Author *.-<*o> | LB 3218 N7 05 1917 I Copy 1 Title Imprint SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS LAW, RULES, REGULATIONS AND GENERAL INFORMATION Extract from volume J of the tenth annual report of the State Department of Education ALBANY THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 1917 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Regents of the University With years when terms expire (Revised to April 1, 1917) 1926 Pliny T. Sexton LL.B. LL.D. Chancellor - - - Palmyra 1927 Albert Vander Veer M.D. M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. Vice Chancellor Albany 1922 Chester S. Lord M.A. LL.D. ----- Brooklyn 1918 William Nottingham M.A. Ph.D. LL.D - - - Syracuse 1921 Francis M. Carpenter Mount Kisco 1923 Abram I. Elkus LL.B. D.C.L. ----- New York 1924 Adelbert Moot LL.D. ------ Buffalo 1925 Charles B. Alexander M.A. LL.B. LL.D. Litt.D. - Tuxedo 1919 John Moore -------- Elmira 1928 Walter Guest Kellogg B.A. - - - - - Ogdensburg 1929 William Berri - - - - - - - Brooklyn 1920 James Byrne B.A. LL.B. New York President of the University and Commissioner of Education John H. Finley M.A. LL.D. L.H.D. Deputy Commissioner and Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Education Thomas E. Finegan M.A. Pd.D. LL.D. Assistant Commissioner for Higher Education Augustus S. Downing M.A. L.H.D. LL.D. Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Education Charles F. Wheelock B.S. LL.D. Director of State Library James I. Wyer, Jr, M.L.S. Director of Science and State Museum John M. Clarke Ph.D. D.Sc. LL.D. Chiefs and Directors of Divisions Administration, George M. Wiley M.A. Agricultural and Industrial Education, Arthur D. Dean D.Sc, Director Archives and History, James Sullivan M.A. Ph.D., Director Attendance, James D. Sullivan Educational Extension, William R. Watson B.S. Examinations and Inspections, Harlan H. Horner M.A., Director Law, Frank B. Gilbert B.A., Counsel for the University Library School, Frank K. Walter, M.A. M.L.S. School Buildings and Grounds, Frank H. Wood M.A. School Libraries, Sherman Williams Pd.D. Statistics, Hiram C. Case Visual Instruction, Alfred W. Abrams Ph.B. ' The University of the State of New York The State Department of Education Building! and Grounds l> SCHOOL BUILDINOS AND O ROUNDS I UV. kl LIS, REG1 LATIONS AM) GENERAL INFORMATION Extract from volume J of thf truth annual report of the State ntment of Education % V D, Of D. MAY \7 1917 r 7 SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROl XDS SCHOOL BUILDING \CT ions );i and 4^2 of the Education Law ;is amended In chaptei [40 ol the Laws 11I iwi Section 451 Plans and specifications of school buildings must be approved by Commissioner of Education. 1 No schoolhouse shall here- after be erected, repaired, enlarged or remodeled in a city of the third class or in a school district, at an expense which shall exceed #500, until the plans and specifications thereof shall have been submitted to the Com- missioner the average height of the roof, calculated from eaves to topmost point, including cubic contents of .ill such substantial projections as bays, porches, chimneys, towers and cupolas, but not including ornamental work such as cornices or pilasters or bulkheads or tank inclosures. Where unusual conditions are encountered, in constructing foundations, such as rock excavation, piling or unusual grade conditions) the cost thereof should be estimated separately. 12 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 5 It shall be the duty of architects to see that the terms of the general contract and of all supplementary contracts are so drawn as to protect the district from any additional expenditures by reason of changes in the plans and specifications that any contractors or subcontractors may make on their own initiative, or that may become necessary to carry out effect- ively the plans and specifications as originally approved and adopted. 6 Specifications must not limit the district to the purchase of products of any particular manufacturer to the exclusion of products of like quality of other manufacturers. 7 After the contracts are duly signed, it shall be the duty of the archi- tect to report to the Commissioner of Education the name or names of the successful bidders and the amount or amounts for which the contracts have been let; also to furnish a list of all the bidders together with the amounts of their respective bids. 8 Upon the completion of the building, prior to the presentation of his requisition to the local board of education or trustee for final payment for services rendered, the architect shall report to the Commissioner of Education the following facts: (a) date of completion of building; (b) total cost of building exclusive of site and furniture; (c) cost per cubic foot; (d) cost per pupil accommodated; (e) cost of site; (f) cost of furniture. 9 Where it is necessary to provide special means for the disposal of sewage, the plans therefor must be submitted for approval to the State Department of Health. Fire Protection i The unique value of fireproof construction for school buildings is universally conceded and such construction is especially desirable in large buildings where many pupils are assembled. Where conditions render it impossible or impracticable to use fireproof construction throughout, it is particularly desirable to have all walls, both inclosing and interior, of incom- bustible material, and to make the furnace room, the first floor and the stairways fireproof. Frame construction with inclosing walls of com- bustible material can not be approved except in rural districts and in small village districts of comparatively low valuation. 2 The plans and specifications must clearly show that proper pro- vision is made in all respects " to facilitate egress and to afford adequate protection in cases of fire or accident." 3 The statute requires that all exit doors (that is, outside doors) shall open outwardly. This statement is not construed as applying to doors SCH001 BUILDINGS VND GROI 1 3 into classrooms and recitation rooms, w lii( h frequently should open inward to prevent interference and blocking of corridors and hallways, but all doors opening into rooms where pupils assemble in misses, such as audi- toriums, general assembly moms and gymnasiums, should open outward unless double swinging. 1 Exit doors, if double, musl be fastened with antipanic holts. Lighting i Ml classrooms and study rooms shall be Lighted from one side only, the pupils' [eft, unless special conditions, such as width of room, render it impossible or inadvisable; in such event supplemental light may he admitted from the rear, hut no window should he placed in the rear directh Opposite the teacher's desk. 2 The windows must he grouped together as nearly as possible on the pupils' hit so that the light may be massed, thereby insuring a compara- ti\el\ even distribution of it on all study desks. Any considerable area on this side without window surface should he at either extremity of it. 3 The ratio of window surface to floor surface must be at least one to live. If the main light comes from the north or from a side of the build- ing which is much shaded, the ratio should he one to four. In the remodeling of old buildings some allowance is permissible for the use of prism idass in the upper sash if other conditions are favorable. 4 In all class, study and recitation rooms the windows must have square heads and no transoms or unnecessary framework. 5 Small panes of glass are not permissible except where narrow metal mullions are used. b Sidewalls and ceilings must be finished in colors that will reflect light well. Light gray-green, if not overdone, or light drab is recommended as a wall color for southern exposure and light cream or buff for northern exposure. The dado should be a darker tone of the wall color. The ceiling should be a flat white very slightly modified by the wall color. 1 7 Shades for controlling the light must be translucent. The color and material used in the shades should be such as to admit the maximum amount of light without producing a glare. The following methods of fastening shades are approved: a Two overlapping shades fastened in the middle of the window, one to draw up, the other down. b A single shade with patent movable or adjustable fixtures. 1 See also page {I, Schoolroom Decoration. 14 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Heat, Ventilation and Humidity i The specifications must contain a statement requiring the engineer, architect or heating contractor, as the case may be, to guarantee that the system of heating and ventilation described will heat all rooms used for study and recitation and also all rooms used for coats and wraps to a tem- perature of 70 degrees in zero weather, without undue pressure on the appliances involved, will provide a supply of at least 30 cubic feet of fresh air every minute for each pupil to be accommodated in each study room or classroom, and will maintain the humidity of each study room and class- room at not less than 35 per cent. 2 One-room school buildings may be heated and ventilated by an approved room heater. In buildings of larger size a cellar, basement or separate building must be provided for the furnace or boiler. 3 A gravity system of ventilation is permissible only in rural and in small village schools. 4 The heat and vent flues should be of sufficient capacity to furnish the required amount of heated air at a velocity not in excess of 300 feet a minute for gravity systems and 400 feet a minute for fan systems. To insure this result in gravity systems, these openings must have a minimum cross section area of from two-thirds of an inch to 1 inch for every square foot of floor area according to conditions, such as number of floor and exposure. The fan should be of ample capacity to supply the required amount of air at normal velocity without running it at a rate that will either cause an annoying noise or produce undue wear. 5 Heat flues must admit air to all classrooms, recitation rooms and study halls at least 8 feet above floor level. Ventiducts placed on the same side as the heat flues must remove foul air from schoolrooms at floor level. 6 The attic must not be used either as a repository or as a gathering chamber for foul air. Vent flues must empty into the open air above the highest point of the roof. 7 Wherever practicable, the supply of pure air must be taken into the building at least 10 feet above the grade line. 8 In all rooms used for study, recitation and general assembly, the amount of air supplied should be somewhat in excess of the amount of air exhausted in a unit of time. In all toilet rooms, rooms used for domestic science or for physical and chemical laboratories, the amount of foul air exhausted should be somewhat in excess of the amount of air supplied in a unit of time. The hoods in chemical laboratories must have a separate s( IHMH Bl II DIN'. s Wl> '.KOI ND8 15 .mil positive exhaust ventilating system. Toilel ventilatio 1st be sepa- rate .ind distinct From the ventilation of study, class and recitation rooms. 9 When- wire mesh grills with nol over a one-eighth inch wire and 1'. In j inch mesh are used, the area ol the opening shall be of such size that tin- velocitj ol the ail through it shall nor exceed 300 feet a minute measured ovei the gross area of the opening. Where registers or register faces are used, the area of the opening shall be 25 per cent greater than that 1 equired li >r wire mesh grills. 10 Fresh air or vent openings may be used without registers it finished in keeping with the rooms. 11 Registers and thermostats ought not to he placed so as to break up spates suitable for hanging pictures or be set in blackboards. ii \n amount of direct radiation sufficient to supplement the indirect radiation in extreme winter weather is advisable; but there must he ample indirect radiation to supply required air at all times. 'Idle direct radiation should he used only in cold weather. Miscellaneous 1 In classrooms and study rooms, the aisles must run the long way ol the room. When there is only one entrance door, it should be located in the end near the teacher's desk. 1 The use of platforms can not be approved except in large study halls. 3 In the construction of stairways, the risers should be not more than (' inches in elementary and 7 inches in secondary schools, and the treads not less than 10 inches in the former and 11 inches in the latter. The stairways should be sufficiently broad to insure the ready passage of all pupils who may have occasion to use them at any time. 4 In the primary grades, the blackboards should be placed approxi- mately 24 to 26 inches from the floor; in the intermediate grades 28 to 30 inches; in the grammar grades 32 to 34 inches, and in the high school 36 to 38 inches. Each blackboard should be provided with a trough at the bottom, which should have an open woven wire cover on hinges. 5 \mple cloakrooms should be provided. These should be thoroughly heated and ventilated. A minimum allowance of 8 running inches to each pupil should be made. In primary schools the hooks should be placed from 3' to 4 feet above the floor, in other schools from 4 to 5§ feet. (> When pupils have access to a basement during school hours for toilet purposes only, there must be a stairway for each sex. 7 Uncovered cement floors are not approved except for corridors and special rooms, such as toilets, laboratories and shop rooms. l6 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 8 Plans lor buildings of eight or more rooms should provide either for a general assembly room or an auditorium. Plans for buildings of less than eight rooms should have a room or two or more connecting rooms suitable for the accommodation of all pupils in general assembly. 9 All plans must show adequate facilities for carrying out all the provisions of the physical training act and the rules and regulations of the Board of Regents pursuant thereto. 10 All plans must provide for adequate sanitary toilet facilities. On or before September i, 191 8, provision must be made for sanitary toilets in all old buildings where not already provided, and plans therefor must be submitted for approval. 11 In designing plans, adequate provision should be made for future growth and development, both for increase in registration and for the adoption of special lines of work that may prove desirable. The following chapters are intended for the general information and guidance of architects, trustees and boards of education together with all those who are charged with the responsible duties of teaching and super- vision; and it is hoped that they may point the way to helpful means and methods for improving the buildings and grounds of our public schools and for surrounding the children attending them with comfortable and sanitary accommodations and uplifting and refining environment. 