Class _^jt^_35J Book.ji3 Copyright 1*1? COFXRIGHT DEPOSIT. Vineyards of France % #? THE CULTIVATION OF VINEYARDS in Southwestern France By Alicia du Tont de S^mours New York: ^rentano's 1920 COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY BRENTANO S r^^ D. B. UPDIKE, THE MERRYMOUNT PRESS, BOSTON FEB ~2 \m 0)CU605297 I'o Myron T'. Herrick Ambassador to France viii Contents Part II Cultivation of the Vine I. l^he ''Parage" IS II. The Poles or Stakes 8i III. Fertilizers — Man ures^ New Earths, and Marls ' 85 § I . ^ality of Fertilizers 85 § 1. Proper 'Time for Manuring the Vine 87 §3- ^antity of Manure to be used for Manuring Fine- yards 90 IV. Dressing the Vine 94 § I. When to Dress the Vine 94 § 2. Manner of Dressing the Vine 98 V. The First Tilling. Preliminary Observations. Vegetation 112 § I. The Proper Tilling Ti?ne 118 § 2. Tilling Methods 129 VI. Destru^ion of Weeds in Vine- yards 136 VII. The Fastening 139 VIII. Nipping Off the Buds 147 Contents ix Part III Accidents Affeding the Vine. Its Diseases and Harmful Inseds I. Accidents JffefNng the Vine 151 § I . ^he Frost-Bite 1 5 1 § 2. Winter Frosts 1 53 § 3. Spring Frosts 155 § 4. About Hail 1 6 1 § 5. Dropping Off and '^^acon" 1 63 II. Diseases of the Vine 167 III. Inserts Injurious to the Vine 171 § I . Vine-Grubs 1 7 1 § 2. Wine-Weevils 1 74 § 3. Beetles and Other InseSts 1 77 The Vintage I. Preparations for the Vintage 183 § I. Wine-Press 183 § 2. iL2>;?j' 189 §3. 'T'ubs and Casks 190 X Contents II. IVine Casks 194 § I . Proper ^ime for Buying the Casks 194 § 2. ^ality and Making of the Casks 200 III. Proper l!ime for Gathering the Grapes 209 IV. How to Make Wine 214 § I. Sele^on of Grapes 215 § 2. Haw to Crush Grapes iio § 3 . How Far the T'ub Process should be Pushed 222 § 4. How Long Grapes Picked from the Bunch should be Per- mitted to Boil 230 V. How to Regulate the Wine-Press 23 5 VI. How to I'reat New Wine 246 VII. White Wine 253 VIII. 'The Vine Espaliers 256 IX. Rapes 262 X. 'Temperature of the Wine Cellars 266 £i6t of 3ffu6tcation6 J Fineyard Facing Page Wine in Bottles 84 ' An Arm of a Modernized Cellar 111 A Walled Vineyard 140 Wine Casks 200 Workers in the Fineyard 212 A ''Foudre" 240 Bottled Wine in Cellar 270 m '■'•The Grape that can with Logic absolute Life's leaden ^JPkletal into Gold transmute'' This study of Grape Culture was made in Orleans, Auvergne, and Perigord,where Romance breathes forever and Love never dies. A, DU p. DE N. VINEYARDS OF FRANCE pavtji CHAPTER I T/ie Soil and the Plant ACCORDING to the com- L mon saying, every soil does not bear every kind of fruit. It is, therefore, necessary to know the fruit suiting the soil in order to reap a bountiful crop. Experience only can serve as a guide in this connection. Only by experience has man been able to find out which is the proper crop for the different kinds of soil. 4 Vinei/ardf of France The different layers are to be distinguished in every soil; first, the earth that is at the surface; second, the underlying bottom. For a soil to be favourable for the cultivation of the vine it is necessary, first, that the under- lying layer be permeable to water, for, as is the case with clay, were this underlying layer im- permeable, the vine would inev- itably perish, owing to excess humidity. Second, that the un- derlying layer should be deep; that is, located at two or three feet at least below the surface of the soil, otherwise the vine would Part I 5 not find sufficient nourishment. Third, that it should not be so compad: as to prevent the vine from spreading its thickest roots through it. The most favourable soils are the heavy soils that have a deep un- derlying layer, and still more the loamy soils, the underlying layer of w^hich is composed of heavy earth. The vine finds in both all the nourishment it requires. It can live in such soils for two or three generations. These soils are the most suitable for the " Auvergne" vine. This is the vine which gives the best wine in this soil. Vineyards of France Fine chalk mixed with coarse sand is also satisfacSloiy for • the "Auvergne" vine. This applies also to the soil commonly called "Grouettes," which is a black earth resting on a harder bottom approximately of the same quality. However, the life of the vine in both instances is shorter. Most of the other soils are suit- able for the planting of the vine called " Fromente-black," like- wise described under the name of "Eunier," owing to the fa6i: that the under side of its leaves is cov- ered with a white down. This is the best vine, second only to the Part I 7 "Auvergne" vine, and generally it gives a good yield. The " Fromente-black " is also planted in soils which would otherwise grow satisfactorily the "Auvergne" vine, when such soils are situated in low and damp locations, or when they adjoin woods or marshes. It withstands better than the other varieties the frost and mildew which are very prevalent in such locations. White grape vines are gener- ally planted in light sandy soils. They thrive better in such soils, as they do not require much nour- ishment. 8 Vineyards of France CHAPTER II 'Preparing the Soil IF the soil is new, it is suffi- cient to dig it a single time to a great depth during summer and to open the rows a few months afterwards. This is the operation called by the vine-growers " Ran- ger." The soil is then ready for the planting of the vine, which should take place either before the winter or in the course of the spring, according to the nature of the soil. If the ground were wooded, it would be possible, after having pulled out all the stumps, to plant Part I 9 the vine in the course of the very first year; as with regard to the vine such ground would be con- sidered new soil. However, it is advisable not to plant the vine until the following year, in order to destroy completely by repeated diggings the roots which may have been left in the ground and which may prove injurious to the growth of the vines. If the soil has been planted previously with vines, it should be permitted to restat least one year and sometimes several years before replanting. In this connection one should follow the custom that prevails in the lo Vineyards of France different vine-growing districts, which custom is the result of long experience with the particular kind of soil prevailing in that district. With regard to heavy soils which are left to rest only for a year, such soils, in order not to leave them entirely uncultivated, may be planted with peas or other small grains, such as vetch or oats, but never with wheat or barley because such crops exhaust the soil. The other grains, on the con- trary, enrich the soil. Such soils as are allowed to rest for as long as three and four years Part I II owing to their being weak are planted with grass between the clearing of the ground and the planting of the vine. Whatever the nature of the soil before planting the vine, care should be taken that all weeds are destroyed. When replanting, it is neces- sary to turn the earth of the beds in a direction opposite to the pre- existing rows. In this way a por- tion of the old alleys may be cov- ered by the new beds. These old alleys may be considered as new earth, the largest roots being found in the beds. 12 Vineyards of France It should be kept in mind that, first, the beds drawn from north to south are the most advanta- geous, since they receive more sunHght. Second, the beds should be so arranged as to facilitate the draining, as stagnant water would be liable to destroy the vines. One of these two reasons may lead the vine-grower to plant the vines in a parallel diredion to the old rows. It is possible when turning the earth to raise slightly the alley and the bed at the points where they are found to be low. For this purpose it is sufficient to Part I 13 dump on them a small quantity of earth. However deep the digging done previous to the replanting, such digging should never reach the underlying layer. Care should be taken not to dig through this layer, as it serves the useful pur- pose of retaining rainwater while it takes no part in the nourishing of the vine. CHAPTER III Width of Beds BEFORE opening the rows, the first operation is to draw them on the ground in order to 14 Vinei/ardf of France be sure that the alleys and the beds shall have a uniform dired:ion all through the ground in case the field used is square. All the vine stocks are planted along straight lines drawn by means of a cord. The stocks are equally spaced at a distance of two feet three inches. These straight lines are commonly described as rows. All the rows are likewise equally spaced at a distance of two feet six inches. The alternating spaces between two rows are called, respectively, bed and alley. The alley forms a kind of walk Part I 15 between two rows. The vine- grower stands and walks on this alley when cultivating the soil. By the word "bed "there is des- ignated the earth existing on the side of and along the alley between two other rows. The earth intended for the planting should present a flat and equal surface after having been spaded. One begins by drawing or trac- ing on this ground by means of a cord the location of each row, following the instructions given herein. A five-foot stick having a notch in the middle is used to fix 1 6 Vineyards of France the width of the alley and the bed, whereas the cord is used for mark- ing the direction of such alley and bed. For spacing the stocks there is generally used a new pole or stake, which should be four and a half feet long. The length of this pole or stake comprises, therefore, two vine stocks. By this means a uni- form configuration is insured for all the alleys and all the beds, pro- vided the field is square. After this preliminary tracing, since the vine stocks to be planted are to be bent towards the inside of the bed, there is dug up by Part I 17 means of the spade the space in- tended to become the bed and the earth is thrown upon the space intended to become the alley. The earth thus thrown on the alley forms by its accumulation what the vine-growers call "Che- vaux" or ^'Chevalets," and it is used to cover the vine plants after they have been planted in the bed. If the field is not square, after all such ground has been uni- formly traced as is possible, the rest of the ground is divided into alleys and beds, narrower at one end than at the other, so that the 1 8 Vinei/ards of France narrower end has only one row of stocks instead of two. Some vine-growers make all the beds with two rows; all the beds and all the alleys, however, being wider at one end than at the other. This arrangement is open to the same objection, the unsight- liness in the one case being as glar- ing as in the other. The use of ex- cessive land is to be deplored. Furthermore, such wide ends interfere with the proper digging of the ground, whereas the nar- row ends do not afford sufficient nourishment to the vine, which will eventually die out, while Part I 19 at the other end it grows and thrives. Experience has shown that vines thus planted in good soils thrive and have a long life, find- ing therein a sufficient nourish- ment, the long shoots spreading all around the bed up to the pole or stake which is notched in the middle for supporting it. If the alley and the bed are more than five feet wide, first, the soil is not sufficiently occu- pied. Second, the beds being too wide, their cultivation is not so easy, and therefore they are liable to be but poorly plowed. 20 Vineyardi of France If, on the other side, the width of the bed and the alley is less than five feet, the roots being too closely packed are injurious to one an- other and the vine suffers. It bears less fruit and has a shorter life. Furthermore, the shoots being un- able to spread as they should, one is compelled to prune them very short, which, of course, diminishes the yield. In weak soil, where the vine is to be replaced every twenty- five or thirty years, it is sufficient for the alley and the bed to have a width of four and a half feet, the vine stocks being spaced at a dis- Part I 21 tance of twenty inches. The pe- riod during which the vine re- mains in the soil being compar- atively short, the roots do not make a great development and do not become sufficiently large to prove injurious to each other. In dry and burning soils straw is resorted to, which is intended to hold the water in order to af- ford more nourishment to the vine stocks. CHAPTER IV The Vine Plant THIS subject should be con- sidered as the most impor- tant in the cultivation of the vine 22 Vineyards of France and as the one demanding the ut- most attention. There is no doubt but that the greatest injury that a vine-grower can infli6l upon the land-owner is to take advan- tage of him by supplying him with inferior plants. The plants may occupy the ground for five or six years before one is able to dis- cover that one has been misled. In such a case either these inferior plants are pulled out and replaced by new plants, which means a loss of ten or twelve years, useless ex- pense, and lost crops, or are left in the ground, which will mean that the land will be occupied by Part I 23 a sterile vineyard which will bear no fruit. §1. SeleSiion of the Plant The best plant is the one taken from a stock giving a plentiful yield of high grade grapes. The plant is taken solely from young vines and on the wood of the year. The best plant is the one taken from a vine which is neither too young nor too liberally manured, and which bears fine grapes. Under such circumstances one is assured that the excellency of the grapes is due exclusively to the 24 Vineyards of France excellency of the vine stock. It is quite possible for a young, well- manured vine to yield fine grapes simply on account of its youth and the abundance of dressing. An average vintage year is the most suitable for judging the com- parative qualities of the different stocks. In such a year the poor stocks bear inferior and scanty grapes. A good stock, on the con- trary, will always yield plenty of fine grapes. In order to be sure of obtaining a satisfactory plant, it will be advis- able to survey the vineyard from which the plant is to be taken one Part I 25 or two weeks before the vintage, and to mark all the stocks carry- ing fine grapes. Such a survey may also be made after the vintage. If so, at- tention should be given the grape stalks left on the vines. If these stalks are short, hard, and thick, this shows that the grape berries were large and well nourished, and that, consequently, the stock which has produced such grapes is