F 2235 .C94 Copy 1 1 We South JImerican G)ars -of- Independence BY GERALD ELLIS CRONIN 1st. LIEUTENANT 9th. V. S. INFANTRY. We South JImerican dOars -of- Independence BY GERALD ELLIS CRONIN 1st. LIEUTENANT 9th. V. S. INFANTRY. ft '1 ww ICI.A447581 m -8 1916 * ■-. THE SOUTH AMERICAN WARS OF INDEPENDENCE. By Gerald Ellis Cronin, 1st. Lieutenant ,9th U. S. Infantry. Introduction. THE independence of South America from Spanish and Portuguese rule was the natural result of the French and American revolutions. The colonial policy of the Peninsular countries was not of a nature to make loyal sub- jects out of the Latin-Americans. The country was taxed to the last penny until finally the revolts at Quito and Charcas in 1809 aroused the Spanish throne to the needs of their American possessions. A royal decree on Jan- uary 22 1809 announced that the colonies were an integral part of the mon- archy and as provinces were entitled to direct representation in the Cortes. A year later however the Regency at Cadiz abolished this liberal ordinance with the result that the revolutionary spirit spread through the continent. During 1810 revolts occured in Caracas, Bogota, Quito, Buenos Ayres,, Montevideo, Chili and Upper Peru (now Bolivia), Paraguay, Peru and Bra- ail remained peaceful. "The overthrow of Spanish rule in America is the results of two simul- taneous movements which originated in local disturbances in Venezuela and Buenos Ayres which spread gradually northward and so southward along the western coast of the continent developing leaders as they advanced and which finally united within the limits of the present republic of Ecuador to continue the advance together into the heights of Upper Peru until the attainment of a complete and perfect independence" — Paxson — Independence of the South American Republics. The patriot campaigns were very much like the first invasion by the con- quistadores. These undertook three separate invasions; the first in the (3) north; the second in Peru and subsequently Chili; the third in the provinces of the River Plate while on the plateau of Upper Peru was fought the first •ir.d last battles of the wars of independence. Comparatively few works have been written in this country on the wars of our fellow Americans with whom our commercial and perhaps our mili- tary relations are destined to become closer as time rolls on. Argentine has a compulsory military service and since the establishment of such a policy has been free from revolutions as well as foreign wars while Chile, Uruguay, and Colombia have followed in her footsteps. The A. B. C. republics (Agen- fcine, Brazil and Chile) have laid down Dreadnoughts and show every indi- cation of being able to preserve the integrity of their independence should it ever be threatened. The Northern campaign in Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador. The first movements towards independence in the northern part of South America occured in Venezuela. In 1796 several of the leaders of a republi- can conspiracy in Spain were exiled to La Guaira. While in prison there they had many sympathizers, and before long republican ideas began to permeate through Venezuela. However it was not until 1806 that the first attempt to free South America from the Spanish rule was attempted.! Its leader, Fran- cisco de Miranda sailed from New York in the ship "Leander" early in the year and an attempted landing was made at Ocumare near Puerto Cabello. Owing to the vigilance of the Spanish naval forces Miranda was defeated and sixty of his followers captured. Ten of these natives of North America were subsequently executed at Puerto Cabello. Miranda made a second at- tempt near Coro three months later and took the city. In this expedition he was aided by an English squadron under Lord Cochrane. The people of Venezuela however, were still loyal to Spain, and in a short time Miranda was compelled to retire to Jamaica.; - At this time Spain was an ally of Napo- leon in the wars that were convulcing Europe consequently England cast greedy eyes at South America. While helping Miranda off the Venezuala coast a large military and naval expedition was being fitted out at Cape Town, South Africa for the conquest of Buenos Ayres. Miranda who enjoyed the friendshin of the younger Pitt in England was largely -'nstrumental in the sending of this lli-fated expedition. This leader, a Vene- zuelan, had served under Rochambeau in the American revolution, and later rose to the command of brigade in the Republican Armies of France. After the rise of Napoleon he settled in England, and it was while there that he had worked out his plan for the freedom of Spanish America. To him is due the credit of inaugurating the movement. However Napoleon's invasion of Spain forced the hands of the South Americans, and in 1809 a revolt broke out in Upper Peru (now Bolivia) at Charcas which was suppressed with great cruelty by the Spanish General from Lima, Goyeneche. The cruelty of the loyalist troops which were native South Americans