■ M3 'πι! ■ ■ \« ι THE GEAIMAE NEW TESTAMENT A TREATISE ON THE GEAMMAE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT; EMBRACING OBSERVATIONS ON THE LITERAL INTERPRETATION OF NUMEROUS PASSAGES. & ikfo flfottton. BY THE REV. THOMAS SHELDON GREEN, MA. LATE FELLOW OF CHRIST'S COLLEGE, CAMB BILGE, HEAD MASTEE OE THE GEAMMAE, SCHOOL, ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOTTCH. LONDON : ο SAMUEL BAGSTER AND SONS, 15, PATERNOSTER ROW. MDCCCLX1I. < CONTENTS. ♦ PAGE Introduction ν CHAPTER I. On the Origin and Nature of the New Testament Greek . . 1 CHAPTER II. On the Article. Section I.— General notion of the Nature and Usage of the Article 5 Section II. — Use of the Article with the Substantive . . 8 Section III. — On particular omissions of the Article before Substantives . 40 Section IV. — On the use of the Article with the Adjective and Participle 49 Section V. — On the use of the Article in connexion with the Pronoun 64 Section VI. — On the use of the Article with the Verb ■ . . 65 Section VII. — On the use of the Article with words connected by Conjunctions 67 Section YIII. — Consideration of certain passages with respect to the Article 75 CHAPTER III. On the Substantive. Section I. — On the Number and Gender of Substantives . . 83 Section II. — On the Nominative Case 85 Section III. — On the Genitive Case 87 Section IV. — On the Dative Case 98 Section V. — On the Accusative Case 102 XIV CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. On the Adjective CHAPTER V. On the Pronoun PAGE 108 112 CHAPTER VI. On the Verb. Section I. — On the Tenses Section II. — On the Indicative Mood .... Section III. — On the Imperative Mood Section IV. — On the Subjunctive Mood Section V. — On the Optative Mood Section VI. — On the Infinitive Mood .... Section Vu. — On the Structure of Hypothetical Clauses Section VIII. — On the Structure of Relative Clauses Section IX. — On the Grammatical Expression of Design Section X. — On the Participle Section XL — On the Voices Section XII. — On the Concord of the Verb with its Subject 127 145 148 149 153 156 158 163 168 179 183 186 CHAPTER VII. On the Negative Particles 188 CHAPTER VIII. On the Prepositions 203 CHAPTER IX. On the Conjunction and other Particles 229 CHAPTER X. On the Grammatical Structure of Sentences Index of Texts .... 232 239 PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. In this Edition the changes which have been intro- duced, are considerable, and are principally these. A fresh arrangement has been given to the whole; and of the several portions the greater number have been more or less recast : there has also been an occasional retrenchment of matter which, though not altogether out of place where the relation of the Greek of the New Testament to the standards of the lan- guage is being considered, is not material to its inter- pretation. A wider range has in consequence been given to the illustration of rules and principles, and a larger amount of remark bestowed on the gram- matical character and literal interpretation of particular passages. Of such remark, however, there is still no small amount which would not readily fall into the formal arrangement of the treatise, and could only be pro- perly exhibited in a supplementary body of notes on the entire New Testament. INTRODUCTION. The writings which constitute the volume of the New Testament, present the outward form of that lan- guage which is in an especial manner distinguished by- delicate precision, and which would therefore, in its purity, be peculiarly fitted to be employed in those writings, the exact interpretation of which will ever be a matter of unrivalled importance. Still their idiom might happen not to be absolutely identical with that of the classical models, and the important question would naturally arise, respecting the precise relation in which the Greek of the New Testament stands towards the pure standard of the language. It has too often been the case with speculative sub- jects, that, for some time after they have been first started, they have been a field for the assault and defence of certain preconceived systems, rather than for the pursuit of a well-defined notion, to be legiti- mately derived from a previous body of facts carefully collected and rightly arranged. Still such a contest is not without its benefits : it serves to call attention to the VI INTRODUCTION. abstract importance of the subject, to mark out its precise bounds, and to provide materials for the more temperate, but not less earnest, inquirers who may follow. The combatants may display an abundance of spirit and skill, but for them it is a barren strife, for with the weapons they have so cunningly and perti- naciously wielded, Truth erects the trophy. Such was, to a considerable extent, the case with those, on the one hand, who saw nothing but Hebra- ism in the New Testament, and those who, on the other, were equally confident of the classic purity and rhetorical perfection of all that it contained. The latter had, at least, the ancients against them, who marked, though, in the actual case, they did not regret, the absence of the graceful dress (κάΧΧος καϊ πβριβόΚψ φράσεως) of the highly wrought models of their native tongue. To detail the history of the strife is unnecessary. The unquestionable result which followed upon it, was the establishment of the important point, that the writings of the New Testament do not resemble in all respects the established models of the language. Desirable as is the settlement of truth of any kind, yet in the present instance the result is thus far only a negative one, and the task would still remain of substituting definiteness of idea for the vagueness of the bare conviction that some difference did exist; a task, without the accomplishment of which the INTRODUCTION. Vll former would be of little value. This task would require to be executed thoroughly and carefully, on account of the indisposition of the many to trouble themselves in the search of exact truth ; and, further, for a positive and more cogent reason, namely, that the mere negative idea, as leaving room for the asser- tion that the language of the New Testament is bound by no precise grammatical laws, would be cherished by those, who, from whatever motive, might be ill- disposed towards any restraint on license of interpre- tation; while others were haunted by a notion, that there is to be allowed to interpreters a certain un- defined freedom from the fetters of the Grammar and the Lexicon. But it is proper first to ascertain whether the points, that must be conceded respecting the language of the New Testament, are such as to condemn at once, as a vain task, the proposed inquiry into its precise rela- tion to the Greek standards, and the applicability of the grammatical rules of the latter to its interpretation. The first of these is the absence of that refined grace, which would alone place the classic language in a peculiar and conspicuous position among the varieties of human speech : but in the present instance it is not outward grace, but the accurate use of the means pos- sessed by the language for precision and force of expression, that is the important point: and unless it can be shown that this must be impaired by the Vlll INTRODUCTION. want of mere elegance, that is, that inelegance neces- sarily implies inaccuracy, there is so far no bar to the investigation. It may easily be conceived, that a writer, from various causes, may not give to his style the delicate clothing of the minuter graces of a lan- guage, but will not necessarily neglect or violate those rules and distinctions of construction and other ele- ments of perspicuity, which enter into its staple. The next is that peculiar structure of sentences, derived from the Hebraic parallelism, which pervades the New Testament so extensively, and to a careful observer, differs not merely from the full-wrought roundness of the rhetorical manner, but even from those Greek writings which have least of the periodic character. Even the language of St. Paul, rapid, parenthetical, discursive, and equally impatient of rhetorical or parallelistic trammels, still sometimes displays this Hebraistic feature. Kom. xi. 33 — 35. The observations on the last point will apply also to this. From this cause the style of the New Testa- ment may, indeed, suffer rhetorically, but not, by necessary consequence, grammatically; that is, it may be deprived of a certain artificial and highly wrought beauty, but not necessarily of that subtle force and perspicuity, the means of which the Greek language especially and essentially possesses. Thirdly, it is absurd to expect that the New Tes- tament writers should, without miraculous interposi- INTRODUCTION. IX tion to the contrary, be altogether free from the influence of their native idiom ; and it is possible that this influence might be so great as to vitiate the proper Greek character of the writings, and throw the critic upon Aramaic sources of grammar, or leave him in hopeless perplexity between the two. This possibility, however, so far from precluding, strongly invites the inquiry, and at once sets its importance in the clearest light. The task of giving distinctness to the idea of the relation which the language of the New Testament bears to the classical standard, may be viewed as divided into three departments ; first, that of the Hebraist, whose principal duty it is to set forth the peculiar structure of periods, the use of the parallel- istic system, and Hebrew or Aramaean idioms and modes of thought :* secondly, that of the Lexicogra- pher; and this ought to embrace matters not included under the ordinary form of a Lexicon, as, for instance, dissertations on the use of the compound verbs and synonyms: thirdly, that of the proper grammarian, who must determine to what extent the writings in question display the grammatical fulness and precision * The nature of this task will be scarcely affected by the question, how- far the influence of the Hebrew was direct, and how far its action was only by transmission through the Septuagint. That it was mainly in the latter way, is the more reasonable view: but at the same time it should be remembered, that the rise of the later dialect of Palestine can hardly have been without some blending of the older language, and that the latter, when dead to current use, still retained, so to say, an ecclesiastical life. INTRODUCTION. of pure usage, and apply its established rules to their literal interpretation. These departments can- not, however, be viewed as quite distinct on all points ; for the grammarian must sometimes be concerned with Hebraism, when idioms are of a grammatical type, and also with Lexicography, when the construction of cer- tain words depends on their meanings. It is hoped that it is not now necessary either to enter into a laboured argument against any who might represent a great part of Greek syntax as a vague matter either in theory or in practice, or formally to maintain on the contrary, that the language is capable of the most rigid and minute precision in expressing variety of circumstance, and different shades of thought and feeling : that, further, this is actually exemplified with the utmost faithfulness in its standard writers; that there are no distinctions of form without corresponding difference of meaning, unless otherwise explained on rational grounds, and that the grammarian's task is not complete, until he has ascertained and accounted for all such phenomena. The standard of comparison, to which the language of the New Testament is best referred in the first instance, is that presented by• the Attic writers, on account of its fixed and refined character ; with a further recourse, especially for the purpose of illustra- tion, to the writings of the later age. The result of investigation will be, that the Greek INTRODUCTION. ΧΙ of the New Testament will be found to differ from classic purity not so much in solecistic deviation as in defect : there will be a discovery not so much of departures from established rules, as of inelegances more easily felt than described ; and there will be missed a portion of the minute and vivid picturing of the modifications of thought in written language which characterises the speech of that wonderful people, in the disappearance of some pointed and refined varia- tions of expression and forms of construction, and in an imperfect use of that exquisite array of .lesser par- ticles, which, when their force is duly felt, give to the dead page almost the life and impressiveness of human utterance. That such would prove to be, to some extent, the comparative character of the style of the New Testa- ment, might be inferred from a consideration of the circumstances of its authors, which would lead to the expectation that their writings would manifest an approximation to the spoken as distinguished from the literary form of the language, as it then existed. What may be regarded as particulars of this resem- blance will be noticed in their proper places. Let not the admitted result be viewed as tending to discouragement or favouring indifference in the stu- dent : let him be assured, that the repayment of his labour will be abundant ; that, so far from finding that he has been chasing a shadow and grasping a Xll INTRODUCTION. fleeting form, on the contrary, the more thorough his mastery of the subject, the greater will be his con- fidence and satisfaction in the reading of the New Testament, the greater his self-possession and clearness of thought, when surrounded by the conflicting inter- pretations and comments, that ingenuity unchecked by sound criticism has so abundantly generated. CHAPTER I ON THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT GREEK. If, in the case of any language, the locality of a dialect of polished form has been in a marked manner pro- ductive of distinguished writers, so that it may be /viewed as the especial literary province of the entire region, there is a natural tendency that this dialect, or a form based upon it and in the main resembling it, should eventually become the general language of prose literature and cultivated intercourse. In this position was Attica at the time when that part of Greece had become the favoured seat of the Drama, when it contained the most illustrious schools of phi- losophy, and its law-courts and popular assemblies were the great field of Grecian eloquence. The ascendancy thus in progress would be at once developed into actual predominance by any sudden and wide spread of Greek occupancy, ranging far be- yond' the proper seats of the old dialects : and this was realised by the extensive formation of settlements 2 ON THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF ■which resulted from the successes of Alexander, and the maintenance of the greater part of his conquests by his comrades in victory. Such are the causes that gave rise to what was termed by the grammarians the Common or Hellenic Dialect. Its cast was Attic, but it differed from that variety of the language in several respects : it was divested of special Atticisms ; it employed certain words, where the speech of Athens would, with the same meaning, have substituted others, either quite distinct, or differing from them in some point of struc- ture ; and, besides fresh coinage, it admitted some forms or words belonging to other dialects, or which, though of ancient use, had for a time disappeared in Attic Greek.* Such was the form of the language, which the first preachers of the Gospel found the medium of the * The predominance of one form is not inconsistent with the artificial employment in poetical compositions of a dialect consecrated to their pecu- liar species. Indeed this predominance does not imply the rapid and entire disappearance of the others, or the immediate extinction of the spirit of the line, Δωριδδει/ S' ei-eart, δοκώ, τοις Αωριεεσσι. The following passage, if taken strictly, would intimate that the dialects had a distinct existence in the Greek speech until a late period, though this could only be in some of the more secluded of their original seats. Νΰι> δε μόνοις υμΐν άποβεβηκε, μηδέ εν rais όμιλίαις όμοφωνεϊν Δωριέων μεν yap ονχ ή αύτη λέξις τοις άπυ της 'Αττικής- Άιολεί? τ€ ονχ όμοιως τοις'Ίωσι or κάτω, unless our Lord himself had been now brought out. St. John names, first, the maid at the gate, on Peter's admission; next, a number of persons (ππον ovv αντω), and, thirdly, the kinsman of Malchus, who, on account of the pointed and positive way in which he is described as making his assertion, might be identified with the aWos tls of Luke, who employs the term ΰασχυρίζετο respecting him. Since, however, three narratives mention a number of persons conspiring in the accusation, all discrepancies respecting individuals are merged in this fact. The main object of the several writers was to specify three distinct denials in fulfilment of our Lord's prophecy. 2. Implication in a preceding expression. The most simple kind of implication is when the noun is used to signify a constituent part of a whole previously mentioned or suggested, as, for instance, members of the body, parts of a building. Demosth. de Cor. p. 247. εώρων δ' αυτόν τον ΦίΧιππον — τον οφθαΧμον εκκεκομμενον, την κΧεΙν κατεαγότα, την χεΐρα, το σκεΧος πεπηρωμενον. John xix. 30. κΧίνας την κεφαΧην παρέ8ωκε το πνεύμα. Mark ii. 4. άπεστε^ασαν την στε^ην, Mark iv. 38. ην αυτός επί τη πρύμνη. Another kind is that of numbers resulting from pre- ceding arithmetical circumstances. Mat. xx. 24. άκούσαντες oi δέκα. See v. 20. Luke xv. 4. τις άνθρωπος εξ υμών ε'χων εκατόν πρόβατα, καϊ άποΧεσας εν εξ αυτών, ου καταΧείπεί τα εννενηκονταεν- νεα εν τη ερήμω; But writers carry out the principle still farther, by prefixing the Article to any number of objects con- tained in a previously stated greater one, without the mind being expressly led to it, as in the former case, by arithmetical considerations. Rev. xvii. 10. 12 THE USAGE OF THE ARTICLE Again, the implication is not always of a kind so simple as those already mentioned, though equally certain. Theophrast. Char. 23. καϊ βξ άηορας Be οψωνήσας, τα κ pea αυτό? φέρειν καϊ τα Χάχανα. Xen. Anab. I. v. 12. ξύΧα σχίζων τις — ϊησι ττ) άζ'ιντ). John xvi. 21. ή <γυνή όταν τ'ικτύ) κ. τ. λ. όταν Be yevvrfarj το παιΒίον. Acts vii. 41. έμοσχοποίησαν iv τα?? ήμέραις βκβίναις και ανψιαηον θυσίαν τω €ΐΒώ\ω. Luke xi. 37. ήρώτα αυτόν Φαρισαΐός τις όπως άριστήστ) παρ* αύτω — 6 Be Φαρισαΐος ΙΒων έθαύμασβν, οτι ού πρώτον ββα- ιττίσθτ) προ τον άριστου. 1 Pet. ii. 7. ύμΐν οΰν ή τιμή τοις πιστεύουσιν. Τιμή is implied in εντιμον v. 6, τίθημι εν Σιων λίθορ — εντιμον. 'For you then is the preciousness, you that believe.' 1 Tim. iii. 1. el τις επισκοπής opeyeTai, καΧου έ/?γου έπιθυ- /χα" Bei ουν τον Ιπίσκοπον κ. τ. λ. Mat. i. 24. BieyepOeU Be 6 'Ιωσήφ άπο του ύπνου. "Ύπνου is implied v. 20, άγγελος Κυρίου κατ οναρ εψάνη αύτω. Acts χχ. 13. ήμ€Ϊς Be προ€\θόντ€ς ίπϊ το πΧοΐον. Πλοϊον is implied in the words ήμεϊς δε εξεπλεύσαμεν κ. τ. λ. 2 Thes. ii. 11. €ΐς το πιστ€υσαι αυτούς τω -ψ^ΰδε^. Τω ψεύδει, 'the falsehood' implied in the words, ου εστίν ή παρνισία — iv πάση δυνάμει καϊ σημε'ιοις και τερασι ψεύδους, καϊ εν πάση απάτη της αδικίας, νο. 9, 10. Or ψεύδος, as being a term for an object of idolatrous worship (2 Chron. xxx. 14), may be only another designation of 6 άνομος in respect of his pretensions to divinity (v. 4) ; and the article would thus simply indicate renewed mention. The same remark applies to the words iv τω ψεύδει, Rom. i. 25, since ψεύδει may for the same reason be another term for όμοιώματι εικόνος κ. τ. λ. (ν. 23), and ' the lie ' be the actual imagery. WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 13 1 John ii. 22. τις Ιστιν 6 ψβνστης; Implication in yjsevbos v. 21. 3. Association ; that is when the noun signifies something which is necessarily or naturally associated with something else already mentioned or implied. The most simple and common case is that of usual articles of dress, furniture, and so forth ; and the force of the Article, as under the last head, is very generally to be expressed in English by a Possessive Pronoun : to these may be added usual appendages, and necessarily attendant or ordinarily consequential circumstances. Xen. Anab. II. iii. 11. ενταύθα ην ΚΧέαργρν καταμαθβΐν ώς €π€στάτ€ί, eV μεν Tjj αριστερά χεφϊ το Βόρν έχων, iv δε Ty δεξιά βακτηρίαν. Here δόρυ signifies what cannot but be associated with the person spoken of, when on military duty; βακτηρίαν something, the use of which was casual, and its idea, therefore not suggested by association : hence the presence and absence of the Article respectively. Isoc. Pan. p. 70. τους στρατιώτας τον μισθον απτεστε- ρησεν. Xen. Cyr. Ι Υ. vi. 3. κατεσγεν όντως νττο σκοτου τον φθόνον. The notion of the word φθόνον is associated with the circumstances de- scribed in the preceding words : ό ρλν άρχων ούτος άκοντίσας ημαρτβν — 6 δε epos παις βαλων — καταβάΧΧςι την αρκτον. Ύόν φθόνον, * The ' consequent 4 jealousy.' John xxi. 8. οι Be άΧλοι μαθηταϊ τω ΊτΧοιαρίω ηΚ,θον. By πλοιαρίω is signified the small boat attached to the fishing bark. So Acts xxvii. 