good. A further proof of the fine qual- ity of the wood is afforded by the knots, which should be round and spaced at very short intervals, and 26 Vineyards of France the cores of which should be only slightly twisted. All the shoots of a stock are not equally good. The comparative goodness of the different shoots is ascertained by means of the fea- tures which have just been de- scribed. The thickest wood is not al- ways the best unless it presents the features described above. One should not let himself be deceived by thick and long shoots which bear a great resemblance to the barren branches of fruit-bearing vines. Such shoots are likely to produce more wood than fruit. Part I 27 They arc easily distinguished by their knots, which are flat and spaced at long intervals. It is, therefore, clear that it is necessary that only the best stocks be selected throughout the vineyard and that the plant be obtained from the best shoots of each stock. The vine should be taken from a stock reared in a soil inferior in point of quality to the soil in w^hich the vine is intended to be planted. An intrinsically good plant will, of course, thrive when planted in a soil better than the one from which it originates. Of course, no 28 Vineyards of France risk is run by planting it in a soil exa6i:ly similar to the one from which it originates; but it would be dangerous to plant it in an inferior soil, where it would cer- tainly die out, owing to the lack of proper nourishment. § 2. Taking the Plant The suitable time for taking the plant is after the pole or stake has been removed and after the leaves of the vine have fallen off and the sap has disappeared; that is, at the end of November. No signs of frost should be no- ticeable when the plant is taken, as Part I 29 frost is apt to injure the wound which is inflided upon the vine. Such a wound is Hable to cause serious injury unless it is afforded sufficient time to dry out before the frost sets in. Stridly speaking, it is pos- sible to take the plant after the frost has disappeared and before the setting in of the sap; that is, in February. It is best to take the plant at the time first men- tioned. The finest plant is the one cut at the greatest distance from the base of the shoot; it should be taken from the wood of the year. 30 Vineyards of France The plant taken should not present traces of vine frost, as it is liable to make the wood too soft. This, of course, would make such wood liable to freeze or rot during the winter. The summer vine frost is due to lack of heat, caused by the shoot having found itself cut out from the sun or thoroughly enveloped by the leaves of the vine. Vine frost is caused also by cold rains or by hail. The winter vine frost is caused by hoar frost adhering to the wood and melting under the adlion of the sun. It burns the wood, and means death to the shoots on Part I 31 which such melting has taken place. Each plant cut should be thor- oughly cleaned. After such cleaning the wound of each cutting should be coated with earth. The plant should not be allowed to bleed, as that will exhaust its strength. CHAPTER V 'Planting the Vine IN sandy or gravelly soils, the underlying layer of which is not permeable, it is possible to plant and to interplant from the time of the fall of the leaves up 32 Vineyards of France to the end of the winter without running the risk of the plant rotting. In heavy soils, more or less im- permeable to water, one should plant only in May. It is neces- sary to see that the planting is done in moderate weather, for if the planting is done during cold and rainy weather, the vines are sure to rot and get mouldy in the earth. If, on the other hand, the weather is too warm, the vines are liable to suiFer; that is, the bark becomes scorched near the surface of the earth. In either case the plant will certainly perish. Bin I 33 The planting in medium soil, between impermeable heavy soils and permeable gravelly soils, is done in the course of April. Gen- erally, this soil is neither too dry nor too damp, but offers a medium condition. All the plants of the same grade should be planted together in the same plot. If this precaution is dis- regarded, it will become necessary to gather grapes on the plot several times in succession, since each kind of stock has its own ripen- ing time, some being earlier and some later. It is certainly inadvis- able to rely upon the carefulness 34- Vineyards of France of the vintagers and to expert them to seledl and to gather only such grapes as are perfectly ripe and to leave behind the bunches which have not as yet reached the proper degree of maturity. Such a selec- tion requires too great an amount of care on their part. They are sure to make their selection in a thoughtless way. It results there- from that the wine loses some of its individual characteristics and acquires a more or less sour taste. However careful a vine-grower may be in obtaining his plants from the same kind of stock, some for- Part I 35 eign plant is sure to find its way among the plants colledted; for instance, in "Auvernat" plants there will surely be found some white or "Fromente-black" plants. As soon as the mistake is discov- ered, the foreign stocks should be pulled out and replaced by trenches. The planting most generally resorted to is open row planting, and in fa6i: this is the only man- ner of planting which should be recommended. The spade and not the hoe should be used, since the hoe does not dig a sufficiently large hole 36 Vineyards of France around the plant, which is neces- sary in order to afford the plant a sufficient quantity of loose earth through which it may spread its roots. The vines should be kept in a vessel full of water, and the stools should be taken out of the water only as they are needed, in order to avoid their being dried out by the heat and rendered useless. Each stool should be bent crosswise to the bed instead of lengthwise. All the earth of the bed having been previously loos- ened, the stool finds in it suf- ficient nourishment for all its Part I 37 shoots, on both sides, whereas, if it were bent lengthwise, it could obtain nourishment from only one side, since the pathway is com- posed of hard ground. The part of the plant encom- passing the cutting wound should be bent by bringing it down toward the underlying layer. After the plant has been duly bent, it should be covered with good earth, loose and damp, and not with dry, lumpy earth. Afterward the ground should be stamped with the feet in order to make the earth close upon the shoots on all sides to enable them 38 Vineyards of France to obtain the necessary nourish- ment. It should be seen that a healthy shoot is left above the ground, as it is through such shoots that the plant begins to grow. Although each bed is made up of two rows, nevertheless, a third half row is planted in the middle of each bed. This row is intended to supply replacements for the dying plants of the two rows along the alley, and constitutes a true nursery plot. Whenever the planted soil is exposed to frost and to blast, such a soil, even if sufficiently good for Part I 39 the "Auvernat" stock, should be planted only with " Fromente- black." This latter has more resist- ance and is stronger, provided it is very closely pruned. CHAPTER VI Attention required by the Plant AFTER planting, as soon as L the shoots begin to grow, the plant should be slightly pruned. At that time one can easily dis- tinguish the good shoots from the bad and leave at least one good shoot above the surface of the earth. If this pruning is neglected, the strain on the plant. 4-0 Vineyards of France compelled to nourish all its shoots, will become so great as to make it perish. Care should be taken that a good shoot is left above the ground. If the shoot which is ex- posed above the ground does not grow, it will be necessary to un- earth carefully with the finger another shoot. If this is not done, the wood of the plant will rot in the earth. Since the plant requires a mod- erately cool soil, it is necessary to water it to prevent its drying out and perishing in continuously hot weather. Part I 41 Whenever the planting cannot be delayed any longer, owing to the advancing season, it will be necessary to water the earth at the time of planting, if it appears dry and scorched. If the heat per- sists, it will be necessary to water frequently after planting. When watering, the earth of the bed above the plant is dug with the spade in order to make a kind of funnel into which there is poured for each stool about one pint and a half of water. The plant which is being watered should not be exposed. The funnel is dug half-way down 4-2 Vineyards of France between the plant and the surface of the earth. To facihtate this operation, it is advisable to place in the mid- dle of the nursery plot or ground an empty trough, which is filled with water from which the sprink- ling water is taken. As soon as the water has been absorbed by the earth, the funnel- shaped hole should be filled again in order to prevent the hardening of the wet earth under the adion of the sun. In damp and cool soils it is un- necessary and even dangerous to water the plant. Such watering is Part I 43 likely to cause the rotting of the plant, owing to excess moisture. Watering is resorted to on dry soils planted in the course of the spring where it gives most satisfactory results. One should not be deterred from carrying out this work by considerations of the expense in- volved. This watering, by saving the plant, enables the vine-grower to secure a vintage a year earlier. Furthermore, the fad: should not be disregarded that the plant re- planted during the second year does not grow as well as the plant of the first year. 44 Vineyards of France The plant requires frequent spading, in order to keep the earth loose and raised in such a way that it may be thoroughly permeated by air. Spading should be resorted to especially when weeds are noticed on the plot. Such weeds would certainly make the plant wither away by depriving it of the neces- sary nourishment. CHAPTER VII bulling out the Vine WHEN a vine is old and yields but a small quantity of low grade grapes in spite of Part I 45 careful cultivation and tending, it is necessary to have it pulled out, since it is only a useless occu- pant of the ground. In heavy soils very old vines still give, at times, a plentiful grape yield; the berries, however, being smaller and shorter than the ber- ries of grapes of young vines. In such a case they may be preserved. The wine obtained from such stocks is the best. However, if a number of vacant spaces appear in the vineyard owing to the dying out of numerous old stocks, one should not hesitate to have the vineyard pulled out. By a6ling 46 Vineyards of France otherwise the soil would be use- lessly occupied. In light soils the vine often be- comes exhausted after twenty-five or thirty years, and it is often ne- cessary to replace it. The proper time to pull out the vine is after the vintage and before the winter, when the soil is sufficiently damp to allow all the roots, at least the largest one, to be pulled out without breaking. If the soil is heavy, large lumps of earth are raised when pulling out the vine. It becomes necessary to break the lumps in order to allow the salts of melted snow and Part I 47 rainwater to permeate them thor- oughly. CHAPTER VIII Two Methods of Layering EVEN in the best vineyards, now and then, some stocks die out. It is necessary to replace such stocks. In nurseries the empty spaces are filled by inter- planting — in young vineyards by one kind of layering and in old vineyards by another, as stated below. No special instructions are ne- cessary with regard to interplant- ing, since it does not differ from planting. ^8 Vineyards of France § I . First Method In a young growing vineyard, when interplanting would be likely to prove unsuccessful, the gaps are filled by layers. The method here is to bury the stock in such a way that the stump disappears, only the stools appearing above the ground at such places as are intended to be filled up. One of these stools is intended to take the place of the stock it- self, which has disappeared. The other stools are intended to fill the gaps on the left and on the right. The proper method of this lay- - Part I 49 ering calls for the laying bare of the stump all around its base. This is done bymeansof a spade. After- ward the digging is carried on with a special instrument, called "croy," in order not to injure the roots. The stump is then bent so that it may be buried on the un- derlying layer. The longest stools are properly bent in order to lead them to the gaps furthest from the stump. Then a loop is made out of the youngest stool, which is the most flexible. The stool is carried under the stump and is buried in the bed. The stump rots in the earth and the looped stool takes 50 Vineyards of France its place in the same way as the other shoots fill up the adjoining gaps. In the permeable soils the lay- erings maybe made before winter, provided the shoots are suffi- ciently flexible to permit of the making of the loop. Otherwise the proper time is from the beginning of March up to the end of April. The earth is then thoroughly cleansed; the stools are flexible and the shoots are sufficiently thick to allow the vine-grower to judge of their quality. The earlier the layering the better, as the stool is afforded a longer Part I 51 time for growing the roots and gaining strength. The layer yields a crop the very first year. If the grape yield is too plentiful, it will be necessary to cut some of the fruit in order to prevent exhaustion. When plowing the ground the following year, it is necessary to uncover the layers in order to cut out the small roots grown by the shoots near the surface of the earth. Such roots prove detrimental to the main roots, which are the ones called upon to nourish the layer. 