aroused the feelings of the Creoles of South America, and in 1810 the standard of revolt was raised throughout the continent. Peru, under the Viceroy Abascal remained loyal (4) and Portuguese Brazil gave no support to the movement. On April 1810 the Spanish authorities at Caracas were deposed and all the adjoining cities fol- lowed the Capital.An army was raised and sent against Coro, but the re- solute Spanish General Ceballos defeated it with great loss. After Venezue- la's declaration of independenc on July 5, 1811, Francisco Miranda returned from exile and took command of the patriot forces. The city of Valencia made a counter revolt against him, but he soon reduced the city to patriot authority. The campaign of 1812 went against the revolutionists. Monteverde the Spanish commander marching south from Coro, defeated the insurgents on all sides. A patriot expedition to the lower Orinoco was defeated, and finally on July 30th the royalist troops under the victorious Monteverde en- tered Caracas. This ended the first revolt. Miranda was captured at Puerto Cabello, and sent to Spain where he died. Meanwhile Colombia had revolted, so a number of Venezuelan refugees fled to the insurgent cities of that pro- vince. One of these was Simon Bolivar, whose service in the patriot cause, had cost them Puerto Cabello and he gave little promise of his future great- ness. A follower of Miranda, brave but unscrupulous, with an overwhelming egotism Simon Bolivar soon showed himself to be the man of the hour, plac- ing his sword at the disposal of the Cartagena Junta he was given com- mand of a small force operating on the Magdalena river. Soon afterwards he captured two small posts and the City of Ocana near the Venezuelan bor- der. The patriots at Pamplona appealed to him for aid and this suggested to Bolivar the wild plan of reconquering Venezuela. The Colombia revolt had been contemporaneous with that of Venezuela. In March 1811 the patriots had won the battle of Papayan, and had sent an expedition to the aid of Quito. Bolivar with a force of four thousand men moved across the Andes, defeated a royalist force enroute to Pamplona, and within fifty days the Venezuelan provinces of Merida and Trujillo were in his hands. The go- vernment of New Grenada who had authorized Boliver's movement into Venezuela, ordered him to return to Colombia, but Boliver pushed on to the, conquest of Barinas. Here he annihiliated the royalist forces and won a bril- liant victory near Valencia. fMonteverde's forces were wildly scattered so he fell back on Puerto Cabello. Valencia and finally Caracas fell into Boli- ver's hands on Aug. 4 1813. So thatjwithin ninety days he had defeated four thousand Royalists, and conquered the country from the Andes to the Capi- tal. Maricabo, Coro and the lower plains of the Orinoco remained Royalist. •In the East a small expedition under Marino captured and later held Matu- rin. Cumana was then besieged. Boliver hastened here to reenforce Marino, and the town surrendered. Meanwhile reenforcements of regular troops from Spain had arrived at Puerto Cabello, and Montverde had resumed the offensive. Boliver however was victorious at Las Trincheras but a reaction set in. The Spanish General Boves initiated a Royalist movement among the Llaneros while Ceballos moving from Coro defeated Boliver and captured Barquisimeto. The patriots under Campo Elias defeated Boves at Calabozo and after taking the town butchered every man. Boliver after his defeat by Ceballos joined Campo Elias and won the Ba+tle of Araure. TV Spaniards how- (5) ever steadily gained and Bolivar was reduced to the possession of Caracas and Valencia. .' Boves crushed Campo Elias at La Puerta and moved on Caracas. The city was attacked but the assaulting column lost eight hundred men by the blowing up of the citadel by the patriots. This disaster, which was occa- sioned by a young Grenadan officer firing the magazine as the loyalists stormed the walls, saved the capital. After this event the patriots under Marino moved from the east and the redoubtable Boves attempted to cut them off but was defeated. Ceballos raised the siege of Valencia but in spite of all the brave efforts by the patriots the royalists were destined to trium- ph. On June 14, 1814, the patriot army was totally defeated at La Puerta and lost over half their number., Another crushing defeat at Aragua followed, Bo- livar was exiled to Colombia and soon became Captain General and took Bo- gota. General Rivas succeeded the Liberator and won an engagement but subsequently the Venezuelan army was wiped out. The crushing of the re- bellion cost the Royalist their famous General, Boves. The royalist troops were native Venezuelans so the second revolution in Veneztiela was carried on with all the horrors and cruelty of civil strife. The Peninsular war was over, the French troops had fallen back across the Pyrennes; Napoleon was still at Elba when Marshal Morillo with 10,000 veterans sailed from Spain early in 1815 in seventy transports