn, something of this sort might be tried to advantage, 
 especially when it is desirable to move the young oysters, either to protect them from enemies or to grow them 
 separately. The anchoring of an old seine at the bottom, the suspending of scallop, cockle, or other thin shells 
 in the water, by stringing them from stake to stake a little way under the surface, or the copying of the Fi'ench 
 "fiiscines", would be other means to the same end. One of my correspondents in Long Island suggests inclosing 
 small beds of oysters. Just before sjiawniug, by a high board fence, "with plenty of shells or scraps inside to catch 
 the spawn, which thus could not tloat away". This idea is substantially follow-ed in France, where stakes of wood 
 are driven into the bottom in a circle around a pyramid of oysters placed on stones in the center ; and on the He de 
 lie dikes are built of open stone work, so as to divide the bottom into beds, each of which is owned by a private 
 jirojirietor ; and other stone jiartitions or walls are I'un across, and upon these stones the spawn fastens. There 
 are -1, 000 of these beds or |>rtro.s. 
 
 The early experiments in making these artificial beds failed, through the error of placing the cultch in the water 
 too soon. Before the oysters near them had spawned, the insidious but rapid deposit of the water had coated them 
 with a greasy slime, which made them as unlit for the attachment of the larvaj as any part of the surrounding 
 bottom. Thus it was learned that the cultch must be deposited as short a time before the emission of the spawn 
 as ijossible. 
 
 Time of spa^vning. — The time of spawning was found to be variable at different latitudes, in different depths 
 of water, and according to diverse conditions of weather, etc. It seems to depend pi-imarily upon temperature; 
 hence, in the south, it begins as early as the heat of summer comes on, and follows it northward. In Chesapeake bay 
 spawn has been collected from Apiil until October. In the report of Master Francis Winslow, of tlie United States 
 uavy, concerning his surveys of Pocomoke and Tangier sounds, in the Paliuurus in 1878, it is stated that there the 
 spawning lasted from May to August, but occurred chiefly in June and July. "All opinions coincided that the 
 oyster in shoal water spawned first, but differed as to whether, the depth being the same, all oysters on the same 
 bed spawned at or about the same time, as many being for as against the th eory." In regard to this point 1 will 
 insert a statement from the London Standard, September, 18G8, to the effect, that at the oyster pares on the He de 
 E6, France, "every bed has its own time for spatting; thus, one division of the Ee beds may be spatting on a fine, 
 warm day, when the sea is like glass, so that the spat cannot fail to fall, while on another portion of the island, the 
 spat may fall on a windy day, be thus left to the tender mercy of a fiercely receding tide, and so be lost, or fall, 
 mayhap, on inaccessible rocks a long way from shore". Mr. Winslow was also told that currents had no effect 
 upon the spawning, yet that heavy freshets were very destructive to the "spat" in Pocomoke sound, driving it out 
 into the bay, and large schools of fish, especially trout and taylors, devoured a good many every spring and 
 summer. I have seen it asserted, in reference to the French and English coast, that the spatting of the oyster 
 there does lot depend on the weather at all, but it certainly does here, to a certain extent, a wet or warm spring 
 hastening tie beginning of the spawning-season, though it Mould not shorten its duration. 
 
 Effect of tempkkaturesj upon time of spawning. — The difference, too, in the time of spawning between 
 the oysters in deep water and those in shoal, is probably due to temperature, the deep water being cold and so 
 retarding the function. As showing how temperature affects this matter, let me say that experience on the northern 
 coast shows, that when cold, windy days occur at spawning time, there will probably be no emission at all ; but 
 when this weather changes and a night of warm rain is followed by a hot morning, thousjxnds of oysters will be seen 
 " shooting their spawn " at once. "The selection," says Winslow, "of the lower sides of the tiles and the interior of 
 the 'boxes' may be an effort of nature to provide some protection for the young brood by, to a certain extent, 
 inducing them to seek dark and secluded points for attachment, or the large number found in such places may 
 be due to the inability of the various enemies of the spat to get at them v. hen thus protected". 
 
 Age of spawning oysters. — It is pretty satisfactorily proved, that oysters begin to spawn when oidy one 
 year old (or even much less, occasionally), though I found the poi)ular impression in the northern states to be, that 
 they must be three years of age before emitting spat. IIow long they continue to spawn, or whether there is 
 any cessation before death, is not known. We are ignorant, indeed, of the age to which an oyster would live 
 undisturbed; but ol<l oystermen believe that it never exceeds twenty years, aiul that death is finally cauwd by a 
 continued growth of shell, u»til its weight and thickness become too great for the venerable animal within to 
 handle, whereuiion he starves to deatii. 
 
218 THE FI&HERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In Long Island sound it is considered that from the 5th to the 10th of July is the time when shells should be 
 spread, with the design of immediately catching the spawn, which is not emitted to any extent before that date in 
 those northern waters. The method of making these artificial beds is described in the chapters relating to that 
 region. 
 
 Seasonal variations in abundance of spawn. — But the most intelligent care is not always rewarded 
 with a profitable catch, nor does every season bring a uniform addition of young to the natural growth on the 
 native reefs. This variability is all the more marked in regions where oysteriug has been extensively pursued, 
 and natural conditions and environment are disturbed. Nor are these variations widespread along a whole coast ; 
 they seem essentially local, confined, often, to very limited areas, indeed, and are marked by occasional seasons 
 of extraordinary fertility, followed by total blanks or only a partial ".set". Thus the last highly productive 
 season in the Monument river, Massachusetts, was in 1874; at Pocasset, Massachusetts, 1876; in the Somerset, 
 1877 ; yet all these localities are close together. This failure may not always be a failure to spawn, but generally, 
 perhaps, a waste and loss of all or nearly all the young, through rough weather or an unclean condition of the 
 shores where they should have found resting places. Nevertheless, as Mr. Winslow observes, many persons of 
 experience are of opinion, and I now concur with them in thinking, that not only the attachment of young may not 
 be general nor occur each year, but that the emission of the products of generation may also be frequently confined 
 to partial areas, and that by a combination of circumstances there can be a total failure of impregnation on all 
 beds of any locality. Further, on this head, Mr. Winslow records some quotable observations, as follows, as 
 resulting from his Chesapeake studies : 
 
 We have only been able to investigate tlie siiattiug of three season?, .and it may be found by subsequent observations, that two similar 
 seasons of success, moderate success, or fiiilure, will follow each other, but so far this has not been the case, and in the period of three 
 years we have, comparatively to the other seasons, one at least of successful attachment. 
 
 I can see no reason for supposing that there is any regular recurrence of the spatting-seasong, but am inclined to believe that the 
 success or failure is due to two causes — variations of temperature and variations of density. I have no means of ascertaining either tho 
 changes of temperature or density in the years preceding those in which I have been engaged upon this investigation, and in both seasons 
 I arrived in the sounds too late for tho ttimperaturcs or determinations of density obtained by the ])arty to be of practical value. 
 
 Oysters will and do live in very dissimilar temperatures, and in waters of very ditferent densities, as is shown by their existence in 
 the waters of North America, from Nova Scotia to the Gulf, and on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. That the mature oyster is a hardy 
 animal, readily adapting itself to new conditions and environment, is shown by the ease with wliich it is transplanted from the warm 
 waters of the Chesapeake to the colder ones of New England ; from the dense and salt waters of the ocean and bay to the brackish 
 ■waters of the creeks and rivers, or trice versa, and from soft bottoms to hard or the reverse, but natui-ally this hardiness is not a quality of 
 the iuuuature oysters or the swimming embryos. 
 
 The influence of increased or diminished temperature upon the formation of the ova .and spermatozoa, must be very serious and very 
 considerable, and, judging by analogy, it would seem probable that the formation would be more rapid during a warm spring than during 
 a cold one. 
 
 Whether the formation has been liite or early, when once formed a sndden change of density or of temperature may so affect the 
 oyster or the generative matter, that the Latter would not be expelled, and only upon this hypothesis can be explained the retention of 
 the products of generation noticed in so many oysters, and which is said to be so common, for none of the other conditions are subject to 
 violent changes, such being peculiar to the density and temperature alone. 
 
 Probably the influence of changes of environment, especially of density .and temperature of the water, is most severely felt by the 
 embryos when in their free swimming state, and, in connection with the want of success of the spatting-seasous in the sounds, it is 
 noticed that the temperatiue curves show a maximum change about the time when it is supposed that the young would attach in largest 
 numbers, or about the period when they were swimming about in the water. It is also worthy of notice that Professor Brooks, about 
 this time, met with the maximum amount of success in his etforts to artificially raise the embryos. 
 
 In consideriition of the foregoing, I am of the opinion that the success or failure of any spatting-season is dependent upon the 
 equ.ability of the temperature, and that the higher the temperature during the spring months, the earlier the advent of the spawning- 
 season, and that an increased temperature will also hasten the development of the spat, and of the young oysters after they have become 
 attached. I also infer that sudden and extensive changes of density will likewise affect the advent, duration, and success of the spawning, 
 though to a less extent. 
 
 Subsequent to the attachment of the animal, changes of the condition surrounding it are not of so much importance, though 
 niiturally such changes will more severely affect the delicate org.anism of the young oyster than that of the older and more hardened 
 adult. During the first six months of its existence, the oyster is exposed to the greatest danger from the numerous enemies which 
 surround it. The thin, delicate shells, from onc-sixt(!eutli of an incli to one inch in disimeter, are readily bored by the drills or torn off 
 by the crabs, and the immense numbers of both of these, leave no room to doubt their destructive effects. The inspection of the spat- 
 collectors in the Big Aunemessex river, shows that during the early months of their existence about 50 per cent, of the young oysters are 
 destroyed, and future inspections of the hurdle will, I hope, give the rate of decrease in other periods of time. 
 
 Ncaturally, as the aninial progresses, it becomes more hardy and better able to resist the attacks of enemies and changes of 
 euvironmeut, and thus we find on the unworked beds, where the oy.sters are prictically in a natural state, that the decrease in passnig 
 fiom young growth to mature oysters is about 30 per cent., or about oue-third of a given number perish in passing from the first to the 
 fourth year of their existouce. 
 
 Here our iufiu-mation ceases, but em)ugh has been gaibered to indicate the proportion which nature has assigned as neecssiiry 
 between tlie young and the mature oysters. For every 1,000 of tho latter there should be l,r,00 of the former, if the number of brood- 
 oysters neeess.ary to uuiintaiu the fecundity of the beds is to be kept up, and though this proportion is I>a.sed upon lUla which is not quite 
 sutficlent, yet, as I have said, it is all that has been afforded as yet, and may be accepted within certain limits. Cert.ainly, whatever it 
 should be,'thc number of the rising generation of tlie animals should never be less than that of the older, or there should always be as 
 many young as mature on any bed. A greatly increased proportion of young to mature oysters would sliow either one of the two things— 
 that the mortality in passing from youth to maturity was much gn^atcr than sliown l)y tin-- dredging results in the bay, or that a very 
 lai'ge number of mature oysters had lieeu removed by other tlian natural causes. 
 
 In considering these several beds, the question of lood and other necessary supplies has not been considered, as it is evident that 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 219 
 
 vrlion an oystor-l)0(1 is formed and exists naturally, all the conditions for Its successful life are probably present, and any failure of an 
 important siijiply would be followed by a speedy extinction of all tlie oysters on tlic bed. Such determinations of the quality and 
 quantity of tlni food, character of bottom and water, and other matters, are only of interest and desirable for the purpose of comparing 
 one locality with another. Such was not the imrpose of this investigation, aud conseciuently the determination of those points has been 
 but incidental to the work. 
 
 Probably the fecundity of a bed is increased to a certain extent by working upon it. The dredges or other imjjlements used open 
 the bed and spread it, thus giving more room for development, and allowing a greater amount of food to reach the animals. The 
 mortality is great in all thickly-populated tracts and in any closely-united community, and it is evident that the removal of any of the 
 brood-oysters could not be etfected without destroying the fecundity of the bed, did not this very removal iniluence the mortality among 
 the young, so as to allow a larger number to come to maturity. But this removal of brood-oysters may become so great that the most 
 violent exertions of nature to supply others are unequal to the demand. It must also be evitleut, that as soon as the number of brood- 
 oysters is thus diminished, even to the slightest extent, the fecundity of the bed is impaired. 
 
 This imiiairmi'nt constantly increases, influencing, as it does, both old and young. As the number of the latter decrease, so will the 
 number of the former, and as that number is again and again diminished, the number of young produced by them must coustantlv 
 diminish. Thus the cause for the destruction of the fecundity of the bed, and the gradual extinction of the animals upon it, can be 
 readily understood and as easily comprehended, as the fact that the fecundity and preservation of the productive powers of abed depends 
 ujion the number of mature, spawn-bearing oysters upon it. It is not meant by this, that none but the mature oysters are capable of 
 reproduction, as such is uot the case, oysters of even sms or nine mouths' growth having been observed by me with ripe ova and 
 spermatozoa in them, but the main dependence must be placed upon the adults in the community, as the spawn of the young growth is 
 not considerable when compared with that of the other class. 
 
 Without a knowledge of the number of oysters on a bed, it is impossible to say what number should be removed, and as au attainment 
 of the knowledge of the number on the bed is almost impossible, all that can be done is to keep the proportions between the young and 
 the mature as nearly the same as on natural beds, aud this should be the aim and result of all laws having the ijrotection of the beds in 
 view. 
 
 Development of the oyster-shell. — The way iu wLicli the oyster's shell is developed iu the embryo, has 
 beeu showu by the quotations from Dr. W. K. Brooks' paper. It is increased with the growth of the oyster during 
 the warm months of the year, but receives few additions in winter. These are supplied by the delicately-fringed 
 mantle which, with the gills, forms the "beard" in poj^ular phrase. From the rufded edge of the mantle are 
 depo.sited very fine particles of carbonate of lime, till at last they form a substance as thin as silver-paper, and 
 exceedingly fragile. To these are added, more and more, until a satisfactory thickness and hardness is secured. 
 "When oysters are growing their shells they must be handled very carefully, as the new growth of the shell will 
 cut like broken glass ; it is said, also, that a wound on tlie finger from an oyster-shell is often very poisonous. 
 If this be true, it is probably owing to the minute organisms adhering to the shell, which are left in the wound 
 and i>roduce a local fever. These shells are to the creatures they contain what his bones are to man. They 
 support and protect the soft parts. Like the bones in the higher animals, they are composed of two substances, the 
 one animal, the other earthy. The animal part resembles gelatine; the earthy i)art is principally carbonate of lime. 
 They contain, however, small quantities of phosphate of lime, a little potash, and soda aud acid. In one hundred 
 parts of oyster-shells there will be found — 
 
 Water 17 
 
 Animal matter 'i 
 
 Carbonate of lime 75 
 
 Phosphate of lime 3 
 
 Other salts 3 
 
 100 
 
 Materials for the growth of the shell. — The materials for its shell, like its food, are supplied by the 
 sea-water; and where, by reason of there being a scarcity of these ingredients in the shores of the sea, the water 
 at any one place lacks them, or is feebly supplied, oysters will not flourish, or will produce light and easily-broken 
 shells. Such was the case on Nantucket. " If the shell is thin, or if it is formed very slowly, the danger from 
 enemies and accidents is greatly increased; and those oysters which are able to construct their shells with the 
 greatest rajiidity, are the ones which survive and grow up. The amount of dissolved carbonate of lime which the 
 ocean contains is unlimited, but the amount which can reach each oyster is uot very groat; and if all the oysters 
 which attach themselves were to survive, there can be no doubt that they would exhaust the available supply of 
 lime before they failed to obtain enough organic food." It is well known to conchologists that coral reefs and 
 limestone islands are richest in all sorts of mollnt^ks ; and one reason, no doubt, why the young oysters thrive best 
 on the natural oyster-bed is, that the old dead shells are soon corroded, and iu a few years entirely dissolved, by 
 the sea-water, affording an abundance of new shell-material for the survivors. The vast amount of dissolved lime 
 poured into the (Julf of Mexico by the Mississippi aud other rivers, doubtless largely accounts for the abundance 
 of inolluslvs, marine worms, and radiates that throng in its waters. Varying conditions will cause much difference 
 iu the shells of oysters from various localities. Naturalists at first thought these dift'erences amounted to specific 
 distinction, and experienced dealers can pick out oysters from different regions not only, but from different beds iu 
 the same region. ~Slv. Winstnw notes that, in the Cliosai)eake, oysters found upon bods that have been much 
 worked differ materially, being single and bioador, in con-paiisou to their length, round and wiih Mmit bills. 
 
220 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 " They are usually dark in color, and have a considerable amount of mud and sand on the shells. The sponges do 
 not appear to be as abundant, and the amount of dredging on any bed may always be known by the appearance of 
 the oysters brought up. Upon an overdredged and almost exhausted bed the oysters will be large and siugle, 
 blunt-billed, with dirty shells, and an almost entire absence of sponges, barnacles, and Crepidula will be noticed, but 
 the shells will be covered with Tuhicohi and bored in many places by the horing pholad." 
 
 Oyster pearls. — As in other mollusks, pearls are likely to be found in our common oyster, but, unfortunately, 
 these are usually discovered in the mouth after the oyster has been cooked, and the value of the pearl thus destroyed. 
 In the Peabody Museum at Yale College is a hollow, tear-shaped pearl taken from a common oyster at New Haven, 
 which is a third of an inch in length. Mr. Henry 0. Rowe, of the same city, showed me several large, round pearls, 
 and told me he had had a hundred or so in the course of his life. As a rule, however, they have little market value. 
 
 Oyster-beds. — Inasmuch as oysters can only exist under certain conditions, to be found only in restricted 
 areas of sea-bottom, it is naturally to be expected that they will be found in colonies having a boundary defined 
 with more or less exactitude. These restricted localities, because of their usual shape and api)earance, are called 
 "beds" and "banks" in the northern states, and "bars" or "rocks" in the southern, while in the Gulf of Mexico 
 you hear only of "oyster-reefs". Although in waters so populous with this mollusk as Chesapeake bay, a floating 
 plank or bush will be found covered with small oysters in almost any part of the bay, it would be far from the truth 
 to conclude that even in that most favored region the bottom was paved with the bivalves. On the contrary, the 
 beds there, as elsewhere, are so well marked that they can be laid down on a chart or staked out with buoys ; and 
 even in the best oyster-regions they occupy such an inconsiderable part of the bottom that any one ignorant of 
 their position would have very little chance of finding oysters by promiscuous dredging. At the same time, it is 
 not always apparent why an oyster bank should occur where it is found, rather than at some other place ; or why 
 many areas, seemingly highly suitable, are not furnished with them. In the beginning, the character of the 
 bottom has the greatest influence of all upon the location of a bed, undoubtedly, for a young oyster will not live 
 except in certain suitable situations. Accident having fixed an oyster in a certain spot, however, and good fortune 
 granted him safe growth, the growth of a bed there follows speedily, and with widening area augments in strength, 
 until nearly beyond the reach of natural destructive agencies. The living and dead shells of the adult oysters 
 furnish the best surfaces for the attachment of the young, and for this reason the points where oyster-beds are 
 already established, are those where the young have the most favorable surroundings and the best chance for life, 
 and the beds thus tend to remain permanent and of substantially the same size and shape. An idea of their extent, 
 under favorable circumstances, may be had from the report to the Coast Survey, that in Tangier sound, INIaryland, 
 alone, there are 28 beds, whose united area is 17,976 square nautical miles, with twice as much additional bottom 
 where oysters are occasionally caught. 
 
 Effect of sedijientary deposits upon the beds. — The welfare of the beds is interfered with, seemingly, 
 by few natural influences outside of living enemies. Mr. Winslow investigated the question of sedimentary deposits 
 upon the beds of a portion of the Chesapeake, and reports in respect to Tangier sound as follows : 
 
 Those beds lyiug in deep water are particularly free from an >iudue proportion of mnd on the bottom, the slioalest beds having the 
 thickest mud-covermg. If there was a constant and increasing deposit upon the beds, they would long ago have disappeared, or at least 
 have become of much smaller area, but the reverse is the ease, the beds increasing in area constantly. 
 
 They are, however, exposed to one species of deposit which is very injurious. Heavy gales occurring in winter and summer frequently 
 tear up the large ((uantities of grass, sea- weed, and sponge on the sand shoals about the sound and deposit it upon the beds. If this occurs 
 in summer, when there are a smaller number of dredgers at work, the efi'ect is very injurious, the " cultch " being covered, and the young, if 
 spawned, smothered by the grass, weeds, sand, and mud which it collects. The California rock, Piney Island bar, and Manokin beds are 
 those most subject to this evil. The gales also have the efi'ect of covering the scattered oy.sters on the leeward sands, which process is 
 called "sanding", and, from what I could learn, appears to be a very injurious one. The oysters are buried, and the bottom becomes 
 smooth and hard. Where at least thirty bushels of oysters could bo taken previous to a gale, not one oyster could be found subsequent to 
 it. The winter gales have the greatest efi'ect, owiug probably to their greater severity and direction, which is from the northward and 
 westward. The "sand" oysters are found in largest numbers on the eastern shores of the sound, and about Kedge's and Hooper's straits, 
 consequently they would feel a northwesterly gale much more than one from the opposite direction. They are said not to recover from 
 the "sanding" for several months, and upon their reappearance are noticeable on account of the whiteness of their shells. 
 
 In respect to Pocomoke sound, more harm was disclosed : 
 
 The fact that on nearly all the beds, and especially those in the vicinity of the creeks and rivers and in the upper part of the sound, 
 there is a light covering of mud more or less thick over the oysters, would lead to an inference that there must be a deposit of that 
 character going on. On most of the beds the substratum of the, bottom was hard, and the thickness of the surface covering gradually 
 decreased as the entrance to the sound was approached. » » * The Pocomoke river, draining an extensive tract of the peninsula, 
 would bring down a large amount of sediment, which the strong ebb-current would carry directly over the beds in the upper part of the 
 sound. The amount in any given period of time would be diflicult to ascertain, but the character will be shown to some extent by an 
 examination of the specimens of bottom. Wliether the amount of matter deposited is snfilicieut in quantity to seriously ati'ect the beds is 
 a matter of conjecture. I should jndge that it was not, and my opinion coincides with that of all the oystermen I was able to interrogate. 
 
 That it must have some efi'ect cannot be doubted, and the evident deterioration of the beds in Pocomoke sound may be accounted 
 for, to some extent, by the supposition that the efi'ect is injurious; but so many other and more direct causes exist for the deteriiiration, 
 that it is diflicult to elimin.ate their influence. The fact that the beds have existed and have been worked sin<:e the first settleuieul of the 
 country, would lead to an inference that the efi'ect, if prejudicial, was very slightly so. 
 