16. μόλις Ισγυσαμεν ιτερικρατεϊς γενέσθαι της σκάφης. 14 THE USAGE OF THE ARTICLE Mat. v. 15. ούΒβ κ*αίουσι Χύγνον, καϊ τίθέασιν αυτόν υπο τόν μόΒίον, αλλ' βπϊ την \υγνίαν. With the idea of a house, suggested by the lighting of a candle, was necessarily associated that of the usual single articles of furniture, the μόδως and λυχνία. The parallel places are Mark iv. 21; Luke xi. 33. Though the Article is used in these passages with perfect propriety, and gives an air of liveliness to the language, yet its presence is not neces- sary to the force of the sentiment; and accordingly, it is omitted in a similar place, Luke viii. 16 : oidels δε λυχνον άψας, καλύπτει, αυτόν σκενει, η υποκάτω κλίνης τίθησιν, αλλ' eVi λυχνίας έπιτίθησιν. It could not, indeed, be prefixed to σ /ceuet, because the word does not, like μόδιος, signify a par- ticular kind of vessel usually found singly in a house, but one of any sort ; and this necessary absence may have led to its omission also before κλίνης and λυχνίας. John xiii. 5. βίτα βάλΧεο ϋΒωρ ei<; τον νιπτήρα. Luke ii. 7. avkicKivev αυτόν iv τη φάτνη' διότι ουκ ην αύτοΐς τόπος iv τω καταλύματα The Article is here used with φάτντ) by its association with καταλύματί : but then, in strictness of language, this word ought to have preceded. It should, however, be remembered that its idea was especially present at the moment to the writer's thoughts ; that the word itself almost immediately follows ; and that language affords many instances, in which a writer seems to be thinking less of his reader's information and state of mind than of his own. Καταλνματι itself has the Article by association, as here employed to signify the public place of lodging for travellers ordinarily attached to towns. Acts xx. 9. βπϊτής θυρίΒος. ' The ' single ' window ' of the chamber. Mat. xv. 26. τοΐς κυναρίοις. ' The' household ' dogs.' Mark vii. 27. Mat. ix. 23. ΙΒων τους αύΧητάς. 1 The minstrels ' usually employed on such occasions. Luke iv. 20. άποΒούς τω υπηρέτη. Acts xxi. 26. ea>9 ου προσηνίγβη ύπερ evo? εκάστου αυτών WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 15 η προσφορά. So v. 27. ως Be βμβΧλον a I eirra ημέραι συν- τέλβΐσθαι. In both cases the Article arises from necessary association with the men- tion of a vow, on the part of those familiar with its rites. Acts xxii. 25. ώ? Be irpoeretvev αυτόν τοις Ιμασιν. Ίμάσιν has the Article by association with the idea of the preceding words, f Ιπων μάστιζιν άνετάζεσθαι αυτόν. Mat. χ. 12. elaep^o^evoi Be. eh την ο Ι κι αν. By οικίαν is here signified the house where they should be entertained, the idea of which is necessarily associated with that of their entrance into a town, conveyed by the words just preceding : hence the Article. Acts xix. 10. Ικανοί Be των τα Trepiepya πραξάντων — τ ας βίβΧους κατίκαιον. ' Many of those who had practised magic, burnt the books' of the art. Gal. iii. 19. των τταραβάσ€ων χάριν ετέθη (ο νόμος). 1 The Law was enacted for the sake of the transgressions' which would derive their existence as such from it : that is, its object was to reduce cer- tain acts to contraventions of specific enactment. See Rom. v. 20. 1 Cor. x. 13. 7Γ0ίήσ€ί συν τω ΤΓ€ίρασμω καϊ την βκβασιν. Ίψ Ζκβασιν, 'the escape' from the environment of πειρασμοί. 1 Cor. iv. 5. τότ€ 6 eiratvo ς γ€νήσ€ται, Ικάστω άττο του Θεοί). Ό έπαινος, 'the praise' which is the desired result of the trial intimated in the preceding words. Mat. xxiv. 32. άπο Be της συκης μάθ€τ€ την τταραβοΧην. By the prefixed Article the speaker points to his own ordinary, and therefore well known, custom of appending to an important matter of teaching a parable by way of illustration or enforcement : otherwise, the word might have the Article by association with σι>κί)$•, meaning 'the parable' which it. furnishes.. 16 THE USAGE OF THE ARTICLE Jam. iii. 3. των Χττττων τους χαΧι,νούς et? τα στόματα βάΧΚομβν. Χαλινούς has the Article by association with ΐππων, and the rendering should be : ' The horses' bits we put into their mouths,' in order to control them. By disregard of the Article the point of the illustration is in a great measure lost ; namely, that as the horse is entirely managed by having control over his mouth, so he who is able to have the mastery of his tongue, is δυνατός χαΧιναγωγησαι κα\ όλον το σώμα. The remaining leading division embraces those words to which the Article is prefixed independently of the context: that is, the familiarity of the precise idea intended to be conveyed by them does not arise from any thing previously mentioned or suggested. The classes of words embraced by this division are as follows : 1. Abstracts, when used strictly as such ; since their idea is an intrinsically familiar one. It is clear, however, that, though these words in their strict sense have an inherent right to the Article, yet its presence is not compulsory; though the Article is naturally allied, yet it is not necessarily conjoined with them: that is, no necessary change of sense is produced by its withdrawal from an abstract ; it is still an abstract, and the precise one which it was before. With this theoretic view agrees the actual usage of the language, in which, generally speaking, some liberty is found to prevail with respect to prefixing the Article to words of this class. Still it will be found to be usually inserted when great precision of language is used, to WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 17 intimate that the strict abstract sense is to be asso- ciated with the word, and omitted, perhaps, when the attention is especially directed to its peculiar notion. But on this point a recurrence to observation of the practice of Aristotle and other philosophical writers is to be recommended. A few examples may properly be noted of the Article prefixed to Abstracts in the New Testament. 1 Cor. xv. 21. δ^' άνθρωπου 6 Θάνατος. 2 Cor. i. 17. μητι άρα rfj εΧαφρία, εχρησάμην ; Gal. π. δ. οϊς ούΒε προς ώραν εϊξαμεν rfj ύποταγτ). Phil. ii.3. τ§ ταπεινοφροσύνη άΧΧηΧους ηγούμενοι, υπερ- έχοντας εαυτών. In the last three instances the Article is used with great propriety, on account of the strictly abstract sense in which the words are evidently to be taken to give full force to the Apostle's language, as signifying not a certain piece of conduct, but a particular temper or frame. 1 John iii. 16. εν τούτω εγνώκαμεν την αγάπη ν. The abstract should here be especially noted. 'Herein have we got knowledge of love ' in its very essence, namely, in the circumstance ' that he laid down his life on our behalf.' Compare iv. 10. The Article is thus rightly prefixed to words by which a system of action, familiar to the mind as such, is intended to be signified, as distinguished from spe- cific instances, which on the contrary are possessed of no necessary familiarity. 1 John ii. 29. πάς 6 ποιων την Βικαιοσύνην εζ αύτου ηεγεννηται. 1 John iii. 7. 6 ποιων την Βικαιοσύνην Βίκαιός εστί, 3 18 THE USAGE OF THE ARTICLE καθώς εκεΐνος δίκαιος εστίν. 6 ποιων την άμαρτίαν εκ του διάβολου εστίν. On these two passages it is only necessary to remark, that their true meaning is entirely centred in this particular usage, the Article indicating that the several terms are here expressive of a certain tenor. Epli. iv. 25. αποθεμένοι το ψευδός λαλείτε άλήθειαν. 'Αλήθειαν, without the Article, signifies that which is truth in each several case. Eph. vi. 9. άνιεντες την άπειλην. John vii. 22, 23. Μωσής δέδωκεν ύμΐν την περιτομην — 'ει περιτομην λαμβάνει άνθρωπος εν σαββάτω. In the first instance περιτομην has the Article, as being used to signify the rite in the abstract ; in the second, it is necessarily anarthrous, as implying a single performance of the rite, not previously suggested by the context. In one case, however, the insertion of the Article may be regarded as compulsory before abstracts, namely, when they are personified. Xen. Mem. ii. p. 430. και η Κακία υπόλαβοϋσα είπεν. Rom. vii. 8. άφορμην δε λαβοΰσα ή αμαρτία δια της εν- τολής κατειρηάσατο εν εμοϊ πάσαν επιθυμίαν χωρίς έτερου θεραπείας άναπιμπλά- μενοι, ώσπερ τα προ β ατα, εθνησκον. Plato. Phaed. p. 85. ούδεν ορνεον άδει, — ούΒε αύτη η τ ε αη- δών καϊ ή χελιδών και 6 εποψ. Aristoph. Αν. 1145. ύποτύπτοντες ωσπερ ταΐς άμαις. "Ωσπ€ρ ταις αμαις, ' shovel-fashion.' Mat. vi. 1. έμπροσθεν των ανθρώπων, John ϋ. 25. ου γβείαν εϊχεν, ίνα τις μαρτυρήστ} περί του άνθρωπου. John xvi. 21. ή γυνή όταν τίκτη. Mat. xviii. 3. εάν μη στραφήτε, και ηενησθε ως τα παιδία. Mat. νϋ. β. μη Βώτε το αηιον τοις κυσί. Mat. viii. 20. αϊ αλωπεκές φωλεούς ε-χρυσι. Lu. ix. 58. Mat. χ- 16. ηίνεσθε ουν φρόνιμοι ως οι οφεις, καϊ ακέραιοι ως αϊ περιστεραί. 1 Cor. ix. 9. μη των βοών μέλει τω Θεω; Mat. xxiii. 23. άποΒεκατούτε το ήΒύοσμον καϊ το ανη- θον καϊ το κύμινον. Luke xi. 42. Luke xxi. 29. ϊΒετε την συκήν. Mat. xxiv. 32. Luke xxii. 31. 6 Σατανάς εξτ)τησατο υμάς του σινιάσαι ώς τον σΐτον. John xii. 24. 6 κόκκος του σίτου. WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 21 Mark iii. 15. εγει,ν εξουσίαν θεραπευειν τ ας νόσους καϊ εκβάΧΧει,ν τα οαιμονια. Τά? νόσους, 'disease' in general. But the word is anarthrous in the parallel place, Luke ix. 1. The case is, however, evidently one of in- difference. Mat. xxiv. 29. ο Ι αστέρες πεσούνται άπο του ουρανού. Mat. xiv. 2. a Ι ουνάμεις ενεργούσαν εν αύτω. * The Powers are active in him.' Jam. iii. 4. ϊδού, καΐ τα πΧοΐα. Jam. iii. 11. μήτι ή πηγή εκ της αυτής οπής βρύει το γΧυκύ καϊ το πικρόν; John xviii. 20. εγω πάντοτε εΒίΒαξα iv τ ή συναγωγτ}. 1 Pet. iv. 7. νήψατε είς τας προσευχάς. Acts π. 42. 4. Those employed to signify an entire class of agents. Xen. Cyrop. Ύ. ii. 47. ο Ι μεν βάναυσοι ϊσασι τής εαυτού τέχνης έκαστος των έργαΧείων τα ονόματα. Aristot. Eth. Nic. iv. 1. 6 μέντοο κυβευτής καϊ 6 Χωπο- Βύτης καϊ 6 Χηστης των άνεΧευθέρων είσί. Mat. χ. 10. άξιος yap 6 εργάτης τής τροφής αυτού εστίν. Luke χ. 7. 1 Tim. ν. 18. Mat. xviii. 17. έστω σοι, ωσπερ 6 εθνικός καϊ 6 τεΧώνης. 1 Cor. vii. 34. μεμέρισται ή γυνή καϊ ή παρθένος. 2 Cor. xii. 12. τα, σημεία τού άποστόΧου. Gal. iv. 1. εφ* όσον χρόνον 6 κΧηρονόμος νήπώς εστίν. 2 Cor. xii. 14. ου γαρ οφείΧει τα τέκνα τοΐς γονεύσι, θη- σαυρίζει . Ύίκνα here signifies a class ; but yovevat has the Article by association with it. In this passage there is a mutual association between the ideas of the two nouns which have the Article, and they might therefore be said both to have it in right of such association : but the view just taken of the case is, at least, more simple. 22 THE USAGE OF THE ARTICLE 1 Cor. vii. 3. ττ} ηυναικί 6 άνήρ την όφεϊΚην άποδιΰότω. The Article may be regarded as prefixed to γνναικί as used to signify a class, to each individual of which the predicate belongs ; so that άνηρ has it by association, as also οφςϊλψ. Mat. xix. 10. el ούτως εστίν η αίτια του άνθρωπου μετά της γυναικός. Compare with these three passages Isasus de Philoc. H. p. 59. 6 νόμος αυτός άποΒίΒωσι τω υίεΐ τα του πατρός. Mat. χχν. 32. ό ποιμην αφορίζει τα πρόβατα άπο των ερίφων. The construction of the following passages, though embarrassed, is on the same principle. Luke xi. 11. τίνα δε υμών τον πάτερα αιτήσει ό υιός άρτον ι Mat. χν. 11. ου το εϊσεργόμενον είς το στόμα κοινοί τον άνθρωπον. In the next instance, which is exactly similar in form to those already quoted, the association is not mutual. Luke xi. 24. όταν το άκάθαρτον πνεύμα εξελθτ) από του άνθρωπου. There is no natural association of άκάθαρτον πνεύμα with άνθρωπου ; and, accordingly, those words must be viewed as signifying a class or species, and άνθρωπου the human being possessed by each respective individual of it, and therefore having the Article by association. In the next two instances, however, which have some resemblance to this, the Article is present on combined ground of class and association ; since the term τον άνθρωπον describes all who come under the operation of the law just mentioned. John vii. 51. μη ό νόμος ημών κρίνει τον α ν θ ρ ω π ο ν κ. τ. λ. Rom. vii. 1. ό νόμος κυριεύει του άνθρωπου κ.τ.\. This particular point has been here dwelt upon, because some difficulty respecting the Article might, WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 23 without due consideration, be raised from some of such passages. 5. Besides these classes of words, there are others with respect to which the familiarity of idea is not of so essential and universal a kind, but is rather the result of particular circumstances. With regard to the idea which they are employed to convey, familiarity is presumed by a writer or speaker on the part of those whom he has in view; familiarity arising from notoriety, established custom, well known historical circumstances, &c. ^Eschin. Timarch. p. 8. Βιημερευεν εν τω κυβείω, ου ή τηΧία τίθεται καϊ τους άΧεκτρυόνας συμβάλΧουσι και κ,υβευουσιν τβη yap οΐμαί τινας υμών εωρακεναι α λέγω, ει δε μη, αλλ' ακηκοεναι ye. In the latter clause the speaker states the presumption on which he has just adopted language which would be appropriate only in virtue of the truth of that presumption, that language consisting in the present instance merely in the use of the Article. Xen. Anab. I. ii. 9. Βέρξης, οτε i/c της ΈΧΧάδος ηττηθείς ttj μάχη απτεγωρει. Plato. Repub. i. p. 329. το τον Θεμιστοκλέους ευ εγει, ος τω ^εριφίω — απτεκρ ίνατο . The story was well known at Athens, which is the reason of the Article before Έ,εριφΙω. See also Plutarch. Apophth. p. 1 85. Cicero, as a matter of necessity, renders it ' Seriphio cuidam,' and this has been alleged to show that the Article has sometimes the signification of tls, although the notions of no two words can be more directly opposed to each other. If this point were conceded, the Article might at once be given up as loqua- cissimce gentis flabellwm. It is a most hasty and absurd conclusion, though one not unfrequently drawn, that two words have the same meaning or may be used indifferently, because in certain passages one may be rendered as if the other had been used without injuring the general sense. 24 THE USAGE OF THE ARTICLE Mat. xvii. 24. τα οίοραχμα. The established impost of the half-shekel. Mat. xxi. 12. τα? περιστεράς. An article of great demand for offerings, and therefore well known to persons acquainted with the temple and its rites. St. Mark also has the article (xi. 15). Mat. viii. 4. σεαυτον ΒεΙξον τω ιερεΐ. Mar. i. 44. Lu.v. 14. Τω iepet, ' the priest ' in attendance. Heb. vii. 27. ωσπερ οι αρχιερείς. Οί άρχπρεΊε, ' the ' Levitical ' high-priests.' Heb. ix. 2. ή τε "λυχνία και η τράπεζα καϊ ή πρόθεσις των άρτων. John xviii. 3. ό ουν 'Ιούδας Χαβων την σπεϊραν. Την σπ€Ϊραν, ' the detachment' od duty. Luke xix. 23. διατί ουκ εδωκας το apyvpiov μου επί την τράπεζαν; Luke xii. 54. όταν ϊΒητε την νεφεΧην άνατεΧΧουσαν άπο Βυσμών, κ. τ. λ. Νεφελών has the Article, because it is here used to signify the particular cloud well known, by its singular conformation, as the forerunner of a considerable fall of rain. 1 Ki. xviii. 44, 45. 1 Cor. x. 1. oi πατέρες ημών πάντες υπο την νεφεΧην ήσαν. ν. 9. υπο των όψεων άπώλοντο. ν. 10. άπωλοντο υπο του όΧοθρευτοΰ. The passage is a recalling of well known historical circumstances. Acts xxi. 38. 6 Αιηύπτιος — τους τετ ρακισχι\Ίους. Gal. iv. 22. eva εκ της παιοίσκης. v. 23. Βιά της επαη- ηεΧ'ιας. Heb. xi. 35. αΧλοι 8ε ετυμπανίσθησαν, ου προσΒεξάμενοι την άποΧύτρωσιν. By αΧΚοι are intended the Maccabean martyrs, and by άπόλντρωσιν the WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 25 well known circumstance of the deliverance offered to them as the reward of apostacy. John i. 21. ο προφήτης ει συ; By προφήτης is meant the great prophet expected by the Jews, appa- rently on the ground of the declaration of Moses, Deut. xviii. 15. From the questions put to the Baptist, as well as from John vii. 40, 41, the Prophet appears to have been viewed as a distinct person from the Messiah ; though opinion might not have been uniform on this point. Mark i. 15. πεπΧήρωταί 6 καιρός. Luke xxi. 8. ό καιρός ήηηικε. Ό καιρός, ' the ' long expected ' season.' John iv. 22. ή σωτηρία εκ των 'Ιουδαίων εστί. Ή σωτηρία, 'the' expected 'salvation;' for the term is evidently not here an abstract. Mat. xix. 28. iv ττ) πα\υ<γ<γενεσία. The Article shows that παλι-γ-γ^σία was a term familiar to the persons- addressed in its application to the state of things under the reign of the Messiah : it is a term of the Jewish theology. 2 Thes. ii. 3. iav μή ekOrj ή αποστασία πρώτον. ' Αποστασία cannot here be a proper abstract, which would give it a right to the Article : it therefore has it as intended to convey an idea familiar to the Thessalonians ; and this could only be the case by its having been a matter of previous instruction orally communicated by the Apostle. This leads to the general remark, that in epistolary correspondence it naturally happens that certain terms acquire between the correspondents a familiar use, which is marked by the Article. In this way an occasional appear- ance of the Article in the Epistles may be accounted for, where the reason of use would not otherwise be obvious. 1 Cor. iii. 13. ή jap ήμερα ΒηΧώσεδ. Heb. χ. 25. τοσούτω μαΧλον οσω βλέπετε ε<γγίζουσαν την ήμεραν. Ίψ ημίραν, ' The day ' of visitation ; thus sufficiently indicated to those who were expectant of it. 26 ΤΠΕ USAGE OF THE ARTICLE 2 Cor. xii. 18. παρβκίίλβσα Τίτον, καϊ συναπεστβιΚα τον αδελφόν. When besides the ordinary signification of a word it has also acquired one that is purely conventional, the use of the word in this sense is marked by the Article, as pointing to a particular meaning, which is not the usual one, but established by the arbitrary familiarity of custom. Instances of this in the New Testament are αΙών in the sense of an unlimited duration, Mat. xxi. 19; Mark iii. 29; xi. 14; John iv. 14; vi. 51, 58 ; viii. 35, 51, 52 ; ix. 32 ; x. 28 ; xi. 26 ; xiii. 8 ; xiv. 16; 1 Cor. viii. 13 ; 2 Cor. ix. 9 ; Heb. v. 6 ; vi. 20 ; vii. 17, 21, 24, 28 ; 1 Pe. i. 23 ; 1 Jno. ii. 17 ; 2 Jno. 2 : and οδός, of the profession of the Gospel, Ac. ix. 2 ; xix. 9, 23 ; xxiv. 22. On this principle too the Article is sometimes pre- fixed to the word αλήθεια, as an index of a conventional meaning, namely, the full light of the Gospel as contrasted with the imperfect or typical nature of former revelations, or purity of doctrine as opposed to corruption, John viii. 32 ; xiv. 6 ; Gal. iii. 1 ; Eph. iv. 24 ; 2 Thes. ii. 12 ; Heb. x. 26 ; 1 Pe. i. 22 ; 1 John i. 8. Another instance is supplied by the term ή κρ'ι- σις, 'the judgment' of the great day, Mat. xii. 41, 42; Luke x. 14; xi. 31, 32; John v. 22. So ή οργή, when the Article is not used with reference to the context, is ' The wrath ' κατ εξοχήν, that is, ή 6. του Oeov, Rom. xii. 19; 1 Thes. ii. 16. So also, ή περιποίησις, Eph. i. 14, is that which is already familiar by the titles λαός περιούσιος (Tit. ii. 14), λαός eh περιποίησιν (1 Pe. ii. 9). See also Mai. iii. 17. In the same way, ή διδα- σκαλία, 1 Ti. vi. 1 , is ' The teaching ' of the Apostolic masters. Again, the Article prefixed to προσαγωγή points to its technical use, as signifying formal introduction into a sovereign presence, Rom. v. 2 ; Eph. ii. 18 ; iii. 12. 1 Thes. iv. 6. το μη υπβρβαίνειν καϊ ifKeoveKrelv iv τω ιτράηματι τον άΒβλφον αυτού. In this passage the use of the Article cannot be contextual, as an exami- nation of what precedes, would show ; but if πράγμα be considered as here used to signify worldly business in general, it would rightly have the Article on this account, from the necessary familiarity of the idea : still WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 27 proof is required that the noun is ever used in this sense in the singular. The expression, however, is here quoted as rather exemplifying the obser- vation just made; for it is well known that το πράγμα was a current expression for licentious practices (jEschin. Timarch. pp. 18, 19); and this signification seems the only resource, if the former one be untenable : it is also best suited to the context, especially v. 7. The same signification might also be adopted in another place, 2 Cor. vii. 1 1 ; but this is not necessary, because the words iv τω πράγματι may there mean, ' In the matter ' at issue. The Article would be properly prefixed to a word when employed to signify some individual thing fami- liarised by being the subject of a well-known proverb or apologue; and thence might easily arise a custom of using the Article in the case even of a newly coined proverbial or parabolic sentiment, as at once clothing it in a form of expression already associated with that species of composition. Mat. xxiii. 24. ol Βίϋλίζοντες τον κώνωπα, την Be κάμη- \ον καταττίνοντβς. Luke xii. 39. el yBet, 6 οίκοΒ€σττότης ποία ώρα 6 κ\ά- πτης ep^erai, κ. τ. λ. Mark χ. 25. €υκοπώτ€ρόν έστι κάμήλον Βία τή? τρυμα- λέά? της ραφίΒος βΙσβΚθεϊν. In this passage the presence of the Articles is best explained as an instance of this particular usage : and their absence from several important documents may be referred to a readiness to discard what might seem an embarrassing peculiarity, especially when compared with the anarthrous expression in the parallel places (Mat. xix. 24; Luke xviii. 