COMPOSITION IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TAYLOR Class _Lli \5.\A. Book_JIj.'5 Copyright N"_ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. COMPOSITION IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS By JOSEPH S. TAYLOR, Pd. D. DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT 2)F SCHOOLS, NEW YORK CITY Author of "Art of Class Management and Discipline '' NEW YORK A. S. BARNES & COMPANY <^ A' LIBRARY of CONGRESS Two Copies ■ Received NOV 23 i906 A Cqpyrisfht Entry , cuss A XXc, No. COPY B. ' IX Copyright, 1906 A. S. Barnes & Company Preface This book was written to supply a need. Many- excellent manuals on composition of the secondary school and college grade are accessible to American teachers, but similar books of a modem type for elementary schools are comparatively rare. The reason for this condition lies on the surface. The teachers of the elementary grades do not write many books, and yet they are the only people who possess the experience which an author must have who undertakes to show what elementary school children may know and how they should be taught. Hence we have any quantity of elementary school manuals and text-books written by professors in colleges and teachers in high schools that are worse than useless. They do a lot of mischief by setting up impossible standards and thus increasing the labor of the teacher and destroying the interest of the pupil. ii PREFACE The work suggested and described in the following pages can be done by the children for whom it is intended. The proof of this statement is in the fact that it has been done with eminent success during several years in hundreds of class-rooms supervised by the author. All the sample exercises shown in Chapter XII were selected from work produced in classes under ordinary conditions. Particular attention is called to the plan of work in Chapter X. A principal who directs his teachers to follow that plan will, without a doubt, achieve satisfactory results, provided he be willing to supervise the work. To facilitate such supervision the written exercises required are numbered con- secutively. It will thus be possible to refer, in progress books or otherwise, to any piece of work by 'merely giving its number. The numbers in Chapter XII correspond with similar numbers in the plan. Chapter XI is a very valuable compilation, and represents the labor of many people. The author claims no credit for any of it, and he desires to record in the most conspicuous manner his cordial thanks to District Superintendent Julia Richman for permission to reprint and thus make permanently accessible so valuable a collection of graded exercises. The chapter on punctuation, it is confidently PREFACE iii believed, will be found helpful because an effort has been made to include only such rules as come within the comprehension of the pupil at the time he is required to learn the same. The assignment by grades; the systematic review indicated, and the reference by numbers, are features to which atten- tion is invited. Finally, one of the appendices presents a suggested "cover" for compositions, which the author believes to be essential to successful supervision of composi- tion work. In case the covers are not printed, the teacher need select only such items of the method of production as apply in the case under considera- tion. Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2010 witii funding from Tine Library of Congress littp://www.arcliive.org/details/compositionineleOOtayl Contents Preface i I Composition as a Mode of Expression . 1 II Psychology of Composition ... 9 III The Aim of Composition ... 16 IV Method in Composition — Principles . 18 V Method in Composition — Devices . .31 VI Forms of Composition .... 54 VII Choosing a Subject 71 VIII How to be Effective . . . .75 IX The Correction of Compositions . . 81 X Composition Plan for an Eight- Year Course . .88 XI Graded Work in Dictation . . .129 XII Illustrative Compositions . . . 165 XIII Course in Punctuation for Elementary Schools 184 Appendix A ...;... . 199 Appendix B . . . . . . . . 199 V Elementary Composition I. Composition as a Mode of Expression Modem psychology and physiology have made very plain the function of expression in the life of a child. The "reflex arc" is a type of all mental activ- ity. A headless frog will scratch the spot where he is tickled. This proves that a spinal ganglion has the power of converting an afferent impulse into an efferent impulse. The mind is but a higher ganglion. It, too, has the power of changing a sensory impulse into the motor form. The natural destination of every sensory impression; of every judgment, thought, or feeling, is expression through some form of muscular activity. While the child is very young this demand of nature for expression is actually met. The infant inhibits no thought, feeling, or desire. 1 2 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION He is a sort of reflex machine. What he feels he makes known; as soon as he can talk, he tells all he knows. If he is happy, he laughs; if he is sad, he cries. Only older folks learn to inhibit their thoughts and to conceal what goes on in the heart and brain. In other words, man is a reacting organism, and ex- pression is the reactive phase of mental life. It is the only evidence we have that there is mental life; and is the sole measure of a man's power and useful- ness in the world. Composition is one of many forms of expression.* The school of the past was even more deficient in expressive training than its successor of to-day. Most of the exercises were modes of impression. The pupil was always taking in and seldom giving out. He was listening or looking, while the teacher did the work. When he did give expression to thought it was the teacher's thought or the thought of the book rather than his own, that he uttered. He was not urged to be creative. But it is in crea- tion that, as Froebel said, man is like his Maker; and it is to creation that we must look for development and for the only product that makes education worth while. The principle here referred to may be illus- trated by the following examples: 1. Lesson in Grammar. — A certain teacher asked his class to write on the subject of George Wash- ington six simple; six compound, and six complex *Col. Parker enumerates nine: Gesture, voice, music, speech, making, modeling, painting, drawing, writing. — Talks on Pedagogics. A MODE OF EXPRESSION 3 sentences. All the pupils Avrote first the six simple, then the six compound, then the six complex; except one boy, who alternated them; taking one simple, one compound, and one com- plex in turn, and repeating the series until he had six of each. This gave the variety which is so essential an element of the art of expression. At the same time he managed to have all his eighteen sentences coordinated into a well-connected narra- tive on George Washington. He therefore got more discipline out of the exercise than his fellow pupils and produced a result that had value beyond mere grammatical accuracy. 2. Picking Up Blocks. — Mother tells James to pick up his blocks and put them away for the day. The boy replies: ''Mother, I am going to build a house, so I won't have to pick them up."* The result is an elaborate church with steeples, porches, turrets, arches, windows; every block being utilized in the structure. To pile up blocks into a box in a regular way day by day is drudgery. To build an elaborate church requires the exertion of the creative faculty and results in an agreeable product. Both the exertion and the pro- duct produce satisfaction because they are what Dewey calls self-expression, whereas the mere putting away of blocks is an expression of another's desire. 3. Lesson in Drawing. — Object, to learn to draw horizontal and vertical lines. Lesson : First a *This is an actual occurrence. 4 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION large number of one kind; then a large col- lection of the other kind. Result: Children soon tire and lose interest. The more skilful teacher induces the pupil to combine the same lines into a simple design or shows him how to employ- such lines in the expression of thought by means of pictures. The old drawing books were wrong when they insisted on beginning with straight line exercises. Such a method is simply "putting away blocks." It does not rise to the dignity of teaching because it supplies no motive to learn. It is neither creation nor self-expression, and has no educational value. The school of the present puts the emphasis on the expressive side of mental activity. Such subjects as music, manual work, drawing, painting, composi- tion, are to-day held by educators in the highest esteem. Some people who do not understand the theory of expression, or who judge educational institutions by what they remember of their own school days, are in the habit of referring to these modern modes of expression as "fads and frills." The majority of taxpayers, however, realize, with- out understanding the underlying philosophy, that these things are not fads. The children, also, appre- ciate the value of expressive work and thus become missionaries of the new educational gospel. When the child recognizes composition as a mode of self-expression he looks upon it no longer as a mere task, but puts his heart into it as in the case of play. Two girls were observed passing a rainy afternoon A MODE OF EXPRESSION 5 by writing original stories for amusement. One of these productions occupied six closely-written pages of foolscap and was a very creditable fairy tail en- titled " The Story of King Chester." It is reproduced here almost exactly as it was dashed off at high speed merely for fun. There is a certain ease and grace of style which would be lacking if the child had been hampered by a lot of rules and prescriptions. And this fluency, this freedom of idiomatic phrase, is its principal merit. It is easy enough to criticize out of it the few trifling errors; but it is quite impossible to criticize any merit into a composition technically faultless but devoid of thought and feeling and imagination. The Story of King Chester. (By K. R. T. Age 13.) Once upon a time there lived in Europe a wicked king whose name was King Chester. He was cruel and was the cause of many deaths. As the story now stands, he is trying a poor maiden who lived in a small town nearby, for something of which she was absolutely innocent. The king knew this, but was deter- mined to make her guilty. The trouble arose over a small matter about the king's son. One of his sons was very handsome and he fell in love with this maiden. When the king found it out he was very angry and resolved to get even with the prince. So he thought of a plan and was going to try to execute it if he could. Now, there lived about three thousand miles away, in a place which we call Arabia, the king's brother, who was equally wicked. So the king planned to send his son to see the uncle in Arabia; and while the prince was away he 6 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION was going to accuse the maiden of stealing and then would try her and exile her to some foreign country and would not let her come back till she was sent for. So the prince set out and before long had reached his uncle's. Meantime what was happening to the poor maiden? As I have said before, she was being tried for false reasons. The judges proclaimed that she was not guilty and this made the king more angry than ever, so he was going to try something which he was sure would work. He was going to send the girl outside of the room and make her guess when three hours had passed without any clock or anything else. So now she was standing outside of the room and was weeping bitterly when she heard a tapping sound; and whom should she see but a very little man, no bigger than your thumb. He said to the maiden, "Why do you weep, fair one?" "Oh, sir," she said, "the king is punishing me for something with which I had nothing to do. I have to guess when three hours are up and if I don't I shall be exiled to a foreign country." Then the little man answered and said, "Well, well, that is rather hard on a poor girl. I will see what I can do for you." He handed her a small piece of paper with these words written on it: "Oh pray, fair watch. Appear Ramen, Ramen, Ramen ! " Then he said, ' ' Every time you are put out here you repeat the lines and a watch will appear and tell when three hours are up." Before she had time to thank him he had disap- peared. So she thought she would try and see if it were true what the paper said. She repeated the words; and just as the fairy had said, a watch hung on a gold chain appeared about her neck. The time was nearly up and she had but ten minutes, so she went about the hall looking at everything that was of any interest. When her time was up she went into the room on the exact minute. At this the king again grew angry, for he got angry on very slight provocation, and had a fearful temper. So he sent A MODE OF EXPRESSION 7 her out again and this time she was to come in two hours. But the same thing happened every time and the king grew more angry every time, till at last he could stand it no longer, and tried to think of something else to do, so he could exile her. But as it was drawing near the tinie for the prince to return home, he settled the question and exiled her to a small island off the coast of Arabia, so that when the prince came from his uncle's, not he, but the uncle should marry this girl. What had our prince been doing in the meantime? His father had sent word to his brother to have balls and to invite all the pretty maidens to tempt the prince, so he might fall in love with one of them. But the prince cared for none of them. He thought only of his own fair maiden. As I said before, it was time for the prince to return home, so his sweetheart was sent away. The day after she kft. Prince Meredith (for that was the prince's name) returned home, and the king told him that his former sweetheart had gone to a far country because she now hated him so that she would not stay near him. The prince did not believe what the king said, for he knew that the king often got things twisted accidentally on purpose. The prince soon grew restless and longed to see his dear maiden again. At last he started out to look for her. He first thought he would go to his uncle's in Arabia, because he had left his jewelled sword there, and he treasured it highly. He arrived at his uncle's about noon one day a month after he had left home. He heard someone weeping inside and the voice sounded like his loved one's voice. She was crying out, "No, I will not be your wife, for I love Prince Meredith." Prince Meredith hurried to the spot whence the voice came, and whom should he see but his own dear sweetheart standing before his uncle. At the sight of Prince Meredith the maiden went off into a swoon. The uncle was so frightened that he ran out of the room. When the girl recovered, the prince was bending over her. He said, "I have come to take you home." Then she told him how she had been held for 8 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION trial and sent away. The prince said, "Now, dear, during all the long years I have known you, you never told me your name." Then the maiden said, "Dear prince, you shall know my name; it is Charlotte Chester." For a moment the prince stood aghast, then he answered: "At last I have found you, my darling cousin Charlotte. Your father was my father's cousin, and when your father died, my father offered a great reward to anyone who would find a trace of you. It was said some gipsy had carried you off, for you were then a small baby." The girl, as she was now sure the prince had found out who she was, said, "The woman who has been taking care of me claimed she was my mother. But we do not look a bit alike." The prince then took his sweetheart home, and when the king heard he had been persecuting his own relative, he fell on his knees and asked pardon from her and the prince. The couple were then married and lived in a beautiful palace near the king, for he now idolized the princess and could not bear her out of his sight. II. The Psychology of Composition. 1. The Evolution of Expression. — Psychologists tell us that gesture is the first means selected by the child to express his thoughts. The beginnings of speech accompany the gesture, the latter being the principal element of language. Later, when the intellectual evolution is ended gestures are relegated to the second place, and present themselves as an auxiliary of speech.* Before the child can em- ploy gesture as a sign to make known his thoughts and feelings, he must learn the meaning of those signs; hence even the use of gestures as a language implies considerable intellectual development. It is probable that at about the age of one year the child begins to employ gesture language. 2. Oral and Written Expression. — The vocal * Compayre, Later Infancy of Childhood, p. 84. Appleton, X902. 10 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION organs of the infant are used instinctively from the day of birth to express his wants. Later, sponta- neous sounds of many kinds are emitted as a prepara- tion for the ordeal of learning to speak. After a few- months of comparative silence, nature impels the infant to indulge in incessant prattle. In this way a stock of motor images is accumulated which forms the basis for the voluntary use of the vocal appara- tus. In learning to speak "he is guided, above all, by his auditory impressions and by imitation. What his ear has heard, his mouth will finish by repeating, but this on one condition, that, thanks to the opera- tions that are going on in his brain, what was at first only the excitation of the acoustic nerves, becomes the moving impulse of the nerves and of the vocal muscles. The action of the cerebral organs is neces- sary, then, to render possible the communication by which the external impressions of hearing may be transformed into mental images, which, in their turn, will give place to appropriate motions in the organ of speech."* Too much stress cannot be laid upon the power of imitation in the evolution of speech. The physio- logical conditions must of course be present. The speech centers of the brain must be provided with cells and fibers sufficiently developed to make possi- ble the voluntary transformation of a sensory impulse into a motor impulse and definitely co-ordi- nated muscular movements. The instinct of Imita- tion sets the machinery of vocal expression in motion, * Compayre, Later Infancy of the Child, p, 66, ITS PSYCHOLOGY 11 *'Do not birds in a cage begin to chirp, to sing, as soon as they hear us speak near them, as though they would like to enter into a conversation with us?"* Even so the child, long before he can talk, has a pre- monition of dialogue. By social instinct he feels a secret need of conversing. Speech calls forth speech. Hence the deaf child remains dumb because he cannot hear the speech of others. In a way similar to the acquisition of spoken language the child learns the art of expressing his thoughts in writing. The spoken word is a combina- tion of sounds, generally arbitrary, used as a symbol to represent an idea. To learn a word is to fix the association between any object or idea and the sound which represents it so firmly in the mind that the idea suggests the symbol and the symbol the idea. The written word is likewise a symbol, but differing from the spoken word in that it appeals to the eye rather than to the ear. The muscular machinery for representing it is located in the hand and arm instead of the vocal organs. But the mode of con- verting a sensory impression into the motor form is precisely the same as that of spoken language. The use of the written or printed symbol is acquired chiefly by imitation. Reading and writing are usually taught simultaneously because they are parts of the same process, both having for their object the association of symbols with ideas and feelings. 3. Composition More than Mere Expression. — Com- position, in the technical sense, is more than the mere * Compayre, Later Infancy of the Child, p. 78 12 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION conversion of a sensory impulse into the motor form. It is something more than reproduction, for it involves a creative element. The materials of composition bear the same relation to the finished product that piles of brick and lumber bear to a house. The structure is made of the materials gathered from many sources, but the art consists in the arrangement of these materials. "Every house," says Emerson, ''is a quotation from the forest;*' but it is not plagiarism, because the architect has added his brain to the trees and produced something that has more value than the mere raw material. Shakes- peare's plays are drawn from the tales of other men; but no one accuses Shakespeare of plagiarism, be- cause the material he used v/as infinitely enriched by passing through his imagination. Lowell says, "A thing is his at last who says it best." Now, this art of ''saying it" is composition, whether the expression take the form of a house, a statue, a canvas, an oral recitation, a speech, an essay, or a book. 4. Composition as a Mental Process, — Considered as a mental process, composition is related to the motor side of thought It is a synthetic process, inasmuch as it consists in finding and putting to- gether materials of thought in consciousness and expressing the same by means of language. In terms of Herbartianism, it is a form of apperception, since it gives to the elements of thought a new mean- ing, a new setting, and a new value. In the lan- guage of English psychology, composition is a form of association, one thought leading naturally to ITS PSYCHOLOGY 13 another through some one of the various modes of suggestion. All composition involves thinking. It employs creative imagination and calls for the con- stant exercise of taste. Dr. Harris, in an address, defined the elementary school as an institution for converting the ear-minded into the eye-minded. Incidentally he affirmed that it is quite impossible to impart scientific knowledge to ear-minded people. The reason for this is that science must use as its tools, in producing and pre- serving scientific results, technical terms, and these must be recorded and carefully defined. The in- accuracy and perishableness of oral speech render the diffusion of scientific knowledge by word of mouth impossible. The power to read and write with fluency is there- fore one of the essential aims of the common schools, Parker believes that* "the mechanical difficulties of writing are very much less than those of speech." One reason why written language seems harder is that the pupil comes to school "with six years' prac- tice in speech. "t Another reason is that "the motive in speech is keener, as the desire to make some one understand immediately excites the wiU; while in writing this incentive is usually lacking." * Talks on Pedagogics, p. 314. •{•"Aunt J. has given me a dictionary to look up all the hard words in it. It takes a good deal of time, and I am g'lad people can talk without stopping to spell. It is much easier to talk than write and much more fun." Rebecca, in Kate Douglas Wiggin's "Rebecca of Sunr.ybrook Farm, ' p. 43. (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1903.) 14 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 5. The Thinking of Children. — If v/e can deter- mine the mode and limitations of a child's think- ing, we shall throw much light on the problem of elementary composition. Several studies of chil- dren's reasonings have been published. One of these, by H. W. Brown,* consists of a collection of 375 incidents illustrating the misconceptions, in- ferences; and occasional display of mother-witj found in children between the ages of three and ten. No very definite conclusions are drawn by Mr. Brown, but he calls attention to the following points: (a) We have not a sufficiently profound sense of the difficulty under which the little human being labors in trying to deal with the overwhelming multitude of objects and events that confront him. (6) His ideas of time and space, the fundamental forms of thought, are inadequate. The lack of perspective that appears in his drawings exists like- wise in his mental grasp of the duration; magni- tude, and importance of phenomena. Earl Barnes' well-known study of children's draw- ingst showed him: (a) That the child thinks in small units; his intel- lectual processes are fragmentary and broken. (6) That this fragmentary thinking gives great opportunity for the play of association of ideas. His thoughts are like his acts. His attention is not long *Ped. Seminary, Vol. 2, p. 358. "Some Records of the Thoughts and Reasonings of Children." f "A Study on Children's Drawings," Fed. Sem., Vol. 2, po 465, ITS PSYCHOLOGY ■ 15 fixed upon one object. He is the victim of invol- untary attention. Ideas control him, instead of being controlled by him. Hence, whatever comes into his head goes into the composition, whether there be logic or no logic. IIL The Aim of Composition. If the psychology of composition has been properly explained, it throws much light upon the two prob- lems that confront us, the problems, namely, of aim and method. If composition is the conversion of sensory impulses into motor impulses, and in addition to this involves original production, as in the selec- tion, arrangement, and organization of materials from the mental store; if it calls for the use of creative imagination and the exercise of taste; if it is a form of judgment, of apperception, and of thinking — then it must have very great value as a, means of mental discipline We are, therefore, justified, I think, in saying that *'the general aim of elementary compo- sition teaching is, not the acquisition of a science; but the training of the mind through the acquisition and expression of ideas." '^ * The Teaching of English, p. 123 Carpenter, Baker & Scott, Longmans, 1903 16 AIM OF COMPOSITION 17 There is a body of facts and principles governing the expression of ideas in a correct and forcible man- ner which must be acquired by the pupil. It is quite impossible to ignore punctuation, grammar; spelling, figures of speech, and the like, in teaching composition; hence, while the primary aim of a lesson is to train the mind through the acquisition and expression of ideas, "the second aim must be to teach those facts and principles of language which are the necessary media of successful expression."* * The Teaching of English, p. 124 IV. Method in Composition — Principles A few of the great principles of education which underlie all sound teaching may well be recalled in this connection. 1. Correlation. — One of these is the principle of correlation. Composition writing deals with matter and with form; there must be something to say, and the manner of saying it must conform to good usage. The studies that supply thought-stuff should there- fore be correlated with those that deal with forms. That is, in the composition hour we may call upon the pupil to express the knowledge he has gathered in history, geography, nature, or literature, in ac- cordance with the forms which we show him to be correct and effective. Nor need we wait for the composition hour to effect the correlation here spoken of. In every oral reci" tation, from the lowest grade to the highest,; the 18 PRINCIPLES 19 pupil should be systematically trained and encour- aged to express himself in complete sentences and coherent discourse without interruption from the teacher. Some of the most charming exercises in oral composition the writer has witnessed in the first year classes where children reproduce stories told by the teacher. The children step to the front of the room and tell their story from beginning to end in language audible and fluent. Facts learned in nature study or stories read from books are recited in the same way (except that it is not necessary always to require the child to step to the front). For purposes of language teaching stories may be divided into two classes, — those that are to be re- peated by children and those that are not to be repeated. To those that children are to reproduce belong historical stories of all kinds, including folk- lore, biography; myth, and fable. All these should contain some well-marked incident, and the usual elements of suspense and surprise. Some stories are to be used merely for culture,- — to stimulate social and ethical impulses of children; to refine the taste, and to develop a feeling for style. These stories are of classic perfection and are not to be reproduced by the child. Very few teachers appreciate fully the great educa- tional value of oral composition. In the time of the Sophists and in the palmy days of Rome, the orator possessed the gift most prized by the man who had intellectual or political ambitions. Quintilian's great work on education was written to show how the ora- 20 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION tor should be educated, because the finished orator was the type of the highest culture. The. Sophist prided himself on being able to discuss at a moment's notice any subject assigned to him. Extemporaneous discussion was the mode of teaching adopted not only by the Sophists, but by Socrates, their arch enemy, as well. The skill exhibited by the characters who carry on the philosophical conversation in the dia- logues of Plato is the marvel of the modem reader. We no longer cultivate this art, for the printing press, the typewriter, and other modern modes of communication have put the orator out of business. But the educational value of oral speech is as great now as it ever was; and the writer has become con- vinced that a reform in this matter is sadly needed in all our schools. The gift of confident, ready, and forceful speech is still recognized as a badge of culture and power. In certain forms of business it is an absolute essential. In all social relations it is of the greatest value. The man or woman who would be useful in the modern church or Sunday school or in any of the various social organizations should know how to think on his feet and to express his thoughts in coherent lan- guage. It is important, however, to put the empha- sis on the thinking part of the process. A glib tongue unsupported by matter worth saying makes the owner tiresome. Verbosity is a form of speech wherein the vocabulary outruns the ideas. Talking for the mere sake of entertaining may be a fatal gift,; even though it please for the moment. PRINCIPLES 21 Many devices for stimulating interest in oral composition are described in another chapter. Be- low is given a single example not found elsewhere : Oral Composition. A boy is called on to tell how to play any game without mentioning its name. Any boy who can give the name of the game that has been described, may, in his turn, tell how to play some other game, and so on. John. — "In my game the boys stand in three lines. The first three boys have bean bags. At the signal, they run out and drop the bags in three circles marked on the ground; then they run back and tag the three next boys, who run out, and picking up the bags, give them to the next three boys, and so on till the first boys are back in their places." Fred. — "It is the bean bag race." Fred. — "In this game the boys form a ring, with one boy in the middle, who is to be the mouse, and one outside of the ring, who is to be the cat. The cat tries to break through the ring to catch the mouse. The boys try to keep him out. If he breaks through, the boys on the other side open the ring to let the mouse escape. When the mouse is caught he becomes the cat and another boy is selected to be the mouse." James. — "That game is called 'Cat and Mouse.'" 