52 Vineyards of France ^9,. Second Method Layering used in old vineyards is merely to bend down under the ground a few stools of a stock in order to carry them to the gap intended to be filled, leaving the stock itself to live on as be- fore. The wood seleded as a layer should be a long shoot which has already given a plentiful yield of high grade grapes. In order to carry out properly this operation, the shoot should be carried toward the middle of the bed and then bent back to the row. The end of the shoot should be Part I 53 bent downward and carried down to the underlying bottom. The layer should never be laid along the row without bending it across the bed. The earth of the alley being hard, it could not grow roots on that side, but only on the side of the bed where the earth is loose, since it has been dug up so that it would lose one-half of its nourishment. A layer should never be carried from one row to the other across the alley. First, because the earth of the alley being constantly hard, the layer cannot grow its roots through it. Second, because the 54 Vineyardi of France heat, the cold, and the rain are felt more in the alley than in the bed. The best position for the layers is to lead them across the bed from one row to the other. The following year the layer should be notched near the stock in order to begin its separation from it. The final separation is made during the second or third year, according to the nature of the stock. This is done in order to avoid the exhaustion of the stock from which the shoot originates. When the shoot is separated from the stock, it is necessary to see to it that the cut end is buried Part I 55 deeply in the earth. The cutting asunder of the shoots should be made during the operation called "parage" and before winter. First, in order that the wound may dry out, and the spring sap may not be lost. Second, in order that it may grow roots during the winter. When a shoot, cut asunder be- fore the winter, is pruned in the course of the spring, it should be left sufficient wood to prevent its exhaustion. 56 Vineyards of France CHAPTER IX Fastening the Vine TO tie up or fasten the vine means to raise the shoots which have grown after the dis- budding and to tie them to the stake. This tying up is done after the disbudding, and always before the second tiUing, in order not to dis- turb the aheady tilled ground. The tying up should be done in moderate weather. If the air is cold or if the heat is very intense, the grapes freshly uncovered are liable to die out. If the tying up is done too late, Part I 57 the buds run the risk of being bro- ken by the wind or being struck by hail, the possibiHty of which should not be disregarded at this time of the year. Since all the buds of the same stock do not grow evenly, a part of the buds require to be tied up earlier than the rest. This entails the necessity of performing this operation in two stages. The sec- ond tying up is called "raising up." Young vines should be the first tied up or fastened, since they are the ones growing more rapidly, and also to prevent their buds or 58 Vineyards of France shoots, which are generally nu- merous, becoming intertwined or twisted. Three ties are required for fas- tening, one at the bottom, an- other at the top, and the third in the middle. In the absence of the middle tie, upon the bud growing after the fastening has been completed, there arises a kind of cage. It fol- lows therefrom that the hampered and unsupported bud either breaks or becomes detached at its base. The fastening should be made by means of straw and not by Part I 59 the use of rushes, which are less flexible and more apt to break than straw. Each tie should be made up of at least two straw strands, otherwise it would be too weak and liable to break upon drying. The budding grapes should be clear of the ties, for if not, they would be stifled and would not ripen. CHAPTER X The ^^ Binage'' or Second Tilling THE "binage" or second tilling may be undertaken about the end of May in heavy soils or other soils which were 6o Vineyards of France tilled early, especially when weeds begin to grow fast. However, this second tilling should be discontinued when the vine is blossoming and when the weather is either too cold or too warm. In either case one would run the risk of killing the blos- soms by digging the earth. For the performance of this work one should wait for very mild weather. The blossoming season is the most critical time for the vine. Cold weather is likely to injure the blossoms because it stops the sap, which thereafter is no longer sufficiently strong to nourish the Part I 6 1 growing grapes. Intense heat like- wise destroys the blossoms, espe- cially after protracted rains, be- cause under such circumstances the sap flows too fast and does not afford the budding grapes suffi- cient time to grow. A protraded drought has the same effe6i:, as the soil does not supply the grapes with sufficient moisture. When the vine blossoms after protraded rains and the foot of the stock is surrounded by water, the dropping of the blossoms is greatly to be feared. When dry weather has pre- 62 VineT/ards of France vailed for a long time, it is neces- sary to wait until it rains before performing the second tilling, and if the weather clears and ap- pears settled, to take advantage of it. If rainy weather were to set in again, the air would become cool owing to the rain and the blos- sominggrapes would be destroy ed. From the foregoing it follows that the second tilling is the oper- ation which requires the most attention in order to seledt the proper time to avoid the destruc- tion of the blossoms. Mild, dry weather, with a tinge of hot wind in it, after sufficient Part I 63 rain has fallen, is the most suitable for the second tilling. The grapes and the buds derive then a greater benefit from such work and the weeds are more easily destroyed. The "binage" should not be undertaken until after the fasten- ing, otherwise the buds or shoots which have not yet been raised and fastened would be liable to be broken. Before the second tilling one should see to it that the first till- ing has been done throughout the vineyard. If this precaution is dis- regarded, one may mistake such portions of the vineyard as have 64- Vinej/ardf of France been tilled the last as being the first to have received the "bi- nage." The second tilling is per- formed by means of the forked hoe and not by the use of an or- dinary hoe, as the former has a keener edge and is more suitable for cutting out weed roots. During the second tilling the earth should be dug at a great depth both on the bed and on the alley, and there should be re- turned to the bed a part of the earth existing on the alley, in a lesser quantity, hov^^ever, than during the "rebinage" or third Part I 65 tilling, in order that the foot of the stock may be surrounded by a sufficient quantity of earth to afFord it the necessary protection against the heat. In black soils and other soils in which the underlayer is not located at a great depth, this re- moval of the earth from the alley to the bed is delayed until the "rebinage" or third tilling in order that the foot of the vine may be better protected against the heat. During the second tilling the manure newly spread on the silo should be thoroughly dug up, and 66 Vineyards of France it should not be left exposed to the air, which would deprive it of its moisture, nor should it be removed to the alley, where it would serve no useful purpose and where it would become dry. CHAPTER XI The '■'■Rebinage'' or Third Tilling THE "rebinage" or third tilling is done in the same way and by means of the same implement as the second; namely, by the hoe. In tilling for the third time a greater quantity of earth is re- moved from the alley to the bed Part I 67 than at the time of the second tiUing. The vine being prote6ted by its bud or shoot, which is now fully developed, there is less dan- ger that the foot of the stock will be damaged by the heat. In heavy soils or other soils which have been tilled early, the third tilling is undertaken about the middle of July and sometimes even earlier, whenever the grapes appear very well advanced for the time of year. If the soil is too dry or if the heat is too intense, it will be ne- cessary to delay this third tilling, as to overturn a dry and scorching 68 Vineyardi of France soil would be tantamount to set- ting fire to the foot of the stock and would be apt to parch the stock and the roots. Furthermore, dust, dampened by dew, would form a kind of layer around the berry of the grapes, hardening its skin and diminishing its wine yield. The most appropriate time for the third tilling is immediately after rain, when the earth is thor- oughly permeated with water down to approximately two or three inches. Under such circum- stances the operation should not be delayed, as at this time of Part I 69 the year the soil dries out very quickly. If the third tilling is done close to the vintage, the grapes are not afforded sufficient time to de- rive any profit fi*om it. The ut- most that can be expeded from a "rebinage" is the destrudion of weeds if they are too plenti- ful; but even at such a late date, it should not be negleded unless the heat is too intense. Whenever near the vintage the weather becomes cool, it is dan- gerous to disturb the earth. The vine would shed its leaves and the grapes, especially in the case 70 Vineyardi of France of the "Auvernat," would be likely to wither rather than ripen. For no reason whatsoever, even were grapes very scarce or almost entirely absent because of frost, hail, or withering, or any other accident, should the third tilling be negleded. These tillings keep the stocks in good condition and destroy the weeds. CHAPTER XII The '■'•Quartage'' or Fourth Tilling THE "quartage" or fourth tilling is an ordinary tilling operation. It becomes necessary some- Part I 71 times to carry out this fourth till- ing in vineyards which have been manured after the last vintage, whenever the weeds become very plentiful on account of prevailing rainy weather; and also in such portions of vineyards as have been the first to receive the second till- ing, whenever they are overridden by weeds. In such cases this work is paid for on the same basis as other work. In the foregoing cases, this fourth tilling is useful only pro- vided the preceding tillings have been properly carried out. For this reason the fourth tilling is very 72 Vineyards of France seldom, if ever, used by vine-grow- ers on their own vineyards. CHAPTER XIII 'faring and Nipping Buds and Shoots A FTER the third tilHng one X~\. may, or rather one should, pare the bud or shoot whenever its height exceeds that of the stake. The stock is thereby re- lieved and enabled to afford bet- ter nourishment to the grapes; but the lower shoots should not be raised before the middle of Au- gust, as the intense July and August heat would be likely to parch the grapes so exposed. Part I 73 The vines should never be stripped of their leaves before the vintage is completed as the leaves protedt the grapes until they are ripe. The buds or shoots of the middle and lower stock should be most carefully preserved for the pruning, and should never be nipped except at the very end of the longest shoots. The nipping should be performed by moving the hand upward in order not to injure the shoot, which would make the wood more sensitive to winter frosts. patt 331 Cultivation of the Vine CHAPTER I The ''''Parage^' THE "parage" consists in removing the earth from the alley and dumping it on the bed in order to raise the latter. The object of this is to afford a better protection to the largest roots which are found in the bed, in order that they may better withstand winter frosts. The proper time for the parage of the vine is after the vintage. However, the earth should not be 76 Vinei/ards of France too dry, because, if so, it will be difficult to remove the dirt from the alley in order to throw it on the bed. In such vineyards as are in- tended to be manured before the winter, the first operation under- taken is the opening of the bed, the earth removed therefrom be- ing dumped on the alley. The manure is afterward spread upon the beds thus opened, and is then covered up by means of the earth previously dumped on the alley. After this the "parage" is carried out. A good "parage" requires that Part II 77 the beds be kept high and of uni- form shape. First, the vine being covered by a deeper layer of earth better withstands winter frost. Second, the quahty of the dig- ging following the "parage" is dependent upon the quality of the "parage" itself. The higher the bed is raised during the " parage," the greater the quantity of earth that can be dumped on the alley during the digging, and conse- quently the deeper the furrow. This exerts an influence even on the second and third tilling, as will be explained later on. In plant nurseries the "parage" 78 Vineyards of France should be at an earlier date than in vineyards, because the plants, having been covered from the outset with earth, are in a bet- ter position for withstanding the early autumn frosts. Plant nur- series do not require as high a bed as vineyards unless the plant is three years old in heavy soils and two years old in loose soils. No "parage" should be made after hoar frost unless the hoar frost has melted out. The roots of the vine would be exposed to injury from the buried ice, which would crack and burn them. In making the '^parage" it is Part II 79 necessary to overturn the earth taken from the alley to the bed. In this way the weed roots be- come exposed and die out more rapidly, and by their decompo- sition they form a light manure that is very useful to the vine. Furthermore, the earth so over- turned becomes exposed to and permeated with air, and when turned over a second time it carries down to the roots the air ab- sorbed. During "parage" the stocks should be thoroughly cleansed; that is, they should be ridden of any weeds growing near them. 8o Vineyards of France Such weeds by their moisture would be hkely to favour the growth of mould on the stocks. A properly carried out "pa- rage" requires that the alley be hollowed along its middle axis in order to afford a draining channel for the water, which, if left stag- nant all around the stocks, would make them die out. The above described opera- tions constitute what the vine- growers call "parage." This, op- eration has been called "parage," because after such operation all the alleys look even, as in a pro- perly cultivated garden. Part II 8 1 CHAPTER II 'The Poles or Stakes AS soon as the work has been JTm. completed, the pole or stake should be pulled out, as it is no longer necessary, and if left in the earth will be likely to rot under the influence of frequent winter rains. After it has been pulled out, it is sharpened whenever the point is found to be decayed or blunt. The best stakes are those taken from full-grown timber. They should be big, square, straight, and have a length of four feet and a half The best size is the one inch square. The copsewood 82 Vineyards of France stake is the poorest, as it is taken from wood too young to have