,0 o. %/^' .^o" SS^ > ^ '^ A '^,, vV s^ '\" 0" .v-^y7^2^;^^ ^^ ,^- * €\ > % '. .^ ,0- A^' ^ip <<^'' o ^^^^^v^" ■A '^\^.^.r?7^.'' -t ^W^ ^ ■'■. ^ '^ ■^'■%, .'r,'' <■' . ^ V 0^-, '/^^_ .x5 ■Pi. V* >«*• -^*. L-.. ^^^^* v%!*f>\cp ^%: -^^.y^^' ^ ^-^ \> "^ -' 6 <, S "^ .«0^ %^^- ; .0\ ANALYTIC HISTORY, FOR SCHOOLS; FOUNDED UPON THE ESQUISSES HISTORIQUES OF M. D. LEVI, (Alvarez,) ADAPTED TO THE STATE OF INSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES, AND BROUGHT DOWN TO THE YEAR 1848. PUBUSHED BY D. FANSHAW. 575 BROADWAY; Printing Office, comer of Ann and Nas«aa-«u. 1848. THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS WASHINGTON Entered according to Act of Congrcaa. in the year cf our Lord one Uion^iunI eight linndrbtl fttid forty-fiUht, by Josix II. TIuNXKa nnd Daniki. pANaiiAW, in Jlie Clork'8 Office of th? UisUict Court of ibe United States, for !bc Scuibcra District of New-York. O-v K/ ^^^ RECOMMENDATIONS. NrW'York, July 21, 1847. Mr. Hum'er, Dear S!R,r-The following is a copy of the report upon " An Analytical History " by M. D. Levi, read before tha Ward School Teachers' Association, and unanimously adopted by thorn at a meeting held in the City Hail, July 7, 1847. Respectfully, Wm. Kennedy, Recording Secretary, REPORT. Mil. Presided T, The Book Committee of this Association have cxatr.in- ed with some care a French Work on History, by M. D. Levi, (Alvarez,) and a manuscript translation of the same by Rev. Ji)hn n. Hunter. This work is universal in its character, a:;d professes to be Slcctchcs of History, as, indeed, every work of this kind must be which is contained within the limits of 300 pages. This volume embraces a large amount of matter, very plea- santly and clearly arranged. It appears to be free from sectarian prejudices, and aims to give the true historic account of every fact narrated. It is, in the opinion of your committee, a work axlmirably adapted for use in our schools, generally being short, comprehensive and interesting. Those parts of the Translation, by Rev. Jolm II. Hunter, v.hich we have examined and compared, appear to be faithfully executed, and to give clearly and forcibly the sense of the origi- nal. If the work be published, as we hope it will be, we doubt not it will be extensively used in our schools, and be found in- teresting to the general reader, and that a valuable object will be accomplished by the Translator, in thus bringing it before the public. Your Committee offer the following resolution. Ucsolved. — That the Historical Sketches by M. D. Levi, (Alvarez,) and translated by Rev. John H. Hunter, is, in the judgment of this Association, a work of much excellence, and 4 RECOMMENDATIONS. well fitted for use in the recitation room ; and that wc encourage its introduction into the Schools \vith which we are connected. John Walsh, Chairman. J. Blackburn. Edward McIlPxOY. William Ken n edit. From the Principal of the Seminary for Young Ladies in Bridgeport, Connecticut. Having been permitted to use the Manuscript of the " Ana- lytical History " in my school last winter, I have been enabled to submit it to the only sure test by which a school book can be judged, that of actual experiment ; and I am gratified to have this opportunity of giving my testimony to its excellence. It comprises, in itself, a complete system of instruction ; which if fuiihfully carried out by the teacher, cannot fail to give any pupil, of moderate abilities, such a knowledge of the principal facts of History as will enable him to deduce those moral lessons for which the study is principally valuable. Even one whose historical knowledge is already considerable, will, by this plan, find it so systematized as to become doubly available. By the frequent repetition of the outline so skilfully drawn up in the commencement, it is indelibly fixed in the memory ; and the minor details are gradually associated with this sketch, so as finally to make it a finished whole. I rejoice that Mr. Hunter has made the work of M. D. Levi accessible to such of my pupils as are unacquainted with the French language, and hope that its general introduction into the schools of this country may prove a universal and lasting benefit to our youth. Lydia R. Ward. June 16, 1847. PREFACE. Elementary instrtlction in history is almost a nullity in our country ; this is a sad tnith to announce. Notwith- standing the zeal of certain writers and teachers who have exerted themselves to improve it, we seek in vain a me- thodical work on this branch of education, where all man- kind still find the rules of conduct. Certain summaries of ancient and modem history are current in the schools ; but they are arranged upon no set- tled plan : the pupils learn them by heart, recite them with mechanical volubility, and give themselves but little concern about introducing order into the ideas, or con- necting the facts which they contain. They confound centuries, events, and men ; make Alexander the Great to have lived before Romulus, and Hannibal in the time of Pharamond. In this chaos, in this labyrinth of names, dates and facts, the memory, overwhelmed beneath the undigested mass, is fatigued, and succumbs ; from this confusion springs disgust, from disgust, weariness, and from weariness, ignorance. It is not an useless remark, that upon the talent of the instructor depends the success of a laborious and well- disposed student. When a man teaches, it is necessary that he should know twkc : first for himself, and next for his pupil. The art of instruction, in history especially, is more diflTicult than is commonly supposed : it is not enough to say; lcar?i, rrpcat ; it is necessary that adroit and 6 PREFACE. pressing (jucstiuns cause the desired answer to be dit*- covered ; it is necessary to find out ingenious means for fixing a particular event in the memory, and to possess, in sufficient extent, tlie two sciences which serve as the foun- dation of liistory : Geography and Chronology. Here are great difficulties, doubtless ; they are not to be surmount- ed but by the force of vigilance and'toil ; it is only thus, however, that a man may bear, without usurpation, the lofty title of teacher ; or conscientiously fulfil the noble and delicate function of instructing his kind. We should al- ways reflect, that upon our talents, upon the clearness and method of our lessons, depends in great measure the fu- ture of a child. What a powerful motive for meditating on our duties ! Here, you will say, are grave reflections for so small a work. This work will be of little importance, doubtless, to the eyes of the undiscerning ; but it will acquire some value in the view of the friend of children, and of the sensible instructor of youth ; for it is towards the improve- ment of elementary instruction that the philanthropist directs his beneficient regards. In his solicitude he will seek for everything which may open to instruction a new and certain road : it is only when its foundations are solid that the monument defies the injuries of time. Remarks upon the Method of Teaching llutory, hy M. D. Levi. The method of M. D. Levi, according to which the fol- lowing work is arranged, addresses itself to all ages and understandings ; it takes the child six years old, and con- ducts him, by a series of successive developements, o&- ward to the close of his historic studies. J REFACE. 7 This nuilbud is presented in two principal works, tlic Esquisses HU'tori(jucs and tlie Efemens d'liistoire Generalc As llie present work is mainly derived from the former, or tlie Historical Sketches, a brief analysis will t>e here proper of those parts of it which we have adopted. The few first pages of the work are devoted to iiifor- matian wliich the pupil should acquire before comniciic- irig the study of history ; the origin and formaliou of na- tions and states, that of governments, the diflercnt sorts cf g.,)vernmenr, the oi)jcct of history, its divisions ac- cording to the- different points of view under which we regard it, the sciences which serve for its foundation, the eras of nations, the different ways of dividing them, &:c. Next come certain preliminary ideas concerning the ])riniitive times of the world ; from the creation to the deluge ; from the deluge to the rise of the earliest nti- lions. It will be seen that all these ideas are expressed in the present work v.'ith much clearness, and are perfect- ly accessible to the understanding of children ; they are presented in a dozen pa:>es, and form a sort of introduc tion to !he work, which itself comprehends nevcn divisions. The first division is occupied with a Scale of all the nations known to history. This scale presents, in their clironological order, the ancient nations, those of the middle age, afid those of modern history, with only the indication of the cenrnry of their foundation and the name of their founder. This first division, v.hich the authot regards as the trunk of history, should be studied with the greatest care, and repeated at the commencement of every lesson, whatever may be the pupils degree of advancement: it is a true historic al^hahct. For this purpose a black- 8 PREFACE. board may be used on which are traced initial letters de- signed to recall the names of the nations and of their founders. The second division gives the geograpliical situation of all these nations ; it should consequently be studied by the pupil with maps before him. The third division has for its title, The principal vicis- situdes of the nations. It presents us again with the same nations in the same chronological order; for, let it be well remarked, the principal merit of this system is that it al- ways connects new facts with those already known. Here we find the great masses of the history of each people marked by the different revolutions which it has under- gone. The fourth division, which the author calls a brief re- view, is a rapid summary of^the facts which the pupils have studied in the three first divisions. It is important then tliat it be known in the most perfect manner. The more the pupil has advanced, the more will his understanding have been developed by the comparisons which he has made. Here he sets about securing the knowledge he has acquired ; this brief review of general history presents the grand facts which he has seen in the whole of each particular history. The brief review is followed by a chronology of the principal events of history. Here the pupil may begin to avail himself of the second and larger work of the author,* the Ele7ne7its of General History, in order to * This work is now ready for the press, and will soon be published. Meanwhile it is proper to state that the larger work, though an admirable addition to the present, for those who are disposed to pursue the study of History at greater length, is not necessary to the com^Vielencss of the PREFACE. 9 Study the developement of the facts which are only indi- cated in the chronology. This chronological table is of great importance even to those who do not advance to the study of the larger work, since it is the term of comparison to which the historic facts of each century will be referred; it is expedient therefore to detain the pupil here until he is in sure pos- session of it. Connected with the chronological table is a list of great men from the creation of the world to our own day, ar- ranged according to centuries ; one celebrated personage gives his name to a century ; and in a second column, placed opposite, are inscribed the names of other remark- able personages of the same century. For example : the great Cyrus gives his name to the VI^^- century, before J. C; Solon, Pisistratus, Tarquin the Proud, Confucius, Croesus and Cambyses, are cele- brated men of the same century. Thus the histories of Greece, Rome, China, and Persia, are recalled simulta- neously to the memory of the pupil. This secular list furnishes one of the most useful exer- cises ; you may judge of this by the questions which the author has placed in the sequel. For instance : In what century did Ha?inihal lice ? Hoiv many years or centuries clajtsed between IIa?mihal and Louis X/F'^- ? In what history do you find Hannibal, and on what occa- sion is he spoken of 1 Apply to each personage questions smaller, which is perfect in itself, and, if thoroughly Btudied, will impart a clearer and more minute acquaintance with the branch of study of which it treats than any other manual now in existence. This is saying much, but not more than tlic worlt deserve?, as every one who becomes familiar with its contents will admit. 1* 10 prtEFACE. of the same nature, and you will comprehend all the fruit that may he clerlved from such an exercise. For ihis hiography of great men, the pupil will begin to multiply his researches ; he may and ought to avail Llniself of all the works which are at his disposal. A small Historical Dictionary will here be of use to him. Let us stop at this point, and attempt to estimate what amount of acquisition will have been made by the pupils wlio have reached it. They will know : l^-- the chronological order, the names of the founilcrs, and the geographical positions of the nations who have occupied the scone of the world from the origin of the earliest people until our own days ; 2^^'^- the principal vicissitudes of those nations; that is to say, the grand divisions of the history of each of them ; 2-^- the chronology and the deveh»pement of the princi- pal events of history ; 4^^'- finally, all the celebrated men who have appeared in each century. In iho fifth divU-io'n, the nations viewed hitherto as a v»'liole, and only indicated by their birth, their moment of splendor and liieir fall, are presented with details sufficient to make them more perfectly known. Tiiis developed portion of the work should be read at- teii lively at the recitation ; the pupil, prepared by the ft)rcgoing exercises, will ex])erience no ditTiculty in mas- tering its contents. The sixth division of the work is a clnmolo^ical Usi of alt the sovereigns of Europe, dmvn to our own time, arranged by dynasiics and families. By means of a sy- noptical table, Vv-hich the pupil should make, he can give the names of all the sovereigns who leigned in Europe at a given epoch. For exara|)]e : Who were the kings r RE FACE. 11 that reigtied in Europe whe;! Cliribtoplier Colanibus dis- covered America in 1492 ? The student of this work will answer without hesitancy : — In France, Charles VLfl"'^^'-; in Kngland, Henry VII^^-; in Spain, Ferdinand V'-'-^, &c-. This last ]'dbi)r is one of llie most instructive an:i inte- resting; the papil should exercise himself gradually m pointing out the reigning sovereigns at a given epoch. H« may study at first France, next England ; and before pas'-- ing to another people, he will place these two States in connection, by naming the cotemporary sovereigns of tliese countries. After having exorcised him sufTiciontly in tliis way, any date whatever is set before hirn, and he name.s,^ according to his progress, the cotemporary mon- archs of France, "England, Russia, &c. The seventh and last division consists of a Summarij View, in v/hich the great epochs of History, with the lead- ing events by which they were characterised, are pointed out, and the pupil is enabled, at the close of his studio.*", to take a comprehensive survey of the progress of his race. Thus, by the aid o? successive exercises, all the great events of history will have entered into the memory of the pupils in an order so well graduated that each new acquisition will be for them no more than the developo- ment of facts already known. All these exercises lend each other a natural assistance ; thus any dale whatever recalls at an instant the name of the nation whoije origiH it marks, that of the founder of that nation, its geographi- cal position, the principal revolutions which it has un- dergone, and the other nations with which its history is ' connected. Nothing is isolated in the memory of the pu- pil ; every thing ip connected, all bound together. Herd» 13 PREFACE. in our opinion, is the true manner of studying history. The method of historic study thus exhibited proceeds by the understanding in order to reach the memory, and it is especially in this particular that it is preferable to the old one, which followed a course exactly the reverse; accord- ingly, compare two children from ten to twelve years of age, instructed, the one by the ancient method, and the other by that which is here adopted; What do you find 1 Little or nothing on the one side, and on the other infor- mation, varied and extensive for the age of the child; a spirit of analysis, of comparison, and of moral criticism, in which the rational human being already makes his ap- pearance. The introduction of such a method into historical in- struction in our own country v/ill prove, we are persuad- ed, of the highest advantage. This conviction has induc- ed the compiler of the present work to attempt a task in which, by omitting certain details of the plan, as develop- ed by its learned and useful inventor, not adapted to the state of things in our own land, he might present the in- structors and pupils in history, among his countrymen, v/ith a work which may well claim to be the only one in the English language calculated to impart to those who study it, a systematic acquaintance with the important branch of which it treats. J. H. H. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. From tUe Creation of the WorUI to tlie ©eliego. In the beginning God created all the beings of the universe; he cndow^ed man and woman vt^ith the greatest perfection of soul and body. He placed them in a de- lightful abode, which we call the terrestrial paradise (in Asia). But Adam and Eve, by their disobedience, drew upon themselves the wrath of the Eternal, who condemned them to the ills of life and to death itself. After their fall they had two sons, called Cain and Abel. Cain conceived jealousy against his brother, and slew him ; this was the first murder. A third son, named Seth, com- forted Adam; he distinguished himself by his justice and piety : his sons, for a time, followed his example. Meanwhile, in multiplying, men corrupted themselves; they despised the warnings of God ; a terrible catastrophe anniliilated them, and the M'hole race of Adam was re- duced to the family of Noah the just. The earth was inundated : this is what is called the universal deluge, which took place seventeen centuries after the creation of What did God do in the beginning? How did he endow mnn and woman ? Where did he place ihem ? How did they conduct themselves there ? What was the consequence ? What is said of Cain and Abel ? What was the character of Seth ? Did his sons imitate his example ? Did mankind become corrupt as they multiplied ? How did tliey treat the warnings of God ? What calamity befel them ? To what family was the human race reduced ? 14 rilELI?JINAKY llic world, or tbirty-four centuries before the birth of Jesus Christ (1655 of the workl, 3303 before J. C.) From tliii I>«^lHge to the i-is« of the pFimiCiv^' After remaining many months upon the earth the waters EiihsiJed, and the vessel which bore the remains of the fird fanii}]j stood still on mount Ararat. The chijdrea of Noah mukiplied rapidly. The land where the ark had stopped not being sufficient for their subsistance, they form- ed the project of separating themselves by great families. Before consummating that separation, they wished to leave a monument of their power in order to preserve themselves from a second deluge, by building a prodi- gious tower, since called the tower of Babel. God, irri- tated at their pride, put a stop to its construction by the miracle of the confusion of tongues. Separation only became the more necessary; three colonies were formed : — 1"^- That of the descendants of Ham directed its course towards the south-west ; some of them stopped in tlie country since called Palestine, to which the proscribed family of Canaan gave the name of its chief; the other-?, under the conduct of Mcsraim, or Menes, established themselves in Africa, and founded the kingdom of Egypt ; When did the deluge take place ? How did the catastrophe terminate? Where was the ark arrested ? Did the family of Noah multiply rapidly aftt-r the delugo? What project did they form ? Before consurninatina; their separation what mcnutncnt of their power did they wish to leave behind thom ? How did the Almighty frustrate their dcsii^n ? Was the necessity for their separation increased or dirn-n- ished by lliis event ? How many roloiiles were formed ? Whither did the descendants of Ham direct tlieir course ? OBSERVATIONS, 15 giid. Xhut of the desceiidauts of SLern retained the plain of Sennaar, and extended themselves towards the east and the west ; Arphaxad, the eldest of the sons of Shem, founded the Idngdom of Chaldea, and later the pri- vileged kingdom of God, under Abraham, the son of Te- rah ; Elam, the second son, founded the kingdom of the Elamites, or Persia; Asshur, the third son, laid the fouu- dati(jns of the kingdom of the Assyrians ; — 3'"^- That of the descendants of Japheth traversed a por- tion of western and northern Asia, and passed over into K u rope. All these colonies extended themselves from generation to generation in the countries in which they were at first established, and the whole earth became the dwelling- place of mankind. «» ForKiaSioii of i!Vatiosi*i. Jilan is born to live in society : the multiplicity of his wants, the long feebleness of his infancy, the tardy de- velopement of his intelligence, all render him social. In primitive times each family lived united; the fatlicr was its natural head ; his councils were followed, his laws obeyed. But families multiplied, they became too nume- rous to live in the same place, they separated ; there were many chiefs, and consoqiicntly many councils, many ]aw^\ By little and little the necessity for communicating their Where did the descendant:> of Shem continue to reside? In what part of the world did the descendants of Japlietli settle 7 — Did these colonies extend themselves? What are some of the proofs that man is born to live in society? Wiiat was the condition of each family in primitive linies ? What took place when families multiplied ? Ndte. — The dlsper.-'lyn of tbe liatiuns shoulu be fulloweii out upon a large map. 16 PRELIMINARY ideas to each other, and of mutually assisting each other, caused the reunion of a large number of those families which had been scattered : this is probably the origin of the formation of nations and states. From the time of this reunion, the necessity of having only a single vsrill inspired the idea of placing in the liands of several men, or of a single man, the fate, the fortune, the existence of that concourse of individuals: tliis is the origin of government, or of the principles by which a people is governed. From these principles of governm.ent are derived the laws, which are the expression of the relations that arc necessarily established in society. Laws apply to God in his relations with the universe, as Creator and Preserver ; to the material icorld, whose movements have invariable laws, without which they can- not subsist ; to beasts, which have only natural laws, be- cause they are united to the material world by none other than physical wants ; to man who, as a physical being, is, in common with other bodies, governed by invariable laws, and who, as an intelligent being, is governed by those of religion and morality, and by political law. Laws in general may be divided into two kinds : natu- ral and positive. The fonner comprehend : 1^'- the law of peace, which appears to take its source in the first sentiment of man, that of his weakness, and consequently that of fear ; 2"'^- What is the origin of the formation of nations anil states ? What is the origin of government ? Whence are laws derived ? — What is law ? To what beings do laws apply ? How may laws in general be divided ? Into what classes may natural laws be divided ? Whence does the law of peace take its source ? OBSERVATIONS. 17 ilie laic of lire&crvation, the origin of which is the second sentiment of man, that of his wants ; 3^^ the law of ap- proximation, which manifests itself by the pleasure which an animal experiences at the sight of another of its spe- cies ; 4^^- the law of sociality, which takes its birth in the desire which every one experiences to communicate the knowledge he has acquired. The positive laws comprise : 1^^- the laiv of nations, which is the connection of different nations with each other; the laws which form it are derived from two principles, viz : that the different nations should do each other, in peace, the most good, and in war, the least evil possible, without hurting their own interests, and that war have for its object preservation ; 2^"^- political law, \y\\\ch embraces the relations of governors with the govern- ed ; 3'"*^- civil law, which comprehends the relations that all the citizens of the same state have among themselves. The two kinds of laws last mentioned vary according to the nations and governments for which they were made. We may refer to positive laws, the laws of religion, which have for their object to impress a sanction in some sort divine upon other positive laws, as well as upon the laws of nature. If admitted at all, it is necessary that they be suited to the character of each particular people, and conformed to the institutions as well as to the wants of each climate ; they comprise the common law, What is the origin of tlie law of preservation ? How does the law of approximation manifest itself? Whence does the law of sociality take its birlh ? What do the positive laws comprise ? What is the right of nations ? Whence are the laws from which it is derived? What does political law embrace? What relations does the civil law comprehend ? How do the two last mentioned kinds of laws vary ? To which of the two great classes may the laws of religion be referred ? — What is their object? To what should they be adapted ? What subdivisions do they comprise? is PRE LI Mi NARY winch i:> occupied with the relations of ihc various orders of'ecclcbiastical ministers, with regard to each other, aud the theological or dogrnaiical which, regulate public wor- fship, and determine the nature and limits of the creed. In our own country, the civil legislature is not com])C- tent to the enactment of such laws. €»o ver li isioai ts. Gal is democracv ? OBSE^RVATIDXS. 19 The aristocracy, when the power is in the liauds of" a part of the people, the grandees, the lords. Aristocracy is divided into several kinds. If the aristocracy pos- sesses a part of the government, and the whole of the temtory, (as formerly in Poland, England and France,) it m feudalism, or the hierarchy of powers among the vas- sals or seigneurs. If it possesses a pa/t of the territory and the whole of the goccrnmcnt,\ixS at Carthage, Venice, and in certain Swiss countries,) this is oligarchy. If it possesses oiily ^ part oiWie goccr?ime/tt and of the territory, (as in England and Sweden,) this is the peerage or the senate. If, without political p«>wer, it possesses cllher pririlcilg- ed lauds or part of the judiciary power, it is the riohility. If it is only titular, as it does not form a body, and is in the State neither an order nor a power, it has no col- lective name ; it is then beyond the reach of political language and classification. Monarchy. Monarchy is the government of a single man ; it is elec- tive if the monarch be chosen indifferently in many fami- lies ; it is hereditary if he be taken of right in the same family ; it is absohUe, if the king be independent of the laws ; it is autocratic if that independence is unlimited. The monarchy is limited, if a charier or a constitution binds the king to the people, and the people to the king. In this latter form, the people is represented by legis- lative assemblies or chambers. These chambers are di- Wliat is ari.sfocracy ? Can you describe the sevf^ral kinds of arlsiocracy ? What is monarchy ? — Wljea is it called elociive ? here- Itary ? absolute ? autocratic ? limited ? ited rnonarc/iy how are the peofde rf presented ? the legislr.tive assemblies dVi'ided ? ditary In a limi How are 20 PRELIMINARY videcl into two parts : the upper chamhcr (or the peers, as in France) composed of members hereditary or nominated for life. The chamber o£ commo-ns (or of deputies, as in France) composed of men chosen by a certain number of their fellow-countrymen, called electors. Anarchy is confusion, disorder in a state, where no person has authority enough to command and to make the laws respected. l>Istiiictioii of Ns&tloMs. Before proceeding to a narrative of the events wlilch'' have taken place we should distinguish the nations frora each other in various respects, according : !='• to their color ; 2'^<^- the country which they inhabit ; 3''-^- their ori- gin ; 4*- their geographical situation ; o"^* their intelli- gence ; C-^ their occupations; 7'^^- their religion. Color and pli^sical cliaracter. The human race is divided into two distinct parts, and these are afterwards divided into various races, prin- cipal stocks or families. The first part is distinguished in a moral point of view by a progressive intelligence, or by a state of civil- ization more or less advanced. It uses written laws, and may be divided, physically, into three races; the white ; it includes Europeans in general, the western Asiatics, and the nations of Barbary : the tawny or olive colored : it in- cludes the eastern Asiatics, in general, and the polar na- Of what is the upper chamber composed ? Who compose the chamber of commons ? Wiiat is anarchy ? How are the nations distinguished from each other ? Into how many distinct species is the human race divided ? How is the first species distinguished in a moral point of view ? How in a physical ? OBSERVATIONS. 81 tions : and the coj?pcr- color ed : the indigenous Americans. The second part is distinguished, iTiOrally, by a limit- ed understanding, and a civilization ever imperfect : it is divided into three races ; the deep-brown, the Malays and the inhabitants of Notasia and those of Polynesia : the black ; the Ethiopians and the Caffres : and the black- ish ; the Hottentots and the inhabitants of Australia. We remark, among the negroes, the Albinos, or Africans of a dingy white. Coiintrf. The nations are Asiatic, European, Afiican, American, Malay; they are subdivided into Persians, French, &c. according to the States of Asia, Europe, &:c. which they inhabit. Origin. The nations are autoctltones, indigenes, or aborigines, th.at is to say, primitive inhabitants ; foreigners, colonists, that is to say, they have passed from one country into another, whether in the design of sojourning there, or in the debign of inhabiting it and cultivating the land ; Cre- oles, that is to say, born in the East or West Indies, of a f-ither or mother originally from another country. Metis, that is persons whose father is European and mother Indian, or whose father is Indian and mother European. We speak of a ?nctisse. Mulatto, whose father is while and mother a negress, or whose father is a negro and mother white. We speak of a mulatress. How is the srrrmd species morally distinguished ? Into how many races is it divided ? Among the negroes what variety is remarkable ? How are the nations divided and subdivided as to country? How are they divided as to origin ? Whatare aborigines? Colonists? Creoles? Metis? Mulaltoest 8« , niELIMINAKY Ck5ograp1iirai sUnaiion. The insular nations inhabit iblands ; mountaineers, the mouritains ; rip7iarians are those who dwell along a river; nomadcs, those who change their residence to seek for now pasture ; and maritime, tliose who are situated upon the seaboard. Intel ligeare. The nations are .savages, if they are not acquainted with the manner of fixing their thoughts by signs ; f/ar- haro7is or semi-civilized, if they have made only slow pro- greSvS in civilization, if their lav^'S are irregular, and cruel ; civilized, if they have a fixed system of legislation, polity and war : they are then acquainted with the sciences, the fine arts, and the belles-lettres. But this classification may present great modifications, fur it is frequently dif- ficult to determine in a precise manner the point v^-ln'rh separates barbarism from civilization. The cretins form a class by themselves : they arc deaf, dumb, and imbecile beings ; they have goitres or swollen glands which hang from their throats. They are found at the foot of mountains, the Alps, the Andes, Arc. Ocoiipatioas. The nations are hunters, fishers, shepherds, cultivators, traders, navigators, warriors, &c. Rcligio?!. All nations admit the existence of a Being who created ? respect present great How are the nations divided as to geographical situation ? How are they divided as to intelligence" Why may their classification inlhis i modifications ? What are the cretins? — Whore are they found ? How are the nations dividrd as to occupation ? •How as to religion ? 0BSEIIVATI0N3, 23 ihs universo, but all do not worship hira in tho same nisii- ner, which gives rise to many religions. The exterior acts of wliich each is composed is called worship. It niny be divided into two cla^i;es : Polytheism, or the Vv'or- ship of many gods, and Manotkcism, or the worship of one god. PoJj/thcism, or t/ie worshij) of many gods ; we n<>tii:o here fctichisvr, or the adoration of animate or inanitnalc earthly things : this is the religion of savages ; Sahcism, or the worship of the stars : this is the religion of certain isolated tribes ; Brahmism, or the transformation of the Divinity under different forms of men or auimals : this is the rehgion of the Hindoos ; Dualisyn, or the religion of the two principals : Orom- asdes, or the beneficent being, and Ahrimanes, or the ma- lignant being. Zoroaster created this system among tho Persian3. Monothcitm admits only one God. It rejects the vvor- ship of physical objects, and has given to mankind an idea of the divinity, grander and more sublime than all the others. It is composed of Judaisyn, Christiamty and Moho^nctism. Jfulaisvi is the principal trunk of the other two ; it ia divided into three sects : l**-' That of the Rahhinists, who attribute authority to tlio Talmud or the oral laws of Moses ; 2^^- That of the Karaifcs, or rabbins attached to the What is worship ? Into how many classes may it he divided ? What is Polytheism? — What are it varieties? Wliat is Fetichism ? Sahoism ? Brahmism ? Dualism ? What e. W^- In the IXih. century (S27) the EngUsli : fir.si king, Ei^hcrt ; in Europe. 42"*i- In the IX"^ century (812) the Pohs ; founder, Fidst; in Europe. 43^*^ In the IX^^- century (SG2) the Russians; founder, Riulck; in Europe, 44''i- In the X'^- century ((? 12) the Germans; first king, Conrad f"*'; in Europe. 45''^- In the X'^»- cent-^ry (^30) the Danes; principal founder, TIarald VU'^*-; in Europe. 46*^- In the X^^- century (1000) the Ilungarianf?; found- er, ibtc'phcn I^ ; in Europe. 47 h- In the XIK"- century (1130) the Nea^poUUim and Suilidfis; firrft king, Roger 11'"^ ; in Europe. 48'h- In the Xlh^' century (1139) the Portuguese; first king, AIj)7ionso Henrique z; in Europe. 49'b- In the XI l'^^- century (1198) the Bohemians; founder, Oltocar ht ; m Europe, 50'h- In the XIIT^- century (1300) the Asiatic Turks; founder, Osman P^ ; in Europe. bi^^- In the XIV'i^- century (1308) the Swiss; (republic) liberators, MtlcJttal, Staf/fuc/wr, Walter Furst and Wil- liam Tell; in Europe. 52'^'^- In the XV^'^- century (14^3) the Buropcan Turks; founder, Mahomet 11-^ ; in Europe, [The History of the mlddk-age commences at llie V^*'- century, en the fall of the Reman Empire of the West, 32 FIRST PART. and terminates in the middle of the XV^- at the establish- ment of the Turks in Europe; it lasted therefore nearly ten centuries (from 476 to 1453=977).] Modern Nations* The nations of modern history are : 53'*i- In the XV^^- century (1453) the European Turks, Mahomet IP^^- 54^^- In the XV^^- century (1492) the Americans, dis- covered by Christopher Columbus. [The principal nations are : the Mexicans, in the XVP^* century (1518) discovered by Cortez; the Peruvians, in the XVI"^- century (1525) by Pizarro ; the Brazilians, in the XVP^- century (1500) by Alvarez Cahral; the Ani^lo- Americans ( United States) in the XVIII"^ cen- tury (1782) made independent of England under Wash- ington. \ 55t^- In the XVF^^- century (1581) the Hollanders and Belgiatts ; stadt-holdcr William P^- of Orange. 56*- In the XVIIl^^- century (1701) the Prussians, first king, Frederic of Hohenzollern. 57th- In the XVIIIth- century (1718) the Sardinians, first king, Victor Amedeus. 58th- In the XIX^^. century (1805) the Bavarians, first king, Maxi?mlia7i Joseph. 59th. i,^ |-}n3 xiX'h. century (1805) the Wurtemhirgers, first king, Frederic. GO^h. fj^ tiie XlXth. century (1805) the Saxons, first king, Frederic Augustus. Cl^t- In the XlX^h. century (1830) the Neio Greeks, chief, Capo d' Istria. 62"d- In the XIX^^. century (1830) the Hollanders, William I< of Orange. SCALE OF NATIONS. 33 eS'^- In the XlX-'h. century (1830) the Belgmfis, Leo- j[)old of Saxe Cobourg. 64tb. In the XIX^^^- century (1833) the Modern Greeks, first king, Otho of Bavaria. [Modern History, commencing at the middle of the XV^- century, (1453) already reckons (in 1847) 394 years, that is to say, nearly four centuries.] EXERCISES ON THE FIRST PART. TO WRITE : The historical table of nations, in four columns; l"** epoch of the foundation ; 2°*^- dates presumed or certain ; S*"**- names of the nations ; 4^^- names of the founders. MODEL OF QUESTIONS ON THIS PART. 1. What are the nations concerning which we have no certain knowledge \ 2. How many centuries separate the foundation of Rome from that of Carthage ? 3. What nations preceded the Romans ? The Greeks 1 4. Who is the founder of such a people % 5. What are the nations of ancient history, those of the history of the middle age, and those of modern history ] 6. What are the geographical places spoken of in this part] 7. How is general. history divided ] 8. How^ long did ancient history last 1 That of the mid- dle age 1 Modem history ] 9. At what great event does ancient history end 1 The history of the middle age ? 2^* 34 FIRST PART. 10. What do 1582, 860, 753, 536, &c. recall 1 [All the questions which are put to the pupil should be written down at once by him on a sheet devoted to that purpose, in order that he may afterward address them to himself.] OBSERVATION. This first part should be arranged on a black-board in a synoptical table, but only with the initial letters ; the pupil should name with rapidity all the nations included in it. Whatever may be the degree of his instruction, he should always commence his lessons in history by this important exercise, just as the most able musician com- mences his pieces by a gamut. sxscosarD tatlt. SITUATION OF THE NATIONS. €f€Ograpliicai Part. T/ie JYadofis wAosc origin and kistori/ are oUniost un- kfioivn, arc : In Asia, the Indians at the south, the Chiuese at the west, the Japanese north-east of the Chinese ; the Scij- ihiatis at the north. In Africa, the Ktkiopians south of Egypt. They occupied what at the present day we call Nubia and Abyssinia. In Europe, the Basques, near the Pyrenees ; the Cdts, who, leaving the northern countries of Europe and Asia, spread themselves through the whole of Europe. The Katious ivJiosc Itistory is htilcr Juiown, arc : The Egijptians in Africa, at the north-east. The prin- cipar cities were: Memphis, Thehcs with the hundred gates, Tanis and Alexandria. The Assi/riatis properly so called, east of the Tigris, in Asia : Nineva and Arhcla. They formed : the Mcdcs in Asia, south of the Caspian sea, and east of the Assyrians : Ecbatana, Rages, The Babijloniatis in Asia, south of the Assyrians and south- west of the Medes, between the Tigris and the Euphrates : Babylon. The Niuevitcs in Asia, north of the Babylonians and east of the Tigris : Nineveh. The Hebrews, in the south-west of Asia, north of Arabia and south of Pheni- cia : Jerusalem, Joppa, Gaza, Bethlehem, Jericho. The Phcnieiaus in Asia, north of the Hebrews: Beri/tus, Si/- ^ SECOND PART. don, Tyre. The Greeks in Europe, east of the Adriatic gulf and the Ionian sea, and west of the Archipelago. The principal nations of Greece were : The Athenians in Europe, in Greece proper, the province of Attica, north-east of Peloponessus : Alliens, Eleusis, Maratho?i. The Thebans in Europe, in Greece proper, in Basotia, liorth-west of the Athenians : Thehcs, Leuctrce, Aulis. The Corinthians y in Europe, in the Peloponessus, to the north-east : Corinth. The Spartans in Europe, in the Peloponessus, to the south, in Laconia : Sparta. The Mycc7iians in Europe, in the Peloponessus, south of the Corinthians, a province of Argolis : MycencB, Natijjlia, JEpidaurus. The Trojans in Asia Minor, to the north-west, province of the Troade : Troy, Lampsacus, Dardanus. The Carthagiiiiaris in the north of Africa, opposite Sicily: Carthage, Utica, Zuma. The Romans in Europe, at the centre of Italy ; at first restricted to the single city of Rome, they became in the sequel masters of the whole known world : Rome, Alha, Tuscuhcm. The Persians in Asia, at the south, cast of the Persian gulf: Suza, Per- sepolis. The Macedonians in Europe, at the north-east of Greece ; they became masters of all known Asia and of Egypt : Phessalonica, Potidcea, Pella. The Syrians in Asia. They were situated north of Arabia, Palestine and Phenicia, and south-east of Asia Minor : Antioch, Laodicea, HeliopoUs and Damascus. The Partliians pro- perly so called, in Asia, south-east of the Caspian sea, near Media and Hyrcania. Their capital was Hecatom- 2>ylos, or the city of a hundred gates. The empire of the East extended from Illyria (Europe) to the Euphrates (Asia), and from the North of Thrace (Europe) to Lybia (Africa). SITUATION OF THE NATIONS. 37 The principal barbarous JVations who invaded the Ro- m-an Empire, were : The Burgundians in Europe, north of Germany, (Al- lemagip,) between the Vladrus (Oder) and the Vistula. The Suevi in Europe, to the north of Germany, near the mouth of the Viadrus (Oder). The Vandals in Europe, to the north of Germany, near the shores of Sinus Codranus (the Baltic sea), from the Cimbrian Chersonesus (Jut- land) to the Oder. The Alani, originally from Asia, in the environs of the Caucasus, between Pontus-Euxinus (the Black sea) and the Caspian sea. The Franks, a com- bination of German" nations who dwelt in the north-west of Germany, between the Rhine and the Weser. The An- gles and the Saxons, north of Germany, at the entrance of the Cimbrian Chersonesus (Jutland). The Huns in Asia, north of Scythia (Siberia), on the frontier of north- ern China. The Heruli in Germany, between the Elbe and the Oder, south of the Suevi and Burgundians. The Goths, the Visigoths, and the Ostrogoths in Europe, at the north ; south of Scandinavia. The Lombards in Ger- many, between the Elbe (Albis) and the Vistula. The S€C07idary barbarotis J^ations^ are : The Germans. They inhabit the centre of Europe. At the present day they are confounded with the Alle- rnanni ; under this name are comprised all the nations which dwelt towards the sources of the Danube, in Ger- many. The ^rar5, a Scythian people, north of Asia. The Gcpidoe, on the shores of the Baltic sea, in the southern part of Sweden. The Vetiedes, in European Sarmatia (Russia), on the shores of the Baltic sea, from the Vistula to the gulf of Riga. The Bulgarians in Asia, in the south- ern part of Scythia. The Slavonians in European Sar- matia, on the shores of the Baltic sea, south of the Venedes. The Danes and Normans in Europe, in Jut- 9t SECOND PART. land and upon the coasts of Norway. Tlic ilujigar'tans at first upon the banks of tlic Volga, in European Sarmatia ; next they established themselves in the part of Pannonia wliich, afterwards, took the name of Hungary. The Turks. They had resided in the centre of Asiafat the foot of mount Imaus ; next they invaded Asia Minor, and finally possessed themselves of the part of Europe to which they gave the name of Turkey. The historic Xations of the middle-age, are : The French at tlie west of Europe. They have at the north, England, at the south, Spain and the Mediter- ranean, at the east the States of Sardinia, Switzerland, Germany and Belgium, and at the west, the Atlantic Ocean ; Paris, Lyoris, Bordeaux, Marseilhs, liouen. The Lombards, in Europe, in the north of Italy : Pavia, Milan. The Spanish, in the south-west of Europe. They are ])Ounded on the north by France, on the south by Africa, from which they are separated by the strait of Gibraltar, on tlie east by the Mediterranean, and on the west by Portugal and the Atlantic ocean : Madrid, Cordova, Sei'ille. The Arabians, in the south-west of Asia, between the Persian gulf, the Red sea, and Palestine, and in the sequel, in all known Asia and the north of Africa : Sana, Mecca, Medina. The Moors, in the north of Africa. They established themselves in Europe, in the south of Spain. The Swedes, in the north of Europe, bolween Norway, Denmark and the Baltic sea : Stockholm, Upsal, Gottcnburgh. The English, in Europe, in the north- west, between the Channel, which separates them from France, the North sea, which separates them from the Low Countries, Germany, Denmark and Norway, and the Atlantic ocean : London, York, Newcastle, Livcrj>col, Manchester. The Scotch, in Europe, at the north-west, north of the English : Edinburgh^ Perth, Glasgow. The Irish, west of the English : Dublin, Cork, Londonderry. SITUATION OF THE NATIONS. 