3 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS Initial Steps by School Boards Trustees and boards of education are primarily responsible for the proper housing of pupils under their jurisdiction. If the school building is temporarily congested, it is their duty to rent suitable rooms and fit them up for use. If the congestion, however, is not temporary, or it the building in use is unsuitable for school purposes, it is then the dut> oi these loeal officials to take the necessarj preliminary Steps to secure the enlargement of the old building ' or the construction of a new one. In case of doubl as to which of these two courses to pursue, advice should be sought through the State Department of Education. When confronted with the necessity of building, the trustee or board of education should adopt every reasonable and necessary means to apprize the residents of the district that better accommodations must be pro- vided, with the reasons therefor. Meanwhile they should inform them- selves as well as may be as to the precise kind of structure that will best meet their needs. They should examine the plans of new buildings in other places of like size and conditions and inspect some of these buildings. Many find it profitable to visit the Department to examine plans and to consult regarding points of difficulty or uncertainty. It will be a pleasure to welcome all who may come and to give all possible assistance. The next step is to engage a competent architect, describe the kind of building that is wanted, and instruct him to prepare sketches and esti- mates of cost. With this done and the general public in readiness through a persistent campaign of education, tactfully and intelligently conducted, a call should he issued for a special meeting of the district to vote the neces- sarj appropriation. A form of call, and of resolutions to be ottered at this meeting, together with the qualifications of voters, will be found in the appendix, further information on the issuance of bonds and procedure at special meetings will be found in Law Pamphlets i and 2, issued by the State Department of Education, copies of which will be supplied upon application. lo THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Choice of Architect It is ordinarily not desirable to select an architect by means of a com- petition except in the case of a building sufficiently expensive to warrant the hiring of an architect to outline the terms of the competition and super- vise its conduct. An untrained school board will ordinarily secure the best results by selecting an architect of known experience and probity who has constructed buildings of the sort they wish under conditions about the same as they have to encounter. Architects submitting sketches in competition naturally desire their work to be as attractive as possible. Consequently, it is more likely than not that the sketch chosen as the most desirable represents a building that will cost more than the sum appropri- ated, or will have to be materially altered and in the end be perhaps less desirable than other buildings pictured originally with less pretension. A symmetrically designed building originally planned to come within a certain sum is sure to be more attractive and serviceable than one planned on larger, more expensive lines, and then altered so as to reduce the cost of construction. Location of Building Great care must be taken to select a school site removed from objec- tionable noises, polluted air, or other sources of physical or moral con- tamination. Made land, wet land and land impregnated with organic matter should be avoided. High land removed from manufactories, stables, dumps, swampy places and other objectionable surroundings should be diligently sought. Consideration should be given to the ques- tion of the geographical center of the district, the center of population and ease of access. This is more important in elementary than in high schools. The building should not be so near neighboring buildings or trees as to have the light obstructed; it is generally accepted that -the distance of the school building from the obstructing buildings or trees ought not to be less than twice their height. Orientation of Buildings Buildings should be so located that all rooms used continuously for study, and so far as may be those used for recitation, will receive direct sunlight during some part of the day. Rooms for drawing, laboratories, domestic science, manual training and other similar lines of special work may if necessary be lighted from the north. Light from the east is more desirable than from the west. Light from the south as well as from the north should be avoided so far as possible in classrooms, study rooms and SI uooi B1 ILDINGS \M> GROUNDS I'y recitation rooms. To secure these results, therefore, it is desirable to have the long axis of the building extend north and south 01 .it as small angle ,is possible with the north and south line. Determining Factors in Construction The determining factors in size, style and material oi ,i school building are the site, the appropriation, the number of pupils to be accommodated, and the character pf the work to he- done. It is advisable and economical in the end to use the best materials available, and whenever it is pos- sible fireproof construction should by all means be adopted. If fire- proof construction can not be used throughout, it should be employed in the more essential parts, particularly the basement, corridors and the stairways. In constructing a new building, liberal provision should be made for future growth. Frequently a new building is taxed to its fullest capacity within a year or two after its completion. Account should be taken of the lac t that a new building in itself conduces in a marked degree to an increase in attendance, especially in high schools. In the preparation of plans, due attention should also be given to the possibilities of enlargement. Cost of Construction The costs of buildings of the same type, size and capacity will vary widely by reason of the difference in cost of material and labor in different sections of the State and in different years or at different periods of the same year. It is estimated that the cost of building during the current year (1916) is approximately twenty per cent more than it was a year ago. In general, the cost is commonly greater in cities than in village and rural districts; greater in the northeastern than in the southwestern counties, and greatest of all in the Long Island and lower Hudson counties. Height of Buildings A two-room building should be of one story; a building of more than two classrooms may be of more than one story. The height ot school buildings should, as far as possible, be restricted to two stories above the basement. Ground Floor (basement) The basement should be of good height, a minimum of 12 feet if pos- sible, and should be thoroughly drained. The walls and floor should be 20 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK thoroughly waterproofed. It should contain ample room for heating appa- ratus and be sufficiently above ground to be well lighted, and as occasion requires, to afford space for toilets, lavatories, baths, playrooms, manual training rooms, domestic science rooms, laboratories and shop rooms. Attractive Appearance It is particularly important that a school building should present an attractive appearance. Great care should therefore be exercised in making the exterior lines such as to insure a pleasing effect without undue increase in the cost of construction. Some inexpensive features, a little touch of the artist's hand here and there will often transform the entire exterior effect; but tawdry ornamentation and multiplicity of angles, projections and towers should be avoided. Size and Arrangement of Classrooms In the construction of a school building the classroom or grade room is the unit. The recitation room and the study hall are to be regarded as variations of it differing from it for the most part only in dimensions. In planning a schoolhouse, the architect's chief problem is to get a specified number of these normal units together in the most effective and economical manner and have the accessory rooms, coat rooms, corridors, toilet rooms and auditorium so grouped in relation to them as to yield best results. Special attention, therefore, needs to be given to the features that should characterize the typical classroom. Efficiency and economy are best secured when the dimensions are approximately 30 by 24 feet and the max'mum seating capacity about 50; but it should be rarely necessary to place so many under a single teacher even with most favorable conditions. When several grades occupy the same room, the number should never exceed 45. Department rulings permit but 40 in a single room of a rural school. Rows of seats should run the long way of the room. The considera- tions determining this fact, and also deciding the approximate dimensions given, are (1) that the rectangular room has less waste space in front, (2) that if the room is more than 26 feet wide some pupils at the sides are out of range of the teacher's vision, (3) that the blackboard arrangements are more satisfactory, (4) that light should come from the pupil's left, and the farthest row of seats should be distant from the windows not more than twice the height of the windows, and (5) that in general such size and arrangement is better for discipline and administration. On the other hand, SCHOOL BUILDINGS WD GROUNDS 21 it should be remembered thai in .1 room longer than 30 feet, it is difficult Ini the teacher to be heard and lor pupils .it the rear to see the front hoard. There should be a wide aisle <>n the long side opposite the windows or the blackboard side oi the room, the inside aisles being of an equal width ol from 10 to z\ inches according to the size of the desks and the age of the pupils. No matter how small the desks used, the number in a room should not he increased. This arrangement provides needed free floor space in primarj rooms for the motor activities of the children. The normal height of the room, 13', feet, is determined by dividing the air space per pupil, as required by statute 200 cubic feet, by the required floor space per pupil, [5 square leer. It should be noted that this statutory requirement sets a minimum stand. ml, and that increased floor and air space, say 20 square feel and 260 cubic feet, are desirable. Types of High School Arrangement There are today three common types of construction for high school buildings. The general plan of one of these types of buildings consists essentially of one or more large assembly rooms, primarily designed for study purposes and containing seats for all pupils enrolled in the school, and of a number of small rooms commonly seated with benches (not desks) and adapted for use for recitations only. Another type of building is composed principally of a number of com- bined recitation and study rooms among which pupils pass to and fro for recitations. In these combined recitation and study rooms, pupils will be found studying in the rear of the room while a class is reciting in the front. Such rooms are commonly known as the " home rooms " of the pupils who study. there. A third type, which is meeting much favor, is substantially a com- bination of the other two, and consists of one or more study rooms of mod- erate size, which on emergency may be also used for recitations, seated to accommodate all pupils who may be scheduled for study at any period of the day. Instead of a seat for every pupil enrolled in the school, there is approximately one for every three pupils. In the first type, only about one-third of the seats of the study hall are occupied during recitations; hence the outlay for original construc- tion and the annual cost of maintenance are materially greater than in other types. The special advantage is that every pupil has the same desk for study throughout the day. The disadvantages of the second type are two: first, teachers are required to take charge of a class and at the same time to supervise those 22 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK who are studying in the room; and second, pupils throughout the day are obliged to study in rooms where classes are reciting. The advantages are economy in space and economy in teaching force. The third type necessitates a definite assignment of seats for every period of the day and suitable provision for the books and working material of pupils. This is, however, merely a matter of administration which is readily met. It obviates the objections urged against the other types at a cost part way between the two. The first type sacrifices efficiency in the use of room; the second sacrifices efficiency in results; the third is intended to meet both of these difficulties at a minimum cost. Seats and Desks It is of vital importance that a suitable number of adjustable seats and desks be provided to accommodate pupils of abnormal size. A row of these to a classroom proves very satisfactory in number and arrangement. The seats should be of such size that each pupil may be comfortably seated with feet resting directly on the floor, and with the desk in such proximity that the pupil will readily and naturally assume an upright position when either reading or writing. Single or individual desks or chairs should always be used. In ordinary classrooms there should be no platform. 4 FIRE PROTECTION Too much (. m ii m>t be said about the extreme importance oi taking everj possible precaution against fire. It it is at all possible, fireproof construction should be used throughout. When tins can not he done, such construction should certainly be employed in the more essential parts ol the building, particularly the basement, corridors and stairways. \t the verj least, the entire sides and ceiling of the boiler or furnace room should be plastered on metallic lath. The boiler room may well he outside the main building, either in a separate structure, or in a wing or an extension ot the basement. Such an arrangement deereases the fire risk, economizes room usable for school purposes, and removes dirt and dust from the school building proper. According to the estimates of several prominent archi- tects, approximately semifireproof construction increases the cost ot a school building from 8 to zz per cent and absolutely fireproof construction from i z to 35 per cent; but Department records and publications show that in recent years several fireproof school buildings have heen constructed at .i cost ot i ; cents per cubic toot or less. It is ot extreme importance that all waste, sweepings and paper, if kept in the building even for 24 hours, he placed in metal ash cans and kept in a fireproof room. To prevent distribution of burning particles by the wind, a wire cage may he used for the disposal of paper and other waste. Attention should be given to proper protection of hot-air and smoke flues; chimneys should have tile linings for smoke flues, and no wooden flues ol any description should be used in the heating or ventilating systems. Fire Alarms In all school buildings of more than one story or housing more than 100 pupils, an approved fire alarm system must be provided. This is essential to the proper execution of the provisions of article 2S of the Education law , requiring the maintenance of Are drills. It is recommended that three separate rings of three strokes each (3-3-3) be known and used throughout the State as the school fire alarm. *3 24 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Fire Extinguishers Standpipes with proper hose and easily turned valves and chemical hand extinguishers are of great value if located on all floors. In non- fireproof buildings, especially those of two or more stories, automatic sprinklers in the basement, in laboratories, shops and domestic science rooms, highly recommended by competent authorities, are coming into prominent use in school buildings. Requirements Special statutes require that (i) all buildings if of more than two stories, except in New York City, must have suitable outside stairways, not ladders; (2) fire drills shall be held at least once a month; (3) all exit doors shall open outwardly, and the bolts of double doors shall be arranged to be drawn at one motion; (4) no winding stairs shall be employed and no doors open directly on staircases; (5) in general, the school building and everything in it shall be arranged with a view to preventing fire and facilitating egress in case of fire. School boards may well go beyond the requirements of the law in the direction of safety. If other safeguards are essential to the proper pro- tection of the lives of the children, prompt measures should be instituted to provide them. It would be infinitely better to show an excess of caution and to spend more money than need be than to incur the possibility of afflictions such as have occurred. Fire Escape Act (Education Law, section 453) Fire escapes, i All school buildings in the State, except in the city of New York, which are more than two stories high, shall have properly constructed stairways on the outside thereof, with suitable doorways leading thereto, from each story above the first, for use in case of fire. Such stairways shall be kept in good order and free from obstruction, and shall not be bolted or locked during school hours. 