25). By a very natural process of thought, and one which is continually exemplified, writers are apt uncon- sciously to adopt language suited, in strictness, only to the same familiarity with certain localities on the 28 THE USAGE OF THE ARTICLE part of their readers, as is possessed by themselves; and this is the cause of the occurrence of the Article in some cases where it appears at first sight strange. Mat. v. 1. ΙΒών δε τους ο-χλους άνέβη βίς το ορός. The practice described is clearly exemplified in this and other similar passages, ■ the mountain ' being that part of the embosoming range imme- diately overtopping the spot on the edge of the lake, where the scene of the narrative previously lies. Mat. xiv. 23 ; xv. 29; Mark iii. 13. A remark- able illustration is supplied by the following words, used of a precisely similar locality : αποθανόντος Αυσάνδρου ί'φςυγον oi άλλοι, προς το opos. Xen. Hell. iii. p. 296. Mat. viii. 32. ωρμησε ττάσα ή άγελτ? των χοίρων κατά του κρημνού. Mark ν. 13 ; Luke viii. 33. A similar familiarity is sometimes unconsciously assumed respecting circumstances, as well as natural localities. Of this there is a remarkable instance in the expression ή ohia, used of a house which was the resort of our Lord, Mat. xiii. 1, 36 ; xvii. 25 ; Mark ix. 33 ; x. 10, and το πλοίοι/, of a vessel used by him, and which might not have been always the same, Mark vi. 32 ; viii. 10 ; in which passages there is no suggestion arising from the context to cause the occurrence of the Article. It should be remarked that this occurs only in St. Matthew and St. Mark. Such language is natural to witnesses of our Lord's sojourn in those parts, or persons who received the story fresh from the mouths of those who were so. A short notice is due to the use of the Article with Proper Karnes. It is evident that, from their very nature, they do not, generally speaking, need the Article for the sake of precision, as is the case with Common Substantives. Still, though Poetry indeed appears disposed rather to repudiate the Article in WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 29 the case of Proper Names, probably on account of a formal appearance produced by it, yet in prose it is of constant occurrence. One rule may be laid down respecting its insertion, namely, that it never takes place on the first mention in a narrative of a Proper Name, except in the case of such as possess especial notoriety, as those of well known places, deities, and distinguished men. This practice is in exact accordance with the abstract prin- ciple of the Article ; that is, its occurrence with this class of words is on account only of previous mention or established notoriety. Since the nature of the case, as has been observed, does not admit of the insertion of the Article before Proper Names being imperative, it is to be expected that its use should have the appearance at least of irregularity: thus, for instance, the text of classical writers presents the circumstance of the name of a principal actor in a narrative, however frequently re- peated, being found usually but still not throughout with the Article prefixed. The rules, if any, which guide its use, are probably dictated rather by taste and feeling than by any more stringent principle. The genealogy in St. Matthew presents throughout an apparent inver- sion of the rule given above for the first prefixing of the Article to a Proper Name. Thus, v. 2. 'Αβραάμ eyevvqae τον Ισαάκ• Ισαάκ 8e i'yev- mjae τον Ιακώβ. But the Article appears to be used merely to mark the accusative case. The same is probably the reason of its being prefixed to the proper name Ναθαναήλ on its first occurrence. Jno. i. 46. 30 THE USAGE OF THE ARTICLE John xviii. 40. μη τούτον, άλλα τον Βαραββάν. This is an instance of the name of a person previously unknown occur- ring for the first time with the Article prefixed. Still there is no real irregularity ; for this language is not addressed by the Evangelist to his readers, but, according to his description, by the Jews to Pilate, to whom the person was sufficiently notorious. St. Luke's language is similar : aipe τούτον, άπόλυσον de ήμίν τον Βαραββάν όστις ην κ. τ. λ. xxiii. 18. The foregoing part of this section has been appro- priated to instances, in which the Substantive itself embraces the entire familiarised idea, and is therefore entitled in its own right to the Article ; but it fre- quently happens that this idea is conveyed by an entire group of words, of which the substantive is only a constituent. This is a most material consideration, because the presence of the Article would often be unaccountable, if the substantive were alone regarded. When, on the removal of certain words, the noun with which the Article is in concord, either conveys no such idea as would entitle it to the Article, or if otherwise, not the precise one intended, the Article belongs to the group formed by the combination of those words with the noun. But since doubt might sometimes arise respecting the precise words thus combined, the general principle is that in such cases they are either placed between the Article and the Noun, or subjoined to it with the Article repeated before them, except when they form a clause commencing with a Relative Pronoun, which, WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 31 by its concord, establishes their connexion with the noun without the employment of further means. This is found to be the practice of correct writers, whenever ambiguity would arise from a different col- location. Mat. xv. 1. ol άπο ' 'Ιεροσολύμων γραμματείς. Acts xxii. 1. τής προς υμάς νυν απολογίας. Rom. xi. 21. των κατά φύσιν κλάδων. 1 Pe. i. 14. ταΐς πρότερον iv τη άγνοια υμών επιθυμίαις. 1 Pe. iii. 3. 6 έξωθεν εμπλοκής τριχών καϊ περιθέσεως χρυ- σίων ή ενδύσεως Ιματίων κόσμος. 2 Pe. i. 4. της εν κόσμω εν επιθυμία φθοράς. 2 Pe. ii. 7. της τών άθ εσμών εν ασέλγεια αναστροφής. Mat. iii. 17. ούτος εστίν 6 υιός μου ό αγαπητός. Acts χν. 23. τοις κατά την Άντιόχειαν — άδελφοΐς τοις εξ εθνών. Heb. xi. 12. ως ή άμμος ή παρά τό χείλος τής θαλάσσης η αναρίθμητος. The New Testament might be expected to exhibit instances of a deviation from such precision of ar- rangement, especially in the unstudied and rapid style of St. Paul; but this never takes place in the case of words in concord with the principal substantive. Eph. vi. 5. υπακούετε τοις κυρίοις κατά σάρκα. 1 Thes. iv. 16. οι νεκροί εν Χριστώ άναστήσονται πρώτον. Bom. vi. 4. συνετάφημεν ουν αύτω Βιά του βαπτίσματος εις τον θάνατον. Col. ii. 14. εξαλείψας το καθ 1 ημών χειρόγραφον τοις Βόγ- μ'ασιν. In the three first of these passages the correct order of the words would undoubtedly have been, respectively, reus κ. σ. κυρωι?, which actually 32 THE USAGE OF THE ARTICLE occurs Col. iii. 22 — ol ev X. veicpoi — δια. του els τ. θ. βαπτίσματος. In the last, the words rots δ. could hardly have heen inserted before χίΐρόγραφον, but must still be connected in sense with καθ' ημών. 1 Ti. ii. 6, 7. το μαρτύρων καιροΐς Ιδίοις εις δ ετεθην εγώ κήρυξ και άπόστοΧος — διδάσκαλος εθνών. The article which would be here unaccountable, if viewed in connexion with μαρτύρων alone, is really prefixed to the entire group ending with (θνών, though this is not indicated by collocation. The whole expression is an abrupt reminiscence relating to the preceding context. The undis- tinguishing universality of the new covenant as contrasted with prescrip- tive favour to the Jew, this which had been formerly μνστήριον was now (καιροΊς Ιδίοις) a μαρτύρων, for the publication of which the writer had been appointed an apostle. Jno. vi. 32. ου Μωσής δέδωκεν ύμΐν τον αρτον εκ του ουρα- νού, αλλ' ο πατήρ μου δίδωσιν υμΐν τον αρτον εκ του ουρανού, τον αληθινόν. In both clauses the use of the Article τόν is as if the order was τον e< τ. ο. αρτον. ' Moses has not given you the heaven-sent bread, but my Father is giving you the real heaven-sent bread.' Acts xvii. 1. εις Θεσσάλονίκην, οίνου ην ή συναηω^η των ^Ιουδαίων. The presence of the Article before συναγωγή cannot be easily explained in connexion with that word alone, but becomes at once clear when referred to σ. τ. Ί. : ' where was the synagogue of the Jews,' inhabiting those parts. A word is sometimes found within a group to which an Article belongs, that is really no part of it : but since it is always one that cannot possibly enter into the combination, no perplexity arises from the circum- stance. This occurs both in pure writers and the Xew Testament. Actsxxvi. 24; Rom. xi. 24; 1 Pe. iv. 2; 2 Pe. i. 4. The arrangement of the words that constitute a WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 33 group to which an Article is prefixed, presents some points of importance. When the group embraces words connected with the principal substantive in the way of epithet, they are, according to a rule already mentioned, either placed between that word and the Article, or are postfixed with the Article repeated before them. The latter arrangement is employed to give emphatic prominence to one or the other of the members of the complex expression, that is, either to the substantive or the term in concord. Plato. Menex. p. 240. εκείνους τους άνδρας φημϊ ου μόνον των σωμάτων των ημετέρων ττατερας είναι άΧλά και της ελευθερίας. But the emphasis is far more frequently on the postfixed term, and always so in the New Testament. Mat. xxi. 2. ττορευθητε εις την κώμην την απτ έναντι υμών. John vi. 27. εργάζεσθε μη την βρώσιν την άττοΧλυμένην. John χ. 1 1 . εγώ είμι 6 ττοιμην 6 καλός. 2 Tim. iv. 7. τον ar /ώνα τον καλόν ηηωνισμαι. Luke vii. 47. αί άμαρτίαι αυτής αι ποΧλαί. Luke χν. β. ευρον το ττρόβατόν μου το άπολώλός. 1 Cor. xii. 2. προς τα εϊΒωλα τα άφωνα. In this last instance the prominence of the epithet is an expression of scorn. When the group contains a Genitive in dependence on the principal substantive, the former is placed between the latter and its Article, when no emphatic prominence is to be given to either term : otherwise, it follows. But this rule of classical usage finds no 34 THE USAGE OF THE ARTICLE application. in the New Testament, where the latter- special arrangement is the ordinary one, and therefore unmeaning: a circumstance to be attributed partly perhaps to later laxity, but more to the native idiom of the writers. Another form of collocation remains, namely, when the Noun itself is anarthrous, and the words in com- bination are postfixed with the Article. It is neces- sary then to account for this particular arrangement. Since the Article is prefixed to a word when the idea intended to be conveyed by it is already familiarised, and is a mark or intimation of that circumstance, the natural eiFect of its presence is to divert the thoughts from dwelling upon the peculiar import of the word, and is adverse to its inherent notion standing out as a prominent point in the sense of the passage. To these circumstances the usage at present under con- sideration may be referred; that is, the anarthrous position of the noun may be regarded as employed to give a prominence to the peculiar meaning of the word without the interference of any other idea, while the words to which the article is prefixed, limit by their further and more precise description the general notion of the anarthrous noun, and thereby introduce the determinate idea intended. Xen. Mem. 2. p. 431. εγώ δε συνζψι μεν θεοΐς, σύνειμο δε άνθρωποι? τοις ατ/αθοΐς. * But I company with Gods, and company with men,' that is to say, ' the good.' WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 35 John xiv. 27. είρηνην άφίημι υμών, είρηνην την εμην δ/δω /xt ύμΐν. 1 Tim. ν. 3. χήρας τίμα τάς όντως χήρας. Gal. iii. 21. el yap εδόθη νόμος 6 δυνάμενος ζωοποιήσαο. 2 Cor. viii. 22. πεποιθησει ποΧλη τη eh υμάς. Gal. ii. 20. eV πίστει ζω τη του υίου του Θεού. Acts xxvi. 13. πίστει τη είς εμε. Heb. vi. 7. yr/ yap η πιουσα τον επ αυτής ποΧλάκις έρχό- μενον υετον κ. τ. λ. ' Land which drinks in the rain,' &c. Jude 6. αγγέλους T€ του? μη τηρησαντας την εαυτών άρχην κ. τ. λ. υπο ζόφον τετηρηκεν. ' And angels he has confined under darkness, those that,' &c. 1 Pe. i. 10. περί ης σωτηρίας εξεζήτησαν καϊ εξηρεύνησαν προφήται οί περί της είς υμάς χάριτος προφητεύσαντες. 1 About which salvation prophets made inquiry and research, those who prophesied,' &c. Rom. ix. 30. κατέλαβε Βικαιοσύνην, δικαιοσύνην δε την εκ πίστεως. Jas. i. 25. ό παρακύψας είς νόμον τελειον τον της ελευθερίας. Acts xxvi. 22. επικουρίας ουν τυχών της παρά του Θεοΰ. One part of the usage of the Article with the Sub- stantive requires a separate consideration, though not as involving any anomaly, since it is in full agreement with the general principle ; namely, the law of its insertion or omission after verbs of existence. When the Article is inserted after a Verb of Ex- istence, the real predicate of the sentence is a simple identity, the identity of the subject with something 36 THE USAGE OF THE ARTICLE else, the idea of which is a familiar one and intended to be conveyed by the word or combination of words which has the Article prefixed. Aristot. Eth. Nic. II, 9. on μεν ουν εστίν η άρετη ή ηθική μεσάτης. Mat. vi. 22. 6 λύχνο? του σώματος εστίν 6 οφθαλμός. 2 Cor. iii. 17. 6 δε Κύριος το πνεϋμά εστίν. * Now the Lord is the spirit ' previously mentioned (v. 6, 8) ; namely, the spirit latent in the letter of the old covenant. The predicate is simply an identity. 1 Cor. x. 4. ή δε πέτρα ην 6 Χριστός. The identity is here not substantial but parabolic ': a circumstance, how- ever, which leaves the usage untouched. 1 John ii. 7. ή εντόλη ή τταΧαιά εστίν 6 λόγο? ον ηκούσατε υπτ αργΎ\ς. 1 John iii. 4. η αμαρτία εστίν ή ανομία. The precision of language exhibited in this passage deserves remark. Each term being in virtue of the Article an abstract or universal, the resulting predicate is, that sin and breach of law are identical to the full extent of each, all evasive subtleties notwithstanding. Mark vi. 3. ούχ ουτός εστίν 6 τέκτων; Acts xxi. 38. ουκ άρα συ ει 6 ΑΙηύτττιος; But when the word or combination of words follow- ing the verb of Existence is anarthrous, then the circumstances or attributes signified by it form the predicate, instead of a mere identity. Koni. vii. 7. 6 νόμος αμαρτία; 'Is the law sin' in principle and tendency? Had the Article been inserted, the question would have been, Are the law and sin, in the abstract, the same thing ? WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 37 ■ Rom. vii. 13. το οΰν άηαθον βμοί yeyove θάνατος ; 4 Has then the good thing become to me death ' in its necessary issue ? John iii. 6. το ηεηεννημίνον i/c της σαρκός σαρξ βστι, καϊ το <γ€<γ€ννημ€νον £κ του πνεύματος ττνευμά ίστι. John xvii. 17. ο λόγο? ό σος αλήθεια εστί. 4 Thy word is ' matter of pure ' truth.' A like use of αλήθεια as a predi- cate is seen in the words (John xviii. 38), rt εστίν αλήθεια ; ' What thing is truth ? ' : the question being, whether there is any thing which can claim acceptance as a matter of truth ; amounting, in fact, to an expression of scepticism as to the attainableness of certain truth in any thing. 2 Cor. i. 17. ίνα § τταρ έμοϊ το ναι ναί και το ου ου. ' That with me yea should be yea, and nay nay.' J as. v. \Δ. ητω oe υμών το ναι ναι και το ου ου. 1 John iv. 8. ό Θεός αηάττη εστί. Attention to this point of usage is of some importance in the interpretation of the New Testament, as will be further seen in its application to some other passages. John i. 1. καϊ θεός ην 6 λόγο?. It has been maintained, that the absence of the Article before θεός implies that the Word was possessed only of an inferior degree of God- head. Now had the Article been prefixed, the sense would have been, that the Word was identical with the entire essence of the sole Deity, to express which essence Origen, on this text, uses the term αντόθεος. In the actual words, θεός is the predicate; that is, all that is involved in the notion of θεός is predicated of the Word, namely, the proper nature and attributes of Deity. Though Origen has been brought forward as maintaining the above mentioned position, his observations, though not avowedly founded on the doctrine of the Article, appear, when fairly examined, to agree exactly with the view here deduced from that source. 1 Tim. vi. 5. νομιζόντων ττορισμον είναι την βύσέβειαν. The absence of the Article before πορισμόν > while ευσεβειαν has it, 38 THE USAGE OF THE ARTICLE as being used in its most abstract sense, shows that the former is the predicate. ' Supposing that godliness is ' a mode of ' gain.' Mat. xvi. 16. συ el 6 Χρίστος, 6 υίος του 6eov του ζώντος. Mark iii. 11. τα πνεύματα τα ακάθαρτα — έκραζε Χεγοντα, οτι συ εΐ 6 νιος του Θεού. Luke iv. 41. Luke xxii. 70. είπον he πάντες' συ ουν εΐ 6 υιός του Θεοί). John i. 34. μεμαρτύρηκα, οτι οΰτός εστίν 6 υιός του Θεού. John i. 50. ραββϊ, συ el 6 υίος του Θεοί), συ el 6 βασιλεύς του 'Ισραήλ. 1 John iv. 15. δ? αν όμολογησΎ), οτι ' Ιησούς εστίν 6 υιός του Θεού. ν. 5. Acts ix. 20. iv ταΐς συναηωηαΐς εκήρυσσε τον Ίησοΰν, οτι ούτος εστίν 6 υίος του Θεού. In these passages the predicate is simply the identity of the person in question with the rightful possessor of a title of established familiarity, 6 vios του θεοί, that is, the Messiah. Mat. iv. 3, 6 πειράζων είπεν el υίος el του Θεού, είπε κ. τ. λ. Again v. 6. Also Luke iv. 3, and to this should undoubtedly be added the same expression in v. 9, though the Article is found in the common text. In these and the three following passages, the attributes implied in the expression vios του θεού or υίος θβοΰ, in each several case, form the real predicate, in contrast with a mere identity, as instanced in the others pre- viously cited. The Tempter's challenge to our Lord is not, ' If thou be the Messiah ' (ό. υ. τ. θ.) but one of more subtle and keener provocation, ' If thou be God's Son,' and possessed of extraordinary power in virtue of that divine generation, ' command,' &c. In precisely the same spirit is conceived the language of those who reviled Him on the cross, Mat. xxvii. 40, 43. John x. 36. ύμεΐς XeyeTe' οτι βλασφημείς, οτι elirov, υιός του Θεού είμι. Compare ποιείς σεαυτον 6e6v. ν. 33. It thus appears that the charge ' here made against our Lord by the Jews was not that he assumed Messiah- ship, but one of impiety in professing to be of the same nature with God. As our Lord is represented as admitting the fact on which the charge was WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 30 falsely grounded, the Evangelist correctly describes the admission by the words, emov, υιός του Qeov (ϊμι. Mat. xiv. 33. ol δε iv τω πΧοίω έλθόντες προσκύνησαν αύτω, Χίγοντες' αληθώς Θεού υίος el. Mark χν. 39. 6 κβντυρίων — elirev αληθώς 6 άνθρωπος ού- τος υίος ην Θβοΰ. John ν. 27. βξουσίαν βΒωκεν αύτω καϊ κρίσιν ποι,βΐν, οτι υΙος άνθρωπου εστί. Had the expression been 5 υιός του άνθρωπου, the allegation in the last clause would have been merely the identity of the speaker with the person to whom that particular title belonged, which, though true, would have been nothing to the purpose : the Article is therefore inadmissible. But by υιός ανθρώπου is probably meant little more than άνθρωπος, the force of the passage being, that the Father had committed the judgment of man- kind to the Son, as being himself invested with their nature. 1 Pe. iv. 17. OT6 6 καφος του άρξασθαο το κρίμα άπο του οϊκου του θβου. If this passage be rendered, 'Because now is the time for the judgment to begin from the house of God,' that is, by understanding iariv before 6 καιρός, the Article would imply that there was a certain period already familiar by the title καιρός τ. α. r. κ. α. r. ό. τ. θβοί, with which the present time was alleged to be identical; but this may be reasonably doubted. Perhaps Ιστιν should be supplied before από τ. ό. τ. θ., and the rendering be, ' Because the proper commencement of the judgment is from the house of God,' in allusion to Ezekiel ix. 6. No part of the New Testament is so strongly marked by tacit allusions to the Old as this Epistle. There need also be no hesitation in taking καιρός to signify suitableness of place as well as of time. Thucyd. IV. 54. The rule as regards verbs of Existence may be extended to those of Calling, Appointing, and the like : but cases admitting the presence of the Article are of rare occurrence. Xen. Anab. VI. iv. 7. Xen. Hell. II. p. 275. άποκαΧβΐ δε κόθορνόν μβ. Mark χν. 2. bv λέγετε βασιλέα τών 'Ιουδαίων. ^0 OMISSIONS OF THE ARTICLE Luke xxiii. 33. τον τόπον τον καλούμενον Κρανίον. Jas. ii. 23. φίλος Θεού εκλήθη. Rev. xii. 9. 