/-> LB 875 L45 Copy 1 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION A Survey of Fundamentals TOPICS, QUESTIONS, REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES FOR GROUP-DISCUSSION DANIEL BELL LEARY, PH. D. Professor of Psychology COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES llntttfrattg of Huffalo BUFFALO NEW YORK 1920 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION A Survey of Fundamentals TOPICS, QUESTIONS, REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES FOR GROUP-DISCUSSION DANIEL BELL LEARY, PH. D. Professor of Psychology COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES Untupratty of Huffalo BUFFALO NEW YORK 1920 TO THE (farmttv IlnitiprHttQ of Huffalo &r$ w COPYRIGHT 1920 BY Hanirl Urll lErarif ©CU565758 PREFACE This course in the Philosophy of Education is intended to fol- low out the educational leads which were simply touched upon in the Syllabus of Sociology. The latter course considered the nature, evo- lution and problems of society in a more general and less detailed sense than is the purpose of the present outline. It is here intended ,to analyze more thoroughly and fundamentally the present nature, the process of growth and the problems of society in their relation to the educational process considered as the basic element in the whole situation. The word 'Fundamentals' in the sub-title, is meant to indicate that considerable emphasis has been placed, throughout, on the presup- positions of an educational theory. Much space has", therefore, been de- voted to an analysis of experience, a consideration of its various organ- ized forms, original human nature and its significance, the nature and evolution of society, and the meaning of the concept 'progress' as ap- plied to society and human activity. Section E, on the school, sums up these matters for concrete situations. In this preliminary study of the field direct positive statement of conclusions has not been made and, from the nature of the method used and its purpose, such was impossible. It is the intention of the out- line to offer the student material for successively larger and broader generalizations about society, the individual and education, each Topic being based, in the main, on the preceding, the whole leading to a final summary of facts and theory, consistent with the nature of ex- perience considered as a significant unity. A word about the hibliographies may not be out of place here. In compiling both the larger Bibliography at the end of the Syllabus, as well as the shorter lists of selected references preceding each sec- tion, my intention has been to include not only those books which are, in a sense, standard and immediately germane to the subject, but also certain more general and less specifically educational readings, the significance of which consists not only in their contact with the sub- ject at a given point but also in their value as introductions to closely allied and fundamentally important fields of thought. No text-book is called for; instead, references to diverse points of view and conflicting evidence are assigned for each Topic, and the class-hour will be given over to a discussion intended to sift from the evidence in question that which is pertinent to the subject and the point of view involved. The student's "recitation" will consist in his active participation in this class discussion, and every student will be expected to contribute his share. I am glad to express my sincere obligation to Professor William Heard Kilpatrick of Teachers' College, Columbia University, to whom I owe much for both method and inspiration, and it has been my ef- fort to approach, in some measure, both the clarity of his thought and the significance of his teaching. DANIEL BELL LEARY. TABLE OF CONTENTS TO THE STUDENT V A. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND EXPERIENCE. 11-26 Selected References 11 I. Experience and Its Organization 13 II. The Meaning of Science and of Philosophy. ... 15 III. The Meaning of Education ' 17 IV. The Implications of a Theory of Education. ... 19 V. Aims, Values and Interest in Education; 1 21 VI. Aims, Values and Interest in Education; II. .. . 23 VII. Philosophy of Education as a Method 25 B. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND HISTORY. . . .27-38 Selected References 27 VIII. History and Historical Knowledge 29 IX. The Concept of Evolution 31 X. The Meaning of Progress 33 XL The Causes and Criteria of Progress 35 XII. The Significance of the History of Education. . 37 C. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL 39-54 Selected References 39 KITT. The Original Nature of Man 41 XIV. The Learning Process ; I 4 3 XV. The Learning Process ; II 45 XVI. Individual Differences and Their Significance. . . 47 XVII. The Nature of an Individual : The Self 49 XVIII. The Process of Growth of the Self 51 XIX. The Unity of All Experience 53 D. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND S< )CIETY 55-70 Selected References 55 XX. i Evolution and Society 57 XXI. Social Control and Socialization 59 XXII. The School as an Agency of Dynamic Control. . 61 XXIII. Institutions and Their Significance 63 XXIV. Morality as a Type of Conduct 65 XXV. Society and the State 67 XXVI. Democracy and Its Critics 69 5 E. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND THE SCHOOL 71-88 Selected References 71 XXVII. Experience and the School ; I ; Living and Learning 73 XXVIII. Experience and the School ; II; The Recitation. 75 XXIX. Experience and the School ; III ; Morality 77 XXX. Experience and the School ; IV ; Method and Discipline 79 XXXI. Proportioned Values and Interests 81 XXXII. The Study of Man and the Study of Nature ; I ; Their Unity 83 XXXIII. The Study of Man and the Study of Nature ; II ; The Curriculum 85 XXXIV. The Study of Man and the Study of Nature ; III ; Vocational Studies 8/ F. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND THE PRESENT 89-98 Selected References 89 XXXV. The Present as a Center of Revaluation 91 XXXVI. The Concept of an Ideal Society 93 XXXVII. The Bases of an Ideal Society; Man, Nature and Science 95 XXXVIII. Philosophy of Education ; A Summary 97 Bibliography 99-117 TO THE STUDENT. Each of the Topic sheets of this syllabus lists, immediately after the last question, a number of references, dealing with different aspects of the subjects therein under discussion, and divided into two groups, I and II, the first containing typical references, for which chapter or page numbers are given, the second listing more general readings, without specific indication of chapter or page. In using books listed under group II, it is the task of the student to locate, by means of the table of contents or the index, material pertinent to the topic in ques- ion. It is to be noted that the references, at the end of each set of questions, give simply the name of the author. Titles are to be found in the list of selected references prefixed to each of the six sub-divi- sions of this syllabus. When a given author has more than one title in such a selected list, reference to his name will be*followed by a figure, (1), (2), etc., indicating whether the first or the second, etc., of his books is meant. Additional books on each topic are to be found in the general Bibliography, at the end of the syllabus. References on the Topic sheets do not directly refer to this full Bibliography. Each student is required to read at least three references for each Topic, and to make note of such readings in a note-book which is to be handed in to the instructor at the end of each quarter for examina- tion and credit. This note-book is to contain the title, the author, the exact pages read, and an estimation of comparative value for each reference studied. The estimate is to be in terms of the letters A, B, C, D, E, — where the letter A stands for the highest rank. In addition the student may record whatever criticisms or comments he may care to make in justification of his rating. Each such record of reading must show the date when it was done. It is strongly urged, though not required, that after the references for a given topic have been read, students form themselves into small groups of three or four and discuss, in the light of their respective readings, the questions of the topic sheet to which they apply. This will best prepare the student for the class discussion, which it is the purpose of the whole method to foster. Lectures and recitations will be entirely subordinated to the group discussion, to which each student will be expected to contribute his share. Current issues of educational magazines will be found in the library, and articles in them applying to any given topic may be cred- ited in the list of readings. Notation of them is to be made in the same way as for the books. Credit is also allowed for readings in languages other than English or for pertinent material in books not listed in the Bibliography. 10 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND EXPERIENCE Selected References for Section A Bagley Baldwin Betts Boutroux Butler Colvin Conklin Dewey Dewey, etc. Durant Enriques Goldenweiser Haldane Hanus Heck Henderson E N Henderson L J Hetherington and Muirhead Hobhouse The Educative Process Educational Values Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology Social and Ethical Interpretations Social Principles of Education Natural Law in Science and Philosophy Contingency of the Laws of Nature The Meaning of Education The Learning Process Heredity and Environment Democracy and Education How We Think Creative Intelligence Philosophy and the Social Problem Problems of Science History, Psychology and Culture Mechanism, Life and Personality Educational Aims and Educational Methods Mental Discipline and Educational Values Principles of Education Fitness of the Environment The Order of Nature Social Purpose Mind in Evolution Development and Purpose Radical Empiricism Pragmatism The Meaning of Truth Fundamentals of Child Study Outlines of Social Philosophy Philosophy of Education Cyclopedia of Education What Is Education? Limitations of Science Instinct and Experience Habit and Instinct Our Knowledge of the External World Life of Reason: vols. I and V Philosophy, Its Scope and Relations Essays on Education Educational Psychology (Briefer Course) Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behavior- ist (For initials of authors, full titles and for additional references, see the general Bibliography at the end of the syllabus. For explana- tion of this list and for directions concerning the references to it at the end of the following seven Topic sheets, see page entitled "TO THE STUDENT"). 11 James Kukpatrick Mackenzie MacVannel Monroe P Moore More Morgan Russell Santayana Sidgwick Spencer Thorndike Watson 12 1. EXPERIENCE AND ITS ORGANIZATION. 1. What fundamental term names the common characteristics of such activities as 'thinking,' 'feeling,' 'doing,' 'resting,' etc., etc.? In what sense is the term fundamental? What synonyms, if any? 2. What general descriptive terms can he applied to 'experience' ? Do they apply to the experiences of everybody? To the experience of anybody at all times? In what sense, and in what manner, roughly, did your experience have a beginning? Do you ever (now) have ex- periences that are comparable with those of a just developing consci- ousness? Is it then 'you' who have them? Discuss the meaning of the expressions, T have an experience,' and T am an experience.' 3. From the point of view of the nature of experience, what is 'mind,' 'character,' 'personality,' etc ? Describe, psychologically, the process of formation involved. Just. what is meant, in this connection, bv 'organization'? What, if anything, does the organizing, and what, if anything, is organized? Can you discuss all that is involved here . without reference to unanalyzed entities and powers? 4. Following out the last question, describe what you mean by 'thing,' 'person' (or 'self'), 'environment,' 'situation,' 'relation,' 'func- tion.' Is experience (at any given moment) a 'this' plus a 'that,' and so on? Is experience, as a whole, one moment plus another? 5. Do we ever experience a thing without a self in relation to it. or the self other than in relation to some thing? Does this imply disparate halves of the field of experience, or is such an analysis a cer- tain type of experience in relation to others? Ts there anything in (present) experience which is not the product of previous experience? Is everything in experience reducible to present or past relation (s) of the environment and the psycho-physical organism ? 6. Avoiding the dualism (linguistic) of the last question discuss the meaning of, "The process of the individual life is a unitary thing, in which an ideal distinction may be made between the self and its environment, the agent and his sphere of action." (MacVannel.) 7. Returning to question 1 above, discuss the meaning of the term 'resting.' Is experience ever absolutely a passive acceptance of a sit- uation? Compare question 5, last part. Discuss, "Experience is in truth a matter of activities, instinctive and impulsive, in their interac- tions with things." (Dewey.) 8. Discuss, in the light of the meaning of experience, the rela- tion of heredity and environment, (a) as showing the continuity of the experience of the individual and his immediate ancestry, (b) as showing the continuity of the experience of individuals of different ancestry. 13 9. Discuss psychologically the phenomena of attention, and show the relation of the experiences of a given (jdeal) moment of consci- ousness to, (a) the past, (b) future experiences. Sum up the funda- mental conclusions of the present topic and make a list of issues raised for further discussion. References. I. Baldwin (1); Monroe; Dewey (1). pp. 163-169; Watson, chap. I; Dewey, etc., pp. 1-29; Henderson, E. N., chaps. II, III; Hob- house (2), pp. 1-28, also part I, chaps, Y-IX; James (1), chap. II; MacVannel, pp. 1-31 ; Baldwin (2), chaps. I, II; Colvin, chaps. I, II; Bagley (1), part II. II. Hobhouse (1); James (2) (3); Henderson, L. J. (1) (2) ■ Haldane ; Conklin ; Morgan (1) i_2) : Dewev (2); Kirkpatnck. (See page entitled, 'TO THE STUDENT.') 14 II. THE MEANING OF SCIENCE AND OF PHILOSOPHY. 1. Was experience, as developed in the preceding Topic, only or primarily a matter of 'knowledge'? Was it primarily a matter of sub- jective activity, something merely psychical? Did it project always into the past; ever into the future? What was its connection with so-called 'relations' between things? 2. In what sense is science also experience? In what sense has a (present) body of science been experience? What relation has such (a) science to future experience? Is science only, or primarily, a mat- ter of knowledge? Discuss; "Science is experience becoming ration- al." (Dewey) 3. Is it the function of knowledge in ordinary experience (as contrasted with science) to be and remain simply knowledge? What is its relation to conduct and to the future ? In what sense is science a tool ? What is the nature of the 'abstractness' of science ; to what is it due? 4. In what sense does science merge the experience (actual or possible) of all individuals, of all times and places? Returning to the point of view of question 3, how is the organization of science differ- ent from the organization of ordinary experience? Is it a question of number of facts or experiences which are so organized ? Only ? Is organization determined by purpose? By present difficulties; future difficulties? Of the individual, or of society? 5. What has been the usual significance of the term philosophy? Has philosophy 'taken thought' in order to accomplish something? Is philosophy comparable to science in respect to its organizing power, its usability (as a tool), its power to merge the experience of individuals, its purpose, its functioning in difficulties? 6. Whence does philosophy derive its content? Is philosophy, then, a part of experience, arising out of the general field of human activity? How comes it, then, to be so unrelated to felt difficulties in the field of concrete experience? Is philosophy (or has it been) pri- marily a matter of knowledge ? At all times ? What is the outline of its history? 7. What is the present movement (s) in philosophy, i. e., such as pragmatism, neo-realism, instrumentalism, etc. ? Their purpose, their methods, their results? What new streams of thought have come to incorporate themselves in the philosophic tradition? Discuss, "A prag- matic intelligence is a creative intelligence, not a routine mechanic." (Dewey.) 8. What should be the relation of philosophy and the several sci- ences? In what sense is philosophy the critic of science — in what IS sense might the reverse be true? In what sense is philosophy a sum- mation of the sciences ; does this summation add anything not furnished by any of the sciences? 9. What tentative application of the principles of this and the preceding paper can you make to the field of education? References. I. Baldwin ( 1 ) ; Monroe ; Dewey ( 1 ), pp. 221-24, 201-67, 330-33, 378-87; MacVannel. pp. 5-18; Dewey, etc, pp. 1-69; Sidgwick, pp. 1-37; Dewey (2), chaps. X, XI ; Hobhouse (2), part II, chaps. I, II. II. Dewey, etc.; Santayana; Russell; More; Enriques ; James (2) (3) ; Boutroux (1) (2). ' 16 III. THE MEANING OF EDUCATION. 1. Distinguish, tentatively, the following terms: Adjustment, re- action, response, intention, purpose ; surroundings, conditions, situa- tion, environment; individual, society; mechanical, physical, biological. 2. Do we actually find 'education,' of one kind or another, to be a part of the total activity of all peoples at all times? Of animals? In what characteristics does such activity differ from the behavior of a stone when thrown or struck? To what are the differences, in the main, due ? 3. In education, in this general sense, is it always and merely an individual as such, who responds to a given situation? In what sense is education the response of society. to a situation? Discuss, "Society exists through a process of transmission quite as much as bi- ological life." (Dewey). 4. Why cannot education take place by the direct 'imparting' or inculcation of the necessary knowledge, beliefs and attitudes, etc.? What are the means by which these things gradually come to be the pos- session of the (new) individual, and what does this show of the nature of education? What of the function of the school in this connec- tion? Is it all sufficient; necessary at all? 5. In what sense is education a process of control? Of what and for what? In whose interests? In what sense does it differ from physical compulsion ? What does control imply in the nature of the environment; in the nature of the thing or person being controlled? What does control imply as to the nature of past experiences; of pres- ent purposes? 