convoyed bj two ships-of-the-line and six frigates. The Spanish commander landed at Cumana in April and was joined by the royalists under Morales. With 8,000 men the Marshal moved against Cartagena and laid siege to the town. Since Bolivar's departure the war in Colombia had gone on with varying success. An expedition to Pasto under a North American named McCauley had been boaten and the various states fell to fighting among themselves. Bogota however was successful in this contest and the advance of General Samano's army from Quito brought the quarrelling Columbians together. Samano's force of 2,000 men retook Popayan but was defeated at Calivio on January 15, 1814. Pasto, like La Vendee was extremely royalist and when Marino's victorious troops invaded that province for the second time, after the battle of Calivio, they were totally defeated and their leader captured. This was the .situation in Colombia when Morillo began the famous siege of Cartagena. Cartagena had been the scene of many battles in the early history of Am- erica and it is the only place in South America where North American troops fought. In 1741 the British Admiral Vernon with a combined military and naval force attacked the city and was defeated. Among his troops was a contingent from the North American colonies which suffered severely. When Morillo besieged the city he found it too strong for direct assault so leaving the navy to shut off communication by sea he landed at Santa Marfca and crossed the Magdalena River thereby blockading the town on the land side. The garrison numbered four thousand men. In the previous year a counter revolution had held the city against the famous Bolivar prior to his Venezuelan drive. The besiegers were compelled to operate in a swampy coun- try and suffered greatly while starvation and disease decimated the defen- ders During the four and a half months' siege it is estimated that over 6,000 (6) . died. The garrison was finally reduced to living on rats and hides, sentinels died at their posts- and -pestilence-was rife. The commander of the fortress at the last extremity drove out of the city over 2000 old men, women and children. Only a few of these wretched victims reached the Spanish lines alive. Finally taking advantage of the dispersal of the blockading fleet by a storm the survivors of the gorrsoin made their escape by sea. During the siege of Cartagena a Spanish army mo\ed along the Venezue- lan Andes and climbed to the Pamplona plateau and defeated the rebels who bad massacred all the Spanish non-combatants in the province. A force of 2500 raw recruits from Bogota under Torres moved against Pamplona. The wily Spaniards fell back to Ocafia where they were reenforced and on renewing their advance defeated Torres on February 22, 1816. General Samano completely crushed the fragments of Torres' force a few days later. After taking Carta- gena Morillo marched to Bogota which fell without a struggle. The marshal treated the inhabitants with great cruelty and executions were wholesale. The most notable of these being that of Senorita Policarpa Salabarrieta who heroically faced a firing squad at Bogota by order of General Samano. Thus we find that Miss Cavell had a prototype a century ago in the quaint old city of the Northern Andes. While Morillo was uniformally successful in Colombia, affairs in Venezue- la were needing his attention. Among the guerilla bands that infested "the Orinoco country was that of Paez, a full-blooded Indian who had entered the war as a private and was destined to be the chief magistrate of Venezuela. After a successful night attack this soldier soon had a formidable force which was called "The Army of the Apure" This non-descript arm?/ began to terrorize the royalists and once more the tide began to turn. Eoliver return- ed from exile but was defeated and fled to Hay'ti. However a force sent by the exile leader under MacGregor took Valencia and Barcelona and aided by the negro chief, Piar, defeated Morales at Juncal. This disaster to his collea- gue compelled Morillo to return to Venezuela leaving Samano in command in Colombia.""! Late in 1816 Bolivar returned to Barcelona and took the field making a juncture with Piar near Angostura. Again the patriots were scattered by a force under La Torre which moved down the Apure and Orinoco rivers to Angostura. In April 1817 Piar got his routed forces together and defeated La Torre at San Felix. Bolivar with his indefatigable energy improvised a ■fleet and after a quarrel with Piar had him executed on a charge of treason. By the end of 1817 the patriots were in commad of the whole line of rivers except San Fernando at the junction of the Apure and Orinoco Rivers. The plains were flooded and Morillo was helpless. Bolivar and Paez blockaded San Fernando and Morillo was defeated at Calbozo. Against the advice of Paez, Bolivar made a drive for Caracas but was defeated at La Puerta. San Fernando fell before the indian general but Morales drove the patriots hack only to receive a severe drubbing