6 καλούμενος διάβολος. Heb. i. 2. ov €0ηκε κληρονόμον πάντων. Rom. viii. 13. η αμαρτία ίνα φαν[} αμαρτία. SECTION III. — ON PARTICULAR OMISSIONS OF THE ARTICLE BEFORE SUBSTANTIVES. Omissions of the Article in places where its pre- sence is legitimate, constitute an important part of the general subject of its use, because representations that this part of speech is incapable of being bound by settled rules, have been really based upon instances of such omission. With respect to such a notion so derived, it only needs to be remarked, that there is a wide distinction between places where the presence of the Article is legitimate but not imperative, and those where it is absolutely required ; in the latter of which indeed if omissions occurred, its general use must be regarded as a matter of uncertainty, as far, at least, as its absence is concerned : and that the existence of accurately defined cases, where the Arti- cle, from the particular circumstances of the case, may either be inserted or not, gives no ground for the con- clusion, that its use is a matter of indifference beyond the range of those cases. BEFORE SUBSTANTIVES. 41 In the first place, Poetry must be excluded from the investigation of this particular point, because, though, when the Article is employed in it, it is always done with perfect propriety, yet, as might be expected, great license is taken respecting its omission. In Prose too, point and emphasis are some- times enhanced, especially in a rapid style, by disen- cumbering certain terms of Articles. Such cases, how- ever, cannot be defined beforehand, but must be left to the feeling of the reader. The first class of cases includes those words, whose intrinsic signification is such, that the Article is. legitimately associated with them, but at the same time not necessary for perspicuity. Two species have been already fully noticed (Sect. II.), namely, Abstracts, under which head should be included nouns ending in ική; and Proper Names. A third consists of Superlative expressions. By the idea of a number of things diifering in the degree of some common quality possessed by them, there is naturally suggested that of one of them, in which the highest degree of that quality resides, and thus the Article is essentially associated with Super- latives ; but, at the same time, it is clear that the intended sense is not impaired or obscured by its absence ; and thus a case of indifference as to its insertion arises. 42 OMISSIONS OF THE ARTICLE A fourth, of Ordinals ; to which ήμισυ and some other terms may be added, as of kindred signification. This species arises from the same principle as the last. Xen. Hell. II. p. 278. των πάντων αϊσχιστόν τε καϊ χαΧε- πώτατον καϊ άνοσιώτατον καϊ εγθιστον και θεοΐς καϊ ανθρώπους πολεμον. Thucyd. V. 81. τέταρτον καϊ Βεκατον έτος τω πο\έμω ετε- \εύτα. Mark χν. 33. γενομένης δε ώρας έκτης σκότος εγένετο εφ' ολην την γήν εως ώρας εννάτης' καϊ τη ώρα τη εννάτη κ. τ. λ. Mat. xiv. 25. τετάρτη φυλακή της νυκτός. 1 Pe. i. 5. εν καιρώ έσγάτω. 1 John ii. 18. εσχάτη ώρα εστί. To these cases of indifference may be added certain Accusatives and Datives used in a kind of Adverbial sense, as γένος, το γένος, γένει, τω γένει, χρόνω, τω χρόνφ. When a general truth is stated of which a class is the subject, it is evidently indifferent to the force of the sentiment, whether the entire class be introduced by means of a singular noun with the Article, or any individual of it by the anarthrous noun. For instance, in an expression such as άξιος 6 εργάτης της τροφής αυτού, the removal of the Article would not affect the sentiment. The second class consists of those words, to which the license respecting the Article attaches more from extrinsic circumstances than from their mere meaning. BEFORE SUBSTANTIVES. 43 The case may easily be conceived of words, which properly have the Article on account of the intrinsic familiarity of the idea intended to be conveyed by them, in process of time throwing it ofT, either fre- quently or invariably, in consequence of constant occurrence in the speech of ordinary life, and, the reason being thus of a conventional kind, without the sacrifice of perspicuity. By this means some of them become, as it were, proper names. The particular instance which will most readily occur to the mind, is the use of the anarthrous βασιλεύς, by the Attic writers, for the Per- sian king. Such are ^certain principal objects of nature, espe- cially ηΧιος, Mat. xiii. β. ήΧίου Be άνατείΧαντος. Acts xxvii. 20. μήτε Be ηλίου μήτε άστρων επίφαινόντων. 1 Cor. χν. 41. αλΧη Βόξα ήΧίου καϊ άΧΧη Βόξα σελήνης. 2 Pe. iii. 10. <γη καϊ τα εν avrfj epya κατακαήσεταί. 2 Pe. iii. 12. ουρανοί ττυρουμενοι Χυθήσονται, καϊ στοιχεία καύσου μένα τήκεται. Jam. i. 6. εοίκε κΧυΒωνι θαΧάσσης. But still the prevailing practice in the New Testa- ment is to prefix the Article. It is the same with regard to κόσμος, signifying 'the world'. The fol- lowing are instances of the anarthrous usage. 1 Cor. iii. 22. εϊτε ΠαΰΧος, εϊτε ΆποΧΧως, εϊτε Κηφάς, €ire κόσμος κ. τ. λ. 2 Cor. v. 19. κόσμον καταΧΧάσσων εαυτω. Gal. vi. 14. Bl ου εμοϊ κόσμος εσταύρωται. 44 OMISSIONS OF THE ARTICLE 2 Pe. ii. 5. αρχαίου κόσμου ουκ εφείσατο. Another instance is supplied by γυνή in the sense of ' wife'. 1 Cor. v. 1. ώστε γυναικά τίνα του πατρός εγειν. Mat. xxii. 28. τίνος των επτά εσται γυνή ; Xen. Cyrop. VI. ΐν. 7. Βιεφύλαξε δε σοι ωσττερ αδελφού ^/υναΐκα λαβών. Also by the words βίβλος and βιβλίον, when forming part of a well known title, Lu. iii. 4; iv. 17; xx. 42; Acts i. 20; vii. 42; Phil. iv. 3. But the Article is inserted, Mar. xii. 26 ; Gal. iii. 10; Re. xviii. 8 ; xxi. 27. In like manner σάββατον and σάββατα, when used to signify the heb- domadal period, are anarthrous, Mar. xvi. 9 ; Mat. xxviii. 1 ; Mar. xvi. 2 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 2; but have the Article, Lu. xviii. 12 ; xxiv. 1 ; Jno. xx. 1, 19; Acts xx. 7. Aaos, used of the people of Israel, is anarthrous, Jude 5 : so οίκος Ισραήλ, Mat. x. 6 ; xv. 24 ; Acts ii. 36. But no word in the New Testament would be expected to exemplify this license more fully than θεός, when used to signify the true God. And such is found to be the case. 1 Thes. ii. 5. Θεός μάρτυς. But v. 10. ύμεΐς μάρτυρες καϊ 6 Θεός. A precisely similar instance is κύριος, when employed, according to the practice of the LXX., as the representative of the Hebrew Jehovah. Omission before words of this particular class is especially observable after prepositions; but there is no reason to suppose that it is in any way due to their influence. iEschin. de F. L. p. 51. άνενεηκαμεν εις άκρόττο\ιν. Plato. Theaet. p. 142. σε γε εζητουν κατ άηοράν. Pausan. I. 15. ελθόντα ες άηρόν. Xen. Anab. II. vi. 3. εξ Ισθμού. Id. VI. π. 26. άμφϊ ηλίου Βυσμας ην. Luke xii. 54. άττο Βυσμών. Mat. ii. 1. μάγοι άττο ανατολών, viii. 11 ; xxiv. 27» Mat. xxvii. 15. κατά εορτήν» BEFORE SUBSTANTIVES. 45 Mark xv. 21. εργόμενον cir ay ρου. Luke xxiii. 26. Mark xvi. 12. πορευομένοις εις dypov. John LI. εν άρχρ. 1 John LI. δ ην απ αρχής. 2 John 10. μη λαμβάνετε αυτόν εις οίκίαν. Mat. xxvi. 64. εκ Βεξιών. Luke i. 11 ; Acts vii. 55. Kom. viii. 34. iv Βεξια. Heb. i. 3 ; xii. 2. Acts vii. 36. iv τω oup.), the Article appears rather to be used on account of previous mention, namely, that of a single witness, το πνβυμα, to which the three are here said to be virtually equivalent. 'And the three amount to the one' just mentioned, namely, το πνεύμα. Rom. v. 14. ο? ian τύπος του μέΧΧοντος. Notwithstanding a current interpretation of another kind, τον μέλλοντος may be regarded as the Genitive of το μέλλον ; and the resulting sense would be : ' Who is a pattern of the future' of his race in respect of sinful- ness and its judicial consequence. SECTION V. — ON THE USE OF THE ARTICLE IN CONNEXION WITH THE PRONOUN. A consideration of the nature of the Pronoun would lead to the expectation that, generally speaking, the Article would not be prefixed to the Pronoun. The few instances, where this does take place, are of so peculiar a kind, that they do not condemn this general conclusion. There is, however, one specific rule respecting the Article and the Pronoun, namely, that when a De- monstrative Pronoun is joined in immediate concord to a Substantive, the Substantive itself has the Article. This rule, however, is not always observed, even in prose; at least, when the pronoun is placed after the Substantive. Since the Article is itself a prefix of which the force is demonstrative, its presence is mos ■ IN CONNEXION WITH THE PRONOUN. 65 consistent with the pronoun when the substantive is expressed; but, on the other hand, as the function of the pronoun is complete without the Article, the latter is not absolutely necessary. The practice of the New Testament writers is in accordance with the rule. The Article is never used in the New Testament as a Demonstrative * or Relative Pronoun ; nor τον and τώ, according to Attic usage, for τινός and τινί re- spectively. The Relative Pronoun not unfrequently takes the place of the Article in the form ό μλν — ό δε — , a prac- tice which occurs in writers of the Common Dialect from Polybius downwards. Mat. xxv. 15. ω μεν €&ωκ€ ττέντβ τάλαντα, φ Be δνο, ω δ\ Γ/ € 6V. In another substitution which sometimes occurs, namely, ό els — 6 ere- ρης — , there is, at least, nothing really at variance with the principle of the Article. SECTION VI. — ON THE USE OF THE ARTICLE WITH THE VERB. The constant occurrence of the Article before an Infinitive Mood, either alone or in combination with other words, arises from the circumstance, that the * Του yap κα\ yevos eV/xeV, Acts xvii. 28, is a poetical quotation. 6 66 THE ARTICLE WITH THE VERB. uncombined Infinitive is an abstract, and the idea con- veyed by the combination is either in itself familiar, or rendered so by what is found in the preceding context. Plato. Meno. p. 81. το jap ζητεΐν άρα καϊ το μανθά- veiv ανάμνηση οΧον earl. Aristot. Rhet. I. ii. 3. τών Be Bta, του λόγου ποριζο μίνων πί- στεων τρία βϊ&η εστίν — αϊ Be ev τω τον άκροατην BiaQelvai πως' at Be ev αύτω τω λόγω, Βιά τον BeiKvvvaL ή φαίνεσ- \ θαι Beacvvvai. Phil. i. 21. έμοϊηαρ το ζτ}ν Χρίστος, καϊ το airoOavelv κέρΒος. 2 Cor. vii. 11. το κατά Θεόν Χυπηθηναι υμάς. Heb. ii. 8. πάντα ύπίταζας ύποκάτω των ποΒών αυτού, Έν yap τω ύποτάξαί αύτω τα πάντα κ. τ. λ. The Article is also prefixed to sentences of some other forms, and in a marked manner in the Xew Tes- tament, when the idea conveyed is, as before, already in some way familiar. Dernosth. Cor. c. 1. περί του πώς atcouetv υμάς Ιμοΰ Bel. 1 Thes. iv. 1. καθώς παρεΧάβετε παρ 1 ημών το πώς Bee υμάς περιπατεΐν. Luke i. 62. ένένευον Be τω πατρϊ αυτού το τι αν OeXou : καΧεΙσθαι αυτόν. Mark ix. 22. el τι Βύντ}, βοηθησον ήμΐν — Ό Be 'Ιησούς €Ϊπ€ν αύτω, το ΕΙ Βύνη" πάντα Βυνατα τω πιστεύοντί. The Article is prefixed to the words el δνντ), simply to indicate renewed mention, meaning that our Lord's answer commenced with a repetition, in a significant tone, of this expression in the address of the petitioner. I 67 SECTION VII. ON THE USE OF THE ARTICLE WITH WORDS CONNECTED BY CONJUNCTIONS. It is a frequent occurrence, that, when several words, having each an independent right to the Article, are joined by Conjunctions, the Article is prefixed to the first only. If this practice were invariable, no inquiry into prin- ciples would be necessary, since an arbitrary rule for prefixing only one Article to any number of words, thus connected, would at once be established. But as this is not the case, and a notion that the repetition or suppression of the Article is a matter of indifference, is' in itself adverse to the whole principle of accurate distinctions which pervades the structure of the lan- guage, it might be presumed at once, that with the individual right of each word to the Article, there exists some connexion between them; which fact is intended to be intimated by the circumstance of one Article performing its function for the whole series, as for a single word. This anticipation will be found to agree with the facts of actual usage. The general canon is as follows : When the Article is prefixed only to the first of several words, joined by conjunctions, they are to- gether descriptive of a single subject. 68 THE USE OF ΤΠΕ ARTICLE ΛΥΙΤΤΙ This, however, may take place in two distinct ways ; for each word may either be descriptive, as far as its signification extends, of the whole subject, or, on the contrary, of only a part of it, the subject being in this latter case not numerically single, but only viewed as single by aggregation. From this arises a correspond- ing division of cases into two distinct classes, which is of great importance to a due consideration of this point. The first class, then, consists of those instances, where the description involved in each separate word extends to the whole subject ; which must accordingly be a single person or thing, or, if a class, one to each individual of which the description of each separate word belongs, and which is therefore, as far as the present point is concerned, also essentially single. iEschin. Ctes. p. 72. εν rfj του κρατούντος καϊ ττρο- ηΒίκημενου μετριότητι κριθησόμενοί. The words κρατούντος κα\ προηΰικημενον relate to a single individual, Alexander, who combined in his person the attributes therein involved. Thucyd. VII. 14. oXiyoc των ναυτών ο Ι εξορμώντες τ€ ναυν καϊ ξυνίχοντβς την είρεσίαν. Mat. xii. 22. ώστε τον τυφ\ον καϊ κωφον καϊ XaXelv Καϊ βλ€7Γ€ίν. See the preceding part of the verse. Mat. xiii. 23. 6 δε eVt την ηην την καΧήν σπαρείς οΰτός εστίΐ 6 τον \6yov άκούων καϊ συνιών. WORDS CONNECTED BY CONJUNCTIONS. 69 Luke xi. 28. μακάριοι οι άκούοντες τον Xoyov του Θεού καϊ φυΧάσσοντες. John vi. 40. ίνα πας 6 θεωρών τον υιον καϊ πιστεύων εις αυτόν εγτ) ζωην αιώνων. John vi. 54. ό τρώηων μου την σάρκα καϊ πίνων μου το αίμα έχει ζωην αιώνων, ν. 56. Rom. π. 3. ώ άνθρωπε, ό κρίνων τους τα, τοιαύτα πράσ- σοντας καϊ ποιών αυτά. 1 John ϋ. 4. ό Χεγων, εηνωκα αυτόν, καϊ τάς εντοΧάς αυτού μη τηρών ψεύστης εστί. John χ. 1. 6 μη εισερχόμενος Βιά της θύρας — αλλά άναβ αίνων άΧΧαχόθεν, εκείνος κ. τ. λ. John χχ. 17. αναβαίνω προς τον πάτερα μου καϊ πά- τερα υμών και Θεόν μου και Θεον υμών. Heb. xii- 1. κατανοήσατε τον άπόστοΧον καϊ αρχιερέα της ομοΧο^ίας ημών, Χριστον Ίησούν. Eph. ν. 20. εύχαριστούντες — τω Θεω καϊ πατρί. It is clear that instances belonging to this class can only be composed of Compatible Appellatives, that is, words the attributes signified by which can be pre- dicated of a single person or thing. The second class embraces those instances, where each of the words, which are generally, though not always, incompatible, is descriptive of only a part of a subject ; which cannot, therefore, be numerically single, but is only viewed as such by aggregation in virtue of some connecting circumstance which, in the actual instance, places its members in that light. The cases may be specified as follows. 1. When a single class or species is described not by some general terms, but by a particularisation of 70 THE USE OF THE ARTICLE WITH constituent parts, of which the words are respectively significative. Plato. Theaet. p. 186. S. τΐ ουν δη εκείνω άποδίδως όνομα τω όράν, άκούειν, όσφραίνεσθαι, ψύχεσθ ] αι, θερμαί- νεσθαι; Θ. αισθάνεσθαι έγωγε — Χ. σύμπαν άρ αυτό καΧεΐς αίσθησιν; Kothing can more clearly illustrate the rule than this entire passage. The single subject is αίσθάνίσθαι, or άίσθησις, constituent parts of which are όρίίν, &c. ; but no one of them alone describes sensation. Xen. CEcon. p. 481. θεα yap αυτούς ωσπερ τους τ ραψω- δούς τε καϊ κωμωδούς. Tovs rpaya>bovs re καί κωμωδούς, 'res ludicra,' ' the drama'. Plato. Crit. p. 52. ελάττω e£ αυτής άπεδήμησας ή οι %ω- Χοί τ€ καϊ τυφΧοι καϊ οι άΧΧοι ανάπηροι. It should be remarked in this instance, that the terms χωλοί and τυφλοί are in themselves compatible ; though it is at once evident, that the case does not belong to the first class. Xea. Cyrop. VIII. viii. 8. νυν δε το μη πτύειν μηδέ άπομύττεσθαι ετι διαμένει. Thucyd. II. 50. τα ορνεα καϊ τετράποδα, οσα ανθρώ- πων άπτεται κ. τ. λ. Eph. iii. 18. τι το πΧάτος καϊ μήκος καϊ βάθος και ΰ'φ-ος. Here the subject described is entire dimension, by enumerating its partial constituents. Mat. xx. 19. εις το εμπαϊξαι και μαχττιγώσαι καϊ σταυρωσαι. A system of treatment. Kom. xiv. 21. καΧον το μή φαηείν κρεα μηδέ πιεϊν οϊνον. WORDS CONNECTED BY CONJUNCTIONS. 71 Acts viii. 6. iv τω ακούειν αυτούς καϊ βΧεπειν. 1 Cor. xi. 22. εις το εσθίειν καϊ πίνευν. 1 Cor. v. 10. rot? πΧεονεκταις ή αρπαξιν ή είΒωΧο- Χάτραις. The occurrence of both omission and insertion in the course of one series of words, connected by conjunc- tions, affords a most marked illustration of the rule. Aristot. Poet. 34. ταύτης Be μέρη τό τε φωνήεν teal το ήμίφωνον καϊ άφωνον. The μέρη here described are two, the latter embracing two components, which must be placed in a single point of view in respect to their distinc- tion from the other main division, το φωνήεν : hence the insertion of the Article before ήμίφωνον, and its omission before αφωνον. Xen. Mem. I. p. 414. πάντα μεν ήγεϊτο θεούς εΙΒεναι τά τε Χεγόμενα καϊ πραττόμενα καϊ τα σιηή βουΧευόμενα. The words λεγόμενα κα\ πραττόμενα describe tile single subject, overt acts, combining in marked distinction from secret thoughts, aiyrj βου- λενόμενα. 2. When a single topic is framed of matters, which, on account of some mutual relation, the mind is neces- sarily led to consider in union. Plato. Gorg. p. 460. τους του αρτίου καϊ περιττού (Χόλους). Id. Theaet. p. 171. περί τα υγιεινά καϊ νοσώΰη. Aristot. Rhet. I. ii. 21. ό του μαΧΧον καϊ ήττον τόπος. Id. Ι. χ. 1. περί της κατηγορίας καϊ άποΧογίας. 3. When the full idea in a writer or speaker's mind is expressed by the employment of several words nearly allied in meaning. rl ΤΠΕ USE OF THE ARTICLE WITH Plato. Menex. p. 243. ή της πόΧεως ρώμη τ ε και αρετή. Thucyd. 1. 140. την βεβαίωσιν καϊ πείραν της γνώμης. Mat. xi. 1. του διδάσκειν και κηρύσσειν. Rom. xvi. 8. δια της χρηστοΧογίας καϊ εύΧογ ίας. 2 Cor. χ. 1. δια της πραότητος καϊ επιεικείας του Χριστού. 2 Cor. xiii. 11. 6 Θεός της αγάπης καϊ ειρήνης. Phil. i.7. τη άποΧογία καϊ βεβαιώσει του ευαγγεΧίου. Phil. π. 17. επί τη Θυσία, καϊ Χειτουργία της πίστεως υμών. Heb. xiii. 16. της εύποιίας καϊ κοινωνίας. 2 Pet. i. 10. την κΧήσιν καϊ εκΧογήν. 4. When the idea of distinct individuality in two or more things mentioned is merged in a predication of sameness of nature or effect. Aristot. Rhet. I. ii, 17. το τέκμαρ καϊ πέρας ταυτόν εστί κατά την apyaiav γΧώτταν. Id. Eth. Nic. VI. 1. το βουΧεύεσθαι καϊ Χογίζεσθαι ταυτόν. Thucyd. Ι. 141. την yap αυτήν δύναται ΒουΧωσιν η τ ε με- γίστη καϊ εΧαγ^ίστη δικαίωσις. Id. Π. 49. εν τω ομοίω καθειστηκει τ 6 τ ε πΧεον καϊ εΧασσον ποτόν. 5. When a single agency is vested in several indi- viduals, or a single result produced by conspiring causes, or a single action or series of actions is directed to a plurality of objects at once. Thucyd. VII. 69. ό 8ε Δημοσθένης καϊ Μένανδρος και Ευθύ- 8ημος — επΧεον. Id. 75. εδόκει τω Νικία καϊ Δημοσθένει. WORDS CONNECTED BY CONJUNCTIONS. 73 Aristot. Eth. Nic. II. 2. γίνεται γαρ (ισχύς) εκ του ποΧΧην τροφην Χαμβάνειν καϊ ποΧΧούς πόνους ύπομενειν. In tliis passage, if του were repeated before πολλούς, it might be under- stood to signify, that each of the causes, π. r. λ. and π. π. ύ., was in itself sufficient to produce the effect in question, whereas it is intended to be implied that they were only so conjointly. Accordingly the non-repetition of the Article bars misapprehension. Thucyd. I. 51. at είκοσι νήες — Βία τών νεκρών καϊ ναυ- αγίων προσκομισθεϊσαι. Plato. Theaet. p. 182. μεταξύ του ποιουντός τε καϊ πάσχοντος. Acts iv. 19. ό Βε Πέτρος καϊ 'Ιωάννης άποκριθεντες προς αυτούς εϊπον. Mat. χνϋ. 1. παραΧαμβάνει 6 ' Ιησούς τον Πέτρον καϊ Ίάκωβον καϊ Ίωάννην. Luke iii. 1. Φιλίππου — τετραρχοϋντος της Ίτουραίας καϊ ΤραχωνίτιΒος 'χώρας. Acts iii. 11. κρατούντος Βε αύτοΰ τον Πετρον καϊ Ίω- αννην. Acts χνϋ. 15. Χαβόντες εντοΧην προς τον % ίΧαν καϊ Τ ιμόθεον. Acts χίν. 5. ορμή των εθνών τε καϊ 'Ιουδαίων. Lukexix. 11. είπε παραβόλην Βία το εγγύς αύτον είναι ΙερουσαΧημ καϊ Βοκεΐν αυτούς οτι παραχρήμα μεΧΧε ι η βασιλεία του Θεοΰ άναφαίνεσθαι. "When, therefore, one Article only is prefixed to several words connected by conjunctions, the omission of the others is always designed, and for the reasons stated above. But the converse is not universally true, namely, that when a single subject is described by several words thus connected, the Article is never repeated. Some license is observable in instances fall- 74 THE USE OF THE ARTICLE WITH ing under the last mentioned head ; but still the repe- tition does not take place where perspicuity demands the single Article. In the New Testament with respect to the terms Φαρισαίοι, Έ,αδδουκαίοι, -γραμματείς, αρχιερείς, άρχοντες, νομικοί, several of which frequently occur together, the usage varies, the employment of separate Articles being in their case allowable but not requisite. In some instances, however, the recurrence of the Article is evidently designed, for the purpose of giving that individual prominence to the things mentioned in succession, which they would lose when viewed as united under one aggregate notion. Mat. xxiii. 