2. Isolation. — The second principle of composi- tion which it is necessary to observe is isolation. This is the opposite of correlation, and demands the separation and arrangement of the elements of composition into easy and orderly stages proceeding from the simple to the complex. We cannot teach everything in one and the same lesson. In every grade it is necessary to make the problem definite. The educational value of composition depends upon the success with which it is taught. If. too 22 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION much is attempted and the pupil fails there is very- little value in it. If too much help is offered and the pupil becomes a mere echo of the teacher, no profit can come from the exercise. ''To many it seems," says Herbart,* "that the exercises they assign should be very easy rather than short; and to make them easy, outlines, terms of expression, everything, is indicated as definitely as possible. This is a delusion. If composition has any purpose, it con- sists in making the pupil try to see what he can do without the teacher. Now if the pupil actually gets started on the exercise, the teacher ought not to step in his way with all sorts of prescriptions. If the pupil fails to make headway, the attempt was pre- mature. We must either wait or else shorten the task, no matter if it should shrink to no more than three lines. Three lines of the pupil's own work are better than three pages written by direction." In days gone by the teachers sometimes required children to write compositions on impossible themes. Friday afternoon was composition day in the district school of which the writer was a pupil. A week was usually allowed to prepare the essay. No instruction was given on the art of composing, but the finished product had to be read before the whole school. The subject assigned was frequently an abstract ethical theme like, ''Knowledge is Power." If the pupil tried to be original he was sure to be silly, and then the other children laughed at him. If he copied his * Outlines of Educational Doctrine, p. 123. (Macmillan, 1901.) PRINCIPLES 23 essay out of a book, nobody understood it, and the performance was rather stupid. In modern days, the subjects assigned are more reasonable. Children usually write on things with which they are familiar. But the method of teach- ing children to compose is often as faulty as it was in former days. The principal defect is that the prob- lem is not divided into easy steps, to be mastered one at a time. Classes of children, of the average age of ten, have been known to be required to write essays containing several hundred words each. They were expected to spell, punctuate, and capitalize correctly; to construct the paragraphs, to arrange the facts in logical order, and to express the whole in correct and effective English. Of course children of that age can do nothing of the kind. Nor should they be per- mitted, much less encouraged, to do so many difficult things at once. In looking over a package of compositions; one often finds the greatest diversity of treatment. The only common element is the title. Some children have one paragraph, others a dozen. Some have three pages, others three lines. Such work suggests a faulty method of teaching. The problem was not sufficiently definite. If the teacher had decided before the writing, how many sub-divisions should be treated, the number of paragraphs would have been automatically determined and would have been the same in all. In the primary grades a convenient device for securing uniformity of treatment is the use of ques- 24 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION tions which are written on the board. The danger in this case, as well as in all attempts to limit the form of treatment, is that the pupil's originality will be destroyed and the work will reflect more of the teacher than of the pupil. Great skill is required in the construction of such questions to prevent mechanical results. Another way of securing individual solutions of a common problem in composition is to limit the num- ber of paragraphs and sentences that shall be written. The following limits have been suggested : 3A — Two or three sentences, aggregating not over twenty-five words. 3B— Four sentences in one paragraph, aggregating thirty-five words. 4A— Two paragraphs, aggregating fifty words. 4B— Three paragraphs, aggregating sixty words. 5A— 5B — Not more than one hundred words. Writing from topical outlines is a successful device for combining uniformity of aim and form with originality in composition. The following compositions were written by third grade pupils in Public School 144 (Manhattan); New York, on these topics : 1. What I am; 2. How I look; 3. Where I live; 4. What I can do. The Story of a Dog. I am a big dog, my name is Nearrow. My coat is a brown one. It is nice and curly. I have sharp bright eyes. I live in the house with my master. I can see a great distance. When my master comes home, I am so happy that I bark and dance for joy. December 8, 1902. Katie Kaplan. PRINCIPLES 25 The Story of a Cow. I am a big cow. My coat is gray and white. I live in the stable. I can say moo. I can give milk, and from my milk people make butter- and cheese. . December 8, 1902. Rebecca Greenberg. The Story of a Beaver. I am a little brown beaver. I have very bright eyes, a flat tail covered with scales, and a furry body. I live near the water. I can do so many things. I can build my house, build a bridge, and I can tell the other beavers when danger is near, without speaking. December 8 1902. Esther Levy. The Story of a Cow. I am a brown cow, spotted with white. I live in the barn with my sisters and brothers. I take hay from the milk maid's hand and I can say moo, moo. The milk maid milks me every day. December 8, 1902. Fannie Weisman. In order that any of the preceding suggestions may be successfully applied it is necessary to give children an abundance of material. Sometimes the information supplied is so meager and is offered in such a concise and formal way that the pupil has no recourse but to repeat the words of the teacher. Children in all grades need systematic training in arranging their thoughts in proper sequence. Their manner of thinking is scrappy. Their attention is not long fixed upon one subject. Their interest soon flags, and the demand for novelty is never satisfied. Their outward acts are but a reflection of their thoughts. They flit from toy to toy, from game to 26 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION game, from one form of activity to another, regard- less of order or consistency. In describing or nar- rating what they have seen or heard they are equally inconsistent. They tell bits of experience as these happen to appear on the stage of consciousness, but have little power to seize the essentials and to put them in proper order so as to produce the effect of unity and completeness. A very excellent plan for systematic training in consecutive thinking is presented in Scott's '' Organic Education " ;* and to this book the reader is referred for specific directions. 3. Interest. — In school nothing can be successfully taught which fails to interest the child. It is con- tended by some that, as children are active rather than reflective, they are not naturally interested in composition. They certainly exhibit a spontaneous interest in oral composition; for out of school they are incessantly talking. They like to tell what they have heard and what they have read; they narrate their doings; they even invent stories and indulge in imaginary conversations with dolls and pets. All these activities are forms of composition. If children show any repugnance to written composi- tion, it must not be assumed that they dislike com- position as such. They are probably annoyed by the mechanical difficulties of writing their thoughts. Until these difficulties of penmanship are overcome the compositions of children should be almost en- tirely oral. Probably the first two years might * D. C, Heath & Co., 1899, Chap. IV (pp. 33, 34, 37, 41). PRINCIPLES 27 profitably be limited to oral work. Many educators believe that we have too much writing in the lower grades.* Perhaps the large classes of the public schools are responsible for this condition, since it would be impossible to have much oral composition in classes with registers of sixty or seventy pupils. With classes of thirty or forty on register oral com- position is within the range of possibility, provided the teacher has the energy and skill to conduct the exercise in a sprightly fashion. When the difficulty of writing has been sufficiently overcome, the interest in oral composition may be transferred to the written form. The interest referred to here is to be centered in the process of composition itself, not merely in the subject matter treated. Just as a game appeals to a child because it affords an opportunity of realizing an end which * The Conversation Man. Oh, de man dat keeps a-talkin' — dat's de man I wants to be. He simply goes aroun' de place to see what he kin see; He alus takes life easy, an' he wears his Sunday clo'es, An' keeps us in astonishment by showin' what he knows. You kin work an' save yoh money; you kin plot and you kin plan, But de man dat takes his comfort is de conversation man. I wouldn't be no hero, 'cause it's jes' as like as not Befo' I got de medals fastened to me I'd be shot. .'I doesn't want to speculate an' see de money fly, I's only jes' ambitious to stan' 'roun' an' speechify. When you tries to earn yoh livin' you mus' work de bes' you can. But de man d-at eats spring chicken is de conversation man. — Washington Star. 28 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION in his estimation has value, so the art of writing one's thoughts is to be interesting as an end in itself. Conversation is pleasurable because it satisfies the instinctive craving for social sympathy and co- operation. Written discourse, when properly taught may be similarly interesting as a form of social inter- course. 4. Cooperation. — This principle, which Herbart treats as a kind of interest, is so important that it deserves special consideration. Cooperation is one of the cardinal virtues of class instruction in any subject. With Socratic ingenuity, the teacher is to be a leader in the search for knowledge rather than a mere task-master. He is to share the pupil's experiences, to take with the child the steps by which truth is discovered. A composition lesson by applying this principle; may have all the charms of a game, in which each child takes a definite part, measures his wits against others, and contributes something toward the general good. A few suggestions are offered as to how cooperation may be made effective. (1) After the subject has been decided on and the manner of treatment defined, the teacher writes a composition with the children, putting it mto the pack with theirs, to be read, perhaps, at the proper time. (2) Occasionally he may write his composition on the board, it being understood that no one is allowed to copy his sentences. (3) In oral composition the teacher takes his PRINCIPLES 29 turn with the class, occupying no more time than he allows to children. (4) A teacher of composition in a departmental system contributes the following concrete illustra- tion of cooperative work: "For the purpose of developing and enlarging the vocab- ulary by changing a general idea into a specific picture, thus increasing the power of imagination, I have found cooperative construction an excellent device. "If a picnic be the subject of the composition, I follow some such plan as this: 'What kind of day did you have for your picnic?' and the answers come thick and fast: 'Clear,' 'warm,' 'b ight,' 'good,' 'cool,' 'breezy,' etc. The class decide which word will convey the most definite and most agreeable impression. 'What time did you start?' That question brings forth a variety of answers, which, finally, by selection and elimination, combine into a good sentence descriptive of the time and weather. 'By a similar line of questions I get very good pictures of the road traveled, and the place of the picnic, a clear account of any adventure or accident, and a certain indi- viduality in the several accounts, for each girl may use the word that she, herself, prefers. "This plan has worked well in description and narration." Mary Chalmers. P. S. 119, Manhattan, N. Y., 7th year. (5) Many more forms of cooperative work are suggested below under the head of "Devices." A word of caution is needed at this point. Social cooperation is a spontaneous impulse of the child; but in play it is always combined with individuality. In a game the child plays his own part; he never loses his identity in a mass of common effort. Hence, concert recitation is not real cooperation. 30 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION It is, in fact, the opposite, the vice of teaching. In it the pupil may follow the words of the class with- out having his mind on what he is doing. In real cooperation, he profits by all the rest, but his pro- duct is nevertheless in a real sense his own. V. Method in Composition — Devices In order to profit by the experience of others; the' writer addressed a letter, during the preparation of this book, to a number of successful teachers and principals, asking them to describe devices which they had found useful in making composition interesting to children. If interest is self-expression; as Dewey* says; then the lesson in composition must offer an oppor- tunity to the child for self-realization; that is, it must make it possible to externalize an ideal or emotional phase of the soul, — to make such sub- jective state an object of external cognition. This is precisely what the so-called "modes of expression" dof . Michael Angelo, looking at a block of marble,; *Dewey: Interest as Related to Will. University of Chi-> cago Press. f Parker: Talks on Pedagogics. A. S. Barnes. & Co. 31 32 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION sees an angel imprisoned there. The angel, how- ever, is not in the marble, as yet, but in himself; and sculpture is the art that makes it possible to transform the intangible angel in the artist's soul into a beautiful form with three dimensions. The following devices, classified by grades, em- body not merely the principle of interest, but the other principles enumerated as well. Where the language of another is used, quotation marks are employed. It is hoped that these suggestions may be of some use to teachers. Probably no one will employ them all; but they are sufficiently compre- hensive to offer something to each grade. First Year — Oral Composition (1) Positive and Definite Movements of the Body Help Clear Thinking. — "If the teacher could be impressed with the fact that clear, well- defined movements of the body, aid in clear thinking; the children would be required to move in a more positive manner, and not in the undecided way which makes one feel that the mind is not on the work, and therefore cannot be interested in it." Miss R., P. S. 75, Manhattan. Physical Training, in order to possess educational value, must be conducted with precision and positive- ness. A supervisor is many times compelled to criticise slovenly work of this kind. Many teachers permit children to dawdle, and turn; and twist, and go through a series of exercises without paying the slightest ajttention to the work. When an order or DEVICES 33 a direction is given during physical culture or any- other exercise it should be obeyed by every child. The principle is applicable to walking, marching, and other movements involved in school work. (2) Require Clear Statements in Answer to Questions. — "There are so many things in the make-up of a composition, — so many things that the child must be able to do, — that even with the interest, there is often failure. To be successful; he must have learned, by continued practice, how to express himself in plain language. He can learn this only by talking. The teacher must begin when the child enters school, and require him to answer questions, and tell about things in clear statements." —Miss R., P. S. 75, Manhattan. (8) Picture Stories. — "Sometimes I read a story appropriate to the season. Children repro- duce the story on paper in picture form. The teacher then calls on one or two to tell about the picture. At other times the children tell any story they like with a picture, and then tell me the story they have illustrated."— Miss M., P. S. 166, Man- hattan. (4) Correlate with Reading. — I have seen oral composition very successfully accomplished in the following way: A child would read a "story" on the board like "What can you do, little girl?" and before he sat down the teacher would say, "Now, John, you make a story;" whereupon the little fellow would give an original sentence; as, "The little girl can roll a hoop." The exercise was so skilfully 34 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION conducted that within the short period of ten minutes every pupil in the class had read a I'story" and invented a related composition. (5) Development Lessons in Reading. — I have seen exceedingly skilful work in the way of oral composition done in connection with the reading lesson of the first year. In order to be successful, such an exercise must have plenty of "go" in it. If the teacher is slow and tactless the interest will not last long enough to accomplish anything of value. The teachers that are really successful with very young children are lively, full of resource, and thoroughly prepared. They know before taking up a lesson just how they are going to conduct it. When the lesson period arrives there is no time lost in getting ready. As soon as the children have their places in the book, the questions begin to fly around the room, and in an incredibly short time every pupil has had something to say, and all have had the benefit of mentally doing the work assigned to each. It is impossible to give in a narrative the effect of the celerity, intense interest, and charming naturalness that characterize a good development lesson. Here is a specimen of such an exercise witnessed by the writer in a first year class: T. — "Now children, look at the picture. John; what is the boy doing?" - p_''The boy is listening to the little girl." T.— "Mary?" P. — "The boy is standing up." DEVICES 35 r.— "James?" P. — "The boy is holding on to the collar of the dog." T.— "What is the little girl doing, Katherine?" P. — "The little girl is reading out of a book." r.— "Paul?" P. — "The little girl is telling the dog something." r.— "Susie?" P. — -"The little girl is playing that she is a teacher." T.— "Now, children, look at the dog and tell what he is doing. Emma?" P.— "The dog is listening to the little girl." r.— "Minnie?" P. — "The dog thinks he is in school." T. — "Now let us look at the words and see who can tell us what the dog's name is." A number of children try, and get it wrong; but it is a game and is exceedingly interesting. Finally, one succeeds in finding the name and then the names of tha boy and girl are learned in a similar way. The principal merit of the lesson thus observed was that the children did the talking and every one used a complete sentence. The teacher used the least possible number of words herself. Her unique way of stating a problem and giving it to the entire class to work out silently, and then calling upon three or four individuals, by merely pro- nouncing their names, to give the results of their efforts, is particularly commendable. In a good development lesson the teacher minimizes her words; the pupils do the talking, and it is not necessary to 36 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION remind each child that he must express himself in a complete sentence. That necessity is so funda- m.ental that the wise teacher converts it into habit the first week of the term. (6) Play that the Teacher is the Audience. — *'In oral composition I try to make the children feel that I want to know something about a subject on which they are well posted, — usually something that belongs to them. They seem to take more delight in telling me about 'my dog,' 'my cat,' 'our tadpoles,' etc. Often the oral composition is on 'what I saw on my way to school,' or 'what I saw in the park.'"— Miss C, P. S. 166, Manhattan. (7) Questions. — "For a little written lesson, I use the questions: 'What do you see in the room?' Children answer, 'I see ' 'What do you hear?' Children answer, 'I hear .' Some days I call four or five boys to the front of the room and give each an object; as, a book, an apple, a pear, a fan, and ask, 'What has John?' What has Frank? What has Dan?' Children write, 'John has .' 'Dan has ,' etc."— Miss M., P. S. 166, Manhattan. (8) Try to Overcome Diffidence and Timidity. — "Our difficulty arises from the diffidence of chil- dren rather than a lack of interest in composition. The little folks are afraid to hear themselves talk. They require much encouragement. By asking questions on what they like best we may induce a state of self-forgetfulness and thus start the flow of ideas."— Miss A., P. S. 77, Manhattan. (9) Number Work. — "Number work affords end- DEVICES 37 less opportunity for oral expression. After having developed with objects the combinations: 3-1-2=; 6 — 3=, 2X2=, 6-^2=, etc.; place the symbols on the blackboard and let the children make up their own number stories, using the symbols given. I offer a star for the best story. Children love to invent and try very hard to have their stories unique. By number stories is meant applied arithmetic; as, for example, 'Mary has six cents and buys three pencils at a penny apiece.'" — Miss M., P. S. 166, Manhattan. (10) Game of Grab Bag.— After a nature lesson; say on the cow, I take slips of paper three by two inches, and write on each a word introduced during the lesson. Here is the list actually used: The cow; red, white, brown, eat, grass, hay, drink, water, horns; hoof, milk, butter, cheese, buttons, hair^ Each child receives a slip and is asked not to let any one see his secret. The children then volunteer to give stories, using the words on the slips. Sometimes we play grab-bag and put all the slips in a box. The children close their eyes and pick out a slip, write the word on the blackboard and the class raise hands to give a story containing the word. The pupil giving the best story may draw a slip the next time. This same device may be used in spring lessons on flowers."— Miss M., P. S. 166, Manhattan. Second and Third Years— Oral Composition (11) Develop Ideas. — "Never use in a class of young children such an expression as 'Give me a 38 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION sentence for the word ^hat' for if you do, the interest attaches itself to the words 'sentence' and 'hat.' It is better to call up ideas in the minds of children by such questions as these: 'What covers your head while you are coming to school?' or 'How is your hat trimmed?' or 'Of what color is your hat?'"— Miss L., P. S. 58, Manhattan. Third Year — Written Composition (12) Let Children Supply Missing Parts. — "This device is used in 3 A, and is an exercise in writing complete sentences, or even an entire para- graph. It is used by the teacher instead of the ordinary reproduction that follows the conversation; Nature Study, or Reading, and consists in writing a number of incomplete or unfinished sentences upon the blackboard. The word or words omitted by the teacher are supplied by the pupils, and the pupils who can supply all the required words find much pleasure in this exercise. Children who would otherwise be unable to form a correct sentence, in this way seem to gain confidence, and frequently write the entire story correctly, or describe a picture accurately."— M. A. R., P. S. 179, Manhattan. (13) Let Children Construct a Model. — "This device is used in 3A, where the pupils are required to copy model paragraphs. Instead of this model being the teacher's composition, we strive to build it out of the material supplied by the children. In answer to questions, or from an outline, each pupil is required to write a correct statement. The DEVICES 39 teacher selects the best sentences given by the pupils, and with them forms her model paragraph or model composition. Each child is anxious to have his sentence selected, and consequently much care and attention are given to the work." — M. A. R., P. S. 179, Manhattan. (14) Develop Ideas.— "The first requisite is familiarity with the subject. I take such subjects as 'Snow,' 'The Squirrel,' or 'What I Bought with My Ten Cents.' The written is always preceded by oral analysis. Sometimes I give information by reading. At other times the children and I have talks until I feel assured that each one has clear ideas. The second step is to write. My compo- sitions never contain more than two sentences. I encourage the children to use just the word they need, whether they can spell it or not. I hold my- self ready to write on the board any word for whose spelling a child asks." — Miss L., P. S, 58, Manhattan. (15) Develop the Power of Criticism. — "After compositions are written different children are asked to read what they have produced. Two or three usually copy their work upon the board exactly as it appears on the papers. Kindly criti- cism is invited, and faults of capitalizing, spelling, punctuation, and construction are corrected." — Miss L., P. S. 58, Manhattan. Third to Eighth Years— Written Composition (16) Letter- Writing is a convenient point of contact for beginners in composition. This device. 40 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION is suggested by Miss Spalding* in her admirable little book on elementary composition. "I am convinced," she says, ''that, in order to gain coop- eration from the pupil, — and this is absolutely essential, — two things must be given him: a sense of security, of confidence, and a glow of delight. The sense of security the feeling of confidence will; I believe, be gained by working together at the very outset." The transition from oral to written composition may be made by showing the need of being able to write, as for example, when one wishes to speak to an absent friend. Then comes the cooperative class letter — "a simple, brief letter, contrived by putting all the heads together; a letter neatly written out and actually sent somewhere." Interest in the subject will, of course, be deepened by the reading of children's letters written by famous men and women, such as Eugene Field's; Edwin Booth's, Macaulay's, Phillips Brooks's. These will reveal a charming spirit and create the moral atmosphere which stimulates the feelings and imaginations of children and thus makes composi- tion easy and natural. It gives the pupil a motive for writing; he has something to say, and someone to whom he wishes to say it. These are the two conditions of successful composition in real life — a message and an audience. (17) Anonymous Compositions. — "Sometimes have short compositions handed in unsigned. Pass *The Problem of Elementary Composition, by Elizabeth EL Spalding. Heath & Co., 1897, New York. DEVICES 41 them out and as they are read let the readers guess who the writers are. Let the teacher write a com- position occasionally and slip it in with the others." —Miss J., P. S. 120, Manhattan. (18) Picture Stories. — Show the class a picture which suggests a story. Let them write the story. Tell half the class to make the end pathetic, and the other half to bring the narrative to a happy con- clusion. — See Shaw's -'Composition by Practice," p. 104. (19) Partnership. — "Divide the class into groups of two and call the members of the group partners. Try to have partners of equal ability. Have them write a composition which shall be a joint production; or have one start it and the other finish it; or have one write a composition and the other write a criticism of it." — Miss J., P. S. 120, Manhattan. (20) Practice Variety of Expression. — "We have most interesting exercises in trying to say the same thing in different ways. We alter expressions, turning them about in every possible way, changing beginnings, using figurative language, changing phrases to adjectives, and all in quite an informal way." The following illustrations of this form of drill are furnished by Miss Schoonmaker, Principal P. S. 119, Manhattan: (a) Verbs: She came to meet me. She hurried to meet me. 42 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION She ran to meet me. She sprang to meet me. "The waves beside them danced, but they outdid the sparMing v/aves in glee." (6) Specific vs. general terms: General: We had nice things to eat. Specific: We had thin, dainty chicken sandwiches; olives, grapes, and little cakes with pink icing on them. (c) Synonyms: The day is clear, bright, sunny, pleasant, beautiful; fine. (d) Color Words: (7th and 8th years) : Bright as the sun. Yellow as gold. Blue as the sky. Pink as a rose. White as snow. Black as night. (e) Manner words: She wrote slowly, rapidly. She spoke gently, clearly, kindly. '-"The wind came whistling, howling, shrieking; moaning, sighing, sobbing." (21) News Items Condensed. — " News items may be used to secure clear thinking, and definite, con- cise statements. Such items should be uniformly mounted on paper four inches by six inches. Each pupil brings to school a mounted clipping from a paper or magazine; he is responsible for the pro- nunciation and meaning of any unusual word. DEVICES 43 The reading of the items and oral reproduction fol- low. The teacher, selecting four or five of the most interesting, uses them for class work, each pupil writing his own abstract of the several item.s. "Variety of expression, topic sentences, periodic sentences are thereby practically taught and intel- ligently grasped even by the 'slow' pupils. The following is a specimen of items condensed in accord- ance with this plan: Florrie Holzwasser, Class 8A. "European representatives called upon Secretary Hay to-day to consider diplomatic business. "The discussion considered the attitude which would be assumed by the United States toward the * Panama Canal Treaty.' " Although Alaska is partly within the Arctic Circle, its fertile tracts of ground produce suflGcient grain and vegetables to sustain three million people. "At present there are gigantic spots on the sun's surface, into one of which the earth might fall, and be consumed as a snowflake in a bed of burning coals." F. N. T., P. S. 119. (22) The Topic Sentence. — "From the 4th year through the 8th year, the 'topic sentence' may be taught in connection with paragraph structure. (a) Illustration (4th or 5th year) : Flowers of many colors hloom in the spring. There is the trailing arbutus that comes up while the snow is still on the ground. It is pink and white; it has a sweet perfume. The dandelion is yellow as gold ; it shines in the green grass. The buttercup nods 44 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION to her friend, the daisy. The daisy wears a pretty white frill about her bright little face. The blue violets play hide-and-seek under their dark green leaves. (6) Other Topic Sentences: (1) Description : New York has many beautiful parks. (2) Narration and Description: Boston has an historical environment. (3) Narration: The story of '"' Endymion" is beautiful. (4) Exposition; The Panama Canal is greatly needed. (5) Description and Exposition: Radium is an important discovery. (6) Argumentation: The pen is mightier than the sword. "Saci topic sentences may be used for 'isolated paragraphs/ or may be elaborated into several 'related paragraphs/ that will constitute a theme or essay familiar to children as a 'composition,' " — Emma C. Schoonmaker, P, S. 119, Manhattan. (23) General Exercises. — A n o t h e r device; which has been successfully employed to develop interest in composition in classes of the fifth and sixth years, takes the form of "general exercises," A period of thirty or forty minutes is reserved on Friday afternoon for a sort of literary entertainment. The children are organized into groups, and these groups take their turns in preparing the program of exercises. The element of surprise lends addi- DEVICES 45 tional pleasure to the occasion. None but the teacher and the group committee know what form the entertainment will take. There may be songs; recitations, original compositions, summaries of interesting books read, biographical sketches of great men, and a dozen other novelties. It will be noticed that the necessary conditions of composition- writing are here present, — something to communicate and an audience to hear it. Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Years — Oral Composition (24) Selected Quotations. — "Occasionally select a number of quotations bearing upon a given topic. Have these read silently, without hint or instruction from the teacher. Allow use of reference books. After the reading call upon several to give expression to the thought as they understand it. Compare, criticise, correct, let class decide. ''At the conclusion of this oral work, arrange the topics in orderly sequence and let the children write their compositions." — Miss J., P. S. 120, Manhattan. (25) Anecdotes.—" Once in a while tell the chil- dren to read an anecdote or joke at home and come prepared to tell it. End the lesson by requiring each pupil to write one of the anecdotes related in the class."— Miss J., P. S. 120. Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Years— Written Composition (26) Completing STORiES.^Give children the beginning of a story and let them end it, drawing upon their imaginations for the facts. — See Shaw's 46 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION English Composition hy Practice, P. 39. See also Chap. XII of this volume, No. 248. (27) Describing Known Persons. — "Tell chil- dren to write a description of a person known to all members of the class, without disclosing the indi- vidual's name. Have the descriptions read aloud and let the class name the person. If the correct name is given the portrait is life-like. Show that the secret of successful descriptive writing is in selecting the characteristic feature of the person or thing described."— Miss J., P. S. 120, Manhattan. (28) Five-Minute Compositions. — "Sometimes have short compositions limited to five minutes or so, written without topics. Have these read aloud, generally calling upon the readiest writers, but some- times slipping in the work of a poor writer. In the latter case do not call attention to any comparison. Criticize orally the compositions read, using about five or ten minutes for this purpose, then have another written and proceed as before." — Miss J., P. S. 120, Manhattan. (29) Drill in Variety of Expression. — Lan- guage lessons should be given whose object is train- ing in variety of expression. For this purpose active and passive forms of the verb may be employed as soon as the different kinds of sentences are under- stood. These offer an excellent opportunity for variety. A simple sentence may be followed by a complex one, and this in turn by a compound or simple one. The declarative form may sometimes give place to the interrogative. Direct quotation DEVICES 47 may alternate with indirect narration. In the high- est grades pupils may be taught the distinction between periodic and loose construction. The teacher's duty is to bring these and other methods of securing variety to the attention of children and to show them by systematic training how to attain this very desirable quality of style. By way of example the teacher may show that it is possible to begin a composition on, say Longfellow, in fifty different ways. It should be the ambition of every pupil to be original. It might even be a wise plan to prohibit the use of a stock sentence like, "Long- fellow was born in 1807," thus compelling pupils to exercise their ingenuity in expressing the fact in another form. Seventh and Eighth Years — Written Composition (30) The Model. — "The most successful of all methods is the imitation of models. There is a natural love of imitation which makes the effort to arouse interest less of a bug-bear. The composition- model should be carefully studied. Then the chil- dren should be set to imitate it in work on a similar subject. I think the book on School Composition"^, by Dr. Maxwell and Miss Johnston, is the greatest aid in teaching this subject that has ever come into my hands."