reached a sufficient degree of hard- ness and consistency. Such stakes are easily recognized from the fa6l that their ends are generally small and of a triangular shape instead of being big and square. Some- times copsewood stakes are round their entire length and full of sappy spots, which are easily noticeable because of their whiteness. In the vineyards where the alley and the bed occupy five feet and where the vine stocks are spaded at a distance of two feet three inches from one another. Part II 83 there are in an arpent* eighty beds, each having two rows, each row comprising forty-four stocks; consequently, there are eighty- eight stocks per bed; that is, a total of seven thousand forty stocks. An arpent of soil should be divided into two parts or cuts and crossed through by an alley two feet wide running between the two parts or cuttings. In vineyards in which the vines are bound to each other by shoots (courgees), besides the stake which is driven at the foot * An arpent is equal to five-sixths of an acre. 84 VineT/ards of France of each stock, other stakes are re- quired on the bed to support the long shoots, which are arranged in the form of a bower. These old stakes may be used as bed stakes as long as they have a length of one foot and a half. When the stake has one of its ends larger than the other, it is the large end that should be driven into the earth, as this end offers a greater resistance and is less likely to break. Since all the stools do not be- gin to grow by the first year, only such stools are provided with stakes as begin growing. The in- Part II '^S terplant of the second and third year does not have any stakes. CHAPTER III Fertilizers — Manures^ New Earths^ and Marls § I . Quality of Fertilizers THE cow Utter used for making manure should be a straw, haulm, or hay litter. Bulrush, shoots, and heather are absolutely useless. The manure should not contain either earth or cut shoots. Cow manure is the most suit- able, especially for young vines and those planted in burning 86 Vineyards of France soils, in which case horse manure should be absolutely avoided. It certainly would burn or scorch the vine. Horse manure may be found satisfactory for old vines, especially in cold and damp soils. It is warmer and leaner than cow ma- nure. Pigeon and fowl manure is ex- tremely warm. It cannot be used in vineyards unless the soil is cold, and it is desired to impart new vigour to spent vines. It is scattered in small quantities al- most in the same way as grain seed. Part II 87 §2. 'T* roper Time for Manuring the Vine The best time for manuring the vine is from All Saints, First of November, to the end of win- ter. First, at such time the ma- nure is more thoroughly done, as it has been kept since the spring. Second, the good nourishment secured by the cows during the summer makes a better manure. Third, during the winter it is afforded plenty of time to dissolve and permeate the soil, so that in the springtime the vine can derive the whole benefit to be secured from the manure. It would be possible likewise 88 Vineyards of France to spread the manure in the month of March before the sap sets in, but in this case it should be seen that the earth is healthy; that is, that there is no snow or frost, which, if buried with the manure, would be apt to injure the roots of the vine. Furthermore, the manure should not be applied when the vine is budding, be- cause a recently manured or dug earth is likely to attradl the frost. Stridlly speaking, it would be possible to spread the manure at any other time after the danger of frost is passed, at least in vineyards in which the vines are Part II 89 tied by loops. However, in this case one would face the risk of the heat drying out the manure and rendering it useless. With re- gard to vineyards in which the vines are tied by shoots (cour- gees), after they have been tied it will be impossible either to spread or to bury the manure. At the time of spreading the manure, the soil should be suffi- ciently moist to facilitate burying the manure. The large roots are to be found on the bed, since the stool has been bent toward the bed at the time of the planting. 90 Vineyards of France Manure should be buried at a great depth in order that it may come in con tad with all the roots. When tilling the soil the manure is brought to the surface, but it should be at once covered up again, and should not be left exposed to the air, as otherwise it will dry out, and only serve to grow weeds. Generally, manure is not thor- oughly absorbed until after two years from the time it is buried. § 3 • Qu'^nttty of Manure to be used in Mafiuring Vineyards Manure in itself is beneficial to the vine, but it can be much Part II 91 more so if spread in the proper quantity and at the proper time. Since manuring increases the quantity of wine, but is detri- mental to its quaUty, it is ne- cessary to avoid two excesses; namely, the use of a too large or a too small quantity of manure. In good soils each arpent should be manured in its entirety every seven or eight years. Light soils should be manured more frequently, as they need this help in order to be able to nourish the vine properly. The vine is manured in the first instance after it has been 92 Vineyards of France planted, and thereafter it is ma- nured again in the year follow- ing the one during which it has borne its fifth bud. The manuring at the time of planting is done by hand; that is, the plant is covered with a layer of earth two or three inches deep. Afterward, a handful of manure is spread on the earth and cov- ered with another layer of earth. From two to three hundred bas- kets of manure should be suffi- cient for planting an arpent. New earths used for fertilizing vineyards instead of manure have a longer duration than manure Part II 93 itself. Their fertilizing strength is not as great as that of manure, but a better quality of wine is produced. New earths should be buried in the bed exadlly as manure. If they were simply spread on the bed without being buried, they would only serve to grow weeds. Marl* taken from morasses and ponds is very good for the vine, but it is extremely cold, and, therefore, first, it should be left to rest two years before using it. Second, it should be used only * Soil consisting of clay and carbonate of lime, a valu- able fertilizer. 94 Vineyards of France on warm soils. Third, it should be spread on the bed rather than buried. Its coldness may injure the roots of the vine if these pre- cautions are negledled. From two to three hundred baskets of earth are not too much for fertilizing an arpent. CHAPTER IV ^Dressing the Vine §1. When to Dress the Vine IN warm sections, such as Provence and other similar countries, the vines are dressed before the winter, and this is a very wise method, because, first. Part II 95 the roots, having less wood to nourish during the winter, give a better nourishment to the rest of the plant. Second, the wound is afforded sufficient time to dry out and does not bleed, as is the case whenever the pruning is done during the spring. The vine does not lose any sap. In a cli- mate such as the upper Loire, this practice would be dangerous, since the frost is sometimes very heavy, and if it were to happen that the wood left after the pre- winter dressing were frozen dur- ing the winter, there would be nothing left for the current year. 96 Vineyards of France On the contrary, if the vines have not yet been dressed, even if the weather is very severe, it is extremely unHkely for all the shoots to be frozen and spoiled, and one is practically sure to find at the time of pruning some shoots suitable for dressing. This is the reason why the custom prevails of not pruning vines until after the frosts. The best time is the month of March, because in that month the frosts are not sufficiently heavy to injure the wood of the vine. However, this is impracticable, owing to the fad that vine-grow- Part II 97 ers are generally too busy, since the first tilling of the soil is done during the month of March. Furthermore, the vine, being al- ready in an advanced stage of growth, would lose too much sap. The least of the injuries that a frost may inflid: upon a vine re- cently dressed is to kill the shoot which is nearest to the wound, if it has not had time to heal before the winter frosts. According to custom, dressing may be commenced on the Feast of St. Vincent, 22d of January, unless frost prevails. 98 Vineyards of France • ^ — ~ J — Clear weather is the most suit- able for dressing the vine. In rainy or inclement weather the vine-grower cannot be expected to pay sufficient attention to the work he is performing, which de- mands close attention rather than physical exertion. Furthermore, the wound is prevented from healing quickly. § 2 . Marnier of Dressing the Vine Before undertaking the prun- ing of a stock, it should be as- certained whether there are va- cant places near such stocks to be filled by layering. If this is the Part II 99 case, it will be necessary to see to it that sufficient wood is left on the stock for this purpose. The first vines to be dressed should be the old ones, in order to be sure that the wound has healed by the time the vines be- gin to grow and that no sap is lost. In the case of old vines, sap should be spared as much as pos- sible, as it is less abundant than in young vines. The plant should be treated in the same way as old vines and should be dressed at an early date. The plant has a very scanty sap, since it has extremely small lOO Vineyards of France and weak roots. Care should therefore be taken that no sap is lost through a fresh wound. Before dressing the plant it should be laid bare all around its base in order to cut out the small roots appearing at the foot of the stock, which prevent the plant from growing through the bed where it finds the most nourish- ment. This is an important point. The dressing work should be con- cluded with the young vines. As their sap is abundant there is no danger of their being injured by loss of sap through fresh wounds. Such a loss of sap is rather likely Part II loi to benefit them, as the shoots will grow nearer one another and will be better shaped and rounder. Such shoots are more likely to give a plentiful crop. On the contrary, if these young vines are dressed too soon, the force and abundance of sap is such that the shoots are not allowed sufficient time to grow properly, but spread very far apart and become flat in shape. Such shoots are generally barren. Red grape vines should be dressed earlier than those bearing white grapes. In order to carry out the I02 Vineyards of France dressing properly, it is necessary to exercise sound judgment as to the quantity and quality of wood to be left on the vine. With regard to the quantity, one may state as a general rule that the larger the amount of wood left, the larger the quantity of wine produced, but at the same time the vine is liable to exhaust itself more quickly, since it does not possess a sufficient quantity of roots and sap to supply such an amount of wood. On the con- trary, if the pruning is pushed too far, the vine produces too much wood and too many buds. Part II 103 and consequently a scanty crop of grapes, since the more buds, the more sap taken up by them and diverted from the grapes. Therefore a middle course should be followed. In order to determine the quantity of wood to be left on the vine at the time of dressing, it is necessary to take into account the age of the vine, its strength, the nature of the soil, and the ma- nuring, as well as the quality of the stock. To a young vine planted in a strong well-manured and well- • tilled soil there should be left at I04 Vineyards of France least two "viette" shoots, a few "pouce" shoots, and a few "ta- quet" shoots. The "viette" is a shoot about three feet long. The "pouce" is a shoot containing two or three knots, and the "taquet" a shoot having from five to six knots. "Eye," "knot," "shoot," "but- ton," are all words having the same meaning. With old vines or vines planted in weak, scantily manured soil, the pruning should be pushed further. After two or three consecutive plentiful crops less wood should Part II 105 be left, since the vine, exhausted by such plentiful crops, is not in a position to nourish all its grapes, which are liable to miscarry be- fore, during, or after blooming. If, on the contrary, the vine has given scanty crops for several years consecutively, it will be necessary to leave a somewhat larger quantity of wood than or- dinarily, but generally speaking, it is better to leave more wood than necessary rather than less. The dressing should be per- formed in such a way as to leave a sufBcient quantity of wood for the requirements of the current io6 Vineyards of France crop as well as for the require- ments of the next year, accord- ing to the proverbial saying: "In dressing the vine it is necessary to leave on it both the wine and the vine." The dressing of the vines has among its other objects the re- juvenation of the plant by leaving at the foot of the stock sufficient wood to carry new "pouce" shoots, new "taquet" shoots, and new "viette" shoots. In red grape vines the shoots which are located diredlly on the stock, however fine and long they may appear, should always be Part II 107 pruned to the length of a "pouce" shoot, since they absorb a great deal of sap and very seldom yield a reasonable quantity of grapes. This does not apply to white grape vines. Young shoots are the only ones that give a reasonable yield, and when they are direcSlly located on old wood, or at least on com- paratively old wood. These shoots are called "Mouchet" and should be preserved most carefully. The pruning is done by means of bevel cuts, the slanting side of which. runs away from the shoot to prevent the sap from falling io8 Vineyards of France upon and ruining it when the vine bleeds. Vines should not be cut so near to the eye or knot as is done by gardeners in the case of trees. It is necessary to leave one to three inches of wood from the shoot to the wound, but no more. If this wood — called "argot" — is longer, when dressing the following year the pruning-hook is liable to in- jure the remaining wood. In dressing the vine the stools or shoots left over should be thor- oughly cleaned. Furthermore, all the "large heads" should be cut out. By "large heads" the vine- Part II 109 growers mean the dead wood existing on the stock, but it is ne- cessary to see to it that the stock is not cracked when this is done, as otherwise the sap will be lost