THE (3YSTER-INDUSTRY. 221 
 
 The scattered oysters lying on tlie s.ands and those beds in the vicinity of sand-shoals and in shallow water, the Mnddy marsh and 
 Beach island rocks particularly, are exposed to damage by "sanding" in a manner similar to certain beds in Tangier sound, and which 
 has already been described. The large amount of grass, sponge, and sea-weed growing on the sand-shoals, especially the one to the east 
 of Heruo island and south of the Guilford channel, is fre(|uently torn up by tlie heavy gales and deposited on the beds with the sanio 
 injurious eti'ect that it had iu Tangier sound. Heavy southerly gales will sometimes cover the beds above the Buoy spit and Shell rocks 
 with mud for a short time, but not sufficiently long, it Is said, to affect the oysters seriously. 
 
 Effects op ice on the beds. — This account is typical of what might be said of oyster-beds in general along 
 the whole coast. About the only other injurious agency is that of ice. In the Chesapeake heavy winter gales 
 from the northward have the effect of diminishing the depth of water by piling up any floating ice upon the leeward 
 shores and cutting away ]>arts of the shores. Few beds are exposed, however, by the lowest of these tides, and it is 
 rare that ice grounds, doing damage at these times only to a small extent, unless it remains for a long time in contact 
 with the beds. In resi>ect to this, Winslow has some interesting remarks : 
 
 If it [the ice] only touches in a few places, not much harm is done; indeed, it is supposed to protect the majority on the bed by 
 covering them, but where there is a contact all over the "rock", the oysters are killed iu a short space of time. » » • 
 
 The winter gales break up the ice-fields aud pile them uj) in immense masses on the leeward shores and over the adjacent beds. Tho 
 Shark's Fin bed sufli'ers particularlj' iu this respect. A good deal of damage is done to the shores by the ice, aud the oysters feel the eti'ect, 
 showing it by becoming what is called "winter killed", or poor and weak, having a slimy, sickly appearance when opened. Many die ou 
 the beds from this cause, and after the disappearance of the ice, ten days or two weeks nuist elajise before they are lit for marketable 
 purposes. Ordinary cobl weather and a moderate amount of ice is said to improve the fishing, the oysters appearing to be drawn more to 
 the surface of the bed and the shells to sink more toward the bottom. My informants said tills effect was quite uoticeal>le. No one that 
 I was aide to interrogate had ever seen an oyster frozen in the water, aud the impression was, that so long as the oysters were covered they 
 ■would recover from any ill effects of ice or ordinary cold weather. 
 
 In northern waters, such as Long Island sound and Narraganset bay, the oysters seem much more hardy in 
 the endurance of cold than those of the Chesapeake. This would naturally be expected. Nevertheless, drifting 
 ice often plows up the beds, both natural and artificial, to a ruinous extent in exposed situations, or, resting ujion, 
 freezes great areas of loose, single oysters into its under surface, and then, on a rising tide and before a brisk wind 
 or strong current, moves olf, bearing thousands of bushels away to scatter tliem over new ground, or hold them 
 until they perish. Tliis sort of action is an agency to be remembered in studying the geographical distribution of 
 oyster-beds, since the moUusks will survive a long journey of this kind, and, finally, by the grounding or thawing 
 of the floe, may be dropped all together iu some fa^'orable spot at a long distance from any other colony. The 
 existence of such an isolated bed might easily be used as an argument, to show the great di.stance to which spawn 
 travels, when, in fact, the colony owed its origin to nothing of the kind, but to having its progenitors carried there, 
 as adults, by floating ice. 
 
 The question of the influence which ice has upon the existence of oysters as a race, in a certain region, becomes 
 of great moment, when the locality is as nearly arctic as the gulf of St. Lawrence. I asked many questions on this 
 point when at Prince Edward island, and also as to the effect of low temperature generally ou the mollusks of 
 that coast. 
 
 Temperature obseryations. — The only observations on temperature that I could learn of having been 
 made in the gulf of St. Lawrence were in 1872, by Prof. J. F. Whiteaves, of Montreal, wlio recorded them iu an 
 article iu volume VI of the Canadian Katuralist.* After describing the character of the bottom, this writer goes 
 on to say : 
 
 Attempts were made to endeavor to ascertain the approximate temperature of the deep-sea nuid. When the dredge was hauled up, its 
 contents were emptied as quickly as possibli? into a large shallow tub, aud this was covered with a tarpaulin aud iilaced in the shade. An 
 ordinary thermometer, with a metal case and perforated base, was then iiluuged into the mud, aud the whole was kei^t carefully shaded 
 for a time. With one exception the temperature of the mud was found to be from 37^ to 38° Fahr., and this not alone in deep water; for 
 sand brought up from 25 fathoms ou the north shore of the St. Lawrence also made the mercury sink to 3f° or 37° Fahr. 
 
 Again, the same author writes: 
 
 In the deepest parts of the river, on the south shore, lietween Anticosti and part of the Gaspd peninsula, the thermometer registered a 
 few degrees higher. Sand dredged on the north shore iu 25 fathoms also made the mercury sink to 38° or 37°. 
 
 Elsewhere he mentions that ofi" Port Hood, Cape Breton, the temperature of the bottom ranged from 40° to 
 42° Fahr. ; but adds, that not a trace of oysters are found living on that part of the coast. These are summer 
 records. 
 
 Such notes were unsatisfactory, since they referred to an area outside of the oyster's range, and I therefore 
 essayed to learn somethitig of the temperature of the water upon the beds themselves — but I had no better means 
 than an ordinary thermometer, which I believed to be not far from true — at various points where it was possible. 
 It will be seen by the record of these observations below, that the temperature is higher than would naturally be 
 suspected on a coast where the Gulf Stream is the other side of a polar current, that brings hosts of icebergs to tho 
 northern shores of Prince Edward and Cape Breton, and fills JSTorthumberland sound with immense flows of dense, 
 
 * WniTKAVES, J. F. Notes on "deep-sea dredging expedition round the island of Anticosti, in the gulf of St. Lawrence. Canadian 
 Naturalist, VI (new series), pp. 86-100. 
 
222 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 blue arctic ice. The observations were made at various hours of the day, sometimes in sunshine, sometimes under 
 a cloud, and at different stages of the tide. They are only to be taken as a mere indication of the general warmth 
 of the water on the surface of the beds in that region, in the autumn. It is worth mention that the fishermen 
 thought the water now about midway between its greatest cold and greatest warmth ; but I can hardly believe this 
 
 true. 
 
 Table of temperatures {Fahrenheit). 
 
 Degrees. 
 September 18, 1879, Shediac: Temperature of surface water; ebbtide 61 
 
 18 Temperature of air ; ebb tide 58 
 
 19 Temj)eratiire of air (raiuing) 54 
 
 19 Temperature of shore water ; low tide 55 
 
 19 Temperature of surface, i mile out in the bay 56 
 
 19 Temperature of bottom, on oyster bed, 12 observations 58 
 
 19, Point du Cheue wharf : Bottom water, 2 fathoms f>7 
 
 20, Summerslde, Prince Edward island: Bottom water, 2 fathoms, ebb tide, 10 a. m 52 J 
 
 20 Bottom water, 2 fathoms, incoming tide, 10 a. m 55 
 
 20 Bottom water, 2 fathoms, high tide, 4 p. m 59 
 
 20 Bottom water, 2 fathoms, tide going out, 5 p. m., and deeper 
 
 water 58 
 
 21 Bottom water, dead low tide, air chilly 56 
 
 22, Richmond bay: Bottom water on bed, 4 p. m., ebbiug tide 58 
 
 However, I had no opportunity to learn the minimum temperature which these oysters would survive. It 
 would not be safe to say that the sole reason why oysters did not grow off Port Hood, for instance, was that the 
 bottom water was as cold as 40° or 42° Fahr. There are probably various other reasons. I was told by fishermen 
 on the island, and at Shediac, that they did not think the water could be too cold, short of actual freezing. They 
 were united in the opinion, however, that ice had been the direct cause of the extinction of many of the beds. As 
 I have said in my chapter descriptive of that district, however, I am sure that ice, or nature at large, has had less 
 to do with this misfortune than the heedless greed of the oystermen themselves. 
 
 Food of the oysteb-. — The question of proper and sufficient food is also one of great importance, in considering 
 the question of oyster-growth, whether in natural or artificial beds. The anatomical arrangement of the oyster's 
 mouth and stomach, have already been exi^lained, and the general character of his miscroscopic, floating food 
 alluded to. Some furthei details in respect to this may be of importance. In a paper pul^lished in the report to 
 the British government on oyster-culture in Ireland, in 1870, Prof. W. K. Sullivan, of Dublin, remarked, that 
 independently of the mechanical constitution of the shore and littoral sea-bottom, i. e., deposition of sediment, the 
 currents, the temperature, etc., the nature of the soil jiroduces a marked influence upon the food of the plants and 
 sedentary animals that inhabit the locality, as well as upon the association of species. Especially is it the case 
 with oysters, that the soil exerts so much influence on the shape, size, color, brittleness of shell, and flavor of the 
 meat, that an experienced person can tell with great certainty where any particular specimen was grown. "Were 
 we able to determine the specific qualities of the soil which produce those differences in the qualities of oysters, it 
 would be an important step in their cultivation. Again, soils favorable for the reproduction of the oyster are not 
 always equally favorable for their subsequent development; and, again, there are many places where oysters thrive 
 but where they cannot breed. This problem of the specific influence of the soil is, however, a very difficult and 
 complicated one. First, because it is almost impossible to separate the specific action of the soil from those of the 
 other causes enumerated; and next, because, though much has been written on the subject of oysters, I do not 
 know of any systematic series of experiments carried out upon different soils, and for a sufficient length of time, 
 to enable accidental causes to be eliminated, which could afford a clue to the determination of the relative 
 importance of the action of the several causes above enumerated, at the different stages of develoi)ment of the 
 oyster. * * * i believe the character and abundance of Diatomacea and EMzopoda, and other microscopic 
 animals, in oyster-grounds, is of primary importance in connection with oyster cultivation. The green color of the 
 Colchester and Marennes oyster shows how much the quality may be afl'ected by such organisms. It is probable 
 that the action or influence of the soil of oyster-grounds upon the oyster, at the various stages of its growth, 
 depends maiidy upon the nature and comparative abundance of the Diatomacea., Rhizopoda, Infusoria, and other 
 microscopical organisms which inhabit the ground. I have accordingly always noted where the mud appeared to 
 be rich in Diatomacea, Foraminifem, and other microscopic organisms. A thorough study of a few differently- 
 situated oyster-grounds, exhibiting well-marked diflerences in the character of the oyster from this point of view, 
 by a comi)etent microscopist, acquainted with the classes of plants and animals just mentioned, would be of great 
 scientific interest and practical imi»ortauce." 
 
 Of all the edible matter afloat in the water whei-e the oyster lives, probably none is of greater importance to 
 this and other moUusks than the Diatoms — microscopic forms of aquatic plants which, in almost infinite variety, 
 swarm in both salt and fresh water, in the pond and ditch, in river and estuary, and throughout the open ocean. 
 The distinguishing feature of the Diatoms is their indestructible skeleton of flint, in the shape of a pair of 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 223 
 
 transparent glassy plates united at their edges. When the plant dies and the soft parts decay, this flinty skeleton 
 falls to the bottom, but is not destroyed. Century after century they accumulate and form immense beds, 
 contiibutiug myriads of skeletons to the rocky mass. 
 
 Thk geken oysters of Europe. — The Diatoms are brown, when they possess any color at all. It is not due 
 to them, therefore, but to eating the chlorophyl-tiuted spores or the whole plants of other species, that the 
 "grceuing" of oysters, or the "green-gill", is due. This has frequently been ascribed to some metallic absorption, 
 which rendered the oyster unfit to eat. I am, therefore, glad to be able to quote Professor Sullivan again on this 
 I)oiut. He says: 
 
 As the green color of the ni.intle of oysters from certain loealities just referred to is commonly attributed to copper, and as such oysters 
 are conscquoutly believed very generally to bo poisonous, and their value therefore greatly depreciated, I made the most careful search for 
 traces of that metal in the muds which I had received from grounds known to produce green-bearded oysters. Oysters and other moUusca 
 l)laccd in solutions containing copper and other metals absorb them, and retain them in their tissues. I have had two or three 
 opportunities of examining oysters which had assimilated copper owing to mine-water containing it being allowed to How into estuaries 
 at places close to oyster-beds. In every case the copper was found in the body only of the oyster, which it colored bluish green, and not 
 in the mantle or beard, which wna not green. In the green-boarded oysters which I have had an opportunity of examining, the body was 
 not green, and no trace of copper could bo detected in any part of the animal. The color, too, was not the same as that of the true 
 copper oysters, but rather that which would result from the deposition of chlorophyl or other similar chloroid vegetable body in the cells. 
 
 In the oysters at Arcachon, France, a violet tint has been observed, sometimes, which is due to a similar cause, 
 although referred to the iodine and bromine of sea-water. Certain reddish alga; were found, when washed in fresh 
 water, to impart to this a brilliant violet tint ; and by careful observation it was ascertained that even the spores 
 of these plants, whicli constitute a not inconsiderable portion of the nutriment, were similarly colored. In ordinary 
 seasons, the dilution of the salt water by the rains in the Arcachon basin is sufittcient to wash out the color of the 
 spores of the algte, but when the brine is strongly concentrated, there is no such appearance about the gills of the 
 oyster as has been described. 
 
 Eate of growth in oysters. — It is, of course, largely upon their supply of food and of lime that their 
 growth depends. This growth, however, is very variable, depending on the season, and in some years the increase 
 is very slight. In general, transjilanting young oysters in water similar to that in which they were born, causes 
 them to grow more rapidly ; but if they are carried into different temperature and other strange conditions, they 
 will grow slowly. Thus in New York bay, the East river, and Newark bay " seed" far outgrows that brought from 
 Virginia. In the Chesapeake, no doubt, the reverse would be true. But the conditions affecting growth may 
 vary greatly within the same district. At Bird island, in Boston harbor, for instance, bedded oysters grow but 
 very little, while those on the muddy shores of Wiuthrop, in fresher water, add a great length to their shells, 
 but improve very little in ilesh, making them very profitable to seU by the barrel, but not to open. 
 
 Effect of weather. — The weather affects their health somewhat. When heavy winds blow in from the sea, 
 making high tides and cold, salt water, the oysters shut their shells and will not feed, but during off-shore winds 
 they fill up well. Though a hard winter leaves oysters in a weak condition, the losses on the beds by death are 
 greatest when the weather is changeable and high winds are frequent. 
 
 A Baltimore correspondent writes : 
 
 Thunder sours milk and kills oysters. You may load a vessel to its utmost capacity, start for market, and one good round clap of 
 thunder will kill every oyster in the vessel immediately. Pounding with an ax upon the deck of a vessel, when oysters are thereon, or 
 I)ounding upon the side of a vessel with a heavy weight, will kill every oyster that feels the jar. 
 
 I am not sure of the precise truth of this last assertion ; but I know, that on the Massachusetts oyster-schooners 
 no wood-chopping is allowed, and I have heard it argued that steamers could never be used in transporting 
 Virginia oysters northward to the planting-beds, because of the jar of the machinery. How sensitive oysters are 
 to feeling, appears from the fact, that they almost invariably close, the instant a boat comes near the bed. It has 
 been said that they see the shadow ; but to dispose of this, it is simply necessary to remind the reader that oysters 
 have no eyes. It is by perceiving the jar in the water that they are apprised of the approach of some body, and, 
 acting on instinctive presumption that it is an enemy, they drop their visors. 
 
 Description of the Florida bay's and reefs. — On the other hand, how oysters contribute to the 
 advancement of the world of humanity, apart from the nourishment which men and various animals derive from 
 their juicy bodies, is well illustrated on the western coast of Florida and elsewhere in the Gulf of Mexico. The 
 extent to which organic, living agents are adding to the coast-line of this portion of the United States is 
 remarkable, the more so as we hardly expect results so large and substantial from any means short of volcanic or 
 geologic methods. 
 
 All along the western or gulf coast of Florida, particularly at its southern end, are great numbers of bars of 
 oysters, worthless (in their natural growth) for civilized humanity, but beloved of the raccoons, which nightly come 
 to eat them, and hence called "coon-oysters". Many of these reefs go bare at low tide, and you may walk about 
 on them. They consist of notiiing but masses of oysters so crowded and compact, that a solid and level surface 
 (seamed by frequent shallow channels and spaces a few inches wide) covers over tli(! whole reef, wliidi may be 
 
224 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 several hnndred yards long and forty or fifty yards in breadth. You may count up tlie number of iudividual oysters, 
 ■when I tell you that a square foot will often contain a hundred. 
 
 When the reef has attained such a height that its crest is exposed to the air at low tide longer than it is visited 
 by the water of the high tide, the oysters will cease to grow there, while still flourishing around the edges. The 
 dead shells, growing brittle, are soon broken to i>ieces by the waves, and finally reduced to such small fragmeuts, 
 that they are like a shingle beach, or eveu like sand. Such a reef also, opposing the flow of the currents, furnishes 
 lodgment to all sorts of drifting sea-wrack, receives a growth of the algse and grasses which frequent such half- 
 submerged levels, and is all the time built up at the top by the washing upon it of fragments broken from its edges. 
 It is not long, therefore, before a sort of shelly soil is formed, and some floating mangrove stem or seed takes I'oot 
 there, and manages to get so firm a foothold that the storms do not tear it away. 
 
 The oystee as a keep-builder. — This* done, the far-reaching and tangled roots of the bush form an eddy 
 wliich deposits saud and floating stufl', until more mangroves have room to root themselves, and the bar ceases to be 
 a "reef"; it has become a "mangrove key". Now, the mangrove (of which there are several kinds) is a very curious 
 tree. It has a low, branching stem, and is thus pretty much all head ; you cannot see anything as you approach 
 but a compact mass of brightly green, thick, shining leaves, trailing to the groimd. A nearer view discloses another 
 very curious feature. From the main trunk, near the ground, extend out on all sides, and at varying height, some 
 branches which do not go upward and bear leaves, but turn downward, enter the ground, and become roots. There 
 are dozens of these stays surrounding every stem, and holding it, like so many cables, against the fury of the storms 
 which sometimes hurl both wind and waves against the groves. But this is not all. Every low branch produces a 
 considerable number of thick, leafless, straight twigs, which elongate straight downward through air and water, until 
 they penetrate the soil and become rooted. The mangrove is not only braced upon a score of roots, therefore, but 
 anchored from every one of its lower and larger arms. A perfect tangle and net-work of these roots and rooted 
 stems thus surround each tree and every islet with an abatis often several rods in width. 
 
 Such a network speedily verifies its likeness to a basket by catching outside matter. Along the solid edges 
 of the key itself, and everywhere in the neighborhood, are living oysters which annually send forth a cloud of 
 young to seek new quarters. The mangrove stems aflbrd cajjital resting-places, and speedily become encased in 
 oysters which increase in size and number very rapidly. This suspended kind is known as the "mangrove 
 oyster"; but I do not see that they are anything but progeny of the coon bars. Barnacles, too, in vast numbers, 
 muscles, bryozoa, and many forms of minute water-animals cling to these half-submerged branches or flourish 
 under their shelter, where the hard sand and the bare angles of oyster-rock are being buried under a coating of 
 mud and decayed vegetation, which the basket-work of mangrove roots and salt-grass has caught and confined. 
 
 An especially noteworthy member of such a colony is a marine worm of small size, which forms about itself a 
 tubular, twisted case of lime very like that of the serpula. Along certain portions of the coast, south of Tampa 
 bay, these worms are extremely numerous ; and they build up their cases so closely together that they join one 
 another, and so cover the foundation upon which they grow with limy tubes somewhat larger than a darning-needle, 
 the partially coiled bases of which are in unison, but the enpurjiled mouths a fraction of an inch apart from one 
 another, forming a solid mass of lime with a bristling (and, at high tide, very animated and beautiful) surface. 
 Without being sure that I am right, I suspect that these worms sui'vive only a single year, and then dying, leave 
 their indestructible cases to serve as the foundation upon which their progeny may rear their tier of tubes. Thus, 
 by the additions of successive generations (as in the case of the coral-growth, only through a difierent history), this 
 worm-structure increases into an extensive mass of heavy rock. I have seen pieces many yards square and two 
 feet or more thick. Growing irregularly, its crannies aflbrd a haunt for many species of mollusks and crustaceans 
 that like to hide away in holes ; and its mass is further enlarged by the growth of bunches of oysters and the filling 
 of all its interstices with sand and broken shells, which become solidified along with the worm-tubes by the 
 production of a native cement. Thus millions of tons of solid limestone, most useful for building purposes, is 
 every decade added to the Floridian coast by despised worms. 
 
 Attracted by the excellence of the hiding-places offered, and by the abundance of "small deer" lurking there, 
 come to the mangrove roots many predatory sorts of aquatic animals in search of food — conchs, whelks, boring 
 sea-snails, crabs of several species, and mollusk-eating fish, like the sheep's-head. Where there is teeming life, 
 death is frecpient, and thousands of em]>ty shells and fleshless skeletons sink into the animated ooze, and rapidly 
 fill it up, until the water no longer covers it, except at the highest tide, and then leaves an important toll of drift- 
 wood, and the adventurous water-loving mangroves must push their roots farther and farther into the sea. 
 
 Meanwhile a similar process has been raising the center of the island. Decay of grass aiul salt weeds, and 
 mangroves and drifted wood finally brings a surface permanently above the water. Huge flocks of water-birds 
 daily alight upon it to rest and feed, and their droppings increase and enrich the soil. Various seeds are wafted or 
 floated from the mainland and build up its stock of vegetation; various land animals, chiefly reptilian, make the 
 new key their home. They die and are buried there. The simjde mangrove swamp is succeeded by an intermixture 
 of oak, pine, and i)almetto, and their rotting logs gradually make a wide extent of solid ground. Discovering this, 
 Indians get into the habit of landing there to open and feast upon oysters, clams, and conchs, and from the debris 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 225 
 
 of these feasts accumulate mounds or ridges hundreds of yards long and perhaps forty feet high. When the white 
 man comes along, he discovers the largest trees and most luxuriant undergrowth upon these mounds of shells. 
 Eecognizing the excellence of the soil, it is there he places his house and plants his farm. The old oyster bar is 
 an island with a name on the maps. 
 
 Now, the formation of keys just in this way has long been going on, and clusters of them abound all the way 
 from Apalachicola to Key West. A group of islands, near such a coast as Florida's, acts like the interlacing 
 roots of a single mangrove key; the currents are stopped, tides slackened, shell-debris, drifted matter, and sand 
 deposited, and great shoals, mud-flats, and sand-bars result. Given such an archipelagic condition, a straight 
 sand-bar, or outer beach, is a natural result, and this, once it is formed, contributes still more to the shoaling of 
 the channels inside, until they eventually become largely obliterated, and many of the islands join together and 
 finally unite with the mainland. 
 
 But, as I have said, this is wholly the work of animal life. Not until the oysters and their neighbors have 
 really formed a "key", do the mangroves, with their train of aids, take up the work; and not until this has long 
 proceeded does the drifting of sediment down the rivers, or the washing up of bottom-sand by the outer waves, 
 increase the bulk of the islands that soon add their well-prepared areas to the general coast. 
 