6. Does education equal the sum of this and that knowledge, habit, attitude, etc. ? What else is there? In what different sense does an organism grow from, say, a pile of sand, a body of water? What, if any limits, are implied in this conception of education? 7. Discuss that conception of education which defines it as 'prep- aration' and as 'unfolding.' In what two senses may these words be taken? How definite is the goal or finished condition implied in these conceptions? Are aims and results confused? Explain carefully. Discuss, 'Education is the constant and continuous attainment of abil- ities having value, partly in themselves (in relation to social life) and partly as foundations for further attainments, the process being with- out formal end.' 8. In what two senses may education use the past and its ma- terial in shaping the future ? What would be some contrasting char- acteristics of each attitude? Does any scheme of education neglect either the past or the future? 17 9. Sum up the foregoing questions in one inclusive definition, and be prepared to defend it in class. Gather, from Butler, MacVan- nel, Monroe, etc., several definitions of education and compare, crit- ically, with the conclusions of the above questions. References. I. Baldwin (1); Monroe; Henderson, E. N., chaps. II-IV and XVII-XVIII; MacVannel, chaps, II-IV; Dewey (1), chaps. I-IV and XXIV; Bagley (1), part I. II. Baldwin (2); Dewey (2); Hobhouse (1) (2); Morgan (1) (2); Spencer; Butler; Hanus ; Betts ; Colvin ; Moore. 18 IV. THE IMPLICATIONS OF A THEORY OF EDUCATION. 1. Sum up the foregoing three Topics so as to show clearly their connection with one another. In what sense, if any, are they a neces- sary background for the study of education ? 2. What does the word 'imply' (or implication) mean? Does 'two plus two' imply 'four'? Does 'design in the world' imply a 'de- signer'? Connect this discussion with that on science. . From the point of view of (scientific) determinism, i. e., the explanation of everything in terms of preceeding conditions alone, how is it possible for teachers or the school (education in general) to effect changes ? In this connection, then, what are some of the im- plications of a theory of education? What other factors enter into a situation besides previous conditions? 4. Did any of the definitions of Topic III give specific details of the type of society with reference to which individuals were to be ed- ucated? Have we, at the present moment of the development of the world, a general, all-inclusive society? What, then, are some of the implications in this connection? 5. Did question 7 of Topic III state any definite aims or pur- poses? Does this mean that change is in itself desirable? Or that desirable results will come about with sufficient change? What are the implications in this connection? Discuss the differences involved in educating for a dynamic society and for one that is static. 6. Are types of society, or aims and purposes pure constructions of a priori logic? Does the inherited physical nature of humanity play any part in them? What are, then, some implications of the nature of human beings for educational philosophy ? 7. Is all experience educational? Does the process of associ- ated living in itself adequately educate? Can all share in this, com- pletely, at all times? What does this imply as to the nature and the function of the school ? 8. Discuss, from the point of view of Topic I, the accumulative aspect of experience. Where does it accumulate for the individual, for the group ? What is the general nature of the physical and nervous mechanism of the individual ? What, in this connection, are insti- tutions, history, etc. ? What implications for method, limitations, sub- ject matter, etc., etc., in a theory of education? 9. Discuss, "In order to answer the question, 'What ought educa- tion to aim at,' the prior question, 'What is a person, both in himself and in his environment'? must be dealt with." (MacVannel). Has this, in any sense been done? What further discussion, if any, is necessary in this connection? (Se« List of Topics). 19 References. I. and II. As for Topic III. See also, Mackenzie, Book II, chap. II, Book III,, chap. Ill Hetherington and Muirhead, chap. X. 20 V. AIMS, VALUES AND INTEREST IN EDUCATION :I. 1. Discuss, in some detail, the differences in the meanings of the following terms, particularly in their educational bearing: Aim, goal, purpose, intention, effort, means, method, end, result, etc. See Baldwin (1); Monroe. 2. May a student, who has failed in his examination, be said to have 'aimed' at the failure, or was the failure a 'result' of his in- sufficient or unrelated activity? Could he 'aim' to pass, and yet fail? Discuss all that is involved thoroughly. 3. Do the natural forces have aims or purposes ; do animals ; do all human beings; at all times? Does the operation of instinct in- volve aims? Are aims a matter of conscious behavior? Always? What about the continuity and the intrinsic organization of experience in this connection as opposed to mere addition and multiplicity of ex- periences ? 4. Discuss ; " the aim as a foreseen end gives direction to the activity; it is not the idle view of a mere spectator " (Dewey). In what several ways does such 'foresight' function? What are the (philosophical?) implications here? Have they been brought up for consideration previously? In what connection? 5. Compare Topic I and discuss the nature of 'mind' in con- nection with aims and purposes, showing the relation, thereby, of pres- ent, past and future experience. What does 'absent-mindedness' im- ply as to conduct ; what does being of 'two minds' mean, in this con- nection ? 6. Are all aims of equal value? To the individual ; to the group? What has often been the source of aims in education ? Discuss 'train- ing versus education' from the point of view of the nature of good aims. Whatever their source, in what sense should aims be 'flexible?' What would be the meaning of an 'experimental' aim ? 7. Is any aim an aim in and for itself, as such? Do we learn Greek or calculus simply to statically know the facts involved ? Do we, on the other hand, learn them simply as steps to still further acquire- ments? In what sense is the means to a given end also a (temporary) end ; in what sense is the end a means ? 8. Make application of all the above to concrete educational sit- uations. Discuss ; "That education is literally and all the time its own reward means that no alleged study or discipline is educative un- less it is worth while in its own immediate having." (Dewey). 9. Have questions 6 and 7 , above, exhausted the considerations of 'value' and 'interest' as related to aims? What is the direction of fur- ther discussion on these topics? 21 References. I. Baldwin (1) ; Monroe; Dewey (1), chaps. VII-IX; Hender- son, E. N., chaps. I-V ; MacVannel, chaps. VI-IX ; Baldwin (2), chaps. I, II and XI-XV T ; Hobhonse (2), part I, chap. V; Watson, chaps. I, II, IV; Thorndike, part I. II. Bagley ( 2) ; Hanus ; Spencer ; Butler ; Colvin ; Heck. 22 VI. AIMS, VALUES AND INTEREST IN EDUCATION: II. 1. Discuss, in connection with the terms of question 1 of the preceding Topic, the meaning of; value, valuation, 'good(s)', stand- ard (s), appreciation, intrinsic, instrumental, extrinsic, satisfying. Connect with discussion on Experience. Are there several opposed meanings to any of these words? 2. Are all experiences (whether momentary or prolonged) good merely for something else? What then is this 'something else' good for ? How far can you prolong the series ? Discuss all that is involved in the following quotations, — are they fundamentally at issue ? " that only is worth while which serves other ends outside itself." (Henderson EN) "Some goods are not good for anything; they are just goods." (Dewey) 3. Give some examples of intrinsic values. Are they all of equal value ? What does this imply as to the nature of goods having in- trinsic value? What implications as to their source, their permanence, etc. ? Give several examples of instrumental values. What of their source, etc.? May a 'good' or an experience partake of both kinds of value ? Examples. 4. In a larger sense of the term are all goods 'good for' any one particular end or supreme value ? Does this imply that we can arrange all experiences in ascending order, as having more and more 'value' for and towards a final value? Compare questions 6 and 7 of the previous Topic. What deductions can you make with reference to the curriculum ? 5. What are some subordinate values which are aimed at in the educational process? Does this imply that these aims are means' to a larger aim? That their sum equals the larger aim? Does this mean that school subjects are to be mere means to attain these sub- ordinate aims? Compare again the nature of experience as organized rather than as mere accumulation. 6. What is the meaning of such terms as interest, concern, solicitude ? What elements in the situation, what characteristics of the individual or group involved are implied ? What implication concern- ing past, future experience ? 7. Show the relationship between aim, value and interest. In what sense is interest a connecting link between present abilities and situations and aims or values? Are there several kinds of interest? Connect with the different types of value. Discuss, in its different bearings, "If a problem is regarded as worth while, it at once becomes interesting.' (Henderson EN) 8. Review question 6 of the preceding Topic, in connection with interest. Are all interests of equal value? Are any interests 23 common to all people ? Are 'interests' ever Imposed from outside ? Examples. What conclusions for an educational theory? 9. Do interests ever compete? Does interest alone justify the inclusion of a given activity in the educational process? What 'court of appeal' in these matters? Do interests change? What brings this about? What part has the school in all this? References. I. and II., as for Topic V. 24 VII. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AS A METHOD. 1. What is the significance of saying that the method used in such and such a study is historical, or psychological or critical? What does method mean in this connection? Is there more than one method, say, to extract square roots? Do they all get the same results, utilize the same materials, involve the same activities? 2. In what sense are subject matter and method different things; in what sense the same thing ? Can they be separated for examination . apart from one another? Can two violinists play the same piece with different techniques? It is actually the same piece; to the hearer, to the producer? 3. How js method connected with aims, values, interests? Dis- cuss, "Method means that arrangement of subject matter which makes it most effective for use." (Dewey) For use with reference to what? Is method (always) instrumental? 4. Connect with the discussion on the nature of experience. Topic I. What there corresponds to subject matter, what to method? What, then, in this larger sense, is the meaning of subject matter and of method? 5. Does method act as a selective agent on subject matter? Method alone, or in combination with what? If, for example, the aim of education is to prepare for the next world, would this aim be, or carry with it a particular method and a selected subject matter? 6. Discuss all that is involved in the following, ( from Mac- Vannel) "Method, accordingly, as the realization and appropriation of experience involves : — (a) activity — in the sense of experimentation; (b) selection of such activities as approximate to or mani- fest a general principle or standard ; (c) organization through emphasis, selection, imitation, sug- gestion, idealization, of class activities on the basis of selected products." What is the general principle or standard of (b) ? Discuss the nature of the terms in (c). Does this mean the imposition of any- thing from outside ? Does it imply fixed aims, standards, etc. ? 7. In what sense is science a method ; how does it differ from other methods; what is its subject matter? (Recall Topic II.) Is the method or the subject matter of science fit, as such, to enter into the educational process? When, and under what conditions? 25 8. What is the method of philosophy, and what its subject matter? Is its subject matter, in any sense, more inclusive than any other? Has this always (historically) been true? Is its method in any sense peculiar? What of its fitness for the different stages of the educational process ? What are aims, values and interest in con- nection with philosophy ? Discuss ;" — philosophy may even be defined as the general theory of education. — Education is the laboratory in which philosophic distinctions become concrete and are tested." (Dewey) References. I. Baldwin (1); Monroe; Boutroux (1), chaps. VIII-XIV; Ennques, chaps. I and II; Hobhouse (2), part II, chaps. I to III; MacVannel, chaps. I, III and IV.; Sidgwick, lects. Ill and VIII- XII ; Watson, chap. II. II. Butler; Goldenweiser ; Haldane ; Henderson E. N. ; Hob- house (1); More; Russell; Santayana ; James (2) (3). 26 B. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND HISTORY. Selected References for Section B The Law of Civilization and Decay Evolution of Educational Theory- Transitional Eras of Thought Physics and Politics Darwin and the Humanities Development and Evolution Civilization of Christendom Social and International Ideals The Presuppositions of Critical History Economic Influences Upon Education, etc. Sociology and Social Progress Introduction to Social Evolution Adams B Adams J Armstrong Bagehot Baldwin Bosanquet Bradley Carlton Carver Chapin Cheyney Clow Crampton Crozier Cubberley Dewey Eggleston Eucken Farrand Forrest Giddings Goldenweiser Hegel Hobhouse Keller Kidd Kropotkin Mackinder Monroe Myers Nordau Osborn Patten Robinson Seward Sumner Teggart Todd Urwick Vincent Walling Ward Woodbridge Education and the Mores European Background of American History Principles of Sociology Doctrine of Evolution Civilization and Progress Public Education in the United States. Influence of Darwin, etc. Transit of Civilization Main Currents of Modern Thought Basis of American History Development of Western Civilization Readings in Descriptive Sociology History, Psychology and Culture Philosophy of History Mind in Evolution Development and Purpose Social Evolution and Political Theory Societal Evolution Social Evolution Principles of Western Civilization Mutual Aid Democratic Ideals and Realities Text-Book in the History of Education History as Past Ethics Interpretation of History From the Greeks to Darwin Heredity and Social Progress Theory of the Social Forces The New History Darwin and Modern Science Folkways The Processes of History Prolegomena to History Theories of Social Progress Philosophy of Social Progress Historical Research Larger Aspects of Socialism Psychic Factors of Civilization Purpose of History 27 28 VIII. HISTORY AND HISTORICAL KNOWLEDGE. 1. Is there a history of education? In what sense? Is there a history of (what we mean by) 'two plus two equals four'? In what sense? What different meanings are there of such a phrase as, 'the history of Athens'? What would be the meaning of the phrase, "a career in time"? (Woodbridge) 2. Discuss, in connection with the meaning(s) of history, ex- perience, science, philosophy, aim(s), value(s). Is there a science of history? Does history give us values, aims? Have there been such in past history? In what sense of the word history? 3. Are the past, the present and the future continuous with one another? In what two senses of the word? Discuss, "The history, then, which is for us, is matter of inference, — And can never start from a background of nothing; — but is essentially connected with the character of our general consciousness. And so that the past varies with the present — "(Bradley) 4. In what sense is the present the result, the product, the out- come, or the realization of the past? Which term is best and why? Is history a mechanical series or a human process? What does this imply? 5. In connection with the idea of continuity discuss the meaning of 'crucial'. Does the conception of a particular aim or value determine what will be called crucial in any development or career? Do they vary with one another? What does 'impartiality' mean in connection with history or the examination of any process? Discuss method and subject matter in this connection. 6. Is it the ideal of history to present merely a series of events in correct order, — to reproduce (in writing) 'things just as they were'? Connect with the discussion on science and philosophy. (Topic II) What is the meaing and the intention of Philosophy of History? Discuss, " — History is Philosophy and Philosophy History." (Croce) 7. In what sense are there several possible histories of the same career? Of the same institution? In what sense is there no such thing as history except as a complete survey of all that has happened in the past, i. e , as a continuity, not only backward and forward, but 'abroad' in all directions at every moment of its career? Discuss this continuity as "the most fundamental and valuable truth which the past has to teach us." (Robinson) 8. Is the process o£ history purposive? Progressive? May con- tinuity lead to situations essentially different in their nature than the original condition? What does the conception of progress imply? 29 9. Sum up the meaning and the implications of history and dis- cuss, " — we can conceive a state of knowledge in which the human species should come to understand its own development, its history, conditions and possibilities, and on the basis of such an understanding should direct its own future." (Hobhouse) References. I. Goldenweiser, pp. 1-29; Hobhouse (2), part II, chap. Ill Nordau, chaps. I, II, VII, X; Sumner, chap. XIX; Teggart (1), chaps I and III, (2), chaps I, IV and V; Woodbridge, chaps. I to III Eucken, sect. D, chap. 2. II. Bagehot : Crozier: Forrest; Hegel: Hobhouse (3); Meyes Monroe; Todd; Ward; Walling; Bradley; Vincent; Robinson. 30 IX. THE CONCEPT OF EVOLUTION. 