at the hands of Paez. At this juncture Bolivar was again in a precarious position but his re- sourcefulness seemed to be unending. Murillo's troops were without money, (7) arms or provisions. Bolivar secured the services of a number of English and Irish soldiers, veterans of the Peninsular war, for a bounty. This consisted of eighty dollars payable on enlistment and five hundred dollars payable at the close of the war. Morillo took the field against Paez but the latter, skilled in guerilla wafare soon wore out his antagonist. Bolivar leaving Paez to occupy Morillo determined to carry the war into New Grenada by invading the province of La Tunja. Samano at Bogota had sent an expedi- tion down the steep Cordillera slope against some guerillas in the Casanare plains so Bolivar decided to follow the Spaniards and assault Bogota directly from the Orinoco plains. With 2,000 natives and 500 British the Liber- tador followed up the Orinoco, Meta and Casanare to the latter's source at the foot of the Paya Pass. This pass leads directly into the valley of the Saga- moso, is high and difficult although only eighty miles long. The passage cost the patriots one hundred men and all the horses which perished from the cold. As can be expected Bolivar's men arrived at Sagamoso in a pitiable condition. The Spanish commander Barriero did not attack the worn-out troops at once so Bolivar had time to get his forces together and outman- oever his opponent. Tunja fell on July 25, and thus Bolivar was between Barriero and his capital, Bogota. The baffled Spaniard now made a furious attempt to regain his advantage but the Venezuelan commander had taken a position on the right bank of the Boyaca river. Here on August 7, 1819 Bolivar won a decisive victory in which the Royalists were routed and Bo- gota fell on the following day. The battle of Bocaya wrecked the Spanish j army and Barriero was a prisoner. The viceroy fled and the forts on the iower Magdalena were soon in the hands of the patriots. However the war on the seacoast continued but Bolivar was master of the situation. Morillo was isolated in Venezuela where Paez had been defeated in an invasion of Barinas. Bolivar however was able to send troops south into Ecuador and a force against Cartagena. In November Morillo returned »:o Spain and was succeeded by La Torre. A six months' armistice was con- cluded but desultory operations continued. During this time the Liberator was not idle and La Torre had to face 20,000 victorious troops while only able to place 9,000 in the field; Bolivar's army was distributed as follows: Montilla with 3,000 was besieging Carta- gena; a Grenadian force held the valley of the Magdalena; another force was in Ecuador; Bermudez with 2,000 men was moving on Caracas from the east while Bolivar and Paez threatened Valencia and Caracas. La Torre with o,000 at Carabobo and Bolivar moved against him with more than double that force. On the 23d the patriots seized the passes near Carabobo and the battle took place on the following day. Bolivar's force was in three divisions; the first under Paez consisted of the Casadores Britannicus or British Light Infantry 800 men and 100 of the Irish Legion, besides 2,200 natives, the second under Cadeno mustered 1800 men and the third led by Ambrosio Fiaza was made up of the Rifles, a regiment officered by Englishmen, and other troops to the number of 2,500. In crossing the Rio Aparito a number of (8) men perished from the attacks of the fierce man-eating perai. As Bolivar rode along the line the English troops gave three "hurrah's" that were heard a mile away. Bolivar sent Paez's division which contained the famous Lla- nero cavalry the rough riders of Venezuela, to envelop the enemy's left. The cavalry attack was twice repulsed but the British infantry held off La Torre's entire force. The Legion finally charged with the bayonet and al- though the odds were four to one the Spaniards broke and fled to Puerto Cabello where only a fragment arrived. In this battle over 600 English were killed. Carabobo marked the end of Spanish dominion in the north and Cara- cas and Cartagena soon fell. Bolivar now turned his attention to Ecuador. In one of the Venezuelan campaigns General Paez distinguished himself by a capture of a flotilla of gunboats by cavalry. The troopers dashed into the alli- gator infested waters of the Apure and carried the vessels by boarding. This feat has two parrellels in history, one Psichegru's cavalry capturing the ice- bound Dutch fleet in the Texel during the French revolution and General For- rest's capture of two Union gunboats on the Tennessee river inl864. The war in Colombia and Venezuela soon ended. Panama declared its independence of Spain in November 1821. In October 1822 Cumana fell but Morales retook Maracaibo and Coro. The Spanish commander however was unable to hold chese towns and after his naval forces were defeated on Lake Maracaibo in July 1823 he surrendered. Puerto Cabello was taken by assault on November 8 and the long war of