through the wound. White grape stocks are gen- erally dressed in such a way as to leave on the stocks long shoots, which are tied by loops, except- ing the "Auvernat- white" of "Pais-bas," which is dressed in exadllv the same manner as red grape vines. On white grape vines, besides the long shoots which are tied by loops, there are left on the stock no Vineyardi of France small shoots of from three to four knots, called "looptails" or "brainwood."This "brainwood" gives a small yield in red grape vines, but a large yield in white grape vines. Besides the "looptail" there is left also a small "courgee" shoot; that is, a shoot of from four to five knots grown on a "looptail," or on a small shoot that has already yielded grapes. With regard to vine arbors, since such vines have a large sur- face of ground from which to derive their nourishment, they should be left a larger quantity Part II III of wood, especially at the base, as that yields the largest crop. Vine arbors, as well as vines in general, should be dressed early in order that the wound may have sufficient time to heal before the sap sets in. The different methods of dressing and the different kinds of stocks planted in different soils have been taught by experience supplemented by reasoning. It would be dangerous in this case, as in any other, to deviate from the generally accepted custom. If this is done, the experiment should be performed in the first 112 Vineyards of France instance only on a small num- ber of vines and during several consecutive years before adopting it definitely. CHAPTER V The First Tilling Preliminary Observations. Vegetation THE effed of tilling is to facilitate the growth of the plants; that is, the acSlion by which they are nourished, and grow and yield fruit. Sap is the medium of vegeta- tion in plants. Sap, which is a thin and spirituous liquor, enters the plant by its roots and runs Part II 113 up to the ends of its branches, ascending and descending in a continuous circulating flow. Sap is composed of different salts, of water, as well as of the thinnest components of earth. The salts of fertilizers and new earths spread in vineyards mixed with the sap become an integral part of it and increase its quan- tity. The other salts contained in sap owe their origin to the adion of air, to the rain, snow, and fogs, which, permeating the soil, give up to it the salts they contain. These salts, mixed with the thin- 114- Vineyards of France nest components of the earth, are later dissolved by rain. During the winter the sap is coagulated within the branches, the trunk, and in the roots of the plant, as becomes apparent upon burning the wood of a recently felled tree. The heat of the fire makes the log, which did not bleed through its wounds when the tree was felled (as the felling is done as a rule in the winter- time), bleed at both ends. Such bleeding cannot but be caused by the sap which was nourishing the plant when it was standing. In the springtime this sap. Part II 115 which has been coagulated all through the winter, begins to melt in the plant through the heat of the air and sunshine, which likewise starts on their course all the salts saturating the earth and making up the sap. On the other hand, this heat expands the roots, which have been contracted by the cold of winter. It follows therefrom that the sap surrounding the roots thus expanded enters and permeates them, impelled by the action of the air and of the earth heated by sunshine. One might also say that the sap is drawn into the roots by ii6 Vineyards of France the vacuum created by the heat, both in the pores of the roots and in the trunk and the stems. This same expansion, com- bined with the upward thrust of the new sap furnished in large quantities by the roots, compels the sap which is melting through- out the plant to resume its circu- lation, thereby promoting the growth of the plant. The above is made clear by the inactivity of sap during the winter and by its adivity during the summer. Now, experience has shown how useful the tilling of the Part II 117 ground is for the promotion of the growth and truit-yielding capacity of the plant. It is a well- known fad that untilled soil, even under the most favourable climatic conditions, is always barren and yields only brambles and thorns, even if in itself of the very best quality. It is easy to understand how a soil, which for several months has been pelted and hardened by frosts, is loosened and raised by proper tilling in order to make it so permeable to rainwater and to sunshine as to make it possible for the roots to profit by the adion ii8 Vineyards of France of these elements, and for the sap, which is the adive factor of growth, easily to penetrate into the roots. § I . I'he Proper Trilling Time The first tilling is one of the most important agricultural oper- ations, owing to the special time at which it is performed, as it is done at a time when the vine, just starting, is in the greatest need of help. Its importance springs also from the fad that unless this first tilling is properly carried out, all subse- quent tilling work will be unsat- Part II 119 isfa^lory. The proof of this is very interesting and tangible, and it will be dwelt upon in the fol- lowing paragraphs. During the Autumn "parage" the earth has been taken from the alley and placed on the bed with a view to widening and raising the bed. This operation has for its object the providing of better protection to the roots against winter frosts. When carrying out the first till- ing, which is done in the spring, a portion of the earth which at the time of the "parage" was taken from the alley and dumped I20 Vineyards of France upon the bed is again removed from the bed in order to afford to the roots, which now have no longer to fear the biting cold of winter, a better opportunity to be ad:ed upon by air and sunshine as well as by rainwater, which favours and promotes the growth of the plant. But since the roots of the vine are as much affeded by excessive heat, which parches them, as by the cold of winter, which cracks and burns them, it becomes ne- cessary at the end of spring, when the heat increases, to proted: them against it, as they were protedled Part II 121 during winter against cold, and the same protection is resorted to in both cases : namely, covering the roots by a deep layer of earth. For this purpose, at the "bi- nage" or second tilling, which takes place at the end of May, the first thing done is to remove a portion of the earth from the alley and to spread it on the bed as a protection against heat. At the "rebinage" or third tilling, which is performed about the middle of July, when the hot- test weather prevails, and when, consequently, the greatest pro- tection should be afforded the 122 Vineyards of France roots of the vine, a further quan- tity of earth is taken from the alley and dumped upon the bed. It is clear that unless at the first tilling a sufficient quantity of earth has been taken from the bed to the alley, the earth accumulated on the bed will be insufficient to take care of the "binage" and " rebinage." It follows therefrom that the second and third tilling cannot be satisfactorily done unless the first tilling has been properly at- tended to, which is exactly what we aim to prove. It follows, furthermore, that as ; ■ V AN ARM OF A MODERNIZED CELLAR Part IT 123 the fitness of the first tiUing de- pends upon the fitness of the " pa- rage," as was explained when describing such "parage," so the fitness of the two following till- ings depends on the fitness of the first tilling, and that, by a natural interlinkage of cause and effedl, the improper performance of either of these operations, and es- pecially of the first, namely, the "parage," exercises unfailingly an injurious action on all consec- utive operations. The tilling of heavy soils is gen- erally begun in the middle of March, when the winter is ap- 124 Vineyards of France parently over, the vine has already been dressed, but not tied, the earth is healthy, that is, neither too dry nor too damp, and the weather is clear. It is at such a timethatthe soil requires this first tilling in order to make the sprout- ing buds grow more rapidly. The "grouette" soils, sandy soils, and light soils should not be tilled until about the middle of May, owing to the fad: that they are more liable to frosts than the heavy soils. Experience has shown that such delay does not prove as injurious in the case of light soils as it would Part II 125 in the case of heavy soils, because the latter being less easily pene- trated by sunshine, owing to the greater density and hardness, the frosts would be apt to bite the roots if the tilling were delayed until such a late date. This has been the experience of several land-owners who followed this plan with a view to preserving the vine from possible frosts and found themselves confronted by a much more serious danger than the one they were trying to avoid. Plants and young vines, even in heavy soils, are not tilled until 126 Vineyardi of France the middle of May, that is, when all danger of spring frost has ap- parently disappeared. Being more tender and in closer proximity to the soil, they are more sensitive to frost. When shoots begin to blossom out, if there is danger of frost, the tilling and any other kind of work in vineyards should be im- mediately stopped. It is even dan- gerous to gather weeds when frost is threatening, as such gath- ering cannot be done without slightly disturbing the earth and thereby attracting the frost. The soil should not be tilled Part II 127 unless the weather is dry and the soil itself is dry, at least on the surface, and the water has disap- peared. The reason for this is perfe6i:ly plain. The soil is tilled to loosen it and to enable rain- water and sunshine to percolate down to the roots. If the tilling is done when the earth is too damp, each stroke of the hoe will remove a lump of mud, which by and by will harden, destroying thereby all the useful results of the tilling. This is the reason the proverb says : " Only a fool will till the ground in foul weather." Intrinsically damp soils should 128 Vineyards of France be the last to be tilled for the above-mentioned reasons. Tilling done at a wrong time is liable to cause the vine to w^ither away, to become burned and barren. The statements in this section and the foregoing observations will be easily ac- knowledged to be thoroughly supported by reason. Vine-growers are so firmly convinced of the importance of tilling that whenever, after they have performed such tilling in their own vineyards, heavy rains occur which pelt and harden the ground, they do not hesitate — at Part II 129 least those who are well enough off to allord doing so — to carry out such tilling all over again. § 2. Tilling Methods The tilling consists in dump- ing on the alley the earth which was removed to the bed at the time of the "parage." It is generally performed by means of a wide and blunt-forked hoe rather than by an ordinary hoe, unless the soil is a stony one, in which case only a pointed in- strument can be used. This hoe is a flat iron instru- ment with a cutting edge, like a 130 Vineyards of France spade, fifteen inches long and nine inches wide. The difference between the hoe and the spade consists in the fad: that in the latter the blade and the handle form a straight continuous line, whereas the blade of the hoe is set at an angle with the handle, which is in- serted in a bent socket forming part of the blade. The labourer using the spade works in an ered position and throws in front of him the earth he has dug. The labourer using the hoe works in a bent position and draws the earth toward him- Part II 131 self in digging and overturning it. The "croy" or forked hoe is a true hoe except that from its cutting edge up to two-thirds of its total length there extends an indentation two to three inches wide, which permits the hoe to surround the stock when digging. This allows a thorough clearing of the ground all around the base of the stock. The two sides of this indenta- tion may have pointed ends, in which case the instrument is called a forked hoe. Such an in- strument is especially suited to gravelly or stony soils. 132 Vineyards of France If the tilling has been properly done, first, the alley should be as high as the bed, the difference in the level not to exceed three inches; second, there should be no lumps. All the lumps should have been crushed with the head of the forked hoe. The earth should have a uniform appearance throughout the bed v^ithout any hard patches. Unless all these conditions are fulfilled, the earth will not be suf- ficiently loose to be favourable to the growth of the plant. After the tilling has been com- pleted, the thoroughness of the work may be tested by sounding Part II 133 the depth of the furrow. It should be at least two or three inches deep. It is at the time of the dig- ging of the bed for manuring purposes that the thoroughness of the tilling is ascertained. Un- less the tilling has been properly done, hard soil is encountered at a small depth from the surface, and thick roots are found there which, had the tilling been properly carried out, would have struck deeper. In the course of the tilling, the earth, which, since the "parage," has been exposed to the air and 134- Vineyards of France is consequently more saturated with salts, should be completely overturned in order that it may be brought into intimate contact with the roots so as to supply them with the necessary salts. The weeds should be buried in such a way as to leave their roots exposed. The stocks should be thoroughly cleaned all around their bases. Before removing the earth from the bed it is necessary to clean the alley with a rake in order to pull out all weed roots and prevent them from growing, as far as possible, until the "bi- Part 11 135 nage," to avoid their depriving the vine of its nourishment. IntilUngthesoil care should be taken not to expose the manure recently spread in the vineyard. By exposure it will dry out and become useless or even positively injurious, as it attracts frost. When- ever the manure is uncovered during the course of tilling, care should be taken that it is covered again with earth.