— Miss J., P. S. 120, Manhattan. (30) Lessons in Grammar. — If you want pupils to write sentences in grammar, say simple, com- pound, complex, declarative, interrogative, etc.; ♦American Book Company. 48 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION let them combine these sentences into the form of a narrative or description, on some subject with which they are famiHar. Let different kinds of sentences be alternated. The principle involved is this: Except in cases where automatic action is the end, only that drill has educational value which secures interest by combining repetition with constructive activity. (31) Class Organization. — In the upper grades, especially the last year of school, the "general exer- cises" described in another place may be conducted according to the forms of parliamentary procedure, and thus supplement the work in elocution and civics, as well as in composition. For a number of years the writer employed this device successfully while he was in charge of a graduating class in an elementary school. The classes, as soon as organ- ized, became "The Spellbinders."* This class organization had a president, a vice- president, a secretary, a treasurer, and an editor. The term of office was for two regular meetings; that is, for two weeks. This afforded an opportunity for constant rotation in office. About twenty boys had a chance to serve as president during the year. The editor prepared a manuscript paper which he read at the meetings. Four contributors were named for each issue. These were obliged to assist the editor by furnishing original contributions. Every article before it went into the paper had to be sub- *The "Spellbinders" are described from the point of view of class discipline in the author's "The Art of Class Management and Discipline." A. S, Barnes & Co., 1903. DEVICES 49 mitted to the teacher for correction. All editorials; and the paper as a whole, were submitted by the editor before he read the same. The secretary was obliged to write out his minutes very carefully and completely, and after correction by the teacher, to copy them into the minute book. Nine volumes of such minutes, containing the doings of successive -'Spellbinders" during five years, are among the priceless possessions of the writer. Fol- lowing is a copy of the minutes of a regular meeting: Minutes for January 17, 1896. A regular meeting was called to order on the above date by Pres. Kronimus. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and adopted. The Committee on Class Cry submitted the following cry: Rah! Rah! Rah! Cis! Boom! Bah! Spellbinders! Spellbinders! Ha! Ha! Ha! Signed by H. Strassburger, E. Fischer Committee. The report was unanimously adopted. The Nominating Committee then made the following report: For President — Duncan, Epstein. For Vice-President — ^Render, O'Connor. For Secretary — Stoll, Evers. For Editor — Adams, Wetzler. The following independent nominations were made: For President — Joseph S. Taylor. For Vice-President — Kronimus, Carr. After balloting, debate was announced on the following question: "Resolved, That Washington did more for his country than Grant." 50 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION Speakers — Affirmative — Regan, Joyce. Negative — Render, Adams. The House decided in favor of the affirmative on the arguments produced. At this point Mr. Fischer moved that the Society adjourn. The motion was lost. In general debate those who spoke were Messrs. Carr and Taylor. Mr. Fischer moved that a committee of four be appointed to wait upon the Principal and ask him to speak on the subject. The motion was lost. The editor then read the Spellbinders' Weekly. The Tellers made the following report: For President — Duncan, 8; Taylor, 9; Epstein, 5. For Vice-President — Render, 14; Carr, 2; Kronimus, 1; O'Connor, 4. For Secretary — Stoll, 11; Evers, 6; Moritz, 5. For Editor — Fischer, 16; Adams, 4; Wetzler, 2. In accordance with the report the Chair declared the following officers elected: President — Joseph S. Taylor. Vice-President — Frank J. Render. Secretary — George Stoll. Editor — Emil Fischer. The Program Committee reported the following program for January 24, 1896: Referred Question — "Should we have a Greater New York? "—Joseph S. Taylor. Essay — M. Epstein. Reading — John Walsh. Contributors to Weekly — Duncan, Stoll, Carr, Strasburger. Signed by Committee — Walsh Duncan, Moran. There being no further business on hand, the Society adjourned. M. Epstein, Secretary. DEVICES 51 Many of the contributions to the Spellbinders' Weekly had considerable merit. The paper was thoroughly enjoyed by all, and every contributor had a motive for doing his very best. Between serious articles there usually were sandwiched original jokes made at the expense of the members. In this game of making jokes the teacher enjoyed no immunity; and he usually turned contributor himself, sometimes taking occasion to hit off in a jolly little paragraph the follies and foibles of the boys. The following parody on Holmes's "The Boys," was written by a "Spellbinder" for one of the issues of the Weekly. The Spellbinders.* By Joseph T. O'Brien. We are Spellbinders as you are well aware, At the top of society — we're always there; We are not very ancient, but still we can speak And read almost anything, be it Latin or Greek. Our president and officers are always in file. Our Weekly is published in elegant style. We're forty in number — Who says we are more? He's tipsy, young Spellbinder, — show him the door. That fellow's an author — and he's out of sight; This one is the boss, when he lands with his right; There is a clergyman — I now forget his name; He preaches the Gospel, and believes in the same. This lad is a doctor, a good one at that, Although he has the appearance of being a quack; *The references to boys of the class are very felicitous 52 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION He performs operations — pulls teeth by the score; He'll become a professor after a few years more. That boy with a grave, geographical face, Made believe he had ridden a bicycle race, And all his good friends, they thought it was true, So they bought him a medal, a trick they did rue. There's a boy, you should know, with Websterian brain. He spoke for three hours all out in the rain; He's not very gymnastic — but still he can run, If you saw him go skating you'd laugh at the fun. His first name is Sammie, as you are aware; A doctor he'll be if he ever gets there; When he speaks for our members in eloquent style, We call him "the Squire" from the Emerald Isle. And there's a nice youngster of excellent pith; Fate has concealed him by naming him Smith; But he's a good member and a popular sport. The sign at his hotel is, "The Spellbinders' Resort." Look there and you'll see Johnnie Marsh of renown; He has the nicest whiskers in all this great town; He soon will be married to a lady of fame. She's the pride of the Bowery, and Sarah's her name. You see that boy crying? — don't think it is fun: Some one has punched him and he couldn't run. His name it is Carney — a pugilistic crack. Don't make too free with him, lest you get a smack. Yes, we are Spellbinders, now and forever more; Nothing can ever part us from the society we adore. We always will remember, no matter what comes to pass, The time when we were Spellbinders in Mr. Taylor's class. DEVICES 53 The effect of this organization upon the Spell- binders was very remarkable. It created a love for composition that I have never seen equaled. The boys were always delighted when composition hour come around. Many of them developed quite a little fluency in written expression. One Spell- binder wrote a small drama, entitled '* The Troubles of Mr. and Mrs. Santa Claus/' which was played by Spellbinders in the class-room one day before Christmas, all the teachers of the school being invited to witness the performance. The essence of the device here described is that it embodies the principle of social cooperation; it gives the pupil a motive to write; it provides a public to read or hear what he has written; it affords an abundance of practice; and it develops the individuality of the pupil. VI. Forms of Composition. 1. Gradation — The following outline exhibits the various forms or kinds of written composition in the order of difficulty: (a) (1) Copy. (&) (2) Dictation. (c) (2) Reproduction. id) (3) Original — by question. ie) (4) Original — from imagination. (/) (4) Original — from model. (9) (4) Original — from topics. (h) (6) Abstract. (i) (7) Elaboration. The figures in parenthesis indicate approximately in what year of school each kind of work may be commenced. It is assumed that in each of these years, except in the first, some or all of the work of the preceding years will be continued. 54 FORMS OF COMPOSITION 55 2. Copy. — During the first term of the first year nothing more than the copy of words and single sentences can be undertaken. During the second half of the year probably easy single sentences might be written from dictation. This, however; would depend on circumstances, and it would not be safe to require it. During all the succeeding grades copy has its uses. In the first place, much work is necessarily copied by children into their notebooks. Accuracy in this case should be insisted on in every class. Note- books should be systematically inspected by teach- ers and at least once a term by principals. Many good writers have told us that they acquired a style by copying good literature. Benjamin Franklin is perhaps the most familiar example of this class. Letters, notes, and business forms, are best learned by making correct copies and then trying to imitate the model. Memory gems, also; should be carefully copied in the higher grades for future reference. 3. Dictation. — This is removed one degree of abstractness from copy. In copying, very little of the form need be carried in the memory at one time. In dictation, usually an entire phrase or thought group has to be remembered until it is recorded. It differs from copy also in the fact that it is a conver- sion into motor form of auditory rather than visual impressions. The following directions must be heeded if dicta- tion is to possess educational value: 56 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION (a) Limit the pupil in time. He should write as rapidly as possible. In order to secure a standard for measuring the time needed by children, the teach- er should herself write what she dictates. Of course; the younger the children are, the more time they require. (6) Dictate thought-groups; never single words. Miss Julia Richman* tested her pupils and found that the average number of words they were able to carry varied as follows : Second year, 8 ; third year; 11; fourth year, 12; fifth year, 12; sixth year, 16; seventh year, 16. Miss Richman's article on dicta- tion is an admirable one and is recommended to the reader. (c) Compel your pupils to carry as many words as possible. (d) Never repeat a dictation; unless for a very special reason. (e) Let the children first study the matter to be dictated. (/) After dictation, let each pupil compare his work with the original and correct his own errors. (g) Donotrecopy. 4. Reproduction. — In dictation from eight to sixteen words ars carried in the memory at one time (according to Miss Richman's test) . In reproduction; the entire story, paragraph, or excerpt has to be remembered. This cannot be done with perfect *School Work, Vol. I, p. 73. (70 Fifth Ave., New York.) FORMS OF COMPOSITION 57 accuracy; and therefore the exercise involves more or less originality. In this respect it is an advance upon dictation, in which an effort is made to record the original, word for word. 5. Original — by Question. — The easiest method of composing is that in which each sentence is sug- gested and partly determined by a question. This device may therefore be employed in a grade where original compositions are for the first time required. Great skill in framing the questions is required. With proper care the matter may be so presented and the questions so put that the children's answers will show variety and represent individual effort. 6. Original — from Imagination. — On first con- sideration it may seem that several forms placed later are easier than this. Is it not easier to write from a topical outline than from nothing? I think not. An outline is an abstract. In my experience children find it rather difficult to endow a lot of dry bones with flesh and blood. Topical outlines are attempts at logical order; and children find it irkr some to be logical — that is, logical in our way. For this reason they are quite comfortable if you give them a suggestive picture and then bid them put in words the story fancy reads therein. An excellent illustration of original dialogue invented by children in their play, is the following quotation from E. H» Russell's Child Observations. *" *D. C. Heath, 1896. 58 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION Gertie. Age, 7 years. Louise. Age, 10 years. Each of these girls sat in a rocking-chair, holding a doll. Gertie. — How do you do. Missus? Louise. — Pretty well, thank you. Gertie. — Don't this train go fast? Louise. — Oh, awful fast! How is your baby? Gertie. — She is pretty well, only she got her leg broke off the other day. I'm taking her to Washington. The Presi- dent is going to fix it. Louise. — Oh, that's too bad! How long does it take to go to Washington? Gertie. — Only ten days and a week. Louise. — I should think the poor baby would be dead. Gertie. — Oh, no, Missus! I'm going to be there to-night. My husband lives there. Where are you going. Missus? Your baby is real good, ain't she? Louise. — Yes, ma'am, she is. I'm going to Connecticut. My covisin Hattie Nichols lives there, and my Aunt Jane lives there. Gertie. — What is your baby's name? Louise {After hesitating a moment). My baby's name is Gertie. Gertie (laughing). — Why, that's my name, and my baby's name, too. Louise. — That's funny, ain't it? Suddenly Louise said, "Ding-dong, ding-dong! now the train must stop." She then tried to make a sound like a train stopping, and said, "This is Connecticut; I'm very sorry to go, but I must. Good-by." She then left the room. Gertie now rocked faster than before, and talked to her doll. She said, "Wait a minute, wait a minute; mamma has something in her pocket for you." She took out a rubber ring, and put it on the dell's head, saying, "You're a nice little baby. Here's Washington! Do you see my husband, baby? He's going to take us to the President, to fix your poor leg." She went into the next room, where Louise was arranging a tea-set. FORMS OF COMPOSITION 59 A favorite form of imaginative writing with chil- dren is a narrative involving the conversation of animals, dolls, companions, etc. The following composition on "Playing Dolls" was written in school by a girl ten years of age and was afterward dictated from memory by the child to the writer: Playing Dolls. Come on, Duff, let's play dolls. What is yours going to wear? Mine is going to wear her pink dress. I Uke her blue one best, but she cannot wear that because it is her best. Your doll's name is Ruth, isn't it? Mine is Minnie. Shall we take a walk? I am going to let my doll wear her best hat. There's Mum, and Gertrude, and Miller. Let's ask them to take a walk. I'll go and ask Miss Maud if I can go. * * * She says I can go, but I musn't stay late, as it will soon be supper time. I am going to scold my doll if she soils her dress, because it has just been washed. Oh, Minnie, see what you have done! Your shoes and dress are dirty. Go right into the house, you naughty child! I guess it must be supper time now. Duff, so good-night and last look and last tag! K. R. T. Here is another illustration furnished by Public School 93, Manhattan. The author of the composi- tion was a pupil in the 8A grade and wrote the essay as a regular class exercise under the eye of the teacher: Autobiography of a Mouse, or A Few Cheesy Paragraphs I am but a mouse, very small but at large. I intend to tell in a concise manner some experiences that I have had. My mother, a widow, is mourning the loss of my father, who, when in active life, had a great desire to be in the " Smart Set." He was succeeding fairly well until some smart lady 60 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION set a trap, and, he being rather nosey, met his doom. This being a snap for me, I wandered away from our abode, a magnificent larder, and sought adventures. Of course, the first thing I got into a hole and when I got out a feast was spread before me, but unfortunately a pane of glass separated us; this giving me a pain, I resolved to make an investigation and, if possible, enter from another quarter. Happily, I struck an entrance to the entrancing lay-out, and after various calculations to reach it, set to work to change my g'rth. There was every imaginable deli- cate preparation, even limburger, after gorging which I saw paculiar lights and started to light out; but I must have wobbled, for I imagined I was sea-sick and everything went round faster and faster until my poor head swam. Then I must have fallen, for the shock brought me back to my senses sufficiently to see my enemy, a massive cat, glaring at me- I certainly tried to get away very quickly, but he got my tail between his teeth and bit it off, while I went through a crevice. And thus ends my tale. February 23, 1905. Annie Thomas. 7. Original — from the Model. — The method of using models is usually as follows: A model bit of writing is selected from a standard author, carefully analyzed by the pupil, and then imitated by writing on a similar (but not the same) topic. The argu- ments for and against the use of models are succinctly stated in Carpenter, Baker, and Scott's "The Teach- ing of English";* while the method is carefully worked out in Maxwell and Johnston's School Com- position.! *P. 135 (Longmans, 1903). fAmerican Book Company, 1902. FORMS OF COMPOSITION 61 The following authorized abstract of part of a lec- ture delivered by Dr. William H. Maxwell on "The Use of Models in the Seventh and Eighth Years," is reprinted from " Practical School Problems," edited by the writer, and is offered as a succinct explana- tion of this form of composition teaching: The Use of Models in Seventh and Eighth Years. The normal conditions of writing are these: (a) The writer has something he wishes to say. (6) He assumes that some one is interested in what he writes. In the class-room these conditions are naturally not present. Hence the teacher must create them. This he can do — (a) By limiting the composition to subjects that children know. (6) By finding something in literature that shows how common things may be made interesting by the way they are treated. If, for instance, we take a game played by the children, they see nothing particularly interesting in it for a compo- sition. But if we read some great writer's description of such a game, they are intensely interested, and by skilful handling one can arouse in them the feeling, "I have some- thing to say, and some one would like to hear it." This audience is the class itself, and it may be made a powerful educative force in many ways. Biography is full of examples of the value of imitation in learning to acquire style. Johnson recommended the style of Addison for this purpose. Franklin followed John- son's advice. Stevenson acknowledges, that he employed a similar method. (1) How TO Select a Model. (a) The first requisite is that it must possess literary value. Teachers should not, as a rule, undertake to manu- facture models. 62 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION (b) Each model should be in itself complete. (c) Models should not be too long; five hundred words should be the maximum. (d) The model should appeal directly to the child's interest and knowledge. (e) It must illustrate either exposition, description, or narration. (2) How TO Use the Model. (a) Every pupil must himself read the model. Even a blackboard copy is not near enough to the child. He should hold it in his hand, so that he may study it at close range. (b) By some way we must get the pupil to appreciate the merit of the model. (c) Each model is to be selected for one special character- istic. This point is to be impressed upon the pupil. Not more than one characteristic is to be looked for in any one specimen. Among the things to look for are clearness, choice of words, and in every instance the plan that was in the writer's mind (outline). (3) How TO Imitate the Model. (a) After studying the model, put it aside, and let the children reproduce it (not paraphrase it) as nearly as they can. (b) Let each write an imitation of it on a kindred subject. If the model describes a man, the imitation will describe another man. If the model is a fable, let the class invent a similar fable. If a letter is the model, a similar one is written, or the model is answered in the appropriate way. Here Dr. Maxwell read from the "Hoosier Schoolboy" a description of a game, and then he read a number of children's compositions describing other games after the manner of the model. The study of this description resulted in the dis- covery that it is so clear that one who never heard of the game could play it after reading what the author wrote. Clearness is the excellence to be imitated. The plan was discovered to include — (1) An introduction. FORMS OF COMPOSITION 63 (2) A body; namely, the description (3) A conclusion; why the game is interesting. A Christmas letter from Phillips Brooks revealed the farct that one must constantly keep in mind, when writing a letter, the person to whom the letter is addressed. The children were then requested to write a suitable answer to the letter, drawing upon their imagination for the materials. The fable of "The Wolf and the Lamb" was used to show what the teacher can do to assist children to get the most value out of a model. Point out the nature of a fable; also the moral. Invent similar fables; as, "The Hen and the Worm," "The Cat and the Bird." The teacher may make an imitation to assist the class. A very clever one was read. 8. Original — from Topics. — This method of composing is more difficult for children than the others thus far considered, because (a) it is less interesting, and (6) because it involves more preparation on the part of the pupil. It is not enough to give an outline to a class and then direct them to write the composition. The outline should either be discovered or invented. In the case of writing from models, as in the upper grades, the outline will be discovered by the study of the model. When the pupil is writing on a theme without directions from the teacher, the outline must be invented. In the lower grades the outline should be the joint product of the teacher and class working in cooperation. The material, whether presented for the purpose by the teacher or drawn from the experience of the children, must be classified. This may be done by discussion, by suggestion, and by 64 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION question. The classification will be recorded on the board in the form of an outline. One way of effecting such classification is to draw out from the little people such statements on the given subject as may occur to them. These are written on the board regardless of logical order. The reading of the sentences in this haphazard order will show that they do not properly constitute a story or composition on account of a lack of plan. The need of a plan is thus made evident, and when one has been agreed upon, the children may be allowed to write individual compositions in accord- ance with the outline. This is a convenient occasion for teaching the nature and need of the paragraph; for each topic in the outline will usually require a separate paragraph for treatment, 9. The Abstract. — The outhne is a mere indica- tion of the logical order of the topics. The abstract also preserves the logical order, but covers up the outline by means of condensed narrative, descrip- tion, or exposition. The essential characteristic of the abstract consists in giving the substance of the thought of one author in the language of another. It is a condensed statement. Its great value as a means of mental discipline is not sufficiently appre- ciated by teachers. The following are some of the reasons why abstract-making should be a daily exercise in every class sufficiently advanced to do the work: (a) The abstract is of the very essence of book- FORMS OF COMPOSITION ^ 65 study. A thorough drill in its use will cure the pupil of the common and pernicious habit of memo- rizing words, when he should be looking for thought merely; as for example, in studying geography, history, or science. (6) For the above reason oral abstracts should alternate with written abstracts. The study-hour may be utilized to teach the. nature of an abstract, to distinguish it from literal reproduction, and to secure oral practice. Let us suppose that a reading lesson has been assigned in one of the middle or upper grades. The pupil should read a paragraph, and then with book open, find the principal thought and express it in his own language. All non-essen- tial and subordinate elements are left out of con- sideration. It is well to require the pupil to. con- dense an entire paragraph into one or two sentences. (c) This is real composition because the writer deals with thought and is compelled to express it in sentences of his own construction. It ought to be a rule that quotations are not accepted in this exercise. Excerpts are not abstracts. Unless this rule is strictly enforced, children will soon learn to pick out sentences here and there from the text, patch them together, and call the product an abstract. If this is allowed, the exercise degenerates into a trick of words, and the value of abstract- making is entirely lost. The culture is in the selective activity of the mind employed in findirg the essential thoughts, and in the constructive activity required for original expression. 66 . ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 10. Elaboration.^ — This is the converse of ab- stract writing. The aim here is to increase in bulk and effectiveness what is presented in condensed form. There are two ways of doing such work; one is a process of dilution, the other of development. What might be called the diluting process is illus- trated by the foreign dispatches of the daily press. On account of the great expense of cabling news; dispatches are reduced to the smallest possible bulk for transmission and upon receipt they are put into the hands of an expert whose business is to expand them. The reader will have a column of news from Europe that was manufactured from three or four lines of raw material. This form of elaboration is not to be recommended as a school exei:cise. There are objections to it on both ethical and literary grounds. It reminds one of what Lowell says of Percival the poet, who "produced his bale of verses from a loom capable of turning off a hitherto unheard-of number of yards to the hour,' and perfectly adapted to the amplitude of our territory, inasmuch as it was manufactured on a theory of covering the largest surface with the least possible amount of meaning that would hold words together."* A better form of elaboration consists in developing a theme by differentiating and relating its parts and qualities. It may be the expanding of an abstract previously made by the pupil into its original form; as Franklin was in the habit of doing. It may ♦Essay on James Gates Percival. FORMS OF COMPOSITION 67 consist in expanding words into phrases, phrases into clauses, or in embellishing plain statements of fact by the use of figures of speech, 11. Types of Composition. — There are four types of composition: Narration, description, exposition; argumentation. These are usually taught in the order here given.* (a) Narration. — It is obvious that narration is better suited to young children than description. Children are naturally dynamic rather than static. They are not interested in the qualities of objects, which it is the office of description to enumerate; but in action and uses. Children love "stories," which are narrations. They do not stop long enough to describe an object in detail. They are after events. What is a thing doing? What is it good for? What happened to it or on account of it in the past? What is likely to happen in the future? These and similar questions arise spontaneously in a child's mind, and the answers to such queries constitute narration. (6) Description. — Next in order of difficulty is description. This involves the power of analysis. The order of learning is from the whole to its parts. When we see a thing in action we regard it as a unit, a thought-whole. When it becomes necessary to look into the causes of events, — why an animal, plant, or other object behaves in a certain manner, — *Hinsdale's Teaching the Language Arts, p. 119. (Apple- ton.) 68 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION the method of procedure is to ascertain the parts and qualities and the nature of the materials which compose things. An orderly enumeration of the elements disclosed by such analytic study con- stitutes description. (c) Exposition.* — This type of composition com- bines narration and description and adds a new element: namely, the principles which are the cause of the visible qualities and actions enumerated. Explaining the processes' and rules of arithmetic and manual training is exposition. "If you tell the color, shape, size of a watch, you describe it. If you tell why the hands go round * * * you expound its principles. "f Oral "explanations" of written problems in arithmetic constitute true exposition. From what has been said as to the relative difficulty of this form of composition, it is evident that it is absurd to require in the lower grades elaborate explanations of arithmetical pro- cesses. (d) Argumentation. — A still more difficult form of composition is the argument. "In exposition we explain principles which are already established. * * * In argument, on the other hand, we have to establish the principle. Here we use explanation in order to prove the principle. Argument consists in attempting to prove. It is addressed to an *For a capital treatment of exposition, see Lewis's "A First Manual of Composition." (Macmillan, 1902), p. 227. tLewis: "A First Manual of Composition." FORMS OF COMPOSITION 69 audience that is not satisfied of the truth of a given statement."* Argument should not be attempted before the last two years of the elementary school; and then the best way to teach it is to organize debates. f 12. Units of Composition. — The three units of composition are the sentence, the paragraph, the essay. (a) Constant effort should be made in the lower grades to develop the power to recognize a sentence. Sometimes children who have advanced even to the upper grades of the elementary school lack this power. Phrases, clauses, and other fragments are punctuated as if they were entire sentences. The remedy for this singular defect is to begin early to teach children the recognition of complete sub- jects and complete predicates. (6) The next order of grouping in composition is the paragraph. The idea that the paragraph is not a mere combination of sentences, but a complete phase of a subject, should be developed early in the grades. Carelessness in this feature of composition is one of the most common faults of teachers. Edu- cational editors, better than any other class of per- sons, know the truth of this statement; for they receive manuscripts for publication, from teachers occupying even supervisory positions, v/hich ex- hibit every technical vice of composition. The *For full and excellent treatment see Lewis, p. 248. fSee reference to "Spellbinders," p. 48. 70 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION paragraphing is sometimes entirely neglected, while in other cases every sentence is a complete para-, graph. If teachers themselves do not realize the need of accuracy in such matters, it is useless to expect children to acquire correct habits * (c) A group of words expressing a complete thought constitutes a sentence. A group of sen- tences treating a definite aspect of a subject con- stitutes a paragraph. An aggregation of paragraphs treating a subject in proper sequence, and with due regard to subordination and unity, constitutes an essay. An analytic study of these units should be made in connection with the reading lessons, and should precede the synthetic work of the composition hour. *See discussion of writing from topics, p. 64. VII. Choosing a Subject. In the choice of subjects we must be guided mainly by the knowledge, interests, and limitations of the children. 