39 The Russians: They occupy the east of Europe, the north of Asia, and the north-west of America : Saint Pc- tcmhurgh, Moscow, Archangel. The Poles, at the centre of Kurope, west of Russia, north of the empire of Austria, and west of Prussia : Warsaw Sandomlr, Cracow. The Danes, in the north of Europe : They have for bounda- ries, on the north Sweden, on the south Germany, on the east the J3altic sea, and on the we^t the North sea : Co- j)cnhagcn, Altona, Odensee. The Hungarians, in the centre of Europe, north of Turkey, east of the Austrian Domin- ions : Prcsburg, Hennanstadt. The Germans, the whole centre of Europe comprised between the Baltic sea, Denmark, the North sea, the Low Countries, Franco, Switzerland, Italy, Turkey and Russia : Vienna, Lintz, Baden. The Bohemians, at the centre of Germany : Prague. The Poruguese, in the south-west of Europe ; they have on the north and east Spain, and on the west and south the Atlantic ocean : Lisbon, SetuvaJ, Coinibra. The Neapolitans and Sicilians, in the south of Europe, at the southern extremity of Italy and in the island of Sicily : Naples, Capua, Palermo, Syracuse. The Swiss, in the centre of Europe ; ihey are shut up be- tween Germany, France, the Sardinian States and the empire of Austria : Basle, Lucerne, Geneva. The Natiotis cf modern history, arc: The Turks. They occupy the south-east part of Eu- rope, between the Black sea, Russia, the empire of Aus- tria, the Adriatic sea, the Mediterranean sea, and the Archipelago : in Asia, the south-west part, which has for boundaries ; at the north, the Black sea, the Caucasus anxl the Caspian sea, on the west, the Archipelago, on the south, the Mediterranean and Arabia, on the east, Persia. In Africa, they possessed Egypt, &c. : Con- stantinople, Salonica, Smyrna, Prusa, Jerusalem, Cairo, Alexandria. The Americans, whose principal nations 40 SECOND PART. are : the Mexicans, in the south-west of North Ame- rica, west of the gulf of Mexico : Mexico, Oaxaca, San Luis. The Peruvians, in South Ameiica, at the west : La Plata, La Paz. The Brazilians, in South America, at the east : Rio Janeiro, Saint Augustin, Pcrnamhuco. The United States, in the centre of North America : Washington, PJiiladclphia, New-York. The Hollanders and the Belgians in j^urope, north-east of France and north-west of Germany : The Hague, Aynsterdam, Rotter- dam, Brussels. The Prussians, in Europe, north of Ger- many and west of Russia: Berlin, Dantzick, Kcenigshcrg. The Bavarians, in Europe, in Germany, west of the Aus- trian empire, north-east of Switzerland : Munich, Augs- hurg, Ratishon. The Wurtc?nhurgcrs, in Germany, west of Bavaria and north of Switzerland : StiUtgard, Ulm. The Saxons, in Germany, north of the Austrian empire, and north-east of Bavaria : Dresden. The Neu) Greeks, south of Turkey, in Europe : Athens, Corinth, Trijwldza. OBSERVATIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THE SECOND PART. This part is wholly geographical. The pupil cannot !>o too much familiarized with the situation of the nations ; it is an exercise which needs to be frequently repeated. MODEL OF QUESTIONS ON THIS PART. 1. Where is such a people found, and what are the principal cities of the country which it inhabited or in- habits 1 2. To what country do or did such and such cities be- long % 3. What nation was or is found in such a situation 1 THIRD TART. PRINCIPAL VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. Ancient History. J^'ations wliose history is almost unknown. IN ASIA. The Indians or Hindoos are probably the most ancient nations of the world, and the first founders of other na- tions ; their geograhical position, the historical documents which they present, and the sacred language of the Bram- ins, their priests, are the three reasons given by the learn- ed, which attest their high antiquity ; still their history is almost unknown. It has been said that BaccJius, a Greek hero of the XIV'^- century before J. C. conquered the Indias ; that Se?2iiramis, queen of Assyria, in the XX^^- century, subdued a part of them ; that the Persians showed themselves there as conquerors ; but what is more certain, is the expedition of Alexander the Great into that coun- try. This conqueror vanquished r orus, one of its bravest kings ; still, he did not push his conquests far. The Indians were little known to the Romans of the Which are the most ancient nations in the world ? What are the proofs which attest their antiquity ? Who is said to have conquered them in the XlVti"- century before Christ ? Who in the XXt^- ?— Who after Semiramis ? What is known of the expedition of Alexander into that country ? Were they much known to the Romans in the middle-age ? 42 THIRD TART. niicldle age ; in motlorn history, we see tlicm successively subdued by many nations, until the death of Tippoo Saib, j king of Mysore, (XVI 1 1'*^- century,) killed in a combat against the English, who are at the present day tlie rulers of India. The Chinese are little known ; notwithstanding their liigh pretensions, they have remained isolated, and have little communication with other nations. Three person- ages are especially celebrated among them : FuJ^i, whom they regard as their founder, (XXX^^^ century before J. C.) ; Yao, their lawgiver and the model of their kings;, (XVII^^*- century), and Coufuclas, a philosopher of the y[th. century before J. C, whose memory they venerate. The Chinese were subdued in the XIIl^'*- century before J. C. by the Mongolian Tartars, who have seated them- selves upon their throne and adopted their laws and customs. The Japanese; their history appears to be fabulous, and is often confounded with that of the Chinese ; their found- ers are still less known than those of the latter. The Scythians descended, according to the Bible, from Magog, son of Japhet. Settled at first near the Araxes, they got possession of Asia Minor, in the VIP^- century before J. C. and penetrated into Europe and Africa. Still they renounced their conquests and returned to their By whom were ihey successively subdued ? Who was Tippoo Saib ? — Where was he killed ? Who govern India at present ? Are the Chinese much kuown to history ? What three personages are especially celebrated arnoug lliem ? By whom were llic Chinese subdued in the Xlllth. century belbrc J. C. ? — What is said of the Japanese ? From v/honi did the Scythians descend ? Where were they at first settled ? When did they get possession of Asia Minor ? Into what other countries did ihey penetrate? Did they retain their conquests in those countries? VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 43 own country. In vain did the Persians and Macedonians desire to subdue them ; they were indomitable in iheir deserts. In the V^^ century after J. C. tliey united with the Sarmatians to invade the Roman empire. Tlie Hans were Scythians. IN AFRICA. The 'Ethiopians were, it is said, of Indian origin, they passed for having civilized the primitive inhabitants of Egypt. A Greek author of the X^^- century before J. C, Homer, calls them the wisest of mankind, and the favor- ites of the gods ; but their history is unknown. IN EUROPE. The Celts, starting from the northern regions of Europe and Asia, undertook a great number of migrations ; they spread themselves througli the whole of Europe, and penetrated into Asia Minor. The Druids were their priests, the hards their poets. The Gauls were Celts. The Basques, one of the most ancient nations of Europe, descended probably from the Ihcr'ians of Spain, whose origin is lost in the night of time. They speak a primitive language, foreign to all those with which we are ac- quainted, with the exception of some latin and German Did the Persians and Macedonians succeed in subduing them ? — What did they do in the Y^'^- century after J. C. ? Of what origin were the Ethiopians ? What influence are they thoueht to have exerted on the primitive inhabitants of Egypt? — Whatdoes Homer call them? Is their history much known ? From what quarter of the globe did the Celts proceed ? Into what countries did the emigrate ? What is said of their idiom ? Who were their priests and their poets ? From whom were tiie Basques descended ? What sort of language do they speak ? 44 THIRD PART. words. They have been subdued successively by the Romans, the Visigoths and the Arabs of Africa, and are found at the present day on both sides of the Pyrenees,- in France and Spain. The bravery and address of the Basques are celebrated in ancient times. Pcojple whose history is known. The Egyptians had for their founder Menes, in the XXV*- century. They were governed during XIX cen- turies by their own kings, until Cambyscs,\ung of Persia, subdued them, under their last king Psavi?ne/ilius, (VI^^* century) ; Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia, united their country to his vast empire (IV*- century.) One of the generals of that conqueror, Ptolemy Lagus, mounted the throne of Egypt, and was the head of the family of the Lagidcs, which governed it until the death of queen Cleopatra, vanquished at Actium by Octavius (I^*- cen- tury before J. C.) The Egyptians were from that time subject to the Romans. After the fall of the Roman em- pire of the West, (V*- century after J. C), they passed under the dominion of the Arabs, VII*- century after J. C), and since the XVI*- century they have been a de- pendency of the Turkish empire. They are governed by a vice-roy called Mohammed Ali, who is now virtually independent of the Porte. By Avhoni liavc they been successively subdued 1 Where are they found at present ? P^or Avhat were they celebrated in ancient times ? How long were the Egyptians governed by their own kings ? — Who subdued them in the VI*- century before J. C. ? What did Alexander the Great do to them ? A-fter his death who mounted the throne of Egypt ? How long did the Lagides govern ? To whom were the Egyptians subject after the death of Cleopatra 1 Under whose la\vs did they next pass ? Of Avhat empire were they a dependency from the XVI*- century until Mohammed Ali ? VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 45 The Assyrians had for their founder, Belus, in the XX*- century before J. C. and shone under Ninus and Semiramis, who extended to a distance the bounds of their dominions ; their first empire was destroyed under the feeble Sardanapalus, in the YlIP'^ century. Three kingdoms rose upon its ruins : that of the Medes, that of the Babylonians, and that of the Ninevites, which were united to the empire of the Persians by Cyrus in the yjth. century. The Hebreics had for their first patriarch, Abraham (XXIII'^'^- century.) Jacob, his grand-son, quit the land of Canaan and went to settle in Egypt ; but the Hebrews having there been reduced to servitude, Moses brought them out of that state : afterward they fixed them- selves in Judea, and were governed at first by judo^es, and afterwards by kings. They separated into two kingdoms, that of Israel and that of Judah, which were successively subdued by the Assyrians and the Ba- bylonians. After seventy years of captivity, Cyrus j^er- mitted the Hebrews to return to Palestine; they weie then governed by the high-priests. They fell into the power of the Romans, under the emperor Titus, who took and destroyed Jerusalem (I^- century after J. C.) The Vhenicians had for their founder Agenor (XVHi^^- century.) Navigators and merchants, they founded nu- Under whom did the Assyrians begin to flourish ? Under whom v/as their first empire destroyed ? Wliat three kingdoms rose upon its ruins ? ' Where did Jacob, the patriarch of the Hebrews, settle ? What befel them there? — By whom were they rescued? Where did they afterwards settle ? How were they governed ? Into what two kirigdoms did they separate ? By whom were these kingdoms subdued? What befel them after the captivity ? By whom were they then governed ? Under whose power did they next fall ? What wag the cliief employment of the Plienicians? 46 THIRD PART. nierous colonics, such as those of Carthage, Gades, &5C. They were successively subdued by the Assyrians, the 33;tl)ylonians, the Persians, the Macedonians, the Romans, the Arabs, the Mamelukes and the Turks ; these last are at the present day the masters of Phcnicia, which made a part of Syria. The Greeks held, for a lonor time, the first rank amono: the nations ; they recognized for their founder Cecrops, (XVP*^- century.) Four memorable ages or epochs have marked their history. In the first age many cities were founded, and many fabulous events are comprised ; it was the infancy of Greece. In the second age the Peloponessus was invaded by the Heraclidte, or dusccndents of Her- cules ; sage laws were given by Lycurgus to Spaita, by Draco and Solon to Athens ; this was the youth of Greece. In the third age the Greeks shone in the arts, sciences and arms : this was the flourishing period, or the man- lioc>d of Greece. //,; the fourth age, Greece was succes- sively subdued by tlie Macedonians and the Romans, \^ho reduced it to a Roman province, (IP'^ century be- fore J. C). The priiicij)al nations of Greece v/ere : the Athenians, the Thebans, the Spartans, the Corinthians and the My- cenians. The Athenians, of whom Cecrops was the founder, wei'e successively governed by kings and archons. Sub- dued by the Lacedttmonians, thirty tyrants reigned over Did tliey found any colonies ? By v.hoin were they successively subdued ? \Vho are at present masters of Pheuicia ? H(t\v many memorable e[iochs mark the history of the Greeks? Wliat is said of their firs^t epoch ? Their second ? Third ? Fourth ? What were the principal nations of Greece? By whom were the AtJienians successively governed ? Who reigned over them after they were subdued by (he Laced j^mouian* ? VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 47 them. They recovered their liberty, which they preserved until the time'when they were subjugated by the Romans, in the II'^'^- century before J. C. The Thcbans, who acknowledged Cadmus for their founder, were powerful under Epaminondas and Pelopl- das, (IV'^^- century ;) but having revolted against Alex- under the Great, that prince took and rased Thebes, their capital : afterwards, they became weaker by degree.-*, together with the whole of Greece, and fell under the do- minion of the Romans. The Spartans had for their U)under Lelex, in the XVr^'- century; they were, at first, governed by a suc- cession of kings, who vrere di^ipossessed by the Heraclidaj or sons of Hercules : afterward, two kings reigned con- jointly at Sparta : the laws of Lycurgus caused the pros- perity of this people. They vanquished the Athenians ; bat they were subdued, with the whole of Greece, be- neath the power of the Romans (U'"^- ctjntury before J. C.) The Corinth fans, whose founder was Sisyphus, (XIV^^'* century,) were successively governed by kings, and by magistrates, called j>r^jhines ; their commerce and wealth were the occasions of jealousy to the Romans, who ra.-^ed Corinth, their capital. Dill tliey recover tlu-ir liherty? — How long did they retain it? When were they subjuiialed by [he Romans ? Under whon^ were the Thcbans powcTfuI ? Ajainst whom iliil they revolt in the IV'^- ccatury before C ? What did Alexander do to lliem ? AVhat betel them afterwards ? Bv whom were the Spartans at first governed? Who dispossessed their first race of kings ? Ho^' many kings reigned there at once from the time of the IIeraclid^?-^What caused the prosperity of the Spartans? What neighboring people did they vanqui5.h ? By whom were they finally subdued ? By whom were the Corinthians successively governed ? What rendered them an object of jeahniny lo the Roniana? What did the latter do to t!ieir raplial ? 48 THIRD TART. The Myccnians had for their founder Perseus, in the XIV'^ century. The dcscondents of Ilercuies, or the Heraclidae, put an end to their kingdom, which they con- founded in that of Argos; Mycenae, their capital, was utterly destroyed in the V"^^- century before J. C. by the Argives, who were rendered jealous by the fact that this city had sent eighty warriors to Thermopylfe, to fight the Persians. The Trojans had for their founders, Dardanus and Teu- cer (XVl'h- century) ; they were governed by a series of kings, until Priam, under whom the siege and capture of Troy by the Greeks (XIII'^- century before J. C.) took place. The Carthaginians y of Phenician origin, had for their founder Dido, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre (IX*^* century before J. C.) ; they were celebrated by the ex- tent of their commerce. Worthy rivals of the Romans, whom Hannibal, one of their greatest generals, vanquished several times : they succumbed to that nation in the third Punic war, and Carthage, their city, was reduced to ashes (II^'i century). The Ramans, the most celebrated peojile of antiquity, had for their founder Romulus, in the VIIl^'^- century; they were governed, during two centuries and a half, by seven kings ; Romulus, Numa, Pompilius, Tullus Hos- tilius, Ancus ^Martius, Tarquin the Elder, Servius Tul- lius, and Tarquin the Proud ; during five centuries, their Who put an end to the kingdom of the Mycenians ? Who destroyed their capital ? What provoked the Argives to this act ? By whom were the Trojans governed until Priam ? Under whom did the siege of Troy take place? By what were the Carthaginians celebrated ? Did they rival the Romans ? By whom were they finally conquered ? By whom were the Romans governed during two centuries and a half ? What form of government succeeded ? VICISSITUDES OP THE NATIONS. 49 government took the form of a republic, at the head of which were the consuls ; ihis is the brilliant epoch o\ tlie the Romans. They then subdued the naiions of Italy, destroyed Carthage, reduced under their domiiii(nj liie Macedonians, the Greeks, the iilgyptians, and all known nations, except the Germans and ilie Parthiuns.. The emjnre succeeded to the republic ; it lasted live centuries : Octavius was the first emperor. The Romans were then masters of the world ; but the civil vvais, luxury, the vices and weakness of the greater part of the successors of Augustus, hurried the empire towards decay ; in 47G, that of the West was invaded by the barbarians, and new states rose upon its ruins ; this was the origin of modern nations. The Persians had for their founder Cyrus, one of the greatest conquerors of his age. Cambyses, his son, added Egypt to their vast empire ; their wars against tlie Greeks, under Darius, son of Hystaspe3,and under Xerxes, his son, had no durable success. Under Darius Codomanus the empire of the Persians fell into the power of Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia (IV^*^- century befjre J. C.) The Wlaccdonians had for their verltabl efoundcrs, Philip and Alexander the Great, his son. Under the latter, Ma- cedonia became the mistress of Greece ; he traversed Did they flourish under the republic ? What nations did they then subdue ? What form of government succeeded the republic ? How long did it continue ? What v/as the condition of the Romans under the empire ? What were the causes which hurried the empire towards decay ? — What befel the Western Roman empire ? What was the origin of modern naiions ? By whom was Egypt added to the Persian dominion? Was the success of the Persian wars against the Greeks lasting ? What happened to the Persians under Darius Codomanus? Under whom did Macedonia become mistress of Greece? 3 k so THIRD PAIIT. I Asia a3 a conqUiCror, possessed hirnsclf of Egypt and llid Indias, and became master of half tlie kr.own world (IV ' century.) At the death of the conqueror the vast empire of Macedonia was divided among his four generals : Cas- sander had Macedonia ; Lyaimachus, Tlirace ; Seleucus, Syria ; and Ptolomy, son of Lagus, Egypt. All these kingdoms fell successively under the dominion of tho Romans (I century before J. C.) The Syrians were a very ancient people : they \vcro commercial, populous and wealthy ; they were governed at first by their own laws, and under sovereigns little Ivuown. They were successively subdued by the Assyri- ans, Persians, and Macedonians. At the death of Alex- ander the Great, Seleucus became their king and founder of the immense kingdom of Syria, which comprehended nearly the whole l^ersian cmpiic. The Syrians were il- lustrious under the Seleucidian kiiigs, the last of whom, Antiochus X, was dethroned by the Roman general Pompcy, in the year 63 before J. C. Syria was then united to the Roman republic (I century before J. C.) Tu the middle age Syria fell into the power of the Sara- cens, and at the present day it makes a part of the Otto- man empire. The rar(Jiin?is, of Scythian origin, had for founder, A::- saces, chief of the powerful dynasty of the Arsacides. They resisted the Romans for a long time : but Artaxerx- What countries tliil Alexamler conrjuer? Wliat became of his empire at his deatli ? Under whose dominion ihd tlie fragmenis of that empiro finally fall ? — Wluit was the early state of the Syrians ? Jlow were they at. fir.>t ^ovcrtiecl ? ]>y whom were tlicy successively stihJued ? Whrtt happr-neJ to ilioin at tlie death ofAlexanJer? Was the kingdom of Seleucus exten^^ive ? W!)at befei the la^t of the Seleiieida' ? 1 :ider whose power did the Syrians fall in th? !7\iJdle ag:=>? Wlio rules over tijern at present ? Di.l i-iie Part!»l.-\M> l.m^ resist llie Roman.^? VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS, 51 es, a simple Persian soldier, robbed Artabanus IV of his throne and his life, and the kingdom of the Parthians, which had lasted nearly five centuries, was transferred to the New Persians. The J^ew Persians had for founder Artaxerxes, chief of the dynasty of the SassaniJ^s, so called from Sassan, his grandfather. Sapor I his son and successor, consider- ably extended the empire. The Arabians conquered tlie Persians in the VH century ; but in the XV century a new dynasty rose : it was founded by Ismael Sophi, and it still subsists at the present day. The reigning prince (1S47) is Feth Ali Sha, born in 1768. The Ro?nan Empire of the Kast became an empire by itself in the IV century after J. C. (366,) under the emperor Valens, from the time of the separation of the Roman monarchy into two parts. Three emperors, Gra- tian, Valentinian II and Tlieodosius the Great, for a moment reunited to it the empire of the West ; but from the time of Arcadius, the son and successor of Theodo- sius (395) the two empires were always separate. Tlio cvijpire of the ^Vest crumbled, in 470, beneath the blows of the Huns, the Visigoths, the Franks, &c. The empire of the East, called, also, the Lower empire, and the Greek empire, fell to decay through the vices of the govern- ment. Its provinces were successively invaded by the Of what did Arlaxerxes rob Artabanus ? To whom was ihe kingdom of the Parlhians then trandferred ? AVho extended tlie empire of die New Persians? Who conquered them in the VII century ? V/ho founded a new dynasty among them in the XV ? I^ocs il still subsist? What is said of the Roman empire of the east in the fourth century after Clirist ? What emperors reunited it for a season to the western empire ? After \s])at emperor were tJie two empires permanently sundered ? What caused the def^iv of the lower emr)ire? 52 THIRD PART. Saracens and the Turks. In the XIII century the Crusaders got possession of Constantinople, the capital, and founded a new empire, under the dominion of the Franks or Latins. After sixty years the Greeks recaptur- ed it; but, in 1453 the empire of the East was destroyed by Mahomet IT, emperor of the Turks (XV century). Turkey possesses a large part of it at this present day. EXERCISES ON THE PRINCIPAL REVOLUTIONS OF THE NATIONS OF ANCIENT Ki STORY. OBSERVATION. The pupil should repeat upon a map of the ancient world, the two first analyses, pointing out with prompt- ness the cities and nations which are menlioiicd. MODEL OF GENERAL QUESTIONS. 1. What arc tlie principal nations of antiquity thnt you encounter in starting from China to go to Iberia, and what is the history of those nations 1 [The points of departure and arrival should be chang- ed continually. When the pupil has been sufficiently exercised, it will be well to interrupt him, and address to him separate questions concerning all the nations which he has studied. Afterwards he should be made to return to the explanation demanded of him in the first place, by the word : Continue.] 2. How does the ancient history of Egypt, Greece, Phenicia. &:c. terminate 1 What nations invaded it? — What did the crusaders do to it? Was it recaptured ?— By whom was it finally destroyed? VICISSITUDES OF THE XATIOXS. 53 3. Who are the great men spoken of in the history of Greece, and on what occasion are they spoken of? (The same for other nations.) 4. What cities are spoken of in Roman history ; where are they situated ? 5. How is the history of Egypt, that of Greece, &:c. divided. [These divisions should always be subordinate to the revolutions of the nations to which they belong.] 6. What nation united under its dominion Persia, Greece, &c. ] TO BE V/RITTEN : A table in which all the first analyses of the ancient •nations shall be placed, with taste and propriety : in the middle, the map of the ancient world should be drawn ; two columns should be devoted to the great men of each history, and to the cities of which mention is. made in each of them. History of tke inidclle age. POPES. The name pope signifies father ; it was formerly given to all bishops ; but after Gregory VII a pope of the XI century, it was peculiar to the bishop of Rome. '^^he principal source of the temporal greatness of the pontiffs commenced under Pepin and his son Charle- magne (VIII century); but the greatest extension of the power of the Church took place under Gregory VII at the end of the XI century. Under Urban II (XI century), the crusades com- When did the temporal greatness of the popes commence? What was the epoch of ihe greatest extension of their power ? Under whom did the crusades commence ? 54 THIRD TART. mcnced ; unJci- Leo X of li.e family of the Medici, (XVI century), tlie revival of lelters and the reforma- tion of Luther took place ; under Clement VIII (XVI century), the separation from Rome, or the religious le- form of England. The French, under Napoleon, invaded the States of the Church, two popes were led prisoners into France, Pius VI and Pius VII (XVIII century) ; but in 1815 the congress of Vienna restored to the holy see its property, with the exception of the country of the Venaissin. Pius IX is at present pope (1817). THE FRENCH. The Franks obtained possession of Gaul during the decline of the Roman empire, and under Clovis, their king, (V century,) they founded the kingdom of France. Three principal races or dynasties have governed the French until the present day. The Merovingian, under which we remark the estab- lishment of Christianity, and the defeat of the Saracens by Charles Martel, a French prince. The feebleness of the kings caused the fall of that dynasty. The Carlovingian, under which we notice Charle- magne, (VIII century,) who extended his power over Under whom did die revival of letters ami ihe reformation of Luther take place ? — The En^rlish reform ? Who invaded the Stales of the Churcl) ? What popes were led prisoners into France ? What was done at the conj^ress of Vienna ? When did the Franks obtain possession of Gaul ? Under whom Vv^as the kingdom of France founded ? How many dynasties have fjoverned the French ? What took place under the Merovingian ? What caused its fall ? What distinguished monarch of the Carlovingian dynasfy ? How far did he extend his power ? VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. ,06 almost the whole of Europe, bat vvlilj vvliom the gh>ry uf the nation was £ov a time extinguislied. The Caj}cUa/c, under which great events took place, each as the crusades, tlic wars with England, the Italian wars, and the religious wjffs. Among tlie families of this race, we distinguish that of the Boiirhons, which raised France to its highest point of glory. In 17S9 a terrible revolution broke out, and in Vi^j2 France was constituted a repuhUc, Erected into an €ni- lurc in 1804, it was governed by Najwlcon, who gave laws to nearly the whole of Europe. Finally, after sevcrrd alternations of success and defeat, the family of the Botir- bons reascended the throne in J 611. The revolution of 1S30 precipitated from it the elder branch of that family. The younger branch succeeded in the person of Louis Philippe 1 born the G'^^- of October, 1773. This new Jynasty may be called the Orleanian. LOMBARDS, Tlie Lombards came from the shores of the Ba'ltic sea ; they invaded the north of Italy, where they founded a kingdom under Alboin, their first king, in the VI cen- tury. Two centuries afterwards they were subdued by (vharlemagne, king of France, who vanquished DIdier, What is said of the nation at his death ? What events took place under the Capctian dynasty ? Wiiat distinguished family of this race ? What happened to France in 1789 ? When was it constituted a republic ? When, and by whom, erected into an empir'^? Wljat family reascended the throne in 1814 ? What was elFected by the revoluiion of 183C ? Who succeeded tlie elder branch ? Whence did the Lombards oricinally come ? What country did they invade? Under whom did they found a kin_c;dom in Italy ? What befel ihem fvo centuries nfirrward ? 55 THIRD PART. their last king. Lombardy afterward made a part of the kingdom of France. After many vicissitudes, it has fall- en to the empire of Austria. SPANIARDS. The Visigoths established themselves in Spain, after having vanquished the Suevi, the Alani and the Vandals; the monarchy which they founded was destroyed by the Moors in the VIII century; but by little and little they reconquered their provinces, and in 1474 (XV centu- ry) the marriage of Isabella of Castille, with Ferdinand V of Arragon, witnessed the commencement of the history of Spain properly speaking. The Moors were then ex- pelled, and the house of Austria came to the throne in Spain. Charles Fifth (XVI century) was its hero, and Charles II its last king (L700). The house of Bourbon then inhe- rited that country ; Philip V, grandson of Louis XIV, was its first king. In 1808 Charles IV was obliged to abdicate the crown, which Napoleon gave to his brother Joseph. Ferdinand VII, son of Charles IV, reascended the throne in 1814 : born the 14"'^- of October, 1784, ho died the 29i^- of September, 1833. His daughter Isa- bella II succeeded him. or what kinn;ilom did Lombardy form a part after Charle- magne ? — Of what empire is it now a part ? What is said of the Visifjoths? By v/hom was their monarchy destroyed in the VIII cen- turv? — Did thf^y re-establish it? VVirh what event does the history of Spain, properly speak- ing, commence? — When were the Moors expelled? When did the house of Ausiria 1)eo;in to rein;n in Spain? Who was the hero of f hit house?— Who its last king? What family next inherited the crown ? Who was obliije 1 to abdicate the crown in 1808 ? To whom did NjipoIpoh s;ive it ? When did Ferfllnand VII reascend the throne ? VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 57 ARABIAXS. The Arabians conquered, under Mahomet, their lav/- giver, (VII century), a great part of Asia. After the death of their prophet, under their califs, they gained possession of the north of Africa and Spain, and advanced even into France, from v/hich they were driven. The principal families which governed the Arabs are the O/jz- miades and the Ahassides. After many vicissitudes the Turks reduced them under their dominion. MOORS. The Moors v/ere a mixture of the descendants of the Mauritanians and of the Arabs or Saracens, who subdued them, and with whom they passed into Spain in the VIII century. They made themselves masters of that country, from which th^y were expelled, in 1492, by Ferdinand V, the Catholic. Boabdil was their last king. SWEDES. The origin of the Swedes is obscure ; it does not be- come interesting before the XIV century, when Mar- garet of Valdemar united on her head the crowns of Norway, Sweden and Denmark (1397). The cruelties Whom did the Arabians conquer under Mahomet? What did they accomplish under the califs. From what country were they repelled ? What are the principal fiiniilies wliich governed theai ? Under whose domhiion were they finally reduced ? From whom were the Moors descended ? By whom were they subdued ? With whom did ihey pass into Spain ? Of what country did they make themselves masters ? When v^^ere they expelled from it? — By whom? Who was their last king; ? With whom were the Swedes united in 1397 ? 3* 58 THIRD PART. of Christiem II caused a revolution wliich placed the crown of Sweden upon the head of Gustavus Wasa; in 1523 that prince established Lutheranism in his domin- ions. Three families have governed Sweden : first, that of Wasa, (XVI century) ; second, that o£ Dcux-Poits, (XVII century); whose first king was diaries X, ai.d its hero Charles XII, surnamed the Alexander of the North; third, the house of HoUteui Eutin, whose first king was Adolphus Frederic (XVIII century). A revolution broke out in 1772 under Gustavus III, who was assassinat- ed at a ball twenty years afterward. A French general, Bernadotte, reigned until recently over the Swedes, un- der the name of Charles XIV. Their present king is Oscar I, Norway was united to Sweden in 1815. ENGLISH. The English and the Saxons possessed themselves of Britain by treachery, and founded a heptarchy, which lasted until 827, when Egbert was ojipointed king of England. Many families have governed the English : the Saxons, (IX century), the Danes, the Normans, (XI century), the Angcvi/is or Planta genets, (XII cen- tury), the Lancastcrs, (XIV century), the Yorks, (XV "What produced a revolution in Sweden ? Upon whom was the crown conferred? What religion did Gustavus establish in hi!? dominions? What three families have e,overned Sweden? What happened there in 1772? Who was assassinated at a ball ? Who reigned until recently over the Swedes ? When was Norway united (o Sweden ? IIow did the English and Saxons get possession of Britain? What did they found there? When was the monarchy established there ? What families have governed the English? VICISSITUDES GF THE NATIONS. 59 century), the Tudors, (XVI ceiiiuvy), the Stuarts, XVII century), and the house of Branswick-llanover. The most remarkable events of English history are: the wars of France, from William the Conqueror, (XI cen- tury), to Edward IV, (XV century) ; the civil war of the two Roses, or the pretensions of Lancaster and York to the throne, in the XV century; the schUm or separa- tion of England from Rome under Henry VIII (XVI century); the brilliant reign of Elizabeth; the revolu- tions which took place under Charles I, Stuart, who mounted the scaffold in 1649; and under AViiliam III, in 1G88; finally the revolution of the Anglo-Americans (1782), under the house of Brunswick-Hanover (XVII I century). Victoria I, is at present on the throne (1817). She was born the 19^^- of May, 1819. THE POLES. The Poles ore o{ Sarmatlan origlii. The posterity of hechus, their first founder, (VI century), being extinct, Piast was recognized as Duke of Poland in the IX cen- tury. The most remarkable family is that of the Jagel- K/US. After its extinction the throne became elective. At the end of the XVIII century great disturbances - led to the partition of Poland, in three parts, between Prussia, Russia and Austria. At present Poland exists no longer as a particular kingdom; the duchy of Var- eovia forms a vice-royalty v/hich belongs to Russia. What arc llic most remari^able events In the history of Eng- land ? What took place among the Poles when the family of Le- chu«! became extinct ? What was the most remarkable family in that country ? After its extinction how was the throne disposed of? What befel Poland at the end of the XVill ccnlnry ? What is llie present slate of Poland ? 60 THIRD PART. In 1830 the Poles revolted against the Russians, but this attempt at liberty was not successful. RUSSIANS. The Russians descended from the ancient Sarmatiansj they have been governed by many families, such as those ofRurick, (IX century), and of Valdimir, (X century); but the most celebrated is that of Romanof. Peter the Great, one of the princes of that house, raised Russia from obscurity, and gave birth there to the sciences, in- dustry and commerce. Catherine II, of the family of Holstein-Gonorp, covered herself with glory by her great enterprises; her vessels pushed their navigation as far as the Dardanelles (XVIlt century.) Nicholas I, her grand- son, is at present upon the throne of Russia, (1847); he was born the 6^^- of July, 1796. GERMANS. The Germans inhabit the country of the ancient Alle- mani ; they courageously resisted the Romans, who were n()t able entirely to subdue them. Charlemagne (VIII century) defeated that part of the nation called Saxons, constrained them to embrace the christian religion, and beheld himself master of Germany. At the death of Louis the Debonair, his son, Germany was separated from France. Lothaire was acknowledged king; the What took place in Poland in 1830 ? By what families have the Russians been governed ? Which is the most celebrated of them ? Who Vv^as the most famous prince of that house? What did he accomplish for Russia? Ho'.v did Catherine T! distinsuish herself? What country do the Germans inhabit? What is said of them in reference to the Romans? What did Charlemagne do to the Saxons ? What befel Germany at the death of his son ? VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 61 Carlovinglan race maintained itself there until 911, when it ended in the person of Louis IV, called the Infant. Then the empire became elective. Conrad, Duke of Franconia and Hesse, was raised to the imperial dignity and may be regarded as tlie first emperor of Germany. Towards the end of the XllI century (1273) Rodolph, Count of Hapsburg, first prince of the house of Austria, was acknowledged Emperor. In 1519 the Empire was united to Spain in the person of Charles V ; but that union ceased after his abdica- tion, in 1554. The house of Austro-Lorraine is at pre- sent on the throne ; but it reigns only over the Austrian empire. Ferdinand I, is emperor (1847). He \Yas born the 19*- of April, 1793. • DANES. The commencement of the history of the Danes is un- certain. Towards the end of the XIV century Queen Margaret united under her sceptre the three crowns of the North. Sweden detached itself in 1523, but Norway remained united to Denmark, at first as a province, and afterward as an independent kingdom. The royal dynas- ty of Skioldun!? beinof extinguished in 1448, the Count Christierii of Oldenburg succeeded it and brought to Den- What race maintained itself there till 911 ? In whom did the Carlovingian race terminate ? What did the em])ire tl-.en become ? Who was first raised to the imperial dignity ? Will) was acknowledged emperor towards tlie end of the XIII century ? When and in whose person was the empire united to Spain ? When did that union cease ? What house is at present en the thrJ^ie ? To what couinry is its dominion confined ? When were the'Danes united to Norway and Sweden? Was this union permanent ? What dynasty became extinct in IMS ?— Who succeeded it? 60 THIRD TAUT. mark the two fine provinces of Slcswick and Ilolstcin. In IGGO a revolution took place vvliich entirely changed the form of government. At the commencement of the XVI II century, Den- mark had to sustain against Sweden an unhappy war, which did not terminate until 1720. After that epoch it enjoyed peace until 1801 and 1807, when Copenhagen was bombarded by the English. In 1813 and 1814 Den- mark formed a part of the coalition against France. Nor- way was ceded to Sweden in 1815. Christiern VIII is at present upon the throne (1817). He was born tiie 18'»^- of September, 1786, HUXGARIANS. The Hungarians occupy a considerable part of the ancient Pannonia, which was twice conquered by the Huns : Charlemagne, in 764, united it to the French monarchy. Saint Stephen is regarded as the first king of Hungary (in the middle of the X century). Charles Martel, son of Charles of Anjou, king of Na- ples, and of Mary, daughter of Stephen IV^, king of Hungary, succeeded to the crown in 1302. In the XIV century (1383) the emperor Sigismoml, king of Bohemia, became king of Hungary by right of What accessions did he bring to Denmark ? What took plaec in 1660 ? What war did Denmark carry on during the XVIII cen- tury? — How long after this did it enjoy peace 7 By what event was the peace broken up ? What is said of Denmark in 1813-14 ? What cession did she make in 1815 ? Who is the reigning king of Sweden ? By whom was the country of the Hungarian? tvvjcc con- quered ? What bcfel Hungary under C])arlcmagne ? Who was the first king of Hungary ? Who succeeded to the crown in 1302 ? Who became king of Hungary in 1383 by right of his wife ? VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. C3 his wife, but, in the XV century (1438) that kingdom recovered anew its independence under the empire of TJladislas, In the XVI century (1540) Solyman, sultan of the Turks, possessed himself of the better part of this coun- try, and the emperor, Ferdinand I, seized the rest. In 16S7 Leopold Ignatius caused the crown of Hun- gary, which was hereditary in the house of Austria, to pass to the head of the orch-duke Joseph, his son, who became emperor, under the name of Joseph II. Since that time the kingdom of Hungary has depended on the Austrian empire. NEAFOLITANS AND SICILIANS. The kingdom of Naples occupies the ancient Magna, Grecia ; that southern part of Italy passed successively to the Romans, the Goths, the Lombards, and the Arabs, until the time when the Normans, returning from the holy land, took possession of it (XI century). The sons of Tancred of Hauteville, Norman seigneurs, caused themselves to be named dukes of Apulia and Calabria; the first duke was Robert Guiscard ; his grand- son, Roger II, was created king of Sicily and duke of Naples. The emperor Henry IV, of tlie family of Suabia, united Sicily to the empire (XII century) ; but at the extinc- tion of that house the pope. Urban IV, gave the crown When, and under whom, did that country recover its inde- pendence ? — What befel it in the XVI century ? What happened to Hungary in 1687 ? What country does the kingdom of Naples occupy ? What nations successively possessed that country ? Who caused themselves to be nominated dukes of Apulia and Calabria ? Who was created king of Sicily and duke of Naples ? Who united Sicily to the empire ? 64 THIRD PART. of Naples and Sicily to Charles of Anjou, brother of Saint Louis : under that prince, the massacre of the French, called the Sicilian Vespers, took place. After many vicissitudes, after having experienced reverses and ob- tained success, the French beheld themselves obliged to renounce the kingdom of Naples, to which tlicy had claims ; and in 1734 the infanta of Spain, Don Carlos, son of Philip V, and great-grand-son of Louis XIV, mount- ed the throne. In him began the Sicilian house of Bour- bon, represented at present by Ferdinand II (1811). He was born the 12^^- of January, ISIO. PORTUGUESE. Portugal, formerly called Lusitania, made a part of Spain until the XII century, (1139,) the epoch at which Alphonso Henriquez, of the family of the Capets, took the title of king. The dynasty of Avis succeeded that of Capetian Burgundy in 1383 ; John I was its first king. It was under this family, and especially during the reign of Emmanuel tlie Great, that the Portuguese became very powerful by their conquests in the two Indies. The Spaniards commanded in Portugal from 1580 to 1640. The house of Brao^anza then ascended the throne in the What happened at the extinction of the Suabian family ? Wluit massacre took place under Charles of Anjou ? ^yhat is said of the French claims to this country ? Who mounted the throne in 1734 ? Y/hat royal house began in him ? Bv Avhom is that house at present represented ? What was Portugal formerly called ? Of Vvhat country did it make a part until 1139 ? Who became king at that epoch ? What dynasty succeeded ? What is said of Portugal under Emmanuel llie Great ? During what period did the Spaniards command in Portugal? What famiTy then ascended the throne ? VICISSITUDES OF TKE NATIONS. 65 person of John IV, and still occupies it. Donna Maria is at present on the throne (1847). She was born the 4^^- of April, 1819. BOHEAIIANS. It is thought that the Bohemians are the descendants of the Boiae, Gauls of the Bourbonnaise, who, in the VI century before J. C, went, under the conduct of Sigovesus, to found a colony in Germany ; they were driven out by the Marcomanni, afterward by the Escla- vonians. Zecco, at the head of a powerful army, came from the Cimmerian Bosphorus, and advanced into Bo- hemia in the VI century after J. C. Bohemia was for- merly a dependency of the Empire. In 1618 the crown was acknowledged hereditary in the house of Austria, which had long possessed it by election. SWISS. The Swiss formcily bore the name of Helvetians ; in the XIII century Helvetia depended on the German empire. A part of that country was the domain of the lionse of Austria, as Fribourg, Lucerne, Zug, Claris. The tyranny of the imperial governors exasperated men's minds ; under the emperor Albert, the cantons of Schv/itz, Uri, and Unterwald, gave the signal of independence. V/ho reia;ns there at present? From wliom are the Bohemians thought to have descended ? Who drove the Boiu3 from Germany ? What is said of Zecco ? V/as Bohemia once a dependency of the empire ? What took place in 1648? What were the Swiss formerly called ? Of what was Helvetia a dependenc}'-? . To whom did a part of that country belong? What exasperated the minds of the Helvetians^ What took place among them under the emperor Albert? 