- A careful first tilling spares the vine-grower a great deal of work later on, besides proving ex- tremely advantageous to the vine, owing to the fad that it is per- 136 Vine2/ardf of France formed when the vine is starting its wood and its fruit. CHAPTER VI T>estru5iion of Weeds in Vineyards WHENEVER feasible, no weeds should be allowed to remain on the ground in a vineyard. They dry up the soil, they use the manure, they deprive the vine of its best nourishment, and prevent it from producing as fine and as plentiful a crop of grapes as it would were such weeds removed. The weeds should not be pulled out immediately after rain. Part II 137 as this would disturb the surface of the tilled soil. Nor should they be pulled out when the soil is too dry, because it would be impos- sible in such a case to extract the root. It is at the time of tilling that such weeds may be most easily destroyed by overturning them in such a way as to expose their roots, which, dried by the sun, die out and become harmless. All kinds of weeds are inju- rious to the vine, but especially the thistle and the quitch. The thistle, from the second year of its growth onward, strikes 138 Vineyards of France its roots down to the bottom layer, and it cannot be pulled out un- less the earth is very damp. If, instead of being pulled out, it is simply broken or cut, it grows faster than before. Of all the weeds, the quitch is the most objectionable; it spreads faster than any other, and its roots strike deeper into the soil. Its growth is traceable to utter neg- lect of or carelessness in tilling. The proper time to extermi- nate this weed is when the sap is ascending, and especially after heavy rains. When pulling them out it is necessary to dig the earth Part II 139 to a great depth in order to ex- pose the deepest roots and make sure that not the smallest one is left in the ground, as otherwise the obnoxious plant is sure to re- appear. CHAPTER VII The Fastening A S soon as the tilling is com- L\. pleted, the stake to which the vine is to be fastened is driven into the earth. The fastening should be under- taken only at a time when the ascending sap makes the wood soft and flexible, so as to avoid any risk of breakage. 140 Vineyards of France A vine-grower should refrain from driving more stakes than he can fasten the vines to in the course of the day. Otherwise the wind, blowing the shoots against the stakes, is likely to injure and to break them. The stakes are driven in the morning before lunch time. After this meal the fastening work is begun. When the buds are about one inch long, it is dangerous to leave the vine unfastened, even if the stakes have not yet been driven, because in windy weather the wood and the buds are liable to suffer, owing to the shaking Part II 141 by the wind of the unfastened shoots. Red grape vines are fastened by "courgee" and white grape vines by loops, except the "Au- vernat- white " of "Pais-bas," which is fastened hkewise by "courgee." The fastening by "courgee" is done by laying on the bed the long shoots left behind at the time of the dressing. For this purpose an old stake is driven in the mid- dle of the bed, the ends of the shoots are fastened to the old stake, and the long shoots to the stake driven near the foot of the stock. 142 Vineyards of France Vines fastened by "courgee" form a kind of arbor on the bed. This arbor should be sufficiently high to allow ample space for the hoe at the time of tilling. When the vine is laid in this way, the grapes are more fully exposed to the air and sunshine. They ripen better and acquire a better quality. In order to secure these ad- vantages, some vine-growers have tried to fasten white grape stocks by "courgee," instead of fasten- ing them by loops, but such a practice had to be discontinued. It was found that the end shoots Part II 143 of each "courgee" were the only ones to bear fruit, while those nearest the stock remained bar- ren. This trouble was not experi- enced when the vines were fas- tened by loops. This curious phenomenon can be explained only by the energy of the circulation of the sap, which, flowing too rapidly toward the top of the shoot fastened by "cour- gee," cannot exercise its full ac- tion upon the first branch shoots it meets with upon leaving the stock. If the vines are fastened by loops, the flow of the sap is retarded, and the sap is given full 14-4 Vineyards of France opportunity to exercise its adion upon all the shoots. When the vines are fastened in this way, a single glance is suf- ficient to determine whether the vineyard is sufficiently provided with wood. If this is the case, the arbor does not show from one end to the other any discontinuation or any gap. In loop fastening no " charnis- sons" are driven in the bed. The shoots are bent in the form of a loop, and their ends are fastened to the stake individually in order to prevent the last buds from in- juring one another. Part II 145 Fastened vines are more liable to frost because their buds are nearer the ground and conse- quently more easily affedled by the vapours from the ground, which, condensed by the coolness of the air, cause frost. For a similar reason, when the vines have not as yet been fastened, since all the buds are not placed at the same height from the ground, those farthest from the soil suffer least from frost, the more because, being shaken more vehemently by the wind, they are less liable to be frost-bitten. It will therefore be 146 VineT/ards of France advisable to discontinue the fas- tening whenever there is danger of frost. In fastening, the shoot should be laid according to its natural dire6i:ion and not counterwise, in order to avoid the possibility of splitting when twisted. If this hap- pens, the sap flows out through the wound and the shoot dies. The vine should be fastened with red willow and not with white willow, which is likely to break, at least when dry. Part II 147 CHAPTER VIII Nipping Off the Buds TO nip off buds or to disbud the vine means to remove needless buds which would be apt to prove injurious. Any bud is needless or useless which does not have any grapes, or which is not intended to be pruned in the following year. Any useless bud is superfluous, first, because the sap nourishing it would be merely wasted; sec- ond, because on its growing it would cover the grapes, shutting them off from the beneficent ac- tion of air. izj-S Vinei/ards of France It is dangerous to disbud the vine too early, that is, when the grapes are still so small as to make it difficult to distinguish them in the heart of the bud, as one runs the risk of pulling out the future grapes together with the bud. It is equally dangerous to dis- bud the vine too late, because in such a case the bud removed has already used up nourishment in- tended for the remaining buds. It is, therefore, necessary to carry out this operation at the proper time, and the vine-grower should engage help in order to be in a position to do so. Part II 149 Such buds as are located on the stock near its base are left behind for next year pruning, but not more than two buds on " Au- vernat" stocks and on red grape stocks. On white grape stocks as many as three and four buds are left for the reason explained in the chapter concerning the dress- ing of the vines; namely, that this wood, shooting forth from the stock and called "brain-wood," produces a greater yield in white grape vines than in red grape vines. In old vines one should not remove the small buds which are 150 Vinei/ards of France found on old wood, as they are to be used in the following years for renovating the vine. A well-pruned and well-dis- budded vine should have buds from the foot of the stock up to the top of the shoots. If this is not the case, the vine has been either improperly pruned or im- properly disbudded. patt 3331 Occidents Affeding the Vine Its Diseases and Harmful Inseds CHAPTER I (tAccidents Affe5ling the Vine VINES are likely to suffer from frost-bite, winter and spring frosts, the "tacon," the hail, and the shedding of the blossoms. § I . The Frost-Bite A shoot is said to be frost-bit- ten when one or more of the shoots branching out are spoiled and dead. 152 Vineyardi of France Summer frost-bite is due to de- ficient heat and is liable to occur whenever, owing to the rainy and cold season, the shoots have been prevented from growing properly, and their branches from becoming sufficiently hardy to withstand the early autumn frosts, or whenever a shoot has been too tightly fas- tened up, thereby hampering the proper circulation of the sap in- dispensable for its proper growth. Winter frost-bite is due to the melting by the sun of the hoar frost covering a shoot. The shoot becomes parched, blackens, and falls to the ground. Part III 153 When the hoar frost or white frost is removed by the wind shak- ing the shoots, or when, owing to overcast weather, the hoar frost dries out, or when it is melted by the fog before the sun appears, no frost-bite can possibly take place. This accident can be neither pre- vented nor made harmless. § 2 . Winter Frosts Winter frosts are at times so heavy as to reach down to the roots of the vine and to make it necessary to pull them out. Sometimes the heavy cold freezes only the stools down to 154 Vinei/ardf of France the stump. Then the vines should be cut off at the base. When this becomes necessary, it should be done as soon as pos- sible so that the wounds, which are naturally very wide, may be afforded sufficient time to dry before the sap sets in. In spite of the severity of the winter, the shoots nearest the stock are sometimes preserved by the snow covering them. In this case the wood is cut down only to these shoots. Sometimes after a very severe winter one is in doubt whether the wood is still good or not. The Part III 155 shoots are very brittle because they have sufFered from the frost. Nev- ertheless, the wood is still green inside, however pale the colour may be. The best plan has been to cut the vine very short and to leave only the upper shoots without cutting at the foot. § 3. Spring Frosts The earth, dampened by win- ter rains and snows, emits vapours upon being heated by the spring sun. These vapours disappear grad- ually when the weather is mild, but they condense near the sur- 156 Vinei/ards of France face of the earth if the air is cold, and cover the wood and the shoots of the vine, resulting in hoar frost. The spring frosts are not in- jurious unless the shoots have started to grow. The vine is scarcely likely to suffer by such frosts before its shoots begin their growth; but whenever this hap- pens, the vine is said to have been frozen "en bourre." Spring frosts are seldom sufficiently severe to give rise to this phenomenon, which, however, has been ob- served occasionally. Since the coldness of the air is more pro- nounced at sunrise, that is, at the . Part III 157 end of the night, it is at such a time that the hoar frost is more notice- able, both on the surface of the earth and on the vines and other plants. Hoar frost is likely to oc- cur after a fall of snow or a hail- storm. Vineyards located in the prox- imity of forests are more liable to hoar frost because the earth is generally cooler, and, moreover, the forest ads as a screen against the wind. Lowlands are also liable to hoar frost because they are less exposed to the wind, and because the vapours are heaviest, owing to 158 VineT/ards of France the greater moisture of such lands, which serve the purpose of sewers for those adjoining. Dry, raised, and exposed lands are better pro- tecSled against hoar frost for the reasons explained above. Whenever hoar frost occurs, if the sun appears before the frost is melted, the heat of its rays scorches the bud and it dries up, becomes black, and is transformed into powder. These efFedls become noticeable after a few hours of sunshine. When the budding shoot has attained a sufficient development, that is, when it is one-half a foot Part III 159 long, or even longer, and its leaves are fully developed and its grapes begin to appear, it happens very often that the leaves and the grapes are still green and fresh after a hoar frost. But in reality great harm has been wrought if the point of the bud has been bitten by the frost, which is made apparent by the fad: that such a tip looks withered and drooping. Whenever this happens, no grapes are to be exped ed from the stricken shoot, which miscarries, owing to the stoppage of the sap circula- tion brought about by the with- ering of the point. i6o Vineyards of France The vapours from a river, since they are warmer than the vapours arising from the earth, often ad: as a protection against hoar frost for adjoining vines, whenever the wind blows from the river. Vine- yards have been known to have been protected against hoar frosts by a brick kiln, whose smoke was being carried by the wind toward the vineyard, while all the ad- joining vegetation was destroyed by the frost. Whenever, during the spring, hoar frost is threatening, one should abstain from doing any work in vineyards and even from Part III i6i mere weeding. By even slightly disturbing the earth, the vapours are afforded a more unobstructed and freer passage, and are more likely to cause hoar frost. Nothing is more likely to originate hoar frost in vineyards than the spreading or digging up of manure. Owing to its inherent heat, it emits large quantities of vapours, which are condensed upon the wood and the buds by the coldness of the air. § 4. About Hail Large dry hail-stones, driven by a strong wind, destroy the grape 1 62 Vineyards of France and break or wither the shoot. Even such grapes as have escaped diredl damage from the hail are hkely to suffer, owing to the fad: that the vine, stripped of its shoots, grows new ones, which deprive the grapes of their nourishment. The berries are smaller and the quality of the wine is inferior. Whenever hail falls toward the end of the month of June, or even later, the vine is unable to bring to maturity the new shoots grown, and the harm wrought is still felt in the following year, when a scarcity of shoots capable of producing grapes is noticed. Part III 163 If hail strikes a vineyard near vintage time, it bruises the berries, and if these berries dry up before the vintage, they impart to the wine a sour taste, which detracts from its quaUty and makes it Uable to turn sour. To obviate this trouble, it is necessary, when gathering the grapes, carefully to pluck out these hail-stricken berries. § 5. Dropping Off and ^'■'Tacon'' The dropping off arises from two causes: namely, from defi- cient or excessive sap in the vine. The deficiency of sap is due to 164 Vineyards of France dryness of the earth, and the ex- cess of sap to excessive moisture of the soil. In the former case the earth does not supply a sufficient quan- tity of sap to afford suitable nour- ishment to its shoots