1. Ideas. — Since the aim of this exercise is mental discipline through the expression of ideas, our first duty is to see that the child has ideas. That is, we must not over-emphasize the formal side of the work to the neglect of the thought side. Frequently the composition lesson is a failure, because it is an attempt to draw water from an empty well. Thor- ough familiarity with the subject-matter is a pre- requisite to fluency or freedom of expression. The monotonous repetition of the same phrases by all the children in a class is due to a faulty method of teaching, and to a paucity of information. They all know the same half-dozen facts; and these are remem- bered in stereotyped form. ' -71 • 72 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 2. Self-Chosen Themes. — "Self-chosen themes are preferable by far," says Herbart, "to those that are assigned, only they cannot be expected of the majority of the pupils."* As to the kind of themes children select sponta- neously, an interesting study has been made and published by Miss Calkins of Wellesley College.f Children in the public schools of a certain town were asked each to write a story on any topic what- ever. The subjects chosen by 137 children are classified as follows: (a) Children averaging 6^^ years of age: Personal possessions, 37 per cent.; personal experiences, 25 per cent. ; experiences of others, 23 per cent. (6) Children 9 years of age: Personal possessions; 21 per cent.; personal experiences, 18 per cent.; ex- periences of others, 24 per cent.; fairy subjects, 18 per cent. (c) Children 11 years of age* Personal posses- sions, 4 per cent. ; personal experiences, 65 per cent. ; experiences of others, 11 per cent. (d) Children 15 years of age: Personal posses- sions, 3 per cent. ; personal experiences, 10 per cent. ; experiences of others, 70 per cent. Several inferences are very evident on the face of these returns. (1) In the first school year children like to talk about their personal possessions and experiences. *Outlines of Educational Doctrine, p. 124. fPedagogical Seminary, Vol. 3, p. 334. CHOOSING A SUBJECT 73 One teacher, quoted above in the discussion of devices, refers to this as a fact of her own experi- ence. Her children like t(3 tell about "my doll," *'my rabbit," etc. (2) In about the third year of school fairy subjects are popular. The children of this age are the only ones that chose these subjects in the returns quoted. Fairy subjects, personal experiences, and possessions, furnished nearly 60 per cent, of the subjects selected by these third year children. (3) The striking feature of the eleven-year-old pupils is that 65 per cent, narrated personal expe- riences. It would seem, therefore, that in the fifth grade this class of subjects should predominate. (4) At fifteen, about the last year of the elemen- tary school, personal experiences have lost their charm, and the experiences of others constitute 70 per cent, of the subjects. This is strictly in accord- ance with what we know to be true of the moral development of this period. The egoism of child- hood now gives place to the altruism of adolescence, 3. Correlation. — Fulness of information and in- interest being necessary to success in composition, it is evident that these conditions can be met most economically by correlating work in composition with the so-called thought studies of the curriculum. In fact, we have already decided that composition is not a "subject" but a means of culture through the expression of ideas. Literature, nature study^ 74 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION geography, history, and biography, together with the class of subjects shown above to be spontaneously preferred by children, will supply an abundance of ideas, and themes enough for all our needs. VIIL How to Be Effective. 1. Attention to Formal Detail. — In order to be effective in composition, it is necessary to be care- ful about many things. There must be a suitable subject. This must be properly developed. The discussion must proceed in an orderly way. "You must not tell the point too soon, but must lead up to it, so that your hearer will be on tip-toe to know how the story is coming out. "* In addition to this you must think of the choice of words and the kind of sentences. If you choose words that the reader does not understand, you confuse him; if your words are used in the wrong sense, you mislead him; if they offend his taste, you disgust him. In all these things you must conform to good usage; and in order to know what good usage is you must study and *A First Manual of Composition. Edwin H. Lewis. Macmillan Co., 1902, New York. - - . 75 . - - ■ . • -■- 7e ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION imitate correct models. Legibility of penmanship; punctuation, spelling, paragraphing, the numbering of pages, the margins, underscoring of words, writing on one side of the page, — all these things are elements of effectiveness in composition. • 2. Figures of Speech. — Grammatical correctness; care in punctuation, and attention to the details of arrangement, however, are not in themselves suffi- cient to make discourse effective. To this end fig- ures of speech are essential. The use of these is a matter of temperament, of age, of observation and practice, of careful study and imitation. Perhaps little in this matter can be expected of young chil- dren. But they are constantly reading good litera- ture, in which figurative language prevails; and they unquestionably appreciate such language in their poems and prose stories. Nor must we make the mistake of supposing that only cultivated persons use figurative language. On the contrary, the dis- course of savages shows that figures- are artless and spontaneous. Some illiterate people are especially gifted in the effective use of such language. " David Harum" and "Old John Graham" are portrayals in fiction of this class of persons. Mr. William Devery, the former Chief of Police in New York, although he is said to have confessed that the police blotter is the only book he ever read, is one of the most effective phrase-makers among public men. He can hit off a situation or the peculiarity of a person in a few epigrammatic sentences whose appropriateness is instantly recognized by everybody. HOW TO BE EFFECTIVE 77 Nor are children devoid of this power. They use similes, metaphors, and personifications sponta- neously. They dramatize their experiences in play, assuming many different characters. By an appeal to the unconscious use of figurative language we may establish a point of contact for the development of conscious power and skill in this direction.* It is, however, easy to overdo this matter. A writer who becomes too self-conscious in the use of figures makes himself ridiculous. The following paragraph describing a wedding illustrates a style that is too flowery: Would that my pen had been plucked from some beautiful bird of paradise and dipped in the rays of a rainbow that I might fittingly describe the beautiful event enacted. Just as the day god, clothed in majesty sublime, had withdrawn his galaxy of quivering, golden beams from all the earth and wafted a good-night kiss to blithesome young evening who was approaching with her cloudless brow mounted by a crown of jeweled stars — it was then that the cords of con- fidence, hope, and love, binding two tender hearts, were welded in bliss, indelibly traced upon the scroll of life, and the sacred seal of holy matrimony was then fixed. — "Bish" Spaulding of Muskegon. *A western teacher, instructing a class in composition, addressed her pupils as follows: "Do not attempt any flights of fancy; be yourselves and write what is in you." The next day a bright pupil handed in the following: "We should not attempt any flites of fancy, rite what is in you. In me there is my stomach, lungs, heart, liver, two apples, one piece of mince pie, three sticks of candy, a hull lot of peanuts, and my dinner." — Enid {Okla.) Eagle. 78 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION We must, therefore, not over-stimulate the child- ish fancy in trying to develop a style. Pupils of the elementary school may be shown by the study of masterpieces that the difference between the litera- ture of power and the literature of information is due chiefly to the use of figurative language in the one, and its absence in the other. They may be allowed to practice the use of imagery within limits; but it does not seem wise to spend much time, especially in girls' classes, in writing verses. Such exercises tend to make children sentimental and self-conscious. 3. Perspective. — Another important element of effectiveness in writing is perspective or proportion. The writer has read many hundreds of papers written by applicants for various kinds of teachers' licenses under the direction of the New York Board of Ex- aminers. This experience has convinced him that many candidates fail not for want of knowledge, but for want of skill in composition. They do not use good judgment in apportioning the time allowance. Frequently the writer devotes so much time to a discussion of one part of a question paper that he is obliged to pass over some of the questions without answering them at ail. Such people have a habit of multiplying words until the reader is tired, forgetting that after a question has received the answer called for, all additional or extraneous matter receives no credit and may invalidate the writer's claim to common sense, which is one of the things tested by the examination. ' HOW TO BE EFFECTIVE 79 In 1889 a certain newspaper offered a series of prizes for compositions to be written by public school children. Edward Everett Hale was a member of the committee selected to award the prizes. In a report prfnted in Book News at the time, Dr. Hale estimated that in a hundred of the essays submitted about five had a right to be; the remaining ninety- five were so bad that they distressed the distinguished reader. The criticism he made upon them was that they lacked what in the cant phrase of critics is known as "literary form." There was, in the first place, nothing to tell, and in the second place, no logical development and sequence. It was painfully evident that these ninety-five writers in a hundred wrote simply to get the prize-money, not because they had a story to tell. In conclusion Dr. Hale wrote out a formula, by way of suggestion to teachers of composition, from which the following is quoted : "I. Read carefully the story of Arnold and Andre in Ban- croft's History and in Gay's. Read it so often that you know the facts. Then put those books away. "2. Prepare for me a sketch of that story in two thousand words. "3. In order to do this, make a brief or skeleton of the things you want to speak of: Arnold's character; the position of West Point; the English general and his plans; the prog- ress of the treason; Andre's connection with it; how Wash- ington first knew it; how Arnold met Andre; how he learned he was taken; how he escaped; how Andre was tried; his sentence; his execution. Do not take this for your only set of heads but add what you think interesting. "4. After this brief is made, and carefully arranged, determine which part needs the largest treatment, and which 80 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION can be passed over. Determine how you can give dramatic effect, or interest, and where this is to be attempted. Note, on your brief, what part shall have two pages, what part two lines, and so gain some proportion for your rule before you begin. "5. Of course, it would be absurd to cling literally and absolutely to such a scheme, but bear it in mind in writing, and bring me your composition, properly balanced, on such a plan." IX. The Correction of Compositions. 1. Every Exercise in Composition Should Have Some Form of Correction. — For some years the teachers of New York were required to have at least one composition written each week and personally to correct one set of papers each month. The con- sequence was that hundreds of teachers had one set of compositions carefully written each month. These were taken home and corrected — sometimes practically re-written by the teacher — in red ink, then re-copied by the children. The three remaining exercises were frequently written rather carelessly and filed away without any correction. This was done in some cases merely to satisfy the letter of the law, which required one composition a week. 2. Three Methods of Correction. — ^There are at least three good methods of correcting compositions. 81 82 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION (a) First, the pupil may do it himself under the general direction of the teacher. For instance, the pupil's attention may be directed, first, to the division into paragraphs; then to sentence structure; then to spelling, punctuation, etc. (6) Or the pupil may make the corrections accord- ing to suggestions given by the teacher through the specific criticism of typical errors, or of typical compositions copied on the blackboard or read. If it be granted that the object of correction is the training of the pupil in the art of self-criticism, then it would seem to follow that he must take an active part in the process of correction. "Learn to do by doing" applies here as in everything else. The principle may be observed in several ways. The child may correct his own errors or those of another. If he criticises his own work, some time should elapse between the writing and the correction. If criticism is undertaken immediately, one often fails to detect errors which, after the lapse of two or three days, appear glaring. It is always easier to detect the errors of another than one's own. We see the m.ote in a brother's eye but overlook the beam in our own. Hence, as a rule, it is well to let children exchange papers. Besides, it greatly stimulates a child's interest to be criticised by a fellow pupil. On this point it has been well said that "children are singu- larly apathetic in regard to corrections made by the teacher, especially if such corrections are numerous " ; but "watch one of these same children when he receives his paper fresh from the judgment of his CORRECTION OF COMPOSITIONS 83 peers. Is his manner indifferent? By no means. He is eager to discover what criticisms have been made by one of the rank and file Hke himself. Will he accept these without question? Not unless their justice is self-evident. He will find out whether he or his critic is right, and why. When the question is settled he has made a distinct gain. His mind has been alert, active, interested. Those corrections have made an impression which will influence him when he writes again."* In order that each child may know who corrected his errors, the critic may sign his name at the end of the paper before returning the sam.e to the owner. Disputed cases are brought to the teacher for settle- ment. The wise teacher will keep a classified list of her pupils in her desk. In one column are the rames of those who are excellent in composition. These receive least attention. The second column con- tains the names of those who are of average ability, while the last shows the poorest writers. These receive the special consideration of the teacher. She will probably so manage ^ the exchange of papers during the correction period, that papers of the best writers sometimes pass through the hands of the poorest and vice versa. (c) Finally, the teacher may, after applying' one of the preceding methods, criticise each composition himself. *The Conduct of Composition Work in Grammar Schools, Clapp & Huston, D. C. Heath & Co., 1902. 84 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION The method of individual correction most in vogue among teachers seems to be that which requires the work to be done in school or at home after recitation hours. There are several serious objections to this plan. (1) In the first place, teachers are liable to become over-critical and to fall into the habit of re-writing compositions under such circumstances. (2) Furthermore, unless the compositions are handed back to the pupil and errors carefully ex- plained, such criticism is useless, and therefore a waste of the teacher's time and strength. To avoid these objections many successful teachers make individual corrections in the class-room during the composition period, and while the pupil is looking on. The reasons for the criticisms can then be ex- plained in a way that will make a vivid impression upon the pupil. In every instance the compositions should be corrected by children before they are handed to the teacher. In order to conduct such an exercise in the most economical way, the children should be graded according to their ability in writing, as already explained, so that the teacher's time may be given to those who need it most. 3. Use of Helps. — For the purpose of improving their critical power and habit, the children should be allowed to consult freely, during the composition lesson, dictionaries, encyclopedias, grammars, or any other books that may be useful. In the matter of consulting books the onlyirule that CORRECTION OF COMPOSITIONS 85 must be insisted on is that the pupils shall under no circumstances copy the exact words of another with- out the use of quotation marks. 4. Do Not be Too Critical. — Remembering the limitations of children, we should not expect perfect work from them. Primary children, who have not learned the use of books of reference, should be en- couraged to ask questions on what they do not under- stand, as, for instance, points of fact, or of punctua- tion, or of spelling. When we correct errors, we must be careful not to see too much. It might be well sometimes to look for only one kind of mistakes in a given exercise. Thus, we might look for errors in paragraphing one day, for errors of punctuation the next, for spelling the next, and so on. Power may be gained, also, by laying special stress on only one or two points in the presentation of the subject matter. 5. Exclude Technicalities While Writing. — One should not interrupt a child who is explaining a problem in arithmetic to correct his language. This may be done after the explanation is finished or dur- ing the language period. Neither should a child be worried by too many don'ts while he is composing. "In such exercises the attention should not be riveted upon capitals, spelling, punctuation, gram- matical construction, and rhetorical devices; the mind should be occupied solely and intensely with the expression of thought. Mistakes should be cor- 88 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION rected when the pupil reviews and re-writes his composition."* 6. A Code of Marks. — The object of correction being, not to secure a faultless product, but to train the critical power of the pupil, he must, if possible, correct his own errors. In the primary grades, and in the case of children speaking a foreign language, it may be helpful for the teacher sometimes to make the corrections for the pupil. But as the child grows older, and his skill in the application of the principles of composition increases, the teacher should merely indicate the errors in the margin, underscoring the parts which are wrong. To do this some code of marks is necessary. Many schemes have been sug- gested, but the majority of them are too complicated for young children. A code of marks that is too difficult defeats its own end, since it requires the pupil to expend too much of his mental energy in trying to interpret the code. The code which hap- pens to be before me at this moment has twenty-six characters. To commit all these is quite a feat of memory. A code should be so simple as to require scarcely any attention. Very often it is enough to show where an error lurks. This can be done by a cross, a line, or an interrogation point. In a great many instances errors are the result of carelessness or thoughtlessness, and a mere notice that something is wrong is sufficient to enable the pupil to make the *Thinking and Eearning to Think, Schaeflfer, Lippincott Co., 1901, p. 147. CORRECTION OF COMPOSITIONS 87 correction. If the child cannot find out the nature of the error to which attention is called, he should ask the teacher for an explanation. The discussion that follows such a query is sure to be profitable to the pupil. It should be the rule of the class that errors which are clearly the result of carelessness will not even be pointed out by the teacher. The best way to correct such work is to consign it to the waste basket and direct the pupil to write a new composition. X. Composition Plan for an Eight-Year Course.^ General Suggestions. 1. Models are not to be constructed by the teacher in grammar grades, but selected from good literature. 2. The unity of the sentence should be a matter of drill in every grade after the first year. The term unity of sentence may be given to 5B or 6A. 3. Points mentioned for "special attention" in a grade or month should be made the subjects of cor- rection in written work and of oral drill all through the month. *This plan was prepared under the supervision of the author and of District Superintendents John Dwyer and Edward W. Stitt, by Miss Emma C. Schoonmaker, Principal of Public School 119, Manhattan Bor- ough. New York, Miss Elizabeth A. Duggan, Principal of Public School 57, Manhattan, and Miss Olive M.Jones, Principal of Public School 120. Manhattan. Miss Schoonmaker desires to say that she is under obliga- tions to Miss F. M. Tremper and Miss Mary Chalmers, two of her teachers, for services in preparing the plan for the seventh and eighth years. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 89 ' 4. Definitions of terms. (a) The term reproduction as used in this plan means an attempt to recall the language of the author, word for Vv^ord. (6) A paraphrase is the expression in detail of an author's thought in one's own language. (c) An abstract is a condensed^ statement; it seeks to give the substance of an author's thought in one's own language. Reproductions, if well done, are nearly alike. Paraphrases and abstracts, if honestly done, should be unlike in form, but identical in substance. (d) Elaboration or amplification is the con- verse of abstract writing. The aim here is to in- crease in bulk and effectiveness what is presented in condensed form. (e) Describe: Care should be taken not to misuse this word. Children in the upper grammar grades sometimes "describe how it happened" (nar- rative) or "describe how it is done or made" (exposi- tion) . This plan represents a minimum amount of work to be done. Teachers who can do more are well able to make their own plans. Special effort has been made not to embody in any grade work that belongs to a higher grade, nor to suggest anywhere work that properly belongs to the High School. Only those pieces of completed work which the teacher may be expected to keep until the end of the term are sug- gested in the plan. 90 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION The subject matter of the composition, whether oral or written, whether lA or 8B, should present no difficulties of thought, no idea which needs explana- tion by the teacher. Composition lessons are not for the purpose of thought-getting, but for thought- expressing; i. e., putting into spoken or written. 1 anguage, thought already familiar to the mind. For elementary school children, to whom language is itself an enormous difficulty, the thought or idea to which they give expression (in a formal composition lesson) should seldom be new matter of the grade, and, except in the higher grades, should not be matter which they have been left to gather for them- selves. First Year Grade. First Term (lA) . Note. — The success of oral composition depends upon the teacher's choice of the subject, as well as her manner of telling or reading. Care should be taken not to make conversations exhaustive. The child's interest is an index of the time that should be devoted to the lesson. Oral work should consist of Conversation and Re- production. In formal composition lesson the latter should be as nearly literal as possible. The story for reproduction in composition should contain no diffi- culty of thought. By literal reproduction children receive training in the use of language and in sen- tence structure. Conversations and oral reproductions should be so planned that once a week there will appear a lesson EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 91 in each of the following groups: 1. Personal ex- perience; 2. Ethical ideas; 3. Nature study; 4. Reading; 5. Other lessons. Conversations should consist of: 1. Statements in answer to suggestive questions. 2. Questions from pupils to teacher and to one another. Conversation Topics: 1. Nature study of grade; 2. Pictures; 3. Playthings; 4. Games; 5. Pets; 6. Outings; 7. Occupations; 8. Food; 9. Cleanliness; 10, Manners; 11. Physical training — obeying definite orders, forming definite orders;* 12. Reading lessons; 13. Number lessons (Never in teaching new point, and never when it interferes in slightest degree with child's attention to the problem to be solved, should special emphasis be placed upon language instruc- tion) . It is impossible to plan this grade by lessons; because so much depends upon seasons of year; neighborhood, condition of school and class. First Year Grade. Second Term (iB). Oral (only). As in lA. Drill on incorrect expressions. *In physical training exercises, instead of the teacher giving the order , let the child sometimes phrase it and criticise her classmates for the man- ner in which they obey. This gives the teacher an opportunity to make the child see the necessity for definite statements and for attending to definite statements. The same suggestion can be carried out in other lessons and other exercises of the day, particularly at recess times, or any other good occasion when class orders are necessary; as, for example, getting ready for assembly, distributing books, passing or collecting papers, taking out material from desks. 92 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION Teacher should keep from term to term Hst of errors most commonly made by children in lA and IB. At least one lesson a week in which questions are so formed that the child must use such expres- sions in his answer. Beginnings of sentence struc- ture. Second Year Grade. First Term (2A). I. Oral. 1. Conversations: Subject matter as in lA. Teacher should definitely plan work so that some lessons will be devoted to describing, some to explaining, some to telling or narrating. Narration of — (a) Personal experiences. Description of — (a) Pets. (6) Playthings. (c) Pictures. (d) Objects in nature study lessons. Exposition of — (a) How to set a table (doing simple things.) (6) How to spin a top (playing games). (c) How to clean the teeth (cleanliness) . (d) How to pass a person (manners). 2. Reproduction: As in lA. Stories should include — (a) Nature stories. (6) Folk stories, (c) Fairy tales. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 93 I. Written. 1. Pupil's own address: First month from copy only. Then introduce writing from memory, as soon as the child can undertake it. 2. Copying sentences: Very short. -Familiar words only. Embody: (a) Facts gained from oral work. (6) Ethical teachings. (c) Facts to be memorized occasionally. Copying sentence is the new point of the grade. One exercise kept each week. One sentence only in each exercise. Second Year Grade. Second Term (2B) . I. Oral. 1. Conversation: As in lA to 2A. 2. Reproduction: As in 2A. Add to kind of stories to be told — (d) Fables. II. Written. 1. Copying Sentences: As in lower grades. 2. Dictation: One sentence only. More than one sentence constitutes a paragraph. (3A work.) 3. Punctuation: Sentence dictated should contain no punctuation marks a rational explanation of which is beyond the child's comprehension. For this grade limit work to — (a) End of statement. (6) End of question. (c) End of abbreviations (in addresses) . (d) Word broken at end of line. 94 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION Capitals for — (a) First word of sentence. (6) First word of line of poetry. (c) Proper names of persons and places. If other marks are absolutely needed children should be told where and how to place them. Plan of Written Work. 1. Copied sentence: descriptive. 2. Copied sentence: narrative. 3. Copied sentence : ethical. 4. Dictated sentence: one already used for copy. 5. Copied sentence explaining some- thing. 6. Dictated sentence: one written from copy. 7. Copied sentence: descriptive. 8. Dictated sentence: new, not written before from copy. 9. Copied sentence: nature study. 10. Dictated sentence : narrative. 11. Copied sentence : ethical. 12. Dictated sentence : descriptive. 13. Dictated sentence: reading. 14. Dictated sentence: other lessons. 15. Copied sentence: exposition. 16. Dictated sentence: ethical.' 17. Dictated sentence: description. 18. Copied sentence; reading. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 95 19. Dictated sentence: nature study. 20. Dictated sentence: narrative. Third Year Grade. First Term (3A). Note. — Teacher should select paragraphs for dic- tation with great care. Children should study (never memorize, for then the exercise is not dicta- tion, but writing from memory) ; teacher dictates in such a way as to call for alertness on pupil's part. Each paragraph, whether copied, dictated, or original, should be limited to three sentences. Sub- ject matter should be based upon oral work, taken from readers, memory gems, or songs. I. Oral Work. 1. Drill on incorrect expressions. See IB. G ve models involving use of is and are, was and were, has and have. Sentences not to contain more than about six words. Give any extra time to cor- rection of typical errors, as in IB. 2. Conversations: (a) Statements from questions and direc- tions. Careful to see that each statement has subject and predi- cate. (6) Narration, Description, Exposition: As in 2A and as suggested by reading or other lessons of grade. Work in each of three kinds of composition every week. 96 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION S. Reproduction: (a) Nature stories. (6) Fables. (c) Mj^hs. (d) Fairy stories. (Insist on sequence of events.) II. Written Work. 1. Analysis of grade work: (a) Copied sentence — ^reviewed. ' (6) Dictated sentence — reviewed. (c) Original sentence (new to grade). (d) Letter — new: should include on??/ copy- ing of short models of friendly form. (e) Paragraph: copied; dictated; con- structed (new to grade) . (/) Stanza : copied ; dictated (new to grade) . 2. Subject Matter: 1. Narration. (a) Personal experiences. (6) Fairy stories. (c) Myths (historical). (d) Picture story (imaginative) (e) Story with ethical teaching. 2. Description. (a) Nature study. (6) Pictures. (c) Playthings. (d) Pets. (e) Simple, familiar objects. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 97 3. Exposition. (a) Games. (6) Occupations. (c) Manners. (d) Ethics. (See syllabus in Ethics.) Plan of Written Work. 21. Copied sentence. 22. Copied paragraph. 23. Dictated sentence. 24. Dictated paragraph. 25. Copied letter. 26. Dictated paragraph. 27. Original sentence, constructed from question or direction. 28. Original sentence. 29. Copied stanza. 30. Dictated paragraph. 31. Original sentence, as before, or in effort to build model paragraph by- cooperation. 32. Copied letter. 33. Copied paragraph. 34. Dictated paragraph. 35. Original sentence. 36. Original paragraph, 2 sentences only, constructed with teacher; strict at- tention to unity. 37. Copied letter. 38. Original paragraph, as before. 39. Copied stanza. 40. Original paragraph, as before. ,98 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION Third Year Grade. Second Term (3B). Note. — Correction of written composition should be made in class, teacher and children working to- gether. In the correction exercise, the problem should always be definite. See p. 21. Limit written work to one paragraph of not more than four sentences. Original sentences and paragraphs should be con- structed in class, with teacher's help and supervision. I. Oral Work. As in 3 A, with the addition of: 1. Drills in correct expression: (a) Forms of do, see, come, go. ' (6) Plurals of nouns. II. Written Work. 1. Analysis of requirements: As in 3A, with addi- tion of: (a) Letter from dictation. 2. Subject matter: As in 3A, with addition of: (a) Impersonation. Plan of Written Work. 41. Copying model letter, friendly. 42. Copied sentence, a model. 43. Dictated sentence, same as copied model, or similar, 44. Original sentences, like model. 45. Copying model letter. 46. Dictated letter. 47. Copied paragraph, model. 48. Dictated paragraph, model. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 99 49. Original paragraph, like model 47. 50. Copied stanza. 51. Copied letter. 52. Dictated letter. 53. Copied sentence, new model. 54. Dictated sentence, like new model in 53. 55. Original sentence, like new model in 53. 56. Dictated stanza. 57. Copied paragraph, new model. 58. Dictated paragraph, like new model in 57. 59. Original paragraph, like new model in 57. 