66 THIRD PART. A formidable army of Germans v/as conqucrc<] at tlic pass of Morgarten. In 1308 Switzerland had become free, and her independence was acknowledged at the treaty of Westphalia, in 1G48. Among the liberators of Switzerland, we notice William Tell, celebrated for l;i,3 address in archery (XIV century). The Swiss confederation successively increased : it reckoned at first thirteen cantons; Napoleon, in 1802, added to it six, and in 1815 the allied powers united to it those of Geneva and the Valais, and that of Neufchatel, which acknowledged the king of Prussia as sovereign. Revolutions agitated that country in 1S33. M o «E e r II II I s t o t- y . TURKS. The Turks are originally from Asia ; they possessed tfjcmselvos of Asia Minor, and under 0th man or Oihoman, they founded a monarchy (XIII century) which became powerful; in 1453 ]SIahomet gained possession of Con- etantinoplo and a part of the countries which composed the Eastern empire ; since that time great disturbances and revolutions have agitated the Turkish government. Who were conquered at tlie pass of Morgarten ? « When was Switzerland enfranchised? When and where was her independence acknowleOgrd ? Who is distinguished among her liberators? Has the Swiss confederation increased ? • What was the state of Switzerland in 1833 ? Where did the Turks originate? Of what country did they possess themselves? Wliat is said of the monarcliy which they founded there ? Of what countries did Mahomet gain possession? AVhai has been the state of the Turkish government since the time of Mahomet 1 VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. €7 from wliich the powers of Europe have detached Greece. Abdal-Medjib is now upon the throne (18-17) ; Ije waa born the 19^*^- of April, 1S23. AMERICANS IX GENERAL. It is supposed that America was known to \.he ancients, but it was only in 1492 that a Genoese named Christopher (.'olunibus, seeking a passage to the west, by which to reach the Indies, made the first discovery of it for iis. Starting from Gomera, one of the Canaries, in three ves- sels which Isabella of Castille, the wife of Ferdinand V had given him, he touched at San Salvador or Guanahani, one of the Bahama islands. In several successive voyages, he discovered the gieat and little Antilles, which he nam- ed the West Indies ; finally, in 149S he saw the conti- nent to which the name of America v.as ffiven, from Amcricus Vespucius, a Florentine navigator, who sailed along its coasts, and published in Europe the narrative of his voyage. ANGLO-AMERICANS. — (UNITED STATES.) In the XVI century, under the reign of Elizabelh, the English, at whose head Walter Raleigh was found, formed colonies upon the coasts of North America. The possessions of these new colonists received successively large increase ; but the mv>ther-country having attempted to subject them to the payment of imposts, they revolted What country has been detached from Turkey by the powers of Europe ? Who is now upon ihe throne ? Was America known to the ancients? — Who discovered it in modern times ? — Can you describe his first voyage ? What did he discover in subsequent voyages? After whom was America named? At what time were colonies first founded on the coasts of North America ? — By whom ? — Did these colonies increase ? What caused the revolution ? G8 THIRD PART. and made themselves independent. In 1782 they consti- tuted themselves a republic, and their first president was Georjje Washinsfton, who had commanded the American armies during the war. Since then the possessions of the United States have been extended, and at present that republic numbers twenty-six States. MEXICANS. In 1520 the Spaniards, commanded by Fernando Cor- tez, a simple lieutenant of Velasquez, governor of Cuba, effected the conquest of Mexico. The native Mexicans, already civilized, were at that time governed by Monte- zuma, who was made prisoner by Cortez, and whom his own subjects slew in an insurrection. The Spaniards continued masters of Mexico until 1821, the epoch of a revolution which terminated by the acknowledgment of Mexican independence. Afterward, an obscure leader, namcvd Iturbide, caused himself to be acknowledged em- peror ; but he did not reign long, and the Mexicans are etill, at the present day, constituted as a republic. PERUVIANS. The Peruvians were governed nearly four centuries by kings nanjed Incas ; industry had made much more When (lid iho colonies form tliemselves into a republic ? Who was their first president ? Have the possessions of the United States since increased ? Of how many states do they now consist ? Who conquered Mexico in 1520 ? Bv whom were the Mexicans then governed ? V/hat became of him ? How long did the Spaniards continue masters of Mexico? What took place in Mexico in 1821 ? Who was afterward acknowledged emperor? Did he reign long? Under what form of government are the Mexicans at pre- sent ? By whom were the Peruvians governed for four centuries? VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 69 progress among them than with the Mexicans, when a Spaniard named Francis Pizarro subdued them in 1525. Atabalipa at that time occupied the throne ; he was strangled by the Spaniards. In 1808 a revolution broke out, and Peru was deffiiiitively declared a republic in 1821. General Saint Martin was appointed protector. General Santa Cruz was appointed president in 1838. BRAZILIANS. Pierre Alvarez Cabral, a Portuguese admiral, having been driven westward by head-winds, discovered the coast of Brazil in 1500. The Hollanders got possession of that country in 1624 ; but, after many vicissitudes, the Portuguese recovered full possession of it in 1G61, by paying eight tuns of gold to Holland. In 1824 Don Pedro, at first vice-roy of Brazil for his father, John VI, king of Portugal, took the title of emperor. A military revolution compelled him, in 1831, to fly to Europe ; Don Pedro II, his son, succeeded him ; he was born the 2-"^- of December, 1825. • COLUMBIANS. The Columbians, who inhabit the northern part of south America, once belonged to the dominion of Spain ; In what are they said to have surpassed the Mexicans ? Who subdued them in 1525 ? What inca then occupied the throne ? Wliat became of him? — What happened in 1808 ? When was Peru declared a republic? Who was appointed protector? — Who president in 1838? Who discovered Brazil ? Who got possep>;on of the country in 1G24 ? When did the Portuguese recover possession of it, and how? Who became the emperor of Brazil in 1824 ? Why was he compelled to fly to Europe, and when? Who succeeded hiin? Under vvliose dominion were the Columbians originally ? 70 TIIIIJD PAPvT. but afler many revolutioris, the independence of Columbia was proclaimed in 1819. Bolivar, who had contributed to ils enfranchisement, received the title of liberator. Eng- land formally recognised the republic of Columbia in 1825. BUEXOS AYRIANS. Buenos Ayres v/as originally a Spani&h colony. In 1S06 the English made a descent upon that country, but they were repulsed by general Liniers. In ISIO the in- habitants revolted from Spain, and the independence of Buenos Ayres was proclaimed in IS 16. CIIILTAXS. Almagro, the companion, and afterwards the victim of I^izarro, first penetrated into Chili ; but it was Peter Valdivia who subdued that country, in 1540. He built Sun I ago and La Conception. Chili was occupied witli achieving her independence in 1510, and in 181S was erected into a republic. IIAITIEXS. The island of Saint Domingo was discovered by Chris- topher Columbus in H92. The Spaniards remained When was their independence proclaimed? Wl]() received ihc title of liberator? By what natio!] was the republic of Columbia rccognLscd in 1805? — What was Buenos Ayres originally ? Who made a descent on tlial country in iSOG? By whom were they rej)ulsed ? What events took place in Buenos Ayres in 1810 and 181C? Who first penetrated into Clali ? Wlio subdued ihatcounirv in 1-340? What cities did he build ? How was Chili occupied in 1810 ? Wlicn was it erected into a republic? When and !>v whom %vas Saint Domino;o discovered ? VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. Tl maitera of it until the XVl century, when a colony -of French and English unitetl, took possession of the country. Driven out in their turn by the Spanish, they withdrew to the island of Tortuga. France, at a later period, pos- sessed herself of a part of the island. In 1791 an iissur- lection broke out, and the whole French part of the island presented nothing but a field of carnage and desolation : the Blacks and the Mulattoes slaughtered the Whites. In ISOl the Blacks proclaimed their independence. After many internal revolutions, the enfranchisement of Saint Domingo was acknowledged by France, under Charles X ; atid Boyer was chosen president in 1841. HOLLANDERS AND BELGIANS. Holland was formerly a part of Belgic Gaul ; it was do:i.}uered in the I century by Julius Casar; it after- wards passed successively to the Franks, the counts of liainault, the dukes of Burgandy, and the house of Austria, The king of Spain, Philip, by his tyranny, lost that couv:- tiy, whose independence was recognised at tlie treafy of Munoter or Westpluilla, in 161S. In 1794 Holland was invaded by France, the stadlholderate abolished, and the count]y constituted into the Batavian republic. In 180G, Who were masters of it until ilie XVI century ? Who next took possession of it ? }>v whom were they J riven out? What country afterward possessed a part of die islaaJ ? What happened iu ITTa ? When did the Blacks proclahn their independence? Under whom did the French acknowledg:e the enfranchi nicnt of Ilayti? — Who v/as its first president ? (.)r what ilomau province was Ilolhnnd once a part ? l^y whom was it conquered in the I century? To w iiom did it afterward successively pass ? What monarch lost that country by his lyranny ? Where and wiien was its independence recognised ? What t.»k place in 1791?— In 130G? .^2 THIRD PART. Bona^oarte made a kingdom of it, in favor of Louis, one of his brothers, but he soon divided the kingdom into departments which he united to France. In 1S15 Hol- land was reunited to Belgium, and formed only one king- dam, under the name of the Low Countries (Pays-Bas) ; William I of Orange became its king; but in 1830 the Belgians revolted, and the separation of the two states was proclaimed by the powers of Europe. William of Orange retained the throne of Pfolland ; he was born the 24th. of August, 1772. Leopold of Saxe Coburg ascended that of Beloium; he was born the 16^^- of December, 1790. PRUSSIANS. The Prussians, of Sarmatian origin, were not consti- tuted a monarchy until 1701. Frederic, elector of Bran- denburg, was their first king ; his grandson, Frederic IT, surnamed the Great, at his accession to the throne in 1740, invaded Silesia by the assistance of France ; he had to sustain, in 175G, a formidable coalition : his genius prevented him from succumbing. William II, his suc- cessor, had a feeble reign ; he dissipated the treasures amassed by Frederic. William HI declared war with France, and formed a part of that coalition which brought the foreigners to Paris. Frederic William IV, his son, reigns at present (1847) ; he was born the 15^^^ of Octo- ber, 1795. What occurred to Holland in 1805 ? Who became its king ? — What took place in 1830 ? Who retained the throne of Holland ? Who ascended that of Belgium? When were the Prussians constituted a monarchy ? Who was their first king? — Who his successor ? What country did he invade ? — How was he occupied in 1756 ?— What is said of William H ? Who is the present king of Prussia ? VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 73 SARDINIANS. The Sardinian States are composed of Savoy proper, Piedmont and Sardinia. Savoy vv-as, under the Ro- mans, included in Transalpine Gaul ; it passed succes- sively to the Burgundians and the emperors of Germany ; and in the XI century (1040) Conrad, emperor of Ger- many, gave it in full property to Humbert the white- handed Saint Maurice, the Valais, and the Chablais. His descendants soon extended their dominions by their con- quests. Meanwhile the sovereigns had only the title of counts of Savoy; Amedeus VII took the title of duke, and Victor Amedaeus II, in 1713, being master of Sicily, caused himself to be declared king. Sardinia was after- ward given him in exchange for that island ; hence the title of king of Sardinia, which v/as accorded him in 1718. Charles Albert, born the 2^'^- of October, 1798, reigns at present ; he is of the family of Carignan. BAVARIANS. Bavaria anciently made a part of the Rhcetis, of Ven- delicia and of Noricum. The Boiae came to inhabit it under the emperor Augustus ; it was successively govern- ed by kings, dukes, counts dependent on Charlemagne, and by the electors of Bavaria. On the P^- of January, How are the Sardinian states composed ? What changes has Savoy undergone IVum the lime of the Romans? What did the descendents of Humbert accomplish ? What title had the sovereigns of Savoy until the time of Ameda)us III ? — What title did he assume ? Who was declared king in 1713? What country was given him in exchange for Sicily ? How did the title of " king of Sardinia " originate ? Of what countries did Bavaria anciently form a part? Under whom did the Boia? take possession of it? By whom was it governed until Maximilian ? 4 74 TH115D PAKT. 1S05, IMciximilian Joseph assumed ll;e title of king. Ba- varia has since been considerably enlarged. Louis I is its pre3ent king (1S47); he was bom the 2o^'>- of August, 17SG. SAXONS. Tiie Saxona, in the time of Cliarleraagnc, (VlII cen- tury), extended as far as the banks of the Rhine; Wili- kind, their chief, struggled a long time against the entire strength of the em^^ire, and was finally subdued. It is in the IX century that the series- of the dukes of Saxor.y, Avhich is continued to the present time, begins. From the })eriod of tlic dissolution of the Germanic body, electoral Saxony was erected into a kingdom (1806) in favor of Frederic Augustus. It was dismembered in 1814, by the conr^ress of Vienna, in favor of the kin"' of Prussia. The reigning king is Antliony, born the 27'^^^- CNf December, 1755: the co-recront, Frederic Auo;ustus Albert Maria, 7 CD ' O ' nephew of the king, was born the 18'^^- of May, 1797. WURTEMBURGEUS. Wurtemburg fi^rmerly made a part of the duchy of Suabia, and was erected into a county by the empe- ror Henry IV, (XI century,) in favor of Conrad. The dukes of Wurtemburg were dependents of the empire. What title did he assume ? Plas Bavaria been since enlarged ? How far did the Saxons extend in the time of Cliarleniaone? What is said ofWitikind? When does the linv'^ of Saxon dukes begin ? When was electoral Saxony erected into a kingdom ? When was it dismembered ? — B}' whom? — In whose favor? Who is the reigning king ? — Who co-regcnt ? Of what duchy was Wurtemburg formerly a part ? By whom and when erected into a kingdom ? Of what power was the duohy of Wurtemburg a depen dency ? VICISSITUDES OF THE NATIONS. 75 Frederic II, clothed with the electoral dignity in 1803, ^vas created king in 1805 by Napoleon. William, his 5on, reigns at present ; he was born the 27'^^- of Septem- ber, 1781. MODERN GREEKS. Greece was subdued by the Romans in the II cen- :ury before J. C; she afterwards made a part of the 3astern empire during eleven centuries. After the fall of hat empire she remained for a long time under the do- minion of the Turks. Enslaved under the heavy yoke of the Mahometans, she sought many times to reconquer her iiberry ; finally, in 1821 a bloody revolution broke out, which was terminated only by the intervention of the European powers, and especially of France. Greece is free ; Capo d'lstria, one of the chiefs of the new republic, was assassinated in 1831. Greece has just been erected into a kingdom ; Otho, of Bavaria, was her first governor (1841) ; he was born the l«t- of June, 1815. What is said of Frederic II ? At v.hat era was Greece subdued by ihe Romans? How long did she make a part of the Eastern ciripire ? Under wlial dominion did she then fall ? Did she seek to recover bcr liberty ? What is said of the revolution in 1821 ? Who was Capo d'Istria? What was his fate? What is tiic present form of govcrnmert in Greece? FOURTH TATLT. GENERAL HISTORY. Brief Review. ANCIENT HISTORY. God gave birth to the universe, the first human beings incurred his vengeance; a terrible catastrophe left upon the earth only a single family, that of Noah. Human beings multiplied, families collected, nations were formed, emigrations proceeded from Asia, tlie cradle of the hu- man race : the globe was peopled, governments were es- tablished, wants and communications gave birth to la?i- guagcs, commerce and the arts, and gradually force and justice lent each other mutual assistance. Among the nations which succeeded one to another, we see the Egyptians, the most celebrated by their wis- dom, by their laws and their arts ; the Hebrcivs, long the privileged people of God, but whose vices and divisions caused their ruin ; the Assyrians, whose luxury and ^vealth induced their fall ; the Phenicians, commercial and industrious, who extended their relations into the greater part of the ancient world ; they were the ances- tors of those CartJiaginians whom, the Romans, after three bloody wars, efiaced from the list of nations ; the Medes and the Persians, two kingdoms formed from the frag- ments of the Assyrian empire, and who fell, like it, not- withstanding the genius of Cyrus, the conquests of Cam- byses and the formidable expeditions of Darius and Xerxes ; the Greeks^ of Egyptian or Asiatic origin, who GENERAL HISTORY. 77 performed one of the principal parts in ancient history ; Egypt had formed their poets and lawgivers ; they instruct- ed their conquerors, the Romans, in their turn, and left even after their fall, a memory which their unequalled ex- cellence in literature and the fine arts has rendered immor- tal ; the Macedonians, who reckoned under their domin- ion Asia, Greece and a part of Africa, by the conquests of the great Alexander; and the Romans, whose history becomes, from his time, that of the whole v/orld. Three great wtirriors made that conquering people tremble ; Brennus, chief of the Gauls; Hannibal, general of the Carthaginians, and Mithridates, king of Pontus. From a monarchy Rome had become a repuhlic ; from a republic it became an empire. A single 7nan commanded the earth ; but the greater part of these dominators were ty- rants. One of the emperors, Constantino, under the auspices of a henejiccnt religion, divided the strength of the empire by founding a new capital. From misfortune to misfortune, from foult to fomlt, the Roman colossus was v/eakened, and crumbled beneath the strokes of a multi- tude of harharous nations, and upon its ruins (476) new States arose, which still exist. History of the I^iddlc Age. The Visigoths, the Vandals, the Siicvi, the Alani, the Burgundians, the Franks, the Lombards, the Angles and the Saxons formed new States, (V century), in Spain, in the Gauls, in Italy and in Britain. They wrought a complete revolution in government^ laws, manners, literature and arts. The Franks ended by obtaining the preponderance ; then began the secular power of the popes. The Arabs, under their legislator, Mahorjiet, embraced a new religion which, with their empire, extended from Asia into Africa and from Africa into Spain. France herself, being threatened, was saved from the dominion 78 FOURTH PART. of the Moorji by C/tarlcs Mar id, whose grandson, Charle-I magne, was the great man of his age; he renewed the I Empire of the IVesf., (800). But, at the death of Charlemagne, (814), there were j formed from the ruins of that empire new kingdomf^ j which arc the cradles of some of those of the present day. i Other States were established by the Normans, the Rus- \ sians and the Hungarians. The feudal system or the power of the seigneurs soon extended itself over the whole of Europe ; royal authority was etTaced, the vassals ruled, anarchy was the consequence of this kind of govern- ment, which would have destroyed the monarchies, but for the usage, which could not be extinguished, of render- ing faith and homage to the king. Chivalry came, in some sort, to repress the injustice of the great, for the enthusiasm of honor animated some of the feudal nobility. Another power, as injurious as that of the seigneurs, since it was greatly abused, was that of the popes, who, after Gregory VII, formed the ambitious project of ren- dering themselves sovereigns of the woi'ld ; their q»,arrels with the German empire troubled Europe during centu- ries. f The crusades, from the XI to the XIII century, had a powerful influence upon the state of the European na- tions ; they developed intelligence, concentrated power in the hands of the kinor and diminished that of the orandees. The establishment of communes, wliich was one of their consequences, caused ideas of liberty to spring up. Italy was covered with republics ; the kingdoms of the Tico Sicilies and of Portugal were founded ; the great charter was given in England; the power of the pontiffs dimin- ished; Switzerland was detached from Germany; and, that the revolution might be the more complete, three great inventions hastened the progress of industry, the arts and literature, and came to influence the faculties of man and his political condition ; these are : GENERAL II 1ST ail Y, 79 1. That of gU!ij)Oicdcy, (XIV century), which cljangod the art of war ; 2. That of pr'ud'mg, which extended men's ideas by establishing comiiumications between all the nations of the eaith ; 3. That uf the compass, which permitted navigators to venture then^selves upon the seas, and to which we owe the discovery of many nev*^ countries. An important event occurred to terminate the history of the middle age ; titat is the taJiing of Constantmople by the Asiatic barba- rians, the Ttf/'A:.9,1iaving at their head Mahomet II (lb3o.) Motlerii Ilesfory. The bcilesdettrcs now began to flourish in Italy, in France and in England. A Genoese, Chr into i> liar CvhiinLus, discovered America (1-192.) Vasco dc GiUiia, a Portugmse navigator, doubled the Cape of Good Hope and opened a route to the Indies. A religious reform, eflected by a German monk named Luther, extended itself to all the countries of the world ; it was of im.mense aular goveryiment which hitherto has been so successful, and in which the dearest interests of hu- manity are involved. MODEL OF QUESTIONS OX THE BRIEF REVIEW. I shall give for example only two questions. The pupil says at the commencement : " Mankind, whom God had GENERAL HISTORY. 81 created immortal, incurred his vengeance." Let him be asked : 1. How did mankind, criod. IX. \ ^^^- J'-'egislation of Lycurgus. \ 8G0. Foundation of Carthage. Origin of the Roman power. VIII \ '^^^' ^^i"st Olympiad. ( 753. Foundation of Rome. GENERAL IJiSTOilV. 83 CapLivltij of the Ilchrcws. Ccnluries. Befuifc J. C. f 684. Second war of MesBeiiia. \ 667. Combat of the Horatii and the Cu- VII < , ''^'"- j 606. Capture of Jerusalem by NebucliaJ- / nezzar. \ 600. First expedition of the Gauls. Glory of the Persia/is. • i 594-. Solon at Athens. VI. I 536. Cyrus takes Babylon. ' 525. Cambyscs possesses himself of Egypt. Military, political, and literary glory of Greece. ( 490. Persian war. V. ^ 431. War of the Peloponncssus. ( 401. Retreat of the Ten Thousand. Disnicmhcrment of the empire of Alexander. 390. Siege of Eome by the Gauls. 3G3. Death of Epaminondas, conqueror at Leuctrse and JNIantinea. 335. Conquests of Alexander. Rivalry of Rome and Carthage. 264. Punic AVars. 213. Rivalry of Hannibal and Scipio. Civil rears of Rome, i 149. Subjugation of Greece. ( 146. Destruction of Carthage. Conquests of Julius Ccesar. 90. War against Mithridates. 89. Rivalry of Marius and Syila. 58. Conquest of the Gauls by Caesax. 31. Battle of Actium. 29. Octavlus, emperor. IV III. 81 FOURTH PART. AFTER THE VULGAR ERA. Roman dominion over the k?ioivn world. Centuries. Afler J. C. I. Reign of the twelve Caesars. Roman civilization under the Antonines. II. lOG. Conquests of Trajan. Military Anarchy. III. 269. Defeat of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. Division of the Roitian empire. IV. 328. Translation of the seat of empire to Byzantium. Fall of the Roinan empire of the West. — Invasions. V. . 406. Invasion of barbarous nations. I 418. The Franks in Gaul. I 476. Fall of the Roman empire of the West' • 476. Establishment of modern States. HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGE. Political chaos. 507. Invasion of the Visigoths into Spain. VI. ^ 534. Conquests of Belisarius. 590. Pontificate of Gregory the Great. Military glory of the Arabs. VII. 013. Rivalry of Fredegonda and Brunehaat. 622. Heffira of Mahomet. Glory of the Frank monarchy. ^ 712. The Moors in Spain. VIII < ^^'^' ^^^^<^^T ^^ Charles Martel over the J Saracens. ^ 768. Reign of Charlemagne. XL GENERAL HISTORY. 85 Feudalism. Centuries. After J. C. ,-«- C 802. Charlemagne, emperor of the West. ( 877. Feudal system under Charles the Bald. Ignoronce. — French Monarchy. 911. Conrad I, emperor of Germany. 912. The Normans in France. 962. Conquest of Italy by Otho the Great, 987. Introduction of Christianity into Rus- sia, by Waldimir. 987. Accession of Hugh Capet. Crusades. 1072. Pontificate of Gregory VII. 1095. Commencement of the Crusades. Comniunes. ^ 1108. Establishment of communes in \ France, by Louis VI. ^ 1139. Foundation of the kingdom of For- V. tugal by Alphonso Henriquez. Extc7ision of Roy alt if. C 1214. Battle of Bouvines. XIII. \ 1215. Conquests of Genghis Khan. I 1282. Sicilian Vespers. Discoveries. — Progress of tlie human mind. 1302. Discovery of the compass and of "KIV. { gunpowder. 1306. Helvetic confederacy ; William Tell. 86 FOURTH PART. Invention, of Print cng. Centuries. After J. C. 1436. Invention of printing. 1452. War of the Two Roses. 1453. Capture of Constantinople by the Turks, XV. MODERN HISTORY. Discover ij of America. 1474. Union of the kingdoms of Castille and Arragon, XV. ^ 1492. Discovery of America by Christo- pher Columbus. 1492. Moors driven from Spain. Wars of Religion. 1513. Pontificate of Leo X. 1517. Reform of Luther and Zwangle. XVL ^ 1519. Rivalry of Francis 1 and Charles Fifth. 1571. Victory of Lepanto over the Turks. Political, militarij and literary influence of France under Richelieu and Louis XIV. 1618. Thirty years' war. 1640. Revolution of Portugal. 1643. Louis XIV. yyrr J 1647. Masaniello at Naples. 164S. Peace of WestphaUa. 1649. Execution of Charles I. 16S8. Rebellion of the Low Countries. 1695. Peter the Great. GENERAL HISTORY. 8V xviir. After J. C. 1700. 1740. •1754. 1772. 1783. 17S9. 1792. 1793. 1796. 1798. 1798. Revolutions. Succession of Spain. Succession of Austria. Seven years' war. Revolution of Sweden. Independence of the United States acknowledged. French revolution. French republic. Death of Louis XV[. Campaign in Italy. Expedition into Egypt. Revolution of Saint Domingo. POLITICAL AND MILITARY GLORY OF UNDER NAPOLEON. FRANCE Continuation of Rcvolal'wns. 1804. Napoleon, emperor. 1808. Dethronement of the Spanish Bour- bons. 1814. Restoration of the Bourbons. 1815. Battle of Waterloo. 1828. War between the Russians and Turks. XIX. \ 1830. Revolution of Paris. 1830. Revolution of Belgium. 1830. Revolution of Poland. 1831. Insurrection of the States of the Church. 1833. Revolution of Portugal. 1833. Revolution of Switzerland. 1834. War of the Spanish succession. 88 FOURTH PART. GREAT MEN. Ancient History. Pcrsc ins who gave thoir name lo thei r century. Centi iries before J. C. Remarkable Persons. 50. Adam. Cain, Abel. 49. Seth. Cain, Abel. 34. Noah. Shem, Ham, Japhet. 30. Peleg (dispersion.) Fo-hi. 25. Menes. 23. Abraham. Lot, Chedarlaomer. 22. Egyaleus. 21. Joseph. Uranus, Isaac, Esau, Maeris. 20. Semiramis. Ninus, Inachus, Saturnus. 19. Jupiter. Apis, Isis. 18. Ogyges. Phoroneus. 17. Moses and Agenor. Amenophis, Prometheus, Se- sostris. 16. Cecrops. Cadmus, Deucalion, Danaus. 15. Bacchus and Ceres. Minos. 14. Hercules. Tantalus, Jason, Perseus, ^dipus. 13. Agamemnon and Theseus, Achilles, Hector, Priam. Ulysses, ^neas. 12. Samuel. Codrus, the Heraclides. 11. Solomon. Saul, David. 10. Homer. Jeroboam, Shishhak, Reho- boam. 9. Dido. Carsanus, Athalia, Lycurgus. 8. Romulus. Numa, Nabonassar, Tobias. 7, . Nebuchadnezzar. Thales, Psammetichus, Judith, Daniel, the Horatii. 6. Cyrus. Solon, Pisistratus, Pythagoras, Tarquin the Proud, Brutus, Confucius,Crcesus,Cambyses, GENERAL HISTORY. 89 Persons who gave their names to their centuries. Centuries before J. C. 5. Pericles. 4. Alexander. 3. Hannibal. 2. The Gracchi. 1. Julius Caesar. CENTURIES 1. Augustus. 2. Antoninus, Marcus Aurellus. 3. Diocletian. 4. Constantine. 5. Attila Clevis. 6. Justinian. Kemarkable Persons. Coriolanus, Miltiades, Leoni- das,Themistocles,Alcibiades, Socrates, Xenophon, Plato, Herodotus, Thasybulus. Aristotle, Epaminondas, Camil- lus, Phocion, Demosthe- nes, Brennus. Publius Scipio, Pyrrhus, Pto- lemy Philadelphus, Aratus, ■ Regulus, Archimedes, Agis, Philopoemon. Antiochus, Epiphanes, Paulus Emilius, Scipio ^Emilianus, Zugurtha. Mithridates, Scipio -iEmilianus, Marius, Sylla, Pompoy, Cat- aline, Sertorius, Spartacus, Cicero, Cleopatra. AFTER JESUS CHRIST. Maecenas, Tiberius, Sejanus, Germanicus, Nero, Vespasi- an, Titus. Trojan, Adrian. Zenobia, Aurelian, Artaxerxes. Julian the Apostate, Theodo- sius the Great, Ossian. Odoacer, Merovaeus, Theodo- ric, Syagrius. MIDDLE AGE. Belisarius, Narses, Alboin, Gre- gory the Great, Chosroes the Great, Fredegonda, Brunehaut. 90 FOURTH PART. Tersons who gavo lliylr uauics to lluiir centuries. Ceulurt«6 belbio J. V. 7. Mahomet. 8. Charlemagne. 9. Alfred the Great, Almamoun. 10. Abdheraman III. Otho the Great. 11. William the Con- queror. liijiiKiikaLlc Persons. Omar, Ali, Heraclius, Ebroin, Pepiti d'Heristal. Ciiarles Martel,Haroun-al-Ras- chid, Irene, Zacbary,Witikind. Elides, Robert the strong, Rurick, Photius. Rollo, Wladimir, Hugh the White, Hugh Capet. Gregory VI f, Alexis, Comnen- iis, Canute the Great, Robert G uiscard, the Cid. 12. Saladin, Philip Au- Richard Coeur de Lion, Alphon- gustus. zoHenriquez, Eric, Frederic, Barbarossa, the Abbe Suger, Thomas-a-Becket. 13. Genghis-Khan, Ro- Othman, Saint Louis, Philip dolph of Hapsburg. the Fair, Charles of Anjou, Boniface the VIII. 14-. Tamerlane, Edward Margaret of VValdemar, Baja- III. zet, William Tell, Rienzi, the Black Prince, Duguesclin. MODERN HISTORY. 15. Mahomet II, Christo- pher Columbus. 16. Charles V, Leo X; Francis I. Henry V, Ferdinand V the Ca- tholic, Gonsalvo de Cordova, Joan of Arc,Charles the Rash, Louis XI, Albuquerque. Henry VIII, Elizabeth, Lu- ther, Gustavus Vasa, Catha- rine de Medicis, Emmanuel the Great, Gama, Mafrellan. Bayard, Pizarro, Cortez, Las Casas, the duke of Alba, Doria, Spinola, Machiavel. GENERAL HISTOIIY. 91 Persons who gave their names to their centuries. Centuries before J.C. Remarkable FerEons. 17. Louis XI \^. Henry IV, Cromwell, Chris- tine, Richelieu, Walstei!), Mazarin, Conde, Turetme, Marlborough, Eugene, Vil- lars, Vendome, William Uf. 18. Peter the Great, Frederic II, Maria Theresa, Charles XII. Catharine II, Bonaparte, George HI, Cook, Wash- ington, Lafayette, Sou war- row, Robespierre, Wirabeau, Marat. 19. Napoleon. Alexander I, Mahmouth II, Kle- ber, Bernadotte, Canning. OBSERVATIONS. This secular list of great men furnishes one of the most useful exercises of the present work. It is necessary that the pupil be in perfect possession of it. MODEL OF QUESTIONS ON THE CHRONOLOGY. Five questions will suffice to make known the course which should be pursued in inteiTogating the pupil : 1. In what century did Hannibal live ? 2. How many centuries transpired from Hannibal to Louis XIV ] 3. In what history do you find Hannibal ; on what oc- casion is he spoken of? 4. Who is the most celebrated character in each cen- tury ] 5. By what thought can you connect the persons of such and such a century? FIFTH FART. HISTORICAL SKETCHES. flgyptians. ANCIENT HISTORY. From tlie origin of the Egyptian monarchy to the con- quest of that country by Cambyses (525). — Religion — Governments — Arts and monuments. It is supposed that the posterity of Ham and that of his son Misraim peopled Egypt. The Ethiopians, already advanced in civilization, estab- lished colonies there, and founded the nomcs or States of Thches, Elephantine, Heraclea, Thin or This, in Upper Egypt; and in the lower, called also middle Egypt, the names of a former Memphis, Mendes, Thanis, &c. The dynasty of Thebes was then the most ancient and powerful one. The Ethiopians composed the two superior castes, the priests and the warriors. The ancient inhabitants composed the two inferior castes. Who are supposed to have peopled Egypt ? Wliat nation afterward established colonies there ? Which was the most ancient and powerful dynasty of Egypt. Who composed the two superior castes ? Who the two inferior ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 93 The beginnings of the history of Egypt are obscured by a multitude of fables. At first the priests reigned in the name of the divinities. To this theocraiic government monarchy succeeded. The first king conceraing whom we have historical no- tices is Menes, who drained the lower part of Egypt, and made it habitable. He is generally regarded as the pro- pagator of Idolatry, on account of the worship which he established at Memphis in honor of Vulcan or fire, and afterwards of the sun, the earth and the stars. After him fifty kings of his race reigned, whose very names are unknown ; savage hordes, who doubtless came from Arabia, afterward governed Egypt, during more than five centuries, under the name of the Shej)herd Kings or hylisos. These strangers were finally expelled from the country. The Egyptians then obeyed monarchs of their own nation. We notice in the number of these princes T/iouhfiosis, ^rst king of the twelfth dynasty, who united Egypt under the same dominion, after having driven out the Arabs : Joseph was his minister ; the infa- mous Busiris, who sacrificed all the strangers that came into his dominions ; the powerful Osymandias, celebrated By what are the beginnings of Egyptian history' obscured ? Who first reigned in Egypt ? In whose name did they reign? What form of government succeeded the theocracy? Who was the first king of whom we have historical notices ? What is reported of him ? Who succeeded him ? By whom was Egypt afterward governed ? Whence did they come ? How long did (hey sway it ? — Under what title ? Why did llieir nscendancy terminate ? Whom did the Egyptians then obey ? Who was Thoutinosis ? — Wliat did he perform ? Who was his minister ? What was the character of Busiris ? What did he do? 94« FIFTH PART. by Ills marvellous monuments, and who founded tlie first library, to which he gave the name of pharmacia, or remedy for the soul ; a female named Nidoris, celebrated for her tomb and her library, and as cruel as the greater pail of her predecessors ; she built, it is said, the third pyramid; Mccris, who rendered himself as useful as any of his countrymen by digging the famous lake which bears bis name; Amoiophis, who caused the Hebrews to depart out of Egypt, after having overwhelmed them with pain- ful labors. He was, they say, the father of Sesostris, the hero of Egypt, of whom he weighed to make a conqueror. Accordingly he ordered all the children w^io were born on the same day as that prince to be brought up with the same careful and rigorous discipline, in order to accustom them, as v/ell as their young master, to a hard and labo- rious life. Scwstris, (1645,) with a prodigious army, invaded Asia by sea and land, even beyond the Ganges, took or pil- laged many cities, and penetrated into Europe itself He brought back into his dominions imm.ense wealth and dragged in his train a great number of prisoners. After this senseless and destructive expedition, which lasted nine years, he began to become a wise and beneficent prince. He dismissed his soldiers and rewar.ded them, undertook immense labors, fortified his frontiers by a very For what is Osymandias celebrated ? What name did he give bis library ? For wbat is Nictoris celebrated? What did she build? How did Mncris render himself useful to his countrymen? What is said of Araenophis ? — Wliose father was he? What did he wish to make of Sesostris ? What order did he give in reference to the children who were born on the same day with his son ? What are the warlike achievements of Sesostris? What is the character of his expedition into Asia? Did he afterward abandon his passion for war ? AVhat useful works did he undertake ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 05 long wall; caused to be dug, from Mempliis to the sea, a great number of canals, which served, on the one hand, to render the country less accessible to enemies, and on the other, to facilitate commerce. In his old age Scsostris be- came blind and committed suicide. The successors of Sesostris are but little remarkabfe. They built those great pyramids of which the remains arc yet admired, pompous monuments raised by their pride, yet which did not serve even to immortalize their names. Egypt afterward fell into great disorder by a new in- vasion of the Ethiopians ; soon after that invasion it was divided between twelve kings. Paammeticus, one of them, (from (j5Q to G17,) vanquished the others, and remained sole master of the kingdom ; he extended the maratime commerce which the Egyptians carried on v/ilh r)ther nations, especially with Greece. It is only in his reign that the history of Egypt begins to possess more certainty. NecJutG, his son, (from Gi7 to GOl,) who extended navi- gation still farther, caused, it is said, the tour of Africa to be undertaken by Phcnician navigators, who started from the Red sea and returned by the Mediterranean. Psammis reigned ingloriously, and Aj>ries (594), after some unfoitunate combats against the Lydians, Vv'as at first expelled and afterwards strangled in his palace of *SV;2,y by his own subjects. Amas'is, of base extraction, mounted the throne, (from 570 to 520) ; he made himself popular, and caused his in- What became of him in his old age ? Were the successors of Sesostris remarkable ? What structures did they huild ? Into what condition did Kffvpt afterward fail ? What was the cause of it ? What happened soon after the Ethiopian invasions ? What is saidof Psammeticns ? — Of Nechao? — Of Psamrais? Of A pries ?— Of Amasis ? 96 FIFTH PART. ferior birth to be forgotten, by the wisdom of his laws and the excellence of his administration. It was he who obliged the private in lividuals, in every city, to inscribe their names with the magistrate, and to declare the occu- pation by which they lived. He maintained relations with the Greeks, and received with bounty the legislator Solon and the philosopher Pythagoras, who owed much of their wisdom to his laws. Under Psammcnitus, the son of Amasis and his suc- cessorj the cruel Cavibyscs, king of Persia, invaded Egypt, slew the king and the princijial citizens, exercised every where an equal fury, and gave the finishing stroke to it by the sacreligious murder of the ox Apis. Egypt then became a province of the Persian monarchy [525). RELIGION. The Egyptians worshipped the sun, the moon, the ele- ments, animals, nature, whose productions they personi- fied under the names of Osiris, his, Typlion and Nejyhthys. The ox Apis was the principal divinity of this people ; the other sacred anim.als were the cat, the dog, the ichneumon, (called also the rat of Pharaoh,) the wolf, the crocodile, the falcon and the ibis. They believed still in the existence of one supreme God. Hence that celebrated inscription of the temple of Sais : lam all that which has been, is, and will be, and no mortal has yet lifted the veil that covers me. GOVERNMENT. The government of this kingdom was always monar- chical, mixed with theocracy; but certain ancient laws What is said of Psammcnitus? What is said of ihe religion of Egypt Of its government? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 97 formed a sort of counterpoise to the despotism of the sovereigns ; they were solemnly judged after their death, and received the honors of sepulture or were deprived of them, accordingly as they had lived and reigned well or ill. JUSTICE. The most important causes were tried by a tribu- nal of thirty members, chosen in the three great cities ; Memphis, Thebes, and Heliopolis. Among the most remarkable laws, was one which forbid the son to take a different profession from that of his father; and another which punished with death every one who could not prove that he had honest means of subsistence. The Egyptians were acquainted with all the arts and sciences known in their day, devoted themselves to them, and carried some of them to a high degree of perfectioiu They were particularly good geometers and astronomers. Besides her famous pyramids, Egypt prided herself upon many monuments of the arts which posterity ad- mires. Fine statues, remarkable rather for their majesty than their grace, are still met with every where in that land. The Sphynx, the statue of Memnon, the hundred gates of Thebes, the lake Mseris, the temple of Denderah, and the grottos of Osus, are the j)nncipal of these gigan- tic monuments. The Egyptians taught the different branches of their science on the walls of temples and tombs, and on the numerous pillars called Hermes. They availed them- selves, for this end, of an emblematical kind of writing Of the administration of justice ? Of the state of the arts and sciences in Egypt ? Of her monuments ? Of the method of instruction in the sciences % 5 98 FIFTH PAEIT. called hicroghjphic ; besides this kind of wriiing, they were acquainted with two others : the c.p> sf olographic ■^wiX the alpliahct^c. MACEDOMAN DOMIMOX. After the conquest of Egypt by Camhyscs, many revolt.5 broke out there. Amyrtcfiits o£ Sais, one of the kings whom the Egyptians had given themselves, drove the Persians from his kingdom, and reigned six years, always occupied with strengthening himself upon a throne shaken l)y so many concussions. Thus Egypt remained nearly tAvo centuries, sometimes as a subject, sometimes as a vassal of other powers, and was frequently in a state of rebellion against its oppressors. Alexander the Great (IV century), snatched it without difficulty from the Persians, made of it a Macedonian province, and seems to have entertained the design of establishing there the seat of his empire, by founding Alexandria, wliicli speedily becaii:ie the centre of an ex- tensive commerce. LACUDES. After the death of Alexander, Egypt became the por- tion of Ptolemy Soter, (that is to say, savior,) son of Lagus (the hare), to whom tlie Macedonian conqueror had left the government of it. The kingdom of Ptolemy compre- hended, besides Egypt properly speaking, many oth.er considerable countries of Africa and Asia which were in its vicinity. Alexandria^ by its advantageous position for commerce, became the capital of the new kingdom. What was the state of Egypt under Amyrtoeus? Under Alexander the Great ?— Under Ptolemy Soter? Wliat was the capital of the new kingdom ? HISTORICAL SIvETCHES. §9 Vtolcmy Sotcr (323-284) attracted into Egypt many Phenicians, Jews and Greeks, and favored commerce in general ; accordingly, Alexandria very soon became one of the greatest and most opulent cities of the world. Ptolemy founded the most numerous and celebrated library of antiquity, composed of Greek books, and placed in a vast edifice called the Musminn, for the use of a society of learned men whom that king maintained. Pfolrmy Vhilqdcl'phus , (that is to say, icho loved his hrothcr, 284-246,) the son of Soler, continued these estab- lishments with success, but tarnished his glory by the murder of two of his brothers. It was under the reign of this prince that the Greek version of the sacred books of the Hebrews, known under the name of the Septuagint, or version of the Seventy, was made, by his order. Egypt was still as flourishing as it was strong under Ptolemy Energctcs, {hcncfartor, 246-221), the son and successor of Ptolemy Philadelphus. That king made himyelf master of Syiia and Cilicia, and subdued all the countries as far as Babylon. He had mairied his sister Berenice. That princess made a vov/ to consecrate her hair to Venus, if her husband should return from his ex- pedition. On the return of Ptolemy she fulfilled her vow ; and her hair liaving disappeared from the temple where it was suspended, the astronomer Canon reported that Jupiter had stolen it. After PtoJcmy Puilopalor, (who poisoned his father), the kingdom fell into the greatest confusion, through the vices and incapacity of its princes. Whom did Soter induce to settle in Egypt? What effect had t]ii>« ini migration on Alexandria ? What is said of the Ptolemsean library? What is said of riiiladelphus?— £)f Euergetes? Of Berenice and Conon ? What king of Egypt poisoned his father ? Into what condition did Egypt fall after his death ? 100 FIFTH PART. The Romans mingled themselves with the aflfairs of Egypt in order to derive advantage from them. Julius Caesar put an end to the divisions which reigned in the royal family, in favor of Cleopatra^ equally celebrated for her beauty and her intrigues. In the sequel, that prin- cess having espoused Anthony, conceived the project of becoming queen of Rome ; but after the naval battle of Actiinn she killed herself in order to avoid being led in triumph, as a captive, in the train of Octavius. Then Egypt became a province of the Roman empire. During nearly seven centuries Egypt was successively in the power of the Roman empires of the west and the east. ItVas at the end of the VII century that the fanatic Omar^ one of the successors of Mahomet, the lawgiver of the Arabs, and who carried every where desolation and carnage, burnt the library of Alexandria and subdued Egypt. About the XII century (1171) the Turcomans drove out the califs, the successors of Omar, and were in their turn driven out by the Mamelukes, a kind of soldiery which they had in their pay. MODERN HISTORY. The dynasty of the Mamelukes, whose chief took the name of soudan or sultan, reigned until 1517. What nation then interfered with her affairs? What is said of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra ? Of Cleopatra and Anthony ? What became of Cleopatra after the battle of Actium ? What did Ejjypl then become ? How long did she continue under the Roman dominion? By whom was she next conquered and her famous library burnt? — Who drove out the califs By whom were the Turcomans expelled ? Until .when did the Mamelukes rule in Egypt ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 101 In the XVI century (1517) Selim I, emperor of the Turks, possessed himself of Egypt and abolished the monarchy of the Mamelukes ; he thought to establish his authority there in a more certain manner by introducing a sort of aristocratic government, composed of twenty-four beys or chiefs of the Mamelukes, at the head of whom he placed a paclia (governor). The form of government introduced by Seliin /, an- swered the intentions of the Sultan sufficiently well dur- ing nearly two hundred years; but, towards the com- mencement of the XVIII century the bonds of it were relaxed and the pachas had only a shadow of power; the beys and the Mamelukes alone exercised an absolute em- pire, and unhappy Egypt, pillaged and devastated, lan- guished in the most dreadful slavery. In 1798 the French Repuhllc sent troops into Egypt under the command of Bonaparte ; the conquest which be made of it was brilliant and rapid. After a few combats the Mamelukes, dispersed and annihilated, left the go- vernment in the hands of those Europeans, who conducted themselves there like a civilized people. The French had gained over the Mamelukes the battle of the Pyra- mids (July 1^*-, 179S). At the end of about four years of unprecedented labors, undertaken by learned men, such as M. M. Monge, and Bertholet, Peyre, Monet and Me- chain, Denon, Arnolet and Champy, Delisle, Savigny, and Conte, the French, forced by the English, who had joined themselves to the Turks, evacuated Egypt (1801). The French general Kleber had been assassinated at Cairo by a young Syrian named Souley-Man (1800). What did Selim I, do there ? How did be seek to establish his auihodty ? How did his form of government succeed ? What took place in Egypt under the French Repviblic ? By whora and where was Kleber assassinated ? 