23. άττοδεκατουτε το ήδύοσμον καϊ το ανηθον καϊ το κύμίνον. It may easily be felt how much the force of this passage would be impaired by the loss of the pointed enumeration and distinct prominence of the petty items, produced by the repeated Article. Tit. iii. 4. οτε δε ή χρηστότης καϊ η φιλανθρωπία εττεφάνη του σωτηρος ημών Θεού. 2 Thes. i. 8. δίδοντος εκδίκησίν τοις μη είδόσί Θεον, καϊ τοις μη υττακούουσί τω ευαηηελίω του Κυρίου ημών Ίησοΰ Χρίστου. Two distinct classes are here described as suffering punishment, namely, those who, having the light of nature, neglected to follow its guidance, elsewhere represented at large (Rom. i. 18-25) as objects of divine dis- pleasure, and those who, having heard the gospel, refused to obey its call : hence the second Article. Heb. xi. 20. εύλό<γησεν Ί Ισαακ τον Ίακωβ καϊ τον Ήσαΰ. Jacob and Esau were separately blessed, and in very different terms. Aristot. Eth. Nic. III. 2. διωρίσμένων δε του τε εκουσίου καϊ του ακουσίου. Id. Pol. I. 1. δίώρίσταί το θήλυ καϊ το δοΰλον. Ι WORDS CONNECTED BY CONJUNCTIONS. 75 The importance of this subject consists in its con- nexion with the interpretation of passages of the following class. Tit. ii. 13. €7Γίφάν€ΐαν της Βόξης του μεγάλου Θεού καϊ σωτήρος ημών Ιησού Χρίστου. Eph. ν. 5. eV τύ) βασιλεία του Χρίστου καϊ Θεού. 2 Thes. i. 12. την χάριν του Θεού ημών καϊ Κυρίου 'Ιησού ! Χρίστου. 2 Pet. i. 1. εν δίκαίοσύν-ρ του Θεού ημών καϊ σωτήρος 'Ιησού Χρίστου. The question which arises on these passages, is whether the two terms in each having a single Article prefixed are descriptive of a single person, ι so that, for instance, the rendering in the first would be, * Of our great j God and Saviour Jesus Christ.' To this it may be answered, that such a view is undoubtedly legitimate as a matter of grammar. It was also I adopted without hesitation by the Greek Fathers.* But since there is j also no absolute bar to their being regarded as instances of the second 1 class above described, so that the terms, so coupled, would be descriptive ; of two distinct persons, presented under a certain combination, the former view, though grammatically legitimate, is not a necessary one. SECTION VIII. — CONSIDERATION OF CERTAIN PASSAGES WITH RESPECT TO THE ARTICLE. There are several passages in the New Testament, which, requiring particular or lengthened observation * A good sample of this interpretation is supplied by the following words of Theodoret on 1 Cor. viii. 6. "Otl yap πολλαχον Qeov τον viov j υνομάζίΐ, pqbiov £κ των αυτού γραμμάτων καταμαθείν τον βονΚόμ^νον προσ- | δ*χόμ€νοι yap, φησι> την έπιφάνειαν της δόξης του peyakov GeoO και σωτήρας ημών Ίησοϊ/ Χριστοί). ,6 CONSIDERATION OF CERTAIN PASSAGES arising from the use of the Article, are here brought together for the purpose of receiving the notice which is due to them. Mat. xxvi. 26. Χαβων 6 1 Ιησούς τον άρτον κ. τ. λ. It might be supposed that the Article intimated a peculiar loaf used in the celebration of the Passover, and thus rendered notorious by custom ; but this notion, if there were no other reasons for rejecting it, would be discountenanced by the occurrence of a precisely similar expression, Χαβων τον άρτον ευλόγησε, Luke xxiv. 30, where the meal is an ordinary one. By τον άρτον, therefore, is signified no more than the single loaf customarily placed on the table at supper ; and this is confirmed by the absence of the Article in the parallel places of St. Mark and St. Luke, for it is clear that, on this latter supposition, though the Article is correctly used, yet there is no decided need of it ; that is, of two writers, similarly circumstanced, and equally careful, one might naturally insert and the other omit it. For instances of a similar prefixing of the Article to the names of customary dishes, see Athen. I. 6. The Article is again found, John xiii. 8. Ίνα η γραφή πληρωθη- 6 τρώ- γων μετ εμοϋ τον άρτον, επηρεν επ εμε την πτερναν αυτοί). There is here a slight deviation from the Hebrew (Ps. xli. 9) and the LXX., which does not affect the sentiment, but gives a point to its present application by the introduction of an allusion, in employing the Article δεικτικως, to the loaf on the table, though not in its paschal character. Similar observations must be made respecting ποτηριον (v. 27) which in the accounts of St. Matthew and St. Mark, where it occurs only once, has the Article. In St. Luke it is mentioned twice, and the first time is anarthrous : but it must be remarked that two distinct cups of wine are noticed by him ; the first, which our Lord merely bids the Apostles divide among themselves, declining himself, though the master of the feast, to taste it ; the second, that in which the Eucharist was instituted. These observations are made on an assumption that the Articles before άρτον and ποτηριον are genuine. Mat. xxviii. 16. βίς το ορός ου έτάξατο αύτοΐς 6 'Ιησούς. Since there is no mention of a mountain in v. 10, the use of the Article presents an instance, of a class already noticed, in which his own familiarity WITH RESPECT TO THE ARTICLE. 77 with circumstances leads a writer unwittingly to adopt language which is not correctly used with regard to his readers. John vii. 13. olcl τον φόβον των 'Ιουδαίων, xix. 38 ; χχ. 19. The circumstance expressed by the words φ. τ. Ί., though not of a kind to surprise the reader, is still one with which he is in no way previously acquainted : the Article is therefore, in this case too, the reflexion of fami- liarity on the writer's part, and thus a clear, though delicate, indication of personal acquaintance with the matters he is narrating. John iii. 10. συ el 6 ΒιΒάσκαΧος του ΊσραήΧ. It may be supposed, that the title 'The Teacher of Israel' may have been especially bestowed on Nicodemus, as a mark of honour appropriate to one so distinguished, and that our Lord alludes to the circumstance ; or that some one was in those times always invested with the title ' The Rabbi of Israel,' and Nicodemus was at that time the possessor of that distinction. John v. 35. εκείνος ην 6 λύχνος 6 καιόμενος καϊ φαίνων. This instance is similar to the last, namely, one where the predicate is the identity of the person mentioned with an individual person or thing distinguished familiarly by an appropriate title. The Question is, what was the particular Light with which John is said to be identical ? As in the former case, nothing is now left but conjecture. Perhaps some light may be obtained from Ecclus. xlviii. 1, ανέστη Ηλίας προφήτης ως πυρ, και 6 λόγος αυτού ως λάμπας eWero. This passage would justify a conjecture, that a title equivalent to ό λύχνος 6 καιόμςνος καϊ φαίνων may have been familiarly given to Elijah among the Jews, in which case our Lord would here, as on another occasion, be asserting the identity of John with the Elijah foretold by Malachi and expected as the forerunner of the Messiah. Another instance of the employment of an expression familiarly current at the time, but the history and the precise meaning of which must now be a matter of conjecture, is the following. Mat. viii. 12. eVet βσται 6 κλαυθμος καϊ 6 βρυ^/μος των οδόντων. Again xiii. 42, 50 ; xxii. 13 ; xxiv. 51 ; xxv. 30. Luke xiii. 28. 78 CONSIDERATION OF CERTAIN PASSAGES John xviii. 15. Πέτρος και 6 άΧλος μαθητής. This is again a case of the same class. This evangelist uses three cir- cumlocutions to designate himself, namely, 'The disciple whom Jesus loved,' ' The other disciple,' and ' The other disciple whom Jesus loved,' the third appearing to be a compound of the other two. The second must have been intelligible to those whom St. John immediately addressed, as being familiarly applied to him ; but from what circumstances this arose, must ever remain unknown. Acts xi. 13. άπήγγεϊλε τε ήμΐν πώς βϊδε τον άγγεΧον. The Article, which at first sight seems unexpected, intimates a pre- sumption on the part of the speaker, which must undoubtedly have been correct, that the circumstance of the appearance of an angel to Cornelius was known to his audience ; though they required to be informed of what had occurred to Peter himself to justify him in associating with Gentiles. Acts xxiv. 23. διαταξάμενος τω εκατοντάργτ). The particular centurion here intended may be the commander of the detachment of cavalry who conducted St. Paul to Caesarea (xxiii. 32), the other baving returned with the infantry from Antipatris (v. 31) : or, if it be thought probable that he had at once returned with his troops to Jeru- salem, a centurion may be signified who was ordinarily present on such occasions in charge of prisoners. 1 Cor. xi. 3. παντός ανδρός η κεφαΧη 6 Χριστός εστί' κε- φαΧη δε γυναικός 6 άνήρ' κεφαΧη δε Χρίστου 6 Θεός. This passage might seem to exhibit a strange irregularity with respect to the Article : it is, however, only necessary to remark, that κεφαλή is disencumbered of the Article in the second and third clauses on being shifted into the emphatic position occupied by the words παντός ανδρός in the first. The point and spirit thus resulting to the passage are better felt than explained. 1 Cor. xi. 8. ου jap εστίν ανηρ εκ γυναικός, άλλα γυνή εξ ανδρός' 9. Καϊ γαρ ουκ εκτίσθη άνηρ δια την γυναίκα, άλλα WITH IlESrECT TO THE ARTICLE. 79 ηυνη hia τον ctvBpa — 12. ωσττερ yap η γυνή εκ του ανδρός, οΰτω Ι καϊ 6 άνηρ Βία της γυναικός. These verses, when viewed together, might at first sight present, like the last cited passage, an appearance of laxity respecting the Article. Still they will well bear examination. In the first of the three verses, it is clear that Articles might have been inserted ; but their omission leaves, as in the last passage, more prominence and point to the terms themselves: in the third, they merely mark renewed mention. The second may be rendered : ' For a man was not created for the sake of the' already exist- ing 'woman, but a woman for the sake of the' already existing 'man.' 1 Cor. xv. 8. εσγατον δε πάντων, ώσττ€ρ€Ϊ τώ εκτρώματι, ώφθη καμοί. The prefixing of the Article to έκτρωμα is here utterly inexplicable, if its usual meaning, ' a premature birth,' is to be assigned to the word ; and no less incompatible with this meaning is the connexion of the term with the words 'έσχατου πάντων. The Article itself, however, points to a j solution of both difficulties in special conventional signification, namely, a birth, coming perhaps in the rear of others, but at all events of a puny sort i in comparison with them, and in this latter respect resembling an abortion. In this latter idea resides the force of the expression το έκτρωμα των μονά- χων, applied to himself by Simeon the Stylite (Evagr. Hist. II. 10). ITeb. xi. 10. ε'^εδεχετο yap την τους θεμέλιους εχουσαν ττό- \ιν, ης τεχνίτης καϊ δημιουργός ό Θεός. The question arising from this passage respects the occurrence of the Article before θεμβλίουε, which might at first sight seem strange ; but it may well be viewed as indicating that by the term as here used are to be under- stood the massive substructions which were characteristic of a strong city, and thus necessarily associated with the mention of a genuine πόλις. Another very similar passage, where the Article indicates ordinary asso- cation, is the following. Gal. iv. 27. πολλά τα τέκνα της ερήμου μαΧλον ή της εχού- \σης τον άνδρα. In the former passage, however, allusion may be pointed by the Article {to conceptions of the city of God, whether material or symbolical, in which I 80 CONSIDERATION OF CERTAIN PASSAGES certain θεμέλιοι were a prominent feature : as they actually are in the Apocalyptic vision (Rev. xxi. 19, 20). John xviii. 10. βτταίσβ τον του άρχι,βρέως ΰοΰλον. That by the Article it is not intended to be intimated that there was only one dovXos present, is evident from v. 26 of this chapter. It may, therefore, be supposed to indicate one who was conspicuous as being at the head of the Jewish officers, and probably had the control of the whole business, and who as such was singled out by Peter. Obscurities of this kind, when rightly viewed, are strong evidences of truth, as marking not indeed the explicit language of studied history, but the natural narrative of an eye witness, more impressed with his own recollection of the scene than mindful of his reader's ignorance. The Article is also inserted by Gal. v. 8. ή πεισμονή ουκ etc του καλούντος υμάς. The Article is here a sufficient intimation, on the 'part of the writer, of the new allegiance consequent on the defection expressed in the preceding words, 777 αλήθεια μη πείθεσθαι. Whenever the word νόμος in the New Testament has the Article pre- fixed without reference to the context, the term must then be used to sig- nify the Mosaic Law. At the same time, this is a case in which, as the effect of familiar currency, the Article might drop away, and the anar- throus term itself come to have the conventional meaning, and pass, as it were, into a proper name : as is seen, for instance, in the words ΐλεως ημίν καταλιπύν νόμον (I Mac. ii. 21). Whether, however, this licence is to be recognised in the language of St. Paul, is a point well worthy of conside- ration, and not to be disregarded, because such usage is possible. There are certain places where, though the word is anarthrous, the Mosaic Law and that alone, evidently was present to the mind of the writer, but still an effect of the absence of the Article is clearly discernible, namely, a greater prominence of the inherent force of the word, a suggest- ing of the attributes of law rather than the Law : and, besides this, by means of the unrestricted term the proposition is given with a broader and more imposing cast. ΛΥΙΤΠ RESPECT TO THE ARTICLE. 81 Gal. U. 19. εγώ yap Bta νόμου νόμω άπεθανον, ϊνα Θεώ | ζήσω. 1 For I through law,' as experienced in the case of the Law, * died to , law ' as a source of righteousness and life, 'that I might become alive to God.' Gal. iii. 18. el yap εκ νόμου ή κληρονομιά, ούκετι εξ iiray- yekias. In this passage it must be at once perceived that the absence of the Article brings out fully the antithesis between the terms νόμος and fVoyycXta. Gal. ii. 21. el yap hia νόμου δικαιοσύνη, άρα Χρίστος δωρεάν άττεθανεν. Rom. iii. 28. Xoyίζόμεθa δικαιουσθαι πίστει άνθρωττον χωρίς epycov νόμου. Gal. ii. 16. ου Βίκαωΰται, άνθρωπος εξ ε/?γωι> νόμου — εκ εpyωv νόμου ου Βίκαιωθήσεται πάσα σαρξ. In these four places, by the removal of the Article, the widest range, and thereby the greatest force, is given to the statements. Rom. ii. 23. δ? εν νόμω καυχάσαι. 4 Thou that art priding thyself in ' the possession of ' a law.' Rom. v. 20. νόμος δε τταρεισηλθεν. 4 A law, however, stepped in.' It is reasonable, then, wherever in the epistles of St. Paul the term νόμος is anarthrous, though the Mosaic Law must have been present to the mind of the writer, to recognise a resulting effect, such as has been, here exemplified in particular instances, and to attribute it to design. ' . A similar question arises with regard to the anarthrous expression πνεύμα uyiuv, or ayiov πνεύμα, whether it is ever in the New Testament strictly a personal title ; as in course of time it undoubtedly became (Polycarp. Martyr, c. 14, 22). In one remarkable instance (Mat. i.* 20), the mere order of the words, εκ πνεύματος εστίν άγιου, will not allow this to be the case ; and it may therefore be reasonably concluded, that the anarthrous j form is always designedly employed to signify an influence, operation, or 7 82 CONSIDERATION OF CERTAIN PASSAGES, ETC. endowment proceeding from the Divine Person. Nor can it be shown that πνεύμα is ever, without the Article, a proper name; though Κύριος and Χριστοί are undoubtedly dealt with as such. The expression χΛρ Κύριου (Acts xi. 21 ; xiii. 11) is not an instance of an omitted Article, because the sense in which χ^ίρ is there used, is not Greek but Hebrew; as may be best seen in the words, e!8e be 'Ισραήλ τήν χείρα τήν μεγάλην. Ex. xiv. 31. The expression occurs, Ex. ix. 3 ; Judg. ii. 15 ; 1 Sam. vii. 13; xii. 15, and with the Article, De. ii. 15. The same thing may be remarked of another expression, πρόσωπον Κυρίου (1 Pe. iii. 12), where the meaning of πρόσωπον is purely Hebrew, for, as the former term is used to signify an interposition of power, so this latter a glancing forth of displeasure. Ps. xxxiv. (xxxiii) 16. Rom. v. 7. μό\ίς yap virep δικαίου τις άποθανέίται' υττβρ yap του αηαθου τά'χα τις καϊ τολμά άποθανβίν. The presence of the Article before άγαθοΰ is here a matter for considera- tion. It will be found to be material to the full force of the passage. Had the word been anarthrous, its idea would have been simply that of an individual to whom the epithet might in any way be fairly applied : and even thus, there would have been, in virtue of its fuller and more positive meaning, an advance on the previous term δικαίου. But, since the Article cannot here be contextual, 6 αγαθός is the universal term, ex- pressing the fullest and highest range of conception, and- thus making a much greater advance than the anarthrous word would have done. The several steps of the advancing argument, when restored to their formal order, would stand as follows : — In behalf of the good man, at his highest standard, may be (τάχα), one will be found that has the heart to die ; hardly then in behalf of a barely upright man will one die ; hard therefore must be the sacrifice in dying for those that had not reached even . the lower of the before mentioned conditions, but were still sinners. ' CHAPTER III. ON THE SUBSTANTIVE. SECTION I. — ON THE NUMBER AND GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. The subject of the Number and Gender of Substan- tives offers few points for observation. The Dual Number does not occur in the New Tes- tament; as is the case also in the Septuagint. This circumstance may be viewed as one point on which its language follows the ordinary Greek, rather than the more studied language of books. It is probable that the speech of common life would dispense with this as well as other refinements. It is no very uncommon occurrence in language for the plural number to be used where the singular is in accordance with actual fact, either by way of studied amplification, especially in poetry, or when a proposition does not rigidly require the statement to 'be confined to the singular, and some emphatic fulness of expression is attained by the exchange. 84 ON THE NUMBER AND GENDER Rom. i. 4. του ορισθέντος νιου Θεού εν δυνάμει — εξ αναστά- σεως νεκρών. By the plural νεκρών only one person, namely, Jesus, is really meant ; and it may be viewed as an instance of the latter usage. Heb. ix. 23. αυτά £e τα επουράνια κρείττοσι θυσίαις παρά ταύτας. Of a different kind is that substitution of a plural for a singular which is indicated by a comparison of certain parallel places in the Gospels. It is no more than what would sometimes naturally occur on the part of a narrator whose thoughts were more occupied with recording actions than particularising the agents. Compare Mark vii. 17, with Mat. xv. 15 ; Mat. xiv. 17, and Mark vi. 38, with John vi. 8, 9 ; Mat. xxiv. 1, with Mark xiii. 1 ; Mat. xxvii. 48, and Mark xv. 36, with John xix. 29; and Mat. xxvii. 44, with Luke xxiii. 39. A not unfrequent use of the plural of abstract nouns is a feature of the language of the New Testament : but there is no reason for regarding it as possessed of any particular force, but merely as a mode of pre- senting a certain tenor of action in the light of its constituent acts ; though even in this view it may be referred to Hebrew influence. See 1 Sa. ii. 3. Of this kind are the plurals, άναστροφαί and eWe'/3e«n (2 Pe. iii. 11) ; οϊκτιρμοί (Rom. xii. 1. 2 Cor. i. 3. Phil. ii. 1. Col. iii. 12. Heb. x. 21) ; ■προσωπόληψίαί (Jas. ii. 1). Not unlike is the expression e£ αιμάτων, John i. 13. A point of resemblance between the language of the New Testament and the later Greek speech is OF SUBSTANTIVES. 85 unsettled usage with respect to the gender of certain substantives. "ΕλβοΓ, which hy Attic usage is masculine, is mostly neuter in the New Testament, as also in the Septuagint. Also σκότος, which in Attic Greek is rarely neuter, occurs as masculine only in one place, Heb. xii. 18; if ζόφω be not there the true reading. An instance of the same kind is το πλοΐτος, exhibited by a certain group of authorities in the following places, Eph. ii. 7; iii. 8, 16. Phil. iv. 19. Col. i. 27; ii. 2. Again, the adjectives in concord with λιμός are feminine in the text of certain MSS., Luke iv. 25 ; xv. 14. Acts xi. 28. That peculiarities of this kind are not confined to the New Testament, appears at once from the circumstance, that ζήλος and τύφος occur as neuters in the epistle of Clemens Romanus (iv., xiii). SECTION II. — ON THE NOMINATIVE CASE. The use of the Nominative, with the Article pre- fixed, in the sense of the Vocative, has been already noticed and explained (Chap. n. Sect. 2). When the expression is considered, especially in respect to the Article, it must be regarded as having been originally associated with command, or, at least, a tone of as- sumed superiority on the part of the speaker. But, as has been already remarked, this limitation to its use appears to have subsequently disappeared in prac- tice, and is certainly not regarded in the New Testa- ment. Mat. xi. 26. val, 6 πατήρ. Mark x. 47. 6 νιος Ααυϊδ, ' Ιησού, ελίησόν με. Mat. xxvii. 29. Lukexviii. 11, 13. 