60. Dictated letter. Fourth Year Grade. First Term (4A.) Note. — The plan of written work given here represents pieces of completed work required every week. All drafts kept until the end of the term. Method of Correction: See grade 3B. As a gen- eral rule children should correct from class instruc- tion. No entire compositions to be recopied, except when children have failed to grasp the point of the lesson or the exercise has been very badly done by the entire class. Selected portions of composition containing errors criticised in class, may be re- written. Written work limited to two paragraphs; contain- ing a maximum of about sixty words. LOFC. 100 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION Paragraphs should be made from topical outlines (constructed by teacher and class working together) based upon outline made of previously studied model. Special attention to sequence of paragraphs. I. Oral Work. Exercise every day. Subject Matter: As in grades below. Add: (a) Reproduction of silent reading. II. Written Work. 1. Analysis of grade work: (a) Letters and envelopes: Informal and social only. May include school notes of var- ious kinds. New work of grade under this heading is original. Letters should be done by imita- tion of models and should include exercises in addressing envelopes. (&) Reproduction: Myths, legends, fables, silent reading. (c) Composition: New point in grade work. Should be done in imitation of models. Subject matter to be so chosen that three kinds of com- position are represented; i. e., narration, description, exposition. (d) Dictation: Also exercises in copying and writing from memory. Prose and poetry. Should illustrate rules for punctuation and capitals de- manded in this grade by syllabus. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 101 (e) Sentence Structure: New, as a set writ- ten exercise. Includes: (1) Drill on correct forms of ir- regular verbs and plurals of nouns. (2) Study of simple declarative sentence; the following type forms of statements: (1.) What things do. Birds catch insects. (2.) What is done to things. Insects are caught by birds. Plan of Work. Form Matter 61. Copied letter, model. Friendly. 62. Original letter, like model 61. Friendly. 63. Reproduction. Myth or fable. 64. Dictation. Poetry. 65. Model composition; studied and copied. Narration. 66. Original composition^ like model 65. Narration. 67. Reproduction. Silent reading. 68. Dictation. Prose, ethical. 69. Model letter^ studied; then copied; dictated; or reproduced. 70. Original letter; like model 69. Friendly. 102 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 71. Sentence structure. First type form and irregular verbs. 72. Dictation. Poetry. 73. Model composition. Exposition. 74. Original composi.tion; ' like model 73. Exposition. 75. Reproduction. Silent reading. 76. Copy from print. Prose. 77. Model letter. School note. 78. Original letter. School note. 79. Sentence structure. Second type form; drill on plurals. 80. Dictation. Fourth Year Grade. Second Term (4B). Note. — See 4A. Limit work to two paragraphs, except in fifth month, when three may be used, aggregating about seventy-five words. All work called for as written should first be treated orally. Special attention to construction of outlines. I. Oral Work. Exercises every day. 1. Drill on incorrect expressions. Teacher should keep a list of errors most commonly made by children. At least one lesson a week in which questions are so formed that the child must use such expressions in his answer. Special drill on forms of is, have, do, see; come, go. 2. Reproduction of silent reading. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 103 3. Composition: Similar to model studied, from outline, before wi'iting. 4. Pupils to be specially drilled to recite facts of nature, geography, etc., in complete, connected^ sentences without interruption by teacher. II. Written Work. 1. Analysis of grade work: (a) Letters and envelopes (See 4A). (b) Reproduction (See 4A). Add: (1) Historical anecdotes. (c) Composition. (See 4 A). (d) Dictation. (See 4A). (e) Sentence structure. (See 4A). Add': (1) Special attention to the four type forms of statements. 1. What things do (4A). 2. What is done to things (4A) . 3. What the qualities of things are. My cat's fur is black. 4. What things are. The house is a building. (2) Possessive forms of nouns and pronouns. (3) Use of irregular verbs. (4) Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives. Plan of Work. Form Matter 81. Model letter, studied; then copied, dictated, or reproduced. Friendly. 104 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 82. Original letter, like model 81. 83. Reproduction. 84. Sentence structure. 85. Dictation. 86. Model composition. 87. Original composition; like model 86. 88. Model letter. 89. Original, like model 88. 90. Dictation. 91. Reproduction. 92. Model composition; studied, outlined. 93. Original composition; like model, from out- line. 94. Sentence structure. 95. Brief letter; original, like model shown. Friendly. Historical anec- dotes. Third type form; irregular verbs. Prose. Exposition; stud- ied, outlined. How to play some game. How to play some game. School note. School note. Poetry. Silent reading. Description. Description. Review of type forms. Com- parative and superlative de- grees of adjec- tives. Business. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 105 96. Copying from print; or dictation. 97. Model letter, containing description. Friendly. 98. Original letter, like model 97. Friendly. 99. Model composition. Narration. 100. Original composition like model 99. Narration. Fifth Year Grade. First Term (5A). I. Notes AND Oral Work. See 4B. No technical work on principles of para- graphing to be taken below 6A. II. Written Work. 1. Analysis of grade work: (a) Letters and envelopes. (See 4 A). (&) Reproduction. (See 4B) . (c) Composition. (See 4B) . Special at- tention to class-room correction; seepage 81. Three paragraphs at most, probably two. (d) Invention exercises: Limited in length. * 1. Expand short story. 2. Tell story suggested by picture. 3. Relate im^aginary autobiography. (e) Dictation. (See 4 A). (/) Sentence structure: All the type forms. Longer and more difficult; Apply in correction of written work. 2. Pupils should be trained to correct their own compositions. 106 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. Plan of Work. Form 101. Model letter. Matter Careful attention to important de- tails of struc- ture; e. g., head- ing, salutation; body (p a r a- graphs), conclu- sion, signature; and superscrip- tion on the en- velope. Special attention to parts of letter. Expand short story. Suggestion. — From picture, reading les- son, stanza of poetry. Original letter, like model 101. Invention exercise. Dictation. Model composition; studied, outlined Original composition; like model 105. 107. Invention. Poetry. Description of object, scene, or picture. Description of ob- ject, scene, or picture. Tell story suggest- ed by picture. Proceed as follows: Short anonymous composition. Teacher write one. All put in receptacle. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 107 108. Invention. (107). Correction of lead- ing errors in pre- ceding exercise. Suggestion. — ^Each child draw story from receptacle. Work of grade in sentence structure should be applied and drilled. 109. Dictation. Poetry. 110. Model composition. Exposition. 111. Original, Hke model 110. Exposition. 112. Invention. Class motto; or other quotation or proverb. Suggestion. — ^Have an abundance of oral work, then condense and classify state- ments made by children. 113. Model letter. Informal note of invitation. 114. Original letter, like Informal note of model 113. invitation. 115. Invention. Children to tell in oral work, some item of interest, something done, som.e anec- dote, etc. Child come to class with - slip of paper on which is written topic on which she is to talk. After talking; write. Teacher hear a number read; then collect papers. Later each pupil write on any subject he has liked par- ticularly. ' 116. Reproduction. Historical anec- dote. 108 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 117. Dictation. Stanza written from memory or dictation. 118. Model composition. Narration. 119. Original, like model 113 Narration. 120. Original letter, like model shown. Business. Fifth Year Grade. Second Term (5B). Note. — Work identical with 5A; except sentence structure, which now becomes grammar and should be separately planned and have separate time allotted to it. Grammar is therefore left out of consideration in planning composition work of this grade. It should, however, be applied in every correction exercise. But one lesson has been planned for each week; this allows ample time for correction of errors in second lesson of week, and for oral composition. Plan of Work. Form Matter 121. Model letter. Informal note. 122. Original, like model 121 Informal note. 123. Invention. Imaginative auto- biography: acorn, rose, f emj etc. 124. Dictation. Prose. 125. Model composition. Exposition. 126. Original composition; Exposition. like model 125. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 109 127. Reproduction. 128. Dictation. 129. Invention. 130. Model letter 131. Letter, like model 130. 132. Reproduction. 133. Model composition. 134. Composition, like model 133. 135. Dictation. 136. Invention. 137. Model letter. Historical anec- dote. Poetry. Story suggested by picture; same picture for all, but individual copies, if small. (See geogra- phies, histories, and readers). Informal note. Informal note. Short story from reader. Description of per- son. Description of familiar person; not principal or class teacher. Do not name. See if children can give nam.e. Prose, or writing stanza from memory. Expand short story. Friendly, contain- ing description. 110 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 138. Letter, like model 137. Friendly, contain- ing description. 139. Dictation. Poetry. 140. Reproduction. Short story from reader. Sixth Year Grade. First Term (6A) . Note. — Read carefully notes of all preceding grades. Utmost limit of any one piece of work three para- graphs. I. Oral Work. As in preceding grades. See 4B. Add: (a) Reports. (1) News items. (2) Library books. (3) Excursions. IL Written Work. 1. Analysis of grade work. (a) As in preceding grades. See 5A. Add ; (6) Principles of paragraphing. (1) Unity; i. e., one topic for each paragraph. (2) Topic sentence; i. e., first sen- tence of each paragraph should name or indicate topic. Plan of Work. Form Matter 141. Model letter, dictated. School note. 142. Letter, like model 141. School note. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 111 143. Invention. - Picture study. See 5B, No. 129. To explain meaning of picture is really exposition; story suggested by picture is narration. 144. 145. Reproduction. Model composition. 146. Historical anec- dote (American). Exposition : How to make some- thing. Study paragraph structure as class makes outline. Composition, like model 145. 147. Invention. 148. Dictation. 149. Model letter. 150. Letter, like model 149. 151. Invention. 152. Dialogue: model studied, quotation marks. 153. Dialogue, like model 152. 154. Business letter, after model given. Imaginative auto- biography. Stanza, or written from memory. Friendly request. Friendly request. Class motto, or other proverb. See 5A, No. 112. Mountain and the Squirrel. Cricket and the . Ant. 112 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 155. Model composition. Historical narra- tive that in- volves a dia- logue. 156. Composition, like model Historical narra- 155. tive that in- volves a dia- logue. 157. Dictation. Poetry. 158. Invention. Expand into story or description g ^'We heard the bells." Bells of all kinds can be talked of. 159. Model composition. Description. 160. Composition, like model Description. 159. Sixth Year Grade. Second Term (6B). First Month Special attention to be given to — (a) Unity of paragraph, (6) Topic sentence. Unity of sentence should be well drilled and re- viewed. (See work in previous grades.) Plan of Work 161. Study and outline of model : oral work. De- scription of a person; common types; as; conductor, policeman, shop-girl, stenograph- er, etc. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 113 1. Appearance. 2. Dress. 3. Personality. (Favorable). (Unfavorable). 4. Seen frequently. 162. Composition, like model: written. 163. (1) Study and outline of model letter. (2) Letter like model. 164. Invention: similar to methods explained in 6 A. Let it involve description. Second Month Special attention: (a) Unity of paragraph. (6) Complete statements. (c) Choice of verbs. id) Possessive forms: when to use. Plan of Work 165. Invention: diary of a day, f A. M. to 8 P. M. Drill on use of synonyms — ^verbs. 166. Invention: dialogues. Conversation be- tween two inanimate objects — something new and something old. . 167. Study of principles of paragraph. Separate paragraphs written on given topics. Object: unity of paragraph and topic sentence. 168. Biography of class author: narration. Model studied; one like model written. Third Month Special attention: (a) Use of "one" (in exposition) rather than i'you." 114 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION (b) Modifiers to be placed as near as pos- sible to the word modified. (c) Principles of paragraphing, as before. Plan of Work 169. Exposition: directions for reaching any given locality or place, as the Aquarium, Bronx Park, Brooklyn. Model studied and outlined: oral. 170. Exposition: written, like model 169. 171. Model letter: invitation and acceptance or regret; informal note. 172. Letter, like model 171. Fourth Month Special attention: (a) Unity of paragraph. (6) Choice of words. (c) General vs. specific statements. Plan of Work 173. Model studied: description of visit. - 174. Letter like model. Child to tell what he saw. Specific statements. 175. Memory selection, either prose or poetry;' studied as model is studied, and outlined. 176. Paraphrase of memory selection written. Fifth Month Special attention: (a) Topic sentence. (6) Choice of words. (c) Pronouns: personal and relative; an- tecedents. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 115 Plan of Work 177. Study of sentence : topic sentence and careful drill on unity of sentence. Change general to specific statements. News items will form good subject matter. 178. Model description: studied and outlined. Description of picture. 179. Description : written,in imitation of model 178. June — ^Take a landscape. January — "The Chimes," by Blashfield, or other seasonable picture. 180. Report: definite statements in answer to suggestive questions. Library books form good subject matter. Seventh Year Grade. First Term (7A). Notes. — ^Report on home reading should be made orally, and should include accounts of current events gathered from newspapers or magazines. Make narrative composition the special point of grade in kinds of composition. The point for special attention in each month should be drilled in the correction exercises and in oral work. Course of study may call for two lessons per week in composition. The present plan provides for work for one lesson, thus leaving plenty of time for correction, etc. First Month Special attention: (a) Unity of sentence. (6) Unity of paragraph. 116 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION Plan of Work 181. Model: exposition. 182. Exercises like model 181. 183. Model: letter. 184. Exercises like 183. Second Month. Special attention: (a) Structure of sentence. 1. Position of modifiers. 2. Pronouns must have antecedents. (6) Unity of paragraph. Plan of Work. 185. Model: description. 186. Exercises like model 185. 187. Model: narration. 188. Exercises like model 187. Third Month Special attention: (a) Topic sentence. (6) Variety of beginning sentence, from study of model sentence. Plan of Work. 189. Model: letter. 190. Exercises like model 189. 191. Model: narration, dialogue. 192. Exercises like model 191. Fourth Month. Special attention. (a) Words — general and specific. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 117 (6) Statements — general and specific, (c) Variety of beginning sentence, especially for use as topic sentence. Plan of Work. 193. Model: description. 194. Exercises like model 193. 195. Model: narration. 196. Exercises like model 195. Fifth Month. Special attention: Same points as in previous months with special attention to weak- nesses of class. Plan of Work. 197. Model letter. 198. Exercises like model 197. 199. Study of paragraphing. 200. Letter: describe "Departmental System;" assembly exercises, or other feature of school work. Seventh Year Grade. Second Term (7B). Note. — See 7 A. Make descriptive composition the object of special drill. First Month. Special attention: (a) Unity of paragraph. (&) Topic sentence. (c) Variety in beginning sentences. 118 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION Plan of Work. 201. Model: exposition. 202. Exercises like model 201. 203. Model: business letter. 204. Exercises like model : application for em- ployment. Second Month. Special attention: As in first month. Add: (d) Choice of verbs. (e) Tense of verbs. Plan of Work. 205. Model: description. 206. Exercises like model 205. 207. Model: letter. 208. Exercises like model 207. Third Month. Special attention: (a) Sentence structure. 1. Position of modifiers. 2. Agreement of tenses. 3. Pronouns and their antecedents. Plan of Work. 209. Model: description. 210. Exercises like model 209. 211. Model: business letter. 212. Exercises like model 211. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 119 Fourth Month. ' Special attention: (a) Specific and general statements. (b) Specific and general words. (c) Choice of words, particularly verbs. (d) Principles of paragraphing. Plan of Work. 213. Model: description. 214. Exercises like model 213. 215. Model studied, and one exercise like model; narration. 216. Model letter and one exercise like model. Fifth Month. . Special attention: See fifth month of 7A. Plan of Work. 217. Model: description. 218. Exercises like model 217. 219. Model: exposition. 220. Exercises like model, or business letter in imitation of previously studied model. Eighth Year Grade. First Term (8A.) Note. — The course of study may call for reports on home reading as part of the written work. These reports should include reading of library books; magazines, newspapers, etc. For isolated para- graphs in several subjects no better subject matter can be found. Instead of making reports in the form of an entire composition, let the report be a 120 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION paragraph. When the teacher is teaching topic sentences, let her give the topic on which the child is to report; for example, reasons for liking or dis- liking the book, or opinions on the characters men- tioned in the book. First Month. Special attention: (a) Clearness. (&) Unity: sentence and paragraph. (c) Choice of words. Write isolated paragraphs on several subjects. For the sake of drill always begin paragraph with topic sentence. Use of semicolons to separate members of a compound sentence. Plan of Work. 221. Study of paragraph' topic sentence (see note on reports) . Model paragraph written through cooperation of teacher and pupils. Pupils compare one or two other paragraphs similar to model. 222. Model: description. 223. Exercises like model 222. 224. Model: letter. Exercises like model. Second Month. Special attention: (a) Words: verbs and adjectives particu- larly. 1. Long or short. 2. General or specific. 3. Tenses of verbs. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 121 (6) Sentence. 1. Variety of beginning, (c) Paragraph. 1. Unity. 2. Topic sentences. Plan of Work. 225. Exposition : review models of previous grades. 226. Exercises like model: 1. Class motto. 2. Science experiment. 3. Hygiene. 4. Good habits. 5. What I should like to do. 6. What I should like to be. 227. Business letter. 228. Order for books, magazines, dry goods; etc., written in imitation of model. Third Month. Special attention: As in previous month. Add: (3) Plan of paragraph. (4) Study of description as type of composition. Plan of Work. 229. Model: description. 230. Exercises like model 229. 231. Invention: dialogue (see previous grades). 122 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 232. Note for absence with request for lessons and specific directions for sending said lessons. Stamp enclosed, if answer by mail is desired. Fourth Month. Special attention: As before. Plan of Work. 233. Description : composition from outline made in class describing some place, building, object; or room, familiar to the entire class. 234. Continuation of 233. 235. Letter: without model, from outline con- structed in class. 236. Same continued. Fifth Month. Special attention: (a) Principles of paragraphing. Plan of Work. 237. Narration: model. 238. Exercises like model 237. 239. Description: from outline made in class. 1. Character sketch; or 2. Pen pictures from nature (illus- trated) . 240. Same continued. Eighth Year Grade. Second Term (8B). First Month. Special attention: (a) Thorough study of paragraphing. EIGH-TYEAR COURSE 123 (6) Such points of sentence structure as have been taken in lower grades. Plan of Work. 241. News items condensed: for study of topic sentence. 242. Familiar letter: narration of particulars regarding new class, studies, school, etc. Review •important details of structure; e. g., heading, saluta- tion, body (paragraphs), conclusion, signature, and superscription on the envelope. 243. Description : outline constructed in class. Suggested subjects — 1. Picture study. 2. Present fashions. 3. Landscape. 244. Same continued. Second Month. Special attention: (a) During the first month teachers should keep list of typical errors in sentence structure and paragraphing. Drill on this list during second month. (6) Study of narration as type of com- position. Plan op Work. 245. Narration: model. 246. Exercises like model 245. 247. Business letter; application. 248. Invention: narration — complete a story. 124 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION Third Month. Special attention: As in previous months. Plan of Work. 249. Book report : answers to definite questions and paraphrase of some narrative portion of library book. 250. Five minute composition. 251. Business letter : order; explain reason for putting name and address of writer on envelope. 252. News items, condensed, or used as subject matter for composition. Fourth Month. Special attention: The object of this month's work should be a thorough review and drill in all points taught in this or previous grades. Plan of Work. 253. Report on home reading. ■ Narration (invention) ; story or incident for national event or holiday. Outline con- structed in class. 254. Argument (debate); no technical teaching. Suggested topics: Roundheads vs. Cavaliers. Dutch vs. English. Washington vs. Lincoln. Spring vs. Autumn. EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 125 Summer vs. Winter. Peace vs. War. Pen vs. Sword. Some topic from current events. 255. Same continued. 256. Business letter: application for employment in reply to advertisement. Fifth Month. Special attention: As before. Plan of Work. 257. Exposition: study as type of composition. 258. Same continued. 259. Abstract : some portion of appreciative reading or of memory gem. 260. Letter : drill on different forms of salutation and modes of addressing people in various positions in life. 126 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION SUMMARY OF THE NEW STEPS ASSIGNED FOR THE VARIOUS GRADES. 1 A ORAL (a) Conversation on top- ics of — (1) Nature study (2) Simple pictures (3) Children's games and pets (4) Children's outings and occupations (5) Food, cleanliness, etc. (6) Reproduction of simple stories WRITTEN None required IB As above None required 2A (a) Explain how simple things are done; spin a top, set a table, etc. (b) Reproduction of — (1) Nature stories (2) Folk stories (3) Fairy tales Short sentences from copy (Use only familiar words) 2B As above, but add the simplest fables Sentences from dictation (Keep the work interest- ing and instructive) 3A Reproduction to include nature stories, fables, and myths; also stories the pupil has read. De- scription of simple ob- jects Explanation of simple pro- cesses (1) Paragraphs and stanzas (a) from copy (6) from dictation (2) Pupils to construct statements from ques- tions or directions (3) Teachers and pupils to- gether to form para- graphs 3B As above Short model letters — (a) from copy (b) from dictation EIGHT-YEAR COURSE 127 SUMMARY OF THE NEW STEPS ASSIGNED FOR THE VARIOUS GRADES.— Continued. 4A ORAL Reproduction to include myths and legends WRITTEN (1) Reproduce subject mat- ter of their silent reading (2) Model composition studied and imitated (3) Letter writing, includ- ing addressing of envel- opes (4) Copy from print (prose and poetry) 4B (1) Reproduction of his- torical anecdotes (2). Teacher to construct outlines in cooperation with pupils, from which the pupils compose (1) Reproduction of histor- ical anecdotes (2) Follow the given out- lines, and construct orig- inal matter 5A Simple exercises in narra- tion (1) Expansion of short stories (2) Stories from pictures (3) Imaginary autobi- ographies (1) Short simple narrations (2) Description of objects, scenes, and pictures (3) Explanation of simple occupations or processes (Special attention to plan of model) Train pupils to correct their' own compositions 5B As above Drill on correct forms As above Drill on correct forms 6A Reports on matters of in- terest (1) Keep to the subject (2) Talk clearly and coherently Description of objects,^ scenes, and pictures to be (a) Studied (b) Reproduced (c) Imitated Principles of paragraphing to be studied 6B Reproduction: Lessons in geography, history, civ- ics, and reading Reproduction: Lessons in geography, history, civ- ics, and reading 128 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION SUMMARY OF THE NEW STEPS ASSIGNED FOR THE VARIOUS GHABES.— Continued. 7A ORAL Reports on home reading and current events WRITTEN Study on specimens of narra- tion, description, exposi- tion, and familiar letters (a) Construct outlines (b) Reproduce selections (c) Imitate selections 7B As above Social and business corres-. pondence (Confined to useful forms) 8A As above (1) Study of single and re- lated paragraphs (2) (a) Write similar para- graphs from topics (6) Composition from outlines (c) Reports on home reading 8B As above As above Write similar compositions from outlines XL Graded Work in Dictation. Introdtjction. The following exercises for dictation were prepared hy Miss Julia Richman, District Superintendent, New York, and were originally published in School Work.* They are inserted here with the permission of Miss Richman and the editors of School Work. In her introduction Miss Richman makes the following acknowledgment of assistance received: "The selections appended to this article were chosen by teachers in the following schools, whose principals cheerfully cooperated with me in securing proper material, Manhattan: P. S. 33, (Girls) Miss Alida S. Williams. P. S. 44, Mr. William A. Boylan. P. S. 77, Miss Matilda B, Lemlein. P. S. 105, Miss Carrie Wallace Kearns. P. S. 159, Miss Emma A. Johnson. P. S. 168, Miss Cecilia A. Francis. P. S. 168, Miss Millicent Baum. *70 Fifth Avenue, New York. 129 130 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION Brooklyn: P. S. 140, Miss Emma L. Johnston The Bronx: P. S. 33, Mr. H. Newman. "In addition to the selections, I am indebted for two most valuable suggestions to Miss Johnston, of Brooklyn, and for one to Miss Williams, which suggestions I take the liberty of printing just as they were jotted down in personal notes to me. "1. The sentences for the lower grades are taken from poems memorized in grades below. They are, consequently, half-forgotten lines which the children will be glad to hear again, for they are old friends. "2. The proverbs are such as can be presented literally. Since the children should not be expected, in the beginning, to see a double meaning in a proverb, this is, perhaps, im- portant. Again, the proverbs call up pleasing pictures. "3. In 8A and 8B, we put special emphasis upon business expression, commercial terms, etc. In all the grades, certain ethical values are insisted upon — the dictation exercise serves as a text for a little preachment, as per course of study. I do not believe in cold-blooded (as it were)-lessons in ethics. That is a matter of example, and of the 'line upon line and precept upon precept.' "To Miss Kearns I am indebted for the suggestion of having children in the third year write from copy or dictation each week a paragraph connected with the nature study of the grade, the written sheets being made into a booklet whose cover bears a nature design, designed and painted by the child. The children take much pleasure in preparing to make the booklets, and much pride in their completion. "The selections which follow are merely suggestive. Any really good teacher can make selections quite as suitable; but until all of our teachers are 'really go.od,' it may be helpful to find a choice of good selections close at hand. If this collection proves helpful to any teacher it has fulfilled its mission." WORK IN DICTATION 131 The selections given are classified under two groups, as follows: First Group. Classified to show the purpose and points for study: Grades 2A to 5B inclusive. Second Group. General selections for all the grades, classified only according to grade, not according to content or to progression in difficulty. These selections have been chosen by teachers in different parts of the city. No attention has been paid to the order in which they appear in this list. Under each grade the two groups will be distinguished by the Roman numerals. GRADE 2A. I. Copy only. Purpose — For spelling and arrangement. Points for study — Capital at beginning, period at end of sentence. (1) Our school is a pleasant place. Purpose — Ethical. Point for study — Question mark. (2) Do I love my neighbor? II (3) Keep the door of my lips. — Psalm 141. (4) Blessed be the Lord. — Psalm 68. (5) "We love our flag. (6) The March winds are blowing. (7) I am old, so old, I can write a letter. — Ingelow. (8) A penny saved is a penny earned. — Franklin. (9) I saw you toss the kites on high. — Stevenson. (10) Snow is soft and white. (11) A spider can spin a web. (12) Always speak the truth. (13) God bless our home. 132 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION GRADE 2B. Purpose — Correlation with nature study. Points for study — Spelling; punctuation; Capital for proper name; question mark {reviewed). (14) Who heard Jack Frost last night? Purpose — Ethical. Points for study — Spelling, punctuation: Capital for I. (15) Surely I must do my best if I wish to succeed. Purpose — Literary. Points for study — Punctuation: Capital 0; wonder mark. (16) Give me of your bark, birch tree! II. (17) Forgive and forget. (18) The first spring month is March. (19) Even a child is known by his doings. (20) Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might. (21) From every mountain side Let freedom ring. — S. F. Smith. (22) The time of the singing of birds is come. — Bible. GRADE 3A. I. Pup.POSE — Correlation with nature lesson. Points for study" — Spelling, punctuation: Capital for names of months. (23) February gives us a hint of spring, and even stormy March has some pleasant days. Purpose — Ethical. Points for study — Arrangement of lines of poetry; use of comma. (24) If you want to be happy and gay, Do a kind deed every day. Purpose — Literary. Point for study — Paragraph form; two sentences. WORK IN DICTATION 133 (25) A good name is better than riches. Loving faVor is better than silver and gold. 11. (26) The wind likes to play with the milkweed seeds. (27) I am a grasshopper. My wings are green and brown. (28) Children should come to school with clean faces and hands. (29) In October the leaves turn yellow and red. (30) The acorn is the fruit of the oak tree. (31) Ducks have big yellow bills and their toes are joined by a thin web. They like to swim in the pond. (32) My kitten uses her tongue for a comb and brush. Her coat is always clean and smooth. (33) Be loving and you will never want for love. (34) Be good, sweet maid. — Kingsley. (35) I will fear no evil. — Psalms 23. (36) Our thoughts are heard in heaven. — Young. (37) Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. — Long- fellow. (38) Dollies peep out of those wee little dreams. — Eugene Field. (39) The Lord is my Shepherd; I shall not want.— PsaZm 23. (40) Speak ye every man the truth to his neighbor. — Zech. 8. (41) If we love one another, God dwelleth in us. — John 4. (42) East or west, home is best. (43) Oh, there is a little artist Who paints in the cold night hours, Pictures for wee, wee children Of wondrous trees and flowers. (44) Kind hearts are the gardens; Kind thoughts are the roots; Kind words are the flowers; Kind deeds are the fruits. (45) Be not simply good, be good for something. 