102 FIFTH PART. After the departure of the French from Egypt, and the fruitless attempts of the English (1807) to occupy that country, it became the theatre of a bloody anarchy. The Mamelukes and the pachas sent by the Porte dis- puted the power with each other ; but Mekemll All finally succeeded, by his address, as much as by his valor, in seizing the reins of authority there. Mehemit Alt, a pacha endowed with great qualities, thought that it was necessary, for the tranquility of Egypt, to rid himself of this turbulent and despotic soldiery of the Mamelukes. On the 1 ^- of March, ISli, he shut up in the castle of Cairo, under the pretence of a ceremony, the beys and Mamelukes, to the number of five hundred, and caused them to be pitilessly massacred. This terrible measure pacified Egypt, of which Me- hemit was appointed vice-roy by the Porte. He has wrought salutary reforms in all the branches of the admin- istration ; he receives Europeans very kindly, and has succeeded thus far in the bold attempt of rendering him- self independent of the Ottoman empire. ASSYRIANS. The Assyrians pretended to be the most ancient people on earth, and to occupy, by this title, the first place in pro- fane history. But in order to have a precise idea of that monarchy, it is expedient to divide it into two kingdoms, that of Babylon and that of Assyria, which were united in the sequel by Belus, who left at his death the throne to his son Ninus, the inheritor of his father's courage. That prince made many conquests, and built Nineveh, a cele- What followed the departure of the French ? How (lid Mehemit Ali rid himself of (he Mamelukes ? What is said of his subsequent career? What were the pretensions of tlie Assyrians to antiquity? Into what two kingdoms were the As^y^•ans divided ? What is said of Bel us ?— Of Ninus ? HISTORICAL SKETCIiES. 103 brutfid city bituateJ on tlic eastern bank (»f the Tigris. After him Semirami.s, his wife, governc'l the Assyrians, and extended her empire even to Etliiopia and Lybia. To her is attributed tlie fouridation of Babylon, a superb city, wliose palaces and hanging gardens wore the admi- ration of ami equity. The successors of Semiramis are almost unknown until Sardan.ipalu? {"dCtd), a feeble prince, who was occupied solely with his own voluptu<»us pleasures. The name of this king is aj)propriated for characterizing those princes who seem to live for nothing but effeminate enjoyments. Belesis and Arbaces, officers of Sardanapalu.', put themselves at the head of the malcontents ; the king com- ujitted suicide to avoid falling into their hands, and thus ended the first Assyrian empire. On its ruins rose three kingdoms : first, that of the Mcdes ; pccond, that of the NinevitCf?; thiid, that of the Babylonians. SECOND ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. Mkdes. — {See the Persiuns.) ^ NINEVITES. The kings of Nineveh retained the name o^ kings of As- £>,-/iU, and were the mo.st powerful. Among their con- quests, tliat of the kingdom of hrcjl, or Samaria is reckoned. T'iglath Pilczer had reigned at Nineveh a short time before the death of SardanapaUis. It was Salmanazar, his successor, who took S,/»iaria after a siege of three ye;irs, and who put an end to the kingdom of Israel (718). What is said of Semiramis ?—Sarject to the kings of .Egypt and to those of Syria. In the second contui*y before J. C. the AsfJionean or Ma- chahean princes took the title of king>5 of Judea. Hirca- niis II, being attacked by his brother, called the Romans to his assistance. Tompey, a Roman general, entered Judeo, and ren- dered the Jews tributaries of the republic, while he left to them their form of government. It was under the reign of Herod the Great that Jesu-^ Chriat was born, in tiie year -1903. The kingdom of Judea still existed for some time under the inHucnce of the Romans ; it was finally destroyed by Titus, (70 years after .T. C). The siege of Jerusalem, the capital, lasted seven montiis. The Jews revolted again under Adrian ; that emperor, after having made a frightful slaughter among them, dispersed them (IS.') years after J. C). They have not since formed a national body, and are scattered over the surface of the globe. PIIKNICIANS. In the neighborhood of the Israelites, along tlse Medi- terranean, lived the Phenicians or Canaanites, a nation equally remarkable in history. Navigation and a very extended commerce gave them early, and for a longtime, the superiority over other nations ; they cultivated many arts with success, were versed In the sciences, and it was What was iheir poliiical slate after Aloxandt^r ? In ilic Rccoad crnfury before Christ ? What is said of Ilircanus II ? Wliat did Pompey do to tlic Jews? What remarkable birth under Herod tl)e Great? What befel the Jews under Tltws ? — Under Adrian I What has been heir condition since? WJiere were the Phenicians located ? FcT what were i. oy remarkable ? 108 FIFTH PART. from them, according to all appearances, lliat the art of writing descended to us. Their commerce was already flourishing in the time of Jacob ; their manufactures of glass and purple are anterior lo Moses ; and Tyre presented, at the period of the foundation of Rome, the appearance of our great commercial cities. The Phenicians built a palace for Solomon; as naviga- tf)rs and merchants, they made a great number of dis- coveries, of which vestiges are found in the narratives of Moses, Iloriier and the Argonautlc hards. This people planted among the savages of Europe the first germs of the Asiatic sciences, and the primitive forms of those letters which we trace at the present day, are due to its inventive genius. y The Phenicians, situated between the Mediterranean and mount Libanus, inhabited a narrow strip of land which makes at present a part of Sourie ; they were the remains of the Canaanitish tribes which the Hebrews had not driven out. Isolated upon a barren soil, the Phenicians travelled to a great distance in search of the resources Vv'hich their native land refused them. Commerce soon procured for them immense wealth ; they multiplied their entrepots in the islands of Cyprus and Rhodes, in Greece, Sicily and Sardinia. They dis- covered Spain and built Cadiz. At the time when Hero- dotus wrote, their vessels went in search of tin beyond Great Britain, and of precious wood to North Frisia and What useful art have we derived from ihem ? What was the anrient state of commerce ?.vA the arts among them ? — What did they do towards early civilization? Where was their primitive seat ? ^ From what tribes did fhey originate ? Did they migrate far from ilieir own country ? How did they increase their v/ealth ? Into what countries did they extend iheir commerce? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 109 the north of Germany; their establishments extended over the whole western coast of Africa, and Carthage became the most powerful of their colonies. The increase of the new empires of Assyria and Baby- lon presented a barrier to the maritime monopoly of which the Phenicians had possessed themselves. Salmanazar and Nebuchadnezzar prepared the way for their decline. Ochus, the king of Persia, ruined Sidon ; and at a later period Alexander ruined Tyre, which was rebuilt, but which never recovered its maritime preponderance ; finally Antigonus, one of Alexander's generals, reduced her to servitude, and the commerce of that city was ex- tinguished with its liberty. GREEKS IN GENERAL. The Greeks called themselves autocthoncs ;* a great number of historians make them come from Pkenicia and Egypt. These two traditions may be reconciled by the Jiypothesis of a primitive population of autocthoncs, col- lected and civilized by foreign colonies. The most famous were those of Inachus at Argos, of Cccrops at Athens, and of Cadmus at Thehcs. A single kingdom existed before them ; it was that of Slcyon ; they founded new ones and created laws. Which was the most powerful of iheir colonies? What circumstanceiiilcrfcred with their maritime monopoly ? What monarclis prepared the way for their decline ? By whom were Sidon and Tyre respectively ruined ? \V ho finally reduced Tyre to servitude ? What did the Greeks call themselves ? From what nations arc they said to have been derived? How may you reconcile the traditions as to their origin? From what colonies were they chiefly descended ? What kingdom existed before their arrival ? * AutoctliOncs, persons boin upon the soil where lluy live. 110 FIFTH FART. It is to this epoch and the fallowing oue that the ages called heroic belong. Their history is found environed with darkness and fable ; still certain important facts pre- sent themselves : at the head of these ranks the establish- ment of the four kingdoms of Sicijon, Athens, Jlrgos, and Thebes, the deluges of Ogyges and Deucalion, the instUii- tlon of the Olympic games, the expedition of the Argonauts, and l\iQ fa?nous icar of Troy. Here the heroic ages end, and events become more certain. The Ilcraclidcs possess themselves of the Pelo- ponessus ; the kingdom of Sicyon terminates; numerous ^colonies people the islands of the >l^gean sea, and the fihores of Asia ; Homer publishes his poems ; Lycurgus gives laws to Sparta ; Corinth creates the Prytancs, Laee- dcemon the Ephori ; Mcssenia maintains two wars against Sparta; finally Athens requests laws from Solon. The VI century and the two following are the most splendid and prolific of Grecian history ; the Persian wars raised Greece to the highest point of glory and prosperity ; elo- quence and the arts flourished at the same time ; but luxury and effeminacy came in their train. Tlie Pcloponcssian war weakened the Greeks by means of each other; meanvvliile Kpamiriondas, Thrasyhalus, Xenophon and Agesilaus, sig- nalized themselves by prodigies of genius and valor; but the gold of Philip, and ere long the sword of Alexander, repressed the independence of Greece ; the Aclucan league caused her to revive for an instant ; but finally the Rimiana imposed their yoke upon her. Greece became a Roman What is said of their early history ? What important facLs present themselves diuiiifr that r.r- riod ? What memorable events follow ilie close of (he heroic ages? What events distinguish the VI, VII and VIII centuries of Grecian history ? What Greeks distinguished tljemselves durinp^ this period ? By what was Grecian independence impaired Ey what resuscitated for r. time ? HISTORICAL SKETCIil^S. Ill province, and the Greeks had no other superiority than that of eloquence and the arts. ATHENIANS. Tiie Athenians called themselves aatoctlwucs y they were doubtless formed from a mixture of the Ptlusgi, (regarded as the oldest inhabitants of Greece,) with the children o^ Ilellcn, the lonians, who, driven from Achaia, took refuge in Attica, and v/ere incorporated with the four tribes then existing there, and finally with the colony, which is thought to have been Egyptian, conducted thither by Cecrojis. Among the most celebrated kings after CecrGjJs, arc : Theseus , who is regarded as the founder of the Athenian Btate, because he united under the same government the several districts which surrounded the city, and which were previously independent ; Mencsthcus, who perished at the siege of Troy ; Codrus, who, it is said, voluntarily devoted liimself to save his country. After the death of Codrus the monarchy was abolished, and the state was governed by perpetual and hereditary archons ; they were chosen in the family of Codrus, and had all the authority of kings, but they were liable to render an account. The first perpetual archon was Mc- don, the son of Codrus; the last, Alcmccon. In the VIII century, the time of the arcormlup was re- duced to ten years, while it was preserved in the family of Codrus. In the VII century the archons were only By whom was it finally suppressed ? From whom were the Athenian? derived ? What is said of Cecrops ? — Of Theseus? — Ot'Meuestheus ? —Of Codrus? What was the civil constitution of Athens after the deaih of Codrus ? — Who was the first and who the last of the Archons ? How was the Archonship modified in the VIII centnrv ? — The VII ? 112 FIFTH PART. annual ; nine of them were appointed, each of whom had peculiar functions, and all the citizens were admissible to the office. Soon the Athenians, felt the need of giving themselves laws; Draco was the first legislator; but his laws being too severe, were not executed, and the state relapsed into anarchy. New laws were requested from Solon (VI century). That sage lawgiver had the glory of re-establishing peace in Athens, and of preparing the way for the prosperity of his country. The form of government which Solon established was preserved, with slight modifications, during the whole period of the independence of Athens. It was almost entirely democratic. Meanwhile, from its earliest date, men sought to attack it ; the ambitious Pisistratus possessed himself by strata- gem of the sovereign power (VI century before J. C); and, after having been several times overthrown, he succeeded at length in seizing the authority again, and bequeathed it to his sons Hipparclius and Hippias. The first was slain by Harmodius and Aristogiton, (VI cen- tury) ; the second, having been driven out a little while after (•'>10), retired among the Persians, and stirred up against his country that Median or Persian war which was to cany to the highest degree the military reputation of the Athenians. In 490 Darius, son o^ Hijstaspes, king of Persia, fell upon Greece with a million of men: he was defeated by Miltiades on the plains of Marat'ion, in Who was the firsllawgiver of Athens? Whr.t became of his system of legislation ? What is said of Solon? — Of the coastilutioQ which Lu estab- lished ? V/hat is said of Pisistratus ?~0f Hipparchus and Hippias ? — Of Harmodlus and Aristogiton? What foreign enemy did Hippias excite ngainst his countrv ? What is said of Darius and Miltiades? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 113 480 ; Kerxcs repassed the Hellespont with a more formi- dable army, possessed himself of Attica, and destroyed Athens ; but Themistocles defeated liim at Salamis, and he who had caused himself to be addressed as king of kings, scarcely found a bark for the purpose of flying into his own dominions (V century). After that epoch, Athens occupied the first rank in Greece ; every kind of glory came at once to render her illustrious. In her bosom the greatest statesmen were seen to rise and succeed each other : Themistocles, by his superior ability, rebuilt the walls of Athens in spite of the Spartans, and extended her power by sea ; Aristicles, by his justice, commanded the confidence of all the Greeks ; CImon, son of Miltiades, shewed himself worthy of his father, and routed the last remains of the Persian armies ; at the same time the republic sent out colonies on all sides, v/hich increased her possessions and her commerce. The splendid success of Athens, and the important services which she had rendered to the cause of the Greeks, soon secured to her the honor of the sJijncmacy, which, hitherto, had belonged to the Lacedcciannians. Perv:les succeeded Conon in the management of affairs (V century) ; he sustained himself during forty years at the head of tlie republic ; augmented the power of the people, humbled that of the Areopagus, and confirmed the authority of Athens over her allies ; but that authority def^enerating into tyranny, the Spartans, who more- What is said of Xerxes and Themistocles ? What was the condition of Athens at the close of the Persian war ? How was she rendered illustrious at this period by Themis - locles?— By Aristides ?--By Cimon?— By her colonies ? Did Athens at this time acquire the supremacy in Greece ? What is said of Pericles ? Did Athens abuse her ascendancy? To what did her tyranny provoke the Spartans ? 114 FIFTH TART. over were jetilou: of Uic power of Alliens, Harmed an^ainst her a league into which all tlie mLilcontents en- tered, stirred up enemies against her on all sides, and took part against her in all quarrels; finally, after many truces and many ruptures, that cruel war of the Pelopo- 7tcsius broke out, which lasted twenty seven years, and cut down the flower of Greece. During this war, the government underwent an eplie- i/ieral revolution. AlciblaJes having been exiled corrupt- ed the Athenian army at Samns, caused the dcjriGcrocy to be overturned at Athens, substituted for the assemblies of the people an assembly of five thousand chosen citizens, and for the senate a supreme council of four hundred members, who exercised the most cruel despotism. This council was abolished after four months, and the former constitution v/ith slight modifications re-established. After the unfortunate issue of the Pdoponessiaa war. Athens was despoiled of the supremacy, and an oVtgarcJiy of tliirtxj cliiefs was created, known by the name of tlie Thirty Tyra/tt'i ; but the atrocity of their government only hastened their ruin. The Thirty were driven out by Thrasybulus (401), and the constitution of Solon estab- lished anew. Athens speedily raised herself from the abasement into which she had fallen. Co?ion defeated the fleet of the Spartans, and restored to his country the superiority by sea : the rivalry of In what disastrous war did the hosillily of Sparta termi- nate. What revolution v/as effected at Athens diu-ing tlic Pe!oj)o- nessian war ? Who was its author ? — Whathefel the tour handrocd ? Was the ancient constitution of Athens re-established ? Wliat befel Athens at the close of \\\c Peloponcssian war ? What happened to the Thirty Tyrants ? What benefit to Athens from the administration of Thrasy- bulus? What is said of Conon? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 115 Sparta and Thebes enabled Athens still more to repair her losses ; soon her cruel enemy was reduced to the neces- sity of imploring her assistance, and offering her the al- ternate command. But a new rival came to threaten the liberty of Athens and of all Greece. Philip was shrewd enough, in spite of the elo(|uence of Demosthenes and the vigorous opposition of Phocian, to strip the Athenians of many of their most powerful colonies ; he beat them at Cheronca (338), and caused the command of all the Gre- cian forces to be decreed to himself Alexander the Great, hh son, exercised over the Ailie- nians and the Greeks in general a powerful ascendant. After his death, Athens was scarcely free ; subject to the kings of Maccdo/tia, taken and retaken many times, she breathed a moment under Demetrius Poliorcetes^ but her independence was soon attacked on all sides. Besieged and taken by the general Sylla (I century), she remained thenceforward under the dominion of the Romans. SPARTANS OR LACED^-MONIANS. The origin of the Spartans is referred to Lelex, who lived in the XVI century before J. C. (1516). Sparta, which he founded or embellished, was governed at first by kings, whose succession has nothing certain about it until Tyn:]ariis. That prince is celebrated in the poetic his- toiy of his children, Castor, Pollux, Helen and Clytemnes- tra, whom he had by Leda. Jupiter, according to fable What is said of the rivalry of Sparta and Thebes? What is said of Philip ofMacedon at this juncture ? What influence did Alexander exert in Greece? What was her condition after his death ? Under whom did she partially recover her independence ? l?y whom was it finally destroyed ? Bv whom was Sparta originallv jjoverned ? What is said of Tyndarus"? — Of bis children? 116 FIFTH PART. was the father of Castor and Helen. Tyudarus had for Buccessors Castor and Pollux ; they left the throne to Menelaus, the husband of Helen, who Avas the occasion of the Trojan war. Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, had claims upon Lace- dcBmon by his mother Chjtemnestra y he easily obtained the crown, which he left to Tisamenes and Penthilus, hiL Bons ; but the latter were constrained to cede to the Hera- clidcB the kingdoms of Argos, Mycence and Lacedcemon. These descendents of Hercules had at that time for their chief Aristomaclnis, whose son Aristodeimis was put in possession of the kingdom of Lacedasmon. The two ^ow&Qi Aristodc7nus, Eurysthenes and Prodcs, mounted the throne together in 1125; and divided be- tween them the royal authority. After this time the Lacedcemonians were always gov- erned by two kings, and the throne was occupied during three centuries (280) by the descendents of Eurysthenes and Proclcs. The disturbances which were raised at Sparta on ac- count of this double royalty threatened the State with an inevitable anarchy, when Lycurgus, of the royal family, was chosen to remedy so many evils. His wise laws had all the success which was expected from them. He di- minished the authority of the kings, destroyed the passion for wealth, regulated the popular repasts, and the educa- tion of children; and when he beheld his laws in force he made the Spartans swear to observe them until his return from a voyage which he meditated. He departed, and Who were his succe«:sors ? What is said of Menelaus? — of Orestes? — of Tissameces and PenthiUis? — of the Heraclidaj ?— of the two sons of Aris- totlemus? — of the double royalty of Lacedaemon? — of the dis- turbances which it produced ? What is said of Lycurgus aad his laws ? By what device did he seek to perpetuate his code ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 117 suffered himself to die with hunger at Dcljihos, or as others say, in Crete. The principal wars which the Spartans had to maintain were : first, against the Mcsscnians, whom they reduced to slavery, after three bloody conflicts; second, against the Thehans, whose city they took, and from which they were afterwards driven ; third, against the Athenians, their most formidable rivals. At the epoch of the Persian war they allied themselves with the other Greeks to repulse Xerxes : the noble devot- edness of their king, Leonidas, and o^ three hundred of their soldiers, at ThermophyJoi, covered them with honor; but jealous of the power of the Athenians, they declared war against them. Lysander, their general, took Athens and changed its government. Haughty Lacedcumon was in her turn humbled by the republic of Thebes^ and beheld herself obliged to renounce her conquests. The Spartans entered into the Achccan league, and submitted to Philojxjcmon, who abolished the laws of Ly- curgus. They afterward underwent the general fate of Greece, by falling under the Roman dominion. They were subjected to the power of the Turks in 1460, and form at the present day a part of Hellenia or Jfew Greece, Their descendents are the Mainotes. The ruins of ancient Spaiia are found near the town of Mutra. What were the principal wars of the Spartans against the Greeks ? How did they distinguish themselves during the Persian war ? To what measure were they lead by their jealousy of Athens? What is said of Lysander ? By whom was Sparta humbled in her turn? Into what league did the Spartans enter ? What is said of Philopcemon ? Under whose dominion did the Spartans afterward fall ? Of what country does Sparta form a part at present ? n3 FIFTH PART. CARTHAGINIANS. The Carthaginians descendetl from a colorsy of Pheni- cians which Dido, a Tyiian princess, flying from tlic tyranny of Pijgmalion, her brother, led into Africa (IX century). She built, upon the northern coast of that country, a city which she named Carthage (new city), with \\ citadel called Byrsa (hide or skin). The government of the Carthagijiians was republican, and combined three different authorities : tliat of the su- preme magistrates, or suffctes, that of the senate, and that of the people. The Carihaginians became so power- ful by their coramerco that they commanded not only a considerable portion of northern Africa, but the greater pait of the islands in the vicinity of that continent, such as Sici/j/, Sardinia, Sec. They had establishments in Spain and I/ah/, and their commerce extended into Ga7d, and even into Great Bri- tain. Having become the rival of Rome, Carthage had to sus- tain three struggles, called the Punic (Carthaginian) wars. In the first, which lasted twenty-four years, these two republics tested their strength : in the second, which last- ed seventeen years, Rome beheld herself upon the brink of ruin by the victorious march of Hannihal, who van- quished the Romans on the banks of the Tcssina, near the lake of Tn'hhia,r\QdiY that of T/ira.s7/mc7ic,Viud at Canvcv; but being obliged to return to Carthage, he was van- quished at Zama, (south of Carthage,) by PuhUus Scipio From whom were ihe Cartliaginians desceudecl ? What is said of Dido? What form of govern?nent was established at Carthage? By wliat means did she become great ? Over what countries did she extend her commercial empire? Wliat was the consequence of her rivalry with Rome? What is said of the first Punic war?— The second?— Ot fiannibal?— By whom and where was Hannibal vanquished ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. H9 Africaniis ; in the third, which lasted nearly four years, Carthage WQ.3 utterly destroyed, in the II century, (14G,) by Sripio JEmilianus, Africanus II. The republic of Carthage then became a Roman province. At the fall of the Roman empire, the Vandals, German nations who had invaded the south of Spain, founded in Africa a kingdom which was destroyed by BcUsarius, the general of Justinian, emperor of the East (VI century after J. C). The Arah.'< or Saracens got possession of the territory of ancient Carthage in tho VII century, and different Arab dynasties reigned there. Finally, in the XVI century the Turks made themselves masters of it. The actual government of this country, nominally tri- butary to the Forte, is in the hands of a hereditary Moor- ish prince, who boars the title of bey, and who gives no other proofs of his dependence than some presents of con- siderable value which he sends annually to the Grand Seignor : this is the regency of Tuins. ROMANS. Italy was peopled by Ilh/rian, Iberian, Celtic, Germa7i^ and Asiatic colonies ; sonie Greek colonies settled in tho south of Italy, or Magna Grecia. It was from a Trojan colony however that the Romans boasted of being descended. In the XIII century, JEncas^ What was the issue of the third Punic war? Under whose dominion did Carthage pass at the fall of tlis Roman empire? By whom and when was the kingdom of the Vandals in Africa destroyed ? What is said of the Saracen dominion (here? — Of the Turk- ish?— What is said of the present government ? By whom was Italy first peopled ? From whom did ihe Romans boast of being descended ? What is reported of ^neas ? 12€ FIFTH PART. flying from the conflagration of Troy, arrived in Latium. After the death of king Lailnus, whose daughter he mar- ried, he reigned over the Latins and the Trojans blended into a single people, and perished in a war against the Rutuli and the Etrusci. Ascanius or lulus, the son and successor of ^neaa, founded the city o^ Alba and reigned over Latium. The names of his successors are scarcely known until about the commencement of the VII I century before J. C, when the king of Latium, Numitor, was dethroned by his brother Amulius. The vestal Rhea Sylcia, daughter of Numitor, became the mother of Ilo?nuhcs and Remus. Fable has taken possession of the history of these twins, who re-established their grandfather on the throne. They set about building certain cabins near the Tiber. This is the commencement of iloTT^e and of her history. The duration of the Roman power includes about twelve centuries, from the foundation of Rome by Romulus (753), to the destruction of the empire of the west, under Romulus Augmtulus (476), by Odoacer, king of the Hcruli. We may divide this immense interval into three great epochs, viz: first, the kings; secondly, the republic; thirdly, the empire. ROME UNDER THE KINGS. (240 years. — Two centuries and about a half.) Seven kings governed Rome, and all are remarkable by their personal qualities, the importance of their insti- What is reported of Ascanius ? — Of Numitor and Amulius? Of Rhea Sylvia?— Of Romulus and Remus? Are these accounts of the origin of Rome for the most part fabulous ? — How long did the Roman power endure ? How may this long period be divided ? How long was Rome under the kings? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 121 tutions and the great events of which they were either the authors or witnesses. First, Romulus built Rome and increased the number of the citizens by the union with them of a part of the Sabities ; he created civil laws, established a constitution which seven centuries afterward still subsisted in great measure, and laid a foundation for the universal dominion of the Romans (Vill century). Secondly, Numa Pompilius instituted the religion of Rome and its worship ; he dedicated the temple of Janus, divided the year into months, and published a code of very wise laws (VIII and VII centuries). Thirdly, Tulhis Hostillus gained a victory over the Al- bans, destroyed Alba, after the combat of the Uoratii and the Curiatii, and laid tlie foundation for the dominion of Rome over Latium (VIII century). Fourthly, Ancus Martins extended the dominion of Rome as far as the sea, and established the port of Os' thun, which shows that already Rome was giving herself to navigation, if at the same time she had not for her ob- ject piracy rather than commerce (VII century). Fifthly, Tarquin the Elder contracted an alliance v.-ith the Etruscans, and placed Rome, which he embellished, in a condition, by this means, to undertake some maritime enterprise (VII and VI centuries). Sixthly, Servius Tullius placed Rome at the head of the Latin league, which he consolidated by instituting a com- munity of sacrifices : in making a new division of the people, founded upon property, he created the important institutions of the census and the comities. This king, the most remarkable of them all, founded the edifice of the republic (VI century). What is said of them in general ? What was accomplished by Romulus? What was accomplished by Numa Pompilius? — By Tullus Hostilius? — Arcus Martins? — Tarquin tiie Elder? — Servius Tullius ? 6 1J3 FlI'Til rAPvT. Seventhly, T'arquifi the IVcJtf J posiejijcu himaelf lif die government by viulence ; he sought to strengthen himself upon the throne by a closer alliance with the Vuhci and the Latins. But by this means, as well as by his tyranny, he rendered the plebeians and the patricians unfavorably disposed towards him. Still, his expulsion and the refjrm of the constitution, which was its sequel, were the work of the ambition of the senators; he was banished, and the royalty abolished, (509,) (VI century). HOME UNDEU THE rvEPUBLIC. (-300 Years. — Five Centuries.) FllOM THE TIME OF THE CONSULS. After the abolition of royalty, the Slate was constitut- ed a republic, and two temporary magistrates called con- suls were chosen every year. The first were Junius Brutus and Collatimis. To preserve her independence, thei'c public had to sus-- lain, from the commencement, wars against Por senna, king of Etruria and the sons of Tar(2?/iu ; but the heroism of Codes, of Scmvola, of ClcJla, and the courageous resis- tance of the Romans, caused her to triumph (VI cen- Tliis repose was followed by intestine dissensions caused by the reciprocal hatred of the plebeians and ihc patricians. What was accoinpILshcd by Tarquin the Proud ? How long did Rome continue under the Republic? What was the consulship ? — Who were the first consuls? Against whom diJ the Republic maintain wars of indepen- de nee ? By what means was her triumph secured ? By what was that triumpli succeeded ? To what did the internal dissensions of Rome give rise? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 123 These rendered necessary the establishment of the d^cta- torshipy 49S years before Jesus Christ. Tit2is Lartius was the first dictator (only eleven years after the fall of the kings). These fatal struggles did not prevent the Romans from making war with advantage upon neighboring nations. Tlie Latins were conquered at Rcgilhis. It was there that Titus and Sextets perished, the sons of Tarquin the Proyd, who himself died at Cumas a short time after (495). New troubles arose at Rome ; the plebeians retired to the Mrrns Sacer, three miles from the city, and did not re enter it until the patricians had promised them the abolition of debts and the creation of an advocate of the (seople. The 2^0 pn Jar tribunes were created (405). The Volsci were beaten at Corioli by Marcius, who took the n:ime of Coriolantts (492). This young patrician, of a liiiughty and intractable character, was soon after con- demned to perpetual banishment, for having endeavored to annul the conventions of Moiis Sacer ; he departed, and returned at the head of the Volsci, laid siege to Rome, re- polled the prayers of the senators, and gave way only to the tears of his molher Vetaria. The consul Spurius Cassius renewed the disturbances of Rome by proposing the agra7-ian law ; he was accused of aspiring to royally ; and put to death (483). War was declared with the Eqiii, the Volsci and the Vcii. These last cut in pieces the three Jivvdred and six Who was the first dictator? Did the Roman«i wage successful war with their neighbors? What is said of the war with the Latins? — Of Tarquin and his sons? What were the results of the new disturbances ? When were the popular tribunes created? Where, and by whom, were the Volsci defeated ? What is said of Coriolanus? — Of Veturia ? What is said of Spurius Cassius? I:i what wars was the Republic next engaged ? What is said of the Veil ? 124 FIFTH PART. Fahii near the river Crcmera, at the same time that ihroo liundred Spartans were vanquished and massacred at ThermopijlcB by the Persians (4?S0). The people next became indignant at llie abuses in- troduced by the consuls ; a tribune, Tercnlius Arsa, pro- posed a law which tended to fix the jurisprudence: this was the lex Terentia. It excited ten years of disturbance, 'n the midst of which a rich Sabine, Ilerdoniusy got pos- session of the capitol. The people marched against him. Quintus Cincinnahis, taken from his plough, was made consul and dictator; he defeated the Eqni, and returned to resume his agriculture. TheTtraitian Jaw was finally consented to by the grandees, and the decemvirato estab- lished (451). It was then that the republic changed ita form. FROM THE TIME OF THE DECEMVIRS. The law of the tivelve tahhs was promulgated by ten magistrates n^vned deceinvirs, hut tlie abuse which they made of their power by prolonging it during three years, and by exercising an odious tyraimy, and finally tlie mar- tyrdom of the ys:)\xi\gVirglnia, persecuted by the decem- vir Jipphis ClGudvus, and sacrificed on the altar of free- dom by the hand of her father, occasioned their fall and the abolition of their office (449). Long and painful wars against different nations of Lafium filled the entire following epoch, without any de- cided result, though the advantage still remained to tho Komans. What next provoked the Roman populace? What remedy was proposed for their injuries ? What was the immediate effect of this proposal ? AVhat is said of Herdonius ? — Of Quintus Cincinnatus? What was the issue of the Lex Terentia ? When was the decemvirate established? What is said of its benefits, abuse and overthrow ? By what was the following epoch filled ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 125 FROM THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE QAUL/S. But tliG invasion of Brcnnus, chief of the Gauls (300) placed them within a hairs breadth of ruin. Rome, taken and»burnt, was saved only by the courage of Ca/uillus, who was at that time exiled. Fifty-tv/o years after this period (338), the Latin nations definitively submitted to the Republic. Then the Romans turned their arms against the Sam- nitcs (323), and the Etrasca?is (311). The former, who had caused the Romans to pass under the yoke at Furccc Caudlnce, were subdued in the year 272 before Jesus Christ. Crotona, Locres, Brmdesia, Tarcjiticm, and a part of Lucania and Bruttium speedily underwent the same fate, notwithstanding the elforts of Pyrrhus, khig of Ejn- rus, whom the inhabitants of these districts had called to their aid. Successes equally great crowned the Roman arms to the north of the Republic, and about the year 264 before Jesus Christ, she found herself nearly mistress of the whole of halt/. FROM THE TIME OF THE PUNIC WARS. At this epoch the wars against the Carthaginians com- menced. They are designated under the name of the Panic wars : there were three of them. The first, (264-240) g'ave the Romans Sicily; the se- When did the Gauls invade Rome ? Who delivered the city from ruin? How long after did the submission of the Laiius take place? Against whom did Rome next direct her arms ? When were the Samnites subdued? What other cities shared the same fate ? About what period v/as the conquest of Italy completed ? When did the Punic wars commence ? What island did the first of these wars give the Romans? — The second ? 126 riFXli FART. coi)(j (218-201) *S/>am. This last is celebrated by the ri- valry of Puhlius Sci/tio, Africanus I, and Hannibal, gene- ral of the Carthaginians ; it fixed the attention of Europe. In the third (149-145), the Romans took possession of Africa : Carthage was destroyed. During the twoiatter wars, and in the intervals which they left between them, the four wars of Macedonia, against Fhilip and Perseus, and the war of St/ria, (191-lSS) took place; and others less important, which were terminated by the submission of the provinces of j3sia (188), Ltria (177), Macedonia (IG8), and Dalmatia (155). The capture of Thebes and Corinth decided the reduc- tion of Greece into a Roman jjrovince, under the name cf Achaia (146). Numantia, for a moment in revolt (141-133), succumb- ed with the rest of Spain. The conquest of the whole v/orld became less and less doubtful. Numerous and ce- lebrated wars against foreigners, among others those of Jugurtha (119-106), of the Sicilian slaves (lOl-l 02), of the Cimbri and the Teutones 102-101), of the Marsi (91- 89), o£ Mithridaies, king of Pontus (88-G4), o^ Sertorius (85-72), of the Gauls (59-49), and the Parihians (54), signalized the following century : but the internal strug- gles of Rome, and the wars of citizen with citizen, ren- dered it still more sadly celebrated. The two attempts of the Gracchi (133-123) to restore to the people rights usurped by the patricians, v/ere the prelude to these commotions. Afterward, Marius and By what was this last distinguished ? What country did the third secure to Rome ? What other wars did she carry on during her two latter con- flicts with Carthage ? What resulted from her capture of Thebes and Corinth ? IIow did the revolt of Numantia terminate ? By what foreign wars was the following century signalized ? What interior agitations gave it a sad celebrity ? What was the prelude to these commotions ? * niSTOniCAL SKETCHES. 127 Si/lla (8S-82), CccGfir and Pompcy, the latter of wliom was conquered at rhar-^alia (48), the triumvirs and Brutus (42), 0::tacius and Srxfics Pompcij (3G), and finally Ocfa- rius and Axthony (21), disputed with each other for tlio n.ighty power of Rome, on fields of batlle'covcrcd with \Wt blood of the Romans. Two proscriptloiifi, that of t^Ua (84) and tliat of the iriuntvirs (15), still further added to so many horroi^s. At length these struggles ce;^sed ; Rome, mistress of the world, acknowledged the power of a single master, and the imperial monarchy began after the viotosy of Octaviits Augiistus,Vit Attiwu, over Mark Anthoii}/, and Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, (31 years befor^e Jesus Chrisl). K():\IE UNDER THE E.AIP E ROR.S. (Five ci'fdurics.) Tlie history of this period comprehends five agcrs. In the Jirst, which we call the age of the Caesars, Rome, after having tasted the most perfect calm and prosperity under Augustus, who protected and patronised letter^, underwent successively the tyi-anny of the cruel Tihcriuf^^ the senseless Caligula, the imbecile Cluadius, and tho a!rocioas Nero ; and she breathed an instant under Vespa- .suiu and Titus, only to fall into the hands of Domidan, who united in himself all that was odious in his prede- cessors. The second <-tntury^ or age of the Anionines, v.-as as lia{)py for the state as the first was unfortunate. Tho Wiiat persons disputed successively for the ascendant in Rome ? — What two events further enhanced these liorrors? When did the imperial monarchy of Rome begin ? How long was slie under the emperors ? By what (Tmperors is the age of the Cffisars distinguished ? What was the state of Rome under the'se emperors respec- tively ?— What is said o^. the :>£e of the Antcnines ? 128 FIFTH PART. senate had nominated to the empire a man of probity, Nerva, (h'om 96 to 98,) to succeed whom four men, not less virtuous, presented themselves. Little anxious to leave the supreme power to a son or a nephew, Nerva consuUed only the interest of the state, and after having reigned two years, he adopted Trajan, (98) by origin a Spaniard, and the first foreigner who reached the throne of Rome. Trajan extended, by conquests in Dacia and *^sia, the bounds of the empire. Adrian, (117) with military talents, showed himself pacific and a zealous friend of letters and the fine arts ; he built a wall in the north of Britain against the Caledonians ; he enlarged new Carthage and rebuilt Jerusalem. Under him the Jews revolted, were defeated and finally dispersed (135). Antoninus, (138) the most virtuous of monarchs; his reign was the most prosperous period of the empire. Murcus Aureliiis, (168) surnamed \he 'plnloso2)her ; he associated with himself Lucius Verus, a prodigal and dis- sipated young man, to whom, notwithstanding, he gave his daughter in marriage. It was under this excellent prince that the bravery and the prodigies of the Christian Legion, called the thundering, are said to have taken place, in the war against the Marconianni and their allies. Marcus Aurelius succeeded in securing the frontiers of the empire along the Danube; but he v/as the first who permitted the barbarians to settle in the interior, and took them into the pay of the state ; he bequeathed the purple to his son, the cov/ardly and cruel Commodus, (180) under whom a horrible tyranny filled the empire with blood. A murder delivered the Romans from this mon- ster, but left the government without a guide. Here commences tJic third century, the age of military What is said of Nerva?— Trajan ?— Acltian ?— Antoninus ? -Marcus Aiireiius; ?— Commodus ? How may the third century be characterized? HISTOllICAL SKETCHES. 1^9 anarchy. Pertifiax, (193) after a three months' reign, died by the hand of the soldiery. The crown was set up at auction. Didius Julianus ventured to purchase it. Pescenninus Niger, Septhnius Scverus and Albiiius dis- puted it with him. The first was proclaimed emperor in Syria, the second in Illy via, and the third in Britain (197). SejJtimius Severics, (197-211) who remained sole mas- ter of the empire, raised it again by a very firm reign, made war with the Parthians and the Britains, and re- established the wall of Adrian. He died at York ; but the cruel Garacalla, (211) his son, shook the government anew. He caused his brother Gcta to be assassinated in the ai-ms of his mother, desolated the provinces which he traversed, and made a fearful massacre of the people of Alexandria. Macrinus, the pra3torian prosfect, assassi- nated him. After the death of Caracalla the soldiers were once more masters of the empire. They elected successively Macrinus, who reigned only a year, (217) Hellogahalus, (218) a cruel and debauched prince ; Alexander Severus, one of the best rulers and greatest emperors of Rome, (222-235) who reigned many years, but whose adminis- tration could not eradicate the evils with which the em- pi i-e was infected. At liis death anarchy reappeared, more powerful than ever. Twenty-live princes and iifty usurpers in- vaded and for a moment occupied the throne. Only What is said of Pertinax ?— Of Didius Julianus?— Of Pes- cenninus Niger ? — Septimius Severus and Albinus? — Of Cara- calla? Who were masters of the empire afier the death of ttje latter? — Whom did they successively elect to the empire ? How long did Macrinus rei,2;n ? V/hat was the character of Hcliogahalus ? Wliat is said of Alexander Severus ? Wliat happened ngaln at his death? 6* 130 Fii' TH PART. three among them, Claudius II, Aurelian and Uwclttian desei"\'e mention. Claudius II, (2G8 270) a good gen- eral, gained important victories over the Got/is.; he was surnamed the Gothic. A'UreUan, (270-275) a great warrior, subdued the prin- ccy of the East, after the defeat of Zcnohia, queen of Pal- tizyra ; he reduced under his obedience all the countries of the West, which, since Gallicnus, (259) had possessed independent masters. He died by assassination. The death of -'lwrtZ/«;e was followed by an interregnum of six months ; the senate disposed of the throne in favor of Proljics(21i6). That emperor, who was always at war with the Germans, whom he repulsed, was not want- ing in a certain acquaintance with the arts of peace; he built many cities, which he peopled with prisoners of Vv'ar, and made his soldiers plant vineyards upon the hills near the Rhine. Dioclefuui (284) ; at his accession the partitions of the empire began. That prince suspended during a certain lirne the evils of the empire, but he abdicated the govern- ment and retired to Sulona. The fourth ccHturij, or age of Constantiae, is celebrated : first, for the triumph of Christianity, which was exalted to the throne in the person of Constanline (312); second- ly, for the translation of the empire to Byzantiuvi, which took the name of Constant ifWjdc ; thirdly, for the victories and the reign of Julian the Apostate, (300) the last prince of the race of Coiistantine, and the most able of them al] ; he al>jured the Christian religion and made vain efforts to restore Paganism : he carried war into Persia, and died of a woungr« and event:? is it disiingnished? Hl^JTO^viCAL SKETCHES. 231 fourtLly, for ihe ft/tal dicisicH, of (he empire (3C4) between Valens and Vale.'Umiafi. The great Thcodoshcs reunite*], in 394, the Rom.aa ivorld, but at liis death he consum- mated the separation of the two empires, which he divikil between his two sons : Arcadlus reigned in the Ecu-t, Honorhis in the West (39.5). Then tlie perpetual invasions of the barbarians were seen to multiply, who ncHwithstanding did not yet estab- lish themselves in the heart of the emjiire. • In the fifth centunj, or age of invasions, the Roman le- gions abandoned Britain and Gaul to the Angles, the Franks and the Burgundians, Spain to the Alani, the tSuevi and the Vingoiks, Africa to the Vandah, and the north of Italy to all the barbarians. The imperial purple, usurped, bestowed and purchased by turns, covered phan- toms of princes, and was degraded more and more. The Saeve Rinimtr, who did not condescend to assume ir, clothed with it in suc'cssion *S'c<'7t 7^.9 and Ant/temius ; Au- gust uJus, who succeeded him, (475) was, in the follovvinc? year, driven from tlie throne by Odoacer, king of the He- ruli, v/ho refused the empire, and substituted for the title of emperor of the Romans that of king of Italy. There were no more Romans except at Consta'ntinojde, where by slow degrees they took the name of Greeks, and com- pletely forgot from whom they were descended (47G). On tlie ruins of the western empire all the modern states ro'^e in succession Ey what Vv-as the lifUi a^^c of the empire distinguished ? What bnrbarous tribes took po'^sesslon of Britian and Greece? — Of Spain ?