2 It shall be the duty of the trustee or board of education having charge of said school buildings to cause such stairways to be constructed and maintained, and the reasonable and proper cost thereof shall in each case be a legal charge upon the district or city, and shall be raised by tax, as other moneys are raised for school purposes. si HOOL Bl ILDINGS \M> GROI NDfl 25 Fire Drill Act 1 du icion I ■ . .n > ' Section 730 Duty to maintain drills. It shall be the duty of the principal 01 othei person in charge ol every public 01 private school or educational institution within the State, having nunc than 100 pupils, or maintained in .1 building two <>r more stories high, to instruct and train the pupils In means ol drills, so that they may in a sudden emergencj be able to leave the school building in the shortest possible time and without confusion 01 panic. Such dulls or rapid dismissals shall be held at least once in each month. 731 Penalty for neglect. Neglect by any principal or other person in charge of any public or private school or educational institution to compl) with the provisions of this article shall be a misdemeanor punishable at the discretion of the court l>\ fine not exceeding fifty dollars; such hue to be paid to the pension fund of the local lire department where there is such a fund. 732 Duty to instruct teachers. It shall be the duty ol the board of education or school board or other body having control oi the schools in any district or city to cause a copy of this article to be printed in the manual or handbook prepared for the guidance of teachers where such manual or handbook is in use or may hereafter come into use. 733 ■ Not applicable to college or universities. The provisions of this article shall not apply to colleges or universities. Extract from Building Act I ducation Law, section 45: 1 Halls, doors, stairways, staircases etc. i All schoolhouses for which plans and detailed statements shall be filed and approved, as required by the preceding section, shall have all halls, doors, stairways, seats, passageways and aisles, and all lighting and heating appliances and apparatus arranged to facilitate egress and afford adequate protection in cases of fire or accident. 1 All exit doors shall open outwardly, and shall, if double doors be used, be fastened with movable bolts operated simultaneously by one handle from the inner face of the door. 3 No staircase shall be constructed with winder steps in lieu of a platform but shall be constructed with straight runs, changes in direction being made by platforms. No door shall open immediately upon a flight of stairs, but a landing at least the width of the door shall be provided between such stairs and such doorway. Additional local enactments comm >nly provide further safeguards for public buildings in the large cities. 5 LIGHTING The eyesight of pupils should be protected and safeguarded with greatest care. The increasing number of children with defective vision resulting in some measure at least — we know not how large — from unfavorable schoolroom conditions conclusively demonstrates the necessity tor so doing. No pains nor expense, therefore, should be spared to secure satisfactory light. To this end, the requirements set forth with con- siderable minuteness in the regulations must be rigidly adhered to, as they all are essential to secure an adequate amount of light from the left of pupils and an even distribution of it on all desks without glare or bands of shadow. The most troublesome problem in connection with lighting and the most difficult one to solve satisfactorily is that of window shades, their selection, proper method of hanging, and most perplexing of all the syste- matic, intelligent use of them after they are installed. Even with old buildings, it is usually easier to secure the proper arrangement of windows than it is to adjust satisfactorily the difficulties that arise in connection with shades. It is common to find shades that are essentially opaque instead of translucent. As a result, when up, there is nothing to bar the direct rays of the sun, and when down, light itself is largely excluded. Another difficulty arises from the fact that shades are usually fastened so as to unroll down and are commonly left half unrolled not only on clear days when the sun's rays strike the windows, but also on dark days when every available square inch of glass surface is at a premium. Hence the upper half of the w ndow, which represents at least two-thirds of its efficiency as a medium of light, becomes largely, useless, especially so when shades are opaque. As already intimated above and stated elsewhere, a translucent shade should be selected, one that will admit the maximum amount of light without producing a glare. In color, the shades should be in harmony with the color of the side walls. They should either roll from the bottom or should be controlled by patent movable fixtures. 26 SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 2~] In a school building, Venetian blinds or any other kind of blinds within or without are not to be tolerated. It is enough to say that they interfere with proper lighting, without mentioning other serious objections to them. It is commonly accepted that a pupil should not be seated at a further distance from the nearest window than twice the height of the window from the floor. From this, it follows that (i) the upper part of the window is more efficient not alone by reason of the greater amount of light it admits but also because it projects light farther into the room; (2) the width of the schoolroom must be governed by the height of the windows; (3) it is essen- tial that windows should extend as near as may be to the ceiling; (4) the normal height of ceiling, 13! feet, derived from dividing the unit of air space 200 by the unit of floor area 15, is none too high in general to insure the proper lighting of schoolrooms. HEAT AND VENTILATION The problems involved in planning the heating and the ventilating systems of a school building are so intimately related as naturally to be discussed together. The necessity of proper ventilation is no longer a matter of question. Every thinking person who has even slightly investigated the subject is aware of its vital and far-reaching importance. Scientific test has proved again and again that good ventilation substituted for poor, means mental stimulation, increase in health and working energy, and the saving of life. One- third increase in mental efficiency, one-half decrease in days of sick leave, 90 per cent, 75 per cent, 60 per cent decrease in hospital death rates, are accredited results of specific cases where poor ventilation has been changed to good. 1 School boards that permit poor ventilation in the buildings under their control are allowing a waste in the products of the school, mental training and fact acquisition, that would be intolerable and unthinkable in a business establishment. Accordingly no single feature in the construction of a school building is more important than its heating and ventilating system. Economy may be exercised in a limitation of elaborate interior finishings and in a wise discrimination in the use of ornate exterior decorations, but in the instalment of a heating plant and proper system of ventilation, the truest economy is in furnishing the best that money can buy. Frequently when an appropriation proves insufficient, the heating and ventilating system, as the least conspicuous part of the building, is the first part to be cheapened. This should not be so. The heating and ventilating system is the very life of the building and should be the very last thing on which to cut costs. There are substantially only three methods of heating school buildings that conform to modern practice and to the statutory requirements of this and many other states. These are (1) by hot air from furnaces or venti- lating stoves (room heaters), (2) by indirect radiation, and (3) by indirect radiation supplemented by direct radiation. In a system of indirect radiation from steam or hot-water pipes, the air is first heated in closed chambers where coils of steam or hot-water pipes are installed and is then 1 See Woodbridge's " Air and the Schoolhouse," p. 28-32. 28 SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 2Q. delivered as warm air through flues to the various rooms. In the third method, an indirect heating system as just described is installed and in addition to this ordinary steam or hot-water radiators are provided for use in extreme winter weather. This supplementary system is especially advisable in localities where the temperature frequently falls below zero. Direct radiation from steam or hot-water coils, except as just explained, or from ordinary stoves is no longer used in new construction, as it is impossible to secure adequate ventilation by this means. Statutory requirements regarding ventilation are now such as to require the use of one of the three methods described. Whatever system of heating is to be installed, certain general con- siderations should invariably control. In the first place, the heating system must provide for a definite system of ventilation. The Educa- tion Law (section 451) requires that there shall be a minimum of 30 cubic feet of fresh air per minute for each pupil, and that the means for securing this ventilation shall be positive and independent of atmo- spheric changes. Again, only the best material and workmanship should be accepted. The matter of efficiency and of expense in operating a heating system depends largely upon its location in the building, its method of installation and the means employed to govern the admis- sion of fresh air. It is of vital importance, therefore, to have the system planned and the installation supervised by thoroughly compe- tent and experienced men who have made a special study of the particular problems involved. Failure to secure such men usually results in an inadequate system and greater ultimate expense. Fresh air should be taken into the building at least 10 feet above the ground, and great care should be taken to insure its purity and cleanliness. For the sake of economy, air may be taken from within the building during the night and recirculated. The size of the heating plant should be ample. The object of the heating system should always be to deliver a large quantity of air moderately heated rather than a small quantity at a high temperature. The use of undersized furnaces or boilers results in waste of fuel, since to secure the desired heat the fire must be crowded, and much of the heat together with unused combustible gas escapes through the smoke flue. It also results in increased wear and tear on account of the overheating and in an otherwise unnecessary expenditure of time and attention. The saving on initial cost by installing an undersized heating plant will soon be offset by increased cost of fuel and upkeep, and thereafter the system, besides giving unsatisfactory service, will occasion continuous unnecessary expense. Saving in " year-cost " rather than in low installation cost gives better results in the end. 30 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK The following principles should be observed: i The warm air should be admitted to the room above the breath : ng line, that is, 8 or 9 feet from the floor. 2 In a gravity system, the velocity of the heated air should not be in excess of 300 feet a minute. 3 The foul air exit should be at the floor in the same wall as the entrance flue. There are in general two systems of ventilation, the gravity system and some form of mechanical system. When the gravity system is employed, warm air is conducted into the room directly from the furnaces or from heating chambers and the vitiated air is carried off by means of flues. This system depends upon the difference in specific gravity between warm and cold air. It is com- monly acknowledged that the gravity system is not practical in buildings of any considerable size, as it will not give desired results under all weather conditions. A gravity system that works satisfactorily in cold weather is often deficient in milder weather, because there is not sufficient difference between the outdoor and indoor temperature to produce an adequate air current. To avoid this condition as much as possible, it is necessary that provision should be made for warming all foul air flues, especially when the temperature is as described, in order to accelerate the sluggish movement of the outgoing foul air. When a mechanical system is used, the flow of air is regulated by fans. There are two varieties of mechanical ventilation. In the first, the plenum system, the air is forced into the building by fans placed in the basement, which drive the fresh air into heating chambers from which it is distributed through flues to the various rooms. In the second, called the vacuum system, exhaust fans are placed either at the top of the building or in the basement and are so operated as to draw out the vitiated air through flues leading from the schoolrooms. This system does not always provide an even flow of air and occasionally draws air into the building from undesirable sources. The vacuum system is desirable for use in toilets, laboratories or other rooms where there may be foul odors or fumes, since by this system all air is forcibly drawn out through the vent flues, and any passage of air between toilets or laboratories and adjoining rooms will be into and not out of the rooms first mentioned. Toilets should always have a separate ventilating system independent of that in the rest of the building The first system mentioned, the plenum system, or a combination of the two systems, is usually most satisfactory. The desideratum in any system of heating and ventilating is a large volume of air, never overheated, delivered SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS i t equitably to the various rooms at a moderate velocity. Mechanical venti- lation insures a more even distribut'.on of air under the varying atmos- pheric conditions. Even in summer heat, in the most trying days, with no air stirring outside, mechanical ventilation is needed to secure (i) the movement of air in schoolrooms, which has been conclusively shownto be as essential as proper temperature and suffic ent humidity; (2) the requisite amount of fresh air; (3) an even temperature of lower general range. In conclusion, it may be said that a satisfactory system of heat and ventilation will make possible the following results, each of which is vitally and fundamentally important: 1 A sufficient supply of fresh, pure air. 2 A constant motion of air in the schoolrooms unattended by unpleas- ant drafts. 3 A proper range of temperature. 