and to its grapes. In the latter, the circu- lation of the sap being too force- ful, the grapes are not afforded sufficient time to ripen, and there- fore miscarry. These accidents are especially to be feared when the vine is blos- soming and the grapes are form- ing. Since this is generally the time at which the second tilling Part III 165 is performed, it should be carried out with the utmost care, as stated above. The dropping from the vine is characterized by the vine shed- ding its grape bunches, which fall under the stocks. Sometimes only the berries are shed, and the grape bunches remaining on the stock appear very thinly provided with berries. There are still other bunches which preserve all their berries, but the latter are so small that even upon becoming ripe, they are not larger than a pin- head. Such grapes furnish very little wine, the stalks absorbing 1 66 Vineyards of France almost as much juice as is ex- traded from the berries. When the dropping off has begun, the harm is continuous to vintage time, unless the weather becomes exceptionally favourable through alternations of rain and clear hot weather. The "tacon" is the wither- ing of the shoots or the grapes, caused by cold rains and espe- cially by large water drops formed by melting hail falling scattered when the weather is warm and the sun appears. The "tacon" withers the berry, scorches the bud, and harms the wood in such Part III 167 a way as to make it necessary to cut the blighted shoot and to tend most carefully any shoots which may have been even slightly stricken. "Tacon "-stricken grapes do not fail to grow, unless the stalk has been harmed, but some of them wither. CHAPTER II 'Diseases of the Vine THE diseases of the vine are the rust, the blight, and the scurf. When a vine is attacked by rust, its leaves appear withered, 1 68 Vineyards of France drooping, and of a faint green. This marks the beginning of the bUght. When bhght develops, the leaves shrink and turn yellow in- stead of being broad and green. The blight is caused either by excess of moisture or by dryness ; by excess of moisture in such soils as retain the w^ater, the roots eventually rotting and therefore being unable to nourish the stock ; by dryness, when the surface layer is too thin, the stock withering from lack of nourishment. Age and sometimes the im- proper tilling of the soil give rise Part III 169 to these same results, irrespedive of the quaUty of the soil. Whenever these accidents oc- cur on account of the age of the vine, there is no alternative left but to pull out the vines and to replant the vineyard. If the accidents are due to the improper tilling of the soil, the troubles experienced maybe over- come by a proper tilling per- formed at the proper time. If they are caused by the moisture of the earth, there is no possible remedy, and the land should be considered as unfit for vine-growing. lyo VineT/ards of France If they are caused by the dry- ness of the soil, as a general rule, the trouble experienced may be eliminated by dumping upon the soil new earth, taken from swamps or ditches. In this way the ne- cessary moisture is given to the soil, which remains damp for a long time to come. The scurf is a kind of dry gum which forms on the stock. It is caused by a stoppage in the cir- culation of the sap, which does not have sufficient force to climb higher and thus stops at that point. Vines planted in light and moist soils are liable to this disease. Part III 171 The shoot attacked by scurf should be cut near the stock, and if in the following year it is found decaying, it will be necessary to pull it out and to replace it either by layering or by planting. CHAPTER III InseBs Injurious to the Vine § I . Vine-grubs THE vine-grubs are the most dangerous of all. These in- serts have the general aspe6t and colour of beetles, but they are much smaller and almost invisible. They come out of the earth at a time when the bud has already 172 Vineyards of France attained a certain development. They eat it away, perforating the leaves and splitting open the ber- ries to absorb the juice. About the end of August they dig again into the earth and eat the roots of the vine throughout the whole winter and part of the spring. The vine attacked by these in- serts may be easily recognized by the fad that its leaves are full of small holes and have a sieve-like appearance. This is the result of their summer adivity. Further- more, the shoots are short and slender and the berries very thinly Part III 173 scattered and poorly developed. This is because the roots of the vine have been eaten away by these inseds throughout the win- ter, which causes the sap to be lost through the wounds thus in- flicted. In time the sap becomes insufficient to nourish the stock, which sooner or later dies. Vineyards planted in light soils are more likely to be attacked by these inseds. Heavy soils, which are more compad, are less liable to be infested by these grubs, as they find it more difficult to pen- etrate into such soils. Several 174- Vineyards of France methods resorted to for their de~ strudion have proved unsuccess- ful. Cold rains in the course of the summer have been found to be the only effedive means of de- stru6lion. In default of this nat- ural remedy, no other is known except to pull out the vines so at- tacked, and to leave the soil fal- low for about two years. The grubs then die for lack of nourishment or migrate to another soil. § 2 . Wine-weevils The wine-weevils are small, perfedly round inseds and appear Part III 175 on the ground when the shoot is about half a foot long. They stick to the shoot, splitting it and the berries, and laying their eggs on the leaves, which appear covered with small dots and become dry and drooping. It is sometimes necessary to pluck out these weevils in view of their large number and of the damage they are inflidting upon the vines. A means of destroying this pest has been tried, which it is claimed has proved successful. A few hemp seeds, ten or twelve feet apart, are planted along the middle of each 176 Vineyards of France bed, beginning at the end of the bed. It is claimed that the smell of this plant will drive away these pests, or cause their destruction. But in order to prevent the vine being injured by the growth of the hemp, the latter should be pulled out as soon as one can reasonably exped: the weevils to have disappeared definitely. The worms, which are found on the blossoming grapes, are hatched, according to a certain opinion, from the eggs of the wine-weevils. In cool and damp weather the growth of the blossoms is much retarded. Dry and mod- Part III 177 erate weather quickens the blos- soming and causes the destrudion of these pests. The weevils do not leave the grapes until the vintage. § 3. Beetles and Other InseBs Beetles eat away the vine as they do trees. A month after mak- ing their appearance they fall to the ground, where they lay their eggs, which are hatched in a few days, producing small worms, which later dig into the earth, and feed on the roots of the vine until they appear as beetles. These small worms come out of the earth at the beginning of May. Whenever 178 Vineyards of France they are prevented from doing so by abnormally cold or dry weather, the vine is likely to suf- fer still more, since being older and larger they have greater strength to gnaw the roots. The worms are especially fond ofyoung plants, the roots of which are more tender, and it happens very often that the plant attacked withers away and dies. This has been proved beyond doubt by ex- posing the roots of plants which have died, these pests having been found adhering to the roots. It is dangerous to plant when- ever practically no beetles are Part III 179 noticed on the ground, especially if the soil is light, as they are more prevalent in such soils than in heavy ones. Sometimes their number is so great as to make it necessary to hire labourers to destroy them. The proper time for this work is at dawn, before the air warms, as then these inseds fly away. They are found sleeping on the leaves. As fast as they are colleded, they should be placed in a receptacle and burned. Snails likewise stick to the buds and afterward to the grapes when they begin to ripen. They eat i8o Vineyards of France the growing bud and damage the grapes by their trail, making the wine fatty. They are more prev- alent in vineyards located near hedges or walls, where they find good shelter. They should be sought there, especially after a heavy dew-fall or a warm rain, as they then leave their shelter. Caterpillars likewise eat the blossoming bud. As they gener- ally come from adjoining trees or hedges, such trees or hedges should be carefully freed from these pests in the course of the winter, when the eggs of these inseds are still enclosed in their sheaths. Part III i8i Besides the eggs enclosed in the sheaths, other eggs are laid all around the branches without sheaths in small coiled strings. The latter are very difficult to deted. There is a kind of caterpillar which comes out of the earth at springtime and sinks again into the soil in the autumn. They can- not be destroyed except by pick- ing them out as soon as they ap- pear. ?^ ^ patt 3lo The Vintage CHAPTER I preparations for the Vintage §1. Wine-press EXTENSIVE repair work as regards the tubs, the crush- ing troughs, and the wine-press should not be delayed until vin- tage time. Cask makers and car- penters are extremely busy then and one runs the risk of being poorly served and of paying very high prices. This repair work should be done in May or June. If it becomes necessary to make 184 Vineyards of France a new wine-press, the above ap- plies even more forcibly. In this distrid: by the term "anchot" there is designated a round container similar to the tub, but having a smaller capa- city. As a rule tubs have a capa- city of from five to ten puncheons of wine together with the marc. The "anchot" is a kind of half size tub having a capacity of three or four puncheons of wine with or without the marc. The"anche"isan oval-shaped container having, as a rule, a ca- pacity of one and a half punch- eons without marc. It is placed Part IV 185 under the spout of the wine-press to hold the wine as it flows from the press. The crushing troughs will be described in due course. The two-shaft wine-press was pradically the only type used of old, and as they wear out, they are being replaced by wheel wine- presses. The main difference between these two types of wine-presses is that the main parts of the former are two large square shafts, one of which is placed under the bottom of the press and carries the stress of the other when the pressure is ex- 1 86 Vineyards of France erted, while the latter is held fast by one of its ends, a screw being fitted at its free end. By means of this screw the shaft is lowered for compressing, whereby the crushed grapes, generally called "marc," are squeezed and their juice is ex- tracted. The second type of wine-press is provided with only one large shaft under the bottom of the press, the upper shaft being re- placed by a medium size wooden piece called the "beam." This beam brings the pressure to bear upon the middle axis of the planks which cover the marc. Part IV 187 It is suspended by means of a dowel from a screw-fitted wheel, the screw engaging the nut. For pressing the marc, the wheel is lowered by means of a cable, one end of which is fastened to the wheel, the other end being fastened to a vertical pivoted pole. This pivoted pole, which is ereded at a distance of twelve to eighteen feet from the wine-press, is turned by means of two levers, which are generally called "de- moiselles," four men pushing the ends. It is true that the old type wine- press is more powerful and that it 1 88 Vineyards of France extracts a larger quantity of wine. However, the other type is also sufficiently powerful and, more- over, it may be built large enough to allow of ten to twelve mea- sures of wine being obtained at a time. The greatest objedtions against the two-shaft wine-press are that, first, the original cost is higher; second, they are more difficult to operate; third, they are much more bulky; fourth, repairs are more costly. It happens very often that the repairs made entail a necessity for further repairs, because this Part IV 189 wine-press being made up of only large parts, a new part, owing to its stiffness, is liable to occasion the breakage of an old part, which has then to be replaced. § 2. hiens When the vintage is plentiful, and the wine expensive, some land-owners are wont to have a second-grade wine made, called "Liens." For this purpose an open puncheon is filled up to two- thirds of its height with grapes, which are then crushed, the puncheon being afterward filled 190 Vineyards of France with water. It is then sunk in dregs, without being bunged, and, in order to quicken the boiHng process, one to two pints of brandy are added. This process is carried out eight or ten days before vintage time. For this purpose grapes are se- leded which are not as yet thor- oughly ripe and are still slightly green, in order to prevent this drink from becoming less agree- able, owing to excessive sweetness. § 3. 'Tubs and Casks From eight to ten days before vintage time, it is necessary to Part IV 191 mount the new casks, to refit the old ones, to put in shape the tubs and the"anchots,"and a few days later to tighten the screw of the wine-press. Furthermore, the planks of the press should be laid on the bottom of the press and should be flooded with water to clean and soak them, after the spout has been stopped up. The tubs, the "anches," and the "an- chots" should be likewise soaked. This water is drained off on the eve of the vintage, and it is replaced several times by fresh clean water until the water remains perfedly clear. 