 V. FATALITIES TO WHICH THE OYSTER IS SUBJECT. 
 
 Gl. LIVING ENEMIES OF THE OYSTER. 
 
 The starfish. — No creatures are so dangerous enemies of oysters, either in their wild state or when 
 transplanted, as the members of the spiny-skinned tribe which naturalists term Echinodcnns. This tribe contains 
 many members, but the one that concerns us as oyster-growers is the starfish. 
 
 The starfish passes under various names among fishermen and oystermen. In England he is known most 
 frequently as the "crossfish", "sun-star", and "sea-star". In this country the name most often heard, is "five- 
 fingers" north of Cape Cod, and southward of there "starfish", "sea-star", or simply "star", to which it is 
 abbreviated in the vicinity of New York. 
 
 None of these names, however, distinguish between the various species, except in the case of the "basket- fish" 
 of Massachusetts bay, which is sufficiently different from the ordinary five-fingers to attract everybody's attention ; 
 and the smaller varieties are often mistaken for the young of a larger sort. While this is unfortunate ignorance, 
 it practically does not matter to the oysterman, since all the different members of the family are alike enemies, to 
 the full extent of their individual powers and opportunities. 
 
 The common name of the animal well describes its general form. "As there are stars in the sky so are there 
 stars in the sea," remarked old John Henry Link, a century and more ago. From a central disk of small dimensions 
 radiate five pointed arms, composed of a tough substance unlike anything else that I remember anywhere in the 
 animal kingdom. " When it is warm in one's hand," wrote Josselyn, that quaintest of America's advertisers, in his 
 Mew EnghuuVs Earities, 10, "you may perceive a stiff motion, turning down one point and thrusting up another." 
 This was all right, but he adopted an error when he added : " It is taken to be poysonoiis." 
 
 Examining the starfish more closely, you perceive that it has an upper and a lower side, essentially different. 
 The upper side, or back, presents a rough surface of a greenish, brownish, or reddish-green hue, which, when it is 
 dried, turns to a yellowish-brown. This is the leathery membrane covering the skeleton of the animal, which 
 consists of small limestone i)lates united together at their edges by a sort of cartilage, so that they can move in a 
 slight degree. This forms the frame-work of the arm, and acts as a chain-armor to encircle and protect all the 
 soft parts within. Underneath, on the lower side of the starfish, this frame- work terminates in two series of larger 
 plates, which are braced against one another like rafters, and sustain the whole structure by a sort of arch. This 
 armor is sufficiently flexible to allow the starfish to bend himself clumsily over or around anything he is likely to 
 wish to climb ui^on or grasp. 
 
 Scattered everywhere upon the upper side are a large number of blunt, short spines, which seem to have no 
 special arrangement, and are longest and thickest at the edges of the rays, and upon the plates bordering the 
 lower side of each ray. Each one of these spines swells at its base, where are fixe(l, in a wreath, several curious 
 little appendages called pedicellaria', whose odd forms and movements can only be understood underneath a 
 powerful microscope, on account of their diminutive size. They consist of a little pedicel which waves about, 
 bearing upon its top a pair of (for it) huge toothed jaws, like the claw of a lobster, which waves about in a very 
 thi'eatening manner. Now and then it happens that some little i)article of food or sea-weed will accidentally get 
 caught by these valiant guardsmen of the spine, that towers up in their midst ; but this to annoy rather than 
 gratify them, and their functions are not yet explained. They occur in some form or other in all echinoderms, yet 
 seem to contribute no service whatever to the animal. Outside of them, forming a second circle about each spine, is 
 a set of water-tubes, whose functions will be explained presently. Near the center of the disk, on the back, notice the 
 madreporic body, a small, smooth protuberance, filled with openings, like a sprinkler, and then turn the starfish over. 
 15 o 
 
226 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Though so tough and tuberculous above, on the under side it is soft and almost white in tint, except where 
 the strong spines along the edges of each ray protect the soft parts between. In the very center of the <lisk is the 
 opening of the mouth. It contains no teeth, but is surrounded by an elastic tube and guarded by the hard edges 
 of the skeleton-plates which hem it in. From this center run five furrows, one down each of the arms. 
 
 Throughout all this branch of the Radiates, observes Professor Forbes, the reigning number is five. "Among 
 the problems proposed by that true-spirited but eccentric philosopher, Sir Thomas Browne, is one, 'Why, among 
 sea-stars, nature chiefly delighteth in five points'! and in his Garden of Cyrus he observes: 'By the same number 
 (five) doth nature divide the circle of the sea-star, and in that order and number disposeth those elegant semicircles 
 or dental sockets. and eggs in the sea hedge-hog'. Among the lower and the typical orders we find this number 
 regulating the number of parts. Every plate of the sea-urchin is built up of pentagonal particles. The skeletons 
 of the digestive, the aquiferous, and tegumentary systems, equally present the quinary arrangement; and even 
 the cartilaginous frame- work of the disk of every sucker is regulated by this mystic number." 
 
 But this is a digression. To return : Each furrow is filled, with the exception of a narrow path down the middle, 
 with small fleshy tubes, terminating in a disk, which are so evidently its means of locomotion, that you at once call 
 them feet. This is true enough so far as their function is concerned, for Five-fingered Jack certainly does walk by 
 means of them; but entirely wrong anatomically. No Radiate has "feet" projjerly speaking. In order to see how 
 the little beast makes use of these huucb-eds of walking appendages we must dissect him. Having done this, it 
 appears, that through the seivelike surface of the madreporic body, on the back of the disk, enters a constant 
 current of pure sea-water. This is received into a system of circuhir canals, which branch out, on each side of 
 every ray, and send out through minute openings in the broad plates on the lower side of the arm's fibers, 
 which, when swelled full of water, appear as the rows of feet-tubes already mentioned. These feet-tubes are 
 called amJnilacrK, the grooves along each side of the arm, where they spring and where they are supplied with 
 Avater from the main canal underneath, tlie amhulacral grooves, while the plates themselves, and the whole concave 
 under-surface between the spiny processes bordering the rays, form the ambulacral tract. 
 
 Now, the starfish's body is always full of water; beside the large stream flowing in through the madreporic 
 body, a constant inflow seems to take place by absorption through the thousand minute water-tubes that wreath 
 about each spine, notwithstanding no microscope has yet been able to detect any opening in them. This insures 
 that the ambulacrsB shall always be full of water; but the creature can control these, and when he wishes to 
 take a step forward he places one, a dozen, or a score of these feet-tubes a little forward, and draws a slight 
 amount of water from each, which causes a contraction of their sucker-disks, and gives them a firm hold. By a 
 reverse process he lets go with his other feet, and by main stx-ength drags his body up as far as he can. This 
 operation frequently repeated would give a continuous movement to his body which is not ungraceful, as he dips 
 down into a hollow or bends himself slowly over some obstacle. His movements are very deliberate, and he 
 moves hardly as fast as the second-hand of a watch. It is to the fulluess of this water-system that the animal 
 owes its plump appearance. Take him out of the sea and the water will i>our out all over him, in a fierce 
 perspiration, which soon leaves him flat and thin on your palm. I may as well say here, that any one can 
 handle them without fear ; the old idea that they were poisonous was a worthless superstition. 
 
 lu addition to this water-system, for locomotion, starfishes have a heart and system of blood-vessels. This 
 consists of two circular vessels, one round the intestine, and one rouiul the gullet, or lieart, intervening between 
 them. " There are no distinct respiratory organs, but the surfaces of the viscera are abundantly supplied with 
 cilia, and doubtless subserve resi)iration ; the sea-water being freely admitted into the general body-cavity by 
 means of numerous contractile ciliated tubes, which project from the dorsiil surface of the body." (Nicholson.) 
 There is a nervous .system, also, in this apparently immos^able and insensible denizen of the deep. A gangliated 
 cord surrounds the mouth and sends filaments out along the center of each arm, to the little red speck discernible 
 at the tip, which is the eye. How much they can see with these ej^e-specks is doubtful ; but there seems no doubt 
 that they can perceive obstructions in their i)ath, for they begin to get ready to mount them before actually 
 striking against them. 
 
 The mouth, as I have said, is a mere circular opening, without teeth. The stomach is reached through a short 
 gullet, and of itself is not large, so that it is difficult to understand how the tremendous gluttony for which this 
 fellow is famous can be accommodated; until we have cut him open, and find that, as a part of the stomach, there 
 extend loose yellow pouches i;ir into each arm, which nearly till up much of the interior of the rays. When no 
 great meal is to be eaten tliese pouches or cwca are not brought into use, but when occasion arises they can contain 
 a surprising quantity. Ou the floor of each arm, which we have cut open, is seen the amhulacral ridge, ui)on 
 either side of which are the vesicles that supply the foot tentacles, which may be filled or emptied at the pleasure 
 of their owner. Above these, occupying the most of the interior space toward the end of the ray, aiul also 
 appressed between the coeca and the upper surface toward the center, are the berry-like clusters or racemose masses 
 of the generative organs. 
 
 Few persons, probably, suspect that in so low a grade of beings the sexes are divided, yet this appears to be 
 the case in the starfishes. According to Prof. Alexander Agassiz, the males aiul females of our connnon species 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 227 
 
 of starfish cau readily be tlistinguisbed by their difference in coloring; all those having a bluish tint bein"' 
 invariably females, while a reddish or reddish-brown color indicates a male. " When cut open, so as to expose the 
 genital organs, the diflerenee between the males and females is still more striking. The long grape-like clusters 
 of reproductive organs, extending from the angle of the arms, on both sides of the ambulacral system, to the 
 extremity of the rays, present very marked difl'erences in the two sexes. The ovaries are bright orange, while 
 the spermaries are of a dull cream color. At the time of spawning » • • tijg genital organs are distended to 
 the utmost, tilling completely the whole cavity of the ray ; the abactiual system [i. e., the sides and back of the rays] 
 being greatly expanded by the extraordinary develoi)meut of these organs." 
 
 The two species common on the New England coast are Asterias arenicola and Asterias vulgaris, imd, though much 
 alike otherwise, they have different times of spawning, the former (Massachusetts bay to Florida) throwing out its 
 eggs a fortnight or more earlier in the summer than the latter, whose range is more northerly and hence in colder 
 waters. Their period of spawning, also, is very short, comprising only three or four days. The eggs produced by 
 the females, as well as the spermatozoa sent out by the males, find exit Irom the body through five very small holes 
 in a series of large ])lates on the back at the angles of the arms. Such eggs as are fortunate enough to meet with 
 spermatozoa in the water, before being overtaken by some form of destruction, are fertilized, and immediately begin 
 a very curious series of changes in embryonic growth, which have been fully described by Alexander Agassiz. 
 This embryolog is like that of no other group of animals, but may be roughly comjjared to the transformations of a 
 butterfly in the chrysalis. The larva which hatches from the starfish's egg is entirely unlike its parent, in form or 
 structure, being an oddly shaped, ragged, transparent little creature, permeated through and through by water- 
 tubes. This larva, when perfected, is called a brachiolaria, and swims around for sevei-al days by means of vibrating 
 cilia, which kee]) it whirling and bobbing about, not choosing its course, nevertheless, by an exertion of its will, 
 but a prey to all the chance breezes and currents that can get it in their power. 
 
 These larviu, says Mr. Agassiz, are to be found floating in large numbers at night, though never by day, near 
 the surface among cast-off skins of bai-nacles, which furnish them with food during the time when they swim freely 
 about, in company with multitudes of small Crustacea, annelids and hydroids. At such a time they are fit food 
 for shellfish, and no doubt manj^ fall into those treacherous small currents that lead into an oyster's, clam's, or 
 mussel's mouth. This helps to even up the account which the adult starfishes are making, in their daily onslaughts 
 upon the mollusks. 
 
 The jaunty, free career of the brachiolaria, however, is soon over. Changes, begun before they were understood, 
 now begin to alarm him. He is losing his shape and assuming a strangely symmetrical, five-armed form, covered 
 with soft spines and tentacles. Before he knows it, and without the loss of a single portion, the bactolaria, by 
 absorption, has lost himself in the body of a true young starfish, and finds himself slowly accpiiriug the stiff armor 
 and dignified mien which marks his approach to an adult condition. He ceases his gay wanderings and sinks to 
 the bottom, or crawls ujion the frond of some floating sea weed. This occurs when he is about three weeks old. 
 But now that he is no longer an embryo, but a real baby starfish, his growth is very slow. Mr. Agassiz says that 
 by arranging the starfishes, big and little, found upon our rocks into series according to size, we may roughly 
 estimate the nirmber of years required by them to attain their full development; this he presumes to be about 
 fourteen years. During the eailier years the growth is more rapid, of course, than later. One young specimen, 
 kept in an aquarium at the Cambridge museum, doubled its diameter in five months. That they begin to spawn 
 when six or seven years old, or hardly half-grown, is ascertained ; but as to how long they may live after that, 
 provided the dangers of the sea are escaped, we have no information that I am aware of. 
 
 The size to which they attain varies in different species. The rare British Uraster glacialis, Ag., has been 
 seen 33 inches in diameter, and some even larger than this have been reported from near Eastport, Maine, where 
 echinoderms abound in greater number, perhajis, than anywhere else on our coast. South of Cape Cod, however, 
 it is rare to see one measuring more than ten inches across, and the great majority do not exceed six. 
 
 The destructiveness of these creatures has long been recognized by naturalists and fishermen alike. In Bishop 
 Sprat's HiHtory of the Royal Society of London, we are told that many years ago the Admiralty Court of England 
 laid penalties on those engaged in the oyster-fishery " who do not tread uiuler their feet, or throw upon the 
 shore, a fish which they call fice-Jinger, resembling a spur-rowel, because that fish gets into the oysters when 
 they gap and sucks them out". Numerous accounts might be given of instances when great damage had been 
 done the shell fisheries, particularly along the Welsh and Cornish coasts, by starfishes, in a very short time. 
 Oysters, not only, but clams and scallops of every sort, fall a prey to some of the many spiny raiders, whose size 
 or habit of living in deep or shallow water, fits them to attack one or another sort of mollusk. Couch notes, in 
 his Cornish Fauna, the large Uraster rubcns, which is called clam or cramp in Cornwall, and occurs there in 
 multitudes in si)ring, infests the fishermen's crab-pots, to steal the baits; and a Belfast man reports that he had 
 had starfish frequently seize his lug-worm bait and be brought up on his hook while fishhig. Mollusks, then, are 
 not their only food. The carrion of the sea is eaten by them with voracity, and in this respect they are beneficial 
 to us and the rest of animaMife. 
 
 I do not propose to gis'c a history of British .starfishes, but before leaving them, must toll one or two 
 
228 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 superstitions attached to them by sea-faring men, who are so ready to invest with some supernatural quality 
 every strange product of that mystery of mysteries, the sea, whose inscrutability and might impress him with 
 supernal power, and excite his wonder more and more the longer he is acquainted with its majesty, its moods, and 
 its inhabitants. 
 
 Forbes records that at Scarborough the fishermen call the big Asterias atirantkica, a very destructive species, 
 the "butt horn". "The lirst taken," he says, "is carefully made a prisoner, and placed on a seat at the stern of 
 the boat. When they hook a 'but' (halibut) they immediately give the poor starfish its liberty, and commit it to its 
 native element ; but if their fishery is unsuccessful it is left to perish, and may eventually enrich the cabinet of 
 some industrious collector." 
 
 In Ireland, it appears, the folk-lore of this subject is more grura. " The starfishes are called at Bangor (County 
 Down) the DeviVs Jingcrs, and the DevWs hands, and the children have a superstitious dread of touching them. 
 "When drying some in the little garden behind my lodgings, I heard some of them on the other side of the hedge 
 put the following queries : 'What's the gentleman doing with the bad man's hand? Is he ganging to eat the bad 
 man's hand, do ye think ?'" 
 
 Not a superstition, but an entire error was the belief, which I find still existing in the United States, that the 
 starfish will poison painfully, if not fatally, the hand of any one touching it. Our oystermen know better; but I 
 can tell them that the belief is very old. Pliny, who lived during the first century of the Christian era, asserted 
 that starfishes "can burn all they touch". This pi'oves he took hearsay evidence, which a naturalist is never safe 
 to do, and did not handle them himself to see. Aldrovandus and Albertus, who wrote a few centuries later, followed 
 his same love of the marvelous, in spite of common sense and easy proof to the contrary, and told their credulous 
 readers concerning these creatures, that " their nature was so hot they cooked everything they meddled with". 
 Possibly we may find here the origin of the stew, the roast, the take-home-a-fry-in-a-box, which otherwise remains 
 very obscure. Finally, some outdoor students came along, picked up starfishes, found them harmless, and freed 
 the foolish old tomes that called themselves " natural histories ", but constantly set nature aside for the marvelous 
 and absurd, from one more taint upon the name of observer. 
 
 The tale did not wholly lose its hold upon the minds of the ignorant, however; and even the learned sought 
 until lately to prove that there was some sort of an acrid fluid discharged by the skin of the animal. This false 
 idea arose, perhaps, from confounding the starfish with the various Meduscv, or jelly-fishes, which are also 
 sometimes called "crossfishes"; or, possibly, it is merely an outgrowth of the attempt to account for the insidious 
 destruetiveness of the five-finger, which for a long time was misunderstood. 
 
 How A STARFISH KILLS AN OYSTER. — In Bostou, last winter, one of the oldest oyster-dealers and planters 
 there, gravely instructed me in the manner a starfish attacks his victim. 
 
 " Crawling round the bottom," he exjdained, " the star accidently gets afoul a bed of oysters. He don't know 
 what they are, mebbe, but there they all lie with their shells a-gapin', after the nature of oysters. Poking round 
 amongst 'em he accidently, as it were, gets the end of one of his arms into an open shell, and the oyster of course 
 shuts down on him. Now, sir, he can't get away, but the oyster can't live but a little while with its shell open, and 
 after a few hours he is dead. Then he lets up and the star makes a meal oft' him right there — takes him on the 
 half-shell in his own gravy, as it were." 
 
 This is the first and last time I ever heard an American talk this nonsense, though many have expressed an 
 ignorance of the whole matter, which was no credit to their eyesight; but in reading Prof. Edward Forbes' Britinh 
 Starjishes lately, where he mentions the cripples so frequently taken among starfishes, I find the following paragraph : 
 
 The oystermen believe that it loses its rays in consequence of its oyster-hunting propensities, that it insinuates an arm iuto tlio 
 incautious oyster's gape, with the intent of whipjiing out its prey, but that sometimes the apathetic mollusk proves more than a match 
 for its radiate euemy, and closing on him holds him fast by the profteied linger; then the crosslish, preferring amputation and freedom to 
 captivity and dying of an oyster, like some defeated warrior, finding 
 
 " The struggle vain, he flings his arms away 
 And safety seeks in flight." 
 This story has long been believed. Link gives a vignette representing the mode of attack, with the motto " sic strnit insidias". 
 
 Everybody who knows anything about it understands now, of course, that all this is absurd. The starfish goes 
 about his Ibragnig in a much more effective and sensible way. Indeed, he excels almost any other animal worth 
 calling one, in economy of exertion in eating, since to secure, swallow, and digest his food is all one oi3eration, when 
 once he is inside the shell. 
 
 Having met with an oyster, scallop, or other thin-shelled mollusk — and young ones are preferred because their 
 armor is weak — the starfl.sh folds his five arms about it in a firm and deadly grasp. Then protruding the muscular 
 ring at the entrance of his stomach through the circirlar opening in the center of the under-side of the disk, which 
 I have described, he seizes the thin, newly grown, jiosterior edge of the shell, which oystermen call the " nib" or 
 "bill", and little by little breaks it oft'. It has been surmised that the gastric juice decomposed the edge of the 
 shell, until an opening was effected ; or, entering, paralyzed the mollusk, until he relaxed the muscle which held the 
 protecting valves together. But I do not think either of these suppositions supported by fact. The operation is 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 229 
 
 proceeded with too rapidly to wait for the slow action of tlie stomach acids upon the carbonate of lime in the shell ; 
 and the vital parts of the moUusk are too far inward and sluggish to he promptly affected by any such acids. 
 Moreover, it seems unuccessaiy, since the appearance of every shell attacked at once suggests a breaking down, 
 chiijping-off movement, which the startish might easily produce, by seizing and suddenly pulling dowu with the 
 suckers nearest the mouth, or by a contraction of the elastic opening of the stomach. 
 
 At any rate, the thin edge of the .shell is broken away, um il an entrance is made, which the occui)ant has no way 
 of barricading. Then the burglar protrudes into this entrance the distensible mouth of his stomach, until it can 
 seize upon the body of the mollusk. The consumption of this begins at once, and as fast as the i)oor oyster's or 
 scallop's body is drawn within its folds, the capacious stomach is pushed farther and farther in, until at last, if the 
 mollusk be a large one, the pouches that I have described as packed away in the cavities of the rays, are also 
 drawn forth, and the starlish has substantially turned himself wrong side out. If he is dredged up at this stage, 
 as many examples constantly happen to be, and dragged away from his half-eaten prey, his stonuich will be found 
 hanging out of the center of his body for a distance, perhaps, equal to half the length of one of the arms, and filled 
 with the juices of the oyster he has devoured, and whose body, within the shell, will be found almost as squarely 
 trimmed as could have been done by .scissors. If put very gently into a bucket of salt water, and left in peace, 
 the starfish will straighten himself out, and slowly retract his extruded abdomen, as he would have done after his 
 meal was digested, had he been undisturbed ; but if the least violence is used he will spurt out the liquid contained 
 in the distended pouch, and quickly draw it back into his body. As a rule, however, the angry fisherman does not 
 have patience for these experiments. This process is the one followed in the case of large sized mollusks. Very 
 young oysters and other small prey are enveloped in the stomach, shell and all. The gastric juice then kills and 
 dissolves out the soft i)arts, and the hard crust is thrown away by the eversion and withdrawal of the stomach. 
 
 Difficulty of destroying the staefish. — When oysters first were cultivated along the American coa-st, 
 and this enemy first became known, the oystermen used to save all that they caught in their tongs and dredges, 
 and pile them in a corner of their boats until evening. Then they would collect them into small packages and draw 
 a cord around each lot tightly enough to cut through it. This done, the remnants were cast overboard and 
 considered done for. But this was entirely a mistake, as was presently found out. Five out of six of these 
 fragments not only retained life, but renewed the lost parts and became active again. Thus, instead of diminishing 
 the pest these men were directly increasing it, since they were making two or three new starfishes out of each 
 captive. It was a case of multiplication by division, which may be an invariable paradox in mathematics, but is by 
 no means always one in zoology. 
 