1. What does 'to evolve' mean? Does a lake 'evolve' out of its sources? Does a lake go through an evolution in its relations (phys- ical) to the surrounding and connected country-side? Does the pro- cess of evolving require an (external) 'evolver'? What previous dis- cussions are connected here ? 2. Does the conception of evolution survey a greater mass of details than does history in its usual significance? Is its method broader, deeper? Is the idea of evolution itself a method? What does it add in method and subject matter to history, as usually understood? Is the method of evolution scientific? Discuss in connection with the same question as applied to history. 3. Discuss," the historian undertakes to relate the details of one or another prominent incident that still existing records enable him to describe ; the evolutionist, , endeavors to determine what the processes are by which the object before him has come to be as it is." (Teggart) 4. What of continuity, purpose, progress in connection with the concept of evolution? Discuss, "■ we can talk of sidereal or solar evolution, of human or social evolution, but let us give up, once for all, talking about world-evolution." (Marvin) 5. What are the main and most significant uses and applications of the concept of evolution? Discuss, "The doctrine of evolution illustrates, perhaps more clearly than any other, the gap between the old mode of thought and the new." (Eucken) —the doctrine of organic development means that the living creature is a part of the world, , and making itself secure only as it intellectually identifies itself with the things about it. and forecasting the future consequences of what is going on, shapes its own activities accord- ingly." (Dewey) 6. Discuss the following, adding whatever other implications seem necessary ; " the theory of evolution seems to imply the fol- lowing factors: — (a) The organic oneness of all things (b) The emergence of the qualitatively new by means of forces resident in the co-operating elements of the pro- cess (c) the two interrelated and co-operating elements, (1) the individual existence , (2) the situation, me- dium or environment (d) new formations or structures are to be conceiv- ed as instruments or methods of adaptation or adjust- 31 merit to specific environmental conditions." (MacVan- nel, condensed, which see.) 7. Carrying the discussion to more concrete matters, what im- plication for education, for subject matter, for method, for considera- tion of the nature of the psycho-physical organism, for the source and nature of aims, values, interests ? What tentative definition can >ou make of such things as habit, instinct, thinking, knowledge, in- stitutions? 8. In what sense does evolution justify the description of a process becoming conscious of itself? Is everything 'fixed' in an evolutionary scheme? Discuss the questions involved here. What connections with previous Topics ? References. I. As for Topic VIII, and as follows; Baldwin (1), chaps. 1. II and V; Dewey, pp. 1-19; Eucken, sect. C, chap. II ; Walling, chaps. III and V; Kidd (1), chap. I; Keller, Introduction and chap. I. II. As for Topic VIII, and as follows; Adams B. ; Adams J ; Baldwin (2); Hobhouse (1), (3); Osborn ; Crampton; Seward. 32 X. THE MEANING OF PROGRESS. 1. Does all activity imply progress? Does the (mere) realiza- tion of ideals, aims, values, etc., imply progress? Is all progress of this realizing or attaining nature? What of the co-ordination of aims, the setting of new purposes in the light of attainments, the reconstruc lion of old values. because of new knowledge and abilities? 2. Is progress primarily a matter of inner (psychic) satisfaction, or of objective changes and rearrangements of the environment, or both? Is progress a 'thing', a process or a condition? What are the standards which measure it? 3. Is progress attained or measured, primarily, over a span of many generations, or is it a matter of one or two in close association? i. e., does a group and its environment change so radically in several centuries (say) that continuity of aim and effort is impossible? 4. Has there been (continuous) progress since the beginnings of (recorded) civilization? In all particulars? In all parts of the human world? Is there a (necessary) decline at certain times and places to compensate for other gains? What measures, historically, have been applied to human activity to estimate or define progress? How have these changed and why. 5. Is progress a matter of coincident and co-operative effort or is it the mere accumulation of independent efforts and results? What is Robinson's estimate of the comparative time of civilization and primitive life, and what bearing has this on the problem? Does pro- gress involve. the destruction of individuality? Does progress re- quire the merging of the individual and the group? Would a differ- ent definition and measurement of progress obtain for an (imagin- ary) isolated individual and group? 6. Discuss, "Progress is a human concept. Physical sci- ence knows only change, not progress. Progress always involves a standard of values and of achievement. It is telic, ." (Todd) 7. Do science and philosophy, as such, throw any light on the nature of progress? Contrast the idea of progress as so far developed with that of decadence. What is a decadent society, what the nature of its activities, its values, its aims, etc.? In contrast to what is it de- cadent? Discuss. "Man's integral nature must be the premise of philosophy, and man's complete satisfaction the conclusion philosophy must aim at." (MacVannel) 8. In what sense might it be said that merely attaining ideals ends progress? Can you conceive or define progress as an infinitely continuous process, as an 'ever open future'? Open for what and for whom? How does this connect with the study of the school and 33 theory of education? In what sense is the school a measure of civiliza- tion, of progress? 9. Compare question 5 of Topic VI, on subordinate values. Is progress 'made up' of such subordinate values; if so, what are they? Can you draw a parallel between the school (its aims, etc.) and life in general in society? What specific deductions for theory of educa- tion? References. I. As for Topics VI 1 1 and IX, and as follows; Todd, chaps. VI to VIII and XXXIII and XXXIV; Kidd (1), chaps. II, III. IX and X; Keller, chaps. VIII to X; Hobhouse (3), chaps. I, II and VII. II. As for Topics VI I land IX and as follows; Urwick. Patten (2) ; Carver. 34 XI. THE CAUSES AND CRITERIA OF PROGRESS. 1. Recalling the discussion on science, show the meaning of the following terms: law, regularity, principle, cause, effect, result, gen- eralization, regularity, deduction, induction, verification, invariable concomitant, etc. Do these terms, or the things they mean, apply as rigidly to social and human as to physical and material phenomena ? 2. Do any of the above terms imply a 'force' in phenomena? Particularly, are there 'social fo/ces', 'social laws', etc. ? Gather from Tarde, Giddings, Spencer. Ward, examples of 'social laws' and discuss critically, both with reference to the ground of their formulation, their utility, and their accuracy. 3. Does a discussion of the 'causes' of progress lead, ultimately, to a discussion of aims, values, motives, etc., of human beings? (Com- pare questions 1 and 2 of Topic X.) Is progress something forced on human beings by the (mere) action of the environment, or some- thing attained by successful manipulation of it? 4. Discuss in the light of question 3 the economic interpretation of history. Examine, " the final causes of all social changes and political revolutions are to be sought, not in men's brains, not in man's better insight into eternal truth and justice, but in changes in the modes of production and exchange. They are to be sought, not in the phil- osophy, but in the economics of each particular period." (Engels) Discuss the question whether modes of production, money, inventions. etc., are the results or the causes of a particular social structure, or both. 5. Discuss, from the same point of view, the arguments as to the relative importance of heredity (personal, germ) and the social plus the physical environment. Are these such separate things that any heredity would function in any environment? What is the func- tion of 'great men', religion, government, etc, in the social process? What other 'causes' of social progress have been advanced ? 6. What of the power of thought? Will 'taking thought' do anything? Is thought, in this sense, something other than active experimentation and manipulation of the environment? What would be the meaning of 'thought as such' and what would it effect? In what sense might you justify calling only that thought which worked out successfully in practice? 7. If progress is definable, and the favorable conditions relative to it known, is there still a further problem of knowing whether the social process is tending in that general direction? What would be 'signs' of progressive attainment to successive stages? Are there stages in a definite sense? (Compare Topics V, VI and X.) 35 8. Following out questions 8 and 9 of Topic X, discuss the school as a 'cause' of social progress. Discuss, "The world only grows better, , because people wish that it should, and take the right steps to make it better." (Morley) "To an extent character- istic of no other institution, save that of the state itself, the school has power to modify the social order." (Dewey) Education is "the chief means to which society must look for all substantial social progress." (Ellwood) "The distribution of knowledge underlies all social reform." (Ward) References. I. and II. As for Topics VIII to X. 36 XII. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 1. What is the purpose and the value of the study of the history of a given subject, such as education or philosophy? Is the knowledge, as such, valuable, does it have immediate value, does it lead to better present activity, does it offer suggestions for the solution of present difficulties or the analysis of present problems ? 2. Can the history of education (or of philosophy) be studied as a separate strand in the general history of society ; absolutely ; com- paratively? In what sense is the history of education a summary of aims and values of successive periods in the evolution of society? What connection, then, with present aims and values ? 3. Is the study of the past (of educational theory) a mere re- capitulation of such and such facts ? In what sense is the present moment the link between (all) the past and (all) the future? (Com- pare Topics VIITIX.) Are the political, the economic, the social, the intellectual elements of greater value in a survey of the past? Comparatively or absolutely? 4. Review, briefly, the history of education, noting the inherited effect on present practice and theory, where it exists, and the connec- tion of given aims, ideals and practices with the nature of the general society in which they were produced. Can you trace any general tendencies ; throughout the whole period ; throughout selected periods ? Stress the particular factors noted in connection with the various periods; (a) Primitive, its immediacy, its social nature, its subject matter; (b) Oriental, its recapitulatory aims; (c) Greek, its individual- istic-social aims, the function of thought, the theorist, the philosophy evolved, the significance of the changes; (d) Roman, its social-util- itarian nature, the function of the home; (e) the Middle Ages, the functions of Christianity, the need of a new type of education, other worldiness, attitude toward 'learning', discipline, scholasticism as con- trasted with Greek summaries, the search for the Absolute; (f) Renaissance education, the rediscovery of the 'whole' human being, new aims and new schools; Reformation education, the new emphasis on the 'social' human being, conduct and morals, the development of a new formalism; (g) Realism, its types, its new methods, subject matter, aims, its theory; (h) Discipline, the emphasis on method, its psychology, the 'components' of education; (i) Naturalism, the empha- sis on the 'child', interest, 'natural' ness, education as a 'process' versus a 'thing'; The psychological movement, its reanalysis of the pur- pose of education, the nature of subject matter, the process of learn- ing, the philosophy and psychology underlying it, the theorists; (j) The scientific movement, the emphasis on knowledge, as such, and its function, the new 'culture'; (k) The sociological formulation, the in- creasing complexity of theory, the embodiment of portions of other attitudes, education and the state, the question of society versus the* individual, the emergence of a unified conception; (1) The present, the 37 revaluation of aims and methods, the reshaping of the curriculum, the development of larger, more dynamic aims and purposes, the function of the individual, the function of educational theory, the consideration of the future as well as the past and the present. 5. In what sense was the culture and the society of the American Colonies a 'transit of a civilization'? What new aims, values and pur- poses appeared parallel with the development of the country, and un- der what new environmental and social conditions? What mutual in- fluences have American and European educational theory had upon one another? References. I. and II. As for Topic VIII, and as follows; Monroe; Adams J. ; Todd, chaps. XXX to XXXIV ; Keller, chaps. VII to X ; Chapin (2) ; Walling, chaps. XI and XII; Carlton; Cuhherley ; Cheyney; Eg- gleston ; Farrand. 38 C. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL. Bagley Baldwin Blackmar and Gillin Boaz Bosanquet Clow Colvin Conklin Cooley Davenport C B Dewey Dewey and Tufts Drake Edman Fiske Fite Gal ton Gillin Henderson E N Hobhouse Keller Kropotkin Laird McDougall Prince Perry Renard Russell Santayana Shaw Spiller Stirner Strong Sumner Taylor Thomas Thorndike Todd Tufts Wallas Woodworth Watson Selected References for Section C. The Educative Process The Individual and Society Social and Ethical Interpretations Outlines of Sociology The Mind of Primitive Man Value and Destiny of the Individual Principles of Sociology The Learning Process Heredity and Environment Human Nature and the Social Order Social Organizaton Heredity in Relation to Eugenics Democracy and Education School and Society Ethics Problems of Conduct Human Traits The Meaning of Infancy Individualism Natural Inheritance Hereditary Genius The D unkers Principles of Education Development and Purpose Societal Evolution Mutual Aid Conquest of Bread Problems of the Self Social Psychology Dissociation of a Personality Present Conflict of Ideals Guilds of the Middle Ages Proposed Roads to Freedom The Life of Reason, vol. II. The Ego and Its Place in the World Papers on Inter-Racial Progress The Ego and His Own Introductory Psychology for Teachers Folkways The Problem of Conduct Source Book for Social Origins Educational Psychology, (Briefer Course) Theories of Social Progress The Individual and His Relation to Society Human Nature in Politics Dynamic Psychology Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist 39 40 XIII. THE ORIGINAL NATURE OF MAN. 1. What are the implications of the expression, 'the original nature of man'? Does it imply this nature has never changed, is every- where the same, is something apart from an environment, is not now subject to change, is 'good,' or 'bad,' etc.? Do we ever encounter (pure) the original nature of man? 2. What has been the source of this nature? Has the process reached an apparent end? In what sense? Are there new, or funda- mentally different selective agencies at work on human (original) nature at the present stage of (social) development? What would be a definition of education and of the philosophy of education in this connection ? 3. In examining any given instance of 'conduct' or 'behavior,' are there observable (always) the separate factors or constituent parts, — situation, response, and the bond (neural) between them? Which is not immediately observable, and on what evidence is its ex- istence established ? Which is due to original nature ? Always ? Sec- ondarily (or fundamentally) always? 4. What previous Topics have, in a sense, taken account of the original nature of human beings? Are aims, values and interest con- cerned only with the goal in the future? Could aims, values and in- terest be satisfactorily discussed without reference to original nature? What instances of such an attempt in the history of education? Does this imply that human nature, as such, is the fundamental fact for ed- ucational theory? 5. Are there (apart from any and all education) certain re- sponses to given situations due simply to original nature ? Examples ? What are instincts, reflexes and (natural) capacities in this connec- tion ? What of the inner structure in each case? Does this mean in- born connections to respond in a definite way (apart from education) to a given situation? Are these connections permanent, transitory, modifiable, all existent at the same time, all of value to educational the- ory, all socially desirable? What is the problem of education in this connection ? 6. Are situations and responses joined in inseparable pairs or are there several possible responses to one and the same situation? Several situations which call out one and the same responses? Does this imply 'chance' responses? An insufficient analysis of the situa- tion? Or reaction to a common constituent of the various situations? Do original tendencies, as a matter of fact, act each in isolation from the rest? What does this imply for response, bond and situation in actual conduct? 41 7. Sum up the original equipment of human nature from the point of view of sensory capacities, bodily control, what attracts at- tention, acquisition and possession, hunting, fear, fighting, responses to other human beings and their conduct, imitation ( ?), exploration, manipulation, mental activity, play, etc. What significance for cur- riculum, method, training of teachers, etc.? References. I. Edman, part I, chaps. I, II; Strong, less. 34-36, 38, 40-41; Thorndike, part I ; Henderson, chap. V ; Keller, chap. I ; Woodworth, chap. Ill ; Watson, chap. 1, VI and VII ; McDougall, chap. II-V. II. Bagley ; Colvfn ; Thomas; Boaz ; Fite ; Hobhouse ; Fiske. 