the Venezuelan independence was at an endT^ c- Early in 1822 Bolivar moved against Loyalist Pasto and sent Sucre by sea to Guayaquil to take Quito from the south. San Martin was in Peru and the two armies of liberation were getting closer together. On April 7 Bolivar fought the royalists at Bambona and by inciting his men to reckless and desperate chagres he remained master of the bloody field. After eight days he was compelled to fall back on Popayan with his wooded. The Ecuador campaign was now on. Lord Cochrane's fleet had kept Guayaquil open for the patriots and San Martin sent a division of 1200 men by sea to Guaya- quil to reenforce Sucre. The latter had been unsuccessful in his first ad- vance on Quito but now fortune favored him. Bolivar's activity in Pasto for- ced the Spaniards to evacuate Cuenca and thus lure Sucre to the vicinity of Quito. Sucre however outmanoevered them and secured a commanding posi- tion on the slopes of the great volcano Pichincha. His army numbered 2,900 men. On May 24, 1822 the Spanish army was totally defeated, the Columbian infantry under General Cordoba doing great work with the bayonet. The enemy had 400 killed and 200 wounded while on the following day 160 offi- cers and 1,100 men surrendered. A few scattered detachments escaped down the eastern slope of the Andes to the headwaters of the Amazon and drifted down that great river to the Atlantic. After the victory of Pichincha Bolivar moved against Pasto which surrendered and reached Quito on June 16. Co- operation with San Martin for the conquest of Peru was now possible but ano- ther great leader in the person of Sucre was destined to complete the inde- pendence of South America. (9) The Southern Campaigns in Argentine, Uruguay, Paraguay and Chile. Early in the nineteen century England cast coveteous at both the Dutch possessions of South Africa and the Spanish possessions of South America. In one she was destined to succeed and in the other to fail. Shortly after the capture of the Cape of Good Hope in 1805 a combined military and naval ex- pedition under General Beresford and Admiral Sir Home Riggs Pop ham sailed across the Atlantic to the Rio de la Plata. On June 25, 1806 this force landed a few miles south of the city of Buenos Ayres. The Spanish viceroy, Sobremonte fled and two days later the British flag waved over Buenos Ayres. The inhabitants however did not support the invaders but were extreme- ly hostile so that before long the invaders were practically besieged. Liniers, a French officer in the Spanish service, gathered together at Montevideo a force of 1000 regular troops and a small amount of artillery. This force moved west across the Plate into Argentine where hosts of volunteers joined it. Buenos Ayres was besieged and after some hard street fighting Beresford was forced to surrender on August 12. The Argentines were greatly encouraged by their victory. Popham's fleet kept up a blockade and early in 1807 landed 4,000 troops under General Auchmuty at Maldonado, Crugusy. After an eight days' siege Montevideo was taken on February 8, reenforcements to the number of 12,000 under General Whitlocke scon ar- rived from the Cape and moved on Buenos Ayres, the Argentines under Liniers retreating before him. The British arrived outside the city on July 5 and advanced into the city, General Wjhitlocke ordered his troops to use nothing but the bayonet. As the British advanced through the streets they were shot down from the housetops on all sides. Strict adherence to the or- ders of their commander led to the total defeat of the invaders and their subsequent surrender. General Whitlocke signed a capitulation in which he agreed to evacuate both Buenos Ayres and Montevideo within two months. The defeated troops were withdrawn and on his return to England General Whitlocke was court-martialed and cashiered. Although still loyal to Spain the defeats of the British showed the Argentines that they could de- fend themselves. During the revolt at Charcas in 1809 the viceroy of Buenos Ayres, Cis- neros, sent 1,000 men to aid in suppressing the revolt. The cruelties perpe- trated in this campaign by the royalists coupled with the French successes in Spain aroused the spirit of independence in the Creoles and on May 25, 1810 the viceroy Cisneros, was deposed and a junta still maintaining alle- giance to Ferdinand VII was appointed. The first attack of the patriots was directed against Cordoba with 1,200 men under Ocampo and Balcarce. The royalists were commandered by Liniers, the hero of the. English invasion and after putting up a feeble fight were captured. The victorious troops execu- ted all the royalist officers including Liniers. Upper Peru was invaded and following the victory of Suipacha on November 7, the inhabitants joined the revolt. Another army of 1,000 men under General Belgrano invaded Paraguay. (10) After crossing the Parana at Candelaria the Buenos Ayrians met with resis- tance from the natives on all sides. Inflamed by natural hatred for the Ar- gentines the