— Of Africa l—Ol tlie north of Italy ? Mow was the imperial purple disposed of ? What was the character of those who received it ? What Is saidofRiciiner and Odoacer ?— Of Sevcrus, Antbe- mins and Au2;a^tLllu=: ? What is said of the Roman deger.era^y at this time ? What states sprung fr(im tlie ruins of the empire 132 FIFTH PART. PERSIANS. Persia is called, in holy scripture, the country of Elam, from the name of a son of Shem. The first known king "of this country is Ckedorlaomer, who came, with four kings, his allies, to invade Palestine, to take and pillage Sodom, and to carry oft' Lot a prisoner; but Persia did not emerge from obscurity imtil after the end of the first Assyrian empire. VJhQr\Arhaces had enfranchised the Medes, those nations gave themselves laws, divided themselves into tribes and established judges for such disputes as might arise. De- joces was the first king whom they elected. He devoted himself principally to civilizing his subjects. To Dejoces, succeeded, without leaving any great me- morial : Pkraortes, Cyaxares I, Astt/ages and Cyaxares II, (Darius the Medc). Cyaxcres //nominated for general of his army Cyrus, the eon of Mandane, his sister, and of Caynbyses, king of Per- sia, a subject of the Median empire. Cyrus took CroBs^us, king of Lydia, at the battle of T/iymbroca, near Sardis, he subdued the other allies of Neriglissar, king of Baby- lon, marched against that city, and got possession of it after a long siege. Having turned the waters of the Eu- plirates, he penetrated, by a channel of that river, to the bosom of the city, where Belshazzer, the successor of Neriglissar, was celebrating a great feast. That prince What is the scripture name of Persia ? Who was the first king of Persia ? When did the Persians emerge from obscurity ? What did the Medes do after their enfranchisement ? Who was the first elective monarch? What is said of him ? Who were his successors until Cyaxares H? Whom did Cyaxares nominate for his general ? Whom did Cyrus capture at the battle'of Thymbroea? By what means did he fi;et possession of Babylon ? What was the fate of Belshazzer ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 13*3 was slain with all the grandees of his court, whom he had assembled at a magnificent repast. Some time afterward Cyaxcrcs and Ca?nhyses died ; Cyrus succeeded them in 55Q, and uniting the kingdom of the Males to that of the Persiatis, he founded the greatest em- pire which until then had existed in the world. This great conqueror published, in 53G before J. C, the famous decree in favor of the Jews, who had been in captivity for seventy years, and whom he permitted to re- turn to Jerusalem. Pursuing his conquests afterwards, iic established for the bounds of his empire, to the east the KivER Indus, to the north the Caspian sea and the Euxinc, to the west the Jb^gea,n sea, to the south Ethiojjia and the Arahian gulf. According to Herodotus, he was slain in a battle against Tomyris, queen of the Scytliians or Massa- gctces, who plunged the head of Cyrus into a vessel full of blood : Fill yourself tcitk it, said she, since you have ahvays thirsted for it. Cai7ihyscs succeeded Cyrus, his father (from 520 to 522). He made the conquest of Egypt, and even attempt- ed to subdue Ethiopia. He was unfortunately too cele- brated for his cruelty and tyranny, and did not long sur- vive his brother Smerdis, whom he had put to death. One of the magi passed himself off for that unfortunate prince, and succeeded in reigning seven months under the name of Smerdis; but the imposture was discovered, and the un- v/orthy priest was massacred by the principal lords who liad revolted against him. One of them, Darius, the son of Ilystaspes, (from 321 to 485,) possessed himself of the Whom (lid Cyrus succeed in 556 ? What famous decree did he publish in 536 before C. ? What bounds did Cyrus fix to his empire ? What account of his death is given by Herodotus ? What is said of Cambyses ?— Of Smerdis?— Of the false Smerdis ? v How did Darius get possession of the kingdom ? 134 Flirii lAKT. kingdom, v/jilcb he owed, it is said, to liic winnnowing of Vils horse. He showed some warlike virtues, but liis am- bition cost Persia a great deal of blood. He caused him- self to be called t/i<; best, and tJte h'.st proportknicd^ (j' all 711' n. He pa*?sed the Thracian Bocphcfi^us in order to march against the Scythians o^ Europe ; he advanced beyond the Panuhe without being able to reach thcin, and lost a great raany men. It was this Darius who carried the first Persian war into Grcrce, designing at the outset to subdue a nativni which appeared to him too proud, and of whom, Ktill, he had heard no mention made except by a Greek physician called Dcmoccilcs, and afterward to avenge Hippias tlie tyrant of Athens, who had come to request succor of hini. This is the first Median or Persian war. Darius sent into Greece his son-in-law, JMardonius, at the head of a formidable army. Miltiades defeated h'lra with ten thousand men at Marathon, in the year 490, Darius died a little while after. [As llio hUiory (if ttio IVivians is entliciy connecUsi with ihnt of t'le (.'loeks after the rtiign of Dariur^, we slia'.i oriy indicate litre the m'>st memorable events coJinectOfJ wiili i:.] To Duri(ii], who, thinking he could repair the aflront which the Per- sian arms had experienced in Greece, directed his troops towards that country. (This was the second Media -i vvaj). Then took place, in -ISO, the battle of Therrnrp?/!fr, the naval combat near Artenmia, and the ?Kittle of Sala- What was his character ? r>id he succeed in his invasion of St ? What city did he found in the latter countVy ? What motives arrayed Alexander and Darius against eacli other again ? — What was the result?— And the fate of Darius? Gordius was a kin^ of Phrygia. The knot which tied the yoke to tlio draiight-trec of his chariot, was made in such a mannor that the ei)d» of ilje cord could not be perceived. A report vcm circulated that tho en-ipiro of Asia had been promised by the oracle to him that could untie this knot, .\lexander, when ho parsed by Gordium, cut the knot with lii* sword. HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 143 With Darius tbe empire of the Persimis ended, after a duration of more than two centuries. After having subjugated the empire of Cyn/s, Alexan- der proceeded to carry hia victorious arms into the Indies. The success he had against Porus induced him to aban- don the character of moderation which, until then, ho had shown. Intoxicated wilh his conquests, he suffered himself to be carried to every excess which pride and prosperity could suggest. He returned to Bahylov, where a slow but consuming fever, caused by intempe- r:ince or poison, brought him to the tomb in the vigor of his age, after a reign of twelve years. At the death of AJcxander, in 324, hie* vast monarchy was dismembered. Four generals, after bloody wars, divided among themselves the countries which composed it : firstly, Macedoy^ia proper fell to Cassandcr ; secondly, Thrace and Biihynia to Ly.mnnrhiis ; thirdly, Syria V.^ Sdeiicv.s ; fourthly, I'^gypt to Ptolen}y, the chief of iho Lagides. ^ As to JSIaccdonia proper, the Greeks made vain cf^<>r^3 to subdue it, and their bloody struggles increased to such a degree, that finally the Jiomavs terminated the debate by making war witii Philip and Perscvs ; tiie latter of whom was conquered at Pydna by Pavlns JEmilins, and conducted pri^oncr to Rome (ICS). THE ROMAN EMriRE OF THE EAST. The Eastern empire was composed of all that had been included in the priefecture of the East, as well as V7iih v.hom did die Persian empire terminate? What country did Alexander next invade? What was the cflTect ofliis i^uccess on his character and con- (ijjPt 7 — Where and how did he die ? How was his monarchy divided after his death ? Did the Greeks exert themselves to sub(h;c Macedonia? What was the result of those struggles? Who conquered Perseus ? 144 FIFTH PART. the prcEfecturo of lllyria — that is to say, in Asia, Anato- Hay Arabia and Buria -, in Africa, Egypt and Lybia ; in Eiirojic, all llie country situated along the Damiue, as- cending that river as high as Belgrade. Constantine. the Great had transferred the seat of the Ronian empire \.o Byzantium, which was afterward called Constantinople. After the death of that prince, (336,) Constantine II, Constantius and Constans, his sons, Julian the Apostate and Jovian, reigned successively over the whole of the empire. Then the first division of the empire took place, 364, under Valentinian I, who retained for himself the West and gave the East to his brother V(ilens ; but the com- plete separation of the two empires did not take place until 395, at the death of Theodosius the Great, who, after having reunited them both, left that of the East to Arcadius, and that of the West to Honorius. We have seen the latter falling beneath the strokes of the Ileruli, in 476 ; we shall occupy ourselves then exclusively with the former. Nothing is more revolting than the detailed history of that empire ; its annals present but few princes worthy of notice, while we read there, on every page, multiplied cruelties, usurpations and religious quarrels. The prin- ces who may be cited are : Thcodosius II, called the Younger, son of Arcadius, to whom we are indebted for the code which bears his Of what countries was the Eastern empire composed ? What is said of Constantine the Great? Who were his successors until Jovian? Under whom and when did the first division of the empire take place ? — What distribution did Valentinian make of it? Under whom did the complete and final separation of the tsvo empires take place ? Who had the Eastern and who the Western empire ? What is said of the history of the Eastern empire ? What is said of Theodosius II "^ — Of his code ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 345 name, and in which he collected all the imperial consti- tutions, from Constantine to himself. This code was not in use until the time of Justinian (VI century) ; but the Ostrogoths, the Lombards, the Visigoths, the Burgundians, the Franks, and other nations who were settled in the Roman provinces, preserved it. Theodosius had a sister called Pulchcria, who, during his minority, governed the kingdom with firmness ; Athenais, his wife, daughter of Leontinus, an Athenian philosopher, was very learned (408-450). Justinian, whose reign was full of glory, of faults and of misfortunes. BelLsarius and Narses, his generals, ren- dered Italy dindi Africa subject to him; but what confer- ed most honor an this prince, was a code of laws drawn up by the quaestor Tribonian. This system of legisla- tion, though incomplete, is highly esteemed (527-565). Heraclius, under whom Mahomet appeared in Q>22. This emperor defeated the Persians, and made alliance with the Turks y the Arabs took from him Syria and Egy^t (from 632 to 641). Leo III, the Isaurian, of low origin, but who distin- guished himself by his courage. He suppressed the wor- ship of images, and thus began the religious quarrel of the Iconoclasts (717-741). Co7ista7itine IV, Copronymus, whose eyes his mother Irene caused to be dug out. That princess, of great ca- pacity, but of a blind superstition, committed atrocities towards her people. Who was Pulcheria? — Athenais? What was the character of Justinian's reign ? Who were his generals, and what were their exploits ? What conferred most honor on his reign? What is said of Heraclius ?— Of Leo the Isaurian ?— Of Con- stantine Copronymus? — Of Irene? 146 FirTH PART. I'AMILY or Tin: COMNENI. Alexis Comnc7i2/s, who was beiiten in Dahjiaf.ia bj Ra- hcrl Guucardy duke oi Calabria. It was under him that tlie first crusade tcwk place. He deceived the cruaader.s who parsed by Constantinople on ibcir way to Palcstuie. Anna ComncTM, his daughter, a princess of much talenr, has written his hfe in fifteen books, from 1081 to 11 0^. JoJm Comncnu-i, wlio made himself master of Armenia.. A poisoned arrow, which he had in his quiver, pnxhiccd his death : he was a good and just prince. Manvel Comncrtus, who betrayed the warriors of llio second crusade : he conducted himself sufficiently well with regard to Louis the Younger. Roger I, king of Sicily, made war upon him j it lasted during fi^ve years : Manuel destroyed the Roman marine through avarice (from 1143 to IISO). Alexis II Co:mic7ius. Andronicus, eousin-german of Manuel, rendered himself master of Constantinople dur- ing his minority, and cansed the empress-mother, called Mary, to be strangled. The young emperor eommitteJ unheard of ciiiclties tou ards the great ; }>nt llie people, indignant at so many crimes, laid hold of the tyrant, load- ed him with chains, overwhelmed him with tormtjnts, and hung him by the feet (from 1180 to 11S3 and 11S5). Isaac Angelus gained the affection of his subjects by his mildness, but he was of a feeble character, and devot- ed to his pleasures. His brother, Alexis Angelus, de- throned him, caused his eyes to Ix) dug out and threw him into a prison (from 1185 to 1195); but Alexia tho What happened under tlje reign of Alexis Comnenus ? What is said of Anna Coranena ? What were the achievement, death and character of John Comnenus ? What is narrated of Manuel Comnenus ?~Of Alexis II and Andronicus? — Of Isaac Angelus and his brother Alexis? — Of iiis son ? HISTORICAL SitETCHES. 147 Bon of Isaac, fieil, betook himself to his sister Irene, wife of the emperor of Germany, and raised in favor of hia father the entire West. The crusaders were then assem- bled at Venice; they directed their course towards Con- stantinople, arrived before tliat city (1203), laid siege to it and took it ; the usurper fled ; Isaac Angclus was re- placed upon the throne. But soon a prince of the house o^ Dvcas, called Alexis Di(cas,'di\i\ surnamcd Mnrzulphus, on account of his heavy eyebrows, succeeded in destroy- ing the prince in the good opinion of the people, and re- moving the young Alexis Cermncmis. The Latins besieg- ed Constantinople anev/, took it, precipitated the usurp- er from the top of a tower, and })laced upon the throne a French prince, Baldivin I, count of Flanders, in 1201. Tlic Greek empire was thus divided. The Vcnitiayis took to themselves the islands near the Peloponessus, and some Asiatic isles. Boniface, marquis of Montfcnat, took the provinces beyond the Bosj^lion/s. yilh'ha7'douin, marshall of Champagne, took Greece properly so called ; James d' A^vcmie, of Hainault, had the iislaiid of Elf hoc a. EMPIRE OF THE LATINS. There were at that time two christian cjnjnrcs of the East, the one in .l?/'7, the other in Europe. In Asia, Theodore Lascaris, husband of Ann, the daiighter of Alexis III, passed over into Anatolia, and How did the son of Isaac avenge his father? What did the crusaders do in his behalf? What is said of Alexis Ducas ? What did the Latins do at Constantinoi)le ? How was the Greek empire divided at this time ? What two Cliristian empires then existed ? What i-? said of Theodore Lascaris? 148 FIFTH PART. caused himself to be acknowledged despolcs (master) ; he was proclaimed emperor at Nice. His successors nar- rowed the territory of Constantinople, and Michael Pa- Iccologus, one of them, possessed himself of the empire in 1261. Trchizond was, until 1462, the seat of a Greek empire. Mahojnet, emperor of the Turks, who was then upon the throne of Constantinople, brought out before the public in that city David Comncnus, their sovereign, and put him to death. Descendants of the family of the Coin- neni still exist in France and England. In Europe Baldwin I was appointed emperor on the 16^^^- of May, 1204, and was taken by the Bvlgarians, who cut off his legs and arms and delivered him to wild beasts. He reigned two years (1206). Henry, his brother, succeeded him. He made war with success against the Bulgarians; he was recognized as emperor by Theodore Lascaris. He was followed by Peter of Courtenay^ count of Aux- erre, brother-in-law o^ Ilmry, and grandson of Louis the Gross ; Theodore, prince of Eplrus, made him prisoner, and put him to death at the close of two years. Yoland, his wife, governed wisely in his place (1216-1221). Robert, son of Peter, a feeble, indolent prince, suffered the two Greek empires of Trebizond and Thessalonica to be taken from him (1221-1228). Baldwin II, son of Peter de Courtenay, was under the tutelage of John de Bricnne, king of Jerusalem. At the death of that prince Baldwin had to combat tho Greeks of Nice, who, under the emperor Michael, pos- sessed themselves of Constantinople on the 25'^ of July, What is said of his successors? Who got possession of tlie empire in 1261 ? What city was the seat of the empire until 1462 ? How did Mahomet treat its last sovereign ? What is said of Baldwin I ?— Of Henry>— Of Peter of Cour- tenay and Yoland?— Of Robert ?~Of Baldwin 11? HISTOIviCAL SKETCHES. 140 1261. Baldwin fled in disguise, and landed in Italv, where he died in 1273. fSecoud Oreek Empire. THE PAL.EOLOGI. Repeated concussions had shaken the Greek empire to its very foundations. The Ottoman sultans, who suc- ceeded about the year 1300 in forming for themselves a petty state in Asia Minor, profited by the troubles of Constantinople, and established themselves in Thrace in 1362. John II Faheolagus was vanquished at Varna on the 10'^- of November, 1444, by the sultan Amurath 11. It is in this famous battle that Ladislas, the king of Poland and Hungary, was conquered and slain. Amu- rath caused his head to be put in a vessel filled with lioney, and sent it to Prussia. It is said that he caused his hand to be cut off in order to punish him for having signed a treaty which he had not the honesty to regard. The Turks continued to march from one victory to another. Finally, on the 29^^- of May, 1453, the sultan, Alahomct 11^ laid siege to Constantinople, took it, and established there the seat of the Turkish empire. This revolution put an end to the Greek empire, called also the Lower emjnre. Gonstantine, surnamed Dragases, the last emperor, perished in the breach, with arms in his hands. The fall of Constantinople shed terror among the Christian nations. The pope, Pius II, spoke eloquently What was the consequences of the agitations of the Greek empire ? — Where was John II PalaGologus vanquished ? What was the fate of Ladislas ? — Who was he? Under whom and when did the Turks capture Constanti- nople ? — What was the fate of Dragases ? How did the fall of Constantinople aflecl the minds of Chris- tendom ? 150 FITTII TART. in favor of ihc faith find the civilization wliich had pe- rished in the East; Lut policy froze the hearts of the European princes, and the West permitted Asiatic bar- barians to seat themselves upon the throne of the Ccisars, REMARKS ON THE EASTERN EMPIRE. The empire of tlie East was destroyed 2200 years after the foundation of Rome, 1124 years after the trans- lation of the seat of the Roman empire to Byzantium, 10S9 years after the first, and 105S years after the second division of that empire. It has been remarked that the Iioma?i enipirc, founded hy Azigustus^ was overturned under aii Augustus; that of Constantinople, begun by Constantine, was destroyed under a Gonstantine ; and that of Trcbizond, founded by David Comnenus, was overthrown under a David of the same family. • Secondary IVatious of Aiiciesit History. IN ASIA. The Anneniaiis, between tlie Ponlus-Euxinus and the Caspian sea, to the north of Mesopotamia. Their capital was Tigranoccrtes. The Armenians give themselves the name of Haikans, after one of their fabulous kings, a great grandson of Japhct. Their origin and history are little Can you tell how long the destruction of the Eastern empire was after the foundation of Rome ? — The translation of the ecot of the empire to Byzantium ? — The first and second divi- eions of the empire ? What remarkable coincidences does the history of the em- pire present ? Where were the Armenians anciently situated ? What was the name of their capital ? What did they call themselves, and why ? IIISTCKICAL .SKETCHES. .J^l kuovvi). They had many kings, among whom Tigranes is distinguished ; that prince leagued himself with Mitli- ridates, king of Pontus, against the Romans, who defeated him (I ccJitury of J. C). Their country is at the present day divided between the Turks and the Persians. The Armenians are traders, and are scattered through all the provinces of the Ottoman empire. Th.e Ci'ippadocianSy at the eastern extremity of Asia !!\lirjor. They weit3 bounded on the north by Pontus, on the south by Cilicia, on the west by Phrygia, and on the oast by Arnicriia. Their capital was Ca^sarea. The Cappadocian3 were subdued by the Lydians ; afterward by Cyrus, king of Persia, wlio gave them a king (VI century). TAia government continued to be monarchical until the I century, when they v,-cre subdued by the Romans. At prcsont Cappadocia niakes a part oi th<3 Turkish empire. The Pontmes^ in tlie northern })tirt of Asia i\Iinor, eouth of the Pontus-Eiixinus and north of Cappadocia^ Their principal cities were AmasocKs, Nco-CcEnarla, and Trapazus. The Poiitines had th.eir own kings, among whiJiT] we I'omark 3>i'U?tri dates, who opposed the Romans during forty years. Pontus became a Roman province. It forms at present a part of Turkey in Asia. The Bithitfilans, m ihe northern part of Asia Minor, soutii of Pontus-Euxinus, north of Phiygia, east of the Propontis (sea of Marmora), and v/est of Paphlagonia. Principal cities : Nice, NicoJcnui, Prusa, and Chalcedon., The first king of the Bithynians, Nicomedcs Til, was de- prived of his possessions by Mithridates, king of Pontus- Pompey re-established him. Nicomedes, at his death, Wlio was the most distinguished among their kings ? What is said of him? — How is Armenia at present divided ? What is trie present state of the Armenians? What is said of the Cappadccians ?~0f the Pontines ?— The Bithynians ? 152 FIFTH PART. bequeathed his dominions to the Romans. It was at Ly- bissa, in Bilhynia, that Hannibal died. The Pergauiotes, to the north-west of Asia Minor, in ^lysia. Pergamus fell to the portion of Lysimachus, one of the lieutenants of Alexander. After Lysimachus she had three kings of her own, among whom we remark Attains III, who, having no children, made the Romans his heirs. The Lydlans, in the westera part of Asia Minor, south of Mysia, north of Caria, and west of Phrygia. Prin- cipal cities : Sardis and EpJicsus. The Lydians were governed successively by three families : the Atyades, the Heraclides, and the Mermnades, until Croesus, who was vanquished by Cyrus (VI century). The kingdom was then destroyed, and passed successively under the dominion of the Persians, the Macedonians, the Syrians, and the Romans. At present Lydia makes a part of Turkey in Asia. The Carians, in the south-western part of Asia Minor, bounded on the north by Lydia, on the west by tlie ./?i]gean sea (Archipelago), on the south by the Medi- terranean, and on the east by Lycia. Principal cities : Halicarnassus, Miletus, Gnidiis. The Carians were go- verned by twenty-six kings, the most celebrated of whom was Mausolus, the husband of Artemisia. Caria forms at present a part of Turkey in Asia. The Phrygians, at the centre of Asia Minor, bounded on the north by Bithynia and Galatia, on the south by Lycia and Pysidia, on the east by Cappadocia. Principal cities : Hieropolis, Apomea, and Laodicea. The Phry- gians were at first governed by kings of their own, and afterward fell successively under the dominion of the What is said of the Pergamotes ? Can you js^ive the history of the Lydians?— The Carians ? — The Phrygians ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 153 Persians, Macedonians, and Romans. At present Phry- gia forms a part of Turkey in Asia. IN EUROPE. The EpirotcSf on the shore of the Adriatic sea, west of Macedonia and Thessaly. Pyrrhus, who made war against the Romans with success, was one of their most celebrated kings (II century j. They were subdued by the Romans under Paulus ^milius. Afterward the Ve- netians held possession'of Epirus until the XV century, when it submitted to tlie yoke of the Turks. The Thessalians. It was from Tkessalij, situated to the north of Greece, that the Hellenes went forth to spread themselves through the whole of that country ; at the epoch of the Trojan war it contained ten petty kingdoms, of which the greater part belonged to the most renowned heroes of that age, such as Achilles and Philoctetes. The Thessalians were not skillful enough to preserve for any length of time their political liberty. Larissa and Phcres ■were their principal cities. At Larissa, the Aleuladiau family, which claimed to have descended from Hercules, maintained its dominion until the age of Alexander. At Phercs there rose in the V century (40S) a tyrant called Jason, Avho extended his dominion to a consider- able distance. One of his brothers, Alexander, was con- quered by Pelopidas, and assassinated (in 34G), at the instigation of his wife, Thebe, by his brothers hycopJircn and Tisiphomus. These last were driven out by Philip, king of Macedonia. Afterward Thessaly followed the fate of Greece. The Etolians. The EtoUans, situated to the west of Greece, were gross and barbarous ; they carried on their Can you repeat the history of the Epirotes ? — The Thessa- lians ? — The Etolians ? 7* 154 FIFTH PART. robberies by land and sea. Among them Pencnus, Melea- ger, and Diomcncs, are celebrated. This people long resisted the Macedonians and the Romans ; they formed a league which became formidable to the Achceans. They were at length subdued by the Romans, like the other nations of Greece. The Phocians. The Phociaus, at the centre of Greece proper, were descended from Phocus, the chief of a Co- rinthian colony. They were at first governed by kings, and afterward constituted themselves into a sort of re- public, the form of which is not known. The city of Bressa formed a small independent state. The Amphic- tJjons declared war with the Phocians on account of their outrages u^oxi the temple of Delphi ^ it was terminated ten years afterward by the interposition of Philip, king of Macedonia ; this is what was called the sacred war. The Boeotians. With the ancient colonies of Bceotia, situated to the north of Attica, the Pheniciaiis led into Greece by Cadvius were mingled. The family of that hero reigned there for a long time, and the history of the kings of Thebes is one of the branches of the Greek Mythology. The monarchical form of government was abolished in Bceotia (about 1126) in the XII century, at the death of X:iith2is. Afterward, each city of that pro- vince formed a state ; a circumstance which gave rise to a league in which Thebes was included. Eleven magis- trates, called hcBOtarchi, were at the head of the confede- ration. Many wars took place between these petty re- publics; they frequently united against that of Thebes, which excited their jealousy. Epa?mnondas and Pelopi- das brought their country out of obscurity, but she sunk back to it again after their death (IV century). The Corinthians. The house of Si/siphus reigned dur- Can you repeat the history of the Phocians ?— Of the Boec- llans ?— Of the Corinthians ? ii!Stok:cal sketches. 155 ing a long Lime over Corinth, a city situated at the north- cast of the Pdoponessus. The Dorians put an end to Iheir dominion by the conquest which they made of that city. Two families of the race of Hercides afterward oc- cupied the throne. Every year, after the VIII century, a prijlanis or supreme magistrate v^as chosen, until the VII centuiy, when Cypcllus became master of the coun- try. In 557 Pcriandcr, his son, rendered himself odious by liis avarice and cruelty. The C'jrintkia?is, weary of tlie tyranny of iheir leaders, freed themselves from their yoke in 581. The citizens of Corinth were tlie richest traders in Greece. The situation of their city was vcjy favorable to tlrom; they had numerous colonics. These were, at the v/est, Corcyra^ Epijdamjiiis, Lcucas, Sj/raeusc ; and to the east, PoiiJcea. The magnihcence and dissoluteness of the Corinthians were carried to the liighest degree; it was necessary to be rich in order to participate in their feasts and pleasures ; a fact which gave rise to that proverb: " Al! the world is not permit- ted to go to Corinth'' Mu7}iniius, the Roman consul, pillaged this city, and almost entirely destroyed it 14G years before J. C. ; but Julius Ccesar sent thither a colony, and made every e.Tort in his power to raise it again from its ruins, and to re- store it to its former splendor. Achoians. Achaia, situated at tlie north of the Pelo- ponessus, was at first known unJer the name of jEgia- h'us. The loniaiis reigned there until the Aclurcuis, dri- ven from Argos by the Dorians, drove them back in their turn, and established themselves in the country under Tijsamcncs, the son of Orestes. The last of the succes- gora of that prince was called thjges ; his cruelty was the cause of the abolition of monarchical power. The twelve cities of Achaia then formed a confederation, but AVhat is said of the Achaean*? 156 FIFTH PART. they were subdued by the kings of Macedonia, succes- sors of Alexander the Great. In 281 before J. C, having expelled their tyrants, they formed anew a celebrated league, into which several nations of the Peloponessus entered, and which rendered itself formidable during 135 years. Among the great men who were at the head of the Achaean league, we shall mention only Aratus and PhilojyGBnien. The league fought for tlie independence of Greece, threatened by the Romans ; but it was de- stroyed by the consul Muinmius, in the year 146. Mcssenians. The Messcnians inhabited the finest country of Greece; they owed their celebrity to three bloody struggles which tbcy sustained against the Spar- tans, their neighbors ; the issue of these wars was unfor- tunate for them. Some of them were reduced to slavery and confounded with the Helots ; others quitted Pelopo- nessus and retired into Sicily, where they founded the city of Messina, formerly Zancle. The Cretes, m the island of Crete, south east of the Peloponessus, in Europe. Principal cities, Gortyrta, dfdoyda and Gnossas. They were at first governed by kings, among whom v/e notice Minos, their lawgiver, (XV century before Jesus Christ) ; afterward they con- stituted themselves a republic, until their subjugation by the Romans. They passed successively under the do- minion of the emperors of the East (IV century), the Arabs (IX century), the Genoese (X century), the Veni- tians (XIII century), and the Turks, to whom they are still subject. The Syracusans, in Europe, occupied the south-east- ern part of Sicily. Capital, Syracuse. The government of Syracuse was by turns republican and tyrannical ; among her kings, we shall cite Dionysius the Tyrant, and Diony- What is said of ihe Mcssenians ?— The Cretes ?~The Svra- anna 7 ^ cusans ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 15'7 sius the Younger, The Athenians laid siege to that city (V century). The Romans took it two centuries after- ward and retained it until he invasion of the Barbarians. Syracuse belongs at present to the- king of the Two Sici- lies. The Caledonians in North Britain were of Celtic ori- gin; their manners were barbarous; they were beaten by the Roman general Agricola, and afterward by the empe- ror Severus (III century), who caused a famous wall to be built between Scotland and England; some vestiges of it still remain. The Bntons were likewise of Celtic origin ; they go- verned themselves by their own laws until the conquest of their southern coasts by Julius Caesar (55 years before J. C.) A century later, under the emperor Domitian. Agricola got possession of their whole island, and, under Constantius Chlorus or the Pale (III century), Britain became a Roman province. In the V century, when the harharians invaded the empire of the West, the Romans withdrew their garrison from Britain. Desolated by the excursions of the Caledonians, the Britons called to their aid the Angles and the Saxons, German nations, and were subdued by their defenders. Some withdrev/ into the principality of Wales, others into Armoric Gaul, which at the present day is called Bretagne. The Germans, or Alemanni nations of central Eu- rope, warlike, simple, but obdurate and sanguinary. At- tacked almost continually by the Romans during two cen- turies and a lialf, and never subdued, they attacked thera in their turn, and defeated them under the emperor Au- gustus ; conducted by Arminius, ihey threw themselves in hordes upon the provinces of the western empire, and there established themselves. The greater part of the What is said of the Caledonians?— The Britcns?— The Ger- mans ? 158 FIFTH rAIlT. nations of modern Europe descended ft-om these formid- able people. At the present day we denominate Ger- mans in general the nations v,'hicb occupy the country of Germany. The Gauls, of Celtic origin, to the west of Europe, -»vore warlike and enterprising. From the VI century before J. C. they made five iniporta]it expeditions. The first, under tlie command of Bdloveaus ; they pass- c.l the Alps and set about founding a colony in the north of Italy. They built there Milan, Cremona, Fadiui, &:c. {Vi century before J. C). The second, under Sigocesus, at the same epoch ; they traversed tho llyrcinlan forest, and founded a colony in the centre of Germany, in Bohemia and Pannonia. The third, under the command of Brcnnus I, a descen- dant of Bcllovesus : they vanquislicd the Romans on the l>anks of the Allia, took Rome, and, after a sojourn of some months, burnt it. They were repulsed by the Ro- man general Camillas (IV century). The foLUth, under the command of Belgius and Brcimus II; they ravaged Macedonia and Thrace, and advanced a > far as Greece in order to pillage the temple of Delphos. This expedition was unfortunate (III century). The fifth, in the III century; they founded a colony in Asia Minor, where" they had been to place Nicomedes upon the throne of Bithynia. Galatia or Gallo-Greria became their residence. Finally, these fcjrmidable nations were subdued by Juli- us Ctesar, who reduced the whole of Gaul under the Romnn dominion. In the V century after J. C. Gaul was invaded by the Franks, the Burgundians and the Visigoths, and thus was formed the kingdom of France, under Clovis I (481). What character is given cftiiu Gauls? What five important ex{>editions did ihey mrike ? By what invasions v^'as tlie kingdom of France fovmcd.'i KISTGKICAL SKETCHES. 139 The Iberians or Ili^pajiians (Spariish) were in part of Phenician origin. They were successively subdued by the Carthaginians and the Romans, and their country wa^ the theatre of long and terrible wars between those two nations in the V century. Spain was invaded by the Sucvi, the Alani, tlie Vandals, and the Visigoths. These last established themselves there definitively, forming the Visigothic kingdom. IN ITALY. The Etruscans have been cited as the most aiicicnt people of Europe; their origin is unceitain and their history little knov/u. They bore successively the name of Tyrrhcni and Pclasgi, which the Greeks gave them ; the Romans called them T/iuscl (from thus, god or in- cense), on account of their attachment to the wor^^hip of the gods; from this name that of the Etruscans has been formed. Their taste for the arts has rendered them cele- brated. Their country was divided into twelve states, each of which had a prince called lucunio. Among those states the Veil and the FaHscl were distinguished. The Romans, who borrowed a great deal from the Etruscans in the arts, the sciences, military tactics and leligioue cere- monies, subdued ihem and sent into their country a great number of colonies. The Latins inliabitcd Lutium; they called themselves aborigines, that is, originating in the place where they dwelt. They had many wars to maintiiin against the Ro- mans, who, after having defeated them several limes, par- ticularly near the lake Regilhis, in the V century before Jesus Christ (498), subdued them entirely in the JV cen- tury (340), and conferred on them the right of the citv, What account Is given of the Iberians? — Etruscans? — L tins? ICO FIFTH PAKT. by the Julian late, in the I century (90). The principal Latin nations were the Volsci, the Equi and the Rutuli. The Salines were the most ancient people of Italy ; they are thought to have boon originally from the Pelo- poncssiis ; they were already powerful at the epoch of the foundation of Rome. The Romans having taken from tliem their wives arid daughter:^, ihey penetrated into Rome itself in pursuit of them ; they consented to a treaty, and incorporated themselves with the Romans, who completely subdued them in the IV century. The Samnitcs descended from the Salines. Formi- dable enemies of the Romans, whom they caused to pass under the yoke at FurccE Caudlnxt ; they were subdued by that people in the 111 century, after long and bloody v/ars. The Tarcrdines, a powerful nation, but too celebrated for their effeminacy, their luxury and evil manners, were at first governed by kings, and afterwai'd farmed them- selves into a republic. Having provoked the vengeance of the Romans, they called to their assistance Pyrrhuf;, king of Epirus, the greatest captain of his age (III cen- tury) ; aft :r some successes they v/ere subdued ; they Boon revolted and took the part of Hannibal ; but on the retreat of that great general they returned permanently under tl;c yoke of the Romans. IN AFRICA. The Moors, inhabitants of Mauritania, a Nojmidic peo- ple, whose history is little known ; they placed thcm- Bclves imder the protection of the Romans. Octavius reduced their country to a Roman province, and laid it What ia said of the Sahines ?— The Samnites ?~The Ta- rentiucs ?— The Moors ? IIISTOiSlCAL SKETCHES. 161 waste ; he gave them Juba for their king, whose son Plo- lemy, the emperor Caligula caused to be assassinated (I century). The Moors then took up arms, having at their head a freed man of Ptolemy • but they succumbed once more, and became subject to the Roman people. The Numidians were nomades ; their frugality and their address are well known, and they were excellent cavaliers. They were unknown to the Romans until the eecond Punic war. They were then governed by Massi- nissa, who took part with the Romans. Jugurtha, ne- phjw of that prince, after a bloody war was carried pri- soner to Rome ; and in the I century Numidia was re- duced to a Roman province. After the invasion of the barbarians this country passed successively to the Van- dalSf the Arabs, and finally to the Turks, who possessed it only in name. It is at present the kingdom of Algiers. NATIONS WHICH INVADED THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Tho Burgundians, under the conduct of Gundicaire, travcr:ed Germany and settled in the western part of Gaul. They were governed by dukes until Charles the Rash, after whose death Burgundy, as a male fief, w^as united to the crown of France by Louis XI (XV cen- tury). The other part of their country passed under the dominion of Austria. The Sucvi, under Hermanric their cliiof, traversed Gei-npny and Gaul, and at length established themselves in Spain, where they were conquered by the Visigoths (VI century). Tiie Vandals, conducted by Gcnseric, traversed Ger- many and united with the Suevi; they laid waste Gaul and Spain, in the southern part of which they established What account is ^iven of (he Numidians ? — The Rui dians ?— The Suevi?— The Vandals ? 162 FIFTH PART. ihcmsch^cs, aftcrwaiil, at the approach .of the Visi- goths, ihey passed into AlVioa, and fuunJed a kingdom upon the luins of Carthago. They were conquered by Eelisarius, general of Justinian (VI century). Tlie Aldiii, under their chief Gonderic, traversed Pan- iionia (Hungary), Germany and Gaul, and settled in Spain, where they were defeated by the Visigoths ( V century). The Franks were aji independent association of Ger- man nations, among whom we notice in particular the Sicumhri. They passed the Rhine under Pharamond their cliicf, established themselves in the north of Gaul, gradually spread themselves through the country, and finally got possession of the whole region, to which they gave the name of Fraficc. The Angles and the Saxons, who had for their leaders Hcngist and Ilorsa, were invited into Great Britain by- its inhabitants, in order that they might defend them against the incursions of the Picts and Caledonians. Af- ter having drivoji out those barbarians, they possessed themselves of Britain, and founded there seven govern- ments under tlie name of the heptarcliy. The Huns, who had at their head Attila, advanced as far as Pannonia. They afterward invaded Gaul, where they were defeated at Chalons-sur-Marne, by Actius, a Rv)mun general, seconded by the Franks under the con- duct of P'lerova^us, and by Theodoric, king cf the Visi- goths. After this terrible defeat Attila went to ravage Italy; at his approach the Venedes fled into the lagoons of the Adriatic sea, and there founded Venice. The dealli cf Attila gave rise to discords which rent asunder the em- pire of the Huns. Some of tlicni established themselves in Pannonia (Hungary), others peopled Poland and Russia. What is the historv of the Alanli—The Franks ?~-Thc Angles and Sn^ons ? — The Ihjn? ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 163* The IleruU \vdd for llicir chief Odoacer. They settled ill Italy, and drove from tlic imperial throne Romulus Augustulus (V century) ; but they were themselves van- quished or driven out by the Ostrogoths. The Goths, the most formidable of the German nations, liad for their chief Hermanric (V century); they were divided into Visigoths (Goths of the west), and Ostro- goths {Goths of the east). The Visigoths, with Alaric at their head, traversed (Trcece, passed into Italy, and took Rome twice, whicli they sacked. They established themselves in the south of Gaul, from which tliey were driven : they passed over into Spain, where they subdued the Alani, the Sucvi and the Vandals. The Visigothic kings governed Spain until the VIII century, when Pelagius, their last king, was driven from it by the Moors. He retired into the Austu- rias, where he founded a kingdom. The Ostrogoths, who had for their chief Theodoric, came into Italy and conquered the Ileruli ; but they were soon themselves driven out by the Lombards. This ^vas the first of the German nations which embraced the christian religion. The Lombards, under their chief Alboin, established themselves iu the north of Italy, from which they had dri- ven the Ostrogoths. This kingdom was destroyed by Charlemagne, after the defeat of Didier, their last king (Vill century) ; it had lasted two centuries. The Avars, leaving the shores of the Caspian sea, came to disturb the emperors of Constantinople, who granted them the second Pannonia. Scarcely settled there, they ravaged Thrace, and forced the emperors of the east to- pay them tribute. The Bulgariiuts, of Scytliian origin, succeeded the What account is ^ivcn cfthe Ilcruli ? — Gotlis ? — Visigoths? ■ Ostrogoths ?— Lombards ?— Avai'^ ?~Bulgarians? 164 - FIFTH PART. Avars on the banks of the Danube, in the XVII century, and were subdivided into Croats, Moravians, Walla- chians, and Bulgarians properly so called. The GcpidiB came from Sweden, as well as the A^isi- goths and Ostrogoths, from whom they separated on their arrival in Germany. According to some authori? the word gcpidcb signifies indolent. Th.c Vaiedes and the Slavojiians lived near the Baltic sea, about the mouth of the Vistula. The Danes and the Norma?is, people of northern Eu- rope, during the middle age rendered themselves formi- dable to all nations. They made conquests in France, where they settled in the X century : in England, over which they reigned in the XI century ; and in the king- dom of Naples and Sicily, of which they also occupied the throne (XII century). The general name of the Nor- mans is lost; but that of the Danes and the Swedes has become illustrious. OTHER BARBAROUS NATIONS. The Hungarians (IX century). After many incur- sions they fixed themselves in Pannonia, and chose a king called Stephen (X century). The Moguls (XIII century) were Tartar nations who, under Ghengis khan and his successors, conquered Chi- na, Thibet, Arabia, and even Russia. Their immense empire shone for several ages, and was annihilated in the XVI century; an epoch at which the Moguls became subjects of the Tartar Mantchous, who reign at present in China. The Turks. They left the east of the Caspian sea, in Asia Minor, under the conduct of Othman (XIV cen- V/hat is said of the Oepidjc ? — Venctles and Slavonians ?- Danes and Normans ? — llunpraria:^? ?-— Mogids ?~Turks ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 165 tury), and from thence passed into Europe, where they possessed themselves of Constantinople, under Mahomet II (XV century). [ft would be a most useful exercise for tlie pupil to make a particu- lar map of the emigration of those barbarous nations who invaded the Ro- man empire. Points differoiitly colored may denote their line of march and place of settlement.] IlMtory of the Middle Age. POPES. From the time v/hen Christianity was first established, the christians formed assemblies called ccclcsicp. (churches). The churches, gradually enlarging, and divided in the course of time into small portions, had pastors for tho heads of each of these divisions ; a bishop was soon ap- pointed to watch over the pastors or patriarchs ; the arch- bishops not long afterwards had under their direction a certain number of bishops. But from the fourth or fifth century, the head of all cliristendom, he who claimed to have succeeded to Saint Peter, and who received distinctly the name of pope, was always settled in Rome. That city had passed succes- sively to the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, and the Greeks : under the latter Rome revolted, and formed at that time, with the territory which surrounded it, a sort of free state. It maintained itself under the Lombards, and these last. What account is given of (he early polity of the church ? What was the civil state of Rome during this periocrors. The papal territory was en- larged by several provij;ces v;hich were snccessively united with it. We notice in the lii^tory of iliC Romaii Churcli : 1. The patronage of Constant ine and his successors, during which the church reposed, ilourished, and became i-ccuhr. 