4 A proper amount of humidity. TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY Temperature and humidity as associated with the schoolroom are so fundamentally important, they so directly and vitally concern the comfort, health and progress of the pupil and are so interrelated in their action and in their effects that they are considered together in a separate chapter. Schoolrooms are commonly overheated in cold weather. It is not unusual to find the temperature from artificial heat ranging anywhere from jz to 80 degrees, occasionally even above 80. It should not be permitted to go higher than 70 degrees nor lower than 63, and every reasonable effort should be made to keep it from 65 to 68. If a room is not comfortable within this range, either more humidity or warmer clothing is needed, not more heat. Higher temperatures induce weariness and lassitude and are depressing in their effects on mind and body The claim is doubtless true, that a uniform temperature of from 65 to 68 degrees would reduce very materially ailments that are so noticeably prevalent in schools. Excessive temperatures induce a weakened condition that renders children susceptible to colds and other affections and tend to pro- duce inactivity of mind that seriously interferes with progress in school work. To a careful observer these hurtful effects are very apparent. It follows, therefore, that it is vitally important to avoid high temperatures, to keep the range reasonably uniform and within the limits set. In the foreign countries to which we refer in considering standards, the approved temperature range is lower than with us. In England a temperature as low as 60 degrees is recommended. In Germany a range of from 61 to 65 is regarded best. In our country the general tendency with best authorities is to recommend a lower temperature than has hitherto been regarded as desirable. Automatic control of the heating system of a school building is very desirable and does not add materially to the cost. Systems for this purpose have now reached a stage of development such that when intelligently supervised they can be depended upon to give satisfactory and continuous service. When such a system has been installed and set for a specific temperature, this temperature will be maintained with satisfactory uniformity. Experience has shown that without automatic temperature control, teachers are very likely to interfere with the successful operation 32 SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 33 of the system by opening windows, or are likely to allow the temperature in the room to remain so high that the comfort and health and therefore the mental application of the pupils are seriously interfered with. There can be no question but that this tendency is in many schools a very serious cause of backwardness in the mental development of pupils. Where there is not a self-regulating system, every room should be provided with a thoroughly tested thermometer placed in a support on the teacher's desk. If hung on the wall of the room, particularly an exposed wall, it will not register the temperature of the room accurately. The graduation marks should be clear and distinct with the limits mentioned, 65 to 68, indicated either by heavier lines or lines of a different color. It is also desirable to have a large legible thermometer placed where it will be within the sight of all pupils. It is not uncommon to hear the excuse that the temperature is high because the teacher of a particular room needs to have the room warmer than normal. But to this it must be said that the school is maintained for the pupils, not for the teacher — for the many, not the individual. The teacher who can not endure the temperature that should normally prevail in the schoolroom is thereby disqualified for teaching. Closely related to the temperature is another element that is also of utmost importance to the health and comfort of pupils and teachers, namely, the humidity of the schoolroom. The air always carries a varying per- centage of aqueous vapor. In a room this amount varies with the tem- perature, decreasing relatively as the temperature increases. A cubic foot of free air at zero, when heated to the normal temperature of the schoolroom practically triples its volume, and hence has its capacity for holding moisture increased more than threefold Hence cold air admitted into the cold air room with a normal percentage of humidity, after being heated for admission to the schoolrooms, possesses an abnormally low per- centage of it, unless an additional amount has been supplied in the mean- time, a condition that rarely obtains to any appreciable extent except with new heating plants. As a result of extended investigations in this State and elsewhere, it is a conservative statement to say that the relative humidity in the schoolroom is as a rule well under 30 or approximately one-half the amount actually needed. Air when thus deprived of the normal amount of humidity tends to abstract it from objects with which it comes in contact, thereby occasioning the shrinking of floors, doors and windows, the cracking of furniture and woodwork and trimming, and what is of particular concern to us, too rapid absorption of moisture from the 34 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK skin and mucous membrane of the body with hurtful results that may be summed up as follows: i It produces a dryness and harshness of the lining membranes of the air passages often inducing colds and throat troubles and rendering these membranes more susceptible to pathogenic germs. 2 The effect upon the skin is marked. It tends to divert the flow of blood from the brain to the skin and to produce needless perspiration. This results in discomfort and disinclination to mental activity. 3 It requires a higher temperature to produce the same sensation of heat as is produced by a lower temperature with a higher percentage of air humidity. The difference is so great as to exert a marked effect upon the pupils' health and progress. Striking illustrations of the effects are cited by those who have conducted special investigations along this line. It is also a matter of common observation. For greater comfort we sit out of doors in springtime in a humid air that registers several degrees lower than is generally maintained indoors where the relative percentage of moisture has been reduced 50 per cent or more by artificial heat. Further it is estimated that an actual saving of 10 per cent in the cost ot fuel results when a proper percentage of moisture is maintained in the air. Although authorities differ somewhat as to the desired percentage of humidity to be maintained in schoolrooms, it is safe to say that in extreme winter weather it may properly range from 40 to 50 per cent, preferably as near to the upper limit as may be without resulting in condensation on the windows. In milder weather it is believed greater comfort will result with the humidity above rather than below 50, with 6d as the upper limit. In buildings already constructed where no provision has been made to supply humidity various devices have been successfully used to meet this defect. School officials desiring information on this subject are advised to correspond with the department. 8 ENTRANCES. CORRIDORS, STAIRWAYS AND CLOAKROOMS Entrances In larger schools it is desirable to provide at least three entrances, one for the public, one for the boys and one for the girls. In locating them, due reference should be had to the convenience and comfort of pupils and public, and to the ease of supervision. Outside steps are undesirable. When they are necessary they should be restricted to the lowest adequate height and should be sheltered. Suitable vestibules are needed to economize fuel and save drafts. All exit doors must be opened outward, and if double doors are used, must be fastened by movable bolts ope- rated simultaneously by one handle from the inner surface of the door. Corridors Main corridors may vary from 8 to 14 feet in width, according to the size of the building. This width should be in addition to any portion used for cloakrooms, exits, entrances or open spaces about stairways. In buildings of more than three and less than seven rooms to a floor, the minimum width should be 10 feet; in larger buildings the minimum should be 12 feet. Corridors may be made too wide as well as too narrow. The former type add needlessly to the cost of original construction and, more important, to the annual cost of maintenance. The latter interferes with ready ingress and egress and seriously detracts from the interior appearance of the building. Great care should be exercised to see that the corridors are. well lighted. As far as possible the light should be direct. Foot warmers, drinking fountains and standpipes or other effective fire-fighting appliances should be placed in the corridors. Wash bowls should also be provided unless they are to be found elsewhere. Stairways Stairways should be so located as to be within the shortest distance of the greatest number of pupils. Stairs should be of sufficient width to allow three files of pupils to pass at one time. In buildings of eight rooms or more, there should be at least two stairways. Regulations require risers to be approximately 6 inches high and treads to be 11 inches wide. All risers and treads in each run must be strictly uniform. There should 35 36 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK always be two turns with a wide landing between successive floors. Winding stairs are forbidden by the Education Law, which also provides that no door shall open directly upon a flight of stairs, but a landing at least the width of the door shall be provided between such stairs and such doorway. Where stairways are finished with open work, care should be taken to see that the balustrades are sufficiently high and strong for pre- vention of accident. On the whole, it is considered better to make them solid. Cloakrooms Four principal systems are used to care for outer wraps: (1) a general cloakroom either in the basement or in widened parts of the corridors; (2) a cloakroom for each schoolroom; (3) a room for each sex on each floor connected with the toilet rooms; (4) ventilated wardrobes in the school- rooms. Any of these forms is satisfactory for upper grade or high school use, but for the lower grades either separate cloakrooms adjoining the respective grade rooms, or ventilated wardrobes should be provided. Separate rooms add, it is estimated, about 4 per cent to the cost of the building. For a fifty-seat room, the minimum length of hanging space is 30 running feet. Cloakrooms should be of sufficient width to provide plenty of room for ingress and egress without interfering with wraps. The hangers should be so arranged that wraps will be sufficiently distant from the wall to provide for free passage of air behind them. The height of hangers should be adapted to the average size of the pupils who are to use them, the height usually varying from 3 to 3^ feet for primary children, to 5 and 5^ feet for high school pupils. Drinking Facilities Districts must provide suitable drinking facilities. Either sanitary drinking fountains or individual cups must be supplied. When running water is not available either a bubbling fountain or a suitable covered tank or jar with faucet is required. The use of a drinking fountain is so essen- tial for ease of administration and economy of time as well as for sani- tary reasons that districts will be required to provide them in all cases where running water is available and they can without unreasonable diffi- culty and expense be protected from frost. One fountain for approxi- mately one hundred pupils is deemed sufficient. Those intended for the use of small children should be set sufficiently low. Utmost care needs to be exercised to see that the source of water supply is free and is kept free from any contamination. Wells must be SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 37 made sanitary. They must be thoroughly and completely protected against all surface drainage and must not be located where they can be fed from veins of water that receive any of their supply from barnyards, privies, cesspools, cemeteries or other objectionable sources. Water from school wells should be analyzed at the beginning of each school year. 9 ROOMS OTHER THAN GRADE ROOMS Special Rooms Whenever practicable, the following rooms may well be provided: a principal's office with an adjoining room for supplies, a play room and a combined emergency and teachers' rest room. The play room, for use in inclement weather, needs to be well lighted and ventilated. The teachers' rest and emergency room should be provided with proper toilet facilities and may well have as a part of its furnishings a case containing simple remedies. Other special rooms may be added to meet local needs. Recitation rooms, laboratories, auditorium and rooms for vocational instruction should be arranged so as to be as readily accessible as possible for pupils who are to use them, except that laboratories should be so placed as to avoid diffusion of fumes through the building. The Library in Rural Schools Every rural school should have a place for the proper housing of the school library. It should be the aim (i) to make the books easily accessible to all the children; (2) to enable the teacher to exercise close and intelligent supervision. This may be effected in three ways: (1) through the use of bookcases with glass doors; (2) through the construction of shallow recesses in a partition wall of the room — a very satisfactory method and a most inexpensive one when building; (3) through the construction of a special room provided either with suitable shelves or with bookcases. Such a room should be an alcove of the schoolroom without any inter- vening wall. If this alcove is of sufficient size, a reading table may be pro- vided for the use of the pupils. The Library in Academic Schools Every classroom and. department should have its library. Unless the general library is a very large one, or is a community library as well as a school library, a separate room is not necessary nor it is desirable unless it is an alcove off the main study room. Experience shows that libraries kept in separate rooms are commonly used to a much less extent than when distributed through the schoolrooms. It is fundamentally important to have libraries as accessible as possible both to pupils and teachers. 38 SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 39 In schools where there is a general study room, it is well to keep most of the books for academic grades in that room; otherwise they should be distributed among the d fferent recitation rooms in accordance with the subjects taught in the various rooms. The books of a general character would naturally be kept in the room in which English is taught. When the man library, because of its size or for other reasons, is kept in a separate room, this room should be adequately lighted, well heated and easily accessible. In that event, the library should be competently supervised by a regular librarian who has had some training for the work and should be open the whole or a part of each day, as circum- stances may dictate. The size of the classroom library as well as of the general school library will vary with the enrolment of pupils and the valuation of the district; but in general it may be said that in the rural school and in each classroom of village or city school, provision should be made for at least two hundred volumes. Laboratories An ideal arrangement for laboratories is to group them around a central room which may be used for scientific lecture and demonstration, and for general recitation purposes. This arrangement reduces the expense of fitting up and equipping. Laboratories should be well ventilated, and separate dust-proof glass-front cases are needed for apparatus and chemicals. Every chemical laboratory should have at least one sink covered with a hood to carry off objectionable odors and gases. There should be plumbing arrangements for the free supply and disposal of water, and the room should be wired for electric ty and piped for gas, if these conveniences are obtainable. Commercial Rooms In schools where a full-sized commercial department is maintained three classrooms shou d be prov.ded, one chiefly for bookkeeping, somewhat larger than the normal type of h'gh school classroom, one for typewriting somewhat smaller, and a room of standard size for other commercial classes. Suitable cases and shelves should be provided for commercial collections and for supplementary and reference literature. Whatever arrangement is made for the hanging of maps should not interfere with the use of the curtain or other fixtures that shou d be provided for a stereopticon. All the rooms used for commerc al classes should be en suite. 