42 XIV. THE LEARNING PROCESS : I. 1. What are 'original satisfiers and annoyers', and what is their significance? Discuss, "By a satisfying state of affairs is meant roughly one which the animal does nothing to avoid, often doing such things as attain and preserve it." (Thorndike) Examples? Discuss, "To satisfy is not the same as to give sensory pleasure and to annoy is not the same as to give pain." "Pain is only one of many annoyers and does not inevitably annoy." (Ibid) 2. What is the internal (neural) correlate of this satisfyingness or annoyance ? Discuss, "When any original behavior-series is start- ed and operates successfully, its activities are satisfying and the situa- tions which they produce are satisfying." (Thorndike) Does this imply that failure in the operation of such a series is annoying? What is the meaning of 'successful' in this connection? Is there any other criterion except the neural system itself, as it is in its original nature? 3. In what sense does the activity of a given (single) behavior series involve the 'readiness' of others to follow with their activity? (Compare question 6 of Topic XIII.) Discuss, "When a child sees an attractive object at a distance, his neurons may be said to propheti- cally prepare for the whole series of fixating it with his eyes, running toward it, seeing it within reach, grasping, feeling it in his hand, and curiously manipulating it." (Thorndike) 4. Is 'successful' conduct, then, that which furthers or initiates the action of neurons (not involved in the initial action) that are ready to act? Does this hold for any behavior or only for 'original' behavior? Is it true that for any conduction series or unit (native or acquired) to actually conduct is satisfying, not to conduct is annoy- ing? Always? What about 'readiness'? What correlated state- ments may be made ? What of 'multiple response' or varied reaction in this connection? Discuss "secondary" connections. (See Thorn- dike.) 5. Does the operation of original tendencies and behavior-series involve 'learning'? Always? Is there, so to speak, a (original) tend- ency for these original tendencies and behavior-series to more or less permanently modify the organism as such? Is 'readiness' the only factor involved? What of the function of 'use and disuse' (exercise) and of 'effect' ? Give examples of each as concerned in learning, and show the mutual relationships of the three factors. 6. Do the above factors of learning exhaust the subject? Are there instances of learning (in animal or human behavior) which do not come under one or the other or a combination of these generalized statements ? In what sense are they the 'laws of learning' ? Is mature human nature explained by a combination of original nature and the operation of the laws of learning in a complicated environment for a period of years? 43 7. Are there subsidiary or secondary 'laws' of learning? Do they involve new facts or do they show the interaction of environment and the laws of learning already discussed? Discuss in this con- nection, 'multiple response', the learner's 'set' (or attitude), the law of 'piecemeal' (or partial) activity, the law of 'assimilation' (or ana- logy), the law of 'associative shifting'. Examples? References. I and II. As for Topic XIII, and as follows: Thorndike, part II; Watson, chaps. VIII and IX; Hobhouse, part I, chaps. I-IV; Woodworth. chaps. IV-VI, and VIII; Strong, less. IX-XIX; Conklin; Davenport. 44 XV. THE LEARNING PROCESS: II. 1. What is the meaning of 'imitation'? Do we perceive a 'sit- uation-response' sequence in the behavior of another human being, and then, — (a) make the identical movement, (b) a similar movement, (c) get the same result, (d) a similar result, entirely apart from previous training or learning? What objective evidence is there in this con- nection? 2. Show how the supposed results of imitation are explainable by the interaction of human nature and the environment, in its larg- est sense, and involving merely the laws of learning as already dis- cussed. Discuss, "The enunciation or gesture of another man, acting as a model, forms one's habits of speech or manners in just the same way that the physical properties of trees form one's habits of climb- ing." (Thorndike.) 3. What of the theory that the idea of an act, or the idea of the result of an act, leads, ipso facto, (apart from learning), to that act (in overt behavior) ? Discuss in connection with the laws of learn- ing. Does this mean that the idea of a movement or an act never leads to the act as its sequent ? Discuss, "the appropriate muscular activity never follows an idea unless one's previous experience has in some fashion or other established a nexus of the habit type." (Angell) 4. What use or attempted use has been made of imitation and the doctrine of 'ideo-motor' activity in school work and in educational theory? What of the latter doctrine in connection with the 'teach- ing of morals', 'art appreciation', etc. ? 5. Are all original tendencies and responses to situations 'good'? What does good mean here; for whom and with reference to what? On what basis should a selection be made? Examples? In the light of 'multiple response' what can educational theory and practice decide ? What implications for an educational philosophy in the statement that 'Nature is always and everywhere right'; in the statement that 'human nature is fundamentally and always bad'? Are ideals, purposes, values, not also part of 'nature'? In what sense? Discuss the impli- cations. 6. What significance, in the fact that original tendencies appear at different dates in an individual's career, that they wax and wane, and follow, roughly, a typical order, etc.? Discuss the two statements or meanings of the Recapitulation Theory, and compare with the mean- ing of the Utility Theory, (See Thorndike) Discuss, "the same causes which account for the origin and perpetuation of a tendency account also for its time relation to other tendencies." (ibid) 7. Review in the light of the discussion of the original nature of man and of the learning process, (a) the nature of experience and 45 its organization (Topic I )and (b) the meaning of education (Topic III) Discuss, in connection with question 3 of Topic XIV, the phenomena of 'mechanism and drive'. (See Wood worth) Connect with the discussion on aims, values and interest. References. I and II. As for Topic XIV. 46 XVI. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE. 1. Are the original tendencies of all human beings, as manifested in concrete responses to identical situations, or as measured by the ability so to respond, the same ? In what sense are original natures unlike? To what (probable) degree? In all respects? Examples? 2. Is the modifiability of all original natures the same, i. e., do all human beings learn equally well, retain as well, form habits as quickly, respond to a complicated situation as satisfactorily, etc.? What (tentative) implications, then, from this and the preceding questions for educational theory, for school procedure, for the nature and organi- zation of society. ? 3.. If original nature is a variable and if. further, the rate and kind of learning are variables, in what sense is it possible to have aims values and interests that are common, or an educational theory that will take account of the facts involved? What (historical) edu- cational theories or practices have neglected the problem involved here ? 4. What is a 'frequency table' or a 'surface of frequency' of the individual abilities of a group of people with reference to any given trait? What facts do such tables or surfaces indicate? Would a sur- face of frequency with reference to the abilities of a class of high-school students to do sight translations in French be the same as that for their abilities to rapidly and accurately do square roots? What impli- cations? 5. What is the current opinion as to individual differences due to sex? Are boys as boys (apart from the influence of training, etc.) better than girls in any given particular? What are the facts? What about men and women ? Would knowledge of the sex of an unknown individual give any foundation whatsoever, in and of itself simply, to judge abilitv, latent or overt? Are individual differences within a group (all of the same sex) greater or less than the average dif- ference between the sexes with respect to any given trait? 6. What of the same question in connection with race? Are the members of a given race, ipso facto, and apart from all training, superior? (Compare Topics X and XI. on Progress.) What of en- vironment, social heredity, etc. ? What are some of the facts which have been gathered with reference to this question? 7. Discuss the question of ancestry as in and of itself produc- tive of differences. Does the question of the environment enter here? How keep the relative power of ancestry and environment distinct? Discuss, 'Does college make people wise, or do wise people go to college'. Are all characteristics equally influenced by environment ; through ancestry? 47 8. What concrete deductions for teaching ; curriculum ? What of the problem of the sub-normal, the super-normal? Is there an 'abstracted', generalized 'human being', as such, that the school should teach? Should different pupils 'go through' school at different rates, stud}- different subjects, etc.? References. I and II. As for Topics XIII and XIV, and as follows: Thorn- dike, part III; Strong, less. XX-XXVI ; Galton (1) (2); Gillin. 48 XVII. THE NATURE OF AN INDIVIDUAL: THE SELF. 1. Have Topics XIII to XV treated of the individual or the self? In what (restricted) sense? Which of the following adjectives would best characterize that treatment, — static, descriptive, analytic, dynamic, synthetic, abstract, concrete, sociological, psychological? Might all these adjectives apply to a discussion of the self? Which seem most necessary to the general subject of the syllabus? 2. Are there, in a sense, two conceptions or aspects of an in- dividual ; first, the 'mechanical' conception, whereby the individual is viewed simply as a center of force, as consumer and producer, as mover and as obstacle to another individual ; the individual as he sees himself? Discuss, "As (the) mechanical individual was defined and distinguished by his spacial dimensions, so, (the) conscious or spiritual individual is to be defined by his meaning or purpose." (Fite) 3. In the light of the discussion on Experience (Topic I), on Aims, Values and Interest (Topics V, VI) and the four Topics im- mediately preceding this, show the relationship of the two selves of question 2, and their significance for educational theory. Discuss, " this present conscious act — this thing which I now deliberately choose to do — is never the effect of a cause, but the expression of a reason." (Fite) 4. Is the 'mechanical' individual co-extensive with the conscious individual? Is the 'self of the conscious individual quite unlimited in its scope, — in time and space? Are 'mechanical' individuals mut- ually exclusive? Conscious individuals? What does this imply for the activities and conduct of each? What sort of 'societies' respec- tively? 5. Have social and ethical theory endeavored to build social structures on the basis of that interpretation of the individual here called 'mechanical'? In what sense, and in what instances? Does such a conception (necessarily) lead to the idea of society as a 'struggle' of hostile forces ( i. e , individuals) ; to a false antithesis of the meaning of 'individual' and 'social' ; to the conception of society as a (static?) equilibrium of forces? 6. Does an analysis of experience, as a matter of fact, disclose neither 'individuals' nor 'society', as such, but a group of people, num- erically distinct, engaged in activities which are shared with one an- other in varying degrees? (Recall discussion on Experience.) If you analyze your experiences throughout a given period what (rough- ly) is the proportion of acts, thoughts, motives, etc., which have origin and end in a conception of your 'self as isolated, unique, disconnected, mechanical? As integrated, interpenetrated, merged, co-operative? 7. What qualities of original nature are 'social'? What does (mature) experience teach of the relative values of individual and 49 social activity? In what sense is progress attained by shared activity? In what sense are art, language, knowledge, control of natural forces, etc. — all the product of shared activity? What of thought, as such? In what fundamental ways is educational theory concerned with the nature and meaning of the self? References. I. Cooley ( 1 ), chaps. V, VI ; Hobhouse, part I, chap. XI ; Dewey (1), chap. XXVI: Fite, lect. Ill, sect. I and II, lect. IV, sects. Ill and IV; McDougall, chaps. VII and VIII; Edman, part II, chap. IX; Woodworth, chap. VIII. II. Baldwin (1) (2); Boaz; Cooley (1) ; Dewey (1) (2); Laird; Prince; Stirner; Tufts; Santayana ; Keller; Kropotkin (1); Bosanquet. 50 XVIII. THE PROCESS OF GROWTH OF THE SELF. 1. What is the conception of the self of the primitive man, and from what evidence do we draw our conclusions? What fusion with the group; with physical ohjects? Is the former due to reflective reali- zation that his welfare lies there, or to what? What part does the nature of the activities, the material and spiritual development of the group play in it? 2. Is the self of a child in any sense like that of a (mature) primitive man? Is the development of the self of a child to maturity primarily through experiences with (inanimate) objects or with other human beings? In what sense is a self the index and symbol of past experiences in their organized aspect ? 3. Was the orginal nature of primitive man probably the same as that of modern man? Whence then, and by what process has- the modern idea (s) of self arisen? Is the modern self a product of a concomitant evolution of society and the self in person? (Compare question 7 of preceding Topic). 4. Going into more detail, show the mutual relationships of the self and the (social) activities of the following periods; early primi- tive, the Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Medieval period, the Renaissance and Reformation, the recent modern, the contemporary. Show the effects of language, law, religious activities, the family, custom, education, war, art, limiting, city life, nationality, class ( ?) consciousness, handicrafts, industry, science, thought, (both lay and 'professional'), wealth, division of labor, types of government, etc. 5. Discuss. "Each of the greater steps of progress is in fact associated with an increased measure of subordination of individual competition to reproductive or social ends, and of inter-specific com- petition to co-operative association." (Geddes and Thomson) "The social type inherits the earth. It does pot defeat itself. It suc- ceeds " (Hobhouse) 6. Does the growth of a social self imply the disintegration of an individual self? (Compare question 6 of last Topic) Discuss "Society strives to transform the individual into a mere organ of it- self." (Mikhalovsky) " the individual is the original source and constituent of all value ; and therefore — there can be no higher stan- dard of obligation for you or for me than that set by our personal ends and ideals." (Fite) 7. What does the phrase 'disinterested action' imply? Several meanings? Does the development or possession of a social self imply disinterested activity? What of original nature, higher values, pro- gress, etc.? Does such a phrase imply a false analysis of experience? (See next Topic and compare Topic I.) 51 8. Do all experiences go to develop a social self? Have we, in a sense, (or are we) several selves, mutually supplementary? Anta- gonistic? Can they (all?) be brought into co-operation? What agencies at the present time are most influential in forming the self of the growing human being? In what directions? References. I and II. As for Topic XVII. Also Shaw; Russell; Drake Todd ; Wallas ; Taylor. 52 XIX. THE UNITY OF ALL EXPERIENCE. 1. Is life and experience, in any sense, a unity? Do we add knowledge to habits, the sum to instincts, to that some purposes, etc., in order to become a self or an individual? Is experience added to experience to produce a total? 2. In what sense does language suggest an unreal or exaggerated distinction between such realities as man and nature, self and environ- ment, self and society, self and other? What is the appeal as against the suggestions of language? How has language come to be thus, in a sense, unrepresentative of reality? (Nature of concepts, etc.) 3. Discuss the similar (theoretical, linguistic) opposition of body and mind, knowledge and practice, (thought and action), thinking and 'doing.' Is thought (and thinking) something done apart from orig- inal nature, not learned throught experience, not an instance of inter- action with environment, not an activity directed, as other activity, to a concrete end or purpose, to obtain a given value? Discuss, " — when we study implicit bodily processes we are studying thought; just as when we study the way a golfer stands in addressing his ball and swinging his club we are studying golf." (Watson) 4. Is experience merely 'one way of knowing'? Whence, then, the other ways of knowing, and what their method and content ? What is 'a priori' knowledge, the- evidence for it, its source, its significance for the process of education? How does such a conception conflict with the actual nature of experience and the 'growth of knowledge'? Is such a growth an addition of this and that knowledge? Discuss, "If this progress (of experimental science) has demonstrated any- thing, it is that there is no such thing as genuine knowledge and fruit- ful understanding except as the offspring of doing." (Dewey) 5. Discuss, " 'Experience' (then) ceases to be empirical and be- comes experimental. Reason ceases to be a remote and ideal faculty, and signifies all the resources by which activity is made fruitful in meaning." (Dewey) "Thought, then, arises within the experience- process (whether in the individual or the race) out of activity, and is ultimately for the sake of activity." (MacVannel) 6. Is there the same (apparent, theoretical) dualism in con- trasting this and the next world (i. e., activity directed to each,) work and leisure, individuality and authority, freedom and control, educa- tion for a later period of life and education for itself, now, education for personal advantage and education for social activity and welfare? Are all these things merely aspects of one and the same process, — associated activity in the general environment of a society? 