86 ON THE NOMINATIVE CASE. John xx. 28. καϊ άττεκρίθη Θωμάς καϊ είπεν αύτα,' 6 Κύρώς μου καϊ 6 Θεός μου. On this passage the question might be raised, whether the words 6 Κ. μ. κ. ό θ. μ. are a proper instance of this usage, that is, a direct address to the previous speaker, or a mere exclamation. In the first place, the pro- noun αντω points to the former view; and, secondly, according to the exclamatory meaning, Jehovah would be signified by the term ό Κύριος, which in that case could not receive the affix μου. The use of the anarthrous Nominative for the Vocative, is a matter involved in variations of read- ing, and of itself unimportant. The Nominative is sometimes used, as it were, absolutely, in expressions of time. Luke ix. 28. iyevero Be μετά, τους Χό^γους τούτους, ώσεϊ ήμέραι οκτώ, καϊ παραλαβών κ. τ. λ. Mat. χν. 32. οτι, ήΒη ήμέραο τρεις, ττροσμενουσί μοι. Mark viii. 2. These instances can scarcely be identified with the occurrence in pure writers of parenthetical clauses expressive of time (Demosth. 3 Olynth. p. 39. Isocr. Phil. p. 91), but should rather range with the expressions συμπόσια συμπόσια, πρασια.1 πρασιαί, Mark vi. 39, 40, as regards a pecu- liarly absolute use of the Nominative. Another kind of absolute use of the Nominative of which there are several instances, will be noticed hereafter as a variety of Anacoluthon. 87 SECTION III. — ON THE GENITIVE CASE. The varied notion which is associated with a Geni- tive in dependence on a substantive, is, however, throughout a great part of its usage, too simple and I obvious to require illustration or lead to comment ; ] and, accordingly, notice will be limited to such points I in particular as afford matter for remark. One of these is when the relation expressed by the dependent Genitive is that of an object. Luke vi. 7. ίνα ευρωσι κατηηορίαν αυτοί). Acts iv. 9. επί ευεργεσία, άνθρωπου ασθενούς. John xvii. 2. εξουσίαν πάσης σαρκός. Mat. χ. 1. εξουσίαν πνευμάτων ακαθάρτων. Mark vi. 7. 1 Cor. ix. 12. el aXkot της υμών εξουσίας μετεγρυσιν. Luke vi. 12. εν ttj προσευχτ} του Θεού. 1 In prayer to God.' Compare the expressions, eV ευσβββια Qeov (Joseph. Antiq. II. viii. 1) and προς ικτείαν του θεοΰ (II. ix. 3). The Article is prefixed to προσ€υχτ} as an abstract or general term, as is done Mat. xxi. 22. Acts i. 14. 1 Cor. vii. 5. Col. ii. 18. θρησκεία των άηηεΚων. Rom. χ. 2. ζηΚον Θεού εγουσιν. 1 Pe. ii. 19. Sea συνείΖησιν Θεού. 1 Cor. viii. 7. ττ} συνεώήσεί εως άρτι του ειδώλου. By the term σννςίδησις must here be understood a mind-haunting pre- | eence of some object of thought ; as is more clearly expressed by the ! various reading on the latter passage, σννηθύα, which, though well sup- j ported, is an unmistakeable gloss. 88 ON THE GENITIVE CASE. Mark xi. 22. έχετε πίστιν Θεού. Rom. iii. 22. δ/α πίστεως 'Ιησού Χριστού. Gal. ii. 16, 20 iii. 22. Eph. iii. 12. Phil. iii. 9. Col. ii. 12. Bui της πίστεως της ενεργείας του Θεού. Phil. i. 27. σνναθΧούντες τη πίστει τον ευαγγελίου. Phil. iv. 7. ή ειρήνη τον Θεού — φρονρήσει κ. τ. λ. This last is not a necessary instance, but may be explained, with Chry sostom, ην προς τους ανθρώπους elpyaaaro: still the objective sense of the Genitive is favoured by the passage, άρήνην Ζχωμεν προς τον θεόν (Rom v. 1), without, however, entirely excluding the idea that it is παρά τον Qeov. But in the case of the words ή ειρήνη τον Χρίστου (Col. iii. 15), the Genitive cannot be objective, but the expression must be classed with some others where the term ό Χριστός is a marked expression for the discipleship and membership of Christ, namely, τα. παθήματα του Χ. (2 Cor. i. 5. 1 Pe. iv. 13 ; v. 1), ή υπομονή του Χ. (2 Thes. iii. 5), ή υπακοή του Χ. (2 Cor. x. 5). John ν. 42. την αηάπην τον Θεού ονκ έχετε εν εαντοΐς. 1 John ii. 5. εν τούτω ή αηάττη τον Θεον τετέλείωται. ν. 15. ονκ εστίν ή αηάττη τον πατρός εν αντω. ν. 3. These may be at once accepted as instances, but that is not the case , with others. Rom. v. 5. η αηάττη τον Θεον εκκεγνται εν τοις καρΒίαις ημών Βια πνεύματος αηίον. The first view of this passage might favour the objective sense of the Genitive : but another, as expressed by Chrysostom's words, ήν πζρ\ ημάς ζπςΰείξατο, is equally admissible; so that the circumstance described would be, the possession of the hearts of believers by a pervading sense of God's love to them. ; Rom. viii. 35. τις ημάς χωρίσει άπο της αγάπης tgv Χριστού ; The uncertainty which might otherwise attend this passage, is at once removed by a consideration of the parallel expression immediately follow- ing, της αγάπης του θεοΰ της iv Χριστώ Ίησοΰ, where the objective sense would not be the more simple and obvious one. The meaning of the pas- sage would thus be : What agency will ever be able to put us out of th pale of Christ's love ? ON THE GENITIVE CASE. 89 2 Cor. v. 14. η αγάπη του Χρίστου συνβχβι ημάς κρίνοντας τούτο κ. τ. λ. Here again, though the case might be viewed as one of indifference, the non-objective sense, namely, the constraining circumstance of Christ's love, seems best to suit the entire passage. 2 Cor. xiii. 13. ή χάρος του Κυρίου ^Ιησου Χρίστου καϊ η αγάπη του Θβοΰ καϊ ή κοινωνία του e Ay ίου Πνβύματος μετά πάντων υμών. The objective sense of the Genitive του θεού is hardly consistent with the expression μ€τα υμών, but would require ev υμϊν. The ancient liturgies appear to mark the sense attached to the word κοινωνία, by the addition καϊ. η δωρεά. 2 Cor. i. 12. βΙΧίκρινβία Θβοΰ. 2 Cor. xi. 2. ζήλ,ώ yap υμάς Θβοϋ ζηλω. These expressions may be explained by the objective use of the Genitive, as if θεοί) were equivalent to ' God-ward,' that is, having simple regard to God's cognisance and duty towards him. 1 Cor. ix. 23. πάντα Be ποιώ 8ια το ei>ayyk\tov, ίνα συγ- κοινωνος αυτοί) γίνωμαι. The Genitive may here be objective ; but far more force and spirit is given to the passage by a non-objective sense, by which εύαγγίλιον becomes in a manner personified; not, however, with the strange personification adopted by Chrysostom, according to whom to ev. is to be interpreted as ol iv τω ev. π€πιστ(υκότ€ς. 'But every thing I do on account of the Gospel, that I may become its partner,' — that the spirit of my teaching may fully assort with the spirit of the Gospel, and I may bear a share in its achievements. The Septuagint translators employed the Greek Genitive to represent that simple apposition of a sub- stantive which in Hebrew serves the purpose of an epithet of quality : and this practice and the influence 90 ON THE GENITIVE CASE. of native usage would alike tend to fix the same gram matical feature on the language of the New Testa- [ ment. A special notice is accordingly requisite in this place. Luke xvi. 8. τον οίκονόμον της αδικίας, v. 9. εκ του μαμ- ωνα της αδικίας. These instances are immediately followed (v. 11) by the ordinary form, iv τω άδίκω μαμωνα : which is adverse to the idea of deliberate choice or intended effect in the use of this particular construction. Luke xviii. β. ό κριτής της αδικίας. Acts ix. 15. σκεύος εκλογής. Mat. xxiv. 15. το βδελυγμα της ερημώσεως. Mark xiii. 14. Dan. ix. 27. 1 Mac. i. 54. Rom. i. 26. πάθη ατιμίας. Rom. viii. 3. εν δμοιώματι σαρκός αμαρτίας. Heb. ix. 10. δικαιώματα σαρκός. Jas. i. 25. ουκ ακροατής επιλησ μονής γενόμενος άΧλα ποιη- τής έργου. 1 Pe. i. 2. iv άγιασμω πνεύματος. ' By a spiritual hallowing,' in contrast with the material rule of the old covenant. 2 Pe. ii. 1. αιρέσεις απώλειας. 2 Pe. ii. 10. εν επιθυμία, μιασμου. Jude 9. κρίσιν βλασφημίας. It is at once clear that a substantive, to allow its Genitive to be thus employed, must be either an \ abstract or generic term: and this may, accordingly, be laid down as the limit by which this idiomatic : usage is bounded. When, therefore, the dependent ; substantive is not such a term, the expression must not be interpreted on such a principle. ON THE GENITIVE CASE. 91 But generic terms may be plural; and hence arises another class of instances. Eph. iii. 1 1 • κατά πρόθβσιν των αιώνων. 1 Ti. i. 17. τω βασιλβΐ των αιώνων. Jas. ii. 4. κριται διαλογισμών πονηρών. 1 Ill-bethinking judges.' Jas. i. 17. του πατρός τών φώτων. This may be viewed as another instance, and its meaning found in the words, 6 Qeos φως eVrt, καϊ σκοτία iv αύτω ουκ ϊστιν ουδ€μία (1 John i. 5). The Hebrew idiom of which this particular usage is a representative, required that a pronoun connected with the entire expression should be affixed to the dependent substantive or in concord with it : whence arose corresponding forms in the Septuagint Greek and in the New Testament. Ps. lxxvii. (lxxviii) 54. εις ορός αγιάσματος αυτού. 1 To his hallowed hill.' Jer. Ii. (xliv) 4. το πράγμα της μόλύνσβως ταύτης. ' This unclean thing.' Re. xiii. 3. ή πΧηγη του θανάτου αυτού. ' His deadly wound.' Re. iii. 10. τον \6yov της υπομονής μου. Heb. i. 3. τω ρηματι της ΰυνάμβως αυτού. Jas. i. 23. το πρόσωπον της γβνίσβως αυτού. Acts ν. 20. τα ρήματα της ζωής ταύτης. Rom. vii. 24. τις με ρύσεται έκ τού σώματος τού θανάτου τούτου; ' Who will rescue me from this death-fraught body ? ' 92 ON THE GENITIVE CASE. In this particular use of the Genitive, though it has a certain breadth of expression, the effect is still no more than that of an ordinary epithet : but the New Testament exhibits another employment of the case, which has a certain resemblance and may be in some way akin to it, namely, as the expression of a charac- teristic attribute. : Rom. vii. β. ώστε δου\εύειν ημάς εν καυνότητι πνεύματος καϊ ου παΧαιότητυ γράμματος. Here the essential points of difference between the contrasted modes of service, καινότης and παλαιότης, are expressed by the appended Genitives, marking the one as a thing of pure spirit, the other of gross literality. ' In new sort, namely, of spirit, not in old fashion, one of letter.' 2 Cor. iii. 6. Ικάνωσεν ημάς διακόνους καινής διαθήκης ου γράμματος αλλά ττνεύ ματος. ' Made us fit to be in charge with a new covenant, a covenant not of letter but of spirit.' Rom. vi. 4. . ΐνα ωσττερ ήηερθη Χρίστος εκ νεκρών δια της δόξης του πατρός, ούτω καϊ ημείς εν καινότητι ζωής ττεριττα- τήσωμεν. Έι> καινότητι ζωψ, ' In new sort, namely, of life,' that is, spiritual life in contrast to a previous state of spiritual death in sin. In this way the figurative significance of the resurrection finds an exact and complete expression. Rom. v. 18. είς δικαίωσα ζωής. In this passage the term δικαίωσι?, while already standing in marked contrast with κατάκριμα, is set in further prominence in respect of the attri- bute expressed by the appended Genitive, ζωής. 'Unto a life-giving justification.' ON THE GENITIVE CASE. 93 While the Genitive is constructed, in the New Tes- tament, with Verbs of Existence in the ordinary way (Mat. xix. 15. 1 Cor. iii. 21; vi. 19. 1 Ti. i. 20), at the same time the usage which has been thus par- ticularised, namely, the expression of attribute, is also to be remarked in the same grammatical position. 1 Cor. xiv. 33. ου jap εστίν ακαταστασίας 6 θεός αλλ' ειρήνης. Ι 'Ακαταστασία, ' turmoil,' is no attribute of the God of order and peace. Heb. x. 39. ημείς δέ ουκ εσμεν υποστολής — άΧΚα πίστεως. 1 We however are not of a sort that shrink back,' &c. Heb. xii. 11. πάσα Be παιδεία προς μεν το παρόν ου Βοκεΐ χαρά? είναι άΧλα λύπης. 4 Now no chastisement seems at the time to be a thing of joy but of Rom. ix. 9. επαγγελίας yap 6 λόγο? ούτος. ' For this word is one of promise.' It is unnecessary to mention in detail those con- structions of the Genitive with Verbs, of which the instances are matters of most familiar occurrence, and which do not lead to any special remark. The Greek Genitive is employed to express the ob- ject of an action when represented as such to a certain portion only of its extent; or an object which, though itself wholly embraced by the action, is to be viewed 94 ON THE GENITIVE CASE. with regard to another whole, as that portion of it to which the action is limited. The Genitive is thus constructed as a matter of course with such verbs as necessarily signify an action of this partial kind : of which sort are μςτεχω^ -γίνομαι, and κοινωνώ in its simpler sense (Heb. ii. 14) as distin- guished from its use with the Dative. Xea. Anab. I. v. 7. λαβόντας τον βαρβαρικού στρατού. Id. I. vi. 10. ελάβοντο τής ζώνης τον Όρόντην. Acts xxvii. 36. προσεΧάβοντο τροφής. Acts iii. 7. ττιάσας αυτόν της δεξιάς χειρός. Mark ix. 27. Luke xvi. 24. ίνα βάψτ} το άκρον του δακτύλου αυτού ύδατος. Mark ii. 21. αίρει το πλήρωμα αυτού το καινον του πα- λαιού. 2 Cor. χ. 13. καυχησόμεθα — κατά το μέτρον του κανόνος ου εμερισεν ήμΐν 6 Θεός, μέτρου εφικεσθαι ayjpi καϊ υμών. In this passage the Genitive μέτρου may be regarded as an instance of this construction in dependence on the complex expression εφικεσθαι άχρι και υμών, so as to range with such forms as, πόρρω ήδη earl τον βίου (Plato Apol. p. 38), οντω τάρβονς άφικόμην (Eurip. Phoeniss. 361) : though at the same time it may depend by direct and ordinary government upon the verb alone. ' We will boast of having reached a range' of labours in the Gospel extending 'as far as even you.' Heb. vi. 4, 5. ηευσαμενους τε της δωρεάς της επουρανίου — καϊ καλόν ηευσαμενους Θεοΰ ρήμα δυνάμεις τε μέλλοντος αίώνος. The change of construction from the Genitive to the Accusative in the small compass of this passage cannot be mere looseness of language, but, even were this a solitary instance of the latter case in this position, would challenge inquiry into its principle. This construction must be viewed as an indication of a change of meaning, resulting from the presence of an epithet, not as a mere epithet, but as entering into the predicate ; the action ; signified being now no longer the bare process of tasting, but of becoming cognisant by that means of a quality or condition of the object of taste. The epithet καλόν must be regarded as belonging to δννάμεις as well as ρήμα. ON ΤΠΕ GENITIVE CASE. 95 John ii. 9. iyevaaro 6 άρχίτρίκΧινος το ΰδωρ olvov γεγεν^- μίνον. Here, as has been remarked in another place, the words 61. y. are necessarily a predicate : as is also indicated with regard to καλόν, in the former passage, by its collocation in the sentence. The two are thus really similar and may receive the same solution. Another shape of this usage of the Genitive may be recognised in its dependence on the Middle Voice of a certain group of verbs, because the process signified is in each case of such a kind that the action bears partly on the agent, and thus the expressed object is not the entire one : of which circumstance the Geni- tive is the expression. Eph. iv. 2. aveyp^evoi άΧΚηλων. 1 Tim. iii. 1. el τχ? ίτησκοιτης opeyerai. Heb. ix. 16. κρείττονος ορίζονται. Heb. vi. 9. Ιγόμζνα σωτηρίας. The middle verb εχομαι retains its government even when its primary meaning is almost lost in its technical employment as a geographical term, signifying conterminous locality : with a lively allusion to which it is used in this passage. "Απτομαι is another instance of this class, and exhibits the appropriate syntax (Mat. vii. 3, 15. 1 Cor. vii. 1. 1 John v. 18, &c), as does also αντιλαμβάνομαι (Luke i. 54. Acts*xx. 35. 1 Tim. vi. 2); while έντρεπομαι abandons its proper government for the Accusative (Mat. xxi. 37. Mark xii. 6. Luke xviii. 2, 4), which, however, is only a feature of the later period of the language, as is seen, for instance, in the reading αυτήν, Mat. v. 28. In the best form of the language the Accusative is found after certain verbs instead of the Genitive when the term in government is not a sub- stantive, and accordingly there is nothing remarkable in such expressions as τούτο ουκ ίπετυχεν (Rom. xi. 7), τα οπίσω επιλανθανόμενος (Phi. iii. 13). Variation in the government of επιλαμβάνομαι (Acts ix. 27; xvi. 19; 96 ON THE GENITIVE CASE. xviii. 17) does not occur in any place where the signification is strongly marked ; such, for instance, as the following. Luke xx. 26. επιλαβεσθαι αυτού ρήματος. 1 Tim. vi. 12. επιλαβοΰ της αιωνίου ζωής. Heb. ii. 16. ου jap Βήπου αγγέλων επιλαμβάνεται, αλλά σπέρματος * Αβραάμ επιλαμβάνεται. * For it is not with angels that he allies himself,' &c. The dependence of the Genitive on the Comparative degree of Adjectives — itself included under the general idea of partition or separation — is extended to verbs 1 whose meaning has a similar force. Dem. F. L. p. 447. Χάρης ευρεθήσεται — πολλών υστερών. Rom. iii. 23. υστεροΰνται της Βοξής του Θεού. Eph. iii. 19. την ύπερβάΧλουσαν της γνώσεως άγάπην του Χρίστου. The intended idea in this passage appears to be carefully indicated by this use of the Genitive, instead of the ordinary government of the verb, namely, the possession of a sterling worth far beyond that of the pre- tentious matters embodied in the so styled yv&ais. 2 Pe. iii. 9. ου βραδύνει 6 Κύριος της επαγγελίας. 1 The Lord is not slacker than' befits ' his promise' of visitation. : The New Testament exhibits a free use of the ; Genitive in dependence on Adjectives, and Participles; which in the particular instances may be rather viewed > as Adjectives. Mat. xxv. 34. οι ευλογημένοι του πατρός μου. Compare the expression, φωτός ηπατημίνη. Soph. Aj. 807. ON THE GENITIVE CASE. 97 John vi. 45. έσονται πάντες διδακτοί Θεού. Is. liv. 13. 1 Cor. ii. 13. ουκ εν διδακτοΐς ανθρωπινής σοφίας λόγοις αλλ' ev διδακτοΐς πνεύματος. Compare with these two instances the expression, νονθετήματα κείνης διδακτά (Soph. El. 343) : though the latter may also be interpreted by the help of the words, και οντοι διδακτοί πολέμου (1 Mac. iv. 7), so that the resulting sense would be, ' Not with words well versed in human lore, but well versed in spiritual knowledge.' Col. iii. 12. εκλεκτοί τον Θεού. Acts ix. 1. εμπνέων απειλής καϊ φόνου. If the word ψπνέων be here taken to signify a full possession by some active influence, the use of the Genitive is at once clear. 2 Pet. ii. 14. καρδίαν ηεηυμνασμενψ πλεονεξίας έχοντες. i Having a heart well skilled in covetous practice.' Heb. iv. 12. κριτικός ενθυμήσεων καϊ εννοιών καρδίας. Jas. i. 13. ό Θεός άπείραστός εστί κακών. It has been seen that one especial use of the Geni- tive is to signify an object which is affected by the action only to a partial extent, when it might have been wholly embraced by it : the case is also occasionally employed as a sufficient expression of a like circum- stance, namely, partial extent, even in the subject of the verb. Xen. Cyrop. VIII. iii. 9. εστασαν — τών δορυφόρων είς re- τρακισχιλίονς. Acts xxi. 16. συνηλθον δε καϊ τών μαθητών απο Καισαρείας συν ήμΐν, άγοντες κ. τ. λ. In some instances a preposition is prefixed to the Genitive. John xvi. 17. 98 ON THE DATIVE CASE. In the case of Proper Names, the bare Genitive is often employed as an expression of personal relation, when the nature of that relation is either plainly implied by the context (Luke iii. 23), or is a matter of presumed notoriety (Mat. i. 6 ; iv. 21. Mark xv. 47 ; xvi. 1. Luke xxiv. 10. John vi. 71; xxi. 2, 15). In cases where merely contemporaneous notoriety has not been main- tained by subsequent record or tradition, uncertainty is the necessary attendant of this usage ; as is now the case with the expression Ιούδας Ιακώβου, Luke vi. 16. Acts i. 13. SECTION IV. — ON THE DATIVE CASE. It is not necessary to particularise and exemplify those simple and ordinary points of usage of the Da- tive, which offer no matter of remark as respects the New Testament. One special point is a free and extended use of the case beyond the ordinary expression of simple and immediate instrumentality, and where other forms would commonly have been used with the same effect. The ideas so expressed may be grouped under several heads, as follows. Causation more or less indirect or remote. Plato. Menex. p. 238. ovre άσθβνβία ovre πενία οντ ayvt σία πατέρων άπέληλαταί ουδείς ovSe τοΐς βναντίοις τετίμηταί. Rom. xi. 20. rfj απιστία έξβκλάσθησαν. 4 It was by unbelief that they came to be broken off.' ΟΧ ΤΠΕ DATIVE CASE. 99 Gal. vi. 12. ίνα μη τω σταυρω του Χρίστου δίώκωνται. Horn. xi. 30. ηλεήθητε τη τούτων απείθεια. * Mercy fell to your share by their disobedience/ Mental frame or influence. Demosth. Lept. p. 479. μηδεϊς φθονώ τό μέλλον άκούση. Id. Mid. p. 538. ΰβρει καϊ ουκ οϊνω τούτο ττοιουντος. 1 Cor. viii. 7. τίνες δε τη συνειδήσει του ειδώλου — εσθίουσι. 1 Cor. χ. 30. εί εγώ χάριτι μετέχω. * If I am partaking in a thankful frame.' 2 Cor. i. 15. ταύτη τη ττεττοιθήσει εβούλόμην προς υμάς ελθεΐν. Kegulating law or principle. Soph. Elect. 1043. τούτος ε'γώ ζην τοις νόμους ου βούλομαι. 2 Mac. vi. 1. τοΐς του Θεού νόμους μη πόλιτεύεσθαι. Acts χν. 1. εαν μη περιτεμνησθε τω εθει Μωυσεως. Acts xxi. 21. τοΐς εθεσι περιπατεΐν. Gal. vi. 16. όσοι τω κανόνι τούτω στοιγουσιν. The seat or quarter of a certain quality or effect. Xen. Anah. III. i. 42. ταίς ψυχαΐς ερρωμενέστεραι. Mat. v. 8. οι καθαροί τη καρδία, xi. 29. Acts vii. 51. άπερίτμητοι τη καρδία καϊ τοΐς ώσίν. Acts xiv. 8. αδύνατος τοΐς ποσίν. Heh. ν. 1 1 . νωθροί γεγοζ/ατε ταΐς άκοαΐς. Heh. xii. 3. ταΐς ψυχαΐς υμών εκλυόμενοι. When the Middle Voice of a verb is used to signify that the action is mutual between the agent and the personal object, this circumstance is indicated by the 'Dative as the dependent case. Eurip. Med. 606. 