40 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Auditorium It is highly desirable that an auditorium be included in every school building of more than eight rooms. The uses and advantages of such a room are various. The bringing together of the school as a unit makes the direction and supervision of the school easier, helps to produce an enthusiastic and healthy school spirit, promotes school unity, gives marked stimulus and increased firmness of purpose to the pupils of the lower grades, and makes possible school entertainments, helpful addresses, and the fitting observation of special days. An auditorium is also needed for music classes and choral work, for drill for public speaking, in recitation, declamation, essay, oration, debate and elocution exercises in general. Further, the school auditorium often serves effectively as a civic center, a place for the sug- gestion and discussion of plans for community betterment. On account of ready accessibility, safety in case of fire, and the saving of time in assem- bling the school, the auditorium should be on the ground floor and first floor, or on the first floor and second floor. Only in cases where the most rigid economy must be practised should the assembly room be placed in the basement or on the third floor. It is usually so constructed as to have entrances from two floors, the upper one leading to a balcony. This arrange- ment renders it easier to procure the requisite seating capacity and with it a well-proportioned auditorium. It also facilitates entrance and exit. In schools of less than eight rooms, it is commonly necessary to provide an assembly room instead of an auditorium, a room that needs to be used for study as well as for assembly. For assembly use from 6 to 7 square feet to each pupil is sufficient. Rooms for Vocational Training There are so many types of vocational training, and the size of com- munities is so variable, that it is practically impossible to lay down any general requirements which will meet the situation. It is practically impos- sible to state the requirements for trade schools. These schools will be located mainly in large cities and will be administered under special con- ditions adapted to the industrial needs of the community and the popu- lation^of the city. Day continuation and part-time schools require very little equipment apart from regular classrooms, the practical work being carried on in the shops, stores and factories of the city. Evening vocational schools use the equipment of the day schools. There are four situations, however, in which some specific directions may be helpful. SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 41 I Schools oj agriculture, mechanic arts and homemaking. These schools are really departments of existing high schools and academies, the pupils reciting English, history and other academic subjects in the regular classes, and using for a portion of the day the laboratories and certain special classrooms in agriculture, mechanic and household arts. The agricultural department needs two rooms: (a) recitation and lab- oratory room, (b) shop. The recitation and laboratory room should be about the size of a regular classroom and may be located in any part of the building which is well lighted, well ventilated and dry. It should be as near the shop as possible. It is even well to have them join. This room should have running water with sink, gas (if available), blackboards and spaces for cases and cupboards. The shop, as already stated, should join this recitation and laboratory room; otherwise, it should be in the basement. It is especially important that it be located in a light and dry place with southern exposure. In length, it should not be less than 24 feet, and in width, not less than 18 feet. It should have a substantial floor and an outside chimney for the forge. The homemaking department requires two rooms, (a) sewing room, (b) cooking room. As in the case of agriculture, these two rooms, if pos- sible, should adjoin, as one teacher is in charge of both rooms and school programs often make it impossible to avoid a conflict in classes. The cooking room needs light, heat and ventilation. It should have running water, gas (if available), coal range with hot water front attach- ment, cases, cupboards, blackboard and cooking tables. Both these rooms should be as large as medium-sized schoolrooms. The sewing room should be provided with suitable tables; this room may be used not only for millinery, dressmaking and plain sewing, but also for drawing and household decoration. A garment-fitting space should be provided in a corner by the use of rods and curtains. 2 General industrial schools. These schools will be a part of a pre- vocational school system in a large city and will constitute, in most cases, the only vocational training in the smaller communities. It is difficult to outline, except in a general way, the equipment necessary. It is likely that four rooms will be required, as follows: a Woodworking and patternmaking room. This should be well ven- tilated, well lighted and dry. It should have a substantial floor to absorb the jar of woodworking machinery. It should have light on two sides and should be as large as the largest schoolroom. b A general mechanical room the size of a large classroom, in which there is place and equipment for sheet-metal working, plumbing and iron work. 42 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK c An electrical room the size of a small classroom. d A fourth room may be used for special phases of vocational train- ing not included in the ether rooms, such as printing, painting and molding. It is assumed that all these rooms must be well lighted, heated and ventilated and kept free from moisture; that they have space for cup- boards and lockers, and storage room for lumber and material; that there is gas, running water and electrical power. All connecting floors and walls should be made thoroughly sound proof. 3 Manual training and household arts. This equipment is planned for schools other than vocational where the manual and household arts are given for purposes of general education. At least three rooms are needed: a The manual arts room. This room should be at least the size of a large grade or classroom. It should have equipment for various expres- sions of the manual arts including woodworking, light iron work, and sheet- metal work. Preferably provision should be made as well for printing and electrical work. b Domestic science room. This should be the size of a regular class- room, and should be provided with gas, running water, cupboards, service tables and cooking equipment. c Domestic art room. This should be equipped with tables and a fitting space. This room, in small places, may be used as well for drawing and household decoration. 4 Drawing or art room. For this room, at least a regular sized class- room should be provided with light admitted on the north side only. There should be a small amount of blackboard space, a storeroom for supplies, running water, artificial light, wall sockets for lantern, and movable tables which may be grouped in twos, threes or fours according to the size of the classes. The room should be so arranged that it will admit of use for exhibition purposes or for work in household arts courses. This room should also be of such a character that it can be converted into a school gallery or art lecture room when needed. Space should also be provided for the gathering and installation of school museum material for use in art classes. Larger cities offering courses in applied design involving the use of the soft metals, clay etc. should provide one or two additional rooms smaller in size, equipped for such purposes, and including bench table running the length of the window wall surface, just below the windows, with drawers beneath, running water, electricity and gas, chimney flue, movable tables and exhibition wall space. TOILET FACILITIES Outdoor Closets It is fundamentally important that all schools in city, village and country be provided with suitable toilet facilities. They can not be suitable unless they are sanitary, and experience has demonstrated beyond the possibility of contradiction that the old type of outdoor watercloset, or earth closet, is not sanitary or decent, but to the contrary is a constant menace both to health and morals. As every boy and girl under the tutelage of the State is entitled alike to all essential safeguards, this statement necessarily applies to all schools regardless of size or location. The claim that the old type of outdoor closet has served all purposes of the district for generations and is there- fore acceptable and suitable is without weight. To the contrary, experience with it in the past conclusively proves that it is wholly unfit and unsatis- factory. The public school surely ought not to be the last institution to make progress, and particularly in matters affecting the comfort, health and lives of the children who, obedient to the laws of the State, are in attendance therein. The excuse that a district can not afford such improvements is an argument in favor of consolidation in such a case, in order to form a district that can afford to provide the facilities that are unmistakably essential to the pupil's welfare. Regulations From what has been said, it is manifest that the only remedy for the outdoor closet is to abolish it. With that end in view and to insure in its place suitable and adequate facilities, the following regulations have been adopted: 1 Approval of plans for the construction of new school buildings and for the remodeling of old buildings can not be given until provision is made for an approved system of sanitary closets. 2 All public schools must be provided with approved closet facilities before September i, 191 8. 3 Whenever it becomes necessary for a district to provide new toilet facilities before the expiration of the time limit established, such facilities must be of approved type. 44 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Types Approved The following types are approved to meet varying conditions: i A flush system. When water and suitable sewerage are available, schools will be expected to instal this system. 2 A dry closet system. 3 A chemical system. 4 The L. R. S. type, described in Public Health Bulletin 51, published by the United States Treasury Department and issued by the Government Printing Office in 1914. 5 The type where water-tight nonabsorbent receptacles, easily removable, are provided and clean dust or ashes is supplied and scattered freely over the excreta whenever the closet is used. The use of this type is restricted to isolated rural districts with small enrolment and low valuation, and special permission must be secured in every case. In all types the following conditions must be met: a The closet or toilet must be in a room attached to and made a part of the school building. b The walls and ceiling of this room must be constructed and finished in like manner as other rooms of the building. c The urinals must be constructed of noncorrosive, nonabsorbent material. d In all cases the rooms must be well lighted and ventilated. e Toilet paper, wash bowl or basin and towels (paper towels) must be furnished. / Toilet rooms must be heated in all cases where it is practicable to do so. g Before constructing sanitary closets, a simple sketch of the rooms and approaches and a description of the closet must be submitted to the State Department of Education for approval. In the last three types named, the following additional conditions must be met: a Receptacles must be of ample capacity and must be of noncorrosive and nonabsorbent material. b Provision must be made for the ventilation of receptacles by means of ventilators extending through the roof. c There must be a thoroughly ventilated approach leading to the closet from the coat room, corridor or hallway of the building. d All receptacles must be of a type to be emptied outside of class- rooms, recitation rooms, hallways and toilet rooms, and the construction must be such as to facilitate this process. SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 45 e The vaults must be tight so as to render the entrance of flies, mosquitoes and other insects absolutely impossible. / Seats must be hinged and made to close automatically. Plumbing 1 Plumbing must conform to local ordinances where such are in force. Where none exist, commonly accepted standards as exemplified in city ordinances shall govern. 2 When no sewerage system is available for use, an application must be made to the State Department of Health for approval of a sewage dis- posal plant, as that department has exclusive jurisdiction over the dis- position of sewage. 3 In other than rural communities, both local and general vents must be provided. 4 One seat should be provided for every 25 girls and one seat and one urinal for every 40 boys, or a combination seat and urinal for every 25 boys. Both seats and urinals should be separated into compartments. Absorbent or corrosive materials can not be approved for use in the con- struction of urinals. INTERIOR FINISH AND TRIM In the interior finish, the general object is to avoid projections which catch dust and increase the difficulty of securing cleanliness. For this reason, all woodwork should be of plain and simple pattern and all deep- cut moldings should be avoided. Plain veneered doors without transoms are recommended instead of the ordinary paneled doors. A sanitary finish about windows can be obtained by omitting all trim and plastering the corners round against the frames. To facilitate sweeping and cleaning, the junction of the baseboard and floor should be finished with cove molding, where the conditions are such as to permit. It is of especial importance that the corridors be finished in this way. If wainscoting is to be used in any portion ot a schoolhouse, brick is preferable to wood, since it can be finished as attractively and is much more sanitary. Keene cement troweled smooth and suitably painted is also recommended. Interior paint should ordinarily be of a flat color and washable. Light gray-green or drab is recommended as a wall color for southern exposure and light cream or buff for northern exposure. The dado should be a darker tone of the wall color, and the ceilings, white very slightly modified by the wall color. Woodwork should not have a gloss finish; instead, the natural or dull finish is recommended. 1 Floors Where wood floors are used, they should be of a good grade of material, close grained and free from knots, so that they will wear evenly. Narrow width boards are preferable. Maple or oak floors are recommended, though rift-sawed Georgia pine of high grade gives good satisfaction and is often used when a cheaper floor is necessary. In nonfireproof buildings, the floors should be double and should be thoroughly deadened. For the best methods of deadening floors, a competent architect or reports of current engineering practice should be consulted. Whatever the material is, great care needs to be exercised in its selection, as the best quality is in the end the cheapest. Dustproof cement, plastic cement, tile and com- position floors of various kinds are commonly used in the corridors of large buildings. When cement is used, it should always be laid in blocks or squares. 1 See chapter on Schoolroom Decoration. 46 SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 47 Battleship linoleum is coming into use for schoolroom floors, especially for corridors. It seems to be giving such good satisfaction and is so highly recommended for sanitary reasons that its use is likely to become much more prevalent. The following points are urged in its favor: (i) it is semifi reproof, (2) it is noiseless, (3) it is not slippery, but smooth and elastic, (4) it needs no oiling, (5) it is germicidal, (6) it is without crevices for the collection of dust, (7) it will outwear first quality oak or maple and will be in better condition in the corresponding stages of its use. At present market prices the cost of battleship linoleum laid on concrete floors is 9 cents more a square yard than the cost of first quality maple laid on under flooring or wood sleepers over concrete. 1 Movable furniture should be used with this flooring, but this has some advantages, among them ease of cleaning by vacuum cleaner. Care should be taken to avoid the laying of resonant floors. Attics, especially over metal ceilings, should have tight floors to prevent the radiation of heat upward in the winter and downward in the summer. Blackboards Blackboards should be placed on the side of the room opposite the windows, behind the teacher's desk and supplemented if necessary at the rear of the room. Because of the extra expense, and especially because of the absorption of light, no more blackboard space should be supplied than is necessary. 2 Approximately 50 feet is enough for a grade room of normal size, and except in recitation rooms where space for boards is limited, 36 inches or at most 42 inches gives a sufficient width. In a room designed for study hall purposes, blackboards should be placed in the front of the rooms only, both for the reasons already stated and because an unnecessary expanse of board interferes seriously with the effective deco- ration of the room. Glass blackboard, extensively used in some foreign countries, possesses some points of superiority over any other material, but because of the expense of securing a suitable quality, of grinding and otherwise preparing it for use, it is rarely found in schools here. All in all, slate blackboard is the best that is available at present, and its use is strongly recommended. A good quality of this board, well set and properly cared for, will last indefinitely. If for any reason it is not available, the best possible sub- stitute should be secured. 