134 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION GRADE 3B. Purpose — Correlation with nature lesson. Points for study — Spelling, punctuation; proper use of of Mr. and Mrs.; paragraph arrangement. (46) Mr. and Mrs. Robin will soon be here. They are among our earliest spring visitors. Purpose — Ethical. Point for study — Arrangement of poetry. (47) Love the beautiful, Seek the true, Wish for the good, And the best do. Purpose — Literary. Point for study — Use of apostrophe for omitted letters, (48) The year's at the spring And day's at the morn; God's in His heaven. All's right with the world. II. (49) If a task is once begun. Never leave it till it's done. Be the labor great or small. Do it well, or not at all. — Phoebe Cdry. (50) Beautiful faces are those that wear The light of a pleasant spirit there; It matters little if dark or fair. (51) One man walks through life with his eyes open, another with his eyes shut. The one enjoys life, and learns something new every day; the t)ther cares nothing for the wonderful and beautiful things that are around him, but which he never sees. (52) Tell me, sunny golden-rod. Growing everywhere. Did fairies come from fairyland, And make the dress you wear? WORK IN DICTATION 135 (53) The Indians were the first people that lived on Manhattan Island. The Dutch came after them; then came the English. (54) Words tell what you should be; Deeds what you are. (55) The shortest way to do things is to do only one thing at a time. (56) Good, better, best, Never let it rest. Till your good is better, And your better, best. (57) There are three months in each season. December, January, and February are the winter months. (58) Mother Nature has given to each animal the tools which it needs most. Some use their tools in building nests and houses. Man has hands with which he makes tools for himself. (59) There are little drops of water in the air, "although we Cannot see them. These drops are so small that they are Sometimes called water dust. Have you ever seen Jack Frost turn these water drops into little white snowflakes? (60) Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be clever; Do noble things, not dream them all day long. (61) We should make the same use of books that the bee does of a flower. He gathers sweets from it but does not injure it. (62) Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy. (63) The Lord is my shepherd. I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures. He leadeth me beside the still waters. He restoreth my soul. (64) Let us do our work as well. Both the unseen and the seen, Make the house where gods may dwell Beautiful, entire, and clean. (65) Never put oflf till to-morrow what you can do to-day. (66) He only is rich who owns the day. Write it on your heart that every day is the best day in the year. 136 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION (67) The rich and poor meet together. The Lord is the maker, of them all. (68) Beautiful trees and woods so green, Beautiful buds and flowers seen, Beautiful every little blade, Beautiful all that God has made. (69) Do you want to be happy and gay, little maid? Do you want to be happy and gay? Then do a kind deed every day, little maid. Yes, do a kind deed every day. GRADE 4A. 1. Purpose — Correlation with nature study. Points for study — Spelling, punctuation: unbroken quo- tation. Review paragraph arrangement and apostrophe. (70) This morning we fed our frog with bits of meat. How quickly his tongue darted out! Alex said, "It's a good thing there are no insects about. I can see now why the farmer thinks the frog, is his friend." Purpose — Ethical. Points for study — Paragraph arrangement, punctuation: use of comma in series. (71) How much we have with which we may be generous 1 A smile, a kind word, a helping hand are ours to give freely to others. It is not necessary to have money to be generous^ Purpose — Literary value. Points for study — Arrangement and capitals of long lines in poetry, spelling. (72) He prayeth best who loveth best All things both great and small; For the dear God who loveth us, He made and loveth all. For punctuation and spelling: QUESTION MARK. (73) Where did the cunning spider build his home? Was It on the kitchen wall? Did the tidy maid brush the web awayf What did the patient spider do then? WORK IN DICTATION 137 DATE, PROPER NAMES, ABBREVIATION. (74) Mr. Longfellow was born Feb. 27, 1807. His youth vas passed in Portland. He wrote a great many* poems for children. He also wrote some Indian stories. CONTRACTIONS. (75) It's very cold to-day. I'll take your bonnet to my room. What's the matter with your hands? You shouldn't 10 without gloves. Where's your muflf? UNBROKEN QUOTATION. (76) A fair little girl sat under a tree, Sewing as long as her eyes could see. Then smoothed her work, and folded it right, And said, "Dear work, good night, good night." Note. — All commas dictated. QUESTION MARK AND PERIOD. (77) Who has seen the wind? Neither you nor I. But when the trees bow down their heads. The wind is passing by. — Rosetti. CONTRACTIONS. (78) 'Tis the star-spangled banner: Oh, long may it wave. O'er the land of the free And the home of the brave. — Keyes. PROPER NAMES. (79) From my study I see in the lamplight. Descending the broad hall stair. Grave Alice and laughing Allegra, And Edith with golden hair. — Longfellow. QUESTION MARK AND QUOTATION. (80) What does little baby say, In her bed at peep of day? Baby says, like little birdie, "Let me rise and fly away." — Tennyson. 138 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION TWO QUOTATIONS. (81) Over in the meadow Where the stream runs blue Lived an old mother fish And her little fishes two. "Swim," said the mother. "We swim," said the two. So they swam and they leaped Where the stream runs blue. (82) What we must do, let us love to do. We find in life exactly what we put into it. In winter I get up at night And dress by yellow candle-light; In summer, quite the other way, I have to go to bed by day. — Robert L. Stevenson. (83) Between the dark and the daylight. When the night is beginning to lower, Comes a pause in the day's occupations That is known as the children's hour. — Henry W. Longfellow. (84) Henry W. Longfellow was born in Portland, Maine. He was born February 27, 1807. Mr. Longfellow wrote many beautiful poems. (85) There's a merry brown thrush sitting up in a tree; . He's singing to me! he's singing to me. And what does he sing, little girl, little boy? (86) What is this little green tip peeping up out of the ground? It is a young snowdrop plant. Can you tell me why it grows? Where does it find its food? (87) The fox tried in different ways to reach the grapes, but all in vain. At last he turned away, saying, "The grapes are sour and not ripe as I thought." (Occasionally in connection with nature study something on this order.) (88) The four young oysters hurried up, All eager for the treat; WORK IN DICTATION 139 Their coats were brushed, their faces washed. Their shoes were clean and neat. And this was odd, because you know They hadn't any feet. — Lewis Carroll. (89) I met a little cottage girl: She was eight years old, she said. Her hair was thick with many a curl That clustered round her head. "Sisters and brothers, little maid, How many may you be? " "How many? Seven in all," she said. And wondering looked at me. — Wm. Wordsworth. (90) Such is the patriot's boast where'er we roam, His first, best country ever is at home. — Oliver Goldsmith. (91) Tell them, dear, if eyes were made for seeing. Then beauty is its own excuse for being. — Ralph Waldo Emerson. (92) A soft answer turneth away wrath; but grievous words stir up anger. — Prov. 15:1. (93) Whichever way the wind doth blow, Some heart is glad to have it so; And blow it east or blow it west. The wind that blows, that wind is best. — C. Mason. (94) -The Indian's ear caught the sounds, and his eye took in the whole thing at a glance. "Hurry," he cried, "here are turtles." — Class Reader. (95) The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away; blessed be the name of the Lord. — Job 1. (96) Where hast thou gleaned to-day? — Ruth 2. (97) The Lord bless thee, and keep thee; the Lord make His face shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee; the Lord lift up His countenance upon thee, and give thee peace. — Numbers 6. 140 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION GRADE 4B. I. Purpose — Correlation with nature. Points for study — Spelling, punctuatijn: Use of dash and quotation marks. (98) Eighteen of our ferns — the ones a kind friend sent us — are slowly uncurling their furry balls and showing new fronds. We have set our ferns in a shady place, for "Where the morning dew lies longest, There the lady fern grows strongest." Purpose — Ethical. Points for study — Punctuation: broken quotations. (99) "The talent of success," said a wise ntian, "is nothing more than doing what you can do well." Purpose — Literary. Points for study — Dash reviewed, use of comma in series reviewed, com,mas to set off names of person addressed, excla- mation point. (100) Great, wide, wonderful, beautiful world, With the wonderful waters about you curled, And the wonderful grass upon your breast, — World, you are beautifully dressed! II. (101) If there were only a sure recipe for making a cheery person, how glad we should all be to try it! How thankful we should all be to do good like sunshine! To cheer every- body up and help everybody along! — to have everybody's face brighten the minute we came in sight! — H. H. Jackson. (102) The sun does not shine for a few trees and flowers only, but for the wide world's joy. The lonely pine on the mountain-top waves its dark boughs and cries, "Thou are my sun!" — H. W. Beecher. (103) And though I have the gift of prophecy, and under- stand all mysteries, and all knowledge; and though I have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not charity, I am nothing. — 1 Corinthians, xiii. WORK IN DICTATION 141 The Arbutus. (104) A lesson hast thou taught to me that all Man's vain philosophy has failed to bring — The faith that He who makes the leaves to fall Will send the spring. — Walter T. Field. (105) Remember, boy, that behind all these men you have to do with, behind officers and government and people even, there is the Country herself, your Country, and that you belong to her as you belong to your own mother." — Edward E. Hale. (106) Wings for the angels, but feet for men! We may borrow the wings to find the way, — We may hope, and resolve, and aspire, and pray; But our feet must rise, or we fall again. — J. G. Holland. (^Broken quotation — exclamation point.) (107) "Oh, stop, stop!" the little girl cried out, "there's my father! O, Father, Father! " (108) "I saw a crowd, A host of golden daffodils Beside the lake, beneath the trees. Fluttering and dancing in the breeze." — Wordswori h. (109) Out of the bosom of the air Out of the cloud-folds of her garments shaken Over the woodlands brov/n and bare. Over the harvest fields forsaken, Silent and soft and slow Descends the snow. — Longfellow. (110) He goes on Sunday to the church, And sits among his boys; He hears the parson pray and preach. He hears his daughter's voice, Singing in the village choir. And it makes his heart rejoice. It sounds to him like her mother's voice. Singing in Paradise! 142 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION Toiling, — rejoicing, — sorrowing. Onward through life he goes; Each morning sees some task begun, Each evening sees it close; Something attempted, something done. Has earned a night's repose. Thanks, thanks to thee, my worthy friend. For the lesson thou hast taught! Thus at the flaming forge of life Our fortunes must be wrought; Thus on its sounding anvil shaped Each burning deed and thought! GRADE 5A. I. Punctuation and spelling — {Ethical and Literary.) Re- view of previous grades. New: Arrangement — second margin. (111) Labor is the magic stone that grinds life's golden meal. Take heed, youth! grind while you may. The current cannot last. The mill can never grind for you with water that has passed. Hyphen in compound words. Write the first word of a direct quotation with a capital. (Points taught in previous grade reviewed.) (112) Just then one of the Indians noticed the skates and asked what they were for. A ray of hope darted through Beaver Jim's mind as he answered, "The Great Spirit has shown the pale-face how to make wings so that he may skim over the ground as the bird flies through the air." — Cyr's Third Reader. Hyphen in compound words. Arrangement. Commas inserted at teacher's dictation. Use of capital in the word Time explained. WORK IN DICTATION 143 (113) Gather ye rose-buds while ye may, Old Time is still a-flying, And this same flower that smiles to-day. To-morrow may be dying. — Herrick. E THi c AL — (Literary ) . (114) What sought they thus afar? Bright jewels of the mine? The wealth of seas, the spoils of war? They sought a faith's pure shrine! Ay! call it holy ground, The place where first they trod; They have left unstained what there they found — Freedom to worship God. — Mrs. Hemans. Ethical — (The first word of every direct quotation is to he written with a capital.) (115) Solomon said, "Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith." To be correlated with history. To illustrate the use of capitals. (116) The war was over. Frederick was safe. His glory was beyond the reach of envy. If he had not made con- quests as vast as those of Alexander, of Cassar, and of Napo- leon, he had given an example unrivaled in history of what capacity and resolution can effect against the greatest superiority of power and the utmost spite of fortune. — Macaulay, "Frederick the Great." To be correlated with ethics. To illustrate the use of the semicolon. (117) My fairest child, I have no song to give you; No lark could pipe to skies so dull and gray; Yet, ere we part, one lesson I can leave' you For every day. Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be clever; Do noble things, not dream them, all day long; And so make life, death, and that vast forever One grand sweet song. — Charles Kingsley. 144 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION To be correlated with geography. To illustrate one of the rules of spelling. {Final e before a suffix beginning with a vowel.) (118) Aetna, rising gently from the sea until its head towers above all else, is indeed of earth and heaven. The shining sun glorifies it, the moving shadows of its crown of cloud-banks give to it an always changing aspect, and through the clear atmosphere appears distinctly the furrowed garment of craters and valleys, lava torrents and forests. To be correlated with nature study. To illustrate the use of prepositions. (119) We shall cross wide prairies, and in some parts we shall see all over the plain the little prairie dogs, sitting on their hind legs at the doors of their burrows. And as we come near, with a jerk of the tail they will dive into their holes, but will soon come peeping out again to see what is the matter. — Old World Reader. II. (120) Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days shalt thou labor, and do all thy work; but the seventh day is the sabbath of the Lord thy God. — Exodus 20. (121) Honor thy father and thy mother; that thy days may be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee. — Exodus 20. (122) Let the words of my mouth, and the meditation of my hearr be acceptable in thy sight, O Lord, my strength, and my redeemer. — Psalm 19. (123) Not far from the village, perhaps about two miles, there is a little valley, or rather lap of land among high hills, which is one of the quietest places in the whole world. A small brook glides through it with just murmur enough to lull one to repose. — Washington Irving. . (124) A wind came up out of the sea, And said, "0 mists, make room for me." It hailed the ship, and cried, "Sail on. Ye mariners, the night is gone," And hurried landward far away. Crying, "Awake! it is the Day." • WORK IN DICTATION 145 (125) Mr. and Mrs. Charles V. Rtie request the pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. William Chase's company next Thursday evening at eight o'clock. 37 Ashley Place, May fourth. (126) "Yes, I know," answered Cedrie, eagerly, "but think, mother, how brave they are, and how good! Do they not protect our country?" — Elizabeth Harrison, Class Reader. (127) Every man must educate himself. His books and teacher are but helps; the work is his. A man is not edu- cated until he has the ability to summon, in an emergency, his mental powers in vigorous exercise to effect its proposed ob j ect. — Webster. GRADE 5B. I. Comma: (128) "And there he stands in memory to this day, Erect, self-poised, a rugged face half seen Against the background of unnatural dark, A witness to the ages as they pass. That simple duty hath no place for fear." — John G. Whittier. (129) The barn, the trees, the brook, the birds, The meadows with their lowing herds. The woodbine on the cottage wall — My heart still lingers with them all. — Thos. Buchanan Read. (130) A few amber clouds floated in the sky, without a breath of air to move them. The horizon was of a fine, golden tint, changing gradually into a pure apple-green, and from that into the deep-blue of the midheaven. — Irving, "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." II. (131) Let us, then, be up and doing, With a heart for any fate; Still achieving, still pursuing. Learn to labor and to wait. — Longfellow. 146 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION (132) What plant we in this apple tree? Fruits that shall swell in sunny June, And redden in the August noon, And drop, when gentle airs come by. That fan the blue September sky. — Bryant. (183) Work for some good, be it ever so slowly! Cherish some flower, be it ever so lowly! Labor! All labor is noble and holy; Let thy great deed be thy prayer to thy God. — Fcnnie S. Osgood. (134) Why art thou cast down, O my soul? and why art thou disquieted in me? Hope thou in God; for I shall yet praise Him for the help of His countenance. — Psalm 42. (135) And the Lord, He it is that doth go before thee; He will be with thee. He will not fail thee, neither forsake thee. Fear not, neither be dismayed. — Deuteronomy 31. (136) Teach me to do Thy will, for Thou art. my God.— Psalm 143. (137) A humming-bird met a butterfly, and being pleased with the beauty of his person and the glory of his wings, made an offer of perpetual friendship. "I cannot think of it," was the reply, "as you once spurned me and called me a drawling dolt." "Impossible!" exclaimed the humming-bird. "I always had the highest respect for such beautiful creatures as you." "Perhaps you have now," said the other; "but when you insulted me, I was a caterpillar. So let me give you a piece of advice. Never insult the humble, as they may Bome day become your superiors." (138) Now abideth faith, hope, charity, these three; but the greatest of these is charity. — The Bible. (139) We cannot honor our country with too deep a reverence. We cannot love her with an affection too pure and fervent. We cannot serve her with an energy of pur- pose or a faithfulness of zeal too steadfast and ardent. — Clay, (140) Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold. And to the presence in the room he said, WORK IN DICTATION 147 "What writest thou?" the vision raised its head, And with a look made of all sweet accord, Answered, "The names of those who loved the Lord. ' "And is mine one?" "Nay, not so,'' Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low. But cheerily still, and said, "I pray thee, then. Write me as one that loves his fellow- men." The angel wrote and vanished. The next night It came again with a great awakening light, And showed the names whom love of God had blessed, And, lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. — Leigh Hunt. . " GRADE I. 6 A. (141) Do the clouds around thee gather, Making dark thy solitude? Each one hath an inward shining, Each one hath a silver lining; Hope for good! — Mrs. L. H. Sigourney. (142) When you know a thing, to hold that you know it; and when you do not know a thing, to allow that you do not know it, — this is knowledge. — Confucius. (143) I pray the prayer of Plato old, "God make thee beautiful within. And let thine eyes the good behold In everything save sin." — Whittier. (144) The greatest man is he who chooses the right with the most invincible resolution; who resists the sorest temp- tations from within and without; who bears the heaviest burdens cheerfully; who is calmest in storms and most fearless under menaces and frowns; whose reliance on truth, on virtue, on God, is most unfaltering. — William E. Charming. (145) Like the leaves of the forest when Summer is green, That host with their banners at sunset were seen; Like the leaves of the forest when Autumn hath blown. That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. — Byron. 148 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION (146) Up spoke our own little Mabel, Saying, "Father, who makes it snow?" And I told of the good All-father Who cares for us here below. And again to the child I whispered, "The snow that husheth all, Darling, the merciful Father Alone can make it fall!" — Lowell. (147) For he who is honest is noble. Whatever his fortune or birth. — Cary. (148) Last stanza of "Sheridan'^ R do." (149) So nigh is grandeur to our dust, So near is God to man, When duty whispers low, "Thou must," The- youth replies, "I can." — Ralph Waldo Emerson. (150) "Land of song!" said the warrior bard, "Though all the world betrays thee. One sword, at least, thy rights shall guard. One faithful harp shall praise thee! " — Moore. (151) Cast thy bread upon the waters; for thou shalt find it after many days. He that observeth the wind shall not sow; and he that regardeth the clouds shall not reap. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth. Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God, and keep His commandments; for this is the whole duty of man. — Ecclesiastes 11 and 12. (152) Two centuries ago, the smoke of their wigwams and the fires of their councils rose in every valley from Hudson's Bay to the farthest Florida, from the ocean to the Mississippi and the lakes. The shouts of victory and the war dance rang through the mountains and the glades. The thick arrows and the deadly tomahawk whistled through the forest; and the hunters' tread and the dark encampment startled the wild beasts in their lairs. The warriors stood forth in their glory. Braver men never lived; truer men WORK IN DICTATION 149 never drew the bow. The'y had courage, and fortitude, and sagacity, and perseverance, beyond most of the human race. — Blackhawk. (153) Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, and the man that getteth understanding. For the merchandise of it is better than the merchandise of silver, and the gain thereof than fine gold. She is more precious than rubies; and none of the things thou canst desire are to be compared unto her. Length of days is in her right hand; in her left hand are riches and honor. Her ways are ways of pleasant- ness, and all her paths are peace. — Bible. GRADE 6B. II. (154) The whole of Addison's "The Spacious Firmament." Any stanza, or more than one stanza, of "Burial of Sir John Moore," Nothing useless is, or low; Each thing in its place is best; And what seems but idle show Strengthens and supports the rest. — Longfellow (155) The whole of Holmes's "Old Ironsides." (156) Last stanza of "The Blue and the Gray." (157) Once upon a time a clever barber in Germany had a pet starling that had learned to talk. The barber had the habit of repeating certain phrases over and over again, and the clever bird would repeat them also. "No man could have done better," the barber would say when he had shaved a customer; or, "I am the best barber in Germany." When he spoke of any plans for the future he would add, "If the fates are willing." And he often told one story that ended with the words, "By keeping bad company." — Class Reader. (158) Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report; if there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these things. — Bible. 150 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION (159) Who shall ascend the hill of the Lord? or who shall stand in His holy place? He that hath clean hands and a pure heart; who hath not lifted up his soul unto vanity, nor sworn deceitfully. He shall receive the blessing from the Lord and righteousness from the Lord of his salvation. — Psalm 24. (160) That lovely and lightsome little figure of Hope! What in the world could we do without her? Hope spirit- ualizes the earth; Hope makes it always new; and even in the earth's best and brightest aspect, Hope shows it to be only the shadow of an infinite bliss hereafter! — Nathaniel Hawthorne. March. (161) Ah, passing few are they who speak, Wild, stormy month, in praise of thee! Yet though thy winds are loud and bleak, Thou art a welcome month to me. For thou to northern lands again The glad and glorious sun dost bring; And thou hast joined the gentle train. And wear'st the gentle name of Spring. — William Cullen Bryant. (162) A gourd once wound itself around a lofty palm, and in a few days climbed to its very top. "How old may'st thou be?" asked the new comer. "About a hundred years." "About a hundred years and no taller! Only see! I have grown as tall as you in fewer days than you can count years." "I know that," replied the palm. "Every summer of my life a gourd has climbed up around me, as proud as thou art, and as short-lived as thou wilt be." (163) A sower went out to sow his seed: and as he sowed, some fell by the wayside, and it was trodden down, and the fowls of the air devoured it. And some fell upon a rock; and as soon as it was sprung up, it withered away, because it lacked moisture. And some fell among thorns; and the thorns sprang up with it, and choked it. And other fell on good ground, and sprang up, and bore fruit an hundredfold. — Bible. WORK IN DICTATION 151 (1 64) Better than grandeur, better than gold, Than rank or titles, a hundredfold. Is a healthy body, and a mind at ease. And simple pleasures that always please. A heart that can feel for a neighbor's woe. And share in his joy with a friendly glow, — With sympathies large enough to infold All men as brothers, h better than gold. — Alexander Smart. GBi^DE 7 A. II. Note. — The pupils of grades 7A, 7B, 8A and 8B should write from dictation and from memory all the selections they rriemorize, including the words of their songs. Thf» following selections have been made by teachers of these upper grades. (165) There is the national flag. He must be cold indeed who can look upon its folds, rippling in the breeze, without pride of country. If he.be in a foreign land, the flag is com- panionship and country itself, with all its endearments. Who, as he sees it, can think of a state merely? Whose eyes once fastened upon its radiant trophies, can fail to recognize the image of the whole nation? It has been called a floating piece of poetry, and yet I know not if it have an intrinsic beauty beyond other ensigns. Its highest beauty is in what it symbolizes It is because it represents all, that all gaze at it with delight and reverence. — Robert C. Winthrop, "The Flag of Our Country." (166) The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year. Of wailing winds, and naked woods, and meadows brown and sear. Heaped in the hollows of the grove the withered leaves lie dead; They rustle to the eddying gust and to the rabbit's tread. The robin and the wren are flown, and from the shrubs the jay. And from the wood-top calls the crow through all the gloomy day. — Bryant. 152 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION (167) "Father, I'm lonely in the dark. I want my eyes; my patient, willing eyes." "Here they are," said Caleb. "Always ready. They are more yours than mine. Bertha, any hour in the four and twenty. What shall your eyes do for you, dear?" "Look around the room, father." "All right," said Caleb. "No sooner said than done. Bertha." "Tell me about it." "It's about the same as usual," said Caleb. "Homely, but very snug. The gay colors on the walls; the bright flowers on the plates and dishes; the shining wood, where there are beams or panels; the general cheerfulness and neatness of the building make things very pretty." — Charles Dickens. (168) Then they sat down and talked of the birds and the beautiful springtime; Talked of their friends at home, and the Mayflower that sailed on the morrow. *'I have been thinking all day," said gently the Puritan maiden, "Dreaming all night, and thinking all day, of the hedge-rows of England, — They are all in blossom now, and the country is all like a garden." ( — Henry W. LongjeUow, "The Courtship of Miles Standish." (169) The heavens declare the glory of God; And the firmament showeth his handiwork. Day unto day uttereth speech, And night unto night showeth knowledge; There is no speech nor language, Where their voice is not heard. Their line is gone out through all the earth, And their words to the end of the world. In them hath he set a tabernacle for the sun. Which is as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber. And rejoiceth as a strong man to run a race. WORK IN DICTATION 153 His going forth is from the end of the heaven. And his circuit unto the end of it : And there is nothing hid from the heat thereof. — Psalm 19. (170) No stream from its source Flows seaward, how lonely soever its course, But what some land is gladdened. No star ever rose And set, without influence somewhere.^ Who knows What earth needs from earth's lowest creature? No life Can be pure in its purpose and strong in its strife And all life not be purer and stronger thereby. — Owen Meredith, "Lucile," (171) Oh, there is an enduring tenderness in the love of a mother to a son that transcends all other affections of the heart. It is neither to be chilled by selfishness, nor daunted by danger, nor weakened by worthlessness, nor stifled by ingratitude. She will sacrifice every comfort to his con- venience;, she will surrender every pleasure to his enjoyment; she will glory in his fame and exult in his prosperity; and, if misfortune overtake him, he will be the dearer to her from misfortune; and if disgrace settle upon his name, she will still love and cherish him in spite of his disgrace; and if all the world beside cast him off, she will be all the world to him. — Washington Irving, Sketch Book, "The Widow and Her Son." (172) The moon above the eastern wood Shone at its full; the hill-range stood Transfigured in the silver flood, Its blown snows flashing cold and keen, Dead white, save where some sharp ravine Took shadow, or the sombre green Of hemlocks turned to pitchy black Against the whiteness of their back. For such a world and such a night Most fitting that unwarming light. Which only seemed where'er it fell To make the coldness visible. — Whittier, "Snowbound." 154 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION (173) Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested. That is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly and with diligence and attention. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man; and, therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit ; and if he read little, he had need have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not. — Francis Bacon. (174) Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet. With charm of earliest birds; pleasant the sun, When first on this delightful land he spreads His orient beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower. Glistening with dew; fragrant the fertile earth After soft showers, and sweet the coming on Of grateful evening mild: then silent Night, With this her solemn bird, and this fair moon. And these the gems of heaven, her starry train. — Milton. GRADE 7B. II. (175) Since trifles make the sum of human things, And half our misery from our foibles springs; Since life's best joys consist in peace and ease. And few can save or serve, but all may please; Oh! let th' ungentle spirit learn from hence A small unkindness is a great offence. Large bounties to restore we wish in vain, But all may shun the guilt of giving pain. — Hannah Moore. (176) Laziness is a vice because it sacrifices the permanent interest of self-support to the temporary inclination to indolence and ease. The lazy man is the slave of his own WORK IN DICTATION 155 feelings. His body is his master; not his servant. He is the slave of circumstances. What he does, depends not on what he knows it is best to do, but on how he happens to feel. Laziness is weakness, submission, defeat, slavery to feeling and circumstance; and these g,re the universal characteristics of vice. — De Witt Hyde. (177) The traveler and the camper-out in Maine, unless he penetrates its more northern portion, has less reason to remember it as a pine-tree State than a birch-tree State. The white-pine forests have melted away like snow in the spring, and gone down stream, leaving only patches here and there in the more remote and inaccessible parts. But the birch abounds. Indeed, when the pine goes out the birch comes in; the race of men succeeds the race of giants. This tree has great stay-at-home virtues. Let the sombre, aspiring, mysterious pine go ; the birch has humble every-day virtues. — John Burroughs. (178) Courage to do right when everyone around us is doing wrong; courage to say "No" when everyone is trying to make us say "Yes"; courage to bear uncomplainingly the inevitable ills of life; these are the forms of courage mcst frequently demanded and most difficult to exercise in the peaceful security of a civilized community. Patience and fortitude are courage exercised in the conditions of modern life. — William De Witt Hyde. (179) The Declaration will inspire the people with in- creased courage. Instead of a long and bloody war for restoration of privileges, for redress of grievances, for char- tered immunities, held under a British King, set before them the glorious object of entire independence, and it will breathe into them anew the breath of life. Read this Declaration at the head of the army; every sword will be drawn from its scabbard, and the solemn vow uttered, to maintain it, or to perish. — Daniel Webster. (180) Oh may I join the choir invisible Of those immortal dead who live again In minds made better by their presence: live In pulses stirred to generosity. 