7. What of the same process in the school, itself? What of abstract subject matter, as such; method, as such; preparation for a still later preparation, etc. ? What of instrumental and immediate 53 values? Of knowledge as organized after acquistion-through-exper- ience, and as subject-matter-for-a-(new)-learner? 8. Recall the discussion on Science and Philosophy. Discuss, "Philosophy is (thus) essentially a critique of experience." (Mac- Vannel) "Philosophy is thinking what the known demands of us — what responsive attitude it exacts." (Dewey) "If we are willing to conceive education as the process of forming fundamental disposi- tions, intellectual and emotional, toward nature and fellow men, phil- osophy may even be defined as the general theory of education." (Ibid) References. I and II. As for Topics I and II, on Experience and Its Organi- zation, and The Meaning of Science and of Philosophy. 54 D. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND SOCIETY. Selected References for Section D. Alexander T Prussian Elementary Schools Baldwin The Individual and Society Social and Ethical Interpretations The Super-State and the Eternal Values Bernard Transition to — Objective — Control Betts Social Principles of Education Bosanquet Social and International Ideals Brown Underlying Principles of Modern Legislation Burgess Function of Socialization Chapin Education and the Mores Clow Principles of Sociology Cooley Human Nature and the Social Order Social Process Social Organization Craik The State in Relation to Education Cubberley Public School Administration Davis Psychological Interpretations of Society Dewey Democracy and Education Ethical Principles Underlying Education School and Society Ethics Philosophy and the Social Problem Administration of Public Education — The Social Problem The New State Democracy at the Crossways Social Purpose Dewey and Tufts Durant Dutton and Snedden Ellwood Follett Hearnshaw Hetherington and Muirhead Hobhouse Hollister Keller Kropotkin Leary Mackenzie MacVannel Nasmyth Ross Russell Reisner Sandiford Santayana Small Sorel Tufts Wallas Walling Weyl Zenker Social Evolution and Political Theory Development and Purpose Morals in Evolution Administration of Education — Societal Evolution Mutual Aid Education and Autocracy in Russia Outlines of Social Philosophy Philosophy of Education Social Progress and the Darwinian Theory Social Control Why Men Fight Proposed Roads to Freedom Democracy and Nationalism in Education Comparative Education Life of Reason, vol. II. Significance of Sociology for Ethics General Sociology Reflections on Violence The Individual and His Relation to Society The Great Society Larger Aspects of Socialism The New Democracy Anarchism 55 56 XX. EVOLUTION AND SOCIETY. 1. Summarize the Topics of Section C, on the Individual, justi- fying, if possible, the following statements: The evolution of the individual is an aspect of the evolution of society, and vice-versa ; Mind is a social not an individual product ; Individual variations are both the product of evolution and (one of the) agencies for the trans- formation of evolution into progress; Thinking is an individual acti- vity concerned with social affairs. 2. What is the meaning of the (Darwinian) terms, variation, selection, adaptation, transmission? Give examples of each in the general field of biology. What was the method of Darwin in arriving at his theory or hypothesis? Is such a method applicable to the social ( and educational ) field ? 3. Show the meaning and evolutionary significance of reflexes, instincts, emotions, habits, memory, thought, and consciousness. Dis- cuss, in this connection, continuity, connections between events, crucial, purpose, progress. What is there, if anything, 'back of the evolutionary process which 'makes it go'? Is there any evidence (theoretic or concrete) of the external creation and insertion of any given factor, — say, thought or consciousness ? What significance to your answer? 4. Do both history as well as individual experience show the fact of variation in such things as marriage customs, property laws, educational theories, etc.? Both in the same country (or locality) at different times, and in different localities at the same time? What have been the 'causes' of these variations? Is the meaning of varia- tion active or passive, or both? Concrete examples of such varia- tions ? 5. Are there limits to the possible variations of a custom or institution in a given society at a given period in its career? Is this limitation connected with its past history, its present ideals, values, interests, etc. ? What about such limitations in the case of amal- gamation with another group, or after being conquered by 'outsiders'? 6. In what sense are educational systems, curriculums, institu- tions concerning marriage and property, etc., adaptations? To what and for what? Does thought or thinking play any part? Previous experience? Still further (future) ideals, values, etc.? Does the original nature of man play any part? Would it be possible (or de- sirable) for adaptation to proceed purely in terms of thought? What are the criteria of successful adaptation in the biological world, — in the human, — in the social-human? 7. What are the mutual relationships between adaptation and selection? What are the factors of selection in human (social) af- 57 fairs? Discuss war, conquest, the church, autocracy, policing, etc. What better elements can be substituted? What of transmission? What is the function of the school as an agency of selection, adapta- tion and transmission ? What connection with the fact of variation ? References. I. Davis, chaps. V, XI, XII; Small (2), part VI; Cooley (2), chaps. IV, V, XXVIII, XXIX; Ellwood, chap. Ill; Hetherington and Muirhead, chap. II; Hobhouse (1), chaps. II to V, and VII, (2) part I, chaps. X, XI; Keller, Introduction, chaps. I to V, and through- out; Mackenzie, book I, chaps. II, III; Kropotkin, chaps. I to III, and throughout; Brown, chap. IV; Nasmyth, parts I and II. II. Bosanquet ; Burgess; MacVannel ; Ross; Durant; Small (1); Santayana ; Tufts; Walling; Wallas. 58 XXI. SOCIAL CONTROL AND SOCIALIZATION. 1. In what sense is there a 'problem of social control'? Is it the same as the 'problem of socialization'? Does the mere operation of the evolutionary process through the differential action of its (four) factors itself bring about control? What kind, and with reference to what standards, etc.? Is the process of control itself open to evolu- tion? (Compare Topic XX.) 2. Is society, in any of its aspects, actually uncontrolled? What (many?) different competing agencies for control do you find in pre- sent society? Do they co-operate, have they common interests, pur- poses, values, etc. ? What, in this connection are 'business interests', 'political interests', etc.? Do these (non co-operative) efforts at con- trol make for progress? Discuss again, in this connection, the mean- ing of the self. 3. Arrange the several competing agencies for social control in a system or table, showing their comparative or relative efficiency, 'thought fulness', traditional bases, connection with other agencies, activity, growth or decay, degree of organization, connection with the (psychological) original nature of man, size of the field they reach, etc., etc. 4. What of the theory that there is no need of social control, i. e., the 'go as you please' theory? What does this imply for higher values, for common interests, for society and therefore ( immediately or eventually?) for the individual? What of Anarchism in this con- nection ? 5. Has any system or method of social control used all the factors involved? Discuss, in this connection, original nature, his- torical knowledge, (a system of) ideals, values and interest, concep- tion of progress, the nature of the self. Could control become a me- thod of 'arranging' situations in terms of the above factors so that the correct response would follow ? What of habit in this connec- tion, rules and regulations, idea-motor activity, imitation? 6. Discuss the significance of public opinion as a means of social control. Is it adequate, uniform, progressive, scientific, in- clusive? What bases, if any, in original nature? Discuss the signi- ficance and the problem of minorities in this connection. What does public opinion, historically, represent? Does it change; how, and under what conditions? 7. Discuss the significance of law as a factor of social control. Its characteristics, as above. Discuss the meaning of revenge, repres- sion, fear, justice, reform, etc., in this connection. Does law build on original nature, look to the future? Should law reward 'good' conduct as well as punish 'bad'? How does and how should law 59 grade the offences against it? Discuss, again, minorities. Is law essentially static? In both bases and methods? 8. Discuss, in the same manner, religion, suggestion, language, art. Is religion a 'social' means of control? Ethics, morality? What good and bad factors in suggestion? Does using the same language lmpl} having the same purposes? Discuss, — Art is a medium of social communication resulting in the sharing of emotions, feeling and at- titudes, and leading, (sometimes), to shared activity on these bases. Sum up the discussion of control, showing defects in the agencies thus far considered. References. I and II. As for Topic XX and Bernard; Cooley (3) (1) Dewey (3) ; Russell (1 ) ; Bentley; Chapin. 60 XXII. THE SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY OF DYNAMIC CONTROL. 1. Are there, in a sense, two kinds of control, — control to a stand- ard and control for a- purpose, — a static and a dynamic control? Dis- cuss the further differences involved in the bases (psychological and historical) of each, the conception of society implied in each, the nature of the self, etc. 2. Find instances, if possible, of each type of control in the his- tory of the school. (See Topic XII.) Is the school, (actually?, po- tentially?), the most efficient agency for social control? Discuss the factors of organization, efficiency, historical and psychological bases, values desired, conception of society and the individual, purpose (s), co-operation with or antagonism to other agencies of social control, etc. (See Section E.) 3. Discuss, "Each increment of social interference should bring more benefit to persons as members of society than it entails inconven- ience to persons as individuals. — Social interference should not lightly excite against itself the passion for Liberty. — Social interference should respect the sentiments that are the support of natural order. — Social interference should not be so paternal as to check the self-extinction of the morally ill-constituted. — Social interference should not so limit the struggle for existence as to nullify the selective pi-ocess." (Ross) 4. What implications for the nature of self and society in the first sentence of the above question? What type of selective process and what standards are implied in the last sentence of that question? Is the emphasis on present conformity (forced) to a system of social activity or on a progressive adaptation (thoughtful) to a foreseen value? How would you bring into line with previous discussions? 5. Discuss Ross' division of the instruments of control into (a), ethical and (b) political. What of his classification of education as un- der 'b'? Discuss the relative value of the different means of control in the presence of a homogeneous as opposed to a heterogeneous pop- ulation, uniform culture as opposed to class cultures, great economic differences as opposed to small, etc. 6. Recall the discussion on the unity of experience. (Topic XXI.) Was that discussion primarily psychological or historical ? What can you say of the unity of experience in an historical sense? Is it a fact that certain ages achieved a greater actual unity in their organization of society and experience ? Which ages ? Can you find any fundamental reasons for this? Was it, in any sense, the result of their philosophy? 7. What of the present age in this respect? Are we living a uni- fied integrated life in a unified (single) field of experience? Does this contradict, in any sense, the conclusions of Topic XXI? Does the 61 present discussion account both for the diversity of control and its inefficiency? What can the school do with reference to all these mat- ters? Has the school ever been a center of control; a unifying ele- ment in the experience process ; a (social) method for the interpretation and control of all experience? What is possible in this connection? References, T. and II. As for Topics XX and XXI and Betts; Craik ; Cubber- ley ; Hollister; Dutton and Snedden ; Reisner; Hetherington and Muir- head, part II. , chap. X ; Mackenzie, book II. , chap. II ; Dewey (3) (2) and (1), chaps. 1 to X, and throughout. 62 XXIII. INSTITUTIONS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE. 1. Discuss, "An institution is simply a definite and established phase of the public mind, . — often seeming, on account of its permanence and the visible customs and symbols in which it is clothed, to have a somewhat distinct and independent existence." (Cooley) What is the 'social inheritance' ; how much of your activity is directly or indirectly concerned with it? 2. Connect the discussion of Topic I, Experience and Its Organ- ization, with the present subject. Discuss, 'Institutions are crystallized experience.' Discuss, also, in this connection, the Self, Topics XVII and XVIII. In what sense do institutions represent a (current or his- torical) conception of the self? What of Topics XX and XXI? Any other connections? In what sense is an institution a point of converg- ence and of departure? Discuss, here, the subject of variation, selec- tion, etc. 3. Do institutions exemplify, again, the apparent disunitv of ex- perience? In what sense (real or ideal) could they show the funda- mental unity of all experience? What (separate) institutions are prom- inent in Western civilization? Which are most dynamic, most subject to change, most influential, most in line with progress, most co-opera- tive, most (fundamentallv) necessary for the continuance of society? Draw up a scheme of possible relationships and co-operation of several of the present institutions. Co-operative to what? Do any institu- tions 'stand alone'? What connections with Social Control, Topic XXI? 4. Discuss, " institutions are not separable entities; but rather phases of a common and at least partly homogeneous body of thought. : they are the 'apperceptive systems' or organized attitudes of the public mind. ." (Cooley) What is the present situation with ref- erence to institutions? Is the school, the family, the state, etc., an ob- ject of present thought, of efforts at reconstruction? Will one change for the better (progress) without the other? 5. What is the relation of original nature to a given institution ; to its reconstruction ? May institutions 'get out of relation' to original nature? Is original nature the only basis for an institution? \\ nat of aims, values and interest, shared activity, etc. ? In what sense are 'bad' institutions the result or the product of an incorrect analysis of experience, of incorrect projection of that experience in the 'form of in- consequential aims, values, etc.? Discuss, "A man is no man at all if he is merely a piece of an institution; he must stand also for human nature, for the instinctive, the plastic and the ideal." (Cooley) 6. What implications for different aspects of the general sub- ject, already discussed, in the following: "The slowness of an insti- tution is compensated by its capacity for age-long cumulative growth, 63 and in this way it may outstrip, even morally, the ordinary achievements of individuals . Individuality, provided it be in harness, is the life of institutions, all vigor and adaptability depending upon it." (Cooley) 7. Discuss the implications of all the above for educational the- ory. What is the relation of the school to family, church, industry, state, property, etc. ? What implications for curriculum, methods, results, knowledge, teachers, aims, values, ideals, etc.? Discuss, " the measure of the worth of any social institution, , is its effect in enlarging and improving experience; " (Dewey) References. I. and 11. As for XX to XXII and Dewey and Tufts, part 111; Mackenzie, parts 11 and III; Hetherington and Muirhead, part li; Brown ; Prologue, and chaps. I, II; Weyl. 64 XXIV. MORALITY AS A TYPE OF CONDUCT. 1. Is all conduct or behavior moral? If it involves others? If it has been 'voluntarily' done? If it manifests 'character'? Give ex- amples. Is it a question of values, of aims? Of comparison and selec- tion of such aims or values? Discuss, showing implications, "Conduct as moral may be defined as activity called forth and directed by ideas of value or worth where the values concerned are so mutually incom- patible as to require consideration and selection before an overt action is entered upon." (Dewey) 2. Discuss activity based (purely) on original nature, on habit and training, on thought, on compulsion, etc., in this connection. Is early primitive group conduct moral in the same sense as that taken in the quotation of question 1 ? In what sense does conduct based on, (a) instinct and fundamental needs, (b) standards of society followed largely through habit, (c) reflection, social criticism and merging of self-interests with those of society, represent a progressive rise in the level and worthiness of conduct? (Tufts) 3. What, in Sumner's sense of the term, are the 'mores'? To which of the above levels do they belong? What of our present insti- tutions from this point of view? Discuss, "Each individual is born into them (the mores) as he is born into the atmosphere, and he does not reflect on them, or criticise them . Each one is subjected to the influence of the mores, and formed by them, before he is capable of reasoning about them. They have nothing to do with what ought to be, will be, may be, or once was, if it is not now." (Sumner) 4. Is the advance from level 'b' to 'c' of question 2, in a sense, the occasion of (some of the) dualism (s) in modern thought, i. e., the opposition of group and individual, progress and order, habit and ideals, authority and freedom, etc. (Recall Topics XVII and XVIII) What is the significance of the separation of 'conduct' and 'character,' 'mo- tive' and 'consequences'? Recall, again, discussion on the unity of (all) experience. (Topic XIX) In what sense do the theories of 'utilitarianism' (in morality) and the 'good will' (of Kant) represent opposite extremes? 