2. Tlic quarrel about Ini:c&titvr€s, under Gregory YII (XI century), ^vhlcll lasted many centuries : this is what is called also the war of the priesthood, or of ihc Gue'phs and Ghibellines. 3. The im[)oriant donations to the holy sec by tbe prin- cess Matilda (XII century). 4. The crusades, from the XI century to tbe end of the XIII. Who defended the papacy against die Lombards ? What is related of Leo lid, and Charlemagne ? When and liow did the pope become an European sovereign ? How was the papal territory enlarged ? What arc the leading events in the history of the church of Rome ? * Tl totni snzerainfy, which is froqucnUy met with izi tbe bistoiy of the muld'.e age, dilTcrs from sovcreig-nty, which is often used as its equiv- alent, in tliis : that the suicrain was not always a monarch or fdng, but j any hr-i or sn'^nia/r to whom feutlal service waa due. j HIoTOiaCAL SKETCHES. 1G7 5. The translation of the pontifical see to Avignon, (lur- ing 70 years. This is what is called the capti%-ity of the church, from Clement V to Gregory XI (XIV cciitu'-y). 6. The schiarn of the West (IX and X century) under Photiaa and Michael Ccrularius, patriarchs of Constanti- nople. 7. The pontificalc of Leo X, of the family of the Medici (XVl century), under whom the reformation of Luther took place, which entirely changed the flice of Christen- dom. Leo was a patron of the arts and sciences. 8. The separation of England from the papacy umlor Clement Vil (X\T century). Henry VIII, king of Eng- land, detached his subjects from the church of Rome. 9. The loss of the county Vcnalssin, taken from tho pope hy tlie Frcncli revolution, ir.uler Pius W (X\^IiI century). 10. The invDsion of Koino by the French, and the trans- ffjrmation of the stales of the church into a republic. I'ius VI was con iuclcd to France, where he died at Va- l3i!lia, in 17i)9 (XVIII century.) 11. The conquest of tbo rest of ihe states of the church by Napoleon in IS 10, who formed out of them the de- partments of Rome and Trasimene. The pope Pius VII was carried into France, ^vhere he remained till 18 14-, when he returned to Rome. 13. The restitution of the states of the church to tho Lols' see bv the concrrcss of Vienna in 1S15, with the exception of the county Venaissin, wliich reraainetl sul> iect to France. Pius IX is at present (1S17) on the pon- tifical throne ; t'le commeiicement of his pontificate ha.s been distinguished by the adoption of liberal prijiciplo.s. THE rr.EXCH. The French, a mixture of Celts, Gauls, Burgundians, From who.m were the French deriveil ? 168 FIFTH PAllT. Franks, and Visigoths, hati at the outset chiefs whose his- tory is almost unknown ; Pharamoncl, Clodion, Mero- vaeus, the latter remarkable by his victory over Attila, king of the Huns, near Chalons-sur-Marne, and Childeric ; but the French acknowledge for the founder of their monarchy Clovis I (481), who extingushed the Roman power and name in Gaul ; he then became master of the whole of that country, with the exception of what the Burgundians occupied at the east and the Visigoths at the south. We shall divide the history of France into two great ra- ces : first, the conquering race; secondly, the national race. The conqiier'mg race, that is to say, the race of Frank leaders who subdued Gaul, is divided into two parts : first, the conquering race of the Mcro-Wtjigs or Mero- vingians; secondly, the conquering race of the Karolins, which we call Carlovingians. The national race, that is to say, the race of Frank kings placed upon the throne by the choice of the nation, is called the dynasty of the Ca2^ctia?is. MEROVINGIANS. Under the Merovingians, we remark, during the reign of eighteen kings, and during nearly three centuries from 481 to 752, four principal events : First, the cstahlishment of Christianity in France un- der Clovis. Secondly, the introduction of the custom of dividing the monarchy among the male children of the sovereign, Who are distinguished among iheir earl3'' chiefs ? Who was the founder of their monarchy? Into how many races may the French be divided ? IIow is the conquering race subdivided? Why is the national race so called ? What were the duration and numbers of the Merovingian kings? — What are the principal events under that dynasty? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 169 a natural division, which still was a source of discord among the brothers, and of misfortune for the people. But these dismemberments of the empire had not at that time the character of political acts ; for they did not take place absolutely, except with regard to personal pro- perty, moveable or immoveable. They occurred three times : at the death of Clovis (fill), when the monarchy v/as divided into the four kingdoms of Orleans, Paris, Soissons and Jiete; at the death of Clotaire I (561), when it was again divided into four kingdoms ; and at the death of Dagobert, in (658), when it was divided into Aus- trasia and Neustria. The eastern or Austrasian Franks were called the Ripuar'ii, because they were settled upon the banks (Ripce) of the Meuse and the Rhine. The Salian or ivestern Franks were called Salii, be- cause they came from the borders of the river Sala. The Ripuarians and the Salians^ although having the same origin, were not confounded together ; they were even rivals, and that rivalry produced civil Wars, which were prolonged during the whole of the VII century ; until finally, at the commencement of the VIII, a reac- tion was brought about by the change of dynasty, which transfered the dominion from the Salians to the Ripua- rians, the royalty from the Merovingians to the Carlovin- gians, and the seat of the Frank kingdom from the banks of the Seine to those of the Rhine. Thirdly, the rise of xhe power of the mayors of the pa- lace, caused by the feebleness of the kings, caWedJaineants (do-nothings) : those lords or ministers invaded by de- What is said of the dismemberments of the French empire ? What were the eastern Franks denominated ? What were the western Franks called ? What relation did the Ripuarians and Salians sustain to each other? — How was their rivalry terminated? What gave rise to the power of the mayors of the palace? 8 170 rii'Tii rx\KT. groes tlio royal authority, and eiuloJ by traiisforlti^ it to themselves. Fourthly, the \iclorio3 of Charles Martel, Juke of the Franks, over the Moors or Arabs, who hat! possessed themselves of Spain, and advanced as far ay Tours, hoping to conquer France (VIII century). Charles beat the Saracens a second time near Nar- bonne, and delivered France from them for ever. The Frank king, Thierry II, died, and Charles governed alone during five years, under the tide of duke of the Franks and Austrasians ; this interregnum prepared the way for tlie fall of the Salian Franks, which we have just men- tioned. CAIlLaVIXCIIANS, We remark, under fourteen kiiigv-, and during more than two centuries, from 752 to 087: First, the reign of Pepin, who caused his auth.ority to be recognized by the Ic.ndcs or seigneurs, and by tlie Roman church ; the latter sanctioned his elevatiori in the name of religion, which had sanctioned in like maTiner that of Clovis. Thus the ascendancy of this second race bore a double character, that of a religious revolution and that of a political one. Secondly, the celebrated reign of Charlemagne the son of Pepin the Short : politician, legislator, warrior, pro- tector of letters, lie united under his laws almost the Avhole of Europe. He was crowned emperor of the Over whom did Charles Martel obtain repeated victories? How far into Europe had the Moors advanced ? Where were they finally defeated bv Charles ? What is said of Charles'after the death of Tliierrv 11? What was the eflect of the interregnum ? What are the number and duration of the Carlovingians? What i3 said of the reign of Pepin ?— Of Charlemagne ? ' HISTOniCAL SKETCHES. 171 West in 800 by the pope Leo III; but his descendants were not worthy of him. Thirdly, the establishment of feudalism (under Charles the Bold), which so elevated the power of the lords that they followed the example of the mayors of the palace, and seated themselves upon the throne of their kings (IX century). Fourthly, the loss of the German empire under Charles the Simple (912). Fifthly, the establishment of the Normans or nations of the North, in Norman Neustria, under the feeble Charles the Simple (X century). For a long time these Scandinavians had ravaged France ; instead of fighting them, their retreat was purchased by money; they be- came audacious, and RoJh, their chief, caused a French })rovince to be given him. Sixthly, the royal authority was abased and annihi- lated ; IIni;h CajH'f, one of the most powerful vassals, mounted the throne in 0S7. But it was not merely the power of the lords, on the one hand,, and the feebleness of the kings on the other, which caused the fall of the Carlovingians ; a national revolution was by slow degrees effected in the language and manners of the Franks. In the IX century the Roman language, spoken by the peo- ple, became a national bond; the Frank dynasty, which had preserved the old Teutonic tongue, was regarded as foreign. The new French established upon the banks of the Seine, on the dissolution of the Western empire What resulted from the establishment of feudalism ? Undf'r whom was the monarchy of France separated from the empire of Germany as held by Charlemagne ? When did ihe estabfisinTienl of the Normans take place? What rendered ihern audacious? What donation was made to Rollo? What causes led to the downfal of the royal authority of the Carlovingians ? What efiect did the fall of the Western empire produce on French naiionalitv ? i'J^a FIFTH PAUT. (888), raised tlielr lieads, and from that time there was rivalry between these nationals and the Carlovingians. Eudcs and Ilaviil were proclaimed Icings, and soon the royalty of the conquest gave place to the royalty of the nation. It is from this third revolution that the com- mencement of the French 7nonarchy really dates. CAPETIANS. The third race is divided into three parts : first, the Capets ; secondly, the Valois ; thirdly, the Bourbons; it reckons thirty-eight kings, and has lasted nearly eight centuries and a half. Under the Capets we remark : First, the estahlishment of the commimcs, or the en- franchisement of the people, who were enslaved until this epoch; they were able henceforth to defend themselves against the Jcvdal tyranny, of which the institution of communes diminished the oppression under Louis VI (1108). Secondly, the crusades, or religious expeditions for de- livering the tomb of Jesus Christ, which was fallen under the power of the Turks. They hastened the pro- gress of the arts and of civilization in Europe, gave a new impulse to commerce and navigation, and diminish- ed the power of the lords, who still strove to strengthen themselves; but they also occasioned great destruction of men and money. They commenced under Philip I (1095), and ended under Louis IX (1270), who died of the plague at Tunis. What were the consequences of the rivalry between the nationals and the Carlovingians? Into how many parts is the third race divided ? What are its number and duration ? What remarkable events took place under the Capets? What was tlie effect of ibc establishment of communes? What were the effects of the crusades?— How long did ihev last? ^ ^ HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 173 Thirdly, the conquests of Fhillp Augustus, who de- feated the English and Germans at Bouvines, 1214, and united to the crown Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Tou- raine, &c. Fourthly, the estahUs7ime?its, or code of laws of Saint Louis, who, seated at the foot of an oak, in the wood of Vincennes, rendered justice to his subjects in person. Fifthly, the convocation of the States' General, com- posed of the clergy, the nobility, and the people, the lat- ter of whom were called the third estate. They confirm- ed the authority of the king, M'eakened that of the lords, and raised the people from their abasement (1302). Sixthly, the maintenance of that article of the salic law which excluded females from the inheritance of the conquered land; it is regarded as a fundamental law of the State, by two memorable decisions : first, at the death of John I, in favor of Philip V, called the Lojig^ against Jane of Navarre, daughter of Louis X (1316); secondly, at the death of Charles IV, called the Fair, in favor of Philip de -Valois, against Edward III, king of England (1328). Under the Valois, France was unfortunate externally and internally. Externally, first, by the wars with England, which placed France in peril, under Philip VI, who was con- quered at Crecy; under John II, called the Good, who was conquered and made prisoner at Poitiers; under Charles VI, conquered at Azincourt, and whose wnfe, Isabel of Bavaria, sold France to the English, at the trea- What were the achievements of Philip Augustus? What is said of the Establishments of St. Louis ? What were the consequences of convoking the States' Ge- neral ? By what memorable decisions was the Saliclaw confirmed ? What was the state of France under the Valois ? What calamities befel France in her wars with the English? 174 FIFTH PART. ty of Troyes (1420) j and under Ciiarlcs Vil, who was reduced at the outset to the city of Bourges, but after- ward victorious over the English, whom he drove from France with the singular assistance of Joan of Arc, an enthusiastic young woman of Lorraine. Secondly, by the wars of Italy, which were the source of the greatest losses in men and money, under Charles VIII, who yet conquered the enemy at Parma; under Louis XII, conquered at Semiuara and Ccrignoles (king- dom of Naples), but conqueror at Aguadcl -dud Rav€?ma ; and under Francis I, victorious in the commencement at Marignan, but conquered and made prisoner at Pavia (1525). Thirdly, by the Austr'tati wars under Henry II. Victo- rious at first over the Lnperialists at Renti, that king was conquered at Saint Quentin by the arms of Philip IT, king of Spain, who was leagued with England against France. Internally, by the civil wars which desolated France dur- ing three centuries : firstly, that of Charles the Bad, king of Navarre and son-in-law of John the Good, who wished to mount the throne ; secondly, that of the peasants against the lords, a war called the Jaqacrie ; thirdly, that of the Orleans or Armagnac party and the Burgundians, rival French factions, under Charles VI ; fourthly, that of the Protestants and Catholics, under Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry HI; the conspiracy of Amboise, under Francis II, and the massacre of the Protestants on Saint By what remarkable means v/ere the fortunes of France in those wars at length changed ? What were her successes and reverses in llie Italian wars ? — In the Austrian ? How was France aflfected by her civil wars at this time? Can you name the parties to these internal lends? What deplorable consequences of the contest between Pro- testants and Catholics ? IirSTpRICAL SKETCHES. 175 Earthulomevv's day (1572), under Charles IX, were its most uiihoppy consequences. But the reign of the branch of Valols still offers events which in some sort redeem the evils which we have just pointed out. We remark here : First, tlie fixing of the majority of the king to 14 years of an;e, under Charles V (XIV century) ; Sccojidly, certain discoveries which induced a com- plete revolution in the liuman mind, such as that of artil- lery, under Philip Vf ; printing, under Charles VII; the discovery of America, and the passage to the Indies, un- der Charles VllI ; and the letter- post, under Louis XI; Thirdly, the regeneration of the arts and sciences, particularly under Francis I, and the uninterrujited chain of French writers, beginning from that time. The Bourbons. This family is the most ancient of Eu- rope ; it reigns over many countries, and presents the greatest, and the i>est sovereign of France, Henry IV ! For the 218 years that it has occupied the throne of France, glorious events have been mingled with fearful reverses, arid a terrible catastrophe has just given to the world a grand example of the frailty of human greatness, as well as of the crimes which may be produced by a rcvohitit)!*, whatever be the happy consequences which are to spring from it. We shall only cast a glance at the kin'j;s of this branlace. Charles I, whose head was brought to the scaf- fold ; he was replaced by Oiiver CromiccU, who re?gne£;dom ? Whom did he invest with it ? — How did John dispose of it ? Was Ireland quiet under this arrangement ? When was that country deprived of its parli-ament? When does the history of Poland begin to be interesting? What is said of Piasf?— Of Bolcslas ?— Of the Jagellons ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 197 throne Jaiing 3 86 years. The crown afterward became elective, and among the kings of that epoch, we remark : First, Henry /, of Valois, brother of Charles IX, who fled precipitately from Cracovia, to cause himself to be consecrated king of France. Secondly, John Casimir, who abdicated the throne in 1688 ; he left Poland and retired into France, where Louis XIV gave him the abbey of Saint Germain-des- Pres; he died at Nevers, without posterity (1672). Thirdly, John Sohieski, who delivered Vienna when besieged by the Turks (1683). Fourthly, Stanislas I, Leckzlnski, king by the protec- tion of Charles XII ; he was not able to sustain himself upon the throne, was obliged to fly, and went to reign in Lorraine, where his virtues endeared him to the inhabi- tants. His daughter Manj married Louis XV, king of France. The elective government was the source of the con- tinual misfortunes which afflicted Poland. She was successively dismembered by a three-fold division be- tween Russia, Austria and Prussia. In 1795 she was entirely erased from the number of European govern- ments. But, in 1830, she sought to recover her indepen- dence ; during a long time her heroic courage succeeded in resisting the numerous army of Nicholas ; but numbers prevailed, anJ Poland has returned under the dominion of Russia. Russia possesses at present the Duchy of Warsaw, which forms the vice-royalty of Poland. After whom did the crown of Poland become elective ? What is said of Heiirv I ? — Of John Casimir ? — Of John Sobieski ?— Of Stanislas "l ? What was the source of the misfortune of Poland ? How was slxe dismembered, and by whom ? When was her nationality destroyed ? What effort did slie make in 1830 ? How did she succeed ? Who possesses tlie Duchy of Warsaw ? 198 FIFTH PART. RUSSIANS. The Russians appear to be a mixture of Scythians, Huns, Cimbri, Geta3, Sarmatians, and other barbarous nations ; the commencement of their history, then, is uncertain and not very interesting. Many families have governed them. First, that of Rurich', fo imder of the Russian empire, in the IX century (860). Secondly, that of Wladijjiir, called the Great, wlio was converted to the christian faith by the Greeks, and received baptism ; he is considered as tlie apostle and the Solomon of Russia, in the XI century (1015). Thirdly, that of Ivan or John IV, the first Czar, in 1584. Fourthly, that of Michael Romano/, in 1G13. It was under this dynasty that Russia emerged from obscurity. Peter the Great, grandson of Michael, civilized his peo- ple, established a navy, built in a short time consideralde forts and cities, vanquished Charles XII at Fultawa, and deserved the title of legislator and restorer of Russia ; having mounted the throne in 1G95, he died in 1725. The reign of Elizaheth, his daughter, which lasted twenty years, also formed an epoch in the annals of that country, (1741 to 1762). At the death of this princess the family of Holstein- Gotthorp ascended the throne of Russia, in the person of Peter III, grandson of Peter the Great, and son of Charles Frederick, Duke of Holslein-Gotthorp, and Anne of Russia, elder daughter of Peter the Great (1762). Peter soon lost his throne and his life, and left the What is said of ihe early history of the Rus(?ians? What is said of Rurick?— Of VVladimir ?— Of John IV ?— Of Michael Romanof?— Of Peter the Groat?— Of Elizabeth? --Of Peter III? IIISTGKIOAL SKETCHES. ISO crown to hit; wife, ilie celebrated Catliariut II, (17<)2 to 179G). That princess made war with success upon Turkey and Sweden, and took to herself a part of the three divisions of Poland. Payl I. who succeeded h r.er joined the coalition against France, and ended hy con- chiiling peace with that kingdom ; but having fallen the victim of a conspiracy in 1801, lie had for his successor Afrxahdir /, his son. That prince liad to sustain a terri- ble war against the French, who carried their victorious arms to tlie very centre of his empire. Tlie uidjoundetl ambition of Napoleon and the climate of Russia rendcreil the Russians triumphant in the campaign of 1812, and Alexander led his soldiers to Paris. This prince died suddenly at Taganrok, Dec. 1''' 182o. The crown theti fell, by the renunciation of Constantiue, to Nicholas 1, bis brother, now reigning (1847). His n^ign has been distinguished hy his victories over the Turks, and by the Polish Revolution. GERMANS. Tiie Ctrjiiayis, propeily so called, inhabited, from the III century after J. C. th-e part of Germany since called Suahla. Clevis J, king of France (V century), van- ouishod tlicm at Tolhiac, and annexed them t) his vast empire. Charlemagne reduced them still more to obedi- ence, by the victory of Paihrhorji, and rendered himself, moreover, master of Italy, after having made Didiei", king o^ the Lombards, prisoner. Thus France, Germany and Italy constituted oidy one empire, and were subject to the same master, in the person of Ciiarlemagne, who forms tlie stock of the Emperors of the West since 800. What i<^ said of Catharine II?— OfPaul 1 ?— Of Alexander ?__0r Nicholas I? Where have tlie Germans resided since the lil centxiry? What did Clevis I do to them ? — And Ci)arlemr.gne ? 200 FIFTH PART. From the period of the dismemberment of the empire among the sons of Charlemagne, many German Lords rendered themselves independent. Such was the origin of the States of Germany, of which one retains the title of the Empire. EMPIRE OF GERMANY. In 912 the Germans shook off the yoke of the French and raised to the throne a king chosen among them- selves ; this is the commencement of the history of Ger- many, properly speaking. Among the dynasties which have governed Germany, of which the throne is elective, we shall notice : First, the House of Franconia, whose first king was Conrad I, (X century) 912. Secondly, the House of Saxony, (X century) whose first king was Henry the Fowler ; this was a brilliant epoch. Otho the Great, (936) is the hero of that dynasty ; he conquered Italy, made himself feared by his vassals, and assumed the title of Emperor, which has since remained to the supreme head of Germany. Thirdly, the House of Salic Franconia, whose first king was Conrad 77(1024). Under this house the king- dom of Aries, or of the two Burgundies, was incorpora- ted with the empire ; but Germany was rent asunder by the quarrels between the Emperor Henry IV, and the What was the origin of the German States ? What revolution was effected hy the Germans in 912 ? Is the throne of Germany elective ? Who was the first king of the House of Franconia ? — Of the House of Saxony ? Who is the hero of that dynasty ? What is narrated of him ? ^ Who was the first king of the House of Salic Franconia ? What additions were made to the empire under it ? By what quarrel was Germany rent asunder? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 201 Pope Gregory VII, on the subject of investitures. The lords profited by these dissensions, to render themselves independentr Fourthly, the House of Suabia Hohenstauffcn, wliose first king is Conrad III, who took the cross with Louis VII, king of France (1137). During this period Italy entirely escaped from the imperial dominion ; the num- ber of independent princes increased, and the royal authority became, in fact, a nullity. Among the kings of this family we notice : first, Frede- ric Barharossa, who took the cross with Philip Augustus and Richard Coeur de Lion, and who died of a disease contracted in crossing the Cydnus ; secondly, Henry VI, the Nero of Germany, who held Richard Coeur de Lion in captivity ; thirdly, Frederic II, one of the greatest kings of Europe, famous for his wars and his quarrels with the Holy See; fourthly, Conrad IV, the last king of that branch, which became extinct in the person of the young and interesting Conradin. The king of Naples, Charles of Anjou, brother of Saint Louis, put this un- happy prince to death upon a scaffold, at the age of 17 years. INTERREGNUM. An interregnum of 23 years followed the death of Con- rad IV. Several emperors were then chosen at once ; nu- merous states rose in revolt; Italy and Germany achieved their revolution ; a common bond united them all. The How did the lords profit by these disturbances ? Who was the first king of the House of Suabia Hohen- stauffen? What took place during his reign ? What is said of Frederic Barharossa ?— Of Henry VI?— Of Frederic II ?— Of Conrad IV ?— Of Conradin ? What happened in Germany during the Interregnum? "9* 60S FIITH PART. diets or assemblies of the imperial courts vftive tlie springs of the Germanic body. Finally, the electors conferred the supreme dignity on liodolph of Hapsburg, in 1273 ; he was no more than a simple count ; he vanquished Ottucar, king of Bohemia, und got possession of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola. Fifthly, The Familtj of Uopsburg was one of the most powerful and remarkable in Europe ; it raised itself by matrimonial alliances, and was divided into two celebra- ted branches : lirst, that of Spanish Austria, begun by Charles V (1519), and extinquished in 1700, by the death of Charles II, king of ■ Spain ; secondly, that of German Austria, begun in the person of Ferdinand, brother of Charles V, in 1556, and extinguished in 1740, by the death of Charles VI. In this interval the kings who are nolicable are : First, Albert of Auslria, whose tyranny was the occa- sion of the independance of Switzerland, in 1308; Secondly, Charles IV of Lux€?nhurg, who dissipated the royal revenues and completed the limitation of tlie royal authority by the golden bull (1353) ; Thirdly, Frederic HI, an avaricious, unjust and igno- rant prince, under whom the Turks established them- selves in Europe, in 1453 ; Fourthly, Maximilian (1493), who increased the pow- er of the house of Austria by his marriage with Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Rash, and only heiress of the Low-Counties : What is said of the diets of the imperial conrfs ? • Upon whom was the imperial dignity finally conferred? What are tlie acliievements of Rodolj)}) of llapsburg? What is said of the family of Hapsburij ? Into what two branches was it divided ? What is said of Albert I ? — Of Charle? IV of Luxemburg ? — Of Frederic III ?-~0f Maximilian ? HISTORICAL f^KETcrics. '203 Fifthly, Ckai-ks Fiflk (l.^ilO), the most powerful mon- arch of his age, and rival of Francis I ; iie abvlicated ia IS.OG, and retired to tlic convent of Saint Jxist. iSlxthly, F'jrdiuaad I, who fixed tlie imperial crown in Bohemia and Hungary (ir>o8)- Seventhly, JMafthias Ferdlnund III, under whom the thirtij years' war took place, which was caused by the a?ii- bilion of tho house of Austria, from IGIS to 16 i 8 ; Eightly, Charks IV, who set about uniting Spain to the Empire a second time; the last male of his house, he left the throne to his daughter 31aria Theresa, in 1780. Ninthly, the Ilotcsc of AuHtro-Lorralnii had for irs first Bfivereigns Francis I, of Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany, and jlaria Thertsa ^ this family still reigtjs (1847) in the person of Ferdinand II, who came to the throne ?vlarcli 2"d. 183o. The seven years' war, the dismemberment of Poland, the conquests of Bonaparte, which reduced Fiancis II to his hereditary States in 180G, and finally the coalitions against France, are the four great events which have taken place down to the present time, in tho history ol tliis dynasty. GERMANIC COXFEDKfcf.ACV. In ISOG, all the princes of the south of Germany com- posed the confederation of the Rhine, \v\i\c\\ was replaced by the Germanic Confederacy established in 1811. In re- What IS said of Charles Fifth ?— Of Ferdinand I ?-0f Matthias Ferdinand III?— Of Charles VI ? Who were the first sovcrei-^ns of the Hovise of Lorraine ? Who is the present emperor? Wliat are tlie great events which Iiave occured iinder this dynasty ? When was the Confederation of die Rhine (brmed? By what was it replaced ? 204 FIFTH PART. ference to more important objects, the diet forms itself into a general assembly, and Austria enjoys the presiden- cy ; the ordinary diets sit at Fraukfort-on-the-Maine. DANES. Anciently, Denmark was divided into many petty sove- reignties : each small island of that country had its king; Jutland had several of them. Zealand was the resi- dence of the most powerful of these petty princes, who abandoned themselves to piracy, like the nations of the North in general. The Danes made a great number of expeditions against Great Britain and France. They subdued a part of England and formed petty kingdoms in that country ; as to France, they did nothing but pillage her and lay her waste. They were intrepid, and accustomed to live at sea; they practiced a gross worship, impressed nevertheless with a certain savage grandeur. In the X century Christianity was introduced almost by force into Denmark; some time previously, king Gorm or Gormo possessed himself of the sovereignty, and reigned over a great part of what at the present day forms Denmark. Scania was one of his provinces ; but Sleswick was taken from him by the emperors, of Ger- many and erected into a raargraviate. On the other hand, Sueno, grandson of Gormo, conquered England ; and his eon Canute added to it the conquest of Norway, so that these three sceptres were in the hands of the latter prince. How is the Germanic Confederacy constituted ? "What was the ancient state of Denmark ? What account is given of the Danish expeditions against Eojojland and France ? * AVhatis said of their early liabits and religion ? When and liow was Christianity introduced into Denmark ? What is said of King Gorm ?— Of Sueno ?— Of Canute ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 205 From the XI century (104-2), England had once more kings of her own, and, five years after, Norway was also lost to Denmark, which was rent asunder by intestine wars and enfeebled by the conflicts of monarchy and feudalism, Waldemar I, restored, in the XII century, some lustre to the Danish power. The daughter of Waldemar III, Margaret, having espoused Haquiu VIII, king of Nor- way, was regent of the two kingdoms, joined to them by conquest that of Sweden, and endeavored to consolidate this union of the three kingdoms of the North by the famous treaty of Calmar, in the XIV century. This union lasted scarcely half a century. In the XV century (1448), Sweden was entirely de- tached from Denmark; in the same year, the ancient dy- nasty of the Shioldungian kings being extinct, the Danes raised to the throne Christian I, of the race of the counts of Oldenburg, who have reigned ever since ; Christian was king of Denmark and Norway, and duke of Sleswick and Holstein : the latter duchy was afterward the appanage of another branch of the family, which preserved it until the XVIII century, an epoch when it returned to the do- main of the kings of Denmark, by means of the session of the duchy of Oldenburg. The religious reform under Luther was introduced, in the XVI century, into Denmark without much difficulty. When were England aivl Norway lost to the Danes ? What was the state of Denmark itself at that time ? What is said of Waldemar I ? — Of Margaret? How long did the union of Colmar last ? When was Sweden detached from Denmark ? What took place at the extinction of the Shioldungian dy- nasty ? Over what countries did Christian I, reign ? Through what vicissitudes has the duchy of Sleswick and Holstein passed ? When and how was the reformation introduced into Den mark ? 206 FIFTH TArvT. At the commencement of the XIX century "(iSG'?), tlie king of Denmark having refused to make common cause with England against the emperor of the French, wlio then ruled over the whole of the continent, Copenhagen Avas bombarded by the English, and the government forced to deliver up its entire military fleet ; and as the Danes continued to adhere to the party of Napoleon, the powers allied to England at the peace of 1814 took Nor- way from Denmark in order to give it to Sweden, and granted the Danish sovereign, as a sort of indemnity, the German Duchy of Luxcmburgh. The present monarch (1817) of Denmark is Christian VIII, who came to the throne December 3='^^' 1839. HLNGARIAXS. Hungary, formerly Pannonia, had been peopled origi- nally by the Huns. It was afterwards subject to differ- ent nations * Charlemagne got possession of it in the VII 1 century. About the end of the IX century, other nations, who came from Asia, fixed themselves there ; these were the Hungarians. Geisa was the first among the kings of Ilungcry who embraced Christianity; Stephen, his son, succeeded liim.. Under the kings who followed, nothing but wars and re- hellions are seen. The most remarkable are : Stcphci II, a virtuous and brave prince (XII century) ; Afidrav II, who put himself at the head of a crusade (XIII cen- tury) ; Andrew III, his grandson ; Louis I, who joined to Why was Copenhagen bombarded by tljo English in 18C7 ? How did the allied powers deal wiih Denmark in 1814 ? Who is the reigning kine; of tliat counlry ? W!io c;ot possession of Hungary in the VIII century ? Who fixed theniselves tliorc about the end of the IX .' What is said of Geisa?— Of Stephen ?— Of S!ei)heu 11?— Of Andrew II ?— Of Andrew III ?~Of Louis I ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 207 liis warlike qualities prudence, generosity and the love of letters : at his death his daughter Mary was proclaim- ed queen ; She associated to her power Sigismund, her husband, who became king of Bohemia and emperor (XV century). During the minority of Ladidas V (XV century), tiie celebrated Corcinus, a noble Hungarian, son of John Iluniades, made war against the Turks with the greatest success. Matthias Corainus, his son, was elected at the d<3alh of Ladislas, and reigned with glory. Wars almost continual were caused by the ambition of the house of Austria, and by the resistance of the Hunga- rians (XVH century). Ferdinand, brother of Charles V, Buccecded in causing the Hungarian crown to be declared hereditary in the house of Austria, and placed upon the liead of his son, the archduke, who became emperor, under the name of Maximilian II, in 1568. The crown passed, after many agitations, to Charles IV^, the father of Maria Theresa. That princess, at the death of her father, beheld several princes disputing her accession ; The Hungarians remained faithful to her, and aided her in conquering (XVHI century) the throne. The sequel of the history of Hungary is that of the em- peror of Germany. NEAPOLITANS. The kingdom of Naples was subdued by tlie Romans from the earliest times of the republic. What is sai the first king of the house of Burgundy ?— Of the house of Avis ? IIISTOITICAL SKETCHES. 213 Thirdly. That of Bragaiiza, whose first king was John VI, XVII century (1040). Between the two families last mentioned the Spaniards governed Portugal during GO years. The family of Burgimdy had for its head Alphonso Ihnriquez, who vanfjuished, in the plains of Ouriqua (Alentejo), five Moorish princes, from whom he took their five standards. It was in this century that the famous Roderigo Diaz lived, who was surnamed the Cid, that is to say, head or chief, on account of his valor (1139). The principal successors of Alphonso : Dionynius, who was justly called the father of his country, for he encouraged the arts, commerce and agri- culture (1279). Alphon-fo IV (XIV century), who ordered the assassi- nation of Inez do Castro, mistress of his son, Peter the Justiciary. That young prince succeeded him ; he caused Inez to be exhumed, crowned her, and transported her to the royal tomb, after having sacrificed her enemies (1325). Under the family oi Acts, we notice John /, natural son of Peter the Justiciary, who fixed the crown upon his head by the victory of JIhjuharotta, and the memory of whom is still dear to the Portuguese (1385). John II, his great-grandson, surnamed Augustus. It was he who refused to furnish vessels to Columbus (1481). Emmanuel the Great (XV and XVI centuries), whose reign was the golden age of Portugal. Under this prince "Who was the first king of the house of Braganza? Who governed Porrugal between the two last houses ? What is said of the battle of Alentejo ?— Of the Cid? Who were the principal successors of Alphonso? Can you give the historv of Dionysius ?— Of Alphonso IV ? —Of Peter the Justiciary "?— Of John II?— Of Emmanuel the Great ? 214 FIFTH TAUT. Va.tco dc Gama tloubied the cape of Good Hope ; Alva- rez Cahral (liscoverod Brazil, and the general Alhuqi/xr- quc immortaHzed the Portuguese name in the Indies. JoJm III, son and successor of Enfimanuol, establishcH the inquisition. At the death of Henry the Cardinal, his brother (1580), many princes disputed with each other the throne of Por- tuo-al ; the king of Spain, Philip II, obtained it by force of arms. Under the Sj^cousJi dominion, the yoke of Spain and the tyranny of lier kings became insupportable to the Por- tuguese, from whom the Hollariders took many places in Africa, the Indies and America. Under the Family of Braganza, we notice : First, John IV, surnamed the Fortunate. He owed the crown to the genius of his w^ife, Louisa de Guzman, whose regency, under the minority of Alphonso VI, was Orlorious for Portun-al. The victory of ViUaviciosa was the termination of the quarrel with the Spaniards, which for 2S years had agitated the two nations. Secondly, Fdcr II, usurper of the throne of his brother (XVII century), whose wife, Mary of Nemours, he espoused. He enjoyed a firm and glorious reign, and took up arms against France, in the war of the Spanish succession, in 1700. Thirdly, Joseph I, in whose reign tlie earthquake of Lisbon took place, in 1755. The IMarquis of Ponibal, his minister, is celebrated for the expulsion of the Jesuits; Joseph was assassinated in 1759 ; in 1762 the Spaniards made an invasion into Portugal, and were repulsed by the Count de La Lippe. Can you oive the history of John III? Ilow'did Philip II obtain the throne of Portugal? Was the Spanish dominion acce]it;ible to the Portujifiie.'^e ? Wl:at is of March, 131G, acquired the title of king and the name of John Vi. Jn Europe the reign of that prince was stormy; and, in America, Brazil declared itself independent. In Portu- gal two powerful parties shook the kingdom : the Con- stitutionals and the Absolutists, at whose head was found Don IMiguel, son of the king, and of the queen mother, Charlotte of Spain. John VI died in 1826, and -after his death Portugal was a prey to all the revolts which spring from the spirit of party. The usurpation of Don Miguel appeared to have put the finishing stroke to the misfortune of that country. Maria II is at present on the throne (1817), to which she came May 2^^^ 1826. EOIIEMIAXS. Boheiaia, to the west of Hungary, was originally peo- pled by a colony of the Boiae, which left Gaul in the VI century, before J. C. to establish themselves in that country, and it was from this people it took its name. The Mar'comanni (a nation of Germ.any), drove out tho BoiiD, and established themselves in the country which they had occupied. What is said of Maria Frances Isabella ?— Of John as re- gent ?— Of John as kino;?— Of Don Miguel ?— Of Maria II ? Whence did Bohemia derive its name ? Who drove out ihe Boiae ? 216 FIFTH PART. Towards tlie end of the V century ihc Marcomanni were driven out in their turn by the Esclavonians, (a people who came from the environs of the Baltic Sea), whose chief was named Zcch, It was the latter who cleared up the country, then covered with forests. The successors of Zeck are unknown, until after the year 632, at which time a virtuous princess reigned, call- ed Libussa, who married Premislas, a simple laborer. This new prince showed himself worthy of the throne, and made some very good laws. He began to reign in 632, and died in 676. His daughter succeeded him. In 950 Bohemia became tributary to the Empire. The sovereigns of Bohemia bore the title of dukes until 1061, when the Emperor Henry IV gave the name of king to Uratislas II, who was the eighteenth duke. After the death of Louis II, who was slain in a battle in 1526, the crown of Bohemia passed to the house of Austria, in the person o^ Ferdinand I, who had espoused the sister of that prince, and from being elective, as it had been before, it became hereditary in this house, which still 2^ossesses it. SWISS. Switzerland, anciently called Helvetia^ was subdued by Julius Caesar, and remained under the dominion of the Romans during nearly five centuries. Who expelled ihe Marcomanni ? Who cleared up the country? What is said of the successors of Zeck ? — Of Libussa and Premislas ? What happened to Bohemia in 950 ? What is said ofUratislas?— Of Louis II?— Of Ferdinand I ? What is said of the crown after Ferdinand ? What was the ancient name of Switzerland ? By whom v\^as it subdued ? How long did it continue und&r the Roman dominion ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 217 When the barbarous nations threw themselves upon the empire, the Burgundians and Suevi fell upon Helve- tia and divided it. Towards the middle of the VI century the French made themselves masters of the whole country conquered by these two nations, and Helvetia became a province of the French empire. Towards > the end of the IX century Switzerland was re-united to Germany. In the XIV century, the Emperor Albert, son of Ru- dolph of Hapsburg, wishing entirely to subdue the can- tons of Schwitz, Underwald and Uri, which still pre- served a remnant of liberty, treated them very rudely in order to drive them to revolt, and have by this means an opportunity of reducing them to slavery. He established there two governors, who, in furtherance of his views, acted in a manner the most tyrannical, to such a degree that GesJer, one of them, demanded that the same hon- ors should be rendered to his cap, which he exposed in the public square, at the top of a pike, as to his own per- son ; such a course of conduct did, in fact, excite mur- murs ; but the consequences did not answer to the expectations of the emperor. Williayn Tell refused^ to obey the order of the governor. As a punishment, Ges- ler condemned him to strike down, with an arrow, an apple placed upon the head of his only son, or to be be- headed with him, if he failed of his stroke. William Tell took two arrows ; as he was an excellent archer, he struck down the apple with the first without touching his •on, and turning himself towards the governor, he said to him : The second icas far you if I had been so uvfortunate Who next took possession of it? When did Helvetia become a part of the French empire ? When was it restored to Germany ? What is said of the eovernment of Albert? — Of his minister Gesler?— Of William Tell ? 10 213 FIFTH PAHT. as to kill m>j son. Geslcr, enraged at his Ix^lJncss, em- barked witli hiui on the lake of Lucerne, in order tv> conducL liim to liis cattle ; bat V^'illiain Ttdl escaped from liis haiid, and slew him in a defile wl:ere be lay in wait lor liim. The three oppressed cantons united logetljer, placed Wilhani Tell at their head, and put to flight the impe- rial lacecl there dukes, who were removable, that is, liable to be recalled or deposed by those wlio liad appointed tliem, Oliarleinagiie sulijectcd Tus(::any to counts (VIII cen- tury). Louis the Debonairc siibbiitutod for them mar- (juises (IX century); they began the seiies of the suv- erelgti.s of Tuscany. The countess Matihla (XI and XII centuries) made a donation of Tuscany to the holy see; alter her death the j)ope.s cxpcrieuccd the greatest obstacles to the full en- joyment of this gift oii the part of the emperors, vviio pre- tended still to retain a right of sovereignty over Tuscany, and who wished at that tinjc to render themselves masters i»f iC; this was the origin of the G ucljj^is and Gkihhduu's, names which designated the party of the popes ajid that of tlie emperors. In the XII century, Tuscany, fatigued by this struggle, erected herself into a republic. The government experi- enced many variations ; civil wars, and e.'specialiy thoso between the Florentines and Lucchese, desolated this beautiful country * The Florentines wese divided iaito dilierent brnlies of tiadesmen ; the family of the Medici, which belonged to llie body of merchants, began to distinguish itself by its moderation and itn partiality, and acquired great consid- eiation (XV century). Cosmo, son of John i\unger branch, and grandson of Alphonso I. Ciesar experienced opposition in his new dominion on the j)art of Clement VllI, and ended by ceding to Ihtu the district of Ferrara, wliich was united to the states ot llie Church. The duke fixed himself at Modena. llercuhs RcHaidt iVEste, in the XVIII century, had only one daughter, who married a prince of the house ol Austria, to which Modena and Iveggio are revertible. The Raui'ivzcsi'. Ravenna. VVijcn the barbarians had rendered themselves masters of Italy, the emperors of the I^Jast sent thither from time to time generals for the main- tenance of their rights, Tiie "-cneral, Js''arses, having been called home in 5CS, lja department. Paoli, whom the Corsicans had chosen for their gen- eral, and who had tried to enfranchise them, was con- strained to take refuge in England. Sardi?ua. This island was originally peopled by the Phenicians, and afterward conquered by the Carthaginians, from whom the Ro.mans tO')k it in the ^rst jjunic war. In modern times it had been in the power of S|)ai!i until 1719, when it was ceded to the duke of Savoy, wh<^ bears the title of king of Sai'dinia, Cyi)rus and Jerusalem, and duke of Savoy. Candid. After the fall of the Roman empire Candia passed to the emperors of the East, who retained it until the commencement of the IX century (825). The apo.-5tle Paul is supposed to have introduced Christianity into the What is said of Sardinia 1 — Of Candia? 