156 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION In deeds of daring rectitude, in scorn For miserable aims that end with self, In thoughts sublime that pierce the night like stars, And with their mild persistence urge man's search To vaster issues. So to live is heaven. — George Eliot. (181) Like as a father pitieth His children, so the Lord pitieth them that fear Him. For He knoweth our frame; he remember eth that we are dust. As for man, his days are as grass; as a flower of the field, so he flourisheth. For the wind passeth over it, and it is gone; and the place thereof shall know it no more. But the mercy of the Lord is from everlasting to everlasting upon them that fear Him, and His righteousness unto children's children, to such as keep His covenant, and to those that remember His com- mandments to do them. — Psalm 103. (182) There is always a best way of doing everything. Manners are the happy ways of doing things; each, once a stroke of genius or of love, — now repeated and hardened into usage, they form at last a rich varnish, with which the routine of life is washed, and its details adorned. If they are superficial, so are the dew-drops which give such a depth to the morning meadows. . . . The power of manners is incessant. Give a boy address and accomplishments, and you give him the mastery of palaces and fortunes where he goes. He has not the trouble of earning or owning them; they solicit him to enter and possess. — Emerson. "Behavior." (183) It was about this time I conceived the bold and arduous project of arriving at moral perfection. As I knew, or thought I knew, what was right and wrong, I did not see why I might not always do the one and avoid the other. But I soon found I had undertaken a task of more difficulty than I had imagined. While my care was employed in guarding against one fault, I was often surprised by another. I concluded, at length, that the mere speculative conviction that it was our interest to be completely virtuous, was not WORK IN DICTATION 157 enough to prevent our slipping; and that the contrary habits must be broken, and good ones acquired and estab- lished, before we can have any dependence on a steady, untform rectitude of character. — Benjamin Franklin. (184) Talk not of wasted affection; affection never was wasted ; If it enrich not the heart of another, its waters, re- turning Back to their springs, like the rain, shall fill them full of refreshment; That which the fountain sends forth returns again to the fountain. Patience; accomplish thy labor; accomplish thy work of affection! Sorrow and silence are strong, and patient endur- ance is godlike. — Longfellow, "Evangeline." (185) The noblest scenes of the earth can be seen and known but by few; it is not intended that man should always live in the midst of them: he injures them by his presence; he ceases to feel them if he be always with them. But the sky is for all; bright as it is, it is not "too bright or good for human nature's daily food*'; it is fitted in all its functions for the perpetual comfort and exalting of the heart; for soothing it, and purifying it from its dross and dust. — John Ruskin. GRADE 8A. II. (186) The men who have achieved success are the men who have worked, read, thought more than was absolutely necessary, who have not been content with knowledge suffi- cient for the present need, but who have sought additional . knowledge and stored it away for the emergency reserve- It is the superfluous labor that equips a man for everything that counts most in life. — Cushman K. Davis. (187) The first and last stanzas of "The Chambered Nautilus," Holmes. 158 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION (188) It is a fixed law of nature, the wisdom of which we may not, perhaps, fully comprehend, but which, like every other rule proceeding from the great Author of nature, must be right, — that no important benefit is to be acquired but by the exercise of self-denial, and corresponding effort- Present and inferior gratifications must be sacrificed for the sake of the future and greater good; and, whatever may be the result of other undertakings, in which it is not given to mortals to command success, virtuous exertion never fails to bring with it a greater or less reward. — Ira Harris. (189) Every disposition and behavior has a kind of mag- netic attraction by which it draws to itself its like. Selfish- ness will hardly be a center, round which the benevolent affections will revolve; the cold-hearted may expect to be treated with coldness, and the proud with haughtiness; the passionate with anger, and the violent with rudeness; those who forget the rights of others, must not be surprised, if their own are forgotten; and those who forget their dgnity, who stoop to the lowest embraces of sense, must not wonder if others are not concerned to find their prostrate honor, and to lift it up to the remembrance and respect of the world. — Dewey. (190) What man of you, having an hundred sheep, if he lose one of them, doth not leave the ninety and nine in the wilderness, and go after that which is lost, until he find it? And when he hath found it, he layeth it on his shoulders, rejoicing. And when he cometh home, he calleth together his friends and neighbors, saying unto them, "Rejoice with me: for I have found my sheep which was lost." I say unto you that likewise joy shall be in heaven over one sinner that repenteth, more than over ninety and nine just persons, which need no repentance. — New Testament. (191) And there the startling drum and fife Fired the living with fiercer life; While overhead, with wild increase. Forgetting its ancient toll of peace. The great bell swung as ne'er before: WORK IN DICTATION 159 It seemed as it would never cease; And every word its ardor flung From off its jubilant iron tongue Was, "War! War! War!" "Who dares" — this was the patriot's cry- As striding from the desk he came — "Come out with me, in Freedom's name. For her to live, for her to die? " A hundred hands flung up reply, A hundred voices answered, "I!" — Read. (192) Above all this scenery of perfect human life, rose dome and bell-tower burning with white alabaster and gold ; beyond dome and bell-tower the slopes of mighty hills hoary with olives; far in the north, above a purple sea of peaks of solemn Apennine, the clear, sharp-cloven Carrara moun- tains send up their steadfast flames of marble summit into amber sky; the great sea itself, scorching with expanse of light, stretching from their feet to the Gorgonian isles; and over all these, ever present, near or far, that untroubled and sacred sky, which opened straight through its gates of cloud and veils of dew into the awfulness of the eternal world; a heaven in which every cloud that passed was literally the chariot of an angel and every ray of its Evening and Morning streamed from the throne of God. — Ruskin. (193) Relentless Time that steals with silent tread. Shall tear away the trophies of the dead. Fame, on the pyramid's aspiring top. With sighs shall her recording trumpet drop; The feeble characters of Glory's hand, Shall perish, like the tracks upon the sand ; But not with these expire the sacred flame Of Virtue, or the good man's awful name. — Bowles. (194) Already has the age caught the spirit of our insti- tutions. It has already ascended the Andes and snuffed the breezes of both oceans. It has infused itself into the life-blood of Europe and warmed the sunny plains of France and the low lands of Holland. It has touched the Philosophy 160 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION of Germany and the North ; and, moving onward to the South, has opened to Greece the lessons of her better days. Can it be that America, under such circumstances, can betray herself? Can it be that she is to be added to the catalogue of republics, the inscription upon whose ruins is: "They were, but they are not"? Forbid it, my countrymen! For- bid it. Heaven! — Story. (195) "I know there is a God and that He hates injustice and slavery. I see the storm coming and I know His hand is in it. If He has a place and work for me, — and I think He has, — I believe I am ready. I am nothing, but truth is everything. Douglas does not care whether slavery is voted up or down, but God cares, and humanity cares, and I care, and with God's help, I shall not fail. I may not see the end, but it will come, and I shall be vindicated, and these men will find that they have not read their Bible aright." — Abraham Lincoln. GRADE 8B. II. (196) On one of those sober and rather melancholy days in the latter part of autumn, when the shadows of morning and evening almost mingle together, and throw a gloom over the decline of the year, I passed several houses in rambling about Westminster Abbey. There was something congenial to the season in the mournful magnificence of the old pile; and, as I passed its threshold, it seemed like stepping back into the regions of antiquity and losing myself among the shades of former ages. The sun was pouring down a yellow autumnal ray into the square of the cloisters, beaming upon a scanty plot of grass in the center, and lighting up an angle of the vaulted passage with a kind of dusky splendor. From between the arcades, the eye glanced up to a bit of blue sky or a passing cloud, and beheld the sun-gilt pinnacles of the abbey towering into the azure heaven. — Washington Irving. WORK IN DICTATION 161 (197) We live in deeds, not years ; in thoughts, not breaths; In feelings, not in figures on a dial. We should count time by heart-throbs. He most lives Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best. Life's but a means unto an end, that end Beginning, mean, and end to all things, — God. — Philip James Bailey. (198) The characteristic of heroism is its persistency. All men have wandering impulses, fits and starts of gener- osity. But when you have chosen your part, abide by it, and do not weakly try to reconcile yourself with the world. The heroic cannot be the common, nor the common the heroic. — Ralph Waldo Emerson. (199) To live content with small means — to seek elegance rather than luxury, and refinement rather than fashion — to be worthy, not respectable, and wealthy, not rich — to study hard, think quietly, talk gently, act frankly — to listen to stars and birds, to babes and sages, with open heart — to bear all cheerfully, do all bravely, await occasions, hurry never: — in a word, to let the spiritual, unbidden, and uncon- scious grow up through the common. This is to be my symphony. — William Henry Channing. (200) I must confess, there is something in the change- ableness and inconstancy of human nature that very often both dejects and terrifies me. Whatever I am at present, I tremble to think what I may be. While I find this principle, how can I assure myself that I shall be always true to my God, my friend, or myself? In short,without constancy, there is neither love, friendship, nor virtue in the world. — Addison. (201) Our fathers raised their flag against a power to which, for purposes of foreign .conquest and subjugation, Rome, in the height of her glory, is not to be compared, — a power which has dotted the surface of the whole globe with her possessions and military posts, whose morning drum-beat, following the sun in his course, and keeping pace with the hours, circles the earth with one continuous and unbroken strain of the martial airs of England. — Webster. 162 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION The Ocean. (202) Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean, roll! Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain ; Man marks the earth with ruin, — his control Stops with the shore; — upon the watery plain The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain A shadow of man's ravage, save his own. When, for a moment, like a drop of rain, He sinks into thy depths with bubbling groan, Without a grave, unknelled, uncofiined, and un- known. — Byron. (203) With hair and beard floating in the wind, the bronze naked figure, like some weird old Indian fakir, still climbed on steadfastly up the mizzen-chains of the Spaniard, hatchet in hand, "Come back, Michael! Leap while you may!" shouted a dozen voices. Michael turned ■ "And what should I come back for, then, to go home where no one knoweth me? I'll die like an Englishman this day, or I'll know the reason why!" and turning he sprang in over the bulwarks, as the huge ship rolled up more and more, like a dying whale, exposing all her long black hulk almost down to her keel; and one of her lower deck guns as if in defiance, exploded upright into the air, hurling the ball to the very heavens. In an instant it was answered from the nose by a column of smoke, and the eighteen-pound ball crashed through the bottom of the defenceless Spaniard. — Kingsley. "Westward Ho!" (204) We live in a most extraordinary age. Events so various and so important that they might crown and dis- tinguish centuries, are, in our times, compressed within the compass of a single life. When has it happened that history has had so much to record, in the same term of years, as since the 17th of June, 1775? Our own Revolution, which, under other circumstances might itself have been expected to occasion a war of half a century, has been achieved; twen- WORK IN DICTATION 163 ty-four sovereign and independent States erected; and a general government established over them, so safe, so wise, so free, so practical, that we might well wonder its establish- ment should have been accomplished so soon, were it not for the greater wonder that it should have been established at all. Two or three millions of people have been augmented to twelve, the great forests of the West prostrated beneath the arm of successful industry, and the dwellers on the banks of the Ohio and the Mississippi become the fellow-citizens and neighbors of those who cultivate the hills of New England. We have a commerce that leaves no sea unexplored; navies which take no law from superior force; revenues adequate to all the exigencies of government, almost without taxation ; and peace with all nations, founded on equal rights and mutual' respect. — Webster, First Bunker Hill Oration. (205) A man in pursuit of greatness feels no little wants. How can you mind diet, bed, dress, or salutes or compliments, or the figure you make in company, or wealth, or even the bringing things to pass,, when you think how paltry are the machinery and the workers? Wordsworth was praised to me, in Westmoreland, for having afforded to his country neighbors an example of a modest household where comfort and culture were secured without display. And a tender boy who wears his rusty cap and outgrown coat, that he may secure the coveted place in college, and the right in the library, is educated to some purpose. There is a great deal of self-denial and manliness in poor and middle-class houses, in town and country, that has not got into literature and never will, but keeps the earth sweet; that saves on super- fluities, and spends on essentials; that goes rusty, and educates the boy; that sells the horse, but builds the school; works early and late, takes two looms in the factory, three looms, six looms, but pays off the mortgage on the paternal farm, and then goes back cheerfully to work again. — Emer- son, Essay on Culture. (206) The garret, built to be a dry repository for firewood and the like, was dim and dark. Such a scanty portion of 164 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION light was admitted, that it was difficult, on first comi-ng in, to see anything. Yet, with his back toward the door, and his face toward the window, a white-haired man sat on a low bench, stooping forward and very busy, making shoes. When he spoke the faintness of his voice was pitiable and dreadful. It was not the faintness of physical weakness, though confinement and hard fare no doubt had their part in it. Its deplorable peculiarity was, that it was the faint- ness of solitude and disuse. It was like the last feeble echo of a sound made long and long ago. The half-opened door was opened a little farther and secured at that angle for the time. A broad ray of light fell into the garret, and showed the workman, with an unfinished shoe upon his lap, pausing in his labor. His few common tools and various scraps of leather were at his feet on his bench. He had a white beard, raggedly cut, but not very long, a hollow face, and exceedingly bright eyes. The hollowness and thinness of his face would have caused them to look large, under his yet dark eyebrows and his confused white hair, though they had been really otherwise; but they were naturally large, and looked unnaturally so. His yellow rags of shirt lay open at the throat, and showed his body to be withered and worn. — Dickens, " The Tale of Two Cities." (207) God give us men! A time like this demands Strong minds, great hearts, true faith, and ready hands; Men whom the lust of office does not kill; Men whom the spoils of office can not buy; Men who possess opinions and a will; Men who have honor and will not lie; . Men who can stand before a demagogue And scorn his treacherous flatteries without wink- ing; Tall men, sun crowned, who live above the fog In public duty and in private thinking. — Josiah G. Holland. XII. Illustrative Compositions. The following compositions are reproduced substantially as written by children, and represent ordinary class work. The numbers correspond with those of the plan in chapter X. lA. (Original Stories written from "Stock Words" on Blackboard.) Wednesday. Do you see the little bug? It is red and black. I see a big doll. •I have a little cat. I see a lady bug. I like a lady bug. Edna Arment. lA (Dictation). I see a red seed. A cat can run. IB. (Copy — Each Child Copies Her Own Name). Elsie Burgoyne Elsie Burgoyne Elsie Burgoyne Elsie Burgoyne 165 166 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION IB (Copy). Friday. See my leaf! It is yellow. Some are red. Monday. Fred has a watch. He can tell you the time. IB (Copy). Felix Ruppert. Arline Conyers. 2A (Copy). When the leaves begin to fall, the birds start to fly south. Elmore Keiser. 2A (Dictated). The pupils are busy with their lessons. They are not lazy boys and girls. Luther Beck. 2A. (Sentences copied from blackboard in connection with an oral language lesson on the correct use of "a great many," not "a whole lot.") I have a great many books. I have a great many pencils. I have a great many toys. Elmore L. Keiser. 2 A (Copied Paragraph). A fox saw some grapes upon a vine. He tried to get them, but he could not. He tried, and tried, and tried. "The grapes are sour," said he, and ran away. Lillian McConchie. 2B (Reproduction). The Owl. The owl is very sly. His eyes are wide apart. He has soft feathers. He has a long curved bill. You can not hear him when he flies. Dorothy Bernhard. ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 167 19. The Squirrel. The squirrel has a long bushy tail. The front paws are short with four toes. The hind paws have five. Squirrels live most of the time in trees. They use nuts for food. Max Skomroch. 27. The poem was read to children and they arranged their paragraphs in answer to the following leading questions: Who was Hiawatha? With whom did he live? What did Nokomis teach him? What were some of the things Hiawatha liked to do? Hiawatha. Hiawatha was a little Indian boy. He lived with his grandmother Nokomis. He lived in a wigwam near a river. She taught him the song to sing to the fireflies, and taught him how to understand the animals. He loved to sit outside of the wigwam and listen to the owls at night. Elizabeth Hutchison 38 (See note under 40). Land of Counterpane. I Robert was ill, so he had to stay in bed. Robert did not like it, and he amused himself by taking his tin soldiers out and drilling them among the blankets. He also sent his boats sailing among the sheets. Sometimes he took his trees and houses out, and made believe he was an ugly giant who sat upon the Pillow Hill. Enid Jacobs. 40. Aim. — To test children's ability to paragraph properly when left to themselves; so there were no leading questions, topics, or guides of any kind given them. This shows how far ahead of the plan some schools can go. 168 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION (Reproduction, ) The Pilgrim Church. The Pilgrims used to have very long sermons, and the little children would get very tired, for the benches were quite high and hard. In church there was a man called a "tithing man" who had a long rod, on one end there was a squirrel's tail, and on the other end was a knob. If the "tithing man" saw a woman nodding he would tickle her nose. If children were moving the knob would hit their heads. Lelia Taylor. 55. Broad — Some trees have very broad leaves. Carries — Ruth sometimes carries a basket of fruit to her grandmother. Indians — The Indians paint their faces red and put feath- ers of all colors in their hair. Katherine Mayer. 57. The Eagle. This large bird has a short, strong, hooked beak. Its eyes are very bright and look wild. It can fly a long time, and flies very fast. Its talons are strong, sharp, and hooked at the end. It eats hens, turkeys, rabbits, lambs, insects, snakes, and fish, which it takes from other birds. It is called a bird of prey. Matilda Schloss. 59. Trees. The trees are of use to people. They breathe the air that we do not breathe. They give the birds a place to build their nests. They give the sick people pleasure be- cause they like to hear the birds sing their sweet songs. Lillian Belknap. ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 169 62. 511 West 112th Street, New York; City. Dear Lucy, Would you like to see the circus next Saturday? My mother says that if you can go she will take us. If you can come let us know as soon as you can so she can get the tickets ahead of time. Your friend, November 13, 1905. Eileen Hubbard. 63. The Fox and the Grapes. There was once a fox who was walking by a grape-vine. Foxes are very fond ef grapes especially this one was. He jumped and jumped and jumped, but he could not reach them. He got very tired and lay down on the grass to rest. He thought that afterwards he could get them. But he could not. So he went away very angry and said, "I would not eat them for they are sour." Ethel Harris. 64. "My Mary's asleep by the murmuring stream, • "Flow gently sweet Afton, disturb not her dream." Christopher Columbus discovered America Oct. 12, 1492. My aunt lives in Washington Street, Brooklyn. • Hugh J. Murphy. 66. The English and American Fleets, Everybody in America ought to know that Prince Louis of Battenberg is visiting us. Our teacher and the principal of our school took us down to Riverside Drive to see the English and American warships in the Hudson River. I never saw a more beautiful sight. 170 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION It was a fresh, clear morning, and the sun shone on the fleet till they looked like gold. But last night it was better still. All the fleet were decorated with glittering electric lights, so that it looked like Fairyland. The name of the boat the Prince is on, is the Drake. Gertrude Purcell. 66. "When I Grow Up. When I grow up, if I live I want to be a milliner. When I play with my doll on a rainy day, my mother sits down and watches me. I take my doll's hat and trim it with pink flowers and ribbon. Then mother will say to me, "When you grow up I hope you will be a milliner, because you trim hats very nicely." Helen Keough. 71. The Snail. The snail has a way to defend tself. When a fish comes to eat it up it goes in its shell. The snails sometimes have beautiful shells, which are hard In v/inter, when it is very cold, the snail makes a thin skin across the opening. Bruce Jillson. 71. squirrel plants dog hunters George Washington, The squirrel hides his nuts. The watch dog guards a house. Plants bloom in summer. The hunters kill foxes. George Washington commanded the American army. AaNES KlEKNAN: ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 171 87. How TO Play "Blindman's Buff." "Blindman's Buff" was first played by English boys and girls, so it is known as an English game. To play this game some boys and girls and a handkerchief are needed. One of the children playing is "it." That one is blind- folded with the handkerchief and then tries to catch one of the players. When one of the players is caught the one that is "it" has to guess who it is. If he guesses rightly, the one caught is "it" in his place. If he does not guess rightly he must be "it" again. This game is very funny because the one who is "it" some- times catches hold of pieces of furniture and thinks it is one of the players. Helen Russell. 89. Dear Miss Bronstein: Please excuse my absence from school. I have sprained my ankle and will not be able to walk for a few days. Will you kindly send my lessons with Clara Seiberth, as I have no brothers or sisters. Very respectfully yours, Louise Lefebvre. 4 West 104th St., Thursday, November 9th. 93 (Third type-form of sentences). A Description of a Geranium Leaf. This leaf is dark green on its upper side and light green on its under side. It is very velvety. The shape of the leaf is round with little scallops. It is ' one and one-half inches long and two and one-quarter wide. The stem is long and round. Dorothy Lloyd. 103. Helping Each Other. It was sunset. A young and adventurous bee was on a flower that was growing by the side of a stream. Presently 172 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION a little girl came along, and seeing the flower, picked it to take home. The stem was rough and hard to break, and in doing this, she accidentally knocked the bee into the stream, A bird was sitting in a tree and saw the bee's plight. Pluck- ing a leaf from the tree, she threw it into the rivulet, and so saved the bee's life. Soon after, as the bee was returning to his home, thinking of his recent narrow escape, he was aroused by a low, weak cry from something in misery. Looking around, he saw the farmer's son about to wring off his friend the quail's head. He was very sharp-witted, and knew at once what to do. He came up very cautiously behind the would-be slaughterer, and stung him sharply on the hand. The quail was instantly forgotten, and the boy ran howling home to his mother. Ever after the bee and the bird were insep- arable companions. Jessie H. Daves. 121. 120 West 101st Street, New York, Sept. 14, 1905. Dear Alice, Next Saturday my mother v/ill take me with her into the woods. I am allowed to invite several of my friends. I thought of you at once. Would you like to take such a trip? We leave at nine o'clock in the morning and take a good lunch with us. Ask your parents for permission to go. I shall wait for your answer until to-morrow. Your loving friend, Fannie Friedland. 122. 7 West 107th Street, New York, Sept. 21, '05. Dear Myra, I am going to have a little picnic next Saturday, and I would like to know if you could come. I will wait for your answer until the day after to-morrow. ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 173 We will start from our house at half-past nine. Please don't bring any lunch, as we will furnish it. But please bring a few games, if you can. Your loving friend. Norma Hotaling. 125. How TO Play Tee-tah-toe. This kind of "tee-tah-toe," three in a row, may have been in the first place an Indian game, as it is played with grains of Indian corn. A piece of board is grooved with a jack-knife, in the manner shown in the diagram. One player has three red or yellow grains of corn, and the other an equal number of white grains. The player who won the last game has the "go," — that is, he first puts down a grain of corn at any point where the lines meet, but usually in the middle of the board, as that is the best place. Then the player puts down one, and so on, until all the grains are down. After this the players move alternately along any of the lines, in any direction, to the next meeting point of the lines, provided it is not already occupied. Tke one who first succeeds in getting his three grains in a row wins the game, and the board is cleared for a new game. As there are always three vacant points, and as the rows may be formed in any direction along any of the lines, the game gives a chance for more variety of combinations than one would expect from the appearance of the board. Fr«m "The Hoosier Schoolboy" — Edward Eggleston. Cecilia Hogan 126. Sherlock Holmes. In this game cards are needed. Each card has to have a word on it. There are six cards which have the picture of Sherlock Holmes on them. Every card which has robber, thief, or burglar on it counts one, and a card which has Sherlock Holmes on it counts five. Any number of people can play, but one can not. 174 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION Every person puts down a card until two cards come with the same word on them. Then somebody shouts the word, whatever it may be. If two Sherlock Holmes cards come together, then the person who gets it can take any card that is on the table. You can play to any number wanted. The person having the number agreed on wins. The game is interesting because you can make a story with the cards. Florence McCutcheon. [Note. — The above specimen is offered because it exhibits an error very common in such exercises. One could not play the game with this explanation as a guide, which proves the exposition to be faulty.] 129. ' Little Red Riding Hood. Little Red Riding Hood was a very sweet child who lived with her mother in a small cottage in the woods. She generally wore a little red cape and hood. That is why she was so often called Red Riding Hood. One day, as she started out to play, her mother called her , back*and said, "Come, Red Riding Hood, take this basket of fruit to your grandmother, as she is ill." Off started Red Riding Hood, gathering flowers here and there of all varieties, when to her surprise, there stood a wolf right in front of her. "Good morning, Red Riding Hood, and, where are you going this morning?" "I am going to my grandmother who lives in the woods." The wolf, being so hungry, did not stop to see if any one was near and started to spring upon the little girl, but was interrupted by a workman's blow of his ax, which killed the wicked wolf, and the workman took little Red Riding Hood safely home. 142. Will Miss Wilson excuse Harry Jones from school at half- past one, and oblige his mother? Mary C. Jones. 165 West 102 Street. Wednesday afternoon. ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 175 143. Soft Persuasion. A sweet curly-haired little girl and her dog are in their back yard. She is dressed in a little white gown with small puffed sleeves; her head is half covered by a cap, and her face is one soft smile. But doggie is not quite so agreeable, perhaps it is because he is chained to his kennel and cannot run about. He is sitting on a basket with a cold, wise look on his face. m She is bending over the side of her chair, balancing herself with one hand while with the other she is offering him a piece of candy, trying, no doubt, to soothe his ruffled feelings. His face is turned away from her, not even caring to look at the proffered present. Perhaps, if she coaxed him with a bone, he would not act so, but who knows, doggie can't speak, and if he could, I think he would be too indignant to do so. Emma Seipp. 176 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 162. A Policeman. Every morning, as I go to school, I meet a policeman who takes me across the car tracks safely. He is a tall man, with brown eyes. He wears a uniform of blue, with a white stripe on each side of his trousers, and a blue stripe on his arm. Inside of his coat is a badge which identifies him. His hat is called a helmet and has the same number on it as his coat. He is robust and stands erect. He is very polite to all people who behave nicely, but if anybody makes a disturb- ance, he arrests him. Mildred Winkler. 181. Invalids' Food. Of course we all know that the list of eatables allowed an invalid or a convalescent is of necessity a short one; but there are an infinite number of ways of varying this list if one will use a little judgment and good taste. We have all had experience in seeing a sick person make a wry face at the mention of gruel or porridge, and precious little we blamed him. But the whole position of affairs may be changed by preparing it in this way: Have a pint of chicken broth, free from fat, and not too strong; boil it, and shake into it slowly a cup of oatmeal or wheaten grits; cook for half an hour or so, put through a wire sieve, and add a little more broth if that is necessary to make it fit to be sipped from a cup without a spoon. Take it to the sick- room with this remark, "I have brought you a little puree of oatmeal," and my word for it, you will not see a drop left in the cup. 182. How TO Dress a Doll. Every child knows what fun it is to make dolls' clothes, especially on a rainy day. There are so many ways of dressing a doll that one need never tire of it, if one have enough goods. ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 171 The first thing to make is the flannel petticoat, which need have no trimming. Get a piece of white outing flannel, about three times as long as it is wide, hem it, gather at the top, and sew each side together about three-quarters of the way up; make a band to fit the doll's waist and sew it on the gathers and your petticoat is made. Make the white one in the same way with a little ruflie of embroidery, if desired. To make the dress, get a piece of goods, white or figured, and make the skirt in the same way as the flannel petticoat, leaving the band off. The waist must be cut longer in the front than in the back so that it will blouse nicely. After seaming the shoulders, make the sleeves and put them in the armholes. Kathleen E. Murphy. 