Paraguayans finally defeated Belgrano on Janaury 19, 1811 and he was forced to surrender on March 9. Paraguay declared its independence cf Spain on October 12 following. Under Dr. Francia, Paraguay remained in a state of complete seclusion and took no part in South American affairs until late in the fifties. In Uruguay the patriot leader, Artigas, raised the standard of revolt while General Belgrano won the battle of Piedras on May 18 and besieged Monte- video in conjunction with Artigas. So far the w ar in Upper Peru had beep, successful but the Argentines suffered in health on account of the high alti- tude. The Viceroy of Peru with a large force of Indians attacked and de- feated the patriots at Huaqui on June 20 and the Spanish power became su- preme in that region, while an invasion of Argentine began. Belgrano was recalled from Montevideo, Puerreydon was placed in command at Buenos Ayres while a Brazilian force invaded Uruguay and dorve out Artigas. The outlook for the patriots was dismal. However Belgrano went north to Tucu- man where he received orders to fall back before the Viceroy. The Argen- tine commander disobeyed and remaind at Tucuman. Belgrano although with- out military education showed great generalship by letting the enemy get in his rear and force them to attack him. The battle at Tucuman was a great victory and the gaucho cavalry drove the royalists back to Upper Peru where Belgrano soon followed. Uruguay was again invaded and the Brazilian troops withdrew. An Argentine force under Rondeau was sent to reenferce Artigas. On December 31, 1812 the Spaniards were defeated at Cerrito and Monte- video, was once more besieged,- The Uruguayan leader later quarrelled with Rondeau and withdrew from the siege. The campaign in Upper Peru contin- ued with varying successes and defeats. The Spaniards under Tristan lost the battle of Salta on February 20, 1813. Later in the year Belgrano was de- feated at Vilapugio and Ayohuma. It may be stated that the patriot defeats were due to the better disciplined forces of the Viceroy and the fact that they bad violated their paroles in attacking the Argentines. Th«se two disasters cost the patriot leader his command and he was succeeded by Jose de San Martin. This famous soldier a native of Argentine had served for many years ir. the Spanish army and had attained the rank of lieutenant colonel. He ar- rived at Buenos Ayres with Carlos Alvear in the British ship "George Can- ning" on March 9, 1812. He offered his services to the Buenos Ayres junta and was employed in raising a force of horse grenadiers which were later en- gaged in operations against the Spanish naval forces operating in the River Plate. While on this duty he won a brilliant little engagement on February 3, 1813. On arriving at the northern frontier he managed to hold off the vic- torious royalists and restore confidence to the shattered patriots. During the service at Buenos Ayres he had recruited and organized some regiment' and made military efficiency and not political preferment the basis of retention (10 in the service. He foresaw that to reach the stronghold of the Viceroy in Peru by the Bolivian route was foredoomed to failure by reason of the na- ture of the country as well as thegreat distance of more than 400 leagues from a base. In addition to fighting the Spaniards the different political lea- ders of Argentine fought among themselves. San Martin turned the active control of the army over to Alvear and retired to Mendoza as governor of the province of Cuyo. San Martin had conceived a bold plan for the liberation of South America and his command of the remote province was his first move. The project was to invade Chile by crossing the Andes over the Uspallata Pass and after de- feating the Spaniards to proceed north along the Pacific coast to Peru. The Chilians had revolted in 1810 under Jose Miguel Carrera who was replaced by Bernardo O'Higgins and a truce was finally negotiated with the Viceroy at Talca on May 5, 1314. Diesenticns later broke out between O'Higgins and the three Carrera brothers so Abascal, the Viceroy, repudiated the truce and invaded Chile. .The movement of the Vicrcy made the patriots lay aside their differences r.nd unite but O'Higgins was defeated at Rancagua on Octo- ber 1, 1814. His army was routed and only a few including O'Higgins es- caped across the Andes and joined San Martin. Like Carnot, Kitchener or Von Hindenburg San Martin was an organizer of victory. The regiments which he had organized at Buenos Ayres and O'Higgins refugees formed the nucleus of the new army that was destined to accomplish so much. Puer- reyedon at Buenos Ayres sent a corps of manumitted negro slaves to Men- doza as a reenforcement. Although civil war raged in the eastern part of Argentine San Martin was undeterred from his task. For nearly three years he labored, drilling, instructing, officering, levying taxes, collecting provi- sions and munitions as well as all the other multitudinous details that go tc make up an army. Finally