 Starfi.shes often lose one or morQ of their rays, but reproduce them. Forbes figures one, where four out of the 
 five arms had been broken off in some way, and had just begun to be replaced by the little stubs of new growth. 
 This gave the animal, with one full sized limb, the shape of a spike headed bludgeon. Indeed, th re are certain 
 members of the family, found in all seas, known as Ophiurans, or snake-armed sea-stars, which are liable to commit 
 apparent suicide, hurl themselves all to pieces, the instant they are disturbed. This habit belongs, also, to a few 
 larger forms, but, so far as I am aware, is never practiced by any of our familiar American starfishes, who seem to 
 prefer to take their chances rather than voluntarily fling away their limbs. This fragility and spitefulness of 
 certain of the starfishes is humorously described by Forbes, in his account of one large British seven-armed species, 
 the " liugthoru ", or Luidia fragilUssima. Having been cheated out of a previous specimen by its breaking itself to 
 pieces, Mr. Forbes took with him on his nest coUectiug expedition, a bucket of cold fresh water, to which article 
 starfishes have a great antipathy. " As I expected," he says, " a Luidia came up in the dredge— a most gorgeous 
 specimen. As it does not generally break up before it is raised above the surface of the sea, cautiously and 
 anxiously I sunk my bucket to a level with the dredge's mouth, and pro(!eeded in the most gentle manner to 
 introduce Luiilia to the i)urer element. Whether the cold air was too much for him, or the sight of the bucket too 
 terrific, I know not, but in a moment he proceeded to dissolve his corporation, and at every mesh of the dredge his 
 fragments were seen escaping. In despair I grasped at the largest, and brought up the extremity of an arm with 
 its terminating eye, the spinous eyelid of which opened and closed with something exceedingly like a wink of 
 derision." 
 
 Now that I have spoken of the "brittU-stars," as the Ophiurans are well called, I may as well quote ]Mr. Forbes' 
 account of the trouble they give on the French and English coasts, which entitles them to a place in this essay ou 
 an enemy of the shellfisheries. He remarks : 
 
 The comraou Vmttle-star oftcu congrogatos in groat numbers on the edge.s of scallop-banks, and 1 have seen a large dredge come 
 np completely tilled with them ; a most curions sigbt, for when the dredge was emptied, these little creatures, writhing with 
 the strangest contortions, crept iibont in .all directions, often flinging their arms in broken pieces .around them, and their snake-like and 
 threatening .attitudes were by no means relished by the boatmen, who anxiously asked permission to shovel them overboard, superstitiously 
 remarking "the things weren't altogether right". Kondletius » » * says they prey on little shells and crabs. They constitute a 
 favorite article of diet in the codfish's bill of fare, aiul great numbers of them are often found in the stoniaeli of that fish. 
 
 Starfishes are rarely foond dwelling u])on a muddy bottom, nor do they like clean sand very well. Upon the 
 mud it is difficult for them to move about, and the open, smooth sand holds little food, ami is likely to be shifted by 
 a storm too quickly for them to escape being buried. Their home, then, is chosen on rocky coasts, where submerged 
 
230 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 reefs afibrd pleuty of craggy points for them to cling to, and whose crannies at once serve as homes for the animals 
 they feed upon, and safe hiding-places for themselves. Beds of jingles, Anomia, deckheads. Patella, limpets, and 
 other rock-loving- moUusks are strongholds of starfish life. 
 
 Extent op damage wrought by the starfish. — The amount of damage done to the oyster-fisheries of 
 the American coast by sea-stars, was one of the objects of constant inquiry in my work north of Stateu Island. 
 To the southward of Sandy Hook, at the utmost, no harm is reported, since the starfishes are extremely few, and 
 almost wholly confined to the mussel-beds in the iulets. 
 
 In Prince Edward island they did not reckon this enemy as of much consequence, and had no losses of any 
 consequence to rej)ort. 
 
 Crossing the Maritime provinces to the harbor of Eastport, Maine, I learned that all attempts to bed down 
 northern stock or to transplant and raise any northern seed-oysters, had been completely frustrated by hordes 
 of giant starfish, which ate up the mollusks almost as fast as they could be put down. Here, then, the sea stars are 
 responsible for an entire disuse of otherwise available privileges for oyster -culture. 
 
 The same condition of afiairs exists to a great extent on the rest of the coast of Maine, and I am not sure but 
 the mysterious extinction, at about the date of the advent of Europeans, of the once extensive living beds of oysters 
 between the mouths of the Kennebec and the Merrimac, was largely due to the attacks of this five-fingered foe. 
 At Portland, however, where many southern oysters are laid down every year, I heard little complaint. This 
 immunity is probably due to the fact, that no young oysters are planted here, or grow naturally; and also to the 
 fact, that the beds are made upon muddy fiats, in shallower water than starfishes enjoy. The same is true of the 
 whole of Massachusetts bay, except Wellfleet, where the planters count sea-stars among the enemies, but secondary 
 to the three or four species of mollusks that prey upon the planted beds. 
 
 South of Cape Cod, however, where oysters spawn and grow naturally, and beds of cultivated oysters are 
 raised from eggs and infancy, starfishes are plentiful. All of the shores of Buzzard's bay are infested with them, 
 and from there to the western extremity of Long Island sound they do enormous damage annually to the oyster 
 interests— a damage probably not overestima'ed at $L'00.000 a year. The south shore of Long Island and the bay 
 of New York are less affiicted. Their attacks are not uniform and continuous, it appears, but vary with years, the 
 time of the year, and other circumstances. A steady increase, however, has been observed in their numbers, 
 wherever oyster-cultivation has been carried on for any considerable length of time. The planters at Providence, 
 New Haven, and Norwalk, whose memories go back for twenty-five years or more, relate that in their early days 
 this plague was not regarded as of any consequence, and that the starfishes are steadily increasing. Such a report 
 is no more than we should expect, in view of the enormous increase of the foo^l aflbrded them by oyster-culture. 
 
 Starfish invasions. — There have occurred times in the past, nevertheless, as now happens at intervals of a 
 few years, when an excessive crowd of starfishes invaded the beds. Such a disastrous visitation was witnessed in 
 the Providence river, Rhode Island, about 1 858. The starfishes came in " sudden droves", as my informant expresses 
 it, " which burnt up everything". The planting-grounds were mainly on Great Bed, about three miles below the 
 city of Providence, and of all this extensive tract only two acres escaped, owing their safety to the fact, that just 
 before that they had been partially buried under a layer of sunken sea-weed and diifted matter. Another of the 
 planters had his heaviest bed between Field's point and Starvegoat island (which probably were not long ago 
 connected), where the low tide left them so nearly bare that liis men could pick up the starfishes, while his rivals had 
 no means of combating them in the deeper water. In the general scarcity that ensued, he made large profits from 
 this rescued bed, and got a start to which he owes a large part of his present eminence in the New England trade- 
 So complete was the destruction caused by this visit, that the state revoked the leases of all that ground, and 
 the planters left it wholly for a new tract at Diamond reef, where the water was so fresh that starfishes could not 
 live. This single inroad upon Providence river probably cost the planters there $150,000. It occurred late in the 
 summer, and the marauders staid there picking up the fragments of the feast that remained until winter. Then a 
 heavy fall of snow and rain, in conjunction with an unasually low tide, chilled and so completely freshened the water 
 as to kill them all off. So it is related ; and it is said to have been some years before that tract was reoccupied by 
 planters. 
 
 Similar traditions exist elsewhere along this "sound" coast; and the planters stand in constant fear that the 
 army of the enemy, which they daily fight, may at any time be suddenly re-enforced from some invisible quarter to 
 an extent which shall make any contest useless. In 1878, for example, after some rough and gloomy weather in the 
 latter part of October, a plauter at Pocasset, Massachusetts, went out in his boat to look at his oysters which lay in 
 three to five feet of water. He at once noticed that the starfishes had made a raid upon him under cover of the 
 storm. Taking an eel-spear as a weapon, he forked up 2,500 by actual count within the next two days, and later 
 gathered 500 more. In spite of this they ate up about oOO bushels from his beds alone. Adding what his neighbors 
 suffered, he considers the single week's loss at that point to have been about 1,000 bushels, worth $1,1200. 
 
 At Warren, Rhode I.-sland, I saw a pile of dead starfishes, said to amount to 1,000 bushels, which had been 
 dredged off the beds in the river there. A bushel of living sea-stars contains from 100 to 200, according to size ; say, 
 150 on the average. In drying, however, the bulk of a bushel is reduced three-fourths. Therefore this decaying 
 
THE OYSTEli-INDUSTRY. 231 
 
 Leap, ready to be turned into niannrc, represented something like 1,000 by 150 by 4 = 000,000 starfisLes. Snppose 
 tbein to be the only starlishes caught in Warren river, and to Lave eaten only one oyster each before their capture, 
 and we have 000,000 uiollu.sks, or about 3,000 bushels, destroyed. But the oystermen say not one in twenty-five 
 fingers gets caught, and that 50,000 bushels would come nearer to each season's loss of young and old oysters. 
 
 It is in the latter ])art of the summer and in the autumn that the starlish pest occurs in its greatest violence 
 along the Khode Islaud and Connecticut coasts. Then they, themselves, are done with their spawning and have 
 renewed their vigor, and the young of all sorts of mollusks, crabs, and other prey abound ui^on the shores and 
 invite the five-fingers to an easy repast. It is at this sea.son that the sudden appearance of great bodies of starfishes 
 make the heart of the planter sink witliin him; for he knows that if they once attack a bed of his, they march straight 
 through it, and leave as dead a path as if it bad been swept by a tire. It is utterly useless to struggle against them, 
 except by putting on a large force of men and taking up all the oysters on the bed. On more than one occasion 
 steamers have been employed, in order to hasten the work of dredging, at a large expense. 
 
 I was told all along the coast, in order to account for the sudden unforeseen appearance of these bodies of 
 starfishes in the midst of an oyster-bed, that they came rolling in from the deep sea in a compact ball, all clinging 
 tightly together. This ball might be a foot in diameter, or as big as a barrel, and was rolled along on the bottom 
 by the tide. When it struck the feeding-ground it went to pieces, and the individual members at once began to 
 devour the oyster next to them, beginning with the tenderest. I discredit the truth of this statement, since 1 never 
 could find an actual witness of such a plienomenon. The nearest I came to it was this: Captain Eaton, an old 
 oysterman, whom I saw at New Haven, told me that several years ago, when he was with his brother at Norwalk, 
 they raked up one end of a cylindrical roll of starfishes clinging tightly together, which they hauled into their boat 
 until it would contain no more, when they had to break the roll or " string", as he called it, which was a foot or more in 
 diameter. Ue did nof mention anything inside of this cylindrical body, which was solid starfishes and nothing else. 
 
 There is no reference in books, that I know of, to anything of this nature, except that Forbes quotes a French 
 writer, Deslonchamps, of 1825, who says that on the French coast, when the tide was out, and while two or three 
 inches of water remained on the sand, " he saw balls of Axferkis rubens, five or six in a ball, their arms interlacing, 
 rolling out. In the centers of the balls were Mactnv stultorum [a kind of large clam] in various states of destruction, 
 but always unable to close the valves, and apparently dead." How much faith is to be put in this account, repeated 
 by many fishermen, and how much of it is pure fable, is hard to say from i)resent data. In general it is known 
 that the starfishes live and breed among the rocks, begin to feed in summer, but do not move about much when 
 once they strike a feeding-ground, and either jierish or retreat to deep water when the cold of winter approaches. 
 Mussels are preferred to oysters or clams, though I have heard it asserted that they will even make their way into 
 a qnahaug, if hard pressed. The smaller, thin-shelled bivalves fall an easy prey to them. One of these (Arcaciiyjata ?) 
 is called the "blood-quahaug" by the rivermen, and when it is present the starfish will take nothing else. One of 
 the tracks saved from the attack which ruined the Great Bed in Providence river, is said to have owed its safety to 
 the abundance of " blood-quahaugs" upon it, which satisfied the starfishes. 
 
 The oidy oft'setting value in this plague, that I am aware of, is its usefulness as a manure, for which purpose 
 those taken by the oystermen are saved. They are esiiecially recommended for grape-vines. Large quantities are 
 thus made use of in Great Britain and France. 
 
 "Anciently," as I have read, "the Urasters were used in medicine. They were given internally as a decoction 
 with wine, iu hysterical diseases and against epilepsy. The iihjsicians of old times, members of a profession ne\'er 
 very remarkable for logical acumen, applied them externally in hernia, from some fanciful analogy between their 
 pouting stomach and the appearance of the ruj)ture. Any medical man who would wish to revive the practice 
 will find the prescriiitions carefully gathered together in Link, who, however, does not appear to have put much 
 faith either in the medical or gastronomical virtues of starfishes; j'et, conceiving it necessary to find some use for 
 them, accoixling to the manner of his times, he tells us they are of use to man, not because they serve as food to him 
 themselves, but because they feed the fishes, and the fishes feed him, adding, ' miror hinc et in x>rovidentia divina 
 sapientiam.'" 
 
 In spite of his belief, however, I do not know any fishes that feed upon the sea-stars, except the cod. 
 
 Prevention of si aufish ravages. — The question following a knowledge of the facts which have been given 
 above, is : What can be done toi>reveut, or at any rate lessen, the ravages committed by the starfishes upon oyster- 
 cultivation 1 This is a very hard question to answer. The boundless tracts of the outer sea harbor them beyond 
 any hope of extermiinxtii)n by us, and all operations must apparently be confined to the small localities occupied by 
 the oysters. Here, again, the expense involved in ridding one's property of the pests, makes it a question whether 
 it were not more profitable to let them alone. Possibly this might be the case in individual instances; and probably 
 it has been found so and acted ui)on almost universally up to the present. The result is a colonization and increase 
 of starfishes which forsake the single localities to which they were once confined and devastate a whole neighborhood. 
 Every man now sufi'ers through his neighbor's neglect as well as his own. 
 
 At Norwalk, Connectiaut, the starfishes are i)robably now more injurious than at any other place on the coast, 
 and I jiaid nuu-li attenli(m to the matter there. The result of my iminiries seemed to show, that one man, in a sloop, 
 devoting his whole time to it, could keep ten acres of oyster ground clean of starfishes by dredging them off. 
 
232 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 He would continually sail back and forth, round and round over the ground, and catch the ugly visitors as fast as 
 they came. There are in Norwalk harbor about 700 acres of cultivated bottom. Tliis would need the persistent 
 services of 70 men, therefore, at a total annual expense of not less than .§50,000. In lieu of this, the oystermen who 
 own contiguous beds, should combine during the summer to dredge the starfishes all off a certain district, and 
 divide the expense or labor equally among them all. Such combined and persistent work, when the plague first 
 appears, will certainly clear them oft'; and when once they are got rid of, they will not be again troublesome until 
 the following season, and then in less numbers. There is no more reason why the starfishes cannot be so reduced 
 in Long Jshmd sound, that they shall not be harmful to the oyster-beds, than there is why the Canada thistle cannot 
 be kept down in the three shore counties of Connecticut. It is merely a question of steady labor. But this labor 
 must be unselfish. I heard it whispered, that certain oystermen would keep very quiet so long as no seastars were 
 on their own acre or two, rejoicing slyly in the losses their rivals in business were sustaining. So short-sighted and 
 unmanly a policy as this must be abandoned. 
 
 It was also suggested to me, and I advi.sed with many planters in Connecticut and New York on the matter, 
 that a bounty might profitably be paid for the destruction of starfishes. The question was: Who shall pay this 
 
 bounty ? 
 
 It was thought by many that the general government should do it, but I consider this obviously a mistake. 
 Another opinion was, that the state should do so ; but only a portion of the state is interested, and much opposition 
 would no doubt be manifested by the inhabitants inland. The same would, perhaps, be true of the shore counties if 
 they attempted the scheme, though to a less extent. It seems, then, that the proper source to look to for appropriations 
 for such an object, are the townships along the shore in whose waters the oystermen rent their ground and plant. 
 This confines the expense to the district benefited, and, by making one officer in each town an inspector of the 
 claims and the only authorized paymaster, restricts the possibilities of fraud. 
 
 The next question is: How much shall the bounty be? This ought to vary somewhat ia different localities, 
 according to scarcity, value of interests risked, etc. In general it was thought that the claim ought to be based 
 upon count rather than measure, and that in western Connecticut from o to 10 cents a hundred would be large 
 enough to encourage constant effort to collect them, and not too large to prove a profitable investment in the 
 amount saved. I suppose that the town authorities could redeem a considerable percentage of their outlay, by 
 selling the starfishes collected to farmers for manure, or to factories to be made into fertilizers. 
 
 I am not aware that any steps have been taken by any of the towns to set a bounty upon the capture of this 
 plague; but if combined action were taken, I feel sure it would be wise, and the results conspicuously beneficial to 
 the whole oyster interest. If the towns will do nothing of the sort, an association of oystermen, at such crowded 
 producing points as City Island, Stamford, llowayton, South Norwalk, New Haven, and Providence would no doubt 
 find it profitable. 
 
 Some years ago a trial was made in Narraganset bay of a trawl, made after tlie pattern introduced about 
 1872 by the United States Fish Commission. The Fish Commissioners of Ehode Island, in company with a firm of 
 oyster-planters at Providence, went down the bay, and swept one of the oyster-beds with the improved trawl, 
 hauled by a steam-tug. "On hauling it up, in a few minutes they counted nearly two hundred starfish, large and 
 small, which were snared and caught at this first haul. A second haul brought up still more." If this report is 
 correct, it is strange that so effective an iiistrnment was abandoned. A still more useful appliance is the 
 "tangles", made of rope-yarn and shaped like a mop or a deck-swab. This being drawn over the bottom, the 
 stnrfish are entangled in its film. The "tangles" are constantly used in the natural history work of the United 
 States Fish Commission. Tens of thousands of starfish are sometimes brought up at one haul. 
 
 The dkill.— a small but numerous and persistent enemy of the oyster, is the "drill" or "borer". Under this 
 name is included, however, a numerous class of univalve mollusks, which areca]■ni^'orous in their tastes, and armed 
 witli a tongue-ribbon, so shaped and so well supplied with flinty teeth, that by means of it they can file a round 
 hole through an oyster's shell. The mode in which it is done has been clearly described by the Eev. Samuel Lockwood, 
 as follows: 
 
 Tho tongue is set with three rows of teeth lilce a file; it is, in fact, a tongue-file, or dental h.nnit, and is called by conchologists the 
 lingii.al ribbon. » * » Having with the utmost care witnessed a number of times the creature in tho liurglarious act, I give the 
 following as my view of the case: With its fleshy disk, called the foot, it secures by adhesion a firm hold on the upper part of the oyster's 
 shell. The dental ribbon is next brought to a curve, and one point of this curve, on its convex side, is l)rought to bear directly on the 
 desired spot. At this point the teeth are set perpendicularly, and the curve, resting at this point as on a drill, is made to rotate one circle, 
 or nearly so, when the rotation is reversed : and so tho movements are alternated, until, after long and patient labor, a perforation is 
 accomplislied. Tliis alternating movement, I think, must act favorably on the teeth, tending to keep them sharp. To understand the 
 l>recise movement, let the reader crook his forefinger, and, inserting the knuckle in the palm of the opposite h.and, give to it, by the action 
 of the wrist, the sort of rotation described. The hole Ihiis efi'ected by the drill is hardly so much as a lino in diameter. It is very neatly 
 countersunk. The hole finished, the little burglar inserts its siphon or sucking-tube, and thus feeds upon tho occupant of the house into 
 which it has effected a forced entrance. To a mechanic's eye there is something positively beautiful in the symmetry of the bore thus 
 effected — it is so "true"; he could not do it better himself, even with his superior tools and intelligence. 
 
 These small "snails", "drills", "borers", and "sfiail-bores", as they are variously called, belong to several 
 species of Natica, Furpura, Aiuwhis, Aatt/ris, Tritia, Ilyanassa, etc.; but the master and most destructive, as well 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 233 
 
 as most abniulant of tbem all, is the TJrosalpwx cinerea of Stimpson. It is this whicli is the common "drill" of the 
 oyster-beds; and it is its eggs, laid in small vase-shaped capsules, which are often found attached in groups to the 
 under surfaces of stones. Several of the small mollusks mentioned above lay eggs in this way, but the drill's 
 cajisulcs have very short stalks, or are almost sessile, and are comi)re8sed with an ovate outline, while angular 
 ridges pass down their sides. The natural home of the drill is the tide-pools and weedy borders of rocky shallows, 
 where barnacles, hydroids, anemones, rock-loving limi)ets, and other associated forms that find shelter among the 
 a]ga\ afford it abundant food. Though this is ]>recisely where the mussels grow till the rocks are almost black 
 with them, it is said that they are never attacked by the drills. 
 
 The Uromlpinx sometimes stray to the oyster-beds, but is usually carried therewith the seed- supplies, and 
 finding ])leuty of nourishment live and increase. Though its multiplication is not very rapid, it is fast enough 
 to make it a very serious obstacle to success, in the course of a few years. In nearly every case, I was told that 
 formerly there wcjc no drills, but now the oyster-beds were overrun. This was reported in particular of the Great 
 South bay of Long Island and at Keyport, New Jersey. I heard less of its ravages in New Jersey, except in the 
 DehiMare; but in Chesapeake bay nearly every dredge-haul in any ])art of Maryland or Virginia waters, brings 
 up; Ihe Potomac seems to be the district least infested. Of course, in such natural haunts as the rocky shores 
 of Huzzard's bay and Connecticut, would be present if there were no oysters, and are all the harder to dislodge. 
 
 Once having attacked an oyster-bed, they work with rapidity ; and seem to make sudden and combined attacks 
 at considerable intervals. Their disapiiearance from certain i-estricted localities, too, for a long time, is 
 unexplained. 
 
 What is the best way to combat them, or whether there is any hope of ridding the beds of them, are questions 
 often discussed by oyster-cultnrists. It is certain that a great deal of trouble might be avoided, if care were 
 exercised in culling seed, to throw out — not into the water, but on the ground or deck — all the drills, instead of 
 carrying them to one's beds, deliberately planting them, and then grumbling at destruction which previous care 
 would have avoided. It would cost less, in point of mere labor, no doubt, to prevent this plague than to cure it 
 when it becomes no longer endurable. Some planters clean up pieces of bottom very thoroughly before planting, in 
 order to get all this sort of vermin out of their way, as well as to stir up the mud and fit it for the reception of spat. 
 It is on hard bottom that drills are especially troublesome, and here some i)lanters go over the ground with a flue- 
 meshed dredge in order to get them up, but they fail to catch all. This is done at Xorwalk, Conunecticut, I know, 
 and the men who have steamers. And in the celerity with which they are able to accomi)lish this sort of work, a great 
 argument against any restriction to exclusively sailing-rig. 
 
 The drill can be exterminated to a great extent, also, by diligently destroying its eggs. Small boys might well 
 be paid to search for them and destroy them, among the weedy rocks by the shore, at low tide. A gentleman 
 at Sayville, Ijong Island, assured me that in those years when large eels were plentiful, the drills were kept 
 down because the eels fed on their eggs. This gentleman said, that in the Great South bay the drills were nearly 
 conquering the planters; and he advised the removal of all shells from the bottom of the bay, in order that the 
 drills might have nothing left on which to ])lace their eggs. This might do there, where there are no rocks along 
 the shoi-e and the drill is not native; but I doubt whether so sweeping a measure of protection could ever be carried 
 out. 
 