232 FIFTH TART. island. The Arabs, who took possession of it in the IX century, were driven from it in the X. Afterward it pass- ed successively to the Genoese and the Venitians, the latter of whom possessed it nearly five centuries. In the XVII century the Turks made themselves masters of it, after a disastrous war of t\venty-four years; in 1669 ihcy secur- ed to themselves the possession of it by a treaty, and since then it has always remained in their power, notwitli- standing the troubles of the late wars. Rhodes. The Rhodians have performed a conspicuous part in history. They were the last to submit to the Ro- mans, under Vespasian (I century). The knights of Saint John of Jerusalem maintained themselves there at first, in spite of all the efforts of Mahomet II (XV century); but, besieged anew by the sultan Solyman the Great, in 1523, they gave way to numbers and were buried beneath the ruins of their city. Rhodes has since shared the fate of all the nations of Greece : it belongs to the Turks. Cyprus. Cyprus was peopled by the Phenicians be- fore the Greek colonies came to settle there. It passed to the Macedonians, and to the Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, from whom the Romans took it. After the fall of the Roman empire it was for some time occupied by ti^e Arabs ; but the Greek emperors drove them from it, and, during the crusades^ Richard I, king of England, took it from Isaac Comnenus, at the close of the XII centuiy (11^1), and ceded it to the house of Lusignan, to indem- nify that family for the throne of Jerusalem. At tlie death *of king John this island would have belonged to the king of Sardinia by the marriage of a prince of his house with an heiress of Lusigna?i: but that princess, in 1480, ceded the sovereignty of it to the Venitians, who were striptof it, in 1570, by the Turks, to whom it still belongs, although the kings of Sardinia entitle themselves kings of Cypni?. What i8 said of Rhodes?— Of Cyprus? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 233 OBSERVATION. The pupil should make a synoptical table of these se^ condary nations, whose history cannot be easily seized by the memory or developed by means of questions, without increasing their number disproportionately to the relative importance of the nations themselves. He should write an analysis of them in lateral columns. Modem History. TURKS. BEFORE THE CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. In the IX century the Turks or Turcomans emigrat- ed from Tartary in order to establish themselves in Ar- menia. From thence, some directed their course into Persia, others into the province of Bagdad. Disquieted by the other Tartar tribes, they withdrew themselves, in the XII century, into Asia Minor, which they had previ- ously conquered, and established the seat of their gov- ernment at Iconium. Osman, or Ottoman, one of their chiefs, united all the tribes under the same sceptre, hoist- ed the standard of Mahomet, took the title of sultan, and founded, iii 1300, the dynasty of tlie Turks, called from his name Osmanlis, or Ottomans. Among the successors of Osman, we notice Orkan (from 1323 to 1359), who founded the institution of the Janissaries; Amurath I {^vom 1358 to 1389), who was called from his victories, Gazile, or the Conqueror ; he What were the emigrations of the Turks in the IX century ? — Whai induced them to retire into Asia Minor ? — Where did they establish their seat of government? — What is said of Os- man or Ottoman ?— Of Orkan ?— Of Amurath I ? 234 FIFTil PART. gained possession of Adrcanople, to iLe nortli of Cor.s'an- linople, and organized tiie Janissaries ; Bajazct /(13S9- 1403), surnamed lldrchini or the T/uL-iJer, won great victories, but was vanquished at A?icf/ra by Tamerlane, \v!io, it is said, shut him up in an iron cage ; AmnratJi J I (from 1421 to 1451), who won a great victory at Varna over the Poles (1444) ; and linally Mahamct IT, the son of Amurath (from lAr>l to 1481), who maybe considered OS the second founder of the Ottoman grandeur; he tool-i Coustatitiriojdc by assault, on the 29^ of May, 14.S3, aud put an end to tlie Roman emiiirc of the East. AFTER THE CONQUEST OF CONSTAXTINOPLE. Among t!ie twenty-four saltans who have reigned since the conquest of Constantinople, we distinguish : Mahonut JI, of whom we have spoken. He made successively the conquest of Scrvia, the Morea, AtJwns, Trchizonde, Bosnia, Albania, and Negropont. Stiim /(from 1512 to 1520), surnamed the Ferocious. He effected the conquest of Syria, of Armenia, and, in in- l.")16, of Egypt, under the Mamelukes. Solyraan H (from 1520 to 156G), surnamed tlic Irlog- 7iijlcent and the Great ; he was the hero of his race. His most brilliant actions are the siege and capture oi' Rhodes from the knights of Saint John ; the victory ®f Mo/iaez over the Hungarians ; the siege of Vienna ; the capture of Bagdad; the conquest of Temcn ; the siege of Mali;;, &c. Francis I made alliance with Solyman, and the world saw for the first time a Turko Frardcish fleer. 8di7U II (from 15GG to 1574) conquered Tunis, and the island of Cyprus, and was beaten at Lepeir.to (157!), by Don Juan, natural son of Cliarles Fifth. What is said of Bajazet I ?— Of Amurath II ?— Of Mahomei n ?-0f Selim I ?— Of Solvnian 1 1 ?— Of 8eiim II ? IIISTOillCAL SKETCHES. 235 Mahomet IV (from 1G19 to 16S7). This sultan, in 16S3, invaded Hungary, and besieged Vienna. At the same time, Sohieskl having marched to the assistance of" that city, the Turks were beaten and constrained to retreat. Mahomet IV was deposed and strangled. Solijman III ( 1687-169 1 ). Under his reigii, the famous visir Mtistapha Kluproli gained great victories : he took possession of Belgrade. Achmct III (from 1703 to 1730), the host of Charles XII and of Stanislaus. Resolved to re-establish the king of Sweden, he was preparing a formidable army for that j^-urpose, when Peter the Great prevented him and ad- vanced imprudently as far as Jassy. The Turks envel- oped him on the banks of the Pruth, and he found him- self constrained to treat with them ; less fortunate in his encounter with the prince Eugene, Achmet was obliged to sign a shameful peace at Passarowitz. From this epoch dates the decay of the Ottoman em- pire ; for since then the Turks have successively experi- enced numerous defeats on the part of the Persians, tl.e French army in Egypt, the Russians, in different encoun- ters, and in the last place, the Greeks, who are at present masters of the Morea, of Licadia, and a large part of the Arcli'qyclago. All these events took place under Mah- moud II. He was one of the greatest men of his age. The reforms which he made, the destruction of the Janis- saries, and his noble and vigorous resistance of the Rus- sians, render his name celebrated in the annals of Eu- rope. His successor is Abdeel ^Medjid, who was niised to the sultanate June 30'^^'- 1839. AMERICANS IX GENERAL. The belief i!i the existence of a fourth part of the worl v What is Faid of Mahomet IV ?~0r Solyman III ?— Of Ach- met in ?~Of Mahmoud II ?— Of Abdeel Meajia ? 236 FIFTH PART. Iiad been diffused among the ancients. FlatOy in the VI century before J. C. and JElla7i, a cotemporaiy of the Roman emperor Adrian, speak of the existence of a great country to the west of Africa. Still, the fathers of the Church believed it their duty to attack that opinion, wliich was gaining credit, as impious : they could not believe in the antipodes. There was nothing as yet on this head but conjecture ; it was reserved for modern navigators to prove the reality of another hemisphere. One of them, Christopher Columbus, a Getioese, conceived that another world might be discovered by sailing towards the west. Genoa having treated him as a visionary, and John II, king of Portugal, having declined his services, Columbus presented himself at the court of Spain, where queen Isabella entrusted to him three vessels for a voyage of discovery. Columbus departed on tlie o^'^ of August, 1492 ; he embaiked at the port of Palos [Andalusia), with an equipment of one hundred and twenty men. He gained the island of Gomera, where he recruited his little fleet. Proceeding on his voyage, three months passed away and no land presented itself. The crews murmur- ed and talked of throwing Columbus into the sea. The second day after this mutinous occurrence, a fresher breeze restored hope, and on the 11* of October, at 10 o'clock in the evening, the spontaneous cry was heard : Land ! Land ! The whole company fell at the feet of Columbus, and saluted him admiral and vice-roy. The land which he had reached was the Island of Guahahani, which Columbus called San Salvador. He afterwards discovered Conception, la Ferdinanda, and Isabella, and landed on the large island of Cuba; in twenty-four hours he arrived at the Island of Hayti, which What is said of the ancient opinions concerning another con- tinent? — What account is given of Columbus and his enter- prise? — What land dlJ eubsequent discoveries ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 237 he called Hispaniola, afterwards named Saint Domingo, and which now has resumed the name of Hayti. Finally, in his three voyages, he discovered the Lucayas, the Great and Little Antilles, and landed on terra firma, not far from the spot vrhere Carthagena was afterwards built. After suffering many injustices, Christopher Columbus, on returning from his third voyage, died at Valladolid, in 1506, at the age of sixty-five years : notwithstanding his discoveries, it was still a Florentine trader, named Amcri- cus Vcsjm,ccius, who had the honor of giving his name to the new hemisphere. Many adventurers, encouraged by the discoveries of Christopher Columbus, pursued the same career as him- self. DISCOVERIES IN AMERICA. IX Century. — The Danes in Greenland. 1492. — Christopher Columlms discovered the Lucayan Inlands, Cuba, and Hispaniola. 1496. — Sebastian Cabot, a Venitian, in the service of England, discovered Newfoundland and Virginia. 1518. — Grijalva, a Spaniard, saw the coasts of Mexico. 1518. — The Baron tic Levi, a Frenchman, visited the eastern coasts of America. 1519. — Fernando Cortcz subdued Mexico. 1554. — Cartier, a Frenchman, arrived at the mouth of the River St. Lawrence. 1607. — Hvdson discovered the coast east of Greenland. 1607-1733.— The United States of America, founded by the English, in colonies, under James I. What was the sequel of his history ?— Who gave name to the new hemisphere ?— When and by whom was Greenland discovered ?— Cuba and Hispaniola ?— Newfoundland and Vir- ginia ?— The coasts of Mexico ?— The eastern coasts of Ameri- ca ?— Interior of Mexico ?— Mouth of the St Lawrence? — Coasts east of Greenland ?— Territory of the British American colonies 1 238 FIFTH PAIIT. SOUTH vVMEillCA. 1500. — Alrcrcz Cahral, a Portuguese, discoverL'J Brazil. 1520. — Magellan discovered Terra del Fuego and Pa- tagonia. 1524. — Discovery and conquest of Peru by Phano, a Spaniard. MEXICANS. In 15 ID, tlie Spaniard.s, commanded by Fcrfuvido Cork'z, a simple lieutenant of Velasquez, Governor of Cuba, made the conquest of Mexico. Men mounted on horses, fire-arms, and ships, like floating fortresses, diflnscd terror among the Mexicans, who still were considerably ad- vanced in civilization and the mechanic arts. Tlie empire of Mexico was then governed by JSTontczv- rna, a powerful king, who had a great number of vassals. Cortez made that prince prisoner, who was slain in an insurrection by his own subjects. The Mexicans were subdued after some years of warfare, and their country remained in the power of the Spaniards. We cannot figure to ourselves the fearful cruelties which defiled tho conquest of Mexico; a great number of the inhabitants were marked upon the forehead with a hot iron, and af- terwards sent to labor in the mines, Cortez caused tho emperor, Gvatimozin, nephew of Montezuma, to bo stretched upon burning coals. But these numerous crimes were of no use to Cortez himself; Charles Fifth caused all his possessions to be seized upon, and commanded When and by whom was Brazil discovered ? — Terra del Fuego and Patagonia? — Peru? — What were the exploiis of Fernando Cortez in Mexico? — How. did lie deal wiih Monte- zuma ? — What is said of the cruelties practised by the Span- iards ? — How did Cortez treat Guatimozin? — How did Charles Fifih deal with Cortez? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 239 him to rctuni to Spain, where he died in 1545. Tho Spaniards drew immense wealth from Mexico, but tho extreme severity of their laws exasperated the minds of the colonists, and the events which agitated Spain in J SOS, in consequence of the invasion of that country by tho armies of Napoleon, favored the movements in Mexico against the despotic dominion of the government. A monk, named Hidalgo, raised the standard of independ- ence : he was shot in ISil. MorlJIos a new leader of tho insurrection, caused a provincial constitution to bo proclaimed, in 1S12. Being made prisoner, ho was con- demned to death as a heretic and rebel. A third chief, the youtliful Xavter Mina, met with the same fate. New revolts took place against new vexations. I(i/r- bidc was declared generalissimo of Ptiexico by land and sea. A congress was convoked, when that ambitious chief caused himself to be proclaimed Emperor. Still many deputies had the courage to protest; the oi->2-)Osition to the new emperor became general. Santa Anna, gov- ernor of Vera Cruz, became the interpreter of the whole nation, and proclaimed the rep^ihlic (1S12). Ifurhidc ab- dicated : the Mexicans had the generosity to exile him, conferring upon him at the same time a considerable pension, Mexico then constituted herself into federative re- publics. Meanwhile Iturhide still dreamt of the crown of Mexi- co. He had been declared a traitor and proscribed ; he departed nevertheless from England, on the 11'^ of May 1324, and .on the S'^ of July he appeared at the bar of 240 FIFTH PART. Soto la Mama, with his family, and disembarked in dis- guise ; ho was taken and shot on the 19* of July. Mexico has since had new shocks; her people apparent- ly incapable of self government, have been the prey of ephemeral demagogues and military despots, and their tur- bulent and distracted state has ended in a war, now in progress, with this country, (the United States,) tlie re- sults of which, though as yet not fully apparent, can scarce- ly fail to be ultimately of immense benefit to Mexico, let the immediate issue of the conflict be what it may. FERUVIANS. In 1524< three adventurers, Francis Pizarro, the natu- ral son of a gentleman of Estramadura, and, in his youth, a shepherd at Truxillo; Diego d'Ahnagro, found at the door of a church, and Fernando de Lucca ^ a shepherd and schoolmaster at Panama, all three of them more than fifty years of age, formed the project of penetrating into the continent of South America. Francis Pizarro set sail from Panama in November, and discovered Peru. Huana Capa, a warlike prince, then occupied the Peruvian throne. Pizarro returned to Panama, and came back the year following to pursue his conquest. The country was at that time disturbed by the rivalry of the two sons of Huana, AtJiualipa and Huascar, who disputed the throne. The former having got posses- sion of Quito, the capital of the empire, both of them sought to gain Pizarro, who had already exterminated forty thousand Peruvians. In an interview which he had with Athualipa, the inca was made prisoner. Trembling What is the present condition of the Mexicans? — What ac- count is given of Pizarro and his associates? — By whom was Peru discovered ? — What native prince then occupied the throne? — By what was the country at that time disturbed?^ What attempt was made by the sons of Huana in regard to Pizarro? — Whom did he make prisoner ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 241 with fear, he promised for ransom as many ingots of gold as the hall where he found himself would contain up to the height which a man could reach with his hand. These sacrifices were useless. He was strangled on one of the public squares. The principal provinces of the empire were from that time subject to the Spaniards. Ahnagro, jealous of Pizarro, possessed himself of Cuzco; but the companion of his fortune marched against him, defeated him, caused his officers to be slaughter- ed, and himself to be strangled in prison. He was after- '.vard beheaded at Lhna, being seventy-seven years of age. Ferdinando de Lucca, who became bishop of Peru, died in 1533; but the partisans o? Alniagro had sworn to avenge themselves. Pizarro succumbed beneath their strokes, and liis death led to that of the son of Almaoro. who was appointed governor oi Lima. This young man perished in the same city, on the same square, of the same punishment, by the hand of the same executioner, and was placed in the same tomb as his father. The Spanish despotism was organized in Peru as in Mexico. The colonists waited only for an opportunity to throw it off. The events of 1808 produced no revolution; but General Saint Martin shook the whole population. The Indian tribes, the Spanish, all armed themselves, and the inde- pendence of Peru was recognized and declared in 1821. Saint Martin quitted the Peruvians after having enfran- chised them. His departure was fatal to the state which he had founded. It was about to relapse into the power of Spain, when Bolivar and his lieutenant, General Sucre What promise was made by Athualipa? — Did the perform- ance of his pmmise avail him aught? — To whom was the greater part of the empire from that time subject? — What is said of Almagro? — Of Fernand de Lucca? — Of ihe partisans of Almagro? — Of the deaths of Pizarro and Altnagros son ? — What is said of (he Spanish despotism in Peru ? — What eflect wa^ produced by Gen. St. Martin ?— What was the conse- quence of his leaviug Peru ? 2 42 FIFTH PAUT. reanimated the Peruvians anJ icitorcd to them their liberty. Ti.e title.:* o^ Father of tJtc People and Savior of Peru wore decreed to Bolivar. BKAzn.IA.NS. The discovery of Brazil beloug.s to the Portuguese. Alvarez Cahral comj^ander of a fleet of that nation, wisii- iiig- to reach the Indies, was driven hy contrary winds npoii the coasts of Brazil, which he discovered ; he took possession of it in the name of the king of PorlngHl. Tlii.s colony acquired in the sequel a high importance fri>iii tlie rich mines of gold and diamonds which were disco- vered there. The history of Brazil offers nothing of in- tcrcot until 1580, when that country passed to Spain; l)ut in IG'IO a revolution placed upon the throne of Por- tugal the family of Braganza, and caused th.e dominion of the Spaniards :n Brazil lo cease. The Holhiuders also })0fe£ei:sed themselves, in 1024-, of a part of that country ; but after many vicissitudes the Portuguese recovered the full posocsjsion of it in 1G61, by paying to Holland eight tons of gold. In 1S08, when the English and the French took possession of Portugal, John Y\^ then regent of the kingdom, ])assed over to Brazil, and established there the .seat of government ; but being recalled by the Cortes of Lisbon, he set sail from Bra??il, witii alt his court, on the. 26''' of x\pril,. 1821. Don Pedro, hereditary prince, re- mained in xYmcrica, with the title of vicc-ro}/ ; but the Brazilians, unwiliirjg any longer to be dependent on Lis- bon, proclaimed him Emperor of Brazil under the name oi' Pedro I, on the 12'^' of October, 1822. A military re- volution soon hurled him from the throne, upo!i which was seated his son, Pedro /^/(ISll). What account is given of Bolivar? — By whom was Brazil discovered? — What gave this colony a hi^h importance? — When did Brn/.il become a Spanish pusse.-sion? — Wlsaf change t=jok place in ItJlO ? I3>l?i6i;i? Id03? LS21 ? 1322? 1341? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 243 HAYTIENS ( Sa in t Do7ningo . ) The island of llispaniola (little Spain), Saint Domingo or Ilayti, was discovered by Christopher Columbus, in 1492. It was then inhabited by the Carrihces who, at an epoch difficult to determine, had made a conquest of it from the Ygneris, and were confounded with them. The Spnniards, after having exterminated them, re- mained peaceable possessors of the island. They replaced the destroyed population by blacks imported from the coasts of Africa. The example of such importations was continually followed, and this new race was naturalized upon the soil, of which they have become proprietors. In 1620 certain French and English adventurers united- ly took possession of the island. Driven out in their turn by the Spaniards, they retired to the island of Tortvga^ situated on the north-east coast, where they rendered themselves formidable by their piracies. Towards the middle of the XVII century these same adventurers, known under the name of buccaneers or freebooters, hav- ing anew seized upon more than two-fifths of the island of Hayti, France took them under her protection. In 1665, d'Ogcron, governor of the island, sent thither by the court of France, employed the ascendant of his talents and virtues over the white inhabitants. He com- menced their civilization and turned their activity to the profit of the cultivation of Saint Domingo. The part which they occupied was ceded to France by the treaty of Ryswick, in 1697. By whom and when was Hispaniola discovered ? — By whom was'it then inhabited ? — What is said of the Carribees and the Ygn6ris? — What is said of the Spaniards ? — How did they re- place the native population ? — What resulted from the impor- tatiou of the blacks into Hayti ? — Who took possession of the island in 1620? — What became of them after their expulsion ? — What is said of d'Offeron ? 244 FIFTH FART. The colony languished until 1722, under the govern- ment of companies; but from that time its prosperity went on continually increasing, until the revolution of 1789. The troubles of France were the first signal of those of the colony. There was loud talk in the island of liberty, of the abolition of privileges. Exaggerated pre- tensions raised the passions of the islanders, excited dis- orders, and prepared the way fur the loss of the colony in 17S9. The mulattoes assembled after the constitution of Saint Mark, and a first insurrection was excited by Age, who had arrived from France. The hlachs and the mulattoes, who formed the great majority of the population, claimed at that epoch tho same rights as the whites, and the latter obstinately re- fusing them, a general insurrection broke out in the month of August, 1791, and the whole French part of the island presented nothing but one vast field of burning, slaughter and desolation. Agents proceeding from the Spanish party directed the first effcjrts of the slaves, who had, at the outset, remained strangers to the debates of their masters. On the 10'^' of April, 1793, Fm-t an Prince was be- sieged. Two thousand bullets were fired at the city ; a large number of the inhabitants were transported. On the 20*'^ of June Golbaud, the governor, placed himself at the head of the insurrection of the sailors of the squad- ron, in the road-stead of the Cape. What was the slate of the colony nntil 1722? — From 1722 to 1739? — What produced distiirbnnce in the colony ? — la nluit year was it lost to France ? — Who excited an insurrec- tion amoni: the mulattoes ? — What led to the outbreak in 1791? — What were its consequences? — Who directed the eflTorts of the insurgent negroes ? — What happened Xo Port au Prince ? — What is said of Golbaud ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 245 HdiitliGiiax, a. civil commissary, armed llie blacks for llie defence of the sans-culottes patriots. On the 24^^ of June the settlement at the Cape was burnt. On the 2S^^ the French fleet took its departure for the United States, whither it transported the unhappy colonists of the Cape. On the 9^^ of August the re-entrance of the civil commis- Earies at the Cape took place, amid the cries of Xii-e the Republic, All the whites were obliged to fly. On the 29^^ of August, SantJionax proclaimed the r'tgJds of via7iy and declared that slavery was abolished for ever in Saint Domingo. On the 22"*^ of September the English took Jeremy and the mole of St. Nicholas : they maintained themselves in the colony until 1793. Toussaint Louverture gradually possessed himself of the authority ; he forced the commissaries to embark for France ; he re-established order and tranquility, and brought back the blacks to their labor. On the 1'^* of July, ISOl, he approved the new constitution of Saint Domingo ; he was appointed governor for life and invest- ed with the right of choosing his successor. On the 14^^ of December, ISOl, Bonaparte sent out fiom France a fleet of 23 ships of the line and other ves- sels, loaded with 22,000 men, under the command of General Leclerc, to take possession of the island. On the 7* of May, 1802, the whole colony submitted to him. ChristopJie treated first ; Toussaint and Dessa- linc imitated him : they delivered up their arms and mu- nitions of war. On the 10* of June Toussaint was ar rested and transported to France; meanwhile sickness made great ravages in the French army : insurrection began anew. What is said of Sanlhonax and his proceedings at the Cape ? — ^What places were captured by the English ? — What is said of Toussaint Louverture ? — What armament was sent to Hayti by Bonaparte ^— What did it accomplish ? 246 FIFTH PART, From the lime that Toussaait Louvcrture, who \vas found at the head of the government of Saint Domingo, had been sent into Fiance, DessaUnc was of the number of those who aspired to take his place. Aided by Chris- topfie and certain other chiefs, he sustained himself in the northern part of the island against the attacks of General Rocluimheau. General Ferrand, who commanded in the Spanish part, maintained order and preserved i:^aint Domingo to France until 1809. After the expulsion of the French, in November, 1803, DessaVme got possession of the supreme authority and took the title of James /, emperor of Hayti. He rendered himself odious by his cruelties. A conspiracy was form- ed against him, and he was killed while attending a re- view, on the 17^^ of October, 1806. Christophe was im- mediately raised to the rank of president and generalissi- mo, and Pethion was appointed his lieutenant in the east- ern part of the island. An assembly was convoked at the Cape to draw up a constitution. This measure was the source of new divi- sions. Pethion put himself at the head of the party who wished a representative system. Christophe, a partizan of absolute power, declared Pethion in a state of revolt and marched against him at the head of all his forces. Bloody combats took place at different times between the two competitors, but without any decisive result. From that epoch Pethion maintained himself independently at Port an Prince, under the title of president of the repub- lic of Hayti. In 1811 Christophe caused himself to be consecrated king of Hayti under the name of Henry 7, Instituted a nobility and modelled the usages of his court upon those of Europe ; but having abandoned himself to What is said of Dessaline?— Of General Ferrand ?— What took place in 1803 ?— What was the fate of Dessaline ?--What ie said of Christophe and Pethion ? • » HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 217 many deeds of cruelty, lie was the victim of a conspiracy which took place at the Cape on the 9^^ of October, 1820. In order that he n^ight not fall into the hands of the coii- Epirators, he committed suicide by burning his brain. Pitfuoti consolidated in the east the order of thiiags v/liich he iiad established there. He died on the ^9^*^ of Mavth, 18iS, leaving for his successor Greneral Boycr. This licw president availed himself of the revolution vvhich look place at the Cape, an-d i^eutiited under his govern- ment the different provinces of the island. The inhabi- tants of the Spanish part solicited, on tlie 2Sy^ of D^x'.cm- ber, 1821, a siniilar favor. The vvIk^Ic i-land of Saint Domingo is at present goveri>ed protessedly by the same laws. Port au Prince is now the seat of government of llayti. On tiie 17^^ of April, 1825, appeared an ordi- nance of the king of France, by which the full and entiixs independence of the actual government of the French part of the island of Saint Domingo or Hayti was ac- knowledged. Still Hayti is very far from the enjoyment of a settled government. The crude and heterogeneous elements which enter, there, into the composition of the body politic, are still in a state of fermentation, and it is greatly to be doubted whether the important island of Saint Domingo can ever enjoy peace or prosperity under its present regimen. JIOLLANDERS AND BELGIANS. The Koiuans comprehended under the name of Btli^l- €U7}i almost all the countries situated north of Gaul ; they had frequent conflicts to sustain there ogainst strong and warlike nations, who could not accommodate thomselvea to the yoke of obedience. What is said of General Boyo,r?— What is said of the pre- sent organization of Hayti?— What countries were included by the Romans under the-general name ofBelgirum ?— What conflicts between the Roman and the Eelga? ? 24S f-lFTH PART. • " The Batavians made themselves a name among those nations. They followed the destiny of the Roman em- pire, and passed successively under different masters. Charlemagne subdued them ; they remained under the dominion of his family until it was extinguished. Frequent revolutions and interior troubles agitated these provinces, which at first formed only one State un- der a single chief, but were soon divided into many gov- ernments under different names. There were then a duke of Frisia, a duke of Brabant, a count of Flanders, and a count of Holland : they were frequently at war with tlieir neighbors. Philip the Fair and Charles the Fair gained over them signal victories. Flanders, which was become very jDopulous and flou- rishing, had been possessed by the first house of Burgun- dy, the issue of king Robert. At the commencement of the XV century it passed to the second, the issue of Philip, sou of king John. It was happy under a pacific government; its commerce increased, and all the neigh- boring nations paid tribute to its industry. The house of Austria acquired there some fine provin- ces by a marriage. Mary of Burgundy, only heir of Charles the Rash, the last duke of that family, brought them in dow- ry to the emperor Maximiliari. Philip, their son, espoused Jane the Simple, who brought him Arragon and Castile ; he left all his dominions to Charles Fifth. Under this new master, many provinces which at the present day compose Holland, began to manifest their claims to inde- pendence; but they were speedily compelled to return What is said of the Batavians? — What did Charlemagne do to them? — What efTect was produced by their inward agita- tions ? — Among what potentates was the country dividisd ? — Who gained many victories over them? — By whom was Flan- ders successively possessed ? — Was it flourishina:? — How did the house of Austria acquire dominion there ? — What is said of the Belgian provinces under Charles Fifth ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 249 within the bounds of subordination. What tiie adroit policy of Charles Fifth had prevented for a time, came about in consequence of the imperious haughtiness of Philip II, and, above all, through the cruel and sangui- nary character of the duke of Alba, whom he had ap- pointed governor-general of the Low Countries. The Hollanders held the inquisition in horror. The duke of Alba, authorized by Philfj) II, established it in all the districts of his government. Scaffolds were pre- pared, funeral piles kindled, and blood flowed on all sides ; the prisons were glutted with prisoners. A tribu- nal of blood prosecuted equally citizens of all ranks and of all ages. Life was taken from them and their goods were confiscated. Whole families perished by the sword, by water and by fire. Excessive imposts overwhelmed the people, who had no resources for escaping from their misery but in de- spair. They were driven to extremity and sought to avenge themselves by revolting. The revolt, in a gio- ment, raised all the provinces of the Low Countries. William of Nassau, prince of Orange, who had retired into Germany and there raised some troops, joined the rarilcontents. The duke of Alba was recalled; but it was too late. The war continued with various success ; final- ly the deputies of the States of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Frisla, Groningen, Over-Yssel, and Gueldres, assembled at Utrecht, and declared Philip II deposed from his sovereignty of the Lov/ Countries (1581). The stadtholdership was established ; but the authority of the chief or stadtholder was balanced by that of the States-General. Y/hat is said of Philip II and the duke of Alba?— What were the effects of the Inquisition in Holland ?— To what were the people driven by excessive imposts ? — What prince joined the malcontents?— By whom was Philip II deposed ?— What is said of the stadtholderate ? 11* 250 FIFTH PART. Holland, having become .m independent power, con- stituted herself a republic after the treaty of Westphalia or Munstcr, in 1648. She maintained afterward success- ful wars against England and Sweden. In 1672, on the 4^'' of July, Holland resumed the gov- ernment of the stadtholdcrshij). The bravery and ability of admiral Ruyter re-established the prospenty of tlie State, which had been so seriously compromised, Wil- liam III, prince of Orange, profited by this return of fur- tune to cause the stadtholdership to be declared heredita- ry in his family. He was the son of William II of Nas- sau and of Henrietta Maria Stuart, daughter of Charles I. He had the glory of making head against Louis XIV ; but he was beaten by Luxemburg!), and constrained, by the exhaustion of his forces, to sign the peace of Nime- gucn. He took the crown from James II, his father-in- law, and caused himself to be acknowledored king^ of England and Scotland. He died in 1702. At his death the stadtholdcrshij) was abolished, not to be re established before 1747. The thirty years' of peace which Holland had enjoyed €ince the conclusion of the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, eufficed for that commercial republic in order to recover lior power. The seven years' war caused her to experi- ence new reverses, and it was in consequence of these reverses that the Orangeists, or the partizans of the house of Orange, succeeded in re-establishing it in its heredita- Tn what year was Holland constituted a republic ? — With whom did she maintain successful wars ? — When did she rr^- .store the stadtholdership — How was her prosperity resfored ? — In what family did the stadtholdership become hereditary ? -—Against whom was William III successful ? — By whom was lie beaten ? — What peace did he sign ? — From whom did he take the crown ? — What was abolished at his deatii ? — What effect had the long continuance of peace on Holland? — What was occasioned by the seven years' war ? TIISTORICA]^ ^XETCHES. 251 ry tllguitics. Factions rent the country and prrporeJ tlu3 way for the revolution vvliich was effected there, in 179.5, by the French army, under the conduct bf General Ptcho gra. The Batavian republic was soon treated as a con- quered province by the commissioners of the Direc- tory. In 1806 Napoleon erected the seven provinres of Holland into a kingdom, in favor of his brother Louis, and four years afterward this same kingdom, transform- ed into departments, was incorporated with the Freiiclj empire. After having shared for twenty years the destiny of I^^ancc ; Holland, constituted as the kingdom of the Low Countries, at the congress of 1815, recognized for )ier lawful sovereign William I. The revolution of Belgium, in 1830, left that prince only Holland, over which he reigned until his death. At present (1847) the throne of Holland is occupied by William H, whose accession took place October 7'-^- 1810. BELGIANS. Belgium, formerly the Austrian Low Counrries, and since united to France, in whose successes and reverses it has for twenty years participated, forms, at the present day, the finest part of the Low Countries. The Belgians arc entirely French ; they have the French manners, lan- guage and habits ; they have been at all times the enemies of the Hollanders ; and the revohUiou which broke out in 1830, in the Ix)w Countries, proves the little sympathy which existed between the two people. Leopold I, of Saxe-Coburg, was proclaimed king of the Belgians in 1831, June 4^^^- What produced the revolution there in 1795 ?— What befel [lolland in 180G ?— Five years afterward ?— How was she dis- posed ofin the con]ies «»f the States: it was parcelled out, in (»nsequence of the (System of feudal inheritance, and formed four distinct eovereignties, or jurisdictions. This division, which necessarily induced frequent conflicts, hindered the de- What account is given of the fertility of Sardinia? — Wli;U was the civil state of the island under the Romans? — V/hat nations successively gained dominion there? — By what means did Don Pedro iV obtain possession of it ? — V/hat course did he then pursue ?— What principle of vitality was v»'antinf; to ijic government of Sardinia ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 250 Vfjlopcment of all national force. Besides, after the fu- sion of the tllfferent kingdoms of Spain, Sardinia was *^nly an appendage of that crown. It was governed hy Spanish viceroys until 1706, and was taken from Spain at that epoch by the English, who, allied to the archduke C/iarles in the war of the Spanish succession^ ranked it under the authority of that prince. Eleven years after- ward it was re-conquered for Philip V by a fleet which Albcroni equipped for that purpose; and finally, in 1720 it was consigned to the king of Sicily and Savoy, Victor- Amoedeus U, by tlie prince of Ottaiano, who had re- ceived it from the Spaniards in the name of the emperor Charles VI. Sardinia was then erected into a kingdom. After- wards, under the title of the^ Sardinian States, or ki/^g- dom of Sardinia, was comprised the union under the same sovereignty of the island of Sardinia, Savoy, Piedmont, Monfferrai, the principality of Oncglia, the marquisate of Salaccs and the ?iG^ of La ngJics. The reign of Victor Amoe- dcus III (1793-1796) had been signalized by his impo- tent struggle against the French republic, of which he soon made himself an ally, and by the perishing condifton in which, at his death, he left the kingdom. Tiie hands of Charles Inimanuel were not sufficiently vigorous to raise it up again from the brink of ruin. A revolution broke out under his reign, and he was reduced to the island of Sardinia as his only dominion. The battle of Marengo decided the fate of Piedmont. Bonaparte established there a sort of provisional govern- Whal is said of the connexion of this island with Spain ? — When and by whom was it taken from her? — What disposal did England make of it? — What h.-ippened to it eleven years after ? — To whom was it consigned in 17-20 ? — Through what political changes has it since passed ? — By what had the reign of Victor-Amosdeus been signalized ? — What is said of Charles Immanuel ? — Of the revolution under bis reign ?— Of the con- sequences of the battle of Marengo? 260 . FIFTH FART. raent; and when the family of Savoy had lost their only- protector by the death of the emperor of Russia, Paul I, a decree was passed which united to France their pos- sessions in Italy. As to the island of Sardinia, it remained peaceable and forgotten under the authority of Victor Em?nanucl, brother and successor of Charles Emmanuel. The king of Sar- dinia was re-constituted after the great events of 1814. Besides his island, Victor Emmanuel had as his portion, after the congress of Vienna, the whole of Piedmont and the territory of Genoa. A revolution which broke out in 1821, at the head of which was found the constitutional minister Santa Rosa, constrained Victor Emmanuel to abdicate in favor of his brother, Charles Felix. C/yirles Albert (1847) is at pre- sent on the throne, which he reached April 27*^- 183 1. SAXONS. Saxony is an ancient principality of the German empire. It is divided into the duchy or electoral circle, and into upger and lower Saxony. About the V century the Saxons, probably driven b^k themselves by the irruption of the Hujis and the Alani, precipitated themselves, together with the Angles, upon the British islands, subdued their inhabitants, and estab- lished there seven small States known under the name of the heptarvliy. It was about the same epoch that a portion of this cim- bric horde fixed itself in the country of Lower Germany, which has preserved the name of Saxony. The Saxons What disposal was made of Sardinia at the death of Paul I? — What is said of Victor Immanuel ? — Of the revolution in 1821 ? — Who is at present on the Sardinian throne? — Of what empire is Saxony a part? — How is it divided? — What country did they get possession of about the V century ? — When did a part of ihcm settle in Lower Germany ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 261 had already made themselves formidable to the Franks, when Charlemagne, after a bloody war of thirty years, constrained them to pay him a tribute and to embrace the faith of the gospel. From the commencement of the organization of the German Empii-e, the Saxons, whose teriitory extended from the Elbe to the lower Rhine, were governed by dukes, to whom the king delegated temporarily the charge of ruling, in his name, and who, by slow degrees, succeeded in rendering their office hereditary. The first who, according to the genealogists, transmitted to his de- scendants the ducal uulhority, was Ludolf, who issued from the line of IVitikind. This house of Saxony raised itself to the throne of Ger- many in the person o^ Henry the Fowler. Otho I, having invested Herman Bellinge?i, one of his ministers, with the title of the duke of Saxony, the duchy remained during a century and a half in the family of the latter, and afterward passed to the house of Bavaria by the marriage of the daughter of Lothaire with Henry the Gitelf. In the XII century (1176), Frederic Barbarossa divest- ed of the Saxon sovereignty Henry the Lion, under the pretence that in the struggle against the pope Alexander III, he had poorly seconded the Lombards and the duchy of Saxony; hat Po?nerania and Westj^halia, erected into particular duchies, were given to Albert the Bear, of the house of Ascania or Bellensiadt. Bernhard, count of Ascania, son of that Albert, and whom the genealogists make to descend from Witikind, was the first elector of Saxony. How did Chili "fjna^ne deal with them? — What is said of the Saxon dTiko(h;tn ?— Of Liidolf?— Of Henry the Fowler ?— Of Hernia n Bellineen ?— Ilowdid Saxony pass to the house of Bavaria ?~What is said of Frederic Barbarossa and Henry (lie Lion ? — To whom were Fomerania and Westphalia then given ? — Who was the first elector of Sax.ony ? 262 FIFTH paht. Albert III having died without posterity, in 1118, the house of Ascania divided itself between the two bouses of Saxc-An/uiJt and Saxe-Lauenlourg. The emperor Sigismund, after the death of Albert III, transferred the electorate to Frederic the Warlike, land- grave of Thvringia and margrave of MisTiia, the head of the branch of Saxe- Wittcmhcrg. Frederic Augustus, elector of Saxony and descendant of Frederic I, after having acceded, in 1806, to the act of organization of the Rhenish Confederacy, received from Napoleon the title of king, which was preserved to him, in 1814, by the congress of Vienna. A revolution broke out in his kingdom, and Anthony, the brother of Frederic Augustus, who died in 1827, found himself obliged, in order to calm his subjects, to appoint as co- regent of the kingdom, his nephew Frederic, who had at- tracted to himself the confidence of the Saxons. Frederic Augustus II, now upon the throne of Saxony, reached it June G'^ 18'JG. GREEKS. From tlic decay of Rome, the seat of government hav- ing been transferred to Byzantium, a Greek and Christian empire was seen to spring up there which gave a new existence to Greece. The Latins and the Turks succes- sively weakened it. Frank, Yenitian and Genoese seig- neurs ruled over Greece proj^er, the Morea and the Ar- chipelago. The ^'enitians preserved their commercial possessions until the XVIII century. From that epoch How was the house of Ascania divided at the death of Al- bert III? — To whom did Sigismund transfer the Electorate ? — What is said of Frederic Augustus? — What were tlie conse- "fjTiences of the last revolution? — Who is at present en t!io tliroijo of Sjixony? — What event resuscitated (jircece? — By whom was die Christian Kingdom of Byzantium weakened? —Who lieul sway in tlie Grecian territories during the middle a-ie? HISTORICAL SKETCHES, 2G3 ospocially, the Greek nation fell under the catsfemptuous yoke of the Turks : it was brutalized, and lost in a great measure its civilization. Meanwhile the Maniotcs in Morea, the SuUots in E pi- rns and the Spakiotes in Candia, defended their liberty, w'aile their brethren bowed beneath the despotism of hai-barians, and overwhelmed with imposts by the par has, could only groan. Some partial insurrections were ex- tinguished ; but ere long, in 181 1, some young Greeks, who liad travelled in Europe, formed a patriotic associa- tion. New Tijrtai caused the songs of independence to be heard, such as Rhigas in the XVIII. century. The insurrection broke out under the prince Yj^silanfL The plains and the mountains were at once the theatre of the revolt. Men's minds were initated still more by the de- capitation of the venerable Gregory, patriarch of Constan- tinople. A Avar of extermination ravaged Greece. JMii- soloitghf, At/icn'i, and all the places of strength beheld the courage of the Hellenes. A constitution was drawn up, i:i 1S22, in a national assembly held at Epidaunts, The; seat of governmeiit was established at Cormth. Meun- w'hile the Turks continued the massacres at Scio, 'Cvo\\\ whence they took 40,000 christians, whom they led into slavery. It was then that Can oris blew up the vessel of the capitan-pacha. The christian powers lemaincd at first unmoved ; only a few individuals embraced the cause of the Greeks. Tho United States sympatized with Greece and sent her libe- lal contributions in money and munitions of war. Among What bocanie of ihetn under the Turkish yoke? — Wriat Greek tribes maintained their libe.-ty at this lime ? — What took place in Greece iu 1814? — Under Yp.-ilanti ? — i»y what were men's minds still furt/jcr irritated? — Wh.it phires wit- nes.