when ready to take the field San Martin had 4000 men under his command highly trained and disciplined. Meanwhile the war in Uruguay and on the Bolivian frontier went on. Buenos Ayres had improvised and efficient navy comprising three purchased vessels, the "Hercules", "Zefiro" and "Nancy". These ships commanded by Admiral William Brown defeated the Spanish fleet and blockaded Monte- video. The city soon surrendered to the besieging army under Alvear but the victorious troops soon had a civil war on their hands The Uruguayans under General Rivera defeated the Argentines at Guayabos and Montevideo was evacuated. Artigas in one of his campaigns provoked a war with Brazil by invading the territory of the Seven Missions. A well-equipped Portugeuse army then invaded Uruguay and after defeating Artigas in several battles took Montevideo. Uruguay remained in Brazilian possession until 1828. In the nort hthe patriots under Rondeau again invaded Bolivia but were defea- ted at Sipe-Sipe. Fortunately however the gaucho cavalry under Guimes kept the royalists from advancing south. Finally all was ready at Mendoza for the 150-mile drive across the Andes to Santiago. Sleds were made for the guns; spies had cleverly disseminated (12) false information as to the route to be taken and on January 17, 1817 San Martin "set out on one of the most extraordinary marches that history has known. Indeed his passage of the Andes is considered unique by military ex- perts." The army was divided into two divisions; one, the smaller, under O'Higgins crossed the Uspallata Pass while the stronger under San Martin took the more difficult pass of Pasto. The movements of both commands were so well timed that they would reach the open ground of the Aconcagua val- ley together. The Spanish troops at the Uspallata Pass were brushed away by the advancing Argentines. Had the enemy attempted to hold this pass with even larger forces they would have been bottled up by the San Martin division leaving a small force at the mouth of the Canyon. The Spanish com- mander, Marco, attempted to driye back the invaders but his advance guard suffered a check so he retreated leisurely toward Santiago. Thus San Martin was able to unite his forces and after a four clays rest he resumed his ad- vance. Remarkable to relate that after a passage over two of the loftiest and steepest passes in the world the Argentine General scarcely found it ne- cessary to refit. The Spanish force, two thousand strong, were Peninsular veterans under 'a skillful and resolute commander. Their position was a strong one on the southern side of the transverse range that separates San- tiago from the . Aconcagua valley. It was admirable for a stubborn defense. The high road to Santiago descended down a narrow valley which opened out into the larger valley at right angles to it. In front of their position the narrow mouth was commanded by artillery and on a hill side there was room to deploy infantry and cavalry so that the Argentines could be enfiladed from this position before they could deploy. San Martin like Bolivar was re- sourceful to an extraordinary degree and he located an abandoned road which threatened the Spaniards' left flank. He sent O'Higgins with 1800 men along this road and at 11:00 a. m. on February 12 the attack opened. O'Higgins' f.rst attack was repulsed but San Martin ordered the Chilian commander to make another attack which was supported by frontal attack under San Mar- tin himself. This was successful and the position was carried at the point of the bayonet. The Spaniards lost all their guns and half their force was either tilled or captured. The patriot loss was 12 killed and 120 wounded. Chaca- buco was a decisive battle in the history of South America and changed the entire military situation in the south. Once more Chile rose in revolt and Brown's squadron- came around to the Pacific but were unable to cope with the superior naval forces o f the Viceroy. One o f the Argentine ships, the corvette "Argentina" carried the war to the distant Philippines and block- aded Manilla for several days in March 1818. After Chacabuco the surviving Spaniards fled to Valparaiso and embarked for Callao. O'Higgins became dictator and a vigorous campaign against the '•emaining Spanish troops in Chile began. In April O'Higgins sent a force of 1,000 men under Las Heras against Talcahuano and Valdivia. Abascal had sent back to Chile the survivors of Chacabuco who were now commanded by Ordonez and Las Heras fought an indecisive action at Gavilan near Concep- cion with these troops. U3) in January 1818 four Spanish ships mounting 230 guns arrived at Talca- huano and landed 3400 well equipped troops. San Martin had reorganized his forces and now had 9,000 men. The Talcahuano army moved up to Con- eepcion where O'Higgins was. The latter in obedience to San Martin's orders retreated laying waste the country as he fell back. Near Talca he was joined by San Martin and the retreat stopped. The patriot leader made a dash for the Rio M£ul