'Aristoph. Plut. 456. 100 ON THE DATIVE CASE. Mat. v. 40. τω θελοντί σοι κριθηναι. Jude 9. τω ΒιαβόΧω διακρινόμενος. The different construction δκκρίνοντο προς αυτόν (Acts xi. 2) may be regarded as the expression of a different circumstance, namely, one-sided cavilling. Demosth. Zen. p. 889. Acts xviii. 28. τοις ΊουΕαίοις ΖιακατηΧεγγετο. This is best viewed as an instance of the same construction, implying that the argumentation of Apollos was as keenly contested by the Jews as it was itself vigorous and successful. This, in fact, is the principle of the regular government of this case by certain verbs of the Middle form, as διαλέγομαι, μάχομαι. The remaining matters of remark are supplied either by the construction of certain passages, or the usage of particular terms. Horn. vi. 20. εΧεύθεροι ητε Ty Βικαιοσύντ]. It may here be remarked that by the ordinary construction with the Genitive, the personification which runs through the entire passage, would be impaired ; and a correspondence of form is also maintained with the expression έδονΧώθητε rjj δικαιοσύνη (v. 18). ' On being set free from sin, you came into service to righteousness — for when ye were bondservants of sin, you stood free from servitude to righteousness.' Luke xviii. 31. τεΧεσθησεται πάντα τα ηε^ ραμμένα Βια των [ προφητών τω υίω του ανθρώπου. Τά γ. τ. υι. τ. ά., 'The things written,' and, as matters of prophetic; scripture, destined ' for the Son of Man,' that is, to be fulfilled in his person. Similarly, άναπληρονται αύτοϊς η προφητίία (xiii. 14), ' The prophecy is- coming to a fulfilment for them.' Acts v. 3. Βιατί βπΧηρωσεν 6 σατανάς την καροίαν σου ] ψεύσασθαί σε το πνεύμα το ayiov. ν. 4. ουκ εψεύσω άνθρω- πο ις άλλα τω Θεω. The verb ψεύδομαι is used in the compass of this passage as the expres- . ON THE DATIVE CASE. 101 sion of two distinct actions ; one, of a strictly transitive nature, namely, I actual deception by falsehood ; the other, merely address directed to a ι person in terms of falsehood ; and this latter use, like other verbs signifying | the act of accosting, is followed by the Dative, the Accusative rightly I indicating the former meaning. Rom. i. 19. ΊΓΡπΧη ρω μένους πάση άΒικία κ. τ. λ. The Dative may here be regarded as used designedly, for the purpose of conveying by the entire expression a distinctly mechanical idea, that of an engrossing process, as distinguished from- that of mere fulness. ' Fully engrossed by every sort of unrighteousness/ &c. See 2 Mac. vii. 21. Had it been an unmeaning substitution of the Dative for the Genitive^ there would have been no occasion for the immediate transition to the form μεστούς φθόνου. The same remark applies to another expression, π^πλή- ρωμαι rfj παρακλήσει (2 Cor. vii. 4). ' I have become quite possessed b} r the comfort ' supervening on all my trouble. Col. ii. 14. εξάλειψα? to καθ* ημών %eipo είναι τίνα εαυτόν, Phil. iii. 13. iyco εμαυτον ου Χο^ίζομαι κατειΧηφεναι. Rev, ii. 9. των Χεγόντων 'Ιουδαίους εΧναι εαυτούς. CHAPTER IV. ON THE ADJECTIVE. Instances of a rational concord of the Adjective, that is, when there is an accommodation of its num- ber or gender, or both, to the signification of the Substantive which it qualifies, rather than to its gram- matical form, are furnished by the New Testament. Mark viii. 1. παμπόΧλου όχλου οντος και μη εχόντων τι φώγωσι. Luke π. 13. πλήθος στρατιάς ουρανίου αίνούντων τον Θεόν. Luke xix. 37. το πλήθος των μαθητών χαίροντες. John vii. 49. ό όχλος ούτος 6 μη <γινώσκων τον νόμον επι- κατάρατοί είσι. John xii. 12. όχλος πολύς 6 ελθών εις την έορτην άκου- σαν τ ες κ. τ. λ. Acts iii. 11. συνέδραμε — πας 6 λαός — έκθαμβοι, Acts ν. 16. συνηρχετο Βε και το πΧήθος — φέροντες κ. τ. λ. 1 Cor. i. 2. τύ} εκκλησία του Θεού — ηλιασμένους κ. τ. λ. 1 Cor. xii. 2. έθνη ήτε — απ αη ο μεν ο ι. Eph. iv. 17. καθώς καϊ τα λοιπά έθνη περιπατεί — εσκοτ ω- μέ νοι. THE ADJECTIVE. 109 Rev. χι. 15. φωναϊ peyakat iv τω ου ράνω \eyovre<;. Rev. xix. 14. τα στρατεύματα τα iv τω ούρανω — ivheov- μενοι. There occur however in the New Testament a few peculiarities as regards concord which are not precisely of this sort. The readings c'i τις παραμνθιον, et τις σπλάγχνα και οικτιρμο'ι (Phil. ii. 1), seem to point to a colloquial license, according to which the combination ei τις was used as an indeclinable particle. The masculine word λούσαντες (Acts ix. 37) is used to express an operation undoubtedly performed by female hands. The reading πρώτη πάντων βντόλή (Mark xii. 28), does not present any real difficulty, πάντων subjoined to a superlative word being simply added as an intensive term, which, as such, would, even in studied usage, become disengaged from strict rules of gender, as in the expression πάντων μάλιστα (Thuc. IV. 52). The New Testament offers a few matters of remark relative to the Degrees of Comparison. The force of the Comparative Degree is sometimes involved in a sentence without the use of a strictly Comparative term. Mat. xviii. 8. κα\6ν σοι εστίν είσβλθεΐν εις την ζωήν χώλον η κνΧλον ή δυο χείρας — έχοντα κ. τ. λ. Mark ix. 43. Lam. iv. 9. Hos. ii. 7. Jon. iv. 3. This becomes more worthy of remark where an adjective or adverb does not enter. Luke xv. 7; xvii. 2. 1 Cor. xiv. 9. Clear instances of the same peculiarity are supplied by Greek writers : but should they appear to occur in greater proportion in the Septuagint and New Testament, an influence might 110 THE ADJECTIVE. be recognised of the peculiar machinery of the Hebrew and Aramaean idiom ; as also in another circumstance, namely, the occurrence in certain forms of the Com- parative with the force of the Superlative. Mat. xi. 11. ο Βε μικρότερος ev rfj βασιλεία των ουρανών μείζων αυτού εστίν. Luke ix. 46. τις αν εϊη μείζων αυτών. 1 Cor. xiii. 13. μείζων Βε τούτων ή άηάπη. The use of the Comparative as an expression of intensity in different degrees — a use which is, in its origin at least, simply elliptical — is exhibited in the New Testament. Acts xvii. 22. κατά πάντα ως ΒεισιΒαιμονεστερους υμάς θεωρώ. Eph. iii. 8. εμοϊ τω ελα'χιστοτερω πάντων ay ίων. ' To me who am by far the least of all saints/ John xiii. 28. δ ποιεΐς, ποίησον τάχιον. 1 Ti. iii. 14. ταυτά σοι γράφω εΚττίζων εΚθείν προς σε τάγιον. 1 These things I write to thee while hoping to come to thee very soon,' that is, soon after the receipt of the epistle. Acts xxv. 10. ως καϊ συ κάΧλιον επιηινωσκεις. 2 Ti. i. 18. βελτοον συ γινώσκεις. These two are not necessary instances, but the terms κάλλιου and βίλτων may be taken to mean, ' better ' than any words can tell. I 2 Pe. i. 19. καϊ εγρμεν βεβαωτερον τον προφητικ,ον \6yov. This should be regarded as an instance only in default of a satisfactory l explanation of the strictly Comparative sense of βφαιόπρον. The Superlative πρώτος is thrice used (John i. 15, 30; xv. 18.) to express no more than priority of time, that is, as a Comparative, but. at : THE ADJECTIVE. Ill the same time with a certain stress upon the term. The remark, however, must not be extended to the expression, πρωτότοκος πάσης κτίσεως (Col. i. 15), as it relates not to time but rank, investiture with the dignity of πρωτοτοκία. The Hebraic use of the first Cardinal number for its Ordinal is seen in certain expressions in the New Testament, as also in the Septuagint. Gen. i. 5. iyevero εσπέρα και iyevero πρωί ημέρα μία* Ezr. iii. 6. ev ημέρα μια τον μηνός τον έβδόμον. Mat. xxviii. 1. eh μίαν σαββάτων. Mark xvi. 2. πρωί της μιας σαββάτων. Luke xxiv. 1. τ{) δε μια τών σαββάτων. John χχ. 1, 19. Acts χχ. 7. 1 Cor. xvi. 2. κατά μίαν σαββάτων. Rev. ix. 12. η oval η μία άπη\θ€ν. The same Cardinal also appears as a mere equivalent of the indefinite word tis ; a transition of use in itself by no means forced or strange, but in this case a pure Aramaism, occurring also in later Hebrew. Judith xiv. 6. Mat. viii. 19; xix. 16; xxvi. 69. Mark x. 17; xv. 36. Rev. viii. 13. Perhaps also John vi. 9; vii. 21. In illustration of the source of this usage, see, for instance, Dan. ii. 31, and the Syriac version of 1 Ki. xx. 13, and Mat. xxi. 28. The Adverbial use of the Neuter Gender of Adjec- tives in the New Testament offers in general nothing that calls for remark. In two places (Luke xxiv. 46, 47. Acts x. 37), there may be recog- nised a kind of Adverbial use of the Participle άρξάμβνον, and by this means, in the latter, relief be given to an embarrassed period. * Philo makes a mystical application of the usage as it occurs in this place. De Mundi Opif. I. 3. CHAPTER V. ON THE PEONOUN. The characteristic function of Pronouns is that of being representatives, in a sentence, of a definite sub- ject, or of superseding by their presence the actual expression of the subject intended to be presented to the mind. Since none but the Pronouns styled Substantive or Personal have this as their essential and sole function, these alone have a proper right to the title of Pronouns. The other so called Pronouns, since they habitually occupy a position of concord, should be viewed as having in the first instance the nature of Adjectives, but enabled, by virtue of the proper notion of each, to pass also to the representative or strictly pro-; nominal function. That αυτός is essentially an Adjective, is seen in the circumstance of its standing in concord with the actual Pronouns ; and the same is shewn with [ regard to etcelvos by its direct formation from eVcet, according to which its primary meaning is ' yon.* ON THE PRONOUN. 113 Since the Greek Verb in general conveys, by means of its inflexion, a complete intimation in itself of the Number and Person of its subject, the introduction of a Personal Pronoun in the absence of any other ex- pressed Nominative, is not needed for that purpose ; and, accordingly, when Pronouns are so introduced, it can only be for some special effect. In Greek, they are in i such case terms of emphasis. This is invariably true of i those of the first and second Persons; but with regard I to the words which are employed as Pronouns of the third Person, their presence is sometimes required for the sake of mere perspicuity, that is, to direct the mind with certainty, when ambiguity or error might I otherwise result,, to the intended subject of a verb. : The emphasis is of different kinds and degrees. It may sometimes be slight, but always to be noted, if nicety and soundness of interpretation are to be attained. The emphasis is most marked in case of antithesis, or of particular stress on the individual. John xii. 34. ή μ els ήκούσαμζν e/c του νόμου, οτι 6 Χρι- 1 στο? μίνει eh τον αιώνα' καϊ πώς συ λεγε£ ποιώ, v. 36; x. 25 ; xiv. 12: e-ya> ποιήσω, xiv. 14, though the word had just preceded without the pronoun : £γώ αναστήσω, vi. 44 : e -γώ ερωτήσω, xiv. 1 (5 : hut most worthy of remark is its presence where in the case of any other person it would be altogether incongruous, namely, in a precatory address (xvii. 4, 9, 12, 14, 19, 22), but where its tone is quite in harmony with that of the words θέλω ha κ. τ. λ. (v. 24). The emphasis in the case of the second Person is frequently that of a pointed address, whatever be its tone. John ix. 35. συ πιστεύεις είς τον υΐον του Θεού; John v. 39. ερευνάτε τάς γραφά?, οτι ύμεΐς Βοκεΐτε εν αυταΐ? ζωην αιώνων tye.iv. 1 Search the Scriptures; for it is your own opinion that,' &c. Attention to the force of the Pronoun shews that ipevvare is more consistently to be regarded as an Imperative. 1 Cor. xv. 36. άφρον, συ ο σπείρεις, ου ζωοποιεϊται, εάν μη άποθάντ). The Pronoun is here further emphasised by its position, and points an appeal to a matter of familiar experience on the part of the objector himself. Freely expressed, it would signify, Look at your own business of sowing : the seed is not quickened, unless it shall have died. Mark xiii. 23. υ μ el ς δε βλέπετε. John xiii. 6. Κύριε, συ μου νίτττβίς τους πόδας; John v. 44. πώς δύνασθε ύμεΐς πιστευσαι, δόξαν παρά ά\\η\ών λαμβάνοντες ; ! Kom. ii. 3. λο^ίζτ} — 0TL συ ^κφεύξτ) ; John viii. 48. Σαμαρείτης εϊ συ. John ix. 34. iv άμαρτίαις συ εηεννήθης όλος' καϊ συ δι- δάσκεις ημάς ; In the last two examples the pronoun is used tauntingly. 116 ON THE PRONOUN. John xiv. 9. καϊ 7τώ? συ Xeyet?, κ. τ. λ. Acts vii. 28. μη avekelv μ€ συ θέλβπ ; Acts vii. 51. υ μ el ς άά τω Ίτνβύματυ τω άγ/ω άντι,πίπτετζ. Jas. ii. 19. συ τηστεύβις qtl κ. τ. λ. Sufficient instances have been alleged to show that this usage of the language is neither neglected nor abused in the New Testament, and to point out the importance of attending to the circumstance in order to catch with precision the spirit of many passages. On this point, as on many others, minute attention will be abundantly rewarded, since it is one which is not only of importance to an exact perception of a writer's meaning or feelings, but which may fre- quently serve as a delicate, but not the less sure, test in discriminating between the claims of different interpretations of the same passage. The Nominative case of αυτός is never used in pure Greek independently as a Personal Pronoun, as representative of the subject of the verb, but is always in the position of concord, as a mere adjective, with the real subject. In the New Testament, however, it is not so restricted. In the first place, it is there employed to usher, as it were, a significant circumstance with a change oi subject, or a fresh and marked circumstance respecting, the same subject. ON THE PRONOUN. 117 Notice of this usage is important, because an attempt to deal with such cases according to strict Greek prac- tice would either embarrass or mislead. It may be regarded as representing either Hebrew or Aramaean idiom, distinctly retained also in the Septuagint. Ge. xlii. 23. αύτοϊ δε ούκ ηδεισαν ore a/covet, 'Ιωσήφ. Ps. xciv. 10. άεϊ πλανώνται τη καρδία, αυτοί δε ουκ βγνωσαν τας οδούς μου. Heb. iii. 10. Luke xi. 14. ήν εκβάΧλων δαιμόνων, καϊ αυτό ην κωφόν. Luke xvi. 23, 24. καϊ εν τω αδη επάρας τους οφθαλμούς αυτοί) — όρα τον 'Αβραάμ — καϊ αύτος φωνήσας είπε. κ. τ. λ. Luke χνϋ. 12, 13. απήντησαν αύτω δέκα λεπροϊ άνδρες, dl έστησαν πόρρωθεν καϊ αυτοί ήραν φωνήν κ. τ. λ. ν. 16. καϊ αυτός ην Σαμαρείτης. Luke χν. 14. καϊ αύτος ήρξατο νστερεΐσθαι. Luke xxiv. 31. καϊ αύτος άφαντος iy ενετό απ αυτών. Luke xxiv. 35. καϊ αύτοϊ εξη^ούντο τα εν τ$ όδω. Luke ii. 50. καϊ αύτοϊ ού συνήκαν το ρήμα. Also xviii. 34. Luke xiv. 1. καϊ iy ενετό εν τω ε\θεϊν αντον κ. τ. λ. καϊ αύτοϊ ήσαν παρατηρούμενοι αυτόν. Jas. ii. 6, 7. ονχ οί πλούσιοι καταΖυναστεύουσιν υμών, καϊ αύτοϊ ελκουσιν υμάς εις κριτήρια; Luke xix. 2. καϊ ιδού άνήρ ονόματι καλούμενος Ζακ'χαϊος, καϊ αύτος ήν άργιτελώνης, καϊ ούτος ην πλούσιος. In this passage ούτος appears as taking part in this usage with αυτός, and as introductory to the expression of a most marked and material circumstance. Luke xx. 21. εάν τίνος αδελφός άποθάντ) ε'χων yυvaΐκa 1 καϊ ούτος άτεκνος άποθάνη. Here again the expression of a most material condition in the case is ushered by ovros ; the presence of which is unaccountable by pure Greek usage. In various other places the usage in question may be reasonably, if not 118 ON THE PRONOUN. necessarily, recognised. Mat. v. 4-8; xiv. 2; xvi. 20. Luke Hi. 15; xxiv. 21. Acts x. 4-2; xx. 35. Rom. vii. 10. Eph. iv. 11. Col. i. 18. Heb. xiii. 7. 1 John ii. 2. Again, in the New Testament αυτός stands not merely as an independent Nominative, but directly antithetical to a preceding one. Mark i. 8. ε<γώ μεν εβάτττισα υμάς iv ΰΒατϊ αυτός Be βα- j τττίσει κ. τ. λ. Luke xviii. 39. οί προά<γοντες επετίμων — αυτός δε κ. τ. λ. 1 John iv. 4, 5. ύμεΐς εκ του Θεού εστε — αυτοί εκ του κόσμου είσί. ν. 10. ούχ οτι ήμεΐς ήηαπήσαμεν τον Θεόν, αλλ* οτι αυτός ήηάπησεν ημάς. In other places the use is not antithetical but merely discriminative. Luke iv. 15; v. 1, 14, 17. 1 Cor. vii. 12, 13. One most prominent peculiarity of the language of the New Testament is, that it is overburdened with the oblique cases of αυτός, in some instances amounting to actual redundancy, in others merely occurring more frequently than perspicuity reall] requires. Mat. v. 1. καθίσαντος αύτου, προσηλ,θον αύτω οί μαθηταϊ αυτού. Mark χ. 34. και εμτταίξουσιν αύτω, και μαστιηωσουσιν αυ- τόν, και εμτττύσουσιν αύτω, και αττοκτενούσιν αυτόν. Luke xxiii. 53. και καθεΚων αυτό, ενετύΧιξεν αυτό σινδόνι, ' καϊ εθηκεν αυτό εν μνήματι Χαξευτω. This practice might be regarded as no more than : a species of awkwardness on the part of foreigners in ON THE PRONOUN. 119 using the language of a lively and acute people : but r lie extent to which it is carried in the New Testa- ment may reasonably be viewed as partly, if not prin- cipally, due to another cause, namely, the familiarity of the writers with the Hebraic and Aramaean system of pronominal affixes. Some instances of redundancy seem clearly to indicate a disposition to subjoin imme- diately to verbs a pronominal object of government, when another does not directly interfere with it. Mat. viii. 1. καταβάντι Be αύτω άπο του ορούς ήκοΧούθησαν αύτω όχλοι ποΧλοί. Again νν. 5, 23, 28. Mark ν. 2. Luke viii. 1 27. John χν. 2. παν κλήμα ev £μοί μή φέρον καρπον aipei αυτό. John ix. 13. αηουσιν αυτόν προς τους Φαρισαίους τον ποτβ τυφλόν. ν. 18. ίφώνησαν τους γονείς αυτού του άναβλεψαντος. The expressions τόν nore τυφλόν and του άναβλέψαντος are not necessary to explain what is to be understood by the pronouns ; which must, therefore, be regarded as themselves redundant, and to be referred to the same cause as the former cases. The unnecessarily frequent use of the oblique cases in dependence upon verbs and nouns is not confined to αυτός, but extends also to the Personal pronouns. Mat. vi. 6. βϊσέλθβ είς το ταμιέίόν σου, καϊ κλβίσας την θύραν σου, πρόσευξαο τω πατρί σου — καϊ 6 πατήρ σου κ. τ. λ. But absolute redundancy occurs only with the I former. All these circumstances are natural enough on the ! part of persons who were familiar, in their native dialect, with a system of inseparable pronominal 120 ON THE PRONOUN. particles affixed to verbs and substantives; and that they were, on this point, under an influence of which! they were not conscious, rather than guided by a determinate principle, appears probable from the cir- cumstance that their practice is not invariable in this respect. The peculiar Greek usage respecting the Relative Pronoun, which is technically termed Attraction, namely, the abandonment of its own proper govern- ment in the Accusative for the Genitive or Dative of the antecedent, is adopted to a considerable extent by most of the New Testament writers. Mat. xviii. 19. περί παντός πράγματος ου εαν αίτησωνται. Mat. xxiv. 50. εν ημέρα, y ου προσδοκά και εν ώρα fj ου ηινώσκει. These are not necessary instances, because the influence of the Prepo- sition may be regarded as extending to the Relative ; and if that view be correct, this Gospel supplies no instance. Mark vii. 13. rfj παραδόσει υμών y παρεΒώκατε. This may be regarded as the only instance occurring in this Gospel. Luke v. 9. επι ry cuypa των Ιχθύων fj συνελχιβον. John iv. 14. εκ του ύδατος ου βγω δώσω. Acts xxiv. 21. φωνής ης έκραξα. Is. vi. 4. Eph. iv. 1. της κΧήσεως ης εκληθητε. Ja. ii. 5. της βασιλείας ης επηγγειΧατο. 1 Pe. iv. 11. εξ ισχύος ης χορηγεί 6 Θεός. Jude 15. περί πάντων τών έργων ασεβείας αυτών ων ησε- βησαν. Zeph. iii. 11. ON THE PRONOUN. 121 This usage possesses peculiar elegance, when by its means the Relative preserves the syntax of a sup- pressed antecedent. Luke xxiii. 14. ούδεν ευρον — αίτιον, ων κατηγορείτε κατ αυτού. ν. 41. άξια yap ων εττράξαμεν, άττοΧαμβάνομεν. Acts xxvi. 22. ούδεν έκτος Χεηων ων τε οι ττροφήται εΧάΧη- σαν κ. τ. λ. The Hebrew idiom, which consists in compensating for the non-inflexion of the particle of relation (X>N) by the introduction of a pronominal affix somewhere in the relative clause, has led the authors of the Sep- tuagint to adopt in such clauses a redundancy of the oblique cases of αυτός, where it stands as a superfluous representative in Greek of the Hebrew affix. From this practice, if quotations from the Old Testament be excepted, the writers of the New have almost entirely abstained, notwithstanding the example of the Septua- gint and Aramaean influence of like tendency. Mark vii. 25. ής είχε το Θυγάτριον αυτής πνεύμα άκάθαρτον. Re. in. 8. ην ουδείς δύναται κΧεΐσαι αυτήν. vii. 9. Re. vii. 2. οις εδόθη αύτοΐς. The effect of the same idiomatic peculiarity is seen in other pleonastic forms. Mark xiii. 19. οία ου ηεηονε τοιαύτη. Re. xii. β. οπού εγει εκεί τόπον. Again, ν. 14. Compare, in the Hebrew, Ge. xiii. 3. No such pleonasm need be recognised in the expression, δ καΐ ^σπούδασα αντο τοντο ποίήσαι (Gal. π. 13), since it may be rendered, 'As to which' suggestion ' I was even earnest to do this very thing.' 122 ON THE PRONOUN, The Relative sometimes finds an object of concord in some word of its own clause in preference to the antecedent. This appears to take place, when the thing signified by the antecedent is either particu- larised by stricter terms in the relative clause, or its description is there amplified by especial reference to some distinguishing attribute. It seems as if the latter term claims, by its prominence, a stronger in- fluence over the Relative than the former. ; Plato 3 Leg. p. 699. 