 On the Pacific coast Gastrochcetio, and various pholadiform mollusks are a great bane to the oyster-beds, but they 
 penetrate by digging burrows wherein their whole shell is lodged. Large numbers of these, with the help of boring- 
 worms and sponges, may so riddle a reef as to cause its entire disintegration. 
 
 The winkle. — Destructive pests on the oyster-beds are, also, found in the two large, spiral mollusks, Si/cofi/pus 
 canaliciihitus and FuJf/ur carica, which along the coast are confounded tinder the names "periwinkle", "winkle", 
 "wrinkle" (New England), and "conch" (southern), with occasionally a distinguishing prefix. Various other large 
 shells also come under these generally applied names ; and in the Gulf of Mexico we have, additionally, the " king 
 conch", "queen conch", and " horse conch", all of which are edible. 
 
 The Sycoti/pus is more common north of New York — though it does not exist at all beyond Cape Cod — while 
 along the coast of New Jersey and southward it is the Fulgur which is chargeable with nearly all mischief 
 perpetrated, since the other species is rarely seen. Occasionally, as Verrill mentions, specimens of both may be 
 found crawling on sandy flats or in the tide pools, especially during the spawning-season, but they do not ordinarily 
 live in such situations, but in deejier water and on harder bottoms off shore. It is needless to say that they do not 
 burrow at all, though they are able to insert the posterior part of the foot into the sand suthciently to afford them 
 a strong anchorage against currents. A very soft or a very rocky bottom they equally avoid. 
 
 The curious egg-cases of these mollusks, to which the names "sea-riilfle" and "sea-necklace" are often given 
 by fishermen, always attract the atteutiun of visitors to the seaside, w-ho find them cast upon the beaches; and we 
 can well echo the pious exclamation of the old historian of Martha's Vineyard, "the Author of nature makes a 
 wonderful and copious provision for the j)ropagatioii of this worm". 
 
 As shown in the figure, the eggs are discharged in a series of disk-shaped, subcircular, or reniform, yellowish 
 cajjsuies, parchment like in texture, united by one edge to a stout stem of the same kind of material, often a foot 
 and a half or two feet in length. "The largest capsules, about an inch in diameter, are in the middle, the size 
 
234 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 decreasing toward eacli end. On the outer border is a small circular or oval spot, of thinner material, which the 
 young ones break through when they are ready to leave the capsules, each of which, when perfect, contains twenty 
 to thirty or more eggs or young shells, according to the season." Venill adds interesting particulars as follows: 
 
 Dr. Elliott Coues, who has observed Fuhjur carica forming its cases .at Fort Macou, North Carolina, states that the females bury 
 themselves a few inches below the surface of the sand on the flats that are uncovered at low-W!iter, and remain station.ary during the 
 process. The string of capsules is gradually thrust upward as fast as formed, and finally protrudes from the surface of the sand, and, 
 when comideted, lies exposed on its surface. The string begins as a simple .shred, two or three inches long, without well-formed cases; 
 the first cases are small and imperfect in shiipe, hut they rapidly increase in size and soon become periict, the largest being in the 
 middle; the series ends more abruptly than it begun, with a few smaller and less perfect capsules. The number of capsules varies 
 considerably, but there are usually seventy-five to one hundred or more. At Fort Macon Dr. Coues observed this species spawning in May, 
 but at New Haven they spawn as early as March and April. It is prob.able that the period of sjiawniug extends over several months. Mi: 
 Sanderson Smith thinks that they also sjjawn in autumn on Long Island. It is not known how long a time each fem.ale requires for the 
 formation of her .string of capsules. There are two forms of these capsules, about equally abundant in this region. In one the sides of the 
 capsules are nearly smooth, but the edge is thick or truncate along most of the circumference, and crossed by numerous sharp traus\-erse 
 ridges or partitions, dividing it into facets. Dr. Coues states that these belong to Fulf/itr carica. An examination of the .^ung shells, 
 ready to leave the capsules, confirms this. The other kind has larger and thinner capsules, with a thin, shai-p outer edge, while the sides 
 have r.adiating ridges or raised lines. Sometimes the sides are unlike, one being smooth and more or less concave, the other convex and 
 crossed by ten or twelve radiating, elevated ridges, extending to the edge. This kind was attributed to FuJgur carica by Dr. G. H. Perkins, 
 and formerly by Mr. Sanderson Smith, but a more careful esamiuatiou of the joung shells, within the capsules, shows that they belong to 
 Sycotijpus canalicidata. 
 
 Eggs so exposed are subject to numberless accidents, being drifted ashore, ground to pieces by storms, and 
 no doubt eaten by bottom-feeding fishes, so that only a few eggs out of the hundreds in each "necklace'' are ever 
 born, or, accomplishing that, are able to survive the perils of unprotected youth and grow to adult age and strength. 
 Having once done so, however, this mollu.sk i)robably lives to a very great age. 
 
 An examination of the plate, or, better, of a specimen, will .show that in both species the muscular part is large 
 and strong and the mouth powerful. The food of the couch being mainly the flesh of other mollusks, its method 
 of killing them is one of brute strength, since it is unprovided with the silicious, file-like tongue, bj* means of which 
 the small "drills" set at naught the shelly armor of their victims. The conch is a greater savage than this. 
 Seizing upon the unfortunate oyster, unable to run away, he envelops his shell in the concave under-surface of his 
 foot, and, by just such a muscular action as you would employ in grasping an object in the palm of your fist, crushes 
 the shell into fragments and feasts at leisure on the flesh thus exposed. Where oysters or other prey are abundant, 
 this operation is quickly repeated and vastly destructive. One planter in the upper part of Buzzard's bay, where 
 this pest is very troublesome, told me that one winkle was capable of killing a bushel of oysters in a single hour. 
 They do not confine themselves to oysters altogether, of cour.se ; any mollusks or other marine animal, sluggish 
 and weak enough to be caught aud broken up, suffering from their predacity. I was told in New Jersey, by an 
 intelligent man, that the couch would even draw the razor-shell out of his burrow and devour it. If this be true, 
 no doubt the soft clam also falls a victim to the same marauder. The quahaug is generally safe in his massive 
 shells. 
 
 The oyster-beds most subject to attack aud harm by the winkles and conchs, are those planted in water which 
 is quite salt, as is the practice in New England aud Long Island sound. The beds of the Great South bay, Staten 
 Island, and the southern Jersey coast, are well pi'otected by the outer beaches from the sea, and to these barriers 
 owe their immunity from the Fulgur, while the Sycotypm, though present inside the beaches, seems to do small 
 damage. Oystermen will tell you, also, that beds which are disturbed from time to time by the planter, will sufter 
 more harm than neglected beds, especially in summer. Of course, the report is to be expected, that where plantiug 
 has gone on for many years, there these predatory mollusks have visibly inci'eased in numbers. 
 
 In regard to ridding our beds of this pest, I can only advise, as heretofore, that every effort be made to 
 destroy every specimen taken and every "necklace" of eggs which can be got hold of. The trawl, tangles, etc., 
 recommended for the suppression of starfishes, would take up these eggs at the same time, aud thus increase their 
 efficiency. Persistent fighting is the only resource against this enemy. 
 
 Some points of minor interest may be mentioned before leaving this subject. Both of these shells were used 
 by the Indians of the coast ceremonially, and as material for the making of white wampum, their money of inferior 
 value, which consisted of bead .shaped sections of the central column of the shell. From them, also, were fashioned 
 sundry articles of service aud ornament, such as trowels, spoons, and dippers; they are sometimes even yet called 
 "ladle shells". The Indians ate the animals, too, when hard pressed for food, and have been followed in this 
 practice by the whites, to some extent. De Voe says they used .sometimes to be sent into Catherine market, New 
 York, from Long Island, and found sale ; "but," he adds, "they are uot generally relished, being somewhat strong 
 flavored. They are mostly used by the poor who live near the coast." Several foreign mollusks, uot greatly 
 ditterent, are eaten — generally being boiled — and perhaps proper cooking would make these conchs more palatable 
 than tliey have hitherto proved. 
 
 The drum. — Perhaps as destructive an agent as the conchs and winkles, is the fish known as the drumfish, 
 {Piuimiias croinis, Liini.); for, although this plague is not steadily present, when it does occur the devastation is 
 enormous. "Let us make a visit," says that brightest of American writers on animals and out-of-door matters, 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 235 
 
 " to one of tbese orderly communities in Oysterdom known as a 'plantiuggiound'. We are seated in a boat, and, 
 gliding through the phosphorescent sheen, soon near the oyster-bed. It is a moonlight night, about the close of 
 snuinier. Hark! what singular sound is that? Boom! boom! boom! Almost sepulchral, and, strange to say, it 
 comes up from beneath the waters. One would think they were Kereids' groans. The oystermen, whose capital 
 lies invested there, hear it with sad forebodings of loss, which they cannot well sustain. It is one of a school of 
 visitors who come with marauding purpose. The fishermen call it the big drum. Tliis drumfish is known among 
 naturalists by the name rofjonias chromis. The acknowledged beat of this scamp is the Gulf Stream, from Cape 
 Cod to Florida ; and a terrible felh)w is this Pogonias, for he is recorded as having attained the great weight of 
 eiglity pounds. One of twenty-five pounds would be but an ordinary affair. Their mouths are furnished with 
 pavements of hard teeth, a little rounding on the top, and set together exactly as are the cobble-stones of the old 
 city highways. The function of these dental pavements is to crunch the young oysters, which, after being crushed, 
 are thus swallowed, shells and all." 
 
 The great schools in which these fish go are illustrated by the following records: 
 
 Ou Monday Last John E.irle ami sons caught, with a seine, at one draught, in Bristol I'ei'ry, 719 drumfish, weighing upward of fiO 
 pounds each. Niles' Wnkhj Itn/ister, July, 183;!, also says: "Some days ago a haul was made in Great Egg Harhor hay, near Bearslcy's 
 point, cape May, at whicli 218 drumfish were caught, their entire weight being from 8,000 to 9,000 pounds. This is said to be the largest 
 haul of that description of fish ever made in that bay." 
 
 Another still larger, noticed as a great haul of drumfish : "On Wednesday, June .'i, 1804,'' says the postmaster of Oyster Ponds, 
 Long Island, "one seine drew on shore at this phice at a single haul 12,2.':0 fish, llie average weight of which was found to be 3:! pounds, 
 making in the aggregate 20:1 tons, 250 pounds. This undoubtedly is the greatest haul of this kind ever known in this country. A hundred 
 witnesses are ready to attest the truth of the above statement. They are used for manure." 
 
 Knowing the carnivorous propensity of the fish, one can easily imagine how an inroad of such a host must 
 affect an oyster-ground. They do not seem to make any trouble, however, north of New Yoik city, and rarely along 
 the south side of Long Island. At Statcn Island and Keyport they come in every few years and devastate thousands 
 of dollars' worth of property. Such a memorable visitation happened about 1S50, iu July. The following summer 
 the planters iu Prince's bay, fearing a repetition of the onslaught, anchored shingles and pieces of waste tin ou 
 their beds, scattering them at short intervals, iu the hope that their dancing, glittering surfaces might act as 
 "scare-crows" to frighten the fish away. Whether as an effect of this, or because of a geueral absence, no uuu'e 
 drums appeared. In New York bay, off Caven point, where the old "Black Tom reef" is now converted into an 
 island, one planter of Keyport lost his whole summer's work— material and labor — in a single September week, 
 through an attack by drums. A City Island planter reported to me a loss of -$10,000 in one season a few years ago; 
 but the East river is about the northern limit of the drums, at least as a nuisance to oyster-culture, so far as I can 
 learn. The vexation of it is, too, that the drum does not seem to eat half of what he destroys ; but, on the contrary, 
 a great school of them vriU go over a bed, w'antonly crushing hundreds of oysters and dropping them untasted, but 
 iu fragments, on the bott(Hn. 
 
 In return, the drum is himself an edible fish, but of rather poor quality, and only seen in market between July 
 and October. There is a tradition that there were oidy ten species of fish known to the Dutch when they discovered 
 America. When they caught the shad they named it e//if (eleventh) ; the bass twalft {UvvUth); and the drum, 
 derdenen (thirteenth). Our name, however, owes its origin to the strange, hollow, roaring noise the fish makes in 
 the water, like the roll of a muffled drum. 
 
 When drums are absent, various other carnivorous fi.shes prey upon oysters, such as the tautog, shee])shead, 
 toad-fish, members of the cod family (if any of them ever get near a bed, which is rarely at present), and the skates 
 or rays. Of all these the sting-ray or "stingaree" of the fishermen (includiug several sorts of Dybasten) is the 
 chief. He is always present and steadily at W(uk along the whole coast. Lying flat on the bottom, he works 
 his triangular flippers until he has washed away the sand from about the oyster he wishes to seize, if it is at all 
 concealed, and then crushes it between his powerful jaws. Even clams do not escape his sagacity in capture and 
 strength of mastication, but are devoured in great numbers. A diedge can hardly be hauled from New Jersey to 
 Caiie Cod, without bringing one or more of tliese enemies of the hard-working oysterman. 
 
 Minor enemies. — Beside these foes, many minor "vermin" must be contended with. The oyster-catcher, 
 and other birds, steal not a few at low tide. Barnacles, annelids, and masses of hydroid-growth sometimes form 
 about the shells, and intercept the nutriment of the mollusk, until he is nearly cr quite starved; tlii.; is particularly 
 true in southern waters. At Staten Island the jjlanters are always apprehensive of trouble from the colonization 
 of mus.sels on their oyster-beds. The mussels having established themselves grow rajiidly, kuit the oysters together 
 by their tough threads, making culling very diflicult, and take nuich of the food which otherwise would hell) fatten 
 the more valuable shellfish. In the Delaware bay the spawn of squids, in the shape of clusters of eggcases, 
 a])propriately called " sea-grapes ", often grows on the oysters 'so thickly, during the inaction of summer, that when 
 the fall winds come, or the beds are disturbed by a dredge, great quantities of oysters rise to the surface, buoyed 
 up by the light jtarasitic "grapes", and are floated away. This is a very curious danger. Lastly, ce. tain crabs are 
 to be feared — chiefly the CaUhtecfes liastdtus, our common "soft crab", aud the Cancer irroralii.s. Probably the latter 
 is the more hurtful of the two. I have heard more complaint on this score at the western end of the Great South 
 
236 THE FISHERIES OF TIIE UNITED STATES. 
 
 bay, Long Island, than anywhere else. Mr. Edward Udall told me that the crab was the greatest of all enemies to 
 oysters on the Oak Island beds. They eat the small oysters, up to the size of a quarter dollar, chewing them all to 
 bits. These are on the artificial beds, for they do not seem to trouble the natural growth. But attracted by broken 
 oysters, when the planter is working, they come in crowds to that point. Mr. Udall stated that once he put down 
 500 bushels of seed brought from Brookhaven, and that it was utterly destroyed by these crabs within a week, and 
 while he was still planting. He could see the crabs, and they numbered one to every fifty oysters. It is well 
 known that iu Europe the crabs are very destructive to planted beds, and it is quite possible that many mysterious 
 losses may be charged to these rapacious and iusidious robbers. By the way, Aldrovandus, and other of the 
 naturalists of the Middle Ages, entertained a singular notion relative to the crab and the oyster. They state that 
 the crab, iu order to obtain the animal of the oyster, without danger to their own claws, watch their opportunity 
 when the shell is open to advance without noise and cast a pebble between their shells, to prevent their closing, 
 and then extract the animal in safety. "What craft!" exclaims the credulous author, "in animals that are 
 destitute of reason and voice." 
 
 The oyster-crabs. — In respect to the little crab, which becomes red in the cooked oyster, but is greenish brown 
 in life, oinnion is divided as to whether its presence is of any harm to the oyster whose shells give it shelter ; but 
 the probability is that it is not. Its scientific name is Pinnotheres ostreum, and its history briefly as follows, so far 
 as concerns the present inquiry : 
 
 The little red oyster-crab seems to be a parasite. He slips in and out of the oyster almost at pleasure, and 
 enjoys a portion of all the good things the oyster feeds upon. We are told that a careful examination shows that 
 they are almost invariably females and full of eggs. The males are so exceedingly rare that it is a matter of 
 astomshment how the propagation of the species is effected and maintained. These crabs were regarded as 
 luxuries by George Washington. 
 
 The oyster-crab as messmate and purveyor. — It is many years, writes Mr. John A. Ryder, since Mr. 
 Say named the little oyster-crab of our coasts Pinnotheres ostreum, and its habits in relation to the oyster seem 
 to have excited but little interest, especially in foreign waters. Professor Verrill, in his report to the United 
 States Fish (Jommission, observes that it is the female which lives in the oyster, and that the male, which is smaller 
 and quite unlike the female, is rarely if ever seen to occur, but that it has been seen by him swimming at the 
 surface of the water in the middle of Vineyard Sound, His statement that it occurs wherever oysters occur, I 
 cannot agree with, since out of many hundreds of St. Jerome oysters which I saw opened, I never saw a specimen 
 of Pinnotheres ; they may occur, but rarely. This little crab has quite a number of allies which inhabit various 
 living mollusks, holothurians, etc., of which admirable accounts are given by Van Beneden, in his work on animal 
 parasites and messmates. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the oyster-crab is a true messmate, and it is highly probable that the presence of 
 these animals in the oyster is rather to be regarded as advantageous than otherwise. The animal lives iu the gill 
 cavity of the oyster, and, as wUl be seen from the following observations, may be the means of indirectly supplying 
 its host with a part of its food. During a reconuoitering trip down the Chesapeake on the yacht Lookout, in the 
 first week of July last, in dredging, some oysters were hauled up which contained Pinnotheres. In the case which 
 I am about to describe, the included crab was a female, with the curiously expanded abdomen folded forward under 
 tlie thorax and partially covering a huge mass of brownish eggs. Upon examining these eggs, what was my 
 astonishment to find that they afl'orded attachment to a great number of compound colonies of the singular bell 
 animalcule, Zooihamnium arhusculum. Upon further examination, it was found that the legs and back of the animal 
 also afforded points of attachment for similar colonies, and that here and there, where some of the individuals of a 
 colony of Zoothamniuni had been separated from their stalks, numerous minute rod-like vibrioues had affixed 
 themselves by one end. In this way it happens that there is a quadruple commensalism established, since we have 
 the vibriones fixed and probably nourished froin the stalks of the Zoothamnium, while the latter is benefited by 
 the stream of water drawn in by the cilia of the oyster, and the last feeds itself and its proteg^, the crab, from 
 the same food-bearing current. Possibly the crab inside the shell catches and swallows food which, in its entire 
 state, could not be taken by the oyster, but in any event the small crumbs which would fall from the mouth and 
 claws of the crab would be carried to the mouth of the oyster, so that nothing is wasted. We must consider the 
 crab, with its forest of bell animalcules, in still another light. Since the animalcules are well fed iu their strange 
 position, it is but natural to suppose that they would propagate rapidly. They multiply iu two ways, viz, by 
 dividing both lengthwise and crosswise, one-half of the product being set free, and known swarmers. These cast-off' 
 germs of the animalcule colonies are no doubt hurried aluug in the vortex created by the cilia of the gills and palps, 
 carried to the mouth and swallowed as part of the daily allowance of the food of the oyster. We are accordingly 
 obliged to look upon the Pinnotheres in this case as a.veritable nursery, upon whose body animalcules are continually 
 propagated and set free as part of the food-sujiijly of the oyster, acting as host to the crab. I do not suppose, however, 
 that such a condition will always be found to obtain, and it must also be remembered that myriads of Zooihamnium 
 colonies were dredged up on algte from the bottom in the immediate vicinity. Such an abundance of germs in the 
 water would liavor t heir being readily transplanted or fixed to the bedy of the oyster-crab.* 
 
 'Ki'port oi'T. B. Ferguson, ii lish comiiiissioiior of Manlauil, tor 1881, pji. 24, 25 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 237 
 
 62. FATALITIES TO WHICH OYSTEES AEE SUBJECT. 
 
 Sediment.— In addition to the active, animate enemies of the oyster, the beds sntier serionsly, at certain times 
 froQi the elements, as has been jjointed out frequently in the preceding: pages. Great storms will sweep the oysters 
 all oft' the beds, bury them under shifting sand or mud, or heap upon them the drifting wrack toru from the shores. 
 Beds which lie at the mouths of rivers are liable to be injured by floods also, which keep the water wholly fresh, or 
 bringdown enormous quantities of silt and floating matter, which settles on the beds and smothers the oysters. 
 
 A few years ago a large tract of peat was drained at Grangemouth, Scotland. The loose mud and moss was 
 carried down the drains upon an oyster-bed in the estuary ; the consequence was that the oysters were covered over 
 with mud, and entirely destroyed. Nothing is so fatal to oysters as a mud storm, except it be a sand storm. The 
 mud and the sand accumulate in the oyster's delicate breathing organs, and sufibcate him. 
 
 Mr. John A. Eyder, already quoted in the previous paragraphs, writes as follows about mud, as injurious to 
 oysters : 
 
 "The origin of the black ooze at the bottom can be traced directly to the sediment held in suspension in the 
 water, which slowly ebbs and flows in and out of the inclosure, carrying with it in its going and coining a great 
 deal of light organic and inorganic debris, the former part of which is mainly derived from the comminuted 
 fragments of plants growing in the creek. This seemed to be the true history indicated by what was noticed in 
 studying the box-collector. The same opinion is held as to the origin of this mud by both Coste and Fraiche in 
 their works on oyster-culture. 
 
 "There is probably no worse enemy of the oyster-culturist than this very mud or sediment. It accumulates on 
 the bottom of the oyster-grounds, where, in course of time, it may become deep enough to cause serious trouble. 
 Especially is this true of ponds from which the sea ebbs, and to which it flows through a narrow channel. The 
 falling leaves from neighboring trees in autumn also contribute to this pollution, as well as heavy rains which 
 wash deleterious materials into it. 
 
 "Adult oysters which are immersed in part in this mud struggle hard to shut it out from their shells. If one 
 will notice the inside of the shells of oysters which have grown in a muddy bottom, it will often be seen that there 
 are blister-like cavities around the edges of the valves filled with mud, or a black material of a similar character. 
 There is not the slightest doubt in my mind, that in these cases the animal, in order to keep out the intruding mud 
 has had recourse to the only available means at its command. A great many of the oysters in the pond are 
 affected in this manner, but it is extremely uncommon to find shells of this kind in opening oysters coming from a 
 hard bottom. It is easy to understand that such efibrts at keeping out the mud from the shell will not only waste 
 the life-forces of the animal, but also tend to greatly interfere with its growth. The importance, therefore, of 
 artificial preparation is apparent, where it is desirable to establish ponds for the successful culture of this mollusk. 
 