1 This comparatively high cost is due to the fact that the price a square yard has recently advanced approxi- mately ico per cent by reason of the cutting off of the foreign supply as a result of the war, and it is therefore assumed will be a temporary condition. 2 See chapter on Schoolroom Decoration. 48 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Hyloplate and cement are forms of board that may be used, but they are not so satisfactory as slate, and in the end, it is believed, are not so economical. A chalk and eraser trough with an open wire cover of one-fourth of an inch mesh with hinges or with an easily removable tray should be placed at the bottom of each board. The inside width of the trough should be 2§ inches and the depth one-half of an inch above and one-half of an inch below the mesh. SCHOOLROOM DECORATION Since the environment of the child is a potent factor in molding char- acterjand producing impressions of lifelong effectiveness, it is important to see that his school environment teaches him to appreciate beauty in nature and art, to know some of the fundamental principles of beauty, and to make a practical use of these principles, to the end that his esthetic nature shall be developed. Hence the decoration of schoolrooms should receive the kind and amount of attention commensurate with its importance. Before the consideration of choice and purchase of pictures, naturally comes that of the proper preparation of the walls for the pictures. The walls are a fundamental element in the interior decoration, and the prepa- ration of them as an appropriate background for pictures should receive careful attention when a building is being erected. The problems involved in such preparation are principally the division of the wall surface with a view to securing pleasing composition and suitable spaces for pictures, and the tinting of the walls. Simple principles of good proportion and space division are taught in the schools and yet oftentimes the school walls are a direct violation of such principles. It will be observed that the recommendations made herein for the improvement of the appearance of school walls do not involve additional expenditure of money but do require that forethought and careful con- sideration be given to these matters and that certain things be provided for when the building is being erected rather than at some later time. Blackboards, registers, clocks and certain other essential articles of equipment that must have a place on school walls may be made a part of good space composition. A blackboard is never a decorative element and only so much blackboard surface as is actually needed should be provided. 1 A small amount is required for a study hall. Observe the arrangements of blackboards in the illustrations and consider how the pleasing effect of each room would be marred by blackboards extending around the room. The problem of utilizing to the best advantage for decorative purposes the space between blackboard and ceiling is an important one. A wall 1 See page 47. 5- THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK in inducing an appreciation and love of country life. Often grounds pos- sessing rare possibilities show little or no trace of any attempt to beautify them. Rarely are they laid out and improved in accordance with a well- defined landscape design or any system at all. This situation is not chargeable to premeditated neglect or to inten- tional indifference to the welfare of the children, but rather to want of appreciation of the importance of such improvements, to lack of knowl- edge of right methods of procedure to bring them into being, and to the natural tendency to keep to one's habits, particularly if the old ways are easy and the new ways appear difficult. As a result, the dominating aim and idea in actual practice has been to secure merely a location for the building at a nominal cost without thought or consideration for the physical or esthetic needs of children, without any attempt to provide opportunity for the development of healthy bodies or of a love for Nature and Nature's God through pleasing and uplifting surroundings. These essential char- acteristics which past generations have so largely ignored and the present generation is only beginning to give ear to, future generations will inevit- ably insist upon as fundamental. In this forward movement, it is the duty of the Empire State to lead, as its educational system peculiarly fits it to do. Outline of plan of procedure. The preceding sections of this chapter conclusively show the wisdom and necessity of inaugurating in a thorough, systematic manner a statewide campaign for the improvement of school grounds and of prosecuting it with vigor and persistence. In such an undertaking, the State itself has an important and responsible part to perform, namely, to point out the way in which the desired betterment can be made at an expense that will not prove burdensome even to the weakest districts, and also to do whatever may be needful to assist in plan- ning the improvements and in making them effective. Many districts are so favorably circumstanced that they will be readily able to plot and beau- tify their grounds unaided by the State and should be encouraged to do so, but many others will need help, some of them much, and it is to meet their needs especially that a general plan for giving assistance has been formu- lated, which, embodying as it does the promised cooperation of the State College of Agriculture at Cornell University and the State College of Forestry at Syracuse University, it is believed will prove effectual. An outline of this plan of cooperation and an explanation of the method of procedure to procure needed assistance will be furnished on application. 15 BIBLIOGRAPHY ON SCHOOLHOUSES This select list on school architecture, school grounds and equipment includes, with a few exceptions, only the most important and most readily accessible American books and periodical material published within the last ten years; a few recent English titles have been included. For a more complete record of the literature of this subject, consult the annual Bibli- ography of Education, compiled under the direction of Mr J. I. Wyer jr, Director of the New York State Library, published from 1899 to 1906 in the Educational Review, and for 1907 by the United States Bureau of Education. Since 1908 this work has been undertaken by the Bureau of Education, and beginning with January 1, 191 2 the bureau has issued a monthly list, which is of great service in keeping up with current edu- cational literature. Bibliographies to be found in the books on this list are noted. Albany, N. Y. High school building. Illus. (In Architecture & Building, 45:501-3 Dec. 1913) New York State Normal School. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder, v. 19 Jan. 1910) American Academy of Medicine. Conservation of school children. 191 2. Amer. Academy of Medicine. #5 American Architect. Modern school houses. 1910. Amer. Architect $7.50 Arnold, E. H. Importance of the school yard for the physical well-being of school children. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1905, p. 756-60) Artesia, Cal. Grammar school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, v 21. Aug i'yi2i Ayres, L. P. Fire protection in public schools. 1913. Russell Sage Foundation. Pap. 10c Open-air schools. 1913. Russell Sage Foundation. Pap. 10c Open-air schools. 1910. Doubled ay #1.20 Baldwin, E. C. Terminology of school building construction ami repairs. (In Jour, of Ed.. 81:679-80, June 24, 1915) Baldwin, W. A. School gardens. (In Education, 26:447) Baldv/in, William James. The ventilation of the schoolroom. 46p. 1901. N. Y. The author, 107 W. 17th st. )si Author an expert consulting engineer. Baltimore Co. Md. Maryland school for blind. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder, v. 22, Dec. 1 9 1 3 ) Barnard, H: School architecture. Bardeen $1.50 Barry, W: F. Hygiene of the school room. 191 1. Silver $1.50 63 64 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Bass, F: Experiment in school ventilation with reduced air supply through individual ducts; with discussion. Illus. (In Amer. Soc. of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, 19:328-60, 1913) Becht, J. G. Report on playgrounds. (In Pa. School Jour., Nov. 1912, 61:218-21) Bennett, H. C. School gardens. (In Booklover's Mag., 5:469; Review of Reviews (N. Y.), 29:439) Bigelow, Maurice A. Gardens, school; gardens for children. (In Cyclopedia of Education; ed. by Paul Monroe. 3:10-12, 1903-) " References " include n recent titles on this subject. Boston. School committee. Report of commission of oculists and electricians on the artificial lighting and color schemes of school buildings. Bost. 1907. 20p. (Boston school documents 1907, no. 14.) Nathan Hale primary, and Bishop Cheverus grammar schools. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, 18:221-25, Nov. 1909) Normal and Latin school group. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder, v. 17, March 1908) Briggs, Warren Richard. American school buildings: being a treatise upon and designs for the construction of school buildings. . . . N. Y. Wiley, 1899. 4iip. pi. plans. $4 Bright, Orville T. School gardens, city school yards, and the surroundings of rural schools. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1903, p. 77-85) Brookline, Mass. Edward Devotion school, Brookline Mass., and Vose school, Milton, Mass., views and plans. (In Brickbuilder, 24: pi. 19-24, Feb. 1915) Winsor school. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder, v. 20, Jan. 191 1) Brown, John Franklin. Material equipment. (In his American high school, p. 177-92, 1909) Bibliography p. 189-92. Macmillan $1.40 Bruce, W: C. comp. Grade school buildings. 1914. Bruce Pub. Co., Milwaukee, Wis. $3.50 High school buildings. 1913. Amer. School Board Jour. $2.50 Bruce, William George, comp. School architecture; a handy manual for the use of architects and school authorities; 4th ed. Milwaukee, Johnson Service Co. [CI910.] 289P. 75c Buck, W. Pictures in the public schools. (In Municipal Affairs, 6:189-97, June 1902) Buffalo, N. Y. Nichols School building. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, v. 20, Sept. 191 1) Burnham, W. H. Ideal school houses. (In World's Work, 2:866-71, June 1901) Burrage, Severance, & Bailey, Henry Turner. School sanitation and decoration: a practical study of health and beauty in their relations to the public schools. Bost. Heath, [C1899.] 224P. Illus.pl. $1.5011 California. Department of public instruction, Sacramento. California school house for $500; out-door school houses for Fresno. 1913. 9p. Illus. Caproni, P. P. Suggestions for interior decorations of schools. 1909. Pap. 25c Carpenter, Rolla Clinton. Heating and ventilating buildings: a manual for heating engineers and architects; 5th ed. rev. and enl. N. Y. Wiley, 1910. 562p. $4 Literature and references, p. 493-95. Carroll, C. F. What should be the features of a modern elementary school building? (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1903, p. 235-40) Chelsea, Mass. St Rose's school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, v. 21, Aug. 1912) SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 65 Chicago. Bernard Moos school. Illus. plan; Tilton school. (In Brickbuilder, 18:225-26, Nov. 1909; Brickbuilder, 18:229) Chicago schools. School houses, portable. Portable school houses in Chicago. Illus. diagrams. (Building Age, 37:37-40, May 1 9 1 5 ) - Schools — heating and ventilation. Chicago ventilation committee first report. Illus. (In Metal Work, 83:632-35+, April 30, 1915) Clapp, H. L. School gardens. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1903, p. 85-88) Cox, L. Cottage plans for schools of Glendale, Arizona. (In Jour, of Ed., 81:124-25, Feb. 4, 1915) Clay, Felix. Modern school buildings, elementary and secondary; a treatise on the plan- ning, arrangement and fitting of day and boarding schools; 2d ed. rev. and enl. Lond. Batsford, 1906. 555p. Illus. plans, diagrams. Bibliography of works on schools and their architecture, pref. p. 19-25. The 1903 edition was imported by Scribner, price #10; the English price of the 2d ed. is 25s n. Craftsman. Two Craftsman country school-houses. (In Craftsman, 20:412-16, Julv 1911) Crawshaw, F. D. High school rooms and manual training equipment. Illus. plans. (In Manual Training, 9:422-34, June 1908) Croly, H. Work of Kilham and Hopkins, architects of Boston. Illus. (In Architectural Record, 31:98-110, Feb. 1912) Crowley, Ralph H. (The) school building. (In bis Hygiene of school life. 1910. p. 292-330) Methuen, Lond. 3/6 n. Curtis, H. S. Reorganized school playground. (In U. S. Bureau of Educ. Bui. 40, p. 1-28, 1913) Dartmouth College. Gymnasium. Hanover, N. H., designs. (In Brickbuilder. v. 24, pi. 54—55, April 1915) Davis, Seymour. Recent progress in school architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1905, p. 836-42) Discussion by E. H. Arnold, p. 842-43. Dresslar, Fletcher B. American school houses. Wash. Gov't Print. Office, 191 1. I33p. pi. plans. (In U. S. Bureau of Ed. Bui. 5, whole no. 444. 19 10). Sup't of Docu- ments 75c References on school architecture and sanitation, p. 107-10. School hygiene. The Macmillan Co. New York Architecture, school. (In Cyclopedia of education; ed. by Paul Monroe. 1911. v. 1, p. 183-96) Bibliography listing 21 titles of separate books, S special articles, periodicals and other matetial. 1 column in length. Hygiene of rural schools. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1912, p. 110^-10) Rural school houses and grounds. Illus. Pap. (In U. S. Bureau of Ed. Bui. 1914, 12, p. 1-162, 1914) Sup't of documents. 50c Dutton, Samuel Train, & Snedden, David. (The) school house: its construction and adaptation. (In their Administration of public education in the United States. 1908. p. 172-207) Macmillan. $1.75 n References at ends of chapters, p. 186, 207. Eliot, C: W. Full utilization of a public school plant. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1903, p. 241-47) 66 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Elliott, E: C. Buildings and sites: legislation 1908-9. (In U. S. Bureau of Ed. Bui. 2, p. 98-108, 1910) • Health regulations: legislation. 1908-9. (In U. S. Bureau of Ed. Bui. 2, p. 157-62, 1910) Ely School. Misses Ely school, Greenwich, Conn. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder, v. 16, Dec. 1907) Emerson, P. Gardens at school. (In Jour, of Ed., 77:374, April 3, 1913) Evans, I.N. Recirculation of air for schools. (In Heating and Ventilating Mag., 11:46-53, June 1914) Evans, M. O. jr. School and house gardening in Portland, Ore., season of 1914. Illus. (In Nature Study, 11:47-52, Feb. 191 5) Frost, W. D. & Armstrong, V. A. Bacteriological tests of methods of cleaning. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 191 1, p. 985-90) Gerhard, W. P. School architecture and hygiene, bibliography. (In Amer. Architect, 88:14) Gray, M. R. Education of children in the school gardens of Los Angeles. (In Craftsman, 24:472-79, Aug. 1913) Haddon, R. W. Modern American schoolhouses. Illus. plans. (In Architectural Record, 36:244-63, Sept. 1914) Modern two-room school-house: a superstructure of cement brick on a foundation of concrete blocks. Illus. plans. (In Building Age, 36:29-32, Oct. 1914) School houses planned with reference to the newer educational activities. Plans. (In Architectural Record, 36:511-23, Dec. 1914) Hall, Mrs H. J. Beautifying of school grounds. (In Chautauquan, 38:276) Halliday, T. W. Electric school building of Rupert, Idaho. Illus. plan. (In Electrical World, 63:1151-53, May 23, 1914) Hamlin, L. A. How school gardens put new civic spirit into South Chicago. Illus. (In Survey, 24:18-24, April 2, 1910) Harvey, A. E. Kindergarten out of doors: gardens. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1910, p. 402-4) Heating and Ventilating (magazine). School equipment based on the new ventilating ideas. Diagrams, plans. (In Heating and Ventilating Mag., 11:37-46, June 1914) Hollister, Horace Adelbert. Public school buildings and their equipment, with special reference to high schools. Urbana, 111. 1909. 37p. Illus. plans. (In Univ. of Illinois, School of Ed. Bui. 1) References, p. 37. Hope, E. W. & Browne, E. A. Manual of school hygiene. 