202. An Illustrated Diary. An illustrated diary is a very pretty article. It can be made almost as easily as a plain diary and is much prettier. Write each day's happenings and events minutely in a booklet, made of plain note paper, any color, tied together at the side with little knots of ribbon. Decorate the diary profusely with little pictures, colored or otherwise. Each picture should" be pasted next to or near the event which it illustrates. The pictures can be cut from magazines and advertisements. If you write every detail and make it interesting, you will in after years be able to recall the outings of your childhood, and though they may seem commonplace now, they will amuse you when you grow older. Sophie Seipp. 203. 223 Chauncey Street, New York, June 1, 1905. Messrs. Chapman & Co., Fulton and Duffield Streets, New York Gentlemen: Having seen your advertisement in this morning's edition of the New York Times, I wish to apply for the position as clerk in your office. 178 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION I am thirteen years of age and live with my parents at the above address. I was graduated from Public School 130 last June. While I was a student there, I did my best work in mathematics, grammar, and spelling. I was always considered at least an average scholar. References concerning my honesty, intelligence, and willingness to work may be obtained at any time from Dr. George B. German, principal of PubHc School 130. Hoping I may be fortunate enough to enter your employ, I am, Yours truly, Grace S. Hughes 206. The Sitting-Room in a Colonial House. It was a beautiful old room, about twice the size of a modern one, with five windows through which the sunlight shone during the day time. The floor was covered with a rich shade of old rose carpet. On one side of the room was a large fire-place, with a bright fire burning in it, which gave the room a cosey, warm feeling on that cold winter evening, while the snow fell softly outside. The room was never lighted with electric lights, but with old-fashioned candles, which shed a soft glow upon it, and lightened the carpet. On another side of the room stood a large harp, over which a beautiful portrait of a young lady hung on the wall. The rest of the room was partly filled with comfortable chairs, a table, a book case, and a desk. Alice Goodwin. 221. My Summer Reading. Being very fond of reading, I spent most of my time this summer in so doing. I read many books, among them the "Elsie Series," the "Life of U. S. Grant," the "Golden Arrow," "A Nest of Girls," and "A World of Girls." The most interesting book, I think, is the "Life of U. S. Grant," or "Our Standard Bearer," as he is called. It is about a patriotic man, a noble man, a man who fought bravely for our country. General Grant. I think it was more interesting, because we can see his tomb any time we wish to, and some of us remember seeing him. Marjorie Armstrong. ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 179 228. 2784 Broadway, New York, October 20, 1905. Messrs. Arnold, Constable & Co., 19th Street and Broadway. Gentlemen: — Please send by Monday, to above address, twenty yards of black crepe de chine, thirty-six inches wide, at two dollars per yard, and charge same to my account. Very truly yours, Jeannette Gonard. 231. An Unpleasant Subject. A brindle bull dog came walking down the street with a very conceited air, paying' no attention to his surroundings, but when he reached the British Minister's gate his air of unconcern was immediately changed to one of deep interest, as a stately grey hound stepped out before him. "Who are you?" asked the grey hound. "I am President Roosevelt's dog and was his close com- panion during the Spanish American v/ar," returned the bull dog, "and pray, who are you that you venture to stop me?" "I am King Edward's dog and am a descendant of one of the oldest dog families in England. One of my ancestors came from Normandy with William the Conqueror." "My ancestry does not reach as far back as yours, I admit," returned the bull dog, "but there is a little piece of red cloth in our family which we prize very highly, that was taken by one of my ancestors from General Cornwallis's trousers when he surrendered at Yorktown." "This is not a very pleasant subject to refer to, so I will bid you good day." Katharine Baker. 180 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 233. St. Paul's Church. The Church of St. Paul faces the North River, its rear being toward Broadway, between Fulton and Vesey streets. It is the third Episcopal Church, and the oldest building in New York. The corner-stone of St. Paul's was laid in 17^64; the building itself was finished two years later. The churchyard adds greatly to its venerable appearance, having in it monuments to Thomas Addis Emmet, the Irish patriot; George Frederick Cooke, and others; while on the rear wall, which faces Broadway, is a memorial tablet to General Richard Montgomery. ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 181 243. The Angelus. A beautiful description of peasant life in France is represented in this picture painted by Millet, a celebrated French artist. Two peasants have been working in the fields, but have stopped in the midst of what they were doing to hear the soft tolling of the Angelus from the church in the distance. They well know that it means time for prayer, and thus they stand with bowed heads and clasped hands, reverently praying. It is at the close of the day, and the sun is fast setting into the distant west. Beside these peasants, there are bags of potatoes, which show how hard they have labored to accom- plish their daily task. The picture suggests that even after their hard day's work, they find their best comfort in spending the hour of dusk in prayer. It is a noble way of doing, and if others in this world followed the example, their burden would grow lighter, sunshine would follow in their paths, and life become more beautiful. Evelyn E. Murch. 182 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 248. Lost. (Given.) A little girl who lived in England went to five o'clock service and fell sound asleep in a large, highbacked pew. The service ended, the congregation departed, and the church was locked. When tea time came, she was missed by her mother, and as her family did not know of her visit to church, they became greatly alarmed. Night cast her shadowy pall over the earth and the return of the child was despaired of. (Original.) About six o'clock the little one awoke and was filled with alarm. Shadowy forms chased each other over the walls and the scurrying of the rats could be heard in the rafters overhead. The child slipped to the floor, and raising her little hands in supplication, breathed this prayer: "0 God! protect me!" She crept to the door and tried to open it, but the heavy hinges refused to budge. It was now pitch dark in God's sanctuary. She reached the altar, now divested of all its candles and coverings, and lay down on the altar steps. Suddenly a rat scurried past her and she screamed aloud in terror. She felt hungry, and remembering the nice supper for her at home, began to weep piteously. Worn out with crying, she fell asleep for the second time. She was awakened about eleven o'clock by a peculiar grating noise, and she heard two gruflF voices say: "They had a service here to-night and I tried, but could not stay in. Guess the sexton suspected me!" "Where do they keep the money?" inquired the other. "Under the altar steps." "The quicker we get this job over, the better. I feel mean to rob a church." The two men were noiselessly approaching the altar. The child rose to her feet and said in a trembling voice, "What do you want?" As she stood there in her little white dress, she looked like an angel; indeed the men thought she was, for an instant. ILLUSTRATIVE COMPOSITIONS 183 "Nothing," answered the older man. "Who are you, little girl? What are you doing here at eleven o'clock at night?" "I'm Mildred Young," she answered, "and I was locked in. I fell asleep during services and when I woke up they had all gone home." "See here, kid," broke in the other man, "we came to get some money here and if you scream we'll have to tie your mouth." "Oh! you're going to rob God!" she cried, recoiling in horror. "Oh! you bad, wicked men!" The younger man approached her with a cloth in his hand to gag her, but the other interposed. "See here, Jim," he exclaimed, "If you do this job, you do it alone. This little one has led me back to the days when I went to church and I'm ashamed of myself. Come, girlie, I won't hurt you, and I won't touch any of God's money," he said, holding out his arms. "Then you're good," she answered, "and I'll come to you." She crept into his arms, and as her golden curls rested against his soiled coat, he murmured softly to himself, "And a little child shall lead them." The young man looked at them a minute and then softly went out. The next morning he who had held her all night carried her safely home and told to her mother the story I have told to you — ^the story of a sinner led back to the spotless path and to Him by a baby's hand Helen Hall. 252. Treaty Between Russia and Japan. "Peace at last!" It must mean a great deal to every Russian and Japanese soldier that has fought on the battle field, each for the honor of his country. There will be no more fighting for them, but peace and rest with their dear ones. "The Treaty of Portsmouth" has ended the great struggle in the East, and the representatives of both the Czar and the Mikado have joyously cabled the glad news to their kings. Alice Thompson. XIII. Course in Punctuation for Elementary Schools. It is intended to give in this chapter a set of rules for punctuation and capitals so simplified that they may be used in the elementary schools. The writer is well aware of the objection that is urged against rules of any kind; but he is also a teacher of many years' experience; and experience proves that theories must always make a compromise with common sense. How punctuation may be taught by the heuristic method is well shown in Shaw's Composition hy Practice* a book which I commend to all readers. But you will notice that the rule invariably follows the illustrations of a cer- tain use of a point. The concrete use is presented; the pupil observes several instances; from this he generalizes, and gets his abstract, which we call the *Holt & Co., New York. 184 • COURSE IN PUNCTUATION 185 rule. It is folly to suppose that you can get along without the abstract, for that is the goal of all in- struction. The error of presenting the abstract without the antecedent concrete, is no greater than the presentation of the concrete without the definite presentation of the abstract. No fault is more com- mon than the introduction of concretes without a conscious embodiment in definition, rule, or principle, of the abstract for which alone the concrete should have been employed. An enormous amount of valuable time is wasted by aimless "observation lessons" or "experiments" in nature study. A specimen can have only one legitimate use, and that is to illustrate something that is true of the whole class of objects to which the specimen belongs. That is, the story it tells is to be general, not indi- vidual; abstract, not concrete. The rules which follow are abstract. It is assumed that teachers will supply an abundance of concrete material, also of drill, to impress and fix these rules. But the rules themselves must be learned and fol- lowed, or the material, no matter how voluminous? and the drill, no matter how thorough, are but a waste of time and energy. Rules of Punctuation. The Comma (,) is used— 1. To set off elements* in the same construction forming a series. Ex. Earth, air, and water teem with life. * "Elements" as here used, means "words, phrases, or clauses." It is preferred because it makes the rules short. 186 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 2. To set off transposed elements. Ex. When the wicked entice thee, consent thou not. 3. To set off interposed elements. Ex. This, however, was not my purpose. 4. To set off short quotations informally introduced, Ex. Who said, "Let us have peace"? 5. To set off independent elements. Ex. Fly, brother, fly. John, come here. (In grades 4A to 5B the rule is this : — To set off words of address.) 6. To mark the omission of a word. Ex. John was good; William, bad. New York, Jan. 4, 1898. 7. Sometimes between the members of a compound sentence that are not subdivided by commas. Ex. We love Bums, and we pity him. 8. Sometimes at the end of a long subject. Ex. The Convention which assembled at Paris in 1792, decreed that royalty was abolished. 9. To set off appositive elements. (5B-6A. To set off explanatory elements.) (When the element is only a word or two no comma is needed.) Ex. James Brown, Ph.D., is here. George, the boy who played truant, is here. Paul the Apostle was a good man. COURSE IN PUNCTUATION 187 The Semicolon (;) is used— ^ 10. Before as, viz.,t namely, etc., when they intro- duce examples; as, — Ex. A noun is a name; as, JoM. 11. Between members of a compound sentence that are subdivided by commas. Ex. Where thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I will lodge. , ; , . The Colon (:) is used— 12. Before an enumeration or quotation introduced by as follows, the following, etc. Ex. The following persons are elected to office: President, James Finn; Secretary, Mary Shinn. 13. Between the members of a compound sentence that are subdivided by semicolons. Ex. ; : ; . The Period (.) is used— 14. After declarative and imperative sentences [after statements and commands for first four years.] Ex. God is good. John, come here. 15. After abbreviations. Ex. Prof. John Brown, A.M. 16. After Headings, and Arabic figures used to number paragraphs. The Interrogation Point (?) is used— 17. After questions. fViz. — videlicet. 188 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION The Exclamation Point (!) is used — 18. After elements that denote strong feeling. Ex. To your tents, Israel ! Alas! how have I fallen! Quotation Marks {" ") are used — 19. To enclose words used by another. Ex. ^'This," said he, "is America." (divided). Who said, "The sun do move?" 20. A quotation within a quotation of double marks is indicated by single marks. 21. A quotation within a quotation of single marks is indicated by double marks. Ex. Trench says, "What a lesson is contained in the word 'diligence',!" The Professor began as follows^ "Trench says, 'What a lesson is contained in the word "dili- gence"]' " The Dash (— ) is used — 22. Sometimes instead of parenthesis marks. Ex. I repeat — and this is the principal part of my story — that wages are too low. 23. To denote a sudden change of thought. Ex. I believe — but what is the use of talking? 24. At the end of a line to show that the sense io irh complete. Ex. See after -' used " in the above rules. 25. After a side heading. Example. — COURSE IN PUNCTUATION 189 Marks of Parenthesis () are used — 26. To set off expressions that form no necessary part of the sentence. Ex. It is evident (so they say) that the army is too small. Brackets [ ] are used — 27. To enclose words that are not the author's, in ordzr to explain the meaning or supply an omission. Ex. "The President [Mr. Little] called the mem- ber to order." "The wages of sin is [arej death." The Apostrophe (') is used — 28. To indicate the possessive case. 29. To form plurals of letters, signs, etc. 30. To indicate the omission of letters or figures. Ex. The Boys of 76 ; 'T is true. The Hyphen (-) is used — 31. At the end of a line when part of a word is taken to the next line. 32. To join the parts of some compound words. Ex. Mother-in-law. The Caret (^) is used — 33. To show where something is to he inserted. The Star (*), Dagger (t), Double Dagger (|); etc., are used — 34. As marks of reference. 35. In Manuscript — (1) One line under a word means italics. (2) Two lines mean small capitals. (3) Three lines mean CAPITALS. Caution. — Always underline your headings. 190 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION RLO^ES FOR CAPITALS. The following words should begin with capital letters: 36. The first word of every sentence. 37. The first word of a line of poetry. 38. Particular names, and words derived from them. (Above 4B use "proper nouns," etc.) 39. The words North, South, East, West, when used to denote parts of the country. 40. Names of months and days (but not seasons). 41. The first word of a direct quotation or question. 42. Names representing the Deity. 43. Names of the Bible and books of the Bible. 44. Titles applied to a person and abbreviations of titles. 45. Names of things when spoken of or to es jer- sons. (In higher grades use "names of things per- sonified.") 46. Important words in titles and headings. (All words may be regarded as "important," except articles, prepositions, and conjunctions.) 47. I and 0; "oh" should begin with a capital only when it begins a sentence. Punctuation, it would seem, needs far more atten- tion than it has hitherto received. We are taught that a solecism in grammar is a mark of vulgarity; and that while a good speller receives no special credit, a bad speller is regarded as an ignoramus; but our literary conscience does not seem to be offended by errors of punctuation. Children should be taught to punctuate with the same care and fidelity COURSE IN PUNCTUATION 191 that is bestowed on spelling and capitalization. Always punctuate, no matter if you write for your eye only. Let the punctuation be an essential part of your written expression. Above all things: 1. Watch the commas in your series. 2. Never put a semicolon after the complimentary address in a letter. 3. Pat a semicolon before as, viz.', etc. 4. Always use a colon after a formal address. 5. Don't forget the second set of your quotation marks. 6. Always underline your headings. 7. And put periods after Arabic figures used to number paragraphs. 8. Finally, beware of making too many paragraphs. Assignment of Rules by Grades. Experience as principal has convinced the writer that the only way to get a given thing taught in a particular grade is to put it down in a plan. Just as ah architect is obliged to put every item for which he holds the contractor responsible into the plars ard spacifications, so a principal, in order to get "r€£i:lts,'* must carefully define the problem for each giEde. The course of study is properly somewhat \£gi:e, and deals in general statements. This gives the curriculum the elasticity which is needed to adept it to different localities. But if the principal allows each teacher to put his own interpretation upon the course of study, there are certain to be gaps, over- 192 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION lappings, cross-purposings, and maladjustments all along the line, which hamper and distress the child,i and make accurate and thorough scholarship impos- sible. The plans or specifications of a grade should show not only the new work required, but should also indicate exactly what ground previously covered is to be reviewed. Having planned his work, the next duty of the principal is to work his plan. This, he can do by requiring each teacher to enter into a "Progress Book" (weekly or monthly) the work done up to a given date. For the convenience of those who care to follow these suggestions all the exercises in the co:Tiposition plan, and in the selections for dictation; as well as the rules for punctuation and capitals, are numbered consecutively for easy reference. It is possible, therefore, to enter into the "Progress Book" any given exercise or rule by merely referring to its number. This effects a saving of labor for which teachers will be duly grateful. lA-lB. No formal rules of punctuation are prescribed for the first year. A teacher who goes beyond copy work in these grades will discover what formal ele- ments it is desirable to teach informally. 2A. New: 14, 17, 36. It may be desirable to simplify some of these rules for the lowest grades. COURSE IN PUNCTUATION 193 2B. Review: 14, 17, 36. New: 18,47. In this grade it may be well to call an exclamation point a "wonder mark," as suggested in dictation exercise No. 16. 3A. Review: 14, 17, 18, 36, 47. New: 15, 37, 40, 44. Rul6 15 may be limited to abbreviations of the days of the week, the months of the year, and titles. Dictation exercise 24 specifies as its object the use of the comma. This, however, must be a mere mat- ter of observation and copy, as a child in this grade could not understand the rule that governs the given case. 3B. Review: 14, 15, 17, 18, 36, 37, 40; 44; 47. New: 28, 30. 4A. Review: 14, 15, 17, 18, 28, 30, 36, 37, 40, 44; 47. New: 5, 6, 16, 19, 31, 38. Rule 6 should be applied especially to the writing of dates, and rule 5 should be limited to words of address. Rule 30 should be used to afford drill in writing common contractions. Limit No. 19 to the unbroken quotation. 4B. Review: 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 28, 30, 31, 36; 37, 38, 40, 44, 47. New: 1,22,26. 194 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION Rule 1 is of the utmost importance. Attention should be called in the lower grades to the necessity of a comma when words are repeated. It requires considerable grammatical knowledge to understand clearly what is meant by a "series." Note that the comma is required between the last two members of the series even when "and" is used. Probably no single rule of punctuation occasions a careful editor as much trouble as this. Almost without exception; writers omit the comma before the "and." We invite all our readers who doubt the correctness of our position, to examine the editorials of carefully edited newspapers and the books of standard writers. Take down your Macaulay, Bryant, Hawthorne, or almost any author of equal standing, and convince yourself that these use the comma in a series where ii'and" occurs. Extend Rule 19 to the broken quotation. 5A. Review: 1, 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 17; 18; 19; 22, 26, 28; 30, 31, 36, 37, 38, 40, 44, 47. New: 3, 4, 32, 39, 41, 42, 43. Elementary grammar is usually introduced here or earlier, and hence we may now teach Rule 3, which is based on grammatical relations. The grammar work calls for subject, predicate, object; the natural order of these may be pointed out, as well as their intimate relation. When something else is thrown in between any two, the commas are used to indicate this interposition. Much drill will be required on COURSE IN PUNCTUATION 195 the divided quotation. Rule 4 has a natural relation to 19. 5B. Review: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 26; 28, 30, 31, 32, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 47. New: 9, 10, 12, 33, 35, 46. Grammar is now sufficiently advanced to teach No. 9, but it will be better to use the word "explana- tory" until the nature of "apposition" is better understood. Rule 10 is badly understood by adults. An examination of good writers, especially of stand- ard text-books, will convince the reader of the im- portance of the rule. Do not allow the pupil to pronounce viz. '--'viz.," but teach him to read it '-'namely" or '-'to wit." The formal introduction should now be recognized and punctuated according to Rule 12. 6A. Review: 1; 3, 4; 5, 6, 9, 10; 12; 14; 15; 16, 17, 18; 19, 22, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 87; 38, 39, 40; 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47. New: 34. In connection with Rule 29 all the different ways of forming the possessive should be drilled on; chiefly in connection with work in grammar. The above remarks apply also to Rule 32. Compound words are treated under the formation of the plural. Much practice is needed before pupils are able to recognize what part of a compound is the "principal" word, and that this part only is changed to indicate 196 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION the singular or plural. In connection with the read- ing lessons in literature, history, geography, marks of reference are verj^ important. Children should have their attention called to these marks wherever they occur, and Rule 34 is introduced for the purpose. 6B. Review: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, .19, 22, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47. New: 7, 11, 20. By this time classification of sentences is probably called for; and hence Rule 7, which is based on a thorough knowledge of the compound sentence, may properly be taught here. For the same reason No. 11 will now be understood. It is also time to know a little more about quotation marks, and hence Rule 20 is added. 7A. Review: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16; 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47. New: 13,29,45. Further work in grammar with long compound sentences will necessitate the introduction of No. 13. In No, 22, note that other marks required should be used regardless of the dash. Thus: "When he was in a rage, — and he was in a rage very often, — he swore like a porter." COURSE IN PUNCTUATION 197 7B. Review: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47. New: 2, 24, 25. 8A. Review; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47. New: 23. SB. New: 8, 21; 27. Review all the rest. APPENDIX 199 APPENDIX A. A Simple Code of Marks. \ Capital (over the letter). • "Wrong word (under the word). — Spelling. A Insert. = Omit. o Punctuation. + Write more. H Paragraph. APPENDIX B. Composition Covers. In order to judge the merit of an exercise in composition a supervisor must know the aim and method of the produc- tion. The cover shown in the illustration is intended to convey this necessary information. Without some such means of informing himself, a principal or supervisor can not do justice to either teacher or pupil. One standard of criticism applies to a reproduction, while quite another standard is necessary in original composition. In the one case the phraseology of all the children should be alike or nearly so; in the other case, the individuality of the pupil should be prominent, and an identity of phraseology in a number of exercises would utterly condemn the teacher's method. So, also, there is a wide difference between the abstract and the paraphrase. In the one case the pupil condenses the thought of the author and uses his own words. In the other case he follows all the detail of thought but uses new forms of expression. In both cases, the phraseology is his own; therefore, a class exercise of either kind, if properly conducted, should produce great variety of form. But the substance of the thought will be identical in all, thus differ- entiating both these kinds of composition from original essay writing. How then am I to know the merit of a performance 200 ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION unless I am first informed as to the aim tKe teacher had in mind? Equally necessary is it to know how much time and effort have been devoted to the exercise; whether it has had correction, and if so, by whom, to what extent, and in what way. The cover shown herewith exhibits all these data. The "form" explains what the composition is meant to be. The date or dates show whether it is the first or second copy. The method of presentation tells how the pupil obtained his material, while the method of correction helps us to decide whether errors are to be criticised severely or leniently. The manner of using tke cover is as follows : The exercises of the class are packed and held together by a paper fastener. The cover is the top sheet. The teacher draws a line in red ink about half an inch in length after the words that apply in the given case. If he is putting up the corrected copy of a letter, he may check these headings: "Narrative," "Orig- inal," "Model," "Individual." He will write two dates, one for the original composition, the other for the corrected copy. Composition Cover. CLASS Public School 19 Manhattan Borough, New York. Joseph S. Taylor, Principal. Composition. Subject. Form 1. Copy. 2. Dictation. 3. Reproduction. 4. Original. 5. Abstract. ( First Copy, 6. Elaboration. Date . 7. Paraphrase. ( Second Copy. 8. Description. 9. Narrative. 10. Exposition. 11. Argument. APPENDIX 201 Composition Cover. — Continued il f Of Presenting Method Subject Matter. Of Correction. Model. 2. Oral (developed on Board). 3. Reading (by Teacher). -j 4. Reading (by Pupil) 5. Observation. 6. Imagination. L7. Outline. 1. Class (by Pupils). 2. Class (by Teacher-Board). 3. Individual (by Teacher). Signed. Class Teacher. Abstract. Aim of Composition . . . . — ^training of mind . . . — drill in mechanics of expression Anecdotes Anonymous Composi- tions Appendix A Appendix B Argumentation Barnes, Earl, on think- ing of children Brown, H. W., on think- ing of children Capitals, rules for Choosing a subject —ideas — self-chosen themes best — correlation Class organization Index 64 Code of marks 199 16 Completing stories ... 45, 182 16 Composition as a mode of expression .... 1 17 — ^reflex arc the type. 1 45 — lesson in grammar. 2 — picking up blocks . . 3 40 — lesson in drawing. . 3 199 — story of King Ches- 199 ter 5 68 Conversation 92 Cooperation, principle of 28 — devices of 28, 41 14 Copy 54,165 Correction of Composi- 14 tions 81 — every exercise some 190 correction 81 71 — ^three methods 81 71 — use of helps 84 — do not be too critical 85 72 — exclude technicali- 73 ties while writing 85 48 — a code of marks . . 86, 199 203 204 INDEX Correlation in composi- tion 18,33, 70 Covers for compositions 200 Criticism, develop power of 39 Definition of some terms 89 Description 46, 67, 180, 181 Development lessons 34 Devices, in composition 31 — ^first year, oral 32 — second and third years, oral 37 — ^third year, written. 38 — t hird to eighth years, written ... 39 — sixth, seventh, and eighth years, oral 45 — sixth, seventh, and eighth years, written 45 — seventh and eighth years, written. . . 47 — positive movements of body 32 —require clear state- ments 33 — ^picture stories 33 — correlate with read- ing 33 — ^play that teacher is audience 36 — questions 36 — overcome diffidence 36 —number work 36 — game of grab-bag , . 37 — develop ideas 37 — supply missing parts 38 — ^let children con- struct model .... 38 — develop power of criticism 39 — letter-writing 39 anonymous compo- sitions 40 — picture stories 41 — partnership 41 — practice variety 41 — n e w s items con- densed 42 — ^topic sentence 43 — general exercises. . . 44 — selected quotations 45 — anecdotes 45 — completing stories. . 45 — describing known persons 46 — five-minute compo- sitions 46 — ^the model imitated 47 — ^lessons in grammar 47 — class organization. . 48 Dictation 55, 129, 164 Diffidence, how to over- come 36 Duggan, Elizabeth A., composition plans .... 88 Dwyer, Dr. John, com- position plans 88 Effectiveness, how se- cured , , 75 INDEX 205 — attention to formal detail 75 — figures of speech ... 76 —perspective 78 Expression, composition as a form of 2 — in the modern school 4 — composition more than 11 Exposition 68 Elaboration 66 Figures of speech 76 Five - minute composi- tions 46 Formal detail 75 Forms of composition . . 54 — copy 55 — dictation 55 — reproduction 56 — original, by question 57 — original, from imag- ination 57 — original, from model 60 — original, from topics 63 — abstract 64 — elaboration 66 — ^types of composition 67 — narration 67 — description 67 — exposition 68 — ^argumentation... 68 —units of composition 69 — ^sentence 69 — paragraph 69 — essay 70 Game of grab-bag 37 General exercises 44 Grammar, correlated with composition. . .2, 47 Hale, E. E., on compo- sition 79 Harris, Wm. T., defini- tion of elementary school 13 Herbart, quoted 22 How to be effective. ... 75 — attention to formal detail 75 — ^figures of speech ... 76 — perspective 78 Ideas, importance of.37, 39,71 Illustrative compositions 165-183 Imaginative Composi- tions 59, 179 Imitation, in learning to speak 10 Interest, principle of . . . 26 Isolation in composition 21, 24 Jones, Olive M., compo- sition plan 88 King Chester, story of. . 5 Letter- writing 39 Maxwell, Wm. H., on the model 61 206 INDEX Method in composition. 18 Missing parts 38 Model, use of 38, 47, 61 Modes of expression 2 Narration 67 News items 42 Number work in compo- sition 36 Oral composition, im- portance of 20, 27, 90 —devices for. . .21, 31, 53 Original composition, by question 57 Original Composition, from imagination .... 57 Original Composition, from model 60 Original Composition, from topics 63 Partnership 41 Perspective 78 Picture stories. . .33, 41, 181 Plan of composition. .88-128 Play in composition. .36, 37 Positive movements of body help clear think- ing 32 Principles of composition 18 — correlation 18 — isolation 21 — interest 26 — cooperation 28 Psychology of composi- tion 9, 12 — evolution of expres- sion 9 — oral and written ex- pression 9 — composition more than mere expres- sion 11 — composition as a mental process. . . 12 — ^thinking of children 14 Punctuation, course in 184-197 Questions in composi- tion 36 Quotations, selected .... 45 Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm... 13 Reproduction ; . . . 56 Richman, Julia, on dic- tation 120 Rules for punctuation . . 184-197 Schoonmaker, Emma C, composition plan .... 88 Self-chosen themes 72 Specific vs. general terms 42 Spellbinders, the 49 Statement, clear, in reci- tations 33 Stitt, Dr. E. W., compo- sition plan 88 Stories in composition work 19 INDEX 207 Subjects, too abstract . . 22 Types of composition ... 67 — choosing 71 — Narration 67 Summary of new steps in —Description 67 course 126 -Exposition.. 68 — Argumentation . 68 Themes, self-chosen 72 Units of composition .. . 69 Thinking of children . . 14, 25 Topic sentences 43 Variety, practice of, .41, 46 NOV 2S 1906