 "Only in one case have I observed that the mud tended to impair the flavor and color of the oyster. In this 
 instance the animal was thoroughly saturated with the black ooze, the very tissues seeming to be inipregnated 
 with the color, the stomach and intestine loaded to engorgement with the mud, the animal manifesting every sign 
 of being in a decidedly sickened condition. The cause of this was probably that the shell, with its tenant, had 
 sunken too deeply into the mud when the ingestion of the black ooze commenced, giving rise to the remarkable 
 changes which I have recorded. No doubt had this condition of things for any length of time, the animal would 
 have been smothered by the mud." * 
 
 Mud and the yottng fry. — "The accumulation of the slightest quantity of sediment around a young oyster 
 would tend to impede its respiration, and in that way destroy it, yet in the natural beds there are so few naturally clean 
 places which remain so, that it is really suri)rising that so many young oysters pass safely through the critical i)eriods 
 of their lives without succumbing to the smothering effects of miul and sediment. When it is borne iu mind, that at 
 the time the infant oyster settles down and fixes itself once and for all time to one i^lace, from which it has no power 
 to move itself, it measures at the utmost one-eightieth of an inch, it will not be hard to understand how easily the 
 little creature can be smothered, even by a very small pinch of dirt. The animal, small as it is, must already begin 
 to breathe just in the same way as its parents did before it. Like them its gills soon grow as little filaments covered 
 with cilia, which cause a tiny current of water to pass iu aud out of the shell. The reader's imagination may be here 
 allowed to estimate the feeble strength of that little current, which is of such vital importance to the tiny oyster, 
 and the ease with which it may be stopped by a very slight accumulation of dirt. Mobius estimates that each oyster 
 which is born has tmtooo of '<^ chance to survive and reach adult age. So numerous aud efiTective are the adverse 
 conditions which surround the millions of eggs matured by a single female, that only the most trifling fraction ever 
 develop, as illustrated by the above circulation. The egg of the oyster being exceedingly small and heavier than 
 watei', immediately falls to the bottom upon being set free by the parent. Should the bottom be oozy or composed 
 of sediment, its chances of development are meager indeed. Irrecoverably buried, the eggs do not, in all probability, 
 have the chance to begin t(j develop at all. The chances of impregnation are also reduced, because the male aud 
 
 • Johu A. Ryder in report of T. B. Ferguson, a fisli commissioner of Maryland, for Idcil, pp. 48, 49. 
 
238 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 female oysters empty their generative products directly into the snrroimding water, whereby the likelihood of the 
 eggs meeting with the male cells becomes diminished. What with falling into the mnd and what with a lessened 
 chance of becoming impregnated, it is not unlikely that Mobius' estimate is very nearly correct; but the American 
 oyster, whose yield of eggs is much greater, not only on account of its larger size, but also because the eggs are 
 smaller than those of the European, has probably still fewer chances of survival.* The vigorous growth of small 
 organisms on surfaces titled for the attachment of young oysters also tends to cause sediment to gather in such 
 ])laces in the intei'stices of the little organic forest, where the eggs of the oyster no doubt often become entombed or 
 smothered by the crowded growth surrounding them."t 
 
 Interfekence of other aijimal life. — "We have called attention," continues Mr. Eyder, "to the probable 
 interference of small organic growths to the fixation of the young fry; ih j)ractice it is found that the larger 
 organic growths which establish themselves on the collectors also become injurious. The two most cons])icuous 
 types are the sessile ascidians or tunicates and the barnacles. I have frequently found fully one h;df of the surface 
 of a slate covered with a dense colony of ascidians ; in this condition a great percentage of available surface is 
 lost which ought to serve for the attachment of spat. TLe surfaces so occupied would also be comparatively clean 
 were it not for these organisms, which actually become a serious aunoyance. They, like the oyster, affix themselves 
 to the slates while still in the free swimming larval stage, since the surfaces designed for the oyster are equally 
 Avell adapted to them. The barnacles, which also affix themselves in great numbers, become a nuisance for the same 
 reason. The larval barnacle is an extremely active little creature, and das'.ies about in the water with great rapidity. 
 As soon as it has comi^)leted this stage of its growth, it betakes itself to some object, to the surface of which it 
 attaches itself by the head end, when a singular change takes place, at the end of which it is found that it has 
 begun the construction of the curious conical shell which it inhabits. They grow very rapidly, so that in a couple 
 of months the shell will already measure over half an inch in diameter. In this way farther inroads are made upon 
 the room which should be taken up by oysters. 
 
 "Of course the larger types are not alone in taking up space, since infusoria, bryozoa, polyps, etc., are also 
 culpable, as well as alg;e, such as diatoms and the higher forms. The only remedy for this accumulation of animal 
 growths on the surfaces of the slates and other collecting apparatus, will be to have the frames which hold the slate 
 in position so arranged that each tile, shingle, or slate can be removed, in order that it may be readily overhauled 
 and these organisms removed from the surfaces which it is desired shall remain clean This work would have to be 
 done at intervals of every two or three weeks, and should be conducted with great care, so as not to remove the 
 oysters which have affixed themselves along with the other things which it is the intention to destroy. The removal 
 of the smaller forms from the surfaces of the slate would be more difficult, and attended with danger to the fry 
 already attached. With this object in view, I would suggest the use of wooden racks or frames lying horizontally, 
 which would receive the slates into deep notches made with a saw, so as to hold them vertically or edgewise, 
 rendering their removal, for the purposes of cleansing, and their replacement, an easy matter. Other devices would 
 no doubt answer the same purpose, and be more convenient even than the last. If posts were securely fixed in the 
 bottom eight or ten feet apart, so as to project a foot or so above the water at the highest tide, a single board six 
 inches wide, nailed against the tops of the posts edgewise, and extending from one to the other, would provide a 
 simple arrangement from which to hang the slates singly, by means of galvanized wire I'astened or hooked to nails 
 partly driven into the board. By the help of this plan one man with a boat could overhaul many hundreds of 
 slates in a single day, and effeiifcually care for them for a whole season. This last contrivance would not answer 
 well, perhaps, where there was a swift current, but would be a most admirable arrangement in still ponds or "claires". 
 In such places the whole area might be provided with posts grouped or placed in rows, so that when the attendant 
 was at work he could pass in order from one row to the other in a narrow boat, or two attendants in one boat could 
 take care of two rows, the ones on either hand, at the same lime." I 
 
 Food of the oyster. — "The food of this mollusk, as is well known, consists entirely of microscopic beings 
 and fragments of organic matter, which are carried by currents from the palps and gills, which have been already 
 described, to the large mouth of the animal at the hinge-end of the shell. The inside of the gullet and stomach, 
 like some other parts of the body, are covered with cilia, so that food once fairly in the month will be carried by 
 their action down to the cavity of the stomach, where it is carried into the folds and deep pouches in its walls, and 
 even into the openings of the bile ducts, to undergo digestion or solution, so as to be fitted in its passage through 
 the intestine, to be taken into the circulation, and finally disposed of in building up the structures of the body. 
 
 "Along with the food which is taken, a very large amount of indigestible dirt, or inorganic matter, is carried in, 
 which in a great measure fills up the intestine, together with the refuse or waste from the body. This material, 
 when examined, reveals the fact that the oyster subsists largely on diatoms, a low type of moving plants which 
 swim about in the water, incased in minute sandstone cases, or boxes, of the most delicate beauty of workmanship. 
 
 * Accorrling to estimates which I have made, based on the figures of the eggs of Ostrea edulis, given by M. Davaine, they are yiff of »° 
 inch in diameter. Estimates based ou the figures of Lacaze Duthiers give yis of au inch, while Mobius estimates the size of the young 
 try at 7J ,5 of an inch. 
 
 tOp. cit., pp. 49-50. 
 
 tOp. cit., pp. 50,51, r>2. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 239 
 
 These, when found iu the intestine, have usually had their living contents dissolved out by the action of the digestive 
 juices of the stomach. I Lave found in our own species of oyster, the shells of three different genera of diatoms, 
 viz, Campylodiiicufi, Cosciiiodi.scKS, and Xaricula. Tiie first is a singularly bent form; the second is discoidal ; and 
 the last boat-sha])ed, and all are beautifully marked. Of these three types, I saw a number of si)ecies, especially 
 of the latter, but as I was not an authority upon the systematic history of any of them, I had to neglect the 
 df'termination of the species. 'No doubt many more forms are taken as food by the oyster, since I saw other forms 
 in which tlie living matter inside the silicious cases was brown, the same as in most of the preceding forms, which 
 [ have indicated. Some of these brown forms wei'e so plentiful as to color a considerable surface whereon they 
 grew of the same tint as themselves. But iu no instance have 1 found any indications of the animal of the oyster 
 becoming colored by feeding on these diatoms, as it is said the European oyster does when feeding on Xaricula 
 oatrearia, which is green, imparting its own green color to the fluids, and thus to the tissues of such oysters as may be 
 so situated as to readily feed upon it. A recent writer* gives an account of some experiments made by M. Tuysegur, 
 of sissable in artificially producing this green color, from which I quote : "In each plate [filled with water charged 
 with green diatoms], according to its size, we put three to six perfectly white oysters which had never been iu the 
 'clears', and the shells of which had been previously washed and brushed clean. In similar plates, like numbers 
 of the same oysters were laid in ordinary sea- water. Twenty-six hours after the commencement of the experiment 
 the oysters in the water charged with diatoms bad all acquired a marked greenish hue; the other oysters remained 
 unaltered. * * * Alter the oyster had turned green it was laid in ordinary sea-water for a few days, when the 
 greenness disappeared altogether. It reappeared when the oyster was replaced in fresh water containing Nacicula 
 ostrearia." M. Decaisne, of the Jardln den Pluntes, Paris, repeated the experiments with the same results. 
 
 "Beside the diatoms, the spores of algiv, the larvie or young of many animals, such as sjjouges, bryozoa, hydroids, 
 worms, mollusks, many of which are small enough to be taken in by the oyster, though their bodies in most cases 
 being soft and without a skeleton, it is impossible to find any traces, either in the stomach or intestine, of their 
 remains, to indicate that they have formed a i)art of the bill of fare of the animal. What, however, demonstrates 
 that such snmll larval organisms do help to feed the oyster, is the fact that at the heads of the small inlets or creeks 
 along the Chesapeake, wliere the water is but little affected by the tides and is somewhat brackish and inclined to 
 be stagnant, there always appears to be a relatively greater development of a somewhat characteristic surface or 
 shallow water fauna of minute forms. 
 
 " In St. Jerome creek the microscopic fauna of its headwaters is entirely different from that of the body of the 
 creek ; two minute forms inhabit in vast numbers the former, while I sought in vain for them in the more open and 
 changeable waters of the main body of the inlet, which are brought into active movement twice a day by the 
 action of the tides. One of these forms, an infusorian,t one-twenty-flfth of an inch in length, was found covering 
 every available surface of attachment, so that countless multitudes of the naked young would be swimming about 
 in the water jn-evious to building the curious spiral tubes which they inhabit— admirably fitted in this state as food 
 for the oyster. Beside the type referred to, there were a number of other infusoriaus, which in their so-called 
 swarming stages of development, the young would become available as oyster-food. Of such types I noticed 
 four different species, either belonging or very nearly related to the genus Cothurnin ; all of the forms built tubes 
 for themselves. I also noticed several forms of bell animalcules, the swarmers of which would become available 
 as food for the oysters lying iu the vicinity. 
 
 " The diatoms did not seem to me to be more abundant in the headwaters than in the open creek. There was 
 one moss animal of remarkable character, which I found in the headwaters only. This creature was very abundant, 
 and no doubt its embryos, like those of the infusoria referred to, were available as food. 
 
 "Of free-swimming infusoriaus, I noticed a number of genera; one especially attracted my attention from its 
 snake like ai)pearance and singularly rapid contortions; it had a tuft of vibrating hairs or cilia at the head end in 
 close relation with the mouth. Another more abundant type was the curious genus Uuplotes, with a thick shell 
 inclosing the soft protoplasm of the body; the latter was of an oval form, liat beneath and rounded on the back, 
 so that the resemblance, when the large foot like cilia were in motion, carrying the animal about, was strikingly like 
 a very minute tortoi.se, the resemblance being heigiitened when the animal was viewed from the side. 
 
 " IJod-like algiE, of minute size, the larvea of crnstacic, especially the vast numbers of extremely small larval 
 copepoda, must enter as a perceptible factor into the food-supply of the oyster. 
 
 " There is no doubt but that the comparatively quiescent condition of the headwaters of these inlets and creeks, 
 available as oyster-planting grounds, are more favorable to the proi)agation of minute life than the open bay or 
 creeks, where the temperature is lower and less constant. Practically, this is found to be true, for oystermeu seeai 
 to be generally agreed that oysters "fatten" more rapidly, that is, feed more liberally in the headwaters— blind 
 extremities of the creeks — than elsewhere. This notion of the oystermeu is iu agreement with my own observations 
 during the past year. Oystermeu also assert that oysters "fatten" more rapidly iu shallow waters than in deep 
 
 ones, a point upon which I made but few observations; but such as I did make tended to confirm such an opiuion. 
 
 • 
 
 *Tlie Green Color of Oysters, H. M. C. In Nature, vol. xxii, pp. 549-50, 1880. TrauHlated from llie Eoviie Miiritime et Coloui.-ile, 
 
 February, 1880. 
 
 tOu the occurrence o( Frehi jmiduda (Wright,!, in the Clii-Napealie liay. — Amcrh-un Xitliivulht, 1880. pp. 810,811. 
 
240 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In illustration, I may contrast the condition of the oysters in the pond leased by the commission at St. Jerome and 
 those dredged off Point Lookout, in twenty or thirty feet of water, on the 3d day of October, 1 880. The oysters in 
 the pond, by the middle or end of September, were in good condition as to flesh, and marketable, while those from 
 deeper water off Point Lookout, and but little later in the season, were still extremely poor, thin and watery, and 
 utterly unfit for market. These differences in condition, it seems to me, are to be attributed in a great measure to 
 differences of temperature and the abundance of food, but mainly to the latter.* 
 
 Ground-ice. — Iforth of Long Island an enemy is found, which does not exist in the milder south, in the shape 
 of " ground-ice" or "anchor-frost ". It is little understood, though often experienced, and I was able to collect only 
 vague data in regard to it. It api^ears that in hard winters the bottom of the bays freezes solid in great patches, even 
 at a depth of 15 or 20 feet. The mud freezes so hard that rakes cannot be pressed into it ; and if a stronger implement, 
 like a ship's anchor, is able to penetrate it, the crust comes up in great chunks. These frozen iiatches are sometimes 
 40 feet square and continue unthawed for long periods. When such "anchor-frost" takes place at an oyster-bed, 
 of course the moUusks are frozen solidly into the mass, and few of them ever survive the treatment. To the Cape 
 Cod planters this is a serious obstacle to success. 
 
 * Op. cit., pp. 19-23. 
 
IE GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 
 
 W. AN OYSTERMAN'S DICTIONARY. 
 
 63. PHRASES AND WOEDS DESCRIPTIVE OP MOLLUSKS AISHD OTHER INVERTEBRATES OF 
 
 THE ATLANTIC COAST. 
 
 Abalone. — Sea earsLclls, IFaliotis, of various species, chiefly H. Cracherodil. (Southern California.) 
 
 Abalone-meat. — The dried animal of Haliotis. Used as food, and exported in large quantities, annually, in a 
 dried condition. (California.) 
 
 Abalone -SHELLS. — The shells of Haliotis, preTpaved for commerce. Extensively used in the manufacture of 
 buttons and other articles, and for ornamental purposes. (California.) 
 
 Ambulance. — A box with bottom and top of wire netting, in which the "collectors", covered with young oysters, 
 are jilaced to protect them from their enemies, while the water is freelj' admitted. (France.) 
 
 Ark. — A house on a scow or other floating hulk, used as a work- and store-house in winter. (Connecticut.) See 
 Scow. 
 
 Bank. — The oyster colony or locality where they grow. (South.) See Bed, Rod;, Bar, etc. 
 
 Barnacle. — The slipper-limpet, Crepidula sp.; also, true barnacles. (Cape May, New Jersey.) At Cape May 
 limpets are called "barnacles", and confounded by many with the true barnacles. They grow very fast, 
 apparently, for I have seen them fully half-size on the new year's growth (or "bill") of an oyster, showing 
 that they attained all that size in a single season. When limpets grow on oysters the planter knows the 
 oysters are doing well, and he expects them to prove fat and highly profitable. The explanation, I suppose, 
 is that the attachment of limpets shows the oysters to be free fiom slime — clean and healthy — or the limpet 
 spawn would not be able to attach itself. 
 
 BASKET-Fisn. — Astiojyhyton Agassizii, a kind of many-armed starfish. 
 
 Bateau. — A small, flat-bottomed boat, like a sharpie, used for moving about the oyster-beds, for clamming, and 
 other light work. (Staten Island.) 
 
 Beach la mar. — The Beche le Mer, or Holothurian. (Florida reefs.) See Eathbun's Report on Commercial 
 Radiates. 
 
 Beard. — I. The finely -fiinged margin of the oyster's mouth, which shows near the edges of the shells. 
 
 Beaed. — II. The i^rotruding byssus of mussels. 
 
 Bed. — The hanlc, reef, or deposit of oysters in the water, either growing naturally or artificially, original or trans- 
 planted. 
 
 Bedding. — Transplanting oysters of any size to beds prepared for them, from which they are to be removed before 
 the frosts of the ensuing winter. See Fatten. 
 
 Bedding-down.— See Bedding. 
 
 Bench. — The broad, sloping platform which runs around the walls of an opening-house, where the oysters are 
 piled for opening. Sometimes a movable table, etc., for opening oysters. 
 
 Bench-oysters. — Those sold at a restaurant or lunch-counter, to be opened for "plate" or "half-shell" custom. 
 See Fancy, Extra. 
 
 Black Mussel. — Mytilus lorealis, a variety of Mytilus edulis. 
 
 Blister. — A young oyster, not larger than a quarter dollar. See Sjpaicn, Sjiat. (Barnegat to Cape May.) 
 10 o 241 
 
242 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Block. — The lignum vitae conical block, having an iron chisel fixed in its top, upon which oysters are broken 
 
 before being opened. (New York.) 
 Blood Clam and Bloody Clam. — The same as Blood Quahmtg. 
 Blood Quahaug. — The young and small specimens of various species of Arcadce, supposed to be choicest food of 
 
 the starfishes. (Narraganset bay.) See Ilalr Clam. 
 Blue Points. — Oysters originally found oft' Blue Point, eastern end of Great Sonth bay, Long Island, but now 
 
 applied to all oysters from any ijart of the south shore of Long Island, whether native or transplanted, 
 
 eastward of Babylon. 
 Board-bank. — A platform set in the bank, or otherwise arranged so as to be alternately covered by tide and flooded 
 
 with fresh water, for freshening oysters before selling. (Cape May.) See Platform. 
 Boat. — The little mollusk, Crepidula fornicata. (New Haven.) See Beckhead. 
 Borer. — I. The Urosalpinx cinerea. (New England.) See Drill, Snail-bore, etc. 
 Borer. — II. A sponge, CHona sulphitrea, which eats into oyster-shells. 
 Box. — A measure for oysters, equal to one-fourth of a barrel; an oblong, shallow box, with cleates as handles nailed 
 
 on the ends. (Mobile to Texas.) 
 Box-oyster. — An oyster from seven to ten years old, of round, handsome shape, not less than 3 inches wide and 
 
 5 inches long. (Connecticut and New York.) See Extra. The name is due to the fact that many j"ears ago 
 
 it was customary to ship oysters of this grade to New York in boxes instead of the ordinary barrel. 
 BoxsTEW. — A stew made of box-oysters. (New York.) 
 
 Breaking. — In Baltimore, the chip]>ing of the shell preparatory to opening an oyster. See Craching. 
 Brogan. — A kind of large boat used by the oystermen of the Chesapeake. 
 Bruiser. — A short paddle used for beating sponges in process of cleaning. (Florida.) 
 Bucket. — A wooden, firkin-shaped, covered receptacle for shifting oysters ; of variable capacity. 
 Bugeye. — A flat-bottomed, center-board schooner of three to fifteen tons, built of heavy timbers, without a frame. 
 
 A bugeye is always decked over and has a cabin aft. (Chesapeake.) 
 Bull-nose. — An old, overgrown, heavy quahaug, unfit for food. (Cape May.) 
 BuN(!n Oysters. — Those growing in clusters. (South.) See Raccoon Oysters. 
 Buoy. — To buoy or buoy-off a certaiu piece of water area, means, in Rhode Island, to seclude it from being fished as 
 
 long as the authorities deem proper. The area so secluded is indicated by a limit-line of buoys. 
 Bushel-barrel. — A barrel cut in two, holding about IJ bushels of oysters, and used as a measure. 
 Busiiel-oysters. — See Cullenteens. 
 
 Butter-pish. — The long neck clam, Mya arenaria. (Virginia.) See Soft Clam, Maninose, etc. 
 Calico Clam. — See Sun Clam. (Florida.) 
 Capes. — Oysters from Cape Cod and Buzzard's bay. Also, (particularly in the case of the latter) known as ^^ Natives'". 
 
 (Boston.) 
 Carrier. — I. A man who makes his living by unloading the boats and carrying oysters into the warehouse scows. 
 
 (New York and New Orleans.) 
 Carrier. — II. An oyster which will endure transportation well. (Trade term.) 
 Chaplet. — A string of shells or other oyster-spat collectors suspended on wire. (France.) 
 Cheeks. — Edible parts of the sea-clam, Mactra soUdissima. (Cape Cod.) 
 Chornie rakooshka. — Mytilus edtilis. (Russian of Alaska.) " Black shells ", literally. 
 Claire. — An excavation, " more or less deep, having a muddy or marly bottom, close to the edges of the sea-board, 
 
 through which the sea-water passes into them. * * * Ju these claires they assume that green color 
 
 [formerly] so much prized by the French ". — Asplet. 
 Clam. — A smooth-shelled, bivalved mollusk. This word is popularly of wide application, and is a corruption, 
 
 apparently, of the word "clamp", preserved in the name of a huge East Indian species, and which sometimes 
 
 attains the weight of several hundred pounds, and is used as a font for holy water in many churches, and for 
 
 domestic purpo.ses. The common ''clam" of New England is the Mya arenaria; of New York and New Jersey, 
 
 the Venus mercenaria. Many kinds are distinguished by ua additional definitive word, prefixed, as beach-clam 
 
 {Mactra), etc. On the Pacific coast there are many native "clams", chiefly a species of the Saxidomus. 
 Clam-cracker. — A fish, a species of ray, lihinoptera quadriloba, which molests the oyster-beds. (Savannah.) 
 Clam-scraper. — See Brag-rahe. 
 Clam-tongs. — " Differs from oyster- tongs only in the width of the head, which averages 3J feet." — New York, 1855. 
 