1907. Putnam $1 Hough, H. Planting the school yard. Illus. (In Craftsman, 22:650-56, Sept. 1912) Hutt, H. L. Improvement of school grounds. Toronto, 1908 Hyatt, E. School architecture and school improvement. 1909. Pap. gratis. California department of public instruction, Sacramento Hyatt, E: Schoolhouse for $500. (In Jour, of Ed., 78:234, Sept. 11, 1913) Illinois. Public instruction department. The one-room country schools in Illinois. 1908. 32p. Illus. plans. (Circular 28) Prepared by V. J. Hoffman. SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 67 School buildings. (In 27th biennial report of the superintendent of public instruction of the state of Illinois, July I, 1906 -June 30, 1908. F. G. Blair, Sup't. Springfield, 1908. p. 54-72) Contains plans and specifications of one-room buildings; discussions of the subjects of heating, lighting and ventilation. • Illuminating Engineer (magazine). Interim report on daylight illumination of schools. (In Illuminating Engineer, 7:559-68, July 1914) Short history of investigations on the natural lighting of schools. (In Illu- minating Engineer, 7:27-30, Jan. 1 9 1 4 ) Indiana. Public instruction department. School sanitation and architecture. (In 24th biennial report of the state superintendent of public instruction for the school years ending July 31, 1907 and July 31, 1908. F. A. Cotton, Sup't. Indianapolis, 1908. p. 529-78) Ingold, J. M. Heating, lighting, and ventilating ot school buildings. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1914. p. 779-85) Ittner, William B. School architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 190S, p. 1065-71) School architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1912, p. 1207-2;' Discussion by L. N. Hines, p. 1222-24. Jenkins, W. H. New type of rural schoolhouse. Illus. (In Craftsman, 20:212-15, May 1911) Johnson, J. W. Right kind of a schoolhouse. Illus. (In Jour, of Ed., 77:464, April 24, 1913) Judd, Z. Cultivating the school grounds in Wake co.. North Carolina. Illus. (In U. S. Bureau of Ed. Bui. 28, p. 1-12, 1912) Kansas. Public instruction department. School buildings, school grounds and their improvement. Topeka, 191 1. HSp. Illus. plans. Issued by E. T. Fairchild, state supetintendent of public instruction. Kentucky. Education department. School architecture. Frankfort, 1910. 87p.' PI. plans. (Bulletin, v. 3, no. 11, Sept. 1910) Prepared by I . W. Vinson. Kenyon, Walter J. Interior decoration of schools. (In School Review, Nov. 1906, v. 14, P- 6 2S-34) Kilham, W. H. Hygienic construction of school houses horn an architect's standpoint. (In. Jour, of Ed., 78:298-99, September 25, 1913) Modern school-house; corridors and stairways. Illus. plans. (In Brick- builder, 24:39-42, Feb. 1915; 24:93-98, April 191 5; 24:3-8, Jan. 191 5; 24:59-62, March 1 g 1 5 ) King, I. School garden, its educational and social value. Bibliography. (In his " Social aspects of education," p. 129-43) Lyster, Robert A. The school building. (In his School hygiene; 2d ed. 191 1. p. 1-103) W. B. Clive, Lond. 3/6 McCann, F. S. Standard details of heating and ventilating work. Diagrams, plans. (In Metal Work, 81:31-33, 125-26, 234-35, 302-3, 363-64, 421 24, 4^4, 511, 606-7; 82:273-74, 46°> 706-7; 83:149-50, 281-82, Jan. 2, 16, Feb. 6, 20, March 6, 20, April 3-10, May I, Sept. 4, Oct. 2, Nov. 27, 1914; Jan. 22, Feb. l<;, 1915) Madison, Wis. High school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, 18:83, April 1909) Maiden, Mass. C. A: Daniels school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, v. 17, 190s ) Martin, G:H. School hygiene in Massachusetts. 1909. Mass. state board of education. 68 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Massachusetts. Three school houses. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, 18:243-47, Dec. 1909) Maxwell, W: H. Economical use of school buildings. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1910, p. 326-36) Metal Work (magazine). Heating and ventilating a school house. Illus. plans. (In Metal Work, 82:633-36. Nov. 13, 1914) Michigan. Public instruction, department of. Lansing. Manual of school room equip- ment, improvement and construction. 1914 — School architecture. 1910. Michigan department of public instruction. Lansing Michigan University. Central generating systems for University of Michigan. Illus. plans. (In Electrical World, 65:646-51, March 13, 1915) Mills, Wilbur T. Innovations in school architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1908, p. 1071-77) Minnesota. Minnesota standard schools. (In Jour, of Ed., 81:40, Jan. 14, 1915) Minnesota, department of public instruction. Heating and ventilation of small school houses. 1908. Minn, dep't of public instruction, St Paul New school buildings. 1910. S. A. Challman, main engineering building, University of Minn. Minneapolis Modern school houses; being a series of authoritative articles on planning, sanitation, heating and ventilation, by A. D. F. Hamlin, C. B. J. Snyder and others. 1910. 61 p Illus. pi. plans. N. Y. Swetland Pub. Co. £7.50 Moore, Joseph A. The school house; its heating and ventilation, [Bost. Pub. by the author], 1905. 204P. Author inspector of public buildings in Massachusetts for many years. Morrison, Gilbert B. School architecture and hygiene. N. Y. Amer. Bk. Co. 1910 56p. (Monographs on education in the United States, ed. by N. M. Butler, 9.) Price of each monograph 20c. Bibliography of schoolhouse architecture and sanitation, p. 53-56. New Castle, Pa. High school. Illus. plan. (In Architecture, v. 51, April 1908) New York. New York chapter on school house heating and ventilation. Plan. (In Heating and Ventilating Mag., 11:48-50, April 1914) New York City. St Agatha school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, v. 17, Nov. 1908) Stuyvesant high school. Illus. plan. (In Architecture, v. 51, Jan. 1908) Washington Irving high school. Illus. (In Architecture and Building, 45:190-93, May 1913) Newark, N. J. Central commercial and manual training high school. Illus. plan. (In Architecture and Building, 44 :45i-s6, Nov. 1912; Brickbuilder, 21 :2i2-i5, August 1912) Cleveland school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, v. 22, April 1913) Heating and ventilating equipment of the Newark normal school. Illus. plans. (In Heating and Ventilating Mag., 10:21-26, May 1913) Normal school. Illus. plans. (In Architecture and Building, 45:368-71, Sept. 1913; Brickbuilder, 22:162-65, July 1913) Ridge school. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder. v. 22: Sept. 1913) Newsholme, A. School hygiene. Heath 75c, pap. 25c SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 69 Nida, W: L. Lighting of school rooms. Illus. (In Good Housekeeping, 51:263-67, Sept. 1910) Save the children's eyes. (In Good Housekeeping, 53:365-68, Sept. 191 1) North Carolina. Public instruction, dep't of. Raleigh. Plans for public school houses; school grounds and suggestions for the improvement of school property. 3d. ed. 1914 Olsen, J. W. Rural school architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1906, p. 141-48) Ontario. Education dep't. Plans for rural school buildings with estimates of cost and forms of specifications and agreements. Toronto, L. K. Cameron 1909. H9p. Illus. plans Chiefly plans. Orr, C: School gardening as conducted in Cleveland schools. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1908, p. 1209-13) Osborn, H. B. Improvement of rural school grounds and interiors. Illus. (In Education, 35oSS-S9) Palliser & Co. Common-sense school architecture. Ogilvie. $1 Pan-American Union. School architecture. Illus. (In Pan-Amer. Union. Bui. 40, p. 53!"34' April 1915) Parker, J. M. Improved school grounds. (In Outlook, 72:218) Parker, W. H. School buildings. 191 2. Whitaker & Ray-Wiggin Co. £1 Parsons, C. H. Relation of state legislation to modern school building. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1901, p. 815-20) School house architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1900, p. 610-18) Parsons, Samuel. Landscape surroundings for academic buildings. (In American Archi- tect, Oct. 20, 1915) Patton, N. S. Present day tendencies of school architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 191 1, p. 1009-14) Porter, C: School hygiene and the laws of health. Longmans. 1906. #1.25 Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Vassar college. Auditorium building. Illus. plans. (In Brick- builder, v. 22, Nov. 1913) Pittsburgh, Pa. Watt school. Independent air ducts in school work: mechanical equip- ment of the Watt school, Pittsburgh, Pa. Diagrams, plans. (In Heating and Ventilating Mag., 11:17-25, April 1914) Reese, C. Chicago's school buildings. Illus. (In Good Housekeeping, 50:. 208-15, Feb. 1910) Cincinnati schools. Illus. (In Good Housekeeping, 50:610-15, May 1910) St Louis school buildings. Illus. (In Good Housekeeping, 50:485-93, April 1910) Rice, Mrs I. L. Quiet zones for schools. (In Forum, 46:731-42, Dec. 1911) Roorbach, E. J. Practical school system of Los Angeles. Illus. (In Craftsman, 22 : 640-49, Sept. 1912) Rowe, Stuart H. The lighting of school rooms: a manual for school boards, architects, superintendents and teachers. N. Y. Longmans, 1904. 9411. $1 n Bibliography, p. 87-89. Ryan, W. C. jr. School hygiene: a report of the fourth international congress of school hygiene. Pap. 1913. U. S. Bureau of Ed. St Louis school buildings. Illus. (In Architectural Record, 23:136-53, Feb. 1908) 70 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK St Louis,^Mo. Washington university. Washington University. Illus. plans. (In Architectural Record, 37:64-75, Jan. 1915) San DiegO,(Cal. Francis W. Parker open-air school of San Diego; views and plan. (In Architectural Record, 37:88-90, Jan. 1915) San Francisco, Cal. Girls' high school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, 21:273-76, Oct. 1912) School Review. June 1903. This issue is devoted to school architecture, and contains the following articles: Evolution of the little red school house, by Walter Sargent, p. 435-55 High school architecture in the city of New York, by G. W. Wharton, p. 456-85 New era in the public school of St Louis, by C. M. Woodward, p. 486-94 New building of the Syracuse high school, by W. K. Wickes. p. 495-508 Modern high school building, by W. E. Hatch, p. 509-20 Shaw, Edward R. School hygiene. N. Y. iMacmillan, 1901, 1911. 260 p. pi. diagram, plans. (Teachers' professional library.) Bibliography, p. 253-55 Chapters on school building, grounds, equipment, sanitation and ventilation. Shepherd, J. W. Experiments on the ventilation of a school room; review of the work and future plans of the Chicago ventilation commission. (In Heating & Ventilating Mag., 10:24-32, Dec. 1913) Simpson, J: T. Concrete school houses vs. firetraps. 1911. Amer. Portland Cement Co. Skinner, C. R. Surroundings of rural schools. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1903, p. 89-96) Snyder, C. B. J. Needed legislation in school architecture. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 1905, p. 843-49) Discussion by J. A. Hartpence, p. 849-51. Spencer, J. W. Improvement of school grounds. (In Chautauquan, 34:424) Squires, F. New development of the hollow square in school house planning. Illus. plans. (In Architecture and Building, 43:361-71, Sept. 1913) Standish, 1 Myles. The artificial[illumination of school rooms. (In Ophthalmology, Oct. 1908, 5:1-11) Stebbins, C. A. Potentiality of the school garden. (In Nat. Educ. Assn. Proc. 191 1, _P- " 31-37 ) Sturgis, R. C. Problems in school planning. (In Brickbuilder, 20:99-102, May 191 1) Watertown, Mass. Perkins institute and Massachusetts school for the blind. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder, 22:154-58, July 1913) Todd, J: B. Fresh air in school rooms: cloth window screens that let in filtered air without drafts. Diagram. (In Scientific Amer. Supplement, 77:118-19, Feb. 21, 1914) Trenton, N. J. School of industrial arts. Illus. plans. (In Brickbuilder, v. 20, July 191 1) Trumbauer, Horace. Architect. Seaside branch of Widener memorial school, Longport, N. J., views and plans. (In Brickbuilder, v. 23, pi. 49-51, April 1914) United States Bureau of Education. Sanitary school houses: legal requirements in Indiana and Ohio. Pap. 1913. U. S. Bureau of Ed. United States School House Commission. Report upon a general plan for the consoli- dation of public schools in the District of Columbia. Wash. Gov't Print. Office. 1908. Sop. pi. plans. U. S. 60th Congress, 1st session, Senate document 338 SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS Jl Van Pelt, J: R. Architecture of open air schools. (In Heating & Ventilating Mag., 10:41-42, September 1913) Waggoner, E. A. Los Angeles school gardens. (In Jour, of Ed., 81:214-16, Feb. 25, 1915) Washington, D. C. H: D. Cooke school. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, 18:235, Nov. 1909) Wheelwright, E. M. American buildings. Illus. plan. (In Brickbuilder, 6:244-47) Edmund March. School architecture. Bost. Rogers & Manson, 1902. 324P. Illus. Whipple, G. M. Questions in school hygiene. 1909. Bardeen 60c Wight, P. B. Public school architecture at Chicago. Illus. (In Architectural Record, 27:494-512, June 1910) Winslow, C. E. A. School ventilation in New York City. (In Heating & Ventilating Mag., 10:20-28, Sept. 1913) Wisconsin. Education department. The school beautiful, by Maud Barnett. Madison, Democrat Printing Co. 94P. Illus. plans, 1907 Minute and practical suggestions and directions for securing more attractive and healthful school build- ings and grounds. Plans and pictures. Issued by C. F. Cary, state superintendent. Wood, T: D. Health problems in education. (In U. S. Bureau of Ed. Current edu- cational topics, no. 3.) Pap. 191 2. U. S. Bureau of Ed., 5c. Sup't of documents IMPROVEMENT OF SCHOOL GROUNDS. The following letter was issued for a twofold purpose: (i) to direct the attention of school officials to the importance of initiating a wel'- conceived plan for the systematic improvement and adornment of school grounds, and (2) to outline a method whereby the desired end could be readily achieved. April 1, 1 91 6 To Principals and Superintendents : I am pleased to find that you are interested in the improvement of school grounds, for it is unquestionably a matter of importance both to the school and to the home. Inas- much as children are required to attend school, they are not only entitled to be housed in a building that is comfortable and sanitary but also to be placed in an environment that will be pleasant, helpful and uplifting. Every community has a duty to perform in this direction, and it should take interest and pride in the doing of it. We are this year initiating a movement for the general improvement of school grounds throughout the State. We are particularly anxious just now to locate the districts where conditions are most favorable for this work and to cooperate with them in the endeavor to make their grounds worthy object lessons to all surrounding districts. We have a number of cases in process of development, and within a short time confidently expect to have such undertakings under way in every section of the State. The first step is to have some competent person prepare a suitable and pleasing design for the general, systematic betterment and beautifying of the grounds. It is often, if not commonly, impracticable and undesirable for a school to make all needed improve- ments at one time, but it is of utmost importance to have a definite and comprehensive plan so that when completed, the grounds will be pleasing and symmetrical in general appearance and effect. A school should carry out at least a part of the plan each year, but only so much of it as can be well done and properly cared for. Inasmuch as many if not most schools will be unable, at least at the outset, to employ the services of professional landscape architects, arrangements have been made to aid schools that present an application for such assistance. The State College of Agriculture at Cor- nell University and the State College of Forestry at Syracuse University have both evi- denced deep interest in this work heretofore and have already done much to educate public sentiment. These state institutions have given us full assurance of their cooperation in the present undertaking, and we are fortunate in being able to rely upon them for this much-needed assistance. You will greatly assist us by giving a general description of the grounds and by stating the amount of money, if any, that can be assured for field work. If no money is available for this purpose, such assistance as may be possible will be freely given through correspond- ence, suggestive sketches and other aids. Where personal visitation is sought, it will be the aim to group cases in such a way as to reduce expenses to a minimum. SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 73 In either case, application for assistance should be made to the State Education Department through city, village or district superintendents of schools, as the case may be. This Department will supply the necessary information and material for making the pre- liminary sketches and will in general look after the preliminary work. When the cases are sufficiently developed, plans for laying out the grounds and for plantings will be pre- pared in accordance with such arrangements as may be made and when completed will be returned through this Department to the local school authorities. By proceeding in this way, the Department will be able to follow up these cases and use its good offices in seeing that the improvements are intelligently and effectively carried out, and that the grounds subsequently are properly cared for. Doubtless many schools can be well served by home nurseries and dealers, but for the benefit of others, it is gratifying to announce that the State College of Forestry, Syracuse, will furnish to the schools, trees and shrubs at actual cost of production, plus transportation. 