5. Discuss. "Probably there is no antithesis more often set up in moral discussion than that between acting from 'principle' and from 'interest.'" (Dewey) What conclusions are drawn from each of the above hypotheses, and what errors in the analysis of the self and its relations are involved ? 6. Does knowledge of the 'good' or the moral involve consequent action in conformity with it? Whence comes our knowledge of good or moral? Are there two senses of the word 'knowledge' here? Dis- cuss, " it is knowledge gained at first hand through the exigen- cies of experience which affects conduct in significant ways." (Dewey) 65 What deductions for the 'teaching' of morals in the school, for lec- tures 'about' morals, for the concrete organization of school life and activity? 7. Sum up the discussion on morality as a type of conduct. Dis- cuss, " morals are as broad as acts which concern our relation- ships with others. And potentially this includes all our acts, even though their social bearing may not be thought of at the time of per- formance. The moral and the social quality of conduct are, in the last analysis, identical with each other." (Dewey) References. I. and II. As for Topics XX to XXIII and Dewey and Tufts, parts I and II; Dewey (1), chaps. XXIV to XXVI; Baldwin (1) (2) (3). 66 XXV. SOCIETY AND THE STATE. 1. Distinguish such terms as, — community, (a) people, country, race, nation (ality), government, state, society. In what sense is the state the most inclusive of all institutions? Is the state synonymous with society? List what characteristic differences you find. Is the state 'natural'? What process(es) brought it about? Are there dif- ferent 'forms' of the state? Is the state the mere summation of other institutions ? 2. Does the state, in any sense, (actual or idea) unify all (so- cial) experience? Is it a 'compulsory' mode of association? What implications? Does it allow for (individual) variations, experimenta- tion, progress? Discuss the state as, — (a) a superpersonal entity, (b) an impersonal power, (c) a mechanism for the carrying out of aims and purposes, social or personal, (d) a natural mode of association with specific functions and value. 3. Discuss the state in connection with, (a) morality, (b) social control, (c) as a source of aims, values, etc., (d) a court of appeal, (e) as a crystallization of the past. Is the state a necessary institution for modern society? Will it always be so? What opposing opinions in this matter? 4. Discuss, in connection with the apparent opposition of the in- dividual and the state, — ' : this antithesis between the rights of the individual and the welfare of the state, between liberty as such and re- straint as such, appears to be a false antithesis." (Hobhouse) What is the meaning of 'liberty as such'? Discuss, "There are, , no absolutists of liberty; — The goal is never liberty, but liberty for something or other. For liberty is a condition under which activ- ity takes place, ." (Lippman) 5. \\ nat, then, might be stated as the function of the state, from the above point of view ? What activities might the state require, per- mit, encourage? What, if anything, is to control and direct the state? What methods, historically, have been used? Discuss, again, the ques- tion of variations. What, in connection with the state, is the problem of minorities? What other associated problems are involved? What of the function of thought? 6. In what several ways is the modern state essentially different from that of the Greek cities of the 5th century B. C. ? In what sense might Ihe latter be called a 'positive' state? Discuss, " in fifth- century Athens, the State was the living and palpable center of all human interest, and every social activity was a form of political life." ( Hetherington) What have been the causes of the change in the modern state? What present influences of this earlier state? 7. What is the connection of the state and education? Are the purposes of the state and the school the same? Does this imply that 67 the school is an instrument of the state? Should the state dictate edu- cational aims and values, methods and curriculum? The formulation 01 an educational theory? If the school, through its experts, decides these matters, what implication for the state? Discuss the relations of state and school in Germany and Russia. 8. What of compulsory education, private schools, the age for compulsory education, types and grades of education, fees, training of teachers, administration of schools, taxes in connection with educa- tion, education for 'citizenship,' vocational education, etc , etc., from the point of view developed here? References. I. and II. As for Topics XX to XXIV, and Alexander; Leary. See a^so Topics I, II and XIX. 68 XXVI. DEMOCRACY AND ITS CRITICS. 1. Discuss democracy as, (a) a form of government, (b) a form of state, (c) a type of society. Which is prior, which most import- ant? Does any one of the forms necessarily imply the other (s) ? Give examples (historical) of a, b and c. Discuss the meaning of rep- resentation (political) and show some of its implications. What lim- itations to each of the forms above ? 2. Is democracy merely an ideal, a Utopia? Discuss the impli- cations in this connection for aims, values, original nature, the self, etc. Is democracy a goal to be attained, or an activity to be shared ? Discuss, "Democracy is primarily a mode of associated living, of con- joint communicated experience." (Dewey) Compare Topic VI, Im- plications of a Theory of Education. 3. Discuss, "A democratic society is merely one in which the principle of equality is strong, and in which the principle of equality prevails." (Hearnshaw) "The essence of democracy is the equality of men's material and social conditions." (Crozier) " there ex- ists a general equality of rights, and a similarity of conditions, of thoughts, of sentiments, and of ideals." (Dicey) What is the appar- ent meaning of 'equality,' 'rights,' 'conditions,' and their implications? 4. Discuss, as presuppositions or "postulates of (political) de- mocracy," the following; "(a) the fundamental honesty of men in general, (b) the practical common sense of men in general, (c) the solidarity of the community, (d) the existence of a general will." (Hearnshaw) On what do these factors depend? Is it a matter of original nature, learning, the operation of an educational theory and practice, the existence of common habits, knowledge and attitudes, or what ? 5. Discuss, as 'defects of (political) democracy,' the following: (a) failure to secure competent leaders, (b) failure to lay down sound lines of procedure, (c) excessive interference in detail by the elector- ate, (d) insubordination and anarchy, (e) corruption. (See Hearn- shaw) Examine as for question 4. Is the whole problem a matter of a better conception of education, a better analysis of experience, a greater sharing of activity, a greater community of thought and expe- rience ? 6. Discuss, with reference to aims and values, the nature of ex- perience, the unity of experience, the relationship of society and its inter-associated members, etc., the platforms of such current criticisms of democracy as syndicalism, (the role of instinct, violence, etc.) (So- rel), anarchism, (the magnification of individualistic aspects of experi- ence) (Zenker), Bolshevism, (with exaggerated emphasis on economic aspects of experience, and class struggle) (Lenin), Prussianism, (with its stratification of society, and imposed aims and values) (Russia, Germany). 69 7. Discuss, " in the degree in which society has become democratic, social organization means utilization of the specific and variable qualities of individuals, ■ — " (Dewey) Discuss democracy in connection with the (ideal?) movement toward a world-society. What would this presuppose and imply? Discuss, "The emphasis must be put upon whatever binds people together in co-operative human pursuits and results, apart from geographical limitations." (Dewey) References. I. and II. As for Topics XX to XXV and Sorel ; Zenker; Rus- sell (2) ; Hearnshaw, chaps. I to III, IX to XI, and throughout; Weyl, book II; Dewey (1). chap. VII. and throughout. 70 E. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND THE SCHOOL. Bagley Betts Bloomfield Carlton Chapin Clow Colvin Coover Curtis Dewey Flexner Heck Henderson E N Hollingsworth Kilpartick King Kirkpatrick Lee Mayo-Smith McMurray MacVannel Monroe P Monroe W S Monroe, etc., Moore Norsworthy and Whitley Rowe Rugg Sandiford Snedden Starch Strayer and Norsworthy Tead Terman Thorndike Woodworth Selected References for Section E. School Discipline The Educative Process Social Principles of Education Vocational Guidance of Youth Readings in Vocational Guidance Education and Industrial Evolution Education and the Mores Principles of Sociology, etc. The Learning Process , Formal Discipline Education Through Play Democracy and Education School and Society The Child and the Curriculum Ethical Principles Underlying Education A Modern School Mental Discipline and Educational Values Principles of Education Vocational Psychology The Project Method Education for Social Efficiency Social Aspects of Education The Individual in the Making Play in Education Statistics and Sociology Elements of General Method Method of the Recitation Philosophy of Education Principles of Secondary Education Measuring the Results of Teaching Educational Tests and Measurements What Is Education? Psychology of Childhood Habit Formation and — Teaching Statistical Methods Applied to Education Comparative Education Vocational Education Educational Sociology Educational Measurements How to Teach The Instincts in Industry The Measurement of Intelligence Educational Psychology (Briefer Course) Dynamic Psychology (For additional readings on Measurements and for titles on Ad- ministration, and on the teaching of the various subjects of the cur- riculum, see general Bibliography.) 71 n XXVII. EXPERIENCE AND THE SCHOOL: I; LEARNING AND LIVING. 1. Summarize, with immediate reference to the school, the con" elusions concerning experience and its organization, (Topics I and II), the meaning of education and its (theoretical) implications, (Topics III to VII), the nature and criteria of progress, (Topics VIII to XII), the original and acquired nature of man, (Topics XIII to XIX), and the nature (democratic) of the correlated activity of the individual and society, (Topics XX to XXVI). Make as brief a statement of the facts, theories and problems involved as possible. 2. In what sense is the opposition of 'school' and 'life' an ex- ample of (a false) dualism in the analysis of experience or in the pres- ent structure of society? Has this opposition always been present in (the history of) education? Accepting the above dualism, would so- called 'life,' as at present constituted, fittingly educate a member of society; would the 'school' do so? What does this imply as to the meaning of school, education, life? 3. Show the relation of the so-called 'complexity' of modern life, of the endless division and sub-division of labor, of the growth in size of communities, the differentiation of centers of production and consumption (city and country), the over-valuation of 'book-learning' (second-hand experience), the distinction (forced?) between play and work in the life of the child, the idea of discipline and 'training' subjects, etc., etc., to the problem of question 2. 4. Contrast early American Colonial life with present society, and show the relatively different values of 'school' and 'life' for the purpose of an education in each of them. What of original nature, shared activity (having significance), aims, motives, ideals, values, etc , in each case? Discuss. "No number of object-lessons, got up as object- lessons for the sake of giving information, can afford even the shadow of a substitute for acquaintance with the plants and animals of the farm and garden acquired through actual living among them and car- ing for them." (Dewey) 5. In what sense is the school (necessarily?) a 'selected' environ- ment ? Can or should the school be a miniature society as like the 'out- side' world as possible? If 'selected,' what is the basis for deciding to include or omit a given experience, situation, or activity? (See also Topic XXVIII.) Is the school environment more 'condensed,' more 'organized,' 'richer?' Give examples to justify your answer. 6. In what (restricted) sense is education a matter of mutual relationships in the 'school' between the teacher, the child and the subject matter? Which has been, which should be, the 'center of grav- ity' of the whole process? Give examples, involving all three of the above elements and showing the different possible results, methods, 73 etc., implied. (Recall discussion on the unity of experience.) What of family life in this connection? The hours of (free) play? 7. Discuss, "Hence the need of a school. In this school the life of the child becomes the all-controlling aim. All the media necessary to further the growth of the child center there. Learning? certainly, but living primarily, and learning through and in relation to this liv- ing." (Dewey) Give examples of this 'living-learning' process. References I. As for the Topics listed in question 1, and as follows: Dewey (1), chaps. IX, XIX to XXI and XXIV; (2), chaps. I and II; (3) and ( 4 ) , throughout ; Flexner, throughout ; Henderson, chaps. XXV to XXVIII; MacVannel, chaps. VI to XI; Chapin, throughout; Sned- den (2), part I. II. As for Topics of question 1, and as follows: Betts ; Carlton; King (1) (2); Monroe P; Kirkpatrick; Clow; Moore; Sandiford; Strayer and Norsworthy. 74 XXVIII. EXPERIENCE AND THE SCHOOL: II; THE RECI- TATION. 1. What is the usual significance of the term 'recitation?' What has been the usual standard of a 'good' recitation? To whom has the recitation been, usually, directed, and with what aims on the part of the student? In what ways has the recitation been changed; every- where; in all subjects? 2. In what sense is the class-room a society? How would you arrange matters to bring out its social nature? What of shared ac- tivity, original nature, the process of the development of the self, the acquisition of language habits, the utilization of abilities and knowl- edge, reward for ability, etc., etc., in this connection? Is the class- room, also, a democratic society? What implications? 3. Discuss the writing of compositions, reading, the study of his- tory and geography, science, the acquisition and use of mathematics, manual subjects, occupations, the classics, etc., from the point of view of the social recitation. Outline, roughly, the content of each of these subjects, the purpose (immediate and instrumental) which they are to serve, the conduct of the lesson hour ('recitation'), the relative activity of class and individual student, the function of the teacher, the method of grading or marking, etc. (See also following Topics) 4. Recall, again, Topics on the nature of experience. In what sense is present experience (in part) a process of meeting and solving difficulties that have significance with reference both to past experi- ences and present aims and purposes? In solving such felt and sig- nificant difficulties, i. e., in bringing about foreseen and desirable changes in experience, what is the normal process ? Show the steps by which you solve an actual concrete difficulty in normal (social) life. Is (all) your pertinent material gathered for you, the aims and purposes im- posed on you ? 5. Discuss the 'problem' method, and the 'project' method. (See Kilpatrick) Whence are to come the 'projects'; how are they to be organized, controlled ; how far are they to be pursued ; what will they demand of school arrangements and customs ; what about text-books, courses of study, grading, promotion, etc. ; what kinds of material will be needed in school ; what about 'separate' studies ; the transition from the present standards; the function of the teacher, etc.? Outline some projects in the various (present) subjects of the curriculum. 6. Discuss, again, in this connection, the opposition between 'do- ing' and 'knowing,' 'body' and 'mind.' (See Topic XIX) Discuss, "Experience is primarily an active-passive affair ; it is not primarily cognitive. (But) the measure of the value of an experience lies in the perception of relationships or continuities to which it leads up. It in- cludes cognition in the degree in which it is cumulative or amounts to 75 something, or has meaning." (Dewey) What have been the results in educational practice (schoolroom procedure) through lack of un- derstanding of the above? 7. Does the above mean that experience is (all or primarily) a motor (overt) matter? Has thinking and thought ho place in all ed- ucation? Discuss, "Thought or reflection, , is the discernment of the relation between what we try to do and what happens in conse- quence, o experience having a meaning is possible without some ele- ment of thought. — - It (thinking) makes it possible to act with an end in view." (Dewey) References I. and II. As for Topic XXVII and as follows: Colvin; Coover: Kilpatrick; McMurray (1) (2); Thorndike; Woodworth; Norsworthy and Whitley. 76 XXIX. EXPERIENCE AND THE SCHOOL: III; MORALITY. 1. Recall the discussion of Topic XXIV, on Morality. What were the general conclusions there reached as to its nature and its con- nection with the school? Discuss, "It is clear that there cannot be two sets of ethical principles, , one for life in the school, and the other for life outside of the school. As conduct is one, the prin- ciples of conduct are one also." (Dewey) 2. How differentiate between conduct, psychologically consid- ered, and socially considered? What different points (s) of view in- volved? What implications of each for the school? Discuss, "It is not the mere individual as an individual who ■ — ■ establishes the final end, or furnishes the final standards of worth. But when we come to the question of how the individual is to meet the moral demands, of how he is to realize the values within himself, the question is one which concerns the individual as an agent." (ibid) 3. In view of the conclusions on imitation and ideo-motor action, (Topic XV) what are the implications of questions 1 and 2 for the school and class-room procedure? Discuss, "Excepting in so far as the school is an embryonic yet typical community life, moral training must be partly pathological and partly formal." (ibid) Should t^ere, then, be the same (psychological) motive for conduct in the school, and the same (social) standard of judgment? What of the reward (and punishment?) of school conduct? What of the process or ma- chinery of judgment? 