 At the present day, the tongs used for gathering clams. 
 Clink Shell. — A name applied to various mollusks of the genus Anomia. 
 Clucker. — An oyster injured by chill, or otherwise, so as to sound hollow when its shell is struck. In England 
 
 this word is spelled Clock; a dealer in London wrote, "The last oysters lost their sea-water, and became clocks 
 
 and worthless." 
 Collectors. — An arrangement of arched tiles, piles of stone, hurdles, or anything similar, to collect and give 
 
 lodgment to the spat. (Europe.) 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 243 
 
 Colander. — A large perforated tin basin, similar to the cooking utensil of the same name, only three or four 
 
 times as large, in whieh the oysters are washed. 
 Conch. — Various large, univalved, and spiral mollusks, particularly FuUjur carica. 
 CooN-HBEL. — A long, slim oyster. (Connecticut.) See Eazor-hlade, ShaiKjhai, Babbifs-ears. 
 Coon Oystek. — Small, shapeless, worthless stock, growing in heavy clusters along the salt marshes, or forming 
 
 great bars. (Southern coast.) At Cape May the word is restricted to young oysters caught on the sedges. 
 Cot. — See Finger stall. (Baltimore.) 
 
 Count. — I. Method of selling oysters in Philadelphia and l^ew York, by enumeration instead of measurement. 
 Count. — II. In respect to terrapins, one of full size, i. e., six inches long; two or three small ones will make a "count". 
 
 (Savannah.) 
 Count-clams. — Quahaugs large enough to count 800 to the barrel. (Keyport, New Jersey.) 
 Cove-oyster. — "The term coi'c-oyster has a trade-signification differing from that in which it is understood by 
 
 the oysterman. The packer, by cove-oysters, simply means steamed oysters packed in hermetically sealed cans. 
 
 They may be, in fact they are, of any and every size and quality. By 'cove-oysters' the oysterman means the 
 
 single oysters scattered through the bays and creeks and old planting-grounds, occurring too sparsely to be 
 
 taken by the ordinary methods of tongiug. When the water is clear and smooth the oysterman moves slowly 
 
 over those grounds, and when he ' sights ' an oyster, which he can readily do in from 4 to 7 feet water, or even 
 
 more, he picks them up singly with a pair of nippers. These oysters, as might be expected, are lai'ge, fat, and of 
 
 good shape. They class as 'selects' and bring 'top' prices in the market, from 60 cents to $1 per bushel." — 
 
 Colonel M. McDonald. (Chesapeake bay.) 
 Coving. — The business of picking up "cove-oysters" (q. v.) with nippers. (Chesapeake.) 
 Cracker. — One who opens oysters by first breaking the shell with a hammer. — 
 
 Cracking. — The breaking of the oyster-shell before extracting the oyster. See Breaking. 
 Cracking-iron. — A piece of hard iron, J inch thick, 2 inches long, and 1 inch wide, set upright in the bench upon 
 
 which the oiJener rests the oyster, while he breaks the edge of the shell off with his hammer. (Fairhaven.) 
 Crawl. — I. A pen or corral made of upright stakes wattled together, intended to hold sponges while being cleaned ; 
 
 or turtles awaiting a market. (Florida.) 
 Crawl. — II. The track of a sea-turtle to its nest. (Florida.) 
 
 Cull-boy. — A boy who goes in the small boat with tongers to pick over the oysters. (Virginia.) 
 Cull-board. — A heavy board laid athwart the gunwales, or elsewhere, upon which the oysters are broken apart 
 
 and sorted. 
 CULLENS. — See Cullins. 
 
 Culler. — One who picks over oysters, or culls out the worthless and smaller ones ; usually a boy. 
 Cullins. — See CulUngs. 
 
 CuLLiNGS. — The poorer oysters remaining after the culls have been picked out. 
 CuLLiNG-TOOL. — A straight, stout, blunt, but thin-edged instrument of steel, about 10 inches long, having the 
 
 heavy butt wound with cord to form a handle, used for knocking and prying apart a cluster of oysters. It is 
 
 like an exaggerated and very heavy oyster-knife. But various rougher tools, of no particular form, are used for 
 
 the same purpose. 
 Cullinteens. — The smaller grade left after "extra", "box", and "cuU" oysters have been picked out. (Not- 
 
 walk.) Formerly called "bushel oysters". 
 Culls. — CuUed-out oysters ; the next to the poorest grade ; 4 to 5 years old. (ISTew York and East river.) 
 Cultch. — The shells, gravel, fragments of brick, or any other material placed in the water to catch the spawn of 
 
 the oyster. See CutcJi. 
 Cultivate. — To raise oysters artificially from spawn, or from transplanted young. See Plant. 
 Cunner. — A canoe. (Chesapeake.) 
 CuTCH. — An American spelling of cultch. 
 Cut-out. — I. To open oysters. (Providence river.) 
 
 Cut-out. — II. In respect to scallops, to open them, or remove the edible part from the shells. (Rhode Island.) 
 Cutter. — One who opens scallops on the boat, as they are dredged, and extracts the edible portion. (New 
 
 England.) 
 Drag. — I. See Dredge. (Norwalk.) 
 Drag. — II. To dredge. 
 Drag-rake. — A large, heavy rake, having teeth crowded and much curved, which is often dragged (principally in 
 
 search of clams) like a dredge. (New England.) 
 Deck-head. — The Crepidula. (East river.) See Slipper-limpet, boat. 
 Designation. — The right to plant oysters on a certain piece of ground designated by oyster-commissioners or 
 
 other authority (Connecticut) ; also, the plat of ground itseU'. 
 Devil-fish. — Cuttle-fishes, chiefly octopods. 
 
244 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Deedge. — "A scoop net, with a heavy, rectangular iron frame for scraping the sea-bottom. The frame is about 
 three times as long as high, the two longer sides having sharp edges and serving as scrapers. The net is of 
 heavy twine, or of iron chain-work. The rope by which the dredge is manipulated is fastened to the ends 
 of two handles, reaching forward from the ends of the frame." — Bathhun. 
 
 Dreg. — Corruption of dredge. 
 
 Dingy. — A small, sharp-prowed, flat-bottomed boat, with a miniature center-board, and half-decked ; used for 
 running about the grounds in, and back and forth from vessels at anchor. (Southern.) 
 
 Drift. — The distance gone over while making a single haul of the dredge or dredges. 
 
 Drill. — A small mollusk, the TJroHalpinx cinerea. See Borer, 
 
 Drink. — To give oysters a "drink" is to place them in fresh water, over one or more tides, in order that they may 
 expel the salt-water from their systems and imbibe the fresh water. This results in an increase of size and 
 plumpness. This, however, only lasts for a few days. At the end of this time the oysters become lean again, 
 for the increase in size is due to no material growth of flesh, but due entirely to the absorption of moisture. 
 The tissues of oysters, when first taken, are saturated with the ocean brine, and when removed to fresh water, 
 or that which is less salt, the external liquid passes inward more rapidly than the more saline and denser 
 elements within can escape; the efl'ect being simply to cause the oyster to swell, with no increase of its virtues. 
 When the water in which the oyster is immersed is too fresh, it loses its flavor. It has been suggested, that by 
 immersing the oysters for some days in concentrated brine, and then removing them to ocean water, the 
 2)lumpuess would be gained without the sacrifice of the saltness which is so agreeable to the epicure. A simple 
 method of ascertaining whether the oysters increase in flesh or not, would be to take 100 or more from a given 
 locality on the sea-coast, and drying them at 2'20° Fahrenheit and ascertaining their average weight, and then 
 repeating the process for the same number of like oysters after transplanting. 
 
 Drudge. — See Dredge. 
 
 Drugged. — Past tense of drag (q. v.). A Connecticut man told me : " I heaved my drudge over and drugged the 
 whole lot." 
 
 East Eiters. — Oysters grown between New Haven, Connecticut, and Xew York. 
 
 Etalage. — A place on shore where oysters are stored for sale. (France.) 
 
 Eye. — I. Of a scallop, the edible adductor muscle. (Long Island.) See Eeart. 
 
 Eye. — II. The colored circular mark or cicatrix in the interior of an oyster-shell, near the hinge, where the adductor 
 muscle was attached. 
 
 Fall. — A deposit or set of spawn, or infant oysters. Used also as a verb. (South of England.) 
 
 Fancy Oysters. — Superior grades kept at retail, to be opened on the counter and eaten raw. In New York these 
 are " Saddle-Eocks", " Blue Points", etc. See Bench. 
 
 Fatten. — To place oysters on floats or in fresh water, just before marketing. See Brink, 
 
 Fatten. — To bed down for growth ; also to plant. Not good usage, because confusing. 
 
 Feather-edge. — The new thin growth added to an oyster-shell each season. See Bill. 
 
 Firsts. — Box-oysters. (New Jersey and New York city.) 
 
 Fish.— To fatten. (South of England.) 
 
 Finger Sponge. — Applied to various slender, branching forms ; unmarketable. (Florida Keys.) 
 
 Finger-stall. — In Fairhaven, the protection (of rubber or of twilled cotton) worn on the left hand in opening. 
 See Cot, 
 
 FiYE-FiNGER. — A Starfish. 
 
 Flat. — A flat-bottomed, square-sterned boat used by the oystermen in Prince Edward island. 
 
 Float. — A platform of planks, upon which oysters are piled and subjected to fresh water, before being taken to 
 market. See Fatten. 
 
 Garvey. — A small scow, used to plant oysters, and take them up in for market. (Barnegat, New Jersey.) 
 
 GAUcn. — Oflfal resulting from culling and opening scallops. (Greenwich bay, Ehode Island.) 
 
 GiNGLES. — Various species of J^«o?« iff. (Long Island sound.) See Gold-shells; Silver-shells. 
 
 Glove Sponge. — One of the poorest grades of Florida commercial sponges, Spongia tubulifera. 
 
 Gold-shell. — A species of Anomia. 
 
 Gouge. — The Pinna shell (Gulf of Mexico) ; also the Vcrmettis. The reason is, in each case that, lying buried 
 in the sand, wlien they are stepped on by the bare-feet they make an ugly, gouging wound in the foot. 
 
 Grain (or Grane "?). — A fish-spear. (South.) This is a'ship term ; in Florida the turtle-graii.?j have only one prong 
 and one barb (half a barb) when anything but a "peg" is used. The fish-grains most approved have tAvo 
 prongs, each half barbed inwardly, and detachable from the pole when the fish is struck. 
 
 Grant.— Stipulated area "granted" by the state for oyster-culture. (Massachusetts.) 
 
 Grass-sponge. — An inferior grade of Florida commercial sponge, Spongia cerehriformis. (Florida Keys.) 
 
 Gravette. — The oyster of the bay of Arcachon, France; so called " from the impressions they make on the sandy 
 bottom". 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 245 
 
 Geay-beakd. — The common hydroid of northern oyster-beds, Sertularia argentea. 
 
 Gkeen-gill. — In Richmond and Petersburg, and on the York river in Virginia, are to be found in the markets 
 
 what are called " green-gill oysters". Some say they are diseased, and refuse to eat them ; but the oystermcn 
 
 claim that they are perfectly wholesome, but admit that they do not sell very well, because of a i)rejudico 
 
 against them. The negroes claim that they are the best in Eichmoud, and that they are made green by their 
 
 being found with the green sea-weed. 
 GtJLLY Oysters. — Those caught on shoals, etc. (Mobile.) 
 Hair. — Hydroids. The "hair" that oystermen assert grows on their oysters under certain circumstances, is an 
 
 animal growth, which attaches itself to the shell, and is nothing put out by the oyster itself. 
 Hair CLAM. — Adult specimens of the various species of Arcadcc. See Blood Clam. 
 Half-deck. — The slipper limpet, Crepidula fornicata. 
 
 Half-measure. — A tin receptacle for the meats of opened oysters, holding 2h, quarts. (New Haven.) See Measure. 
 Hamper. — An oyster-basket holding two bushels. (New York.) 
 HanCt. — To hang an oyster boat is to tlirust a pole down beside it into the mud and cling to it, without tying. 
 
 (Canada.) I, A, 3. 
 Hard-oyster. — The northern " native" oyster. (Staten Island sound.) 
 Heel. — The umbo of a clam-shell. (Long Island, south shore.) Behind it is to' be found "the print of a clam". 
 
 This distinguishes the quahaug from other bivalves, according to the fishermen. 
 Hooker. — I. In sponging, the man who hooks up the sponges from the bottom. (Florida reefs.) 
 Hooker. — II. A tool of any size, consisting of a rod of tough iron, bent into more or less of a hook at the end, 
 
 used to pull out the raccoon oysters, and knock the bunches to pieces. (Georgia.) 
 HoRSECONCH. — The largest species of Triton. (Florida reefs.)_ 
 Horse-mussel. — A large species of mussels, Modiola modiolus. 
 Husk. — To remove the shells from an oyster, or "open" it. (Georgia.) 
 Husks. — Oyster-shells. 
 
 Jag. — A lot, parcel, or quantity of oysters of indefinite size; e. g., "I sold a jag of 75 bushels to A, B & Co." 
 Jingle. — Any species of Anemia. (Long Island sound.) 
 Kettle-bail. — A dredge used in catching scallops, which has tlic blade adjusted to swing in the eyes of the 
 
 arms, in order to prevent its sinking into the mud of ^he soft bottom ou which it is used. (Ehode Island.) 
 Kitchen-oyster. — Small oyster for cooking. (New Orleans.) 
 Knife-handle. — See Bazor-Jish. (Massachusetts bay.) 
 Ladle-shell. — MoUusks of the genera Fulgur and Sycoti/jms. 
 Layer. — An artificial oyster-bed. (England.) 
 
 Line-conch. — A species of mollusks, Fasciolaria distans. (Florida reefs.) 
 Little Red Clam. — Common name for (luahaug, Venus mcreenaria. 
 
 Loaded. — An oyster is said to be loaded when it is coated with annelid tubes. See Sand Up. (Ehode Island.) 
 London Stock. — Oysters culled out for the foreign market; about three years old, small, round, and cup-shaped. 
 
 See Cullins, etc. 
 Long Clam. — See Razor-fish. (Massachusetts bay.) 
 
 Meadow Mussel. — In Great South bay. Long Island, the Mylihis jylicatula w^hich grows on the tide-fiats. 
 Measure. — A round tin receptacle for meats, holding five quai-ts, used in the opening-houses. (New Haven.) 
 Meat. — The fleshy, edible part of an oyster, or other mollusk. 
 Milk. — The spat before it is discharged fi'om an oyster, and is said just before and during spawning to be " in the 
 
 milk". 
 Milky, or milchy. — To be "in the milk", i. c., ready to spawn. 
 
 Mussel. — Mollusks of the family MytiUdw and genera Mytilus and Modiola. See below. 
 Naturals. — Oysters of natural growth ; wild, not planted. (New Jersey.) 
 Net-fish. — A species of orphiurau or serpent skin, Astrophyton, Agassizii. See Baslcet-fisli. 
 Nib. — The tender, growing, posterior end. (Prince's bay.) 
 Nippers. — Tongs having at the end not a rake-head with many teeth, but only one tooth, or a very few teeth, so as to 
 
 act as ijiucers ; used in picking up solitary oysters, which can be seen and aimed at. (Chesapeake.) 
 Old Maid. — The soft-clam, Mya arenaria. (South of England.) 
 Open. — To remove the meat from the shell of a mollusk. See Gut out. 
 Opener. — One who opens oysters for trade. See Slicl;er ; Side-opener. 
 Opening HOUSE. — A place where oysters are opened. 
 Oyster. — A mollusk of the family Ostreidm imd genus Osirca ; also, sonu' allied forms distinguished as "pearl" 
 
 oysters, etc. They are scattered over the whole world, and through tlie geological record since Jurassic time. 
 
 In the United States o»ly one species, Ostrea virgiiiiana, is now recognized as edible; but this ai)pears in 
 
 market under -.v long and diverse set of names, derived from tiie district or bed where the jiarticiilar variety 
 
 grew. See iiarticularly the cliapter on the natural history of the oyster, infra. 
 
246 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Oyster-can. — The tin receptacle, holding from one pint to four quarts, in which oysters are packed for shipment. 
 These may be square or round, and of various shapes. The industry of can-making is perhaps the greatest 
 auxiliary of the oyster-trade. In the chapter on the oyster-trade of Maryland and Baltimore, statistics are 
 given to show how enormous is the industry there. In Nex^' England all the retail trade is carried on by means 
 of cans, in which the opened oysters are delivered raw to the consumers, either in the city or outside, by railway 
 express. In 1878 a company was formed in Boston to manufacture tin cans, with a capital stO('k of $25,000. 
 In 1879 they made about 150,000 oyster-cans, distributed as follows : Of four-quart size, 15,000 ; of two-quart, 
 30,000; of one-quart, 90,000; of one- pint, 15,000. Including the waste, the amount of tin used was nearly 
 65,000 pounds. This is nine-tenths of all the cans made in Boston, the total manufacture amounting to about 
 $5,000 worth a year. Providence and Fairhaven use, perhaps, an equal number of cans. 
 
 Oyster Crab. — The female of the Pinnotheres ostreum, found parasitic in the gills of oysters from Massachusetts 
 southward. 
 
 Oyster-grass. — The kelp and other sea-weeds which attach themselves to oysters and mussels, or grow on the 
 beds. (Cape May.) 
 
 Oyster-glove. — A leather palm or mit worn as a protection for the hand in opening oysters. See Cot. (Georgia.) 
 
 Oystering. — Fishing for oysters. 
 
 Oyster-hammer. — A square, blunt-headed hammer of medium hard iron, used to break the shell of the oyster 
 before opening. (Fairhaven.) 
 
 Oyster-keg. — A small wooden keg for transporting raw oysters ; now gone out of use. (Connecticut.) 
 
 Oyster-knockers. — Double-headed hammers used for culling oysters and prying apart the bunches. See Culling- 
 tools. (Cape May.) 
 
 Oystee-pail. — A wooden receptacle with a locked cover, used in transporting raw oysters. They hold from four 
 to six gallons each, and cost from 75 cents to $1 each. They are made chiefly at Fairhaven, Connecticut; 
 Jamestown, New York, and Brooklyn, New Tork, and are of various patterns, with several patented devices 
 for securing the cover. These pails are returned to the wholesale dealer by his customers. 
 
 Oyster-palm. — See Oyster-glove. 
 
 Oyster-rake. — See Balce. 
 
 Oyster-sacks. — Sacks or bags of coarse gunny-cloth, holding about IJ bushels. Used chiefly near Philadelphia, 
 in place of barrels. 
 
 Oyster-sign. — A large letter " O " plainly painted on a board affixed to a stake, to mark the boundaries of marsh- 
 land claimed for oyster-culture. (Georgia.) 
 
 Oyster-tongs. — See Tongs. 
 
 Oyster-tub. — A large wooden x-eceptacle for transporting raw oysters. It has a cover which may be locked down, 
 and is simply an oyster-pail of large size. 
 
 Packer. — One who buys oysters from the planters and packs them in barrels for shii)ment to Europe. (Long 
 Island.) 
 
 Panama-shells. — Mollusks of the genus Volnta. (Florida reefs.) 
 
 PARC. — A sunken bed, wherein oysters are placed for rei)roduction and growth, which is flUed with water by each 
 high tide. (Europe.) There are French and Italian pares. In England the word is spelled j?arfc. 
 
 Park. — See Pare. 
 
 Peg. — A square, sharp-pointed iron spear, used in striking turtles. (Florida.) 
 
 Pegging. — Spearing green turtles. (Florida.) 
 
 Pennywinkle ; Pennywinklee. — The mollusks of the genera Fulgur and Sycotypns, interchangeably. 
 
 Periwinkle. — I. Littorina Uttorea. (England and in America, from New Haven, Connecticut, northward to the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence.) 
 
 Periwinkle. — II. The Sycotypus canaliciUatus, a large pear-shaped moUusk, destructive to the oyster. Also 
 known as Winlde and Wrinkle. 
 
 Pick. — To gather wild oysters for seed from the muddy shores at low tide. (Georgia.) 
 
 Pinched. — Long, slender growth. 
 
 Pinpatches. — Littorina Uttorea. (Siiffolk, England.) 
 
 Plant — I. To place oysters on artificial beds, intending them to survive the winter, attain full size, and spawn. 
 See Cultivate. In Connecticut the term is applied only to southern oysters laid down for the summer. See 
 Bed. 
 
 Plant — II. An oyster which has been " bedded ", in distinction from one of natural growth. The n.ame of the 
 original locality is usually prefixed, as "Virginia plant". In Boston the term is generally applied to oysters 
 that have been transplanted to Providence river. In some localities, also, by " plant" is meant a young oyster 
 suitable for transplanting. See Seed. 
 
 Plantation. — Cultivated areas of oyster-bottom ; a common and legal term in the state of Delaware. 
 
 Platform.— The planked floor on the bank, where oysters are laid out to freshen before selling. (Atlantic county, 
 New Jersey.) 
 
 / 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 247 
 
 POMPANO-SHELLS.— Mollusks of tlie gcnus Bonax. (Florida gulf.) Eaten by the pompano. 
 
 Prog.— To search for clams, etc., along the shore in a desultory way. (Connecticut.) 
 
 Proggek. — One who digs clams and searches lor other sealife alongshore, in a desultory and unbusiness-like way. 
 A man who persistently gets his living this way is generally a good-for-nothing fellow, and is said to " follow 
 the creek". (Connecticut.) 
 
 QuAHAUG. — The " hard " or " round " clam, Venus mereenaria. An Algonquin word, spelled in various ways, and 
 usually wrongly jironounced Icohog. 
 
 Eabbit-ear. — A long, slender oyster. See Coon-heel. 
 
 Eaccoon Oysters. — Wild oysters, growing naturally on muddy banks, exposed at low tide; and owing to their 
 luxuriance and crowded condition, long, slender, and shapeless; or very diminutive. (Southern coast.) 
 
 Eake.— An instrument for lifting the oyster from the bed ; shaped much like the agricultural implement of the 
 same name, but all iron except the handle, and having tines straight, and from G to 12 inches long, or curved 
 into a half circle. The rake is an ancient device. In 17-lS Baron Kalm crossed New York bay, and notes the 
 following sentence: "We saw many boats, in which the fishermen were busy catching oysters; to this 
 l)urpose they make use of a kind of rake with long iron teeth bent inward. These they used either single or 
 two tied together in such a manner that the teeth were turned toward each other". The rake is used in deeper 
 water than the tongs (which see), and is more serviceable in catching quahaugs than oysters ; indeed, it is now 
 rarely used for the latter, except in Buzzard's bay, Massachusetts. With it the oysterman can alternately push 
 his boat along and then pull the rake toward him, and thus take all the mollusks that lie in his path. 
 
 Eazor-blade. — A long, slim oyster. (Connecticut.) See Coon-heel. 
 