1 The following publications will be found helpful and may be had upon application: The Home Grounds, by E. G. Davis and R. W. Curtis. College of Agricul- ture, Cornell University. Systematic Street Tree Planting, by H. R. Francis. College of Forestry, Syra- cuse University. School Buildings and Grounds. The University of the State of New York. Arbor Day Manual, 1913. Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. The University of the State of New York. Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds Lawn Soils and Lawns The School Garden Annual Flowering Plants Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Slides and hand photographs of school grounds, including lawns, playgrounds and school gardens, will be furnished by the Visual Instruction Division. Do not hesitate to call upon the Department for any service it can render. It will be a pleasure to assist you in every possible way. If difficulties confront you, let us share them with you. Very truly yours Frank H. Wood List of Ornamental Stock in Experiment Station Nurseries Prepared by the Nezv York State College of Forestry, Syracuse trees Fraxinus americana — White ash Acer platanoides — Norway maple Fraxinus pennsylvanica — Green ash Acer saccharum — Sugar maple Morns alba — White mulberry Be tula alba pendula — White Platanus americana — American plane birch tree Crataegus oxyacantha — English haw- Platanus orientalis — Oriental plane thorn tree 1 See subjoined list. 74 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Prunus padus — European bird Kerria japonica — Globe flower cherry Prunus triloba — Flowering almond Pyrus angustifolia Quercus coccinea — ■ Scarlet oak Quercus rubra — Red oak Picea excelsa — Norway spruce Pinus strobus — White pine Pinus sylvestris — Scotch pine Lonicera tartarica — Honeysuckle bush Rhamnus catharticus — Buckthorn Rosa rugosa alba — White Japanese rose Rosa rugosa rubra — Red Japanese rose Spirea bumalda var. Anthony Waterer Retinospora plumosa — Japanese cy- Symphoricarpus vulgaris — Coral press berry Thuja occidentalis siberica — Arbor Spirea van Houttei — Van Houtte's vitae or white cedar Tsuga canadensis — Hemlock VINES Parthenosiesus engelmanii Ampelopsis quinquefolia — Five- leaved ivy or Virginia creeper or woodbine Ampelopsis veitchii — Boston or Jap- anese ivy Celastrus scandens — Climbing bit- tersweet Evonymus radicans Lonicera halleana Wistaria (American purple) SHRUBS Aralia pentaphylla — Five-leaved aralia Berberis thunbergii — Japanese bar- berry Berberis vulgaris — Common barberry Cornus alba var. siberica — Siberian dogwood Deutzia lemoinei Diervilla rosea — Rose-colored wei- gela Forsythia intermedia — Golden bell spirea Symphoricarpus racemosus — Snow- berry Syringa vidgaris var. Marie LeGraye — Common lilac Viburnum dentatum — ■ Arrowwood HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS Peonies Festiva maxima Officinalis rubra Dutchess nemeur Phlox Wm Robinson Jean D' 'Arc Richard Wallace Selina Stokesia cynanea — Stoke's blue aster Boltonia asteroides Iris germanica — German iris Dicentra spectabilis — ■ Bleeding heart Digitalis purpurea alba — White foxglove Coreopsis lanceolata var. grandi- flora Chimps hollyhocks SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 75 Prepared by Mr. E. A. Richardson Many have doubtless observed the extensive use which has been made of native shrubs on the attractive grounds surrounding the stations along the line of the Boston and Albany Railroad. Mr E. A. Richardson, land- scape engineer, of Newtonville, Mass., to whom credit is to be given for carrying out this idea, has kindly furnished the following list of native shrubs of which he has made extensive use. Some suggestive comments are included in connection with individual shrubs on the list, and an interesting and instructive extract from one of Mr Richardson's letters is also given. Shrubs preceded by 1 are those that are hardy and can with ordinary care be grown anywhere in our latitude. Shrubs preceded by 2 are not so hardy but with special care succeed in most soils in our latitude. Those preceded by 3 call for some special condition or treatment. I Mariana {Andromeda} Lyonia and L. ligustrina Stagger bush 1 Acer spicatum Mountain maple 1 Acer pennsylvanicum Striped maple (I have seen both of these do well in cold situations) I Alnus incana (In all soils) Alder 1 Amelanchier canadense Shad bush (Rich deep soil, fairly well in poorer soils) 2 Aralia spinosa Hercules club (Have not seen this in exposed, cold situations) 1 Berber is vulgaris Common barberry (Does its best in deep soils, often in stony soils) 2 Cercis canadensis Judas tree: redbud (Should not plant in very cold, exposed situations) 2 Clethra alnifolia Sweet pepperbush (Have not seen this far away from sea shore) I Crataegus phaenopyrum (C. cordata) Washington thorn I Crataegus crus-galli Cockspur thorn (Both fairly good soils) I Cornus paniculata Grey cornel (In most soils and situations) I Cornus stolonifera Red osier (Does full as well in moist, not wet soils) I Cornus amommum (C. sericed) Silky cornel (In ordinary soils) 76 ' THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK I Cornus florida Flowering dogwood (Especially well on edges of woods) I Cornus alternifolia Alternate leaved cornel (On edges of woods) I Corylus americana Hazelnut (On ordinary soils) I Dervilla lonicera {D. trifida) Bush honeysuckle (Fairly well on poor soils) i Leucothoe catesbaei (Needs good soil) I Rhododendron arborescens {Azalea) Smooth azalea 1 Rhododendron viscosum {Azalea) Clammy-white swamp honeysuckle 1 Rhododendron nudiflorum {Azalea) Pinxter flower 2 Rhododendron calendidaceum{Azalea) Flame-colored azalea (Deep moist soils. All these will do better if bedded down in fall with leaves one foot deep and leaves left on the following season) i Lycium vulgare Matrimony vine (Will do fairly well in poor soils) 1 ' Ligustrum vulgare Common privet (The best of privets to stand poor treatment) 1 Myrica cerifera Bayberry, wax-myrtle (Does fairly well on poor soil) 1 Myrica gale Sweet gale (Likes to be near the water) i Prunus pumila Dwarf cherry (Does well in rocky soils also in good soils) 2 Prunus maritima Beach plum (At home near the sea; does well elsewhere) 1 Rosa lucida Glossy rose Rosa setigera Prairie rose; Michigan rose (Do not know how far north it will do well) 1 Rosa blanda 1 Rosa Carolina Swamp rose (Roses need good soil in order to bloom well. Have seen them do fairly well in poorer soils) 1 Rosa nitida Northeastern rose 2 Physocarpus opulifolius {Spiraea) Ninebark 1 Spirea tomentosa Hardback; steeplebush 1 Spirea salicifolia Common meadowsweet (Will do fairly well in poor but better in good soils) 2 Aruncus Sylvester {Spirea aruncus) Goats beard (Should hesitate about planting too far north) SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 77 i Sorbus americana (Fairly good soil) I Sambucus canadensis 1 Sambucus racemosa (S. pubens) (Moist soil for its best) 2 Rhus copallina I Rhus canadensis (R. aromatica) American mountain ash Common elderberry Red-berried elder Dwarf sumac Fragrant sumac (Arnold Arboretum form) (Does well in stony loam; not so well in light sandy soil) I Rhus glabra I Rhus typhi fia (Likes good soil) Pyrus arbutifolia i Hamamelis virginica (Does its best in moist places) I Vaccinium corymbosum (Does better in moist soils) i Vaccinium pennsylvanicum I Viburnum acerifolium Smooth sumac Staghorn sumac Chokeberry Witchhazel High or swamp bush blueberry Dwarf blueberry Maple-leaved viburnum or dock- mackie (Does better on edges of woods) I Viburnum dentatum Arrowwood (Full as well in moist soil) I Viburnum alni folium ( V. lantanoides) Hobble-bush (? how far north) I Viburnum lentago Sheepberry (Rich, deep soils) I Viburnum cassinoides Withe-rod (Seen it in all soils, better in deep, rich sods) I Vibernum prunifolium Black haw i Vibernum opulus Cranberry-tree (Better in rich, deep, cool sod, facing north) 3 Kalmia latifolia Mountain laurel — calico bush (Deep, rich moist soil for the best, as a rule does not like a lime soil) i Kalmia augustifolia Sheep laurel (Fairly well in dry pastures) I Symphoricarpus racemosus Snowberry (Fair soil) I Symphoricarpus vulgaris Indian currant, coral berry (Will exist in poor soils, but makes a fine showing in rich soils) 3 Zanthorhiza apiifolia Shrub yellow-root 78 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Vines 3 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Bearberry (Does well in sandy loam, also in rocky loam) 3 Aristolochia sipho Dutchman's pipe (Likes rich, deep, moist soil, does well facing north) i Celastrus scandens Bittersweet (Fairly well in poor soil, fruits fully as well as it does in richer soils) 3 Tecoma radicans Trumpet flower (This is sometimes tender here; rich sandy loams) I Psedera quinquefolia (Ampelopsis) Common woodbine (Almost any soil) 3 Clematis virginiana Common Virgin's bower (Full as well in moist, rich soils) " I have seen most of the shrubs in all kinds of situations and in fairly cold places, say as low as 20 degrees below zero, but most of our plantings are in places where the mercury does not go below 10 degrees below and does not stay there long. " Many plants do well as far north as Montreal, Canada, that do not do well farther south because they do not have the snow mantle that they get in Canada. Deep, well-enriched soils often make plants endure hard winters where they otherwise would come through enfeebled. In my markings I have simply given what I have seen. Temperatures from 20 below and lower, I have not had much experience with." SANITATION OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS The following letter and accompanying questionnaire, sent to super- intendents of schools throughout the State in January 1916, are self- explanatory: To Superintendents of Schools: There is no subject with which we have to deal that is of more vital moment or that presents at once greater possibilities and greater difficulties than school sanitation or school hygiene. We are all deeply interested and concerned in it and in all phases of it. Much that is excellent in character is being constantly said and written about it, and much that is not so praiseworthy. But theory, however good and sound in itself, needs to be inter- preted and expressed in terms of much actual experience and under the testing processes of varied everyday practice. In the treatment of certain topics in sanitation in a school building publication that is about to be issued, I need the results of the experience of many under varying condi- tions, and I turn to the body of men peculiarly equipped to supply this information, with the request that you kindly answer the accompanying set of questions, in order that the information gained therefrom may be used in an entirely impersonal way for the benefit of our schools and as a practical contribution for the guidance of those who are charged with the responsibility of decision in the problems involved. That this undertaking may prove of maximum value, let me express the hope that every superintendent will make as prompt and complete a return as possible. I am encouraged to present this blank to you in the belief that you will deem it a pleasure as well as a duty to give invaluable information on such important administrative problems, unobtainable through other sources. Very truly yours Frank. H. Wood School Buildings and Grounds — Special Features 1 Heat and Ventilation a What is the total number of school buildings under your jurisdiction? b What is the total number in which there is a mechanical system of ventilation? c Do you operate your fans during the entire year when school is in session? If not, at what approximate date do you begin to do so? Cease to do so? d State any reasons that you may have for or against the use of mechanical ventila- tion in warm weather, based upon your experience. e If you have two buildings of similar cubage and construction, one with a gravity system, the other with a mechanical, compare their yearly cost of maintenance and their effectiveness as measured by results. / Do you test your buildings for humidity? If so, what standard do you regard as desirable? What percentage limits are you able to maintain? 79 So THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK g In how many of your buildings do you use thermostat regulation? k What are your rules governing the use of a thermometer as to 1 Temperature to be maintained? 2 Distance in feet above floor level? 3 Location in room? i Add any essential information or helpful suggestions that you may have in mind regarding heating and ventilating systems. 2 Vacuum Cleaning a To what extent, if any, have you made use of vacuum cleaning? b Has it proved more satisfactory than the ordinary methods? If so, in what respects? c State any disadvantages that you may have experienced in its use. d Describe the type of machine and installation used by you. e Add any information or advice that would be likely to prove serviceable to those without experience with vacuum cleaners. j Dust Layers a Do you use floor oil? If so, with what do you have it applied? How often ? State what rule, if any, governs the quantity to be used. b State any additional precautionary measures in the use of floor oil that you have found it necessary to adopt. c Do you find any reasonable ground for complaint resulting from the use of floor oil after your method ? d What dust-laying agencies have you used and with what results? 4 Janitor Service a What is the minimum salary? What is the maximum salary? b What qualifications are prescribed? c What measures are adopted to direct, supervise and instruct janitors in the per- formance- of their duties? d If a definite set of rules or directions is issued to janitors, please inclose a copy. e Is your janitor service satisfactory? If not, state in what directions there are special difficulties. 5 School Grounds a What is the average size of your sites? How many have playgrounds connected with them? How many have playground equipment? b How many of your sites have school gardens? c How many have been laid out and beautified in accordance with the plan of a landscape artist or engineer? Superintendent of Schools A summarization of replies follows: SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 2o,3 ° : fO f No. of more satis- factory No. of buildings using cleaning • 2 S No. of places using vacuum cleaning " No. of buildings with thermo- static regula- tion £ " ™ No. of buildings tested for humidity |l J g ,§1*1 Gravity system less pensive Gravity system pensive (2 3 P.* tS 3 £ >> S "S Total using mech. ventila- tion ■4- M- Total no. buildings i 008 378 1 66 c In cities of the third class In villages of 5000 or more 32