4. Discuss from the point of view of ('moral') conduct, — the recitation, (See Topics XXVII and XVIII). play, games, teams (de- bating, athletics, etc.), 'marks,' approval and disapproval (both by the teacher and the class), punishment, etc. Discuss, " it is neces- sary that the child should graduallv grow out of this relatively external motive, into an appreciation of the social value of what he has to do for its own sake, and because of its relations to life as a whole, ." (ibid) 5. From the point of view of the present discussion, outline, briefly, a 'recitation' in the several subjects of the present curriculum, bringing out the moral 'principles' involved. What would you expect a child (or a high-school student) to learn from history, geography, mathematics, languages (modern and ancient), manual work, draw- ing, English, etc., that would function in significant (social) conduct? Would any of the so-called 'virtues' be a product? Should mathe- matics carry a 'moral' of 'honesty,' history a 'moral' of perseverance or patriotism ? 6. Discuss the "moral trinity of the school. The demand is for social intelligence, social power, and social interests. Our resources are (1) the life of the school as a social institution in itself; (2) meth- 77 ods of learning and of doing work; and (3) the school studies or cur- riculum." (ibid) Connect with the previous discussion on original human nature and on institutions. (Topics XIII and XXIII) Discuss, "The fundamental bond of social life is, then, none other than morality, which consists essentially in the presence of some phase of the social purpose as a moving ideal before the individual mind; ." (Mac- Vannel) References I. and II. As for Topics XXVII and XXVIII. Also, Dewey (1), chap. XXVI ; Henderson, chap. XVIII. 78 XXX. EXPERIENCE AND THE SCHOOL: [V; METHOD AND DISCIPLINE. . 1. Did question 5 of Topic XXVIII discuss the subject of meth- od in all its aspects? Was Topic XXIX, on Morality, in any sense, a discussion on method? Is morality a 'method' of living? Does the school 'teach' it? In what sense may the school be expected to develop not only a (general) method of living, but also a (general?) method of thinking, of meeting new experiences, of reacting to new situations? Has 'method' in the schoolroom any relation to a 'way of living' in society? What of Democracy as well as morality? 2. Discuss, "If we conceive activities as ranging on a scale horn those performed under dire compulsion up to those into which one puts his 'whole heart,' the argument (herein made) restricts the term 'project' or purposeful act to the upper portions of the scale. the resulting concept demands, generally speaking, the social situation both for its practical working and for the comparative valua- tion of proffered projects." ( Kilpatrick ) 3. Sum up the results of previous discussions relative to the fol- lowing: The conception ) of a 'project' unifies a number of "import- ant related aspects of the educative process. Such a concept, . must emphasize the factor of action, preferably whole-hearted vigorous activity. It must at the same time provide a place for the adequate utilization of the laws of learning, and no less for the essen- tial elements of the ethical quality of conduct. The last named looks of course to the social situation as well as to the individual attitude. Along with these should go, — . the important generalization that education is life so easy to say and so hard to delimit." ( Kil- patrick) 4. Does the above and its implications connect 'method in the school' and a 'way of associated living' in the life of society in its larg- est sense? Show the connection with the discussion on Democracy and on Morality. (Topics XXVI and XXIX) Do we make and carry out projects' (as above) in normal democratic society? Arc all our actions such? Could they be? What of institutions in this con- nection? Discuss the different 'Types' of project, in school and out. 5. What does Kilpatrick mean by 'associate' and 'concomitant' responses? Show the relation of the laws of learning to these re- sponses. What of the 'heartiness' or 'wholeheartedness 5 in this connec- tion ? Discuss, "Any activity beyond the barest physical wants which does not (thus) 'lead on' becomes in time stale and flat. Such 'leading on' means that the individual has been modified so that he sees what before he did not see or does what before he could not do. But this is exactlv to say that the activity has had an educational effect." (Kilpatrick)' 79 6. What, in contrast to the above, is the theory of 'formal disci- pline?' Is the above 'formal?' Does it 'carry over' to other than the material of original practice and acquaintanceship? What of the unity of experience in this connection and the discussion on thought and thinking? Discuss, "But the theory in question (formal discipline) takes, as it were, a short cut ; it regards some powers as the direct aims of instruction, and not simply as the results of growth." (Dewey) What are the so-called 'powers' of the mind and what does such an (dualistic) analysis of experience imply for the psychology on which it is based? Does 'formal discipline' separate method and sub- ject matter? Does the concept of the project? Has formal discipline a social value; a democratic significance? References 1. and 11. \s for Topics XXVI] and XXVIII. Also, Dewey (1 I, chaps. XI to XIV, XXII, XXV and XXVI. 80 XXXI. PROPORTIONED VALUES AND INTERESTS. 1. Recall the discussion on original nature, original satisfiers and annoyers, the learning process, the growth of the self, aims, values and interest(s), etc. Are all interests and values native; based, funda- mentally, on original nature; due to the learning process; acquired with the growth of the self; mutually complementary, interactive or antagonistic; capable of substitution, modification, blending; socially valuable; capable of subsequent (associated) development and constant growth; etc.? Give examples for each answer. Discuss, again, the laws of readiness, exercise and effect; multiple response, secondary (neural) connections, associative shifting, etc. 2. Do all individuals have the same (native) interests; acquire the same (social) interests through the learning process and the growth of the self? Is it (socially) desirable that all have the same interests; that all have certain interests in common? Which interests should be shared ; which should represent variation ? What part should the school play in this, and how? What do shared (universal) interests lead to; what do the special (individualistic?) interests lead to? Make out a schedule of common interests, i. e.. show how the fabric of so- ciety depends on the shared activity due to certain shared interests and values. (Compare preceding Topic) 3. Does the curriculum, as at present organized, endeavor to cre- ate or foster many values and interests ; to develop special abilities due to special interests and variations in original nature? Does the cur- riculum endeavor to give proportionate value to such interests as it does give attention to? Does this discussion again raise the question of the meaning- and implications of education and educational theory? (See Topics III and IV) 4. Recall, again, the summary of educational history. Topic XII. Discuss, in the present connection, the ideals of spiritual culture (Mid- dle Ages), aristocratic-class-aesthetic culture (Renaissance), universal knowledge, (Renaissance and later), discipline (18th century), self- realization (the Enlightenment), efficiency, harmony, science, etc. (19th century). In what sense did the Periclean Period (500 P». C.) offer a better conception of education ? In what sense was there a greater di- versity of interests as well as a greater unification of interests? 5. Do proportioned interests mean merely a certain emphasis on one interest plus a different emphasis on another, and so on ? What is the guiding principle both for the inclusion of an interest in educa- tional theory, as well as for its proportion? Are (all?) interests mu- tually antagonistic, etc.? (See questions 1 and 2, above) Are in- terests and value merely for immediate satisfaction? Recall, again, discussion on instrumental and immediate values. (Topic VI) 6. Discuss, in the light of the above, the meaning and significant value of play, art, leisure, creative activity, appreciation of art, cul- 81 ture, etc. Is there a need of creating interest in these, in the sense of making it possible to adequately and fruitfully 'enjoy' them, i. e., ac- tively share in them? What can the school do in this matter? Is it a matter of presenting 'knowledge about them?' References I. and II. As for Topics of question 1, and as follows: Dewey ( 1 ), chaps. X and XXIII ; Henderson, chaps. 1 and XVIII; Monroe P; Chapin; Clow; Moore. 82 XXXII. THE STUDY OF MAN AND THE STUDY OF NA- TURE : I ; THEIR UNITY 1. Sum up, briefly, Topics XXII to XXXI, as a background for a consideration of (some of) the subjects of the curriculum. Show, again, the relation of such aspects of experience as the 'practical' and the 'theoretical' (or intellectual), the 'physical' and the 'social' studies, etc. What of the above title, and its implications for the curriculum? Are 'man' and 'nature' two different things that when added make ex- perience ; that merely 'touch' at selected points? What are, historical- ly, (some of) the causes of this implied opposition? 2. From the point of view of the concept of evolution (Topic IX), what can be said of the opposition of man and nature? In what sense does a change or variation in either mean also a change in the other? In what sense does a study of either man or nature mean mere- ly a study of certain aspects or portions of experience with the inten- tion of thereby bringing about certain desired ends or aims? In what sense is the study of nature the study of conditions for the realization of aims, the study of man that of the aims, values and interests, them" selves? Is the study of nature in and for itself, or has it merely 'in- strumental' value ? 3. Can each subject of the present school curriculum be explained or valued as the treatment of some aspect of the total field of (social) experience? Does the (present) school treatment of each such sub- ject show its fundamental relationships to each other subject and to experience as a significant unity? Is this possible? What implied changes in teaching, curriculum making, training of teachers, appor- tionment of time, etc., etc. ? 4. Does the phrase 'man and nature' cover all (school) subject matter? All experience(s) both in and out of the school? Accepting these two words as a working basis for the analysis of experience, what (school) subjects would be subsumed under each division? Where would 'cross-references' be most numerous, most important? What would be the nature of the 'texts' used, the activities engaged in, the results obtained? (See Topic XXX, Method and Discipline) 5. In what sense(s) is there an (historical) opposition, open or implied, between such subjects as literature (with history) and sci- ence, between the classics and the vocational studies? What are the respective claims of each party ? Do they all claim the same things ; make the same incomplete analysis ; build on the same partial aims, values, etc. ; have the same limited conception of the meaning and im- plications of education? Give details. Is there, in any instance, a value placed on 'knowledge as such,' on 'method as such,' 'etc.? What criticism? 6. Is it the aim of the school, through curriculum and method, to make a scientist (specialist), or an historian or classicist (scholar), or 83 a machinist, or a writer out of the individual student? Discuss, "What- ever natural science may be for the specialist, for educational purposes it is knowledge of the conditions of human action. Knowledge is humanistic in quality not because it is about human products in the past, but because of what it docs in liberating human intelligence and human sympathy." (Dewey) May science, then, be 'humanistic'? In what sense, and how ? May also the study of, say history be 'scien- tific?' In what sense, and how? Discuss the meaning of such a phrase as 'the scientific spirit in social work.' Discuss, "The main business of science is to rid the world of chance and luck." (Todd) References I. and II. As for Topics XXVII to XXX, and as follows: Dewey (1), chaps. XVIII to XX, XXII, and XXIV to XXVI; Henderson chaps. XVI to XVIII. 84 XXXIII. THE STUD¥ OF MAN AND THE STUDY OF NA- TURE : II ; THE CURRICULUM. 1. In what sense is the study of history the study of man? What is the significance of associating with such study the additional (or cor- related?) study of nature in the form of geography, and so-called 'nature studies?' Is the information side of history too often stressed? What of geography and nature study? From the point of view of the last Topic, what should be the emphasis, and what the results? Can history and its associated subjects enrich experience, function in present social conduct, help in solving felt difficulties? 2. In what sense is the study of history when correlated with geography and nature study typical of concrete experience? For ad- vanced work in high-school what other subjects might be associated? What should be the nature of the 'material' used in studying history and its associates? Can the study of history be 'simplified,' and what is the process? What is philosophy of history? Its value and signifi- cance? ( See Topics VIII to XII) Has such study any 'fundamental' value ? 3. What instrumental and immediate values have such branches of the general study of history as biography, primitive industries and processes, history of commerce and industry, history of writing or art, 'intellectual' history, history of the school, national history, etc.? What suggestions and implications here? What of the studies of the 'classic' languages in this connection? Are they an integral part of the study of history ; a separate study ; a means of enriching experience ; an aid in social activity; a means of socialization; a 'discipline'; a 'funda- mental' part of the curriculum, etc. ? 4. Is science, as contrasted with history, a study of man or of nature? Are the teachings of science found ready made; has science a history ; is science a record of progressive achievement on the part of humanity ; is science instrumental or immediate in its bearings, etc. ? Is science, (compare history above), primarily informational as taught? Does this mean that it should be 'disciplinary'? In what sense? (Com- pare Topic XXX) What of the method of presenting science in the school; its form of organization; its rules and laws; its (usual) text- books, etc. ? How does the organization of science in its completed formal statement compare with that of the different stages of the pro- cess whereby it was organized ? W r hat implications ? Is a 'laboratory' a perfect solution of the problem involved? 5. Discuss, from the same point of view, mathematics. Has the history of mathematics any educational value? What of the usual requirements in algebra and geometry? Do they function in social behavior? Could they do so? In what sense, if any, might mathema- tics have 'disciplinary' value ? Is there a 'method' in mathematics, dis- tinct from 'method', say, in science or history? 85 (>. Discuss, from the same point of view, such subjects as Eng lish, modern foreign languages, etc. Would you conclude that a gen- netic or historical study (or presentation or investigation) of any given curriculum subject is the best? Would the study of, say, French or Russian gain in significance as well as in social utility through an his- torical approach? In what sense might an 'historical' approach be a 'living through' of some of the most significant episodes or periods in the development of the subject? Should the study of any given sub- ject involve 'physical' as well as 'mental' activity? What would this be for the different subjects discussed? References I. and 1!. As for Topic XXXII, and as follows: Dewey (1) chaps. XVI to Will and XXI. 86 XXXIV. THE STUDY OF MAN AND THE STUDY OF NA- TURE : III; VOCATIONAL STUDIES. 1. In what sense does the usual use of the phrase 'vocational studies' imply a contrast with other studies? Are all studies 'vocation- al' ? Discuss the issues involved. With what other antithesis is 'vo- cational versus cultural' usually associated? What does such an anti- theis imply for the educational and social theory and practice associa- ted with it? 2. What does the term 'cultural' imply as to the nature of knowl- edge and its relation to social activity? What does the term 'leisure class' imply for the conception of the self and its process of forma- tion? Discuss, "A vocation means nothing but such a direction of life activities as renders them perceptibly significant to a person, because of the consequences they accomplish, and also useful to his associates." (Dewey) Discuss the implications of 'significant' and 'useful.' Does a life of leisure have immediate satisfying values; the highest? What of original nature, secondary connections, etc. ? 3. What has been the history of the rise of vocational studies and education? Discuss, " vocations arose from two sources. First, the art of social control grew into a' number of vocations . Sec" ond, the vocations that in earlier civilization were held as servile have with the application to them of scientific foundations become trans- formed ." (Henderson E N, which see) "Thus education in a democracy means a vocational training for each and liberal culture for all. The highest training in the vocation leads inevitably be- yond the vocation." (ibid) (Compare Topic XXX, Method and Dis- cipline) 4. Following out the last quotations, is a vocation ever, in any sense, the only contact (significant) with society; the most important? (See Topic XXXI) How might a vocation 'lead beyond' itself? What would be the conditions of study, of practice? What of 'concomitants' and 'associated' responses? Discuss, "How can the industrial organ- ization be more completely socialized and spiritualized ? This, it would appear, is the concrete educational problem of society at the present time, . the essential task of educational method- ology is the organization of a program of industrial education such as, while providing for such training of the individual as will make for the maximum of economic efficiency, will at the same time restore to the individual something of the morai and aesthetic values which in- hered in the personal and social activities in their more primitive forms, as well as a deeper consciousness of the social and therewith the spirit- ual significance and sanction of his work." (MacVannel) 5. In what sense is a vocation the connecting link between the individual and society ? In what way might it take advantage of (orig- inal) differences in original nature, special abilities, etc.? Is society as 87 well as the individual vitally concerned in placing a man of Woman in a fitting field of acttivity? What of Plato's educational principles in this matter? .What of interests, aims and values in this connec- tion? What of the 01 janization of experience leading to new purposes, new adjustments, progress? 