 Eed-beard. — The red sponge, Microciona prolifera, Verrill, commonly growing on northern oysters. Consult 
 Verrill's Invertehrates of Vineyard Sound, [741] 447. 
 
 Eeefer. — A natural reef-growing or uutransplanted oyster. (Mobile to Texas.) 
 
 EiDDLE.— To sift the young oysters and cultch on a bed by means of coarse-netted dredges. (Norwalk.) 
 
 EiM. — The worthless part of the scallop flesh, remaining after the edible portion has been cut out. (Ehodo 
 Island.) 
 
 EocK. — A growth of native oysters massed into a rock-like bottom or ridge. (Chesapeake and southward.) 
 
 EocK-OYSTER. — An oyster found growing upon a rock, as distinguished from those found in beds ; wild growth. 
 
 EoLLiNG John. — A detached sponge drifting about the bottom. (Florida.) 
 
 EouGH Culling. — Hasty separation, throwing out only dead shells and largest trash. (Virginia.) 
 
 EouGH Whelk. — A small mollusk, the Urosalplnx cinerea. (Chesapeake.) 
 
 EuCHE.— A pile of arched tiles, loosely placed, to catch and lodge oyster-spawn ; one form of collector, q. v. (France.) 
 
 EuFFLE. — The connected egg-capsules of the periwinkles. 
 
 EuNNER. — Vessels engaged in transporting oysters from the grounds to the market; they also buy the stock they 
 carry. (Chesapeake.) 
 
 Saddle-Eock Oysters. — A trade name in New York for the largest and finest oysters. 
 
 Sand. — To bury oysters beneath drifting sand or mud. 
 
 Sanding. — I. The burying of oysters under storm-drifted sand or mud. 
 
 Sanding.— II. In some parts of Ehode Island they say an oyster is sanded or sanded up, when it is thickly coated 
 with annelids' tubes, and the mud which has gathered among them. 
 
 Sand-oysters. — Single scattered oysters found on leeward sandy shores. (Chesapeake.) 
 
 Sand-sucker.— Holothurians, Nereids, and other soft animals buried in the low-tide sand, and showing tentacles. 
 (Florida, Gulf coast.) 
 
 Sch^ffer.— Cart-boys or Arabs, who peddle a mean quality of oysters (Maryland stock) about the streets of 
 Baltimore. 
 
 Schooner-basket.— A basket holding three-fourths to seven-eighths of a bushel, used in measuring oysters to be 
 sold out of vessels. (New York.) 
 
 Scallop.— An edible mollusk of the family Pectenidw, genus Pecten. Several species in the United States. 
 
 ScALLOPER. — A scallop-fisher. 
 
 Scalloping. — Fishing for scallops. 
 
 ScALLOP-NET. — The small dredge used in catching scallops. (New Bedford.) 
 
 Scoop. — A light kind of dredge. (Chesapeake.) See Scraper. 
 
 Scow. — See Arl;. Also called Scow-house. 
 
 Scraper.— A small dredge. Chiefly spoken of with reference to scallops. (New England.) See Dredge, Scallop- 
 net, and Kettle-Mil. A writer in a New Y'^ork journal, in 1855, describes this dredge, which was chiefly used 
 tlicre in cleaning old planting-ground, thus: "A singular-looking instrument, somewhat resembling a scythe, 
 with this exception, that at one side of the blade a large bag, constructed of iron ring-work, is attached. Into 
 this all the scowings of the bed, cleaned off with the front of the blade, fall, and the whole is hauled up at 
 regular intervals." See Dragrake. 
 
 
248 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Sculler. — In sponging, the man who manages the small boat, while the hooker (q. v.) works. (Florida reefs.) 
 
 Sea-cap. — A basket-shaped sponge, often of great size. (Florida reefs.) 
 
 Seconds. — Oysters of second market grade; cullens. (Northern cities.) 
 
 Seed. — Infant or young oysters suitable or intended for transplanted growth in artificial beds. See Set and Plant. 
 
 Seekonks. — Oystei's (mainly seed) growing in Seekonk river, Ehode Island. 
 
 Selects. — Oysters of the first quality, i. e., selected; applied wholly to opened stock. 
 
 Set. — I. A young oyster. Occasionally "Set" is used improperly for spawn. See Sj)at. 
 
 Set. — II. The apj^earance of young oysters in a district, as a whole, thus: "The Set is good in Somerset this 
 
 year"; i. e., there is an abundance of infant oysters. See Seed. 
 Shanghai. — A long, slender oyster. See Coon-hecl. 
 
 Share (verb). — To divide the proceeds of a sponging-cruise. "We will share $40 this trip," they say. 
 Share (noun). — The amount of money resulting to each of the crew of a sponging- vessel from the proceeds of a trip. 
 Sharpers. — Elongated, protruding, sharp-ended oysters, dangerous to the feet in moving about the reefs. (Gulf 
 
 coast.) 
 Sheepwool. — The highest grade of Florida commercial sponges, Spongia gossypina. 
 Shellers. — Persons who open clams for market. (New Jersey.) 
 Shelling. — The spreading of shells upon the bottonr to catch spawn. 
 Shift to. — To move half-grown oysters to a new bed for their improvement. 
 Shock. — To open or "shuck" clams or oysters. (New England.) 
 
 Shoots. — The spaces between the concentric ridges on an oyster-shell, marking each season's growth. (New- 
 Jersey.) 
 Shuck. — I. To open oysters. (Baltimore and southward.) 
 Shuck. — II. An oyster-shell. (South.) 
 Shucker. — One who opens oysters. (South.) 
 
 Shucking-stand. — A rude table, with boxed sides, etc., at which oysters are opened. (South.) 
 Side-opener.— An oyster-opener, who rests the oyster in the palm of his left hand alone, while he parts the shell. 
 
 (Quicker and more laborious than the sticker's method; it is followed at Providence, Ehode Island.) 
 Silver-shell. — Anomia. See Oold-shells. 
 
 Sight (verb). — To be able to see oysters on the bottom and direct the tongs to them. (Virginia.) 
 Skiff. — The peculiar, special oyster- boat used at Keyport, New Jersey. It is shaped like a small, shallow yawl. 
 Skift. — Vernacular for sliff. 
 Skevimer.— Flat, shallow pans of tin or zinc, with perforated bottom, in which the openers empty their measures 
 
 of oysters, and where the liquor is allowed to drain away. 
 Skimmer. — The Gyprina islandica, or big beach clam. (South shore of Long Island.) 
 Single Oysters. — In the south " single oyster " means an edible oyster in contradistinction from the raccoon 
 
 oyster. 
 Slipper-limpet.— Mollusks of the genus Grepidula (three species). Also known as Deckliead, Boat, and q. v. 
 Snail-bore. — Mollusks of the genus Urosalpinx, etc. (New Jersey.) See Drill, Borer, etc. 
 Snaps. — The most inferior oysters sent to market. (Maryland.) 
 Soft Oyster.- The "Virginia plant", or southern oyster (Staten Island sound), as distinguished from the "hard" 
 
 native oyster. 
 Somersets.— Oysters fi-om Taunton river, Massachusetts, after the name of the chief village, 7 miles north of FaU 
 
 Eiver. 
 Somerset Tongs.— Oyster-tongs, working on a patented swivel-joint of brass, used at Somerset, Massachusetts. 
 Sounds.— Oysters grown in Staten Island sound. New York ; especially an European brand. 
 Spat.— Spawn. This word, however, is generally used to signify the " set " or minute infant oysters, after they have 
 
 become attached to some supjiort. See Spatcn. 
 Spat. — To emit eggs or spawn. 
 Spawn.— The eggs of the oyster (or any other sea-animal) in their floating condition; but sometimes the "set" or 
 
 infant oysters are erroneously called spawn. See Spat, Mill;, Set. 
 Spawned. — Improper pronunciation of spawn, frequent in some districts. 
 Sponge, or To go Sponging. — To go on a cruise for gathering sponges. (Florida reefs.) 
 Sponger. — A man who gathers sponges. (Florida reefs.) 
 Sponge-bar. — A rocky spot where sponges grow. (Florida.) 
 Sponge-hook. — The bent, two-pronged iron tool at the end of a pole, with which sponges are gathered from the 
 
 bottom. (Florida reefs.) 
 Sponge-pole. — The pole by which the hook is operated in gathering sponges. (Florida reefs.) 
 Squid. — Naked mollusks of the order Cephalopoda ; they are used as food and as bait. 
 
THE OYSTER-INDUSTRY. 249 
 
 Stabber. — Oue who opens oysters by sticking the knife in at tlie side, witliout previously breaking the shell. 
 (IMassachnsetts and Ehode Island.) See Sticlccr, 
 
 Stales. — The handles of the oyster-tongs or oyster-rake. 
 
 Stem. — The proboscis of a clam. (Now Jersey.) 
 
 Stew. — An artificial bed of oysters. Applied to the old Eoman, and also to the modern methods of fattening. 
 (English.) See Layer. 
 
 Sticker. — An oyster-opener who rests the oyster against the bench while he thrusts the knife between the valves. 
 This is the method in Boston, and obviates the strain across the loins, but takes longer than side-opening, q. v. 
 (See Stabher.) 
 
 Stickup. — A long, thin oyster, growing in mud, etc. (Dennis creek, New Jersey.) See Strap oyster, etc. 
 
 Sting-tail. — The sting-ray, Basyhatis centrura. (New York.) 
 
 Stone-caddys. — Schooner carrying stone. (Chesapeake and Delaware.) 
 
 Stools. — Material spread on the bottom for oyster spawn to cling to. See Cultch, etc. 
 
 Strap-oyster. — The long, slender form which grows in mud. See Coon-heel, etc. (New Jersey.) 
 
 Strike. — To become tenanted by living oysters; or when infant oysters attach themselves to any object they are 
 said to "strike". (Staten Island.) See Se<, etc. 
 
 Sweet- clam. — Same as Sqiiaio clam, etc. 
 
 S^VEET■]MEAT. — A Small moUusk, the Crepidula fornicata. (Martha's Vineyard.) See Half-deck. 
 
 Tea-clam. — The quahaug, Venus mercenaria of small size ; about 1 J inches diameter. They will go from 1,200 to 
 1,400 to the barrel. (Keyport, New Jersey.) 
 
 Ten-finger. — A thief. 
 
 Tile-coating. — At Vannes, France, the coating of spat- collectors is composed as follows : The tiles are first dipped 
 into a solution of hydraulic lime and water ; when dry they are again dipi^ed into a very thin mixture of 
 common lime and water; when dry they are ready for use. 
 
 Toleration. — License to gather oysters or operate beds; paid by every individual annually. (Brookhaven, Long 
 Island.) The money paid is called a Toleration fee. 
 
 ToNGER. — One who procures oysters by the use of tongs. 
 
 ToNG-MAN. — See Tonger. 
 
 Tongs. — An instrument used in gathering oysters from the bottom. Something of an idea of it may be got by 
 supposing two garden-rakes with very long handles, with the tooth-side of each rake facing each other; let the 
 handles be secured by a loose rivet about two or three feet from the teeth, so that by operating the extreme 
 ends of the handles the whole contrivance shall act as a pair of tongs. The instrument is so constructed, that 
 when the tong handles or " stales", as they are called, are held perpendicular to the bottom, the teeth are 
 at an angle of 45°, and by working the uj)per end of the stales together above water, at the same time pressing 
 the teeth against the bottom, the oysters are thus raked together, and may be hoisted to the surface and 
 emptied into the boat. Various patented forms have been made, but in general those in actual use arc made 
 by the local blacksmith and are oue of two patterns — iron-headed or wooden-headed — according to intended 
 service. The latter form is the most common. Ordinarily the heads must be of the best oak, and the whole 
 tongs are worth $3 50 to $5. The teeth are about IJ inches apart and not over 1 to 1^ inches long. The 
 stales are sawed out of a white-pine board f -inch thick. Though seeming so thin, thej' last as long as the heads. 
 A pair of tongs lasts only about a year. The wooden heads are better, because they do not dig into the sand as 
 do the ii'on heads, and because they are lighter to work. Tongs are used of from 7 to 24 feet in length, and 
 the latter, worked as they are, in 21 and 22 feet of water, require not only considerable skill, but a good 
 allowance of strength, to handle with success. This tong is a very ancient contrivance in America, for 
 Charlevoix, in the middle of the seventeenth century, fonnd them "on the coasts of Acadia". 
 
 Trash. — All cuUiugs, small oysters, refuse, etc., thrown over from the oyster-gathering on to idle ground, and 
 which wlU be overhauled one or two years later. (Delaware.) 
 
 Tub. — I. Long Island measure for selling oysters, holding somewhat less than a bushel. It consists of part of a 
 barrel, and should be 10 inches deep, 17 inches wide at the bottom, and 19 inches at the top, inside. 
 
 Tub. — II. Chesapeake measure; is similar to the above, but twice as capacious. 
 
 Tusk-shell. — A species of the Dentalium. (Pacific coast.) 
 
 Under-raice. — An instrument used in the Point Judith ponds, Ehode Island ; " (he handles of said rake being 
 15 to 20 feet in length, the head from 1 to 2 feet in length, tilled with iron teeth from G to 10 inches in length, 
 and mostly used through holes cut in the ice." — Gen. Stat. B. I. 
 
 ViviER. — See Pare. (He d'Olcron.) 
 
 Wagon-load. — Of oysters; a "wagon load" is 20 bushels ; of mussels, .30 bushels. (New Jersey.) 
 
 Wash-basket. — A rude splint basket, circular, shallow, holding about a peck, and with a high bale-handle, 
 (llhode Island.) « 
 
 Wajcu iiorsK. — A slianly buill on the shore, or near tin- plankMl oyster-beds, fiuni wliicii Uiey iniiy be guarded. 
 (Miissachnsetts.) 
 
250 THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Watee-glass. — A bucket with a partial glass bottom, through which the position of sponges is sought. (Florida 
 
 reefs.) 
 Whelk or Whilk. — A mollusk, Buccinum unclatum. (England.) 
 
 Wild Oyster. — One of natural growth ; uncultivated or transplanted. (Massachusetts.) 
 Winkle. — A moUusk, the Sycotypus canaUculatus. (Massachusetts.) See Periwinkle. 
 Winter-killed. — Oysters that have become so weak by long-coutinued cold weather or contact with ice, that, 
 
 though they are living when caught, they will not survive handling or transportation, and are of no value for 
 
 food. 
 Whips. Slender branches used to mark the bounds of oyster-beds. (Connecticut.) " Stakes " are larger and break 
 
 rather than bend before gales and ice. 
 White-snails. — Small species of mollusks noxious to the oyster-beds, particularly Urosaljnnx and Natica. 
 WooD-DROGGER. — A wood schoouer. (Chesapeake and Delaware.) 
 Wrinkle. — A moUusk, the Sycotypus cmialiculatus. (Buzzard's bay.) See Periivinkle. 
 Yellow Sponge. — A grade of Florida commercial sponge, next under the Shaepswool. Designated scientifically 
 
 as Spongia corlosia. 
 
IV. GENERAL SUMMARY. 
 
 W. STATISTICAL TABLES. 
 
 64. Table showing, by states, the persons employed, capital invested, and value of products in 
 
 THE oyster-industry. 
 
 
 GRAND TOTAL. 
 
 PERSONS EMPLOYED. 
 
 APPARATUS AKD CAPITAL. 
 
 states. 
 
 Kumber of 
 persous em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Euahels of 
 
 oy8tor,s pro- 
 
 ducecf. 
 
 Value of 
 
 ov.sters as 
 ■ sold. 
 
 Fishermen. 
 
 Shoresmen. 
 
 Total 
 capital in- 
 vested in 
 oyster- 
 industry. 
 
 Number of 
 vessels. 
 
 Value of ves- 
 sels. 
 
 Total 
 
 52, 805 
 
 22,195,370 
 
 $13, 438, 852 
 
 38,249 
 
 14, 556 
 
 $10, 583, 295 
 
 4,165 
 
 $3,528,700 
 
 
 Maine 
 
 15 
 9 
 
 896 
 
 650 
 
 1,006 
 
 2,724 
 
 2,917 
 
 
 037, 500 
 
 6,050 
 405, 550 
 350, 925 
 072, 875 
 
 1, 677, 050 
 
 2, 080, 625 
 ff 187, ,500 
 
 687, 725 
 
 4, 730. 476 
 
 2,218,376 
 
 60, 000 
 
 20, 000 
 
 35, 000 
 
 15, 950 
 
 44,050 
 
 10,000 
 
 20(1, 000 
 
 47, 300 
 
 45, 000 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 409 
 
 300 
 
 672 
 
 1,958 
 
 2,605 
 
 10 
 3 
 
 487 
 350 
 334 
 766 
 312 
 
 4,210 
 
 2,400 
 
 303, 175 
 
 110, 000 
 
 .361,200 
 
 1, 013, OOO 
 
 1, 0.57, 000 
 
 1 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 3.000 
 
 36, 000 
 
 163. 200 
 
 330, 430 
 
 1, 043, 300 
 
 1, 975, 000 
 
 
 56 
 
 227, 000 
 
 
 
 ioo 
 
 420 
 575 
 
 69, 000 
 397, 000 
 530, 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,065 
 
 23, 402 
 
 16, 315 
 
 1,020 
 
 185 
 
 350 
 
 166 
 
 300 
 
 60 
 
 1.400 
 
 -240 
 
 85 
 
 300, 000 
 
 10, 600, 000 
 
 6, 837, 320 
 
 170, 000 
 50, 000 
 70, 000 
 78, 600 
 
 104. 500 
 25, 000 
 
 295, UOO 
 95, 000 
 15, 000 
 
 820 
 
 13, 748 
 
 14, 236 
 1,000 
 
 175 
 300 
 140 
 250 
 
 50 
 
 1,300 
 
 200 
 
 75 
 
 6245 
 
 c9, 6.54 
 
 d2, 079 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 26 
 
 SO 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 145 500 
 6, 034, 350 
 1, 351, 100 
 68, 500 
 12, 250 
 18, 500 
 22,000 
 
 16, 000 
 3,000 
 
 36, 750 
 
 17, 750 
 6,550 
 
 65 
 
 1,450 
 
 1,317 
 
 90 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 1, 750, 000 
 
 460, 950 
 
 22, 500 
 
 2 500 
 
 
 
 
 Getirt^ia 
 
 
 Florid.a 
 
 
 
 ALibama 
 
 20 
 
 6,000 
 
 
 45 
 
 10,750 
 
 
 "W.-ifthincrtnn TArvitOTy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 APPARATUS AND 
 
 CAPITAL— continued. 
 
 
 PBODDCTB. 
 
 
 states. 
 
 Number of 
 boats. 
 
 Value of 
 boats. 
 
 Value of jrear 
 and outfit. 
 
 Value of shore 
 property. 
 
 Bushels of 
 
 oysters 
 produced. 
 
 Vjiluo of same 
 to producer. 
 
 Enhancement of value of oys- 
 ters in process of preparation 
 for market, e 
 
 
 Nnmber of 
 bushels. 
 
 Amount of en- 
 hancement. 
 
 Total 
 
 11, 930 
 
 $708, 330 
 
 $712, 515 
 
 $5, 633, 750 
 
 22,195,370 
 
 $9,034,861 
 
 13,047,922 
 
 $4,368,991 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 117 
 
 100 
 
 563 
 
 1,714 
 
 1,400 
 
 60 
 
 300 
 
 9,485 
 
 14, 500 
 
 33. 165 
 
 121,700 
 
 110, 500 
 
 - 
 
 1.50 
 
 100 
 
 10, 690 
 
 .5, 500 
 
 19, 385 
 
 42, 460 
 
 91,500 
 
 1,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 66, 000 
 
 90, 000 
 
 230, 050 
 
 451, 900 
 
 325, 000 
 
 
 
 75, 000 
 7,000 
 
 514, 000 
 274, 300 
 
 515, 000 
 1, 06,5, 000 
 
 2 J7. 500 
 
 A250, 000 
 
 i834, 500 
 
 7, 653, 492 
 
 1, 622, 130 
 
 37, 500 
 5,250 
 
 ^ow TXampahire 
 
 1,000 
 
 30, 000 
 
 163, 200 
 
 336, 450 
 
 I, 043, 300 
 
 1, 973, 000 
 
 800 
 
 41, 800 
 
 225, 500 
 
 386, 625 
 
 1, 043, 300 
 
 1, 970, 000 
 
 
 Rhode IsLlnd 
 
 131, 425 
 
 Connectient . 
 
 286, 250 
 
 New York 
 
 533, 750 
 
 New.Ter.'iey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 110,625 
 1 87, 500 
 
 
 300 
 1,825 
 4,481 
 800 
 100 
 100 
 110 
 42 
 40 
 120 
 70 
 40 
 
 12, 000 
 
 130, 620 
 
 224, 050 
 
 16, 000 
 
 2,500 
 
 10, 000 
 
 8,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 6,750 
 
 800 
 
 10, 000 
 
 161, 480 
 
 329, 250 
 
 15, 000 
 
 2,250 
 
 3,500 
 
 2,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 500 
 
 13,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 750 
 
 /73, 500 
 
 g3, 992, 350 
 
 iSS'J, 850 
 
 15, 000 
 
 5,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 12, 000 
 
 3,000 
 
 1, 500 
 
 10, 000 
 
 9,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 300, 000 
 10, 600, 000 
 6, 837, 320 
 
 170, 000 
 50, 000 
 70, 000 
 78, 600 
 
 104, 500 
 25, 000 
 
 285, 000 
 95, 000 
 15,000 
 
 325. 000 
 
 2, 650, 000 
 
 1, 948. 636 
 
 60, 000 
 
 211, 000 
 
 35, OOO 
 
 15, 950 
 
 44, 930 
 
 10, 000 
 
 200, 000 
 
 47, 300 
 
 10,000 
 
 j362, 725 
 2, 080, 476 
 
 
 Virginia 
 
 269, 740 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 This quantity represents simply tbo enhancement, the first coat being incladed in the Maryland and Virginia statistics. 
 
 i Of these, 215 are employed in the canneries at Seaford. 
 
 ; Of these, 8.864 are employed at the various canneries. 
 
 t Of these. l.TiTS are employed in the camieriea. 
 
 ! This inriiules plantiu;:, boddi]i<r, fatttiiine:, and transportation to distant markets in oyster-vessels. 
 
 ' Of this $28,500 is invested in the cannery mterests at Seaford. 
 
 ' Of this amount, $2,4!)2.3rj0 represents the cash capital invested in the cannery industry. 
 
 1 Brought in winter by vessels repi.'^tered in other states ; the men engaged and the value of the vessels being accounted for elsevbere. 
 
 I Of these, 184.500 bushels were packed at St-aford, and 050.000 bushels were planted in Delaware bay. 
 
 Of this. $22,225 represents the enhancement on those canned. 
 ; Of this $11!>,3&0 represents the ceeh capital in the cacDery interests, and $107,600 the raJue of buiMings and £Lxturee for oatmioff. 
 
 861 
 
 y 
 
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