6 φόβος 6 τότε ηταρών ο re etc των νόμων των έμπροσθεν γσγονώς — ην αί&ώ ττοΧλάκις iv τοις άνω Χόγοις εϊττομεν. Gal. iii. 16. τω σττερματί σον ος εστί Χριστός. Eph, ί. 13, 14. τω πνεύματι της επα<γγε\ίας τω ατ/ίω, ος εστίν άρραβών της κληρονομιάς υμών. Rom. ix. 23, 24. σκεύη ελέους — οϋς και εκάλεσεν, ημάς. The use of the compound όστις as distinguished from the simple Relative deserves notice, especially since it is fairly exemplified in the New Testament. It takes place when the clause stands in a relation of material significance to something in the immediate context. The various nature of this relation will be best seen from instances. JEschin. Ctes. p. 86. τις αν εϊη τοιούτος ιατρός όστις κ. τ. λ. Xen. Anab. I. iii. 14. ηγεμόνα αίτεΐν Κνρον όστις δια, φιλίας της χώρας άττάξει. Thucyd. VIII. 90. εττιστειλαντες τταντί τρόπω όστις όττωσ- ουν ανεκτός, ξυναΧλαγήναι προς τους Λακεδαιμονίους. ON THE PRONOUN. 123 Aristoph. Yesp. 150. άτάρ άθλιος y εϊμ\ ως ετερός 7' ουδείς άνήρ, όστις πατρός νυν Καπνίου κεκλήσομαι. ^Eschin. Ctes. p. 395. όστις εστίν οίκοι φαύλος, ούΒέποτ ην iv Μακεδονία κάλος κατγαθός. Demosth. Aphob. p. 860. όστις αυτός αύτω ταυτ έ'ψυγβ δικάσαι, πως υμάς χρη κ. τ. λ. 1 Cor. ν. 1 . τοιαύτη πορνεία ήτις ούΒε iv τοις εθνεσιν. Mat. χχν. 1. όμοιωθησεται η βασιλεία των ουρανών δέκα παρθένο ις αΐτινες κ. τ. λ. Col. iv. 11. ούτοι μόνοι συvεpyol — οΐτινες έ^ενηθησάν μοι παρ^ορία. 1 These are the only workfellows that,' etc. Acts x. 47. οΐτινες το πνεύμα το ayiov ελαβον. * Seeing they have received,' etc. Acts xvii. 11. ε^ενέστεροι των εν Θεσσαλονίκη, οΐτινες εΒέξαντο κ. τ. λ. 1 Inasmuch as they received,' etc. Rom. i. 25. οΐτινες μετηΧλαζαν την άλήθειαν του Θεού κ. τ. λ. ν. 32. Heb. xiii. 7. μνημονεύετε τών τ^ουμένων υμών, οΐτινες ελά~ λησαν ύμΐν τον λόyov του Θεού. Phil. iv. 3. συλλαμβάνου αύταΐς, αΐτινες εν τω εύayyελίω συνήθλησάν μοι. ' Help them, women that,' etc. Jas. iv. 14. οΐτινες ουκ έπίστασθε το της αυριον. ' Whereas you know not what betides the morrow.' Rom. vi. 2. οΐτινες άπεθάνομεν τη αμαρτία, πώς ετι ζησομεν Ι εν αύτη. ' How shall we, we that died to sin, live in it any longer ? ' 124 OX THE TROXOUN. Acts v. 16. φέροντες ασθενείς — οϊτυνες εθεραττεύοντο. Acts xii. 13. ηΧθον επί την πύ\ην την σώηραν — ήτις αυτό- ματη ηνοίγθη αύτοΐς. Col. iii. 5. καϊ την πΧεονεξίαν, ητίς εστίν ε18ώλο\ατρεία. 1 Ti. iii. 15. εν οίκω Θεού — ήτος εστίν εκκλησία Θεού ζώντος. Acts χ. 41. μάρτυσι τοις προκεγειροτονη μένους υπο τον Θεον ήμϊν, οΐτινες σννεφώγομεν καϊ συνεπίομεν αντω κ. τ. λ. In the last three instances the cumulative effect of the clause accounts for the mode of introduction. With regard to the respective uses of the Pro- nominal Adjectives and the Genitive of the Pronoun itself — the boundary between which as regards pure Greek usage it might be difficult to define with pre- cision — it is enough to remark on the part of the New Testament writers an extended use of the latter, the former being principally employed when the force of the sentence absolutely requires them. Mark ii. 18 Jno. v. 30; xviii. 35, 36. 2 Cor. viii. 23. Philem. 12. Notwithstanding, instances occur of the use of the ' Pronominal Adjective for some construction of the Personal Pronoun, in expressions of a certain cast. Plato Apol. p. 36. δεομένω αηειν σγολην επί ττ} υμέτερα παρακεΚεύσει. Luke xxii. 19. εϊς την εμην άνάμνησιν. 1 Cor. xi. 24, 25. . This may be regarded as a form fixed in colloquial usage. Rom. xi. 31. τω υμετερω ελεεί, ' By the mercy shown to you.' ON THE PRONOUN. 125 1 Cor. xv. 31. νή την υμετέραν καύχησιν ην βγω iv Χριστώ ^Ιησου. The expression in this passage is remarkable, even if taken as an instance of the particular usage in question ; but what is meant, seems to be this : that, while the Apostle had his rejoicing, the ground on which it rested, lay with the Corinthians. Chrysostom explains, καύχησιν ενταύθα την αυτών προκοπήν λέγων. The remaining points for remark respecting the Pronoun are supplied by particular passages and ex- I pressions. 2 Ti. ii. 26. καϊ άνανήψωσιν εκ της του .διάβολου παηίοος εζωηρημενοι υπ αυτού εϊς το εκείνου θέλημα. On the question which arises from this passage, whether the reference of ineivov is distinct from that of αυτόν, it is enough to remark in this place, that such is not necessarily the case (Thucyd. I. 132), but the word may simply carry force with it : otherwise, the reference is to Oeos in the preceding clause. Re. xvii. 16. τα, Βεκα κέρατα α είδες, καϊ το θηρίον> ούτοι μισήσουσι την πόρνην. The masculine ούτοι is here properly used, as indicative of the persons of whom the horns and the beast are prophetical symbols. 1 Cor. vi. 11. καϊ τ αυτά τίνες ήτε. The neuter ταύτα, having reference to classes of persons, should be noted as an expression of contemptuous reprobation. Jas. iv. 13. σήμερον ή αύρων πορευσόμεθα εις τήνΒε την πολιν. The lively air of reality produced by the demonstrative τήνδε, as imply- ing an object in immediate prospect, should not be overlooked in this passage. ' To-day or to-morrow we will travel to this city here.' A like effect with another demonstrative may be noticed, Mark iv. 11. 126 ON THE PRONOUN. Some notice is due to the expressions αυτί] τη ημίρα and airy τη ώρα (Luke ii. 38; vii. 21 ; xii. 12; xiii. 31 ; xx. 19; xxiii. 12; xxiv. 13, 33. Acts xvi. 18 ; xxii. 13). The practice of the writer in other places shews that there is here neither a confounding of the combinations 6 αυτός, αυτός ό — , nor an awkward substitution of αυτή for eW^. The form occurs in the Greek version of Daniel (iii. 6, 15; iv. 30; v. 5), and may be regarded as an Aramaism. The force of the peculiar expressions συ Xeyeis (Mat. xxvii. 1 1 . Mark xv. 2. Lu. xxiii. 3. John xviii. 37), υμα,ς Xeyere (Luke xxii. 70), συ (ίΐπας (Mat. xxvi. 25, 64) must be regarded as resting to some extent, if not mainly, in the pronoun, but with a different effect from that which Greek usage would assign to it. Another, εγώ dpi, may in this respect be classed with them. CHAPTER VI. ON THE VERB. No part of the structure of the Greek language sur- passes in fulness and delicacy the apparatus of the Verb ; the employment of which by the writers of the New Testament should accordingly be especially con- I sidered; and the more so, because it might be that the influence of a very different idiom had materially impaired their use of the refined instrument which the Greek here supplied. SECTION I. — ON THE TENSES. In the Greek Verb, Tense is, in itself, the expres- sion of the several stages, or phases, in which action may be viewed in thought. The points of view in which action may thus come before the mind, and which are severally expressed by the variety of form ! called Tense, are three, namely, process, accomplish- ment, and prospect. 128 ON THE TENSES. Tense is thus not primarily and directly an expres sion of Time, but only so far as the idea of time may enter by association with those that are primarily expressed by the several tenses, and have been just specified. The Indicative mood directly combines with the essential idea of each several Tense, the further one of actual time, past or present. This is the charac- teristic function of the Mood and the groundwork of its entire usage.* The Present Tense, so called, expresses action as a matter of process ; and this is the sole essential idea of the Tense, as such, in other Moods than the Indica- 1| tive. In the Indicative Mood there is combined with this proper notion of the Tense the further one of actual present time.f But since process may also be laid in past time, the Indicative Mood would require another form to convey; this particular combination of ideas ; and, accordingly, it is furnished with another tense for the purpose, the so-called Imperfect. These tenses may, therefore, in virtue of their com- mon essential notion, be to a certain extent considered'' together. * No small amount of confusion and mistake has arisen from regarding' the Greek Tenses as, in themselves, direct and positive expressions of time, . instead of being so indirectly and accidentally. t Thus the name of the tense is really appropriate only in the Indicative Mood^ ON THE TENSES. 129 Their ordinary use is of too simple a kind to require formal exemplification: yet attention should be care- fully drawn to them when strictly used to express process as still process. Mat. xxv. 8. at Χαμπάΰες ημών σββννυνται. ' Oar lamps are going out.' The precise nature of the circumstance thus described is not immaterial to an exact interpretation of the parable as regards its immediate application. Jas. iii. 18. καρπός Be δικαιοσύνης σπβίρβται iv ειρήνη τοις ποιουσιν είρήνην. 4 And a crop of righteousness is being sown' — is having its seed sown — ' in peace for those that make peace.' 1 Thess. iv. 4. elBivai εκαστον υμών το εαυτού σκεύος κτάσθαι iv άγιασμω και τί,μΛ;. Attention should here be paid to the tense of the verb κτάσθαι, as expressing an advancing procedure, the continued acquirement of a wider and firmer control. So the literal expression οσα κτώμαι (Luke xviii. 12) signifies all incomings as they accrue. Eph. iv. 22. τον παΧαιον άνθρωπον τον φθειρόμενον κατά τας επιθυμίας της απάτης. The expression of process should here again be noted in the term φθειρόμενον, the process of ever advancing debasement and ruin. Others of the same class are οι σωζόμενοι and ol άπολλύμενοι, 1 Cor. i. 18. 2 Cor. ii. 15 ; iv. 3. 2 Thess. ii. 10. In another place, however, Acts ii. 47, the tense is used to signify the continued succession of individual instances : as also, Heb. x. 14. 1 John iii. 4. πάς 6 ποιών την άμαρτίαν καϊ την άνομίαν ιποιεΐ. ν. 6. πάς 6 iv αύτω μίνων ούχ άμαρτάνεΐ' πάς 6 Ιάμαρτάνων ουκ εώρακεν αυτόν. ν. 8. 6 ποιών την άμαρτίαν Μκ του διάβολου εστίν, ν. 9. πάς 6 γεγεννη μένος εκ του Θεού άμαρτίαν ου ποιεί. 10 130 ON THE TENSES. 1 John v. 18. πάς ό ^ε^εννη μένος itc του Θεού ούχ άμα ρ- : τ αν ει. In this group of passages it is important to recognise the precise fcrce of the tense, as rightly expressing a maintenance of a certain tenor : and " with this accords the presence of the Article before the words άμαρτίαν and άνομίαν, indicating a use of those terms in an abstract or general sense, expressive not of an act but a specific line of action. ■ The expression of process becomes readily an ex-i pression of other allied ideas, as, for instance, pro-i, longed or habitual recurrence. Mark xiv. 12 ; xv. 6. Eph. iii. 14. Again, procedure towards an action, as being akin to actual process, finds expression in these tenses. John x. 32. Bta ποίον αυτών epyov εμε Χίθάζετε; John xiii. 6. συ μου νίπτεις τους πόδας; Luke i. 59. εκάΧουν αυτό — Ζαγαρίαν. ' They were proceeding to name the child Zacharias.' Mat. iii. 14. 6 he 'Ιωάννης Βιεκώλυεν αυτόν. Heb. xi. 17. καΐ τον μονογενή προσίφερεν. ' And was proceeding to offer,' etc., when suddenly arrested in his pro-f[ cedure. An instance of the same usage is to be recognised in a particular employment of the first Person of the- Imperfect tense of verbs which signify an act oi wishing. It is properly the utterance of a rising; wish that is checked by a consciousness of circum- stances which bar, or, at least, discourage its enter- tainment. ON THE TENSES. 131 iEschin. Ctcs. p. 53. εβουΧόμην μεν ουν και την βοϋλήν — ορθώς Βιοκεΐσθαι, κ. τ. λ. Epictet. Diatr. II. xxi. 14. ηθέλόν πως ποτέ πάντα μαθών επανεΧθεϊν άΧΧα ποΧΧου πόνου χρεία κ. τ. λ. Liban. Epist. 970. εβουΧόμην μεν εχειν υπέρ άμεινόνων γράφειν. Rom. ix. 3. ηύχόμην ? προσεύξωμαι. Mark xv. 20. οτε ένέπαιξαν αύτω, κ. τ. λ. Luke ix. 36. εν τω γενέσθαι την φωνήν ευρέθη 6 ' Ιησούς μόνος. ' Just when the voice had issued,' etc. Luke xvii. 8. έω? φάγω και πιω. 4 Till I shall have eaten and drunk.' John xiii. 2. δείπνου γενομένου. 1 When supper was over.' This rendering assigns to the tense the same force as in the expression, «ret δ' 6 παιαν eyevero (Xen. Cyrop. III. iii. 58), as also, των ep -γων ψνηβζντων (Heb. iv. 3) : but, since the commencement or any stage of a prolonged action may be regarded as accomplishment when viewed in contrast with whatever is merely preliminary, the sense i may be the same as in another expression, -γενομένου σαββάτον (Mark vi. 2). All ambiguity disappears with the various reading γινομένου. 134 ON THE TENSES. John xix. 23. ore εσταύρωσαν τον Ίησουν, κ. τ. λ. John xxi. 15. ore ουν ήρίστησαν, κ. τ. λ. Acts iv. 31. δεηθεντων αυτών, εσαΚεύθη 6 τόπος. 1 Cor. xvi. 5. εΧεύσομαι δε προς υμάς, όταν Μακεδονίαν διέλθω. ' But I will come to you, whenever I shall have traversed Macedonia. Mat. xxiii. 2. επί της Μωυσεως καθέδρας εκάθισαν οι γραμ- ματείς καϊ οι Φαρισαΐοι. 4 On the chair of Moses did the scribes and the Pharisees seat them- selves' in place of its official occupants. They found the seat virtually empty, and occupied it. Mat. xxiii. 22. ομνύει iv αύτω και iv τω κατοικησαντι αυτόν. * Swears by it and by him that made it his abode ' by a solemn mani- festation of his presence (1 Kings viii. 13). The other reading κατοικοΰντι is suspicious, as conveying a more obvious meaning. A similar usage is observable in another place, Jas. iv. 5, το πνεύμα δ κατωκησβν iv ήμϊν, ' The spirit that took up an abode in us.' So, ββασιλευσβ, Rev. xix. 6, ' Has taken the kingdom.' 2 Cor. v. 15. el εις ύπερ πάντων άπέθανεν, άρα οι πάντες άπέθανον. ί• ' If one died in behalf of all, then did they all die ' in the vicarious act. John vii. 26. μήποτε αληθώς έγνωσαν οι άρχοντες οτι ούτος εστίν ό Χριστός; * Have the rulers really made up their minds,' etc. Compare Eurip. Ion. 352. 2 Tim. ii. 19. εηνω b Κύριος τους οντάς αυτοί). These words are an exact quotation from the Septuagint (Num. xvi. 5) and the use of the Aorist is at once explained by a view of the entire passage from which the citation is made. a, ON THE TENSES. 135 1 John iv. 8. ό μη αγαπών ουκ εγνω τον Θεόν οτι 6 Θεός αγάπη εστίν. ' He that loves not, never got a knowledge of God ' experimentally by having at any time known what love is; 'because God is love.' m The First Person of the Indicative Mood of the Aorist sometimes expresses action on the instant on the part of a speaker or writer. Soph. Elect. 66%. εΒεξάμην το ρηθέν. Eurip. Cycl. 101. γαίρειν προσείπα πρώτα τον ηεραίτατον. Philem. 19. εγώ ΠαϋΧος έγραψα τη εμη χεφί, Εγώ αποτίσω. 4 1 Paul here write it with my own hand, I will pay it off.' 1 Cor. v. 9. έγραψα υμίν iv τη επιστο\η κ. τ. λ. ι?. 11. νυνΧ Be έγραψα ύμΐν μη συναναμίγνυσθαι κ,, τ. λ. In the second instance, in this passage, έγραψα is an evident example of this particular usage. ' Now however I here write it down,' etc. If the first also be so regarded, the purport of the entire passage (vv. 9, 10, 11,) would be as follows. ' I here write it down for you in the epistle,' μη σνναναμί-γννσθαι πόρνοις. This is followed by a correction in limitation of the sweeping terms of the injunction μη σ. π., to the effect, that it is given without any reference whatever (ού πάντως) to fornicators, and so forth, τον κόσμου τούτον : and this, again, by a rewording of the injunction with such clearness and precision as to prevent any misapprehension of the writer's meaning. ' Now however, I write it down for you, not to keep company, if any one,' etc. Gal. vi. 11. ϊΒβτβ πηΧίκοίς νμΐν γράμμασιν έγραψα τη έμη χβφί. Here the term έγραψα may be employed with reference to the whole preceding part of the epistle : but it may also be taken as an instance of the present usage, and so refer only to the clause of which it forms a part, and which was to be an authentication of the entire epistle. ' See in letters of what size I here write for you with my own hand.' 136 ON THE TENSES. Philem. 11. bv ανέπβμψα. This is a possible instance, and may be rendered, * Whom I herewith send back : ' but the words should rather be viewed as written under an impression of the time when the letter would have come to hand. See 2 Kings v. 6. Acts xxiii. 30. Luke xvi. 4. eyvwv τι ττοίήσω. The Indicative of the Aorist is also sometimes an expression of the accomplishment of a settled routine or law in its individual instances, and thus acquires a lively use in the narrative of incidents of that class. Isocr. Dem. p. 2. κάΧλος yap ή 'χρόνος άνάλωσεν ή νόσος ίμάρανβ. Jas. i. 11. avereCke yap ό ηλίος συν τω καυσωνι και βξήρανβ τον γόρτον, καϊ το άνθος αυτού έξίπβσβ, καϊ ή 6ύττρβ7Γ€ΐα του προσώπου αύτοΰ άπώλβτο. This is perhaps the only instance that can be fairly cited from the New Testament, besides the citation, 1 Pet. i. 24 ; but its animated expression of incidents in quick succession and effect is worthy of remark. ' For risen has the sun with the scorching heat and has parched the herbage,' etc. The New Testament exhibits an occasional use of the Indicative of the Aorist, which may be regarded as having some resemblance to this last, but is still not the same with it. It is when a circumstance which is to issue as a matter of general certainty, is repre- sented as an issue in fact, that is, by the Indicative of the Aorist. John xv. 6. eav μή τις μβίνρ iv βμοί, ββ\ηθη βξω ώ? τό κλήμα. ' Unless one shall have abided in me, he has ' by that default * been thrown away.' . ON THE TENSES. 137 John xv. 8. εν τούτω εδοξάσθη 6 πατήρ μου, ίνα καρττον πολύν φερητε. To this usage may also be referred the expression ώμοιώθη ή βασιλεία των ουρανών (Mat. xiii. 24; xviii. 23; xxii. 2); as if the mould had already received its shape, though the cast was yet to issue. The words (δικαιωθη η σοφία άπο των τέκνων αυτής (Mat. xi. 19. Luke vii. 35), may also supply an instance ; but they are capable of another interpretation. Rev. x. 7. αλλ' εν ταΐς ήμεραι,ς της φωνής του εβ&όμου ayyeXov, όταν μέΧΧη σαΧπίζευν, καϊ ετεΧέσθη το μυστηριον του Θεού. This passage might be regarded as standing alone with regard to the use of the Indicative of the Aorist ; but it admits of a ready explanation, since it differs but slightly from the preceding instances, being simply the representing of a positive futurity as an actual accomplishment. 'But in the days of the seventh angel, whenever he is to sound, then has the mystery of God been accomplished.' Here, as in other places of the Septuagint and New Testament, the particle και serves as a formal opening of the apodosis of the sentence. The essential difference between the Aorist and the Present or Imperfect, is best shewn when they are brought together in immediate contrast. Demosth. Mid. p. 525. χρή δε όταν μεν τίθησθε τους νόμους, οποίοι τίνες είσί, σκοπεΐν, επεώαν 8ε θήσθε, φυΧάτ- τειν καϊ χρήσθαί. Xen. Anab. V. iv. 24. τους μεν ούν πεΧταστας εΒέξαντο οι βάρβαροι καϊ εμά'χοντο. Mat. iv. 11. άγγεΧοί προσήΧθον καϊ διηκόνουν αύτω. Mat. viii. 15. ψ/έρθη καϊ δίηκόνεί αύτω. Mat. xiii. 8. άΧΧα δε επεσεν επί την γην την καΧην καϊ εΒίΒου καρπόν. Mat. xvii. 7. εηερθητε καϊ μη φοβεΐσθε. Mat. χχν. 5. ενύσταξαν πασαι καϊ έκάθευΰον. 138 ON THE TENSES. Mark i v. 26, 27. ως εαν άνθρωπος βολτ) τον σπόρον επί της γης καϊ καθεύΒτ} teal ε^είρηται νύκτα καϊ ημεραν. Luke νϋ. 23. κατεβη \αΐ\αψ άνεμου εις την Χίμνην καϊ συν- επΧηροΰντο καϊ εκινΒύνευον. Jas. ii. 22. ή πίστις συνηρηει τοΐς ερηοις αύτοΰ, καϊ εκ των φγων η 7τίστι<ζ ετεΧειώθη. 1 Cor. χ. 4. καϊ πάντες το αύτο πνευματικόν επιον πόμα' επινον yap εκ πνευματικής άκο\ουθούσης πέτρας. Two tenses are here employed in describing the same circumstance. At the first mention, however, bare incident is all that is necessary to be expressed, and this is done by the Aorist ; while the term ακολουθούσης, whatever explanation be given of it, implies continuance of some kind or other : and hence the transition to the Imperfect, as an expression of that idea. The idea conveyed by the Perfect Tense, so called, is a compound one, combining with that of the Aorist, namely, accomplishment as regards the action, the further one of an ensuing effect ; in other words, | action with its issue. The actual time within which the Indicative Mood of the tense represents such issue or effect as lying, is the present. The Pluperfect stands in the same rela- tion to the Perfect, as the Imperfect to the Present. The relative importance of the two constituents in the entire idea conveyed by these tenses is open to considerable variation ; which will be best seen by a classification of instances. Foremost are those in which the tense is mainly the expression of a definite state. ON THE TENSES. 139 Xen. Hell. VII. p. 376. κατεμάνθανε — τους αντιπάλους πεφυΧαη μένους. Πεφ., ' On their guard — in a guarded posture.' Aristopli. Eccles. 517. της αρχής ήν άρτι κεχειροτόνημαι. Demosth. Con. p. 1267. εσκυθρωπάκασι και Χακωνίζειν φασί. Έσκ., * They wear a sullen look.' Aristopli. Lys. 7. τι συντετάραξαι ; Plato. Soph. p. 250. τοΰτο μεν τοίνυν ενταύθα κείσθω Βιη- ! ττορημένον. Αιηπ., ' Left to utter doubt.' Xen. Anab. II. ii. 14. ετύγχανε 'yap εφ? αμάξης πορευό- μενος, διότι ετετρωτο. 'Ere., • He was disabled by a wound.' Mat. viii. 6. ό παις μου βεβΧηται εν τη οικία. John xiii. 10. ό \ε\ουμενος ου χρείαν έχει ή τους πόδα? νίψασθαι. John χϋ. 27. νυν ή ψυχή μου τετάρακται. 1 Cor. νϋ. 10. τοις δε ηε^αμηκόσι τταραγγέΧλω. ι Ύοϊς ye ., ' Those in wedlock.' 1 Cor. vii. 39.