6 In the light of the above considerations, what of the subjects hi the curriculum? Does vocational training demand 'occupations' in the school as the material Eor such training? Should vocational training be done 'directly' or 'indirectly'; early or late; is such train- ing a constant process, or a definite operation done mice Eor all; should there be constant opportunity Eor redirection, and how; does it imply 'minimum essentials' in other directions, etc.? References I. and II. A.s for Topic XXXI 1, and as follows, Dewey (1). chaps XX. XXII and XXIII; MacVannel, chap, IX; Snedden (1): Bloomfield (It (2); Carlton; Hollingsworth ; lead, 88 F. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND THE PRPSL.\ I Selected References for Section F, Evolution of Pducational Theory Democracy and Social Ethics Moral Order and Progi • 1 he Super-State and the Eternal Value-, The Process of Government 'I ran-ition to — Objective — Control Philosophical I heory of the State icial and International tde; Underlying Principle-, of Modern Legislation Function of Socialization True and False Democracy The Good Man and the Good < jvilization; Ju Cause and Cure Education and the Mores The World of Labor Intellectuals and the Wage Workers lization and Progress Creative Intelligence Philosophy and the Social Problem The Social Problem Sociology and Modern Social Problems Main ( urrents of Modern Thought Cult of Incompetency Individualism 1 he New State Democracy at the Crossways Toward a Xevv World and Social Purpose Adams J Addams J Alexander S Baldwin Bentley Bernard Bosanquet Brown Burgess Butler Calkins Carpenter Chapin Cole ( ory ' rozier Dewey, etc Purant Ellwood Bucken Paguet Pite Pollett Hearnshaw. Henderson A Hetherington Muirhead Hob house llobson Keller Kropotkin Lippmann Mackenzie Mallock Perry Ross Russell Scott Sorel Todd Urwick Veblen Wallas Walling Weyl Zenker lopment and Purpose Social Evolution and Political Theory National Guilds Societal Evolution Mutual Aid Preface to Politics Outline- of Social Philosophy Elements of Constructive Philosophy Limits of Pure- Democracy >ent Philosophical Tendencies ent Conflict of [d< The Old World in the New Social Control Proposed Roads to Freedom Why Men Fight Syndicalism and Philosophical Realism licalism titific Spirit and Social Work Philosophy of Social Progress [nstinct of Workmanship The Great Society Larger Aspeci sialism The New Democracy Anarchism 89 90 XXXV. THE PRESENT AS A CENTER OF REVALUATION. 1. In what sense is a 'present' moment always ( ?) in contact with the past and the future? Have there been periods of history which have emphasized, relatively, the past as the most significant element? Have there been periods which, relatively, have lived for and in the present? What of the influence of the future as guiding, in part, pres- ent activity? What can you say of the 'present' moment in present social affairs in the United Slates? In Europe? In specifically indus- trial affairs? In school matters? 2. Does relative indifference to past history and activity imply actual freedom from (partial) control by the past? What of original human nature, the course of evolution, the nature of institutions, etc. :' Is it purely a matter, then, of consciousness of past affairs in relation to the present ? What does this imply for the nature of a group or so- ciety so constituted? For an individual? Is 'revolution' (ever?) tree from contact with the past ? How does it differ from 'evolution' ? 3. Are present changes in society 'revolutionary'? In all coun- tries; in all institutions and activities? What does this imply for their 'thought fulness,' their 'value,' their relation to progress? Is it possible for any one significant institution to radically change without others doing so? What of the relatively rapid communication between coun- tries in this connection? Does mere communication imply shared ac- tivity? Common results and outcomes? 4. Is there, as a matter of fact, dissatisfaction with present in- stitutions and methods of associated living? Is this dissatisfaction due to thoughtful analysis of their shortcomings, to comparison with better (actual) experiences, to comparison with a better 'ideal' (conceptual) society, or to mere dissatisfaction of original human nature, or what? 5. In more detail, what is the present situation with respect to the following institutions, i. e., what are the facts, so far as obtainable, both critical and reconstructive; the family, (divorce, children, freedom of women, etc.), the church, (its 'aloofness' from material affairs, etc.), the state, (its 'restrictive' nature, militarism, imperialism, etc.), indus- try, ('labor and capital,' property, 'classes,' etc.), the school, (cur- riculum, method, results, etc.). Is there any ascertainable common ground of criticism, in which they all agree; any common relief which they all demand ? What implications ? 6. Considering, again, the institutions of the last question, is there any ascertainable common (historical) cause for the fact that they are subject to criticism at the present time? (Compare questions 3 and 4, above). Is there any indication that fundamentally new problems have arisen in society, requiring new (?) solutions? What kind of a solution? Discuss, "There is, of course, no permanent solu- tion of the social problem possible. Our quest must not be for 91 a static solution, but for principles which may guide us in seeking some rational control over the relations of men to one another." (Ellwood) 7. Show the implications for educational practice and education- al theory. Discuss, in this connection, the conclusions of the Topics on experience, (1 and II ), the meaning and implications of education, (III to VII), progress, (VII to XI), the individual and society, (par- ticularly XIII and XX to XXVI), the school as an agency of dynamic control,' (XXI and XXVII to XXX). References I. and II. As for Topics VII to XI, and as follows: Bernard; Bosanquet (2); Brown; Butler; Cole; Cory; Dewey; Durant ; Ell- wood (1) (2); Follett ; Henderson; Hearnshaw ; Lippmann ; Perry (2); Ross (1) ; Russell (1) (2) ; Wallas; Walling; Weyl ; Scott. 92 XXXVI. THE CONCEPT OE AN IDEAL SOCIETY. 1. Would an 'ideal' society have historical and concrete connec- tion with the present modes of associated living? The connection of 'evolving out of or the connection of 'being the same as' in some par- ticulars? Specify which, if any. characteristics would be the same or shared. Is the question of the realization of an ideal society the same as that of the realization of (all) present aims, purposes and goals, or also partly other things? (See Topics X and XI.) 2. Does the realization of an ideal society involve change in the environment or change in human nature? What previous discussion in this connection? Discuss, in connection with the point of view of this and the preceding question, such ideal societies (or suggestions for them) as have been worked out in writing, (Plato, More, Butler, Kropotkin, Morris, Russell, Bacon, Tolstoy, Brown, Follett, etc.) What of actual attempts to 'set up' an ideal society? (See Mallock ; also confer Sorel, Zenker) Can you find any common characteristics of all these societies? Have any of them proceeded 'scientifically' in their reconstruction? Have any of them considered the school and its significance, and the learning process? Have they taken 'ideo-motor' principles and 'imitation' into account? 3. Does educational theory seek to formulate, or establish through practice, an 'ideal' society? Review, in this connection the dis- cussion on aims, values and interest. (Topics V and VI) An ideal society in a static, concluded, 'self-realized' sense? Does it merely seek to better the present so that the future may be still better, and so on? Does educational theory have any peculiar or special conception of the meaning of such a term as 'better'? For whom, and for what would the 'better' have reference? What of instrumental and immedi- ate values? 4. Does the conception of an ideal society as a 'goal' to be worked for, to be 'realized,' involve a dualism between living and learning, be- tween society and the school ? Would the school 'prepare for' the pre" conceived society? W 7 ould the school be, in itself, such a society? (Compare Topic XXVII to XXX, on Experience and the School Life) 5. Compare, again. Topic XXXI, on proportioned values and in- terests. Have the ideal societies, of the references of question 2, em- phasized one or more aspects of society and experience at the expense or to the exclusion of others? What of the unity of experience in this connection, the interpenetration of life interests, art, play, work, indus- trial interests, institutions? 6. From the point of view of the previous discussions on experi- ence and the school life, and in connection with the present subject, examine and explain the meaning and implications of the following quotations: "Our net conclusion is that life is development, and that developing, growing, is life. this means (1) that the educational 93 process has no end beyond itself; it is its own end; and that (2) the educational, process is one of continual reorganizing, reconstructing, transforming. - - Discipline, culture, social efficiency, personal re- finement, improvement of character are but phases of the growth of capacity nobly to share in (such) a balanced experience. And educa- tion is not a mere means to such a life. Education is such a life." ( Dewey) References I. and II. As for Topic XXXV, and as follows, Alexander; Baldwin ; Bentley ; Calkins ; Carpenter, Crozier ; Faguet ; Mallock ; Hobson ; Keller ; Sorel ; Zenker. 94 XXXVII. THE BASES OF AN IDEAL SOCIETY; MAN, NA- TURE AND SCIENCE. 1. Discuss, as fundamental bases for any social structure, the following, and show the mutual relations, as previously brought out : Original nature as the 'material,' nature as the 'conditions,' science as the 'method.' Where are aims, values and interests in this summary? What of history and the heritage of the past? Is society a 'function' of all these variables ? 2. Is society a function of these variables in a purely mechanical sense? Is the 'motive' power all from the past, from previous condi- tions ; is the future 'fixed' in terms of what is and has been ? Abso- lutely ; in all respects? What is the significance of thought in this connection ? Science ; philosophy ? 3. Might the bases of any given society be also expressed as the operation of (a) common knowledge, (b) common habits, (c) common attitudes, (d) common aims and values? How would this compare with the bases of question 1 ? What would be the concrete common knowledge, the concrete common habits, attitudes and aims which you would postulate, and why? What implications for the school, the 're- citation,' the 'curriculum.' etc.? What of experience and the school life here? 4. Does question 3 imply that all knowledge, habits, attitudes and aims are to be shared? What about the fact of variations? (See Topic IX, on Involution, Topix XVI, on Individual Differences) Are such variations (of original nature) relatively unpredictable and un" controllable? Of what value (to society) when found? In what sense may society, however, activelv experiment? In what sense is society the product of evolution ; in what sense the product of active, thought- ful endeavor? To what extent might social experimentation be car- ried? In what directions; with what limitations? What would be. the procedure in such matters ? 5. What does science, as such, (with reference, relatively, to nature), offer as a 'method' for social experimentation? Discuss the significance of felt difficulties, pertinent material, hypotheses, testing, verification, extension of hypotheses, enhanced control, laws, general- izations, et' What of the significance of exact measurement (s) in science ? Is it possible to measure human, mental and social phenom- ena? All of them? With what limitations? Are present difficulties due to lack of an adequate procedure, to lack of sufficient previous ex- perience or to inherent 'unsolvable' difficulties? 6. Has the progress of science been due to the isolated and un- co-operative activity of separate individuals, or to the steady accumu- lation of results and their spread through some sort of organization? What of social science and social efforts in this connection? Discuss, 95 "Intelligence is organized experience; but intelligence itself must be organized. Economic forces are organized ; the forces of intelli- gence are not. To organize intelligence ; that is surely one method of approach to the social problem ." (Durant) 7. Discuss what a Bureau of Social Research or Social Science might be like. What departments of investigation, what central prob- lems, what definite aims, what methods of publicity, what avenues of application? What would be the function of minorities, leaders, ex perts, etc. ? Is philosophy of education such an attempted mobilization of thought? What present limitations? What implications? References I. and II. As for Topics referred to in question 1 and as follows: Todd; Durant; IT wick ; Eucken; Mackenzie- (1) (2); Hetherington and Muirhead; Dewey; Veblen; Alexander; Burgess; Hobhouse (1) (2) ; and also as for Topics XXXV and XXXVI. 96 XXXVIII. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION: A SUMMARY Discuss and justify the following statements as summaries of each of the sections of the preceding outline, supplying additional connect- ing material where necessary, and showing, so far as possible, concrete results and conclusions for the school : "* 1. Philosophy of education, like every other human activity, deals with the material of experience. Experience, however, becomes meaningful in proportion as it is organized with reference both to past and to future activities. Both science and philosophy (general) are such organizations, the former, however, usually divided into as- sociated and relatively independent sub-systems, the latter, for the most part, in a comparatively unusable form. Educational theory, in the present sense of the word, also organizes experience, and the ques- tion arises of the comparative merits of the different historical educa- tional systems. This involves a consideration of the nature of aims, values and interests. 2. Experience, in the human race, is not limited by the life span of the individual. History, evolution and (the conception of) prog- ress connect us with the past and the future, and it is part of the task of philosophy of education to survey the past, interpret the present and help to choose the future. This in the light of both historical knowl- edge and the theory of evolution. 3. This leads to a detailed consideration of the nature of an indi- vidual, considered in relation to his environment, and to an examina- tion of the process whereby an individual changes and learns. The conception of the self is seen to be a mediating link between the indi- vidual and society, and also an example of the dualism which tends to break up the essential unity of human experience. 4. Society is found to also have a history and to have evolved, and the problem emerges of how to control the process of its evohr tion in order that foreseen and socially desirable results may be re- alized. This again emphasizes the function of thought and the concep- tion of progress. The problem of control leads again to the considera- tion of original human nature, and of aims and values. Institutions and morality appear as capitalized experience of the race or the group, and one of the bases for reconstruction. Democracy is a form of as- sociated living and a basis for further development. 5. The school is the fundamental institution for the control and development of society. In it are summarized all the problems of so- ciety. But the school is a dynamic institution, and education is never to be conceived in formal, static terms. Education becomes real in proportion as it utilizes original human nature, is guided by significant aims, values and interests, and becomes, not mere preparation, but a form of social activity involving the same elements as the society in 97 which it emerges. The curriculum of the school is experience, its method that of associated living, its results members of society. 6. The present is a moment of revaluation and reconstruction. The bases of this reconstruction are human nature, nature and sci- ence. — the latter implying an organized body of knowledge, doctrine and purposes which have significance for human beings in society. Organized intelligence, not mere desire and impulse, should control the process. 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E. A. Weeks A D Weyl W E Whipple G M White W A Wilson and W'ilson Woodbridge F J E Woodhull J F Woodworth R S Wundt W Human Psychology Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist Educational Year Book(s) 1918 — The Education of To-Morrow The New Democracy Manual of Mental and Physical Tests Mechanisms of Character Formation Motivation of School Work The Purpose of History The Teaching of Science Dynamic Psychology Elements of Folk Psychology Yerkes, Bridges and Harwick Yoakum and Yerkes Young J W A A Point Scale for Measuring Mental Ability Army Mental Tests The Teaching of Mathematics Zenker E V Zimmern A E Anarchism Nationality and Government 117 118 119 120 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS University of Buffalo Bulletin (Published gratis by College of Arts and Sciences) Recent issues have included: "FOOD PREPAREDNESS": Professor Sy. "FOOD VALUES" (illustrated): Professor Sy. "DRINKING WATER" (illustrated): Professor Sy. "SUBJECT PEOPLES UNDER THE TEUTONS" (illustrated) : Professor Park. 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