-^ed the courage of she new Greeks? — What, was done in X^ll '\ — What is said of ihe mnssacres of Scio ?— OfCanaris? — How did christian powers at. first rea^ard Greek patrJaUsm ? — Ifovv was it viewed in this couatrj? 264 FIFTH PART. them we notice Lord Byron, who ended his hfe in Greece ; Colonel Fahr'icr and Lord Cochran. On the side of the Greeks, hi3tory names Botzaris, Odysseus, Colocotroni, Mavrocordatos B.ud Mianlis. Fi- nally, on the 6^*^ of July, 1827, it was resolved by England, France and Russia, together to interpose between the Turks and the Greeks, in order to put an end to the calamities of war. The united fleets of the three powers rendezvoused in the neighborhood of Greece; and, on the refusal of the Turks to recognise the armistice, they destroyed the Turko-Egyptian fleets, on the 19^^ of Octo- ber, in the port of Navarino. The assassination of Capo- d'Istria, chief of the Greeks, threw that country into new dissensions, which Europe was called upon to terminate for her own honor and in her political interests. France, England and Russia, according to the last negotiations, gave the throne of Greece to prince Otho, son of the king of Bavaria. Let us hope that, under this new king, who came to the throne May 7^^' 1832, the Greeks, delivered from the despotism of the Turks, may devote themselves in peace to commerce and industry, which are so much favored by the soil and climate of their beautiful country. Or, if the monarchy which has been in a measure forced upon that youthful and too much divided people be in- compatible with their genius and temper, let us hope that, factious aims and sentiments being abandoned, regenerat- ed Greece maybe enabled to re-assume the republican forms and institutions under which, in ancient times, she attained to such an unprecedented height of greatness and glory. What heroes among the new Greeks are next mentioned ? — What resolution of the European powers in their favor in 1827? — What was done by the united fleets of the three powers? — What effect was produced by the assassination of Capo d'Istria? — On whom did France, England and Russia bestow tlie throne of Greece ? — What views, are expressed in conclu- sion respecting Greece? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 265 I>i^coveric9 and Settlements IN THE SOUTHERN AND WESTERN PORTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. The discovery of America by Christopher Columljus. Araericus Vespuccius and others has been ah'eady narrated. In 1512 Juan Ponce de Leon, formerly governor of Porto Rico, fitted out an expedition for the puipose of discovering a wonderful fountain which was supposed by the native Indians to possess the property of restoring to youth and vigor all who drank of its waters. This foun- tain was reported to exist in an island of the Bahama group, and while in search of it, De Leon discovered, on the 6'^ of April, a country to which he gave the name of Florida, perhaps from the profusion of flowers with which it was adorned. Not long after, a number of gentlemen residing in St. Domingo, under the direction of Lucas Vasquez de Ayl- lon, while on a voyage to the Bahamas, were driven northward; they landed on the coast of Carolina, which they called Chicrao. In 1526, Pamphilo de Narvaez having obtained from the Spanish government the appointment of governor of Florida, landed in that countiy, and penetrating into the interior, in the hope of discovering some rich country which he might conquer, he and his company were lost in the immense wilderness, and after many wanderings, privations and perils, they finally reached the sea shore, probably in the neighborhood of the bay of Appallachee. During these and subsequent explorations of De Narvaez and his company, the interior of Louisiana and Northern Mexico w^as probably first seen by the Europeans. Under the same delusive hope of acquiring immense What discoveries were made by De Leon?— De Ayllon ? — De Narvaez ? 12 Zm FIFTH PAIIT. wealth by discoveries aiiJ conquests in Florida, Ferdi- nand de Soto, in 1539, landed in ihe neighborhood of Esplrllu Santo, and after \raiidering about with his coin- panlons for a long tlrne, fiaally directed his course north- ward, having heard of a wcaltliy country in tlmt direc- tion governed by a female, of whom he doubtless hoped to malie an easy conquei.t. The Indian quceri and her territory he indeed f.nind, but nrl the wealth with whicii that territory was said to abound. Directing his course still to the north, he pnssed tiirougli a part of Georgia, flien turning westward he penetrated into the interior of Alabama, and in several excursions discovered the coun- try then inhabited by tiie Chickasaw tribe of Indians, the east bank of the Mississippi, the southern part of Missouri, the valleys of the Wachitta, Red River and the region around New Orleans. DISCOVEKiES A:- events of this war were, in 1775, the but- What were the leading events of the war in 1775? 278 FIFTH lAIiT. Ilc3 of Lexington, Concord, and BrcoJ's, or Bunker's Hill ; the successful expedition of Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold against Ticonderoga and Crown Point ; the meet- ing of the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, by which war was declared and George Washington appointed lo the command of the American armies; the invasion of Canada by the Continental forces, and the fall of Mont- gomery before Quebec. In 177G, the evacuation of Bos- ton by the British ; the frustration of their attempt on Charlestown, in South Carolina, under General Clinton ; tlic Declaration of Independence, by the American Con- gress ; the occupation of New- York, by the Brititb, under Howe and Clinton; the retreat of the Continental army through New Jersey ; the masterly manoeuvre of crossing the Delaware, by Washington, and the consequent defeat arid surrender of the enemy's forces, at Trenton, in 1777 ; the encounter at Princeton, in which the success of the Americans was purchased at the expense of losing the gallant General Mercer ; the various, though partial suc- cesses of General Washington in the upper part of Nev/ Jersey, by which the American arms regained the credit lost by the disastrous retreat through that slate the year before ; the successful mission of Benjamin Franklin to France, and the enlistment of Lafayette and other noble and gallant Frenchmen in the American cause ; the suc- cess of the British in the battles of tlie Brandywine and Gcrmantown, and their consequent occupation of Phila- delphia ; the defeat of the American troops under Gene- ral Schuyler, and the surrender of the army, under Burgoyne, at Stillwater. In 1778, the acknowledgment of American Independence by the court of France ; the evacuation of Philadelphia by General Clinton, his par- tial defeat at Monmouth ; the Indian massacre of Wyo- Whot were ih« loading events of the war in 177G ? — 1777 ? — 1778? mSTOUICAL SKETCHES. ^70 mifig, and the occupation of Savannah by General Howe ; In 1779, the subjugation of Georgia, under General Pro- vost ; the recapture of Stony Point, by the Americans ; the successes of General Sullivan against the Indians arul Tories of the Upper Susquehanna; the brilliant action of Paul Jones on the coast of Scotland, by which two Ijrit- ish frigates were captured. In 1780, the surrender of (Jharlestown to General Clinton ; the tieason of Benedict Arnold, and the capture and execution of Major Andre. In 1781, mutiny among the American troops, from want of pay, provisions, &c. appointment of Robert Morris to the superintendence of the treasury; defeat of Tarleton, in South Carolina, and unsuccessful pursuit of the victor.3 by Cornwallis ; able opposition to the British by General Greene, at the South; splendid success of the American arms under Washington, at Yorktown, where Cornwallis surrendered, and the war was virtually terminated. On the 3^ of September, 1783, a treaty of peace was definitely signed between the commls.-^ioncrs of England and those of the United States. The federal constitution was adopted in 17S8, and George Washington was utianimously elected first Presi- dent of the Union. In 1812, owing to sundry claims and acts of Great Britain, which were deemed by the people of this country a violation of the law of nations, and an unjust encroach- ment upon h.er naval and commercial interests, Congress declared war against Great Britain. As generally hap- pens, opinions wore divided in the United States as to the expediency of such a v/ar. It was carried on with various success, though the American army, and especially the navy, won an honorable and lasting fame by their 6ucce>;s- What were the leading events of ihe war in 1779 ?— 1780 ?— 1781 7— What important event in 1783 ?— 1788 ?—What leJ U tlic war v\-lth Great Britain in 1812 ? 2®D FIFTH PART. ful encounters with the single sliips and fleets of a nation which had long been deemed mistress of the sea. The war closed with the defeat of the British, under Packen- ham, by General Jackson, at New Orleans. Since that time the United States, bathed on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by the Pacific, have ra23idly increased in extent as well as population. Louisiana, which belonged to the French, and Florida, which was occupied by the Spaniards, form, at the pre- sent day, a part of the numerous states which com2:)Ose the republic. Washington has been succeeded in the important office of president by John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, William Henry Harrison, John Tyler, and James K. Polk, the present incumbent. Under the administration of Mr. Polk, a war has broken out between the United States and Mexico, oc- casioned by the jealousy felt on the part of the latter power at the annexation of Texas to our Union, and the march of an American army of occupation to the left bank of the Rio Grande. It is impossible, at the present time, to foresee all the consequences to either country of which this struggle may be productive. They can scarcely fail, however, to be of the most momentous character in their bearing upon the final destiny of these United States, the entire continent of America, and tho civilized world. We trust that bearing may be propitious to the cause of freedom and humanity. What is said of the progress of the war? — Tlie success of llie American arms? — Who have filled the office of president ? — What war under the administration of Mr. Polk ? — -What arc its probable consequences ? HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 281 LIST OF BATTLES FOUGHT DURING THIS WAR. Where fought. When fought. Force engaged. Commanders. Palo Alto, MaysTme 2000 Am. Taylor. 6300 Mex. Arista. Resaca de la Palma, May 9, 1846 1700 Am. Taylor. 9000 Mex. Arista. Matamoros, May 19, 1846 — — Taylor. Sonoma, Jun. 15, 1840 — — — St. John's, July 17,1840 — — — Camargo, Aug. 2, 1846 — — — Santa Fe, Aug. 4, 1846 — — Kearney. Monterey, Sep. 21, 1840 6000 Am. Taylor. lOOOO Mex. Ampudia. Tampico, Nov. 14,1846 — — Conner. Saltillo, Nov. 16,1846 — — Worth. San Pasqucl, Dec. 0, 1846 100 Am. Kearney. 500 Mex. — Brazito, Dec. 23, 1846 1000 Am. 4000 Mex. Doniphan. San Gabriel, Jan. 8, 1847 500 Am. Kearney. — Mex. Flores. Los Angelos, Jan. 8, 1847 — — Kearney. — — Flores. Mesa, Jan. 9, 1847 — — — La Canada, Jan. 24, 1847 200 Am. Price. 2000 Mex. — El Embvido, Jan. 29, 1847 Price. Pueblo Taos, Feb. 4, 1847 Price. Buena Vista, Feb.22-23'47 4400 Am. Taylor. ' 21340 Mex. San. Anna. San Francisco, Feb. 24, 1847 — — — Sacramento, Feb. 28, 1847 920 Am. Doniphan. 38000 Mex. — Cerralvo, Mar. 7, 1847 — — — Vera Cruz, Mar. 29, 1847 10000 Am. Scott. - 7000 Mex. Morales. San Juan d'Ulua, Mar. 30, 1847 — — The Navy. 1 3500 Mex. — 282 FIFTH TART. Jyist <>J Battles Continued. Where fought. | When fought. | Force engaged. | Commar.dcre. Mar. 30, 18471 — — ! Hunter. AJvarado, Tlacotalpam, ;Mar.31, 18471 — — : Huutor. i ! 7000 Mex.; — Pucnte Nacional, >.pr. 3, 184/1 8000 Am. i — i i 7000 Mex.! — Apr.17-18'47! 6000 Am. I Scotl. I i 14000 Mex.' Sa. Anna. iApr. 19, lS47i — — j Perry. !Apr. 20, 1847j aOOO Am. | — jl5000 Mex.i — Apr. 22, 1847 May 27, 1847 Cerro Gordo, Tuspan, Jalap a, Perote, Puebla, TuV)asc:», Contrcras, Churabusco, Mulina del Key, Cliapultepec, Mexico Ci:y, 8000 Am. — 28000 Mex.j — June 22, 1847 — — | Perry. 2S00 Mex.' — Aug. IS, 1847; 10000 Am. | Scott. 132000 Mex. I Valencia. 10000 Am. I Scott. 32000 Mex. Sa. Anna. 6000 Am. I Worth. 2500 Mex. — 470 Am.. I Scott. 982 Mex. — 7500 A.m. Scott. 20000 Mex. Sa. Anna. Aug. 18, 1847 Sop. 8, 1847 Sep. 11-12-13 Sep. 14, 1847 BI^TM FAB¥. GENERAL SUMMARY. The first epoch of Ancient History (from the XXV to the XVII century) presents us with the establishment of the four oldest monarchies with which we are acquaint- ed, China, Assyria, Egypt and Greece. The second epoch (from the XVII to the XIII centu- ry) commences at the conquests of Sesostris. The victo- ries of that prince were in fact the principal occasion of the oldest and most important revolutions in the three quarters of the then known world. In Asia they weak- ened the monarchy of the Assyrians; in Egypt, they clianged the ancient constitution of the State, and pre- pared the way remotely for the corruption of manneis and the decline of the empire which ensued, by the mul- titude of strangers v^diom that conqueror brought back with him. Finally they gave the Egyptians a taste for emigration. Thus certain Egyptian princes about that time conducted colonies into Greece. Inachus founded Argos ; Perseus, Mycenae ; Lelex, Lacedaemon ; Cecrops, Athens ; andSysiphus, Corinth. Other cities as famous in fable as in history were founded about the same epoch. The third epoch (trom the XIII to the IX century) has for its most prominent events the siege of Ti'oy, a gie<>-e which its length, the multitude of kings who were present at it, and still more the genius by which it has been sung, have rendered one of the most famous events in history. The fourth epoch (from the IX to the VI century) pre- sents the union of the four greatest lawgivers of antiquity : Lycurgus, at Lacedeemonia ; Numa, at Rome; Solon, at Athens ; and Confucius, in China. We see in this period the entire destruction of the Assyrian Empire, and the 284 SIXTH PART. foundation of three other celebrated nionarclsies formed from its ruins : first, that of the Mcdes ; secondly, that of the Babylonians ; thirdly, that of the Ninevitcs, In Eu- rope we witness the origin of Rome, which in the sequel fixed the destiny of the eastern hemisphere ; the estab- lishment of the principal rej3ublics of Greece ; the aston- ishing progress of legislation ; the birth of philosophy and the dawn of the fine arts. The fifth epoch comprises two centuries (from the VI to the IV.) During this period the glory of arms and of genius was carried, among the Greeks, to its greatest height. At the commencement of it, Cyrus performed the dominant part in the world ; his victories changed the entire face of the East; his conquests in Asia Minor, driving back into Europe the colonists who had issued from it, and who possessed a knowledge of the arts, be- came the occasion of that splendor to which Greece after- ward attained. The sixth epoch comprises two centuries (from the IV to the II). At that time Rome carried to an eminent degree her virtues and talents ; and the most marked good fortune, still subordinate to wisdom, directed all her foot- steps. 1 he death of Alexander occurred during this period (324), an event which produced, through the whole of Asia, one of the greatest changes ever witnessed on our globe ; then commenced for Greece that process of decay from which she never recovered, while the Roman re- public was aggrandized by rendering herself mistress of the empire of the Macedonian conqueror. The seventh epoch comprehends a century (from the II to the I). Daring this period civil wars, excited by some of the greatest men in the world, such as the Gracchi, Sylla, Marius, Caesar and Pompey, agitated the republic, and finally led to its ruin. The seditions excited by those two ambitious brothers, the Gracchi (neither of whom, perhaps, were destitute of patriotism) were the germ of GENERAL SUMMARY. 285 all the rest, the principal cause of all the domestic wars, and consequently of the revolutions by which they were terminated. The eighth epoch comprehends two centuries and a half (from the I to the III century after Jesus Christ). During the course of it tlie Roman Empire, triumphing over the Barbarian?, and elevated to the summit of glory, preserved a superiority of dominion over the nations of our hemisphere. This period may be considered as com- mencing at the battle of Actium, thiity-one years before Jesus Christ, because that event strengthened the power of Augustus, and furnished solid foundations to the sacred and military governments which that prince began to es- tablish under the names of pontiif and emperor. The ninth epoch includes three centuries (from the III to the V). During this interval the Roman Empire, at- tacked on all sides, and shaken by the most formidable blows, grew feeble, tottered, and ended by falling beneath the strokes of a host of nations until then almost unknov/n. HISTOilY OF THE MIDDLE AGE. Tlie first epoch of that history includes nearly a cen- tury and a half In this interval we witness the birth of the greater j^art of the empires and monarchies of modern times ; the ancient chaos is dispersed, new institutions are establisheJ, and Europe at length assumes a delini'.c form. It is an epoch of creation and social organiza- tion. During its course we encounter six principal na- tions ; the Anglo-Saxons, the Visigoths, the Ostrogoths, the AUcmanni or- Germans, the Burgundians and tljo Franks. The second epoch comprises nearly two centuries. It presents one of the greatest events in the annals of the world. The Arabs, a people still almost savage, but in- dependent, who, in the immensity of their arid deserts, 280 SIXTH PART.. had escaped the Roman arms, emerged all at orsco from their obscurity by the genius of a single man, and aston- ished the \\orld by their courage and conquests. In a few years they subdued the half of Asia, the shores of Africa and a part of Europe, and their name, but a short time before wholly unknown, caused the emperor of the East and the monarch of Persia, then tlie two first poten- tates of the globe, to tremble upon their thrones. Had the followers of JMahomet not become divided among lliemselves, it is difficuk to conjecture what would have been the present condition of Christendom. The tliird epoch comprises a century and a half It shows us modern continental Europe, almost at the same j)oint which it had reached under the last Roman empe rors ; that is to say, nearly united under one man, and tho name of tlie Empire lenewed after three hundred and twenty-four years (-ITG to 800) by one of the descendants of its most formidable enemies. To this revolution sooa succeeded the feudal system, which extended its admiiiis- trative net-work over the whole of Western Europe, while the communes and the cities are also seen arming in their own defence. Two men, Alfred and Charlemagne, at this epoch di- vide our admiration, both equally great in valor and puis- sance, both exerting themselves to scatter a few rays of light amidst the profound night in which the wholfe world was then plunged : and both above their age, striving against the prevailing barbarism and leaving beliind" them noble monuments of their courage and genius. The fourth epoch includes more than a century and a half, and is worthy of great attention. After the death of Charles the Great, his vast empire, formed of so many re- mote countries, of so many different nations whom he had united under the same sceptre and the same laws, a mo- saic held together by the compressive force of his genius, GoNEllAL SUMMARY.. 287 was rent aaundcr, and of its fragments were formed tlireo great empires, France, Italy and Germany. The distinctive traits of this iiud the preceding epoch were the grossest ignorance, tlie complete triumph of su- perstition, tlie increase of the temporal and spiritual pow- er of the popes; and the close of this period (X century) is marked by the entire destruction of the ancient civi- lization. The fifth epoch compri.-^^es r.eariy three centuries. TI50 religious expeditions called the crusades are the events which especially characterize this age ; they present a picture at once the most interesting and varied, tlmt of barbarism advancing unconsciously towards civilization. The sixth epoch includes nearly tv.'o centuries. It ofiers to our view an event of the Inghest interest, that of the revival of all the fine arts, wliich, after having beeii for so long a time exiled from the West, made their ap- pearance there again under the auspices of the Medici. The intellectual movement takes its liighest flight ; poli- tics, science, literature, commerce, everything is sensible of the new impulse which has been given to th.e human nviiKl, and furnishes presentiment of that great social reform which took place in the age immediately following. MODERX 11 1 STORY. The revolution which occurred in Kuro2)e in the XV centuT-y, in consequence of the Turkit;h conquests, entirely oJianged the aspect of its States, and gave rise to a r,ew political order. But this change was not sudden : it had been induced by anterior revolutions and institutions, by tne invention of the compass, of printing and gunpowder. The nations of Europe profited by these discoveries to extend their information ; letters, the arts, llie sciences, reliffion, orovernments and manners assumed a new aa- pect. It is at this memorable period that we should com- mence modern history. 288 SIXTH PART. The first epoch comprehends a century and a half: it is one of the most brilliant in the annals of time. All Europe is at that time seen embellished with the labors of the fine arts, all the sciences developed, and several sublime discoveries giving to mankind information previ- ously unknown, A new world is opened to the eyes of navigators by the discoveries of Columbus. The second epoch includes a half century. France, at that time radiant with the glory of arts and arms, victori- ous by land, formidable by sea, enriched by commerce, by manufactures, by the talents of her sons, increased by a third of her possessions, gave laws to Europe ; she was respected throughout the world,. Louis XIV", by the su- periority of his reign, is undoubtedly the most striking object which presents itself during this period. The third epoch comprises nearly a half century. Among a multitude of famous events belonging to this epoch, we notice the happy revolution which took place in Russia; from an obscure state, it has become one of the most powerful empires of Europe ; this was the work of Peter the Great, who, turning to good account the efforts of his predecessors, gave a new existence to his country, created armies, fleets, cities, arts, commerce and an excellent system of police. The fourth epoch lasted for half a century. This in- terval is marked, first, by the extinction of the powerful family of Austria, in the person of Charles VI (1740). This event, followed by the most general and bloody wars in Europe, became the principle of a total change in the relative power of the European kingdoms and in their political system ; secondly, by the elevation of Prus- sia to the rank of one of the first continental powers, through the military and philosophic genius of the great Frederic II ; thirdly, by the enfeeblement of France, which bore already in its bosom the germs which were destined to produce one of the most violent crises that GENE RAJ. SU.MMARr. 289 Europe had ever experienced ; fuurllily, by tlie colonial wars which furnished England the opportunity to ruin the navies of France and Spain, and to arrogate to her- self a vexatious jurisdiction over neutral States. The most important of her colonies, however (the United States) escaped from her grasp ; yet she boldly faced her enemies on all sides, founded in the East (India) an em- pire as vast as that which she had lost in the West, and remained mistress of the seas. The fifth epoch lasted twenty-six years. It was one of the most important in all history. The independence of the political system of Europe, which Frederic II seemed to have fixed upon the firmest foundations, crumbled to pieces, and was recomposed only from its "own fragments. The greater part of the European States experienced tremendous shocks. The signal for these concussions was given by France : royalty was abolished there (1792), and the head of Louis XVI fell under the axe of the revo- lution. This bloody tragedy moved the whole of Europe ; ancient dynasties were changed : a youthful general, full of genius, boldness and ambition, bore the French name victoriously from the Tagus to the Borysthenes, and seat- ed himaelf upon the throne of the Bourbons, from which he commanded coixtinental Europe; but he descended with as much rapidity as he had risen, and was sent to die upon the rock of Saint Helena. The sixth epoch has lasted (down to the present year, 1848,) thirty-three years. This epoch is not less remark- able than those which have preceded it ; first, during its course a political system has been established in Europe, entirely founded upon the principle of legitimacy; se- condly, an indissoluble bond embraces all the States of Germany ; the sovereign princes and the free cities of that country have constituted themselves into a Germanic Confederation, with a diet at Frankfort on the Main© ; thirdly, revolutions have been seen to break out in Spain, ^ 13 290 SIXTH PART. Brazil, Mexico and Guatimala, and in Greece; fourthly, the war between Russia and Turkey, the usurpation of Don Miguel in Portugal, the revolution of Paris, which caused the elder branch of the house of Bourbon to de- scend from the throne ; the revolution of Brussels, which raised all Belgium against Holland ; the revolution of Po- land, which in its issue seemed for a second time to efface that country, as an independent nation, from the map of Europe ; the erection of the new kingdom of Greece, the fall of Don Miguel, the regency in Spain of Espartero, and his flight into England ; the progress of free principles in the latter country, the continued endeavor of the three great powers of England, Russia and France to extend, their influence and dominion in Asia and Afiica ; the opening up of China to the commerce of the world, and the rapid growth of our own country in population, terri- tory, the arts and sciences ; in a word, all the resources of national greatness : these are the events which impart a character of the highest interest to the nineteenth century, and are destined to make it one of the most important eras in the history of the world. ALPHABETIC TABLE OF THE NATIONS. Acba^ans, . Alani, . . Alleraanni, . Americans, Angles, . Arabs, . . Armenians, Assyrians, Athenians, . Avars, . . Babylonians, Baleares, . Belgians, . Boeotians, . Bithynians, l>obemians, J^urgundians, Britons, Brazilians, . Bulgarians, Caledonians, Candia, (History Cappadocians, Carians, . . . Carthaginians, Cyprus, (History Corinthians, Corsicar;?, . . Cretes, . . . Danes, . . . Egyptians, . Empire of the East, (His- tory of ) . . . . 1 English, Epirotcs, . Etolians, . Etruscans, , P»4'03. Of) of) French, 167 Franks 162 Gauls, 158 Genoese, .... 221 Gepidas, 164 Germans, .... 199 Goths, 163 Greeks 262 Haytiens, 243 Hebrews, .... 104 Heruli, 163 Hollanders, ... 247 Hungarians, .... 206 Huns 162 Iberians, or Hispani- ans, . . . • 159 Iri:.h, 196 Italy, 159 Jerusalem, (History of) 229 Lacedaemonians, . . IIG Latins 147 Lombards, .... 181 Lucchesc, .... 226 Lydians, 152 Macedonians, . . . 136 Medes, 103 Messenians, . . . 156 Mexicans, .... 238 Milanese, .... 228 Modenese, .... 227 Moguls 164 Moors, 187 Neapolitans, . . . 207 Ninevites, .... 103 . Normans, .... 164 i Norvv-egians, . . . .190 [ Numidians, . . . 161 292 ALPHABETIC LIST OF THE NATIONS. Ostrogoths, . Popes, (Histoi Parmesans, Pergamotea, Persians, . Peruvians, . Phcenicians, Phocidians, Phrygians, Placentians, Poles, . Pontines, . Portuguese, Prussians, . Ravennese, Rhodians, . Romans, . Russians, . Sabines, . of) . 163 IG5 . 225 152 . 132 240 . 107 154 . 152 225 . 19G 151 . 212 252 . 227 232 . 119 193 . 160 Samnites, . Sardinians, Saxons, . Scotch, vSicilians, Spaniards, Spartans, . Swedes, . . Swiss, . Syracusans, . Tarentines, Thessalians, . Turks, . . Tuscans, . . United States, Vandals, . . Venedes, Venetians, Visigoths, . 160 257 260 195 208 182 115 188 216 156 160 153 233 222 265 161 164 219 163 B'BW^^TM TA^T. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Of the Sovereigns of flarope, Divided by dynasties and families, from the invasion of thv Barbarons Nations, down to 1847. EXERCISES. This last labor which our system requires of the pupil is one of the most attractive and profitable ; he should gradually accustom himself to designate the reigning sov- ereign at any given epoch. He may study, for instance, first the history of France, next that of England, and, before passing to another nation, he should place these two States in connexion, and thus in succession for other countries. After having exercised him alternately by ro- Eearches and by efforts of the memory, let any date what- ever be given him, and he will name, with more or less promptness and accuracy, according to his degree of pro- gress, the kings in England, in France, in Spain, &c. at that period. MODELS OF QUESTIONS. 1. in 1095. First Crusade. 2. in 1282. Sicilian Vespers. 3. in 1492. Discovery of America. SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 1. France, Philip I. — England, William II. — Spain, hotiso of the Visigoths. — Germany, Henry IV, &c.— Pope, Urban II, &c. 2. France, Philip IlL-England, Edward.-Spain, House 294 SIXTH PART. of the Visigoths. — Germany, Rodolph of Hapsburgh. Pope, Martin IV. 3. France, Charles VIII. — England, Henry Vil. — Spain, Ferdinand V and Isabella. — Germany, Frederic III. — Portugal, John II. — Pope, Alexander VI. Sovereigns of Europe. ROMAN EMPERORS BEFORE JESUS CHRIST. 45. Caesar, perpetual dicta- tor (assassinated the year following). 31. Augustus (after the bat- tle of Actium). AFTER JESUS CHRIST. 1. Augustus. 14. Tiberius. 37. Caligula. 41. Claudius. 64. Nero. 68. Galba. 69. Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian. 79. Titus. 81. Domitian, 96. Nerva. 98. Tmjan. 117. Adrian. 138. Antonius Pius. 161. Marcus, Aurelius, Verus. 180. Commodus. L. 192. Pertinax, Didius Juli- anus. Pescennius Ni- ger, Septimius Se verus, who remained alone. 211. Caracalla, Geta, 238. Gordian II, Papienus, Balbinu^!, 238. Gordian III. 244. Philip. 249. Messius Decius, He- rennius. 251. Hostilianus, Treboni- anus Galkis. 253. EmiliiisEmllianus, the two Licimi. 260. Valerian and Gallie- nus. SOVEREIGNS OF EUllOri-:. 21^5 268. Claudius 11. 270. Domitius Aurelianus. 276. Claudius Tacitus. 276. Florianus, Aur. Pro- bus. 282. Aurel, Car us, Cari- ■nu«, Numerian. 284. Diocletian Maximiau, Hercules. 305. Gonstantius, CJorus Galerius. 306. Constantine the Great. 337. Constantine II, Con- stantius I, Constans. 361. Julian. ROMAN EMPERORS AFTER JESUS CIIllIST. 217. Opilius Macrinus and Diadumenes, his son. 217. Heliogabalue. 222. Alexander Severus. 235. Maxiniin, Gordian I. 363. Jovian. 364. Valentinian 1, Yalen*?. 375. Gratian. 375. Valentinian 11. 379. Theodosius. EMPIRE OF THE WEST. 395. Honorius. 425. Valentinian III. 455. Petronius Maximus, Avitus. 457. Majorian. 461. Libius Sevcrus III. 467. Anthemius. 472. Olytrius. 473. Glycerins. 474. Julius Nepos. 475. Romulus Ausrustulufi. Note. See the Eastern Empire, page 150. Invasion ofi tlic ISs&rbariaii^. FOUNDATION OF MODERN STATES. F R A «? C E . MEROVINGIAN DYNASTY. Chiefs of the Franks. 418. Pharamond. 428, Clodion. 448. Merovseus. 458. Childeric I. 296 SIXTH PART. KINGS OF FRANCE. 481. Clovis. 511. Childebertl. 558. Clotaire I. 561. Caribert. 567. Cliilperic I. 584. Clotaire II. 628. Dag(jbert I. 638. Clovis II. 656. Clotaire III. 670. Childeric II. 673. Thierry I. 691. Clovis III. 695. Childebert II. 711. Dagobert II. 715. Clotaire IV. 716. Chilperic II. 720. Thierry II. Interregnum of five years under the government of Charles Martel. 742. Childeric III. CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY. 752. Pepin, the Short. 763. Charlemagne. 814. Louis the Debonair. 840. Charles II, the Bald. 877. Louis IljtheStammerer 879. Louis III and Carlo- man. 882. Carloman, alone. 844. Charles the Gross. FAMILY OF ROBERT, THE STRONG. 888. Eudes. FAMILY OF CHARLEMAGNE. 898. Charles III, the Simple. THE FAMILY OF BURGUNDY 923. Raoul. FAMILY OF CHARLEMAGNE. 936. Louis IV, Outre-raer. \ 986. Louis V. 954. Lothaire. SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 297 CAPETIAN DYNASTY. CAPETS. 987. Hugh Capet 996. Robert. 1031. Henry I. 1060. Philip I. 1108. Louis VI. 1137. Louis VH. 1180. Philip n 1223. Louis VIII Augustus. 1226. Louis IX. 1270. Philip III, the Bold. 1285. Philip IV, the Fair. 1314. Louis X. 1316. John L 1316. Philip V. 1322. Charles IV. 1323. Philip VL 1350. John II, the Good. 13C4. Charles V, the Wise. 13S0. Charles VI. VALOIS. 1422. Charles VII. 1461. Louis XI. ! 1483. Charles VIII. VALOIS — ORLEANS. 1498. Louis XII, the Father of the People. VALOIS — ANGOULEME. 1515. Francis T. 1560. Charles IX. 1517. Henry II. 1574. Henry HI. 1559. Francis II. 1589. Henry IV. IGIO. Louis Xm. 1G43. Louis XIV. BOURBONS. 1 1715. Louis XV. 1774. Louis XVI. 1793. Louis XVII. THE REPUBLIC. 1792 to 1804. DYNASTY OF NAPOLEON. 1804. Napoleon, Emperor. 13* 298 SIXTH PART. BOURBONS. 1814. Louis XVIII. I 1824. Charles X. ORLEANS DYNASTY. 1830. Louis Philip I, king of the French. England. ANGLO-SAXON HOUSE. 827. Egbert. 837. Ethelwolf. 857. Ethel wald. 860. Ethelbert. 866. Ethelred I. 871. Alfred the Great. 901. Edward the Elder. 925. Athelstan. 940. Edmund I. 946. Edred. 95r>. Edwy. 957. Edgar. 975. Edward the Martyr. 978. Ethelred II. 1016. Edmund II. DANISH HOUSE. 1014. Sueno. 1017. Canute I. 1036. Harald I. 1040. Hardi-Canute. SAXON KINGS. 1042. Edward, the Confes- sor. 1065. Harald II. NORMAN HOUSE. 1066. William, the Con- queror. 1087. William II. 1100. Henry I. 1135. Stephen of Blois. HOUSE OF THE PLANTAGENETS. 1154. Henry II. 1189. Richard I. 1199. John, Lackland. 1210. Henry III. 1272. Edward I. 1307. Edward II. SOVEilEIGNS OF EUROPE. 1327. Edward IIL 1377. Richard 11. LANCASTER^?. 1399. Henry IV. 1413. Henry V. 1422. Henry VI. YORKS. 1461. Edward IV. 1483. Edward V. 1483. Richard III, HOUSE OF TUDORS. 1485, Henry VII. 1509. Henry VIII. 1547. Edward VI. 1554. Mary. 1558. Elizabeth. HOUSE OF STUARTS, 1603. James I. 1625. Charles I. 1649. Interregnum. 1053. Cromwell, protector. 1658. Richard Cromwell. 1660. Charles II. 1685. James IL 1688. Revolution. 16S9. William III, of Orange-Nassau. 1702. Ann Stuart. HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK-HANOVER. 1714. George T. 1727. George II. 1760. George III. 1820. George IV 1830. William IV. 1837. Victoria I. ILow C oisi&trie^. STADTHOLDERS. 1570. William I. 1584. Maurice. 1625. Henry, Frederic. 1647. William II. 1072. William HI. 1702. The Stadtholderate abolielied. 1702. Heinsius, grand pen- sioner. 1747. William IV, Stadt- holder. 1751. William V. 1795. Revolution. 300 SIXTH PART. KINGS. — FAMILY OF NAPOLEON. 1806. Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland. ORANGE-N'ASSAU. 1815. William (IV) I. HOLLAND. 1830. William I, king of Holland. BELGIUM. 1831. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, king of the Belgians. Spain. VISIGOTHS. The dynasty of the Visigoths reigned from 415 to 714. MOORISH DOMINION. Particular k^ngs in Castile, Leon and Arragon. KINGDOMS OF SPAIN RE-UNITED. 1474. Ferdinand V, the Catholic, and Isabella. 1504. Jane the Simple, and Philip the Fair. 1506. Ferdinand, the Catholic. AUSTRIA. 1665. Charles H. 1516. Charles I (Fifth). 1556. Philip II. 1621. Philip IV. 1698. Philip in. BOURBONS. 1700. Philip V. 1724. Louis I. 1724. Philip V, a^ain. 1746. Ferdinand VI. 1759. Charles III. 1788. Charles IV. 1808. Ferdinand VII. SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE, 301 DYNASTY OF NAPOLEON. 1808. Joseph. BOURBONS. 1814. Ferdinand VII, re-established. 1823. Isabella II. Prussia. DUKES. 1525. Albert. 1568, Albert Frederic. 1G18. John Sigisraund. 1619. George William. 1640. William Frederic. 1688. Frederic I. KINGS. — HOHENZOLLERN. 1701. Frederic I. 1713. Frederic William I. 1740. Fredericll, the Great. 1786, Frederic William II. 1797. Frederic William III. 1840. Frederic William IV. Maples and Sicily. NORMAN HOUSE. 1057. Robert Guiscard II. | 1085. Roger I. KINGS. 1130. Roger It. 1154. Roger, the Bad. 1166. William II. 1189. Tancred. 1194. William III. 1189. Henry VI, Emperor of Germany. 1197. Frederic II. HOHENSTAUFFEN. 1250. Conrad IV. 1258. Manfred. 302 SIXTH PAIIT. 1266. Charles of Anjou. 1285. Charles II. 13C9. Robert the Wise. 1313. Jane I. ANGEVINE. 1382. Charles cle Durae. 1386. Ladislas. 1414. Jane 11. SICILY (ARRAGON). 1282. Peter II, king of Ar- ragon. 1285. James. 1296. Frederic II. 1336. Peter. 1342. Louis. 1355. Frederic III. 1377. Mary. 1402. Martin I. 1409. Martin IT. 1410. Ferdinand I. 1416. Alphonso I. ARRAGON. 1442. Alphonso I, king of Arragon. SICILY. 1479. Ferdinand, the Catholic. NAPLES. 1458. Ferdinand I. M94. Alphonso II. 1495. Ferdinand II. 1496. Frederic III. TWO SICILIES (arragon). 1506, Ferdinand, the Catholic. SPANISH AUSTRIA. 1516. Charles Fifth. 1621. Philip IV. 1554. Philip II. • 1665. Charles II. 1598. Philip III. bourbons. 1700. Philip V. savoy. 1714. Victor Amedceus. SOVEREIGNS OF EUJIOPE. v^o: AUSTRIA. 1714 Charles VI. BOURBONS OF SPANISH ANJOU. 1734. Don Carlos. | 1759. Ferdinand IV. NAPOLEON DYNASTY. 1S06. Joseph Bonaparte. | 1808. Joachim Murat. RESTORATION OF THE BOURBONS. 1815. Ferdinand IV. I 1830. Ferdinand II. 1825. Francis I. I PorlMgal. BURGUNDY. 3139. Alphonso I. I 1279. Denys. 1185. Sancho I. ! 1325. Alphonso IV. 1211. Alphonso II. 1357. Peter I. 1223. Sancho 11. 1248. Alphonso III. 1367. Ferdinand I. 1383. John. 1433. Edward. 1438. Alphonso V. 1481. John II. HOUSE OF AVIS, 1495. Emmanuel. 1521. John III. 1557. Sebastian. 1578. Henry the Cardinal. SPANISH DOMINION. 1580. Philip II. 1598. Philip III. 1640. John IV. 1656. Alphonso VI. 1683. Peter II. 1706. John V. 1750. Joseph I. 1777. Peter II and Mary. 1621. Philip IV. BRAGANZA. 1784. Mary, alone. 1816. John VI. 1826. Donna Maria II. . 1828. Don Miguel, usurp- er. 1834. Donna Maria. 304 SIXTH PART. R n § s i St. RURICK. 962. Rurick. (This house lasted until the Czars.) 1533. Ivvan IV. 15S4. Fcdor I. 1/598. Godnof. 1605. Fedor II. CZARS. 1605. Dimitri, the False. 1606. Schuskoj. 1610. Wladislas. 1613. Michael. 1545. Alexis. 1676. Fedor III. ROMANOF. 1682. Juan V, Peter I. 1696. Peter, alone. 1721. Peter the Great. 1725. Catherine I. 1727. Peter II. EMPERORS. 1730. Ann. 1740. Iwan VI. 1741. Elizabeth. HOLSTEIN-GOTTORPS. 1762. Peter III and Cath- 1801. Alexander I. erine II. 1706. Paul I. 1825. Nicholas I. (CONSTANTINOPLE, THE CAPITAL.] FIRST DIVISION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 364. Valens, brother of Valentinian, Emperor of the West, at Rome. THEODOSIAN RACE. 379. TheodosiuB the Great. SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 305 SECOND DIVISION OF THE! ROMAN EMPIRE. 397. 08. Arcadius, brother of Honorius, Emperor of the West. Theodosius IT. 450. Pulcheria and Marcian. 457. Leo I. 473. Leo U. 474. Leno. 491. Anastasius I. 518. Justin I. 527. Justinian I, 565. Justin IL JUSTINIAN RACE. 578. Tiberius II, adopted. 582. Maurice, adopted. 602. Phocas. HERACLIAN RACE. 610. Ileraclius. 641. Constantine III, Her- aclius and Constantius XL 668. Constantine IV. 685. Justinian II. 695. Leontius. 698. Absim, Tiberius. 705. Justinian II, re-estab- lished. 711. Philipicus. 713. Anastasius II. 716. Theodosius II. 717. Leo III. 741. Constantine V. 775. Leo IV. 780. Constantine VI Irene. ISAURIAN RACE. 797. Irene, alone. 802. Nicephorus I. 811. Stauratius. and 811. Michael Curopalatos. 813. Leo V. PHRYGIAN RACE. 820. Michael the stammer- | 829. Theophilus I. er. 842. Michael III. MACEDONIAN RACE. 867. Basil I. 886. Leo VI. 911. Alexis and Conston- tioe VII. 30G SIXTH PART. 915, Romanus and his sons, Christus, Stephen, and Constantine VIII. 945. ConstaiUine, alone. 959. Roraanus II. 963-969. Nicephorus, Pho- cas, Zimicees. 976. Basil 11 and Constat! tine IX. Ore€k empire 102H. Romanus III, Theodora. Zoe, 1081. Alexis Comnenus, Ann Comnenus. 1031. Michael IV. 1118. John Comnenus, the lOil. Michael V. Fair. 1012. Constantine X. 1143. Manuel Comnenup. 105G. Michael VI. 1180. Alexis II. 1057. I^Iichacl Comnenus. 1183. Andronicus Comne- 1059. Constantino Ducas. nus. 10G7. Romanus IV. 1185. Isaac Angelas. 1071. Michael Ducas. 1185. Alexis Angelas. 1078. Nicephorus III. 1203. 1204. Isaac, again. M Ursulas. E.at in 1 S Blip ire. 1204. Baldwin, of Flanders. 1206. Henry, of Flanders. 1216. Peter, of Courtenay. 1219. Robert, of Courtenay. 1228. John de Brieniie, Baldwin of Courtenay, Mew Greek ^^mpire 12GI. Michael Pala3ologus. 1282. Andronicus II. 1328. Andronicus III. 1347. John Cantacuzene. 1353. John Palaeologiig. 1391. Manuel Paloeologus. 14-25. John Palaeologus II. 1448. Constantino Paliro- logufi. SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 307 Tiir key. S M A N L I E S . 1451. Mahomet II. 1018. Osmau II. 1481. Bajazet II. 1622. Mustapha, re-estab 1512. Selim I. lished. 1520. Soliman. 1566. Selim II. 1574. Amurath III. 1505. Mahomet HI. 1G03. Achmet I. 1623. Amurath IV. 1040. Ibrahim. 1648. Mahomet IV^ 1687. Soliman III. 1695. Mustapha II. 1691. Achmet 11. 1703. Achmet III. 1774. Abdeel Hamid. 1730. Mahomet V. 1789. Selim III. 1754. Osman TIT. 1808. Mustapha IV. 1757. Mustapha III. 1808. Mahmoud II. 1617. Mustapha I. 1839. Abdhul Medjid. Ocrmaaiy. CARLOS IXGIAX. 771. Charlemagne. 879. Louis II. 814. Louis, the Debonair. 882. Charles, the Gross. 843. Louis I, the Germanic. 887. Arnulph. 676. Carloman. 899. Louis III, the Infan F R A N < D N I A . 911. C onrad I. SAi :oNY. 919. Henry I, the Fowler. 983. Otho in. 936. Otho the Great. 1002. Henry II. 973. Otho II. SALIC F lANCONIA. 1024. Conrad II. 1056. Henry IV. 1039, Henry III. 1106. Henry V. 308 SIXTH PART. SUABIA SUPPLEMBOURG. 1125. Lothaire II. SUABIA HOHENSTAIJFFEN, 113S. Conrad III. 1152. Frederic I. 1190. Henry VI. 1197. Philip. 1208. Otho IV. 121?. Frederic II. 1250. Conrad IV. 1254. William of Holland. 1260. Jntcrresnum, 1273. Rodolphof Hapsburg. 1292. Adolpbus of Nassau. 1298. Albert of Hapsburg. 1308. Henry VIII of Lux- emburg. 1314. Louis of Bavaria. 1347. Charles IV, of Lux- emburg. HAPSBURG. 1378. VVenceslas, of Lux- emburg. 1400. Robert, count pala- tine. 14-n. Sigismund, of Lux- emburg. HAPSBURG, AUSTRIAN. 1438. Albert II. 1440. Frederic III. 1493. Maximilian I. 1519. Charles Fifth. 1558. Ferdinand I. 1564. Maximilian II. 1576. Rodolph 11. 1612. Matthias. 1619. Ferdinand IL 1637. Ferdinand IIL 1658. Leopold I. 1705. Joseph L 1711. Charles VL 1742. Charles VIII, of Ba- varia. AUSTRO-LORRAINE. 1745. Francis I and Maria Theresa. 1765. Joseph II. 1790. Leopold II 1792. Francis IL 1835. Ferdinand II. SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 309 Sweden DENMARK. 1389. Margaret Waldemar. I 1439. Christopher III. 1412. Eric. 1448. Christiern I. 1481. John. OLDENBURG. I 1513. Christian II. WASA OR VASA. 1523. Gustavus Vasa. 1560. Eric XIV. 1568. John III. 1592. Sigismund. 1654. Charles X. 1660. Charles XL 1697. Charles XII. 1604. Charles IX. 1611. Gustavus II, (Adol- phus). 1632. Christine. DEUX-PONTS. 1718. Ulrica Eleonora. 1720. Frederic, associated. 1741. Frederic, alone. HOLSTEIN EUTIN. 1751. Adolphus Frederic. 1771. Gustavus III. 1792. Gustavus IV. 1809. Charles XIII. , 1818. Charles XIV {I. Ber- nadotto). 1397. Margaret. 1412. Eric. Denmark. THE UNION. 1438. Christoper III. HOLSTEIN GLUCKSTADT. 1448. Christian T. 1481. John l. 1513. Christian II, last king of the Union. 1523. Frederic I. 1534. Christian III. 1559. Frederic II. 1588. Christian IV. 3ia f^ IX ill PART, lGi8. Frederic 111. 1670. Cliiistiaii V. 1G99. Frederic IV. 1730. Christian VI. 174G. Frederic V. 17GG. Christian VU. 1808. Frederic VI. 1840. Christian VIII. Sardinian States. DUKES 1391. AmoBdaeua VIII, anti- pope under the name of Felix V. 1451. Louis. 1465. Aiiicedoeus IX. J472. Philibert. MS2. Charles I. 1489. Charles II. 1496. Philip I. 149S. Philip the Fair. 1504. Charles HI. 1553. Emmanuel Philibert. 1580. Charles Emmanuel the Great. 1630. Victor Amaedaeua 11. 1637. Frederic Hyacinth. 1638. Charles Emmanuel II. KINGS. 1G75. Victor Amceda?us II. 1730. CharlesEramanuel III. 1773. Victor Ameed^us III. 179G. CharlesEmmanuel IV. 1802. Victor Emmanuel V. 1821. Charles Felix. 1830, Charles de Cariflfnan. Poland r I A s T . 842. Piast. J A a E L L O N S . 1384. Ladislas V, or Jagel- lon. 1434. Ladislas VI. 1445. CasimirlV. 1492. John d' Albert. 1501. Alexander. 1506. Sigismund I. 1548. Sigismund II. 1572. Infcrrcsnujn. SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 31! ELECTIVE ROYALTY. 1573. Henry of Valois. 1697. Frederic Augustus, of 1575. Stephen of Bathori. Saxony. 1586. Interregnum. 1704. Stanislas Leczinski. 1587. Sigismund III. 1709. Frederic Augustus, 1632. Ladislas VII. re-established. 1648. John Casimir. 1753. Frederic Augustus, of 1668. Interregnum. Saxony. 1669. Michael Coribut. 1764. Stanislas Poniatowski. 1674. John Sobieski. 1795. Division of Poland. 1696. Interregnum. PRINCIPAL POPES. 142 to 150. Pius I.* 422 to 432. Celestine I. 440 to 46 1 . Leo, the Grand. 590 to 604. Gregory the Great. 741 to 752. Zachary. 768 to 772. Stephen III. 795 to 816. Leo III. 891 to 896. Formosus. 996 to 999. Gregory V. 999 to 1003. Sylvester II. 1073 to 1085. Gregory VIL 1088 to 1099. Urban IL 1261 to 1264. Urban IV. 1294 to 1303. Boniface VIII. POPES AT AVIGNON. 1305 to 1314. Clement V. | 1341 to 1352. Clement VI. POPES AT ROME. 1378 to 1389 1492 to 1503. 1503 to 1521 1523 to 1534, 1566 to 1572 1572 to 1585. 1585 to 1590 . Urban VI. Alexander VI. . Leo X. Clement VII. Pius V. Gregory XIII. . Sixtus V. 1700 to 1721, 1769 to 1774. 1775 to 1799 1800 to 1823 1823 to 1829 1829 to 1830 1831 to 1836. Clement XI. Clement XIV. Pius VL Pius VIL Leo XIL , Pius VIIL Gregory XVI. Present Pope, Pius IX. * In commencing the succession of popes at so early a date, there is no design of determining or even entering into theological controversy. By jpe in this connection, is meant simply the chief hishof of Rome. 312 SEVENTH PART. PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 1789. George Washington. 1797. John Adams. 1801. Thomas Jefferson. 1809. James Madison. 1817. James Monroe. 1825. John Quincy Adams. 1829. Andrew Jackson. 1837. Martin Van Buren. 1841. William 11. 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