192 Vineyards of France In order to drain the tubs be- fore filling them with grapes, they are slightly tipped toward the bottom of the wine-press. They are then thoroughly dried with a sponge, which is also used for dry- ing the tub after the fermented grapes have been emptied into the press. Whenever a container has ac- quired an unpleasant smell since the last vintage, herbs having a strong smell are used to purify the tub, such as sage, thyme, marjo- ram, etc. These herbs are boiled in a large cauldron, and the boiling water is then poured into the Part IV 193 container, which is thoroughly- washed and scrubbed. The con- tainer is afterward rinsed several times in succession with clear water, until the odour has disap- peared. No fodder should be stored in the wine-press room, especially near the press and the tubs, as there is the risk of the candles used at night, when making the wine, starting a fire. 194 Vineyards of France CHAPTER II Wine Casks § I. Proper Time for Buying the Casks IS it advantageous or not to buy the puncheons during the winter? This is a problem which each one solves according to his inclinations. Here are a few con- siderations in this regard. There is no doubt but that casks can be bought more cheaply during the winter as the maker is then satisfied with a small profit, because with the cash he re- ceives he is enabled to buy at the low price prevailing at that time of the year new materials for Part IV 195 making a further lot of casks, to be sold at a higher price during the year. Against this advantage there are to be set off the accidents to which the vine is exposed; such as winter and summer frosts, hail, and the dropping off of the blos- soms. In such cases one finds one's self with a large number of punch- eons on hand which are useless for the current year, and which in the following year will not be as good as new ones, and will no longer be guaranteed by the maker, and this without taking 196 Vinei/ardf of France into account the fa6i: that the out- lay has been made two years ear- her than necessary. As a rule, the prices of casks advance as vintage time ap- proaches. However, when the crop is not very plentiful, the increase is not sufficient to make it desirable to purchase punch- eons in advance. Generally, it is sufficient to buy the casks when all danger of the dropping off of the grapes has passed. It is not advisable to wait any longer, as the middle course is the best. The problem is more serious in Part IV 197 plentiful years. In such years, as soon as there is no further danger of the blossoms dropping off, and even as soon as the vine blos- soms, the weather being otherwise favourable, the price of punch- eons increases and keeps on in- creasing until the vintage is fin- ished. It has happened at times that their cost has exceeded the value of the wine contained in them. Whenever a plentiful vintage is forecasted, the best course ap- parently is to buy, as soon as the danger of frosts is past, and before the blossoming, one half of the 198 Vineyards of France puncheons which will be re- quired at vintage time, the other half being bought after there is no danger of the blossoms dropping off. In this way the risk of buy- ing too many or too few casks will be avoided as far as possible, and they will be procured at a moderate price. In plentiful years, besides the danger of having to pay very high prices for the casks wanted if the purchase is delayed, there is the further risk of being supplied with poorly made casks, since the man- ufacturers are obliged to employ all available workmen, without Part IV 199 regard to their skill, and the latter work rapidly in order to earn more money, inasmuch as they are paid very high job rates. Furthermore, toward the end of the season, the makers are obliged to use waste wood to- gether with good wood. It results therefrom that in spite of the strid: supervision exercised on the wine after the vintage, a large quantity is unavoidably lost. The spare or extra puncheons are especially subject to this trou- ble, being the last made. It is advisable to have the puncheons carried to the coun- 200 Vinei/ardf of France try a few months before the vin- tage. They are then afforded suf- ficient time to season before being mounted in place. They should not be mounted until eight or ten days before the vintage. They are tighter when filled, as they have not had time to dry and become leaky. § 2. ^ality and Making of the Casks The puncheons, as well as the half puncheons or quarts, should be made of new oak wood with- out any red wood or orchard wood either for the heads or for the staves. The bung stave, which Part IV 20I may be made of red wood, is ex- cepted from this rule. This prac- tice is wrong, but has been au- thorized by the by-laws of the bar- rel and cask makers. Soft wood is always leaky, and the leaking wine wets and disintegrates the hoops, and proves injurious to the puncheon. When the casks are made with comparatively thin staves, the puncheons have a larger capacity in spite of the fad: that their outer dimensions do not appear to be any larger. However, thin staves are liable to split, especially when the hoops are driven in, not being 202 Vineyards of France sufficiently strong to withstand the knocks of the workman's mal- let. If the staves are very wide, the puncheon may be built with fourteen of them, but it is advan- tageous to use a few more. The greater the number used, the rounder the cask and the more its capacity is increased. Three and four part bottoms are the best. However, one may use five part bottom casks, but no bottom with more than five parts should be permitted. The puncheons should have an outer length of two and one-half Part IV 203 feet, including the chime, which should be four inches and four Hnes, including the groove. The inner length between the chimes should therefore be twenty-five inches and four lines. The outer circumference of the puncheon at the height of the bung should be exadly seven feet. The puncheon should have a capa- city of two hundred and ten to two hundred and twelve pints, including the dregs, Orleans mea- sure; that is, two thousand and forty-five pints, Paris measure, the Orleans measure being one-sixth larger than the Paris measure. 204 Vineyards of France These two measures are in the ratio of five to six. The half puncheon or quart should be two feet long and five and a half feet in circumference at the height of the bung, the inner length between the chimes being a foot and a half. Each chime should be one inch and ten lines, including the groove. Its capacity should be from one hun- dred and five to one hundred and six pints, including the dregs. The quart, in spite of the fad: that it is in reality a half punch- eon, is so called because, besides being one half of a puncheon, it Part IV 205 is at the same time the quarter of a hogshead, which is equal to two puncheons. A puncheon should be as- sembled by means of eighteen hoops, four on each side of the middle cross-sedion and five at each end. If assembled with a less number of hoops, it can be re- jected. A quart should have four- teen hoops, the same applying to the half quart. A bundle of hoops is made up of twenty-four, and a half bundle of twelve hoops. The large hoops for the tubs and the anchots are sold in bundles of six. The hoops 2o6 Vinei/ards of France should be made either of oak (oak hoops are the best) or of birch; chestnut is even better, but it is rather uncommon. The best tub hoops come from high country, from Roanne to Nevers. Cologne hoops are also in current use, but they are not as good. It would be advisable to use iron hoops for the tubs and the anchots. They are more costly, but they last indefinitely, whereas wooden hoops have to be replaced at frequent intervals. Whenever old casks are used, they should be washed with two or three quarts of boiling water Part IV 207 after having been bunged up. If the casks have any defeats, such as distortions, etc., they are re- vealed by a whistling sound oc- casioned by the air expanded by the heat rushing through the de- fective spots. Afterwards they should be rinsed with fresh water until the discharged water is perfectly clean and clear. In this manner one may ascertain by careful inspection that the cask has absolutely no odour. It would be advisable to take the same precautions in connec- tion with new casks. This would make it possible to discover their 2o8 Vineyards of France defects, if any. Furthermore, the hot water would dissolve the paint and prevent it from mixing with the wine. Generally, they are merely cleansed with fresh water, some of which is left in the casks for a few hours, in order to soak the wood, to make the heads tight, and to swell the staves. But this cold water washing does not offer the advantages of the hot water washing. The only reason why the latter is not resorted to, es- pecially when the crop is plenti- ful, is that it takes too long. Part IV 209 CHAPTER III Proper Time for Gathering the Grapes THE proper time for gather- ing the grapes is when they are perfectly ripe. Unless they are ripe, the wine cannot be good. The ripeness of the grapes is shown when a berry plucked from the bunch does not have a small red mark at its lower end around its point. Furthermore, thor- oughly ripe grapes are plucked from the stalk without offering the slightest resistance. However, overripe "Auver- nat" becomes withered, its juice becomes thick, it gives a lesser 2IO Vineyards of France yield of wine, and its wine is liable to become fatty. To avoid this, it is necessary, especially when the weather has been very warm, to gather the grapes before they are completely ripened. This slight unripeness does not affed: perma- nently the taste of the wine, and generally increases its strength. When the blossoming has ex- tended over a long period, the grapes even of the same stock are apt to ripen at different times, the bunches which have been the first to shed their blossoms being the first to ripen. In this case it is better to delay the vintage for Part IV 211 some days, even at the risk of los- ing a few bunches through over- ripeness. In the mean time the other bunches will ripen and make up for this loss, both in the quantity and quality of the wine. If the rain falls near vintage time, a few days should elapse be- fore the grapes are gathered, in order that the grapes may profit therefrom. That the grapes grow in size after such rain is evi- denced by those found strewn under the stalks, which have been forced out of the bunches by the growth of the other berries. Prolonged rainfalls near vin- 212 Vineyards of France tage time are apt to make a por- tion of the grapes rot before the rest are sufficiently ripe to be gath- ered. It would be dangerous to leave these rotten grapes on the vine, as they would find their way into the tub eventually, in spite of any previous picking, and im- part to the wine an unpleasant taste; those who gather the grapes are never sufficiently careful, and they cannot be relied upon to pick the rotten berries with the care necessary. The ripest grapes are the ones most apt to rot, and experience has shown how they may be taken Part IV 213 advantage of. They should be gath- ered a few days before vintage time and carried at once to the wine-press table without passing through the fermenting tubs, and immediately crushed by the beat- ers, as in the case of white grapes. The wine is good, and does not have the mouldy taste which is chara6i:eristic of the wine ob- tained from white grapes left too long on the vine before being gathered. Since the colour is imparted to the wine when the grapes are fer- mented in the tub, this wine, made in the same way as white wine. 214 Vineyards of France is colourless. This defe6t may be easily correded, and the wine may be either sold at a lower price or kept for personal use. Thus the necessity of wasting any portion of the grapes is avoided. Experi- ence has shown conclusively that favourable results may be obtained in this way. CHAPTER IV How to Make Wine IN order to insure the proper making of the wine, attention should be paid to the colour and to the strength. The colour depends, first, on Part IV 215 the selection of the grapes; second, on the manner of crushing. § I . SeleBion of Grapes We have in this territory two main varieties of red grapes. The first variety is the " Auver- nat." It is identical with the " Pi- neau" of Burgundy, and gives in the southwestern district, as in Burgundy, the best wine. Besides the "Auvernat-black," we have also an " Auvernat-grey," which owes its name to its par- ticular colour, and we have also •another variety called " coloured Auvernat." These latter varieties 2i6 Vineyards of France are grown only on a small scale, owing to the too weak colour of the former and the too dark colour of the latter. The second main variety is the "Fromente-black," called also "Meunier," because of the white down covering the back of its leaves. Its wine is very good, even though it is inferior to the "Auvernat" wine. It is not as fine and it does not keep as well. Generally, the two varieties are gathered at different times in order to make the wine separate- ly. The "Auvernat "ripens at least Part IV 217 eight days before the "Fromente." The "Auvernat-black," gath- ered alone and without a mixture, gives the wine which has, more- over, a sufficiently developed colour. However, it happens some- times that the " Fromente-black," either on account of its being planted in warmer soils, or because of the immaturity of the plants, ripens at the same time as the <« Auvernat." As the " Fromente" is next to the "Auvernat" in point of quality, it may be gath- ered at the same time and may be mixed in the same tub. Care should 2i8 Vineyards of France be taken that the mixture con- tains at least two-thirds of " Au- vernat." In this way body is im- parted to the wine without de- tracting from its quahty. If unripe "Fromente" is mixed with "Auvernat," even though the latter is perfectly ripe, the former, its charadteristic proper- ties being still undeveloped, weakens the ''Auvernat," and imparts to it a certain acidity which proves most injurious. When there are on hand either coloured or grey "Auver- nat "grapes, they should be appor- tioned among the different tubs, in Part IV 219 order to equalize the strength and the colour of the wine, the grey "Auvernat" being of a weaker colour and the coloured "Auver- nat" of a more inferior quality than the "Auvernat-black." The ^'Auvernat- white" and the "Melier," which sometimes ripen at the same time as the "Auvernat-black," and whose quantity is generally too small to allow of their being used for the making of a special white wine, should likewise be apportioned among the different tubs in order to prevent too much alteration of the colour of the wine. 220 Vinei/ards of France § 2. How to Crush Grapes One method of crushing grapes consists in arranging on each tub a crusher into which the dorsal carriers discharge their load upon their arrival from the vineyard, instead of emptying it diredly into the tub. Since the crusher has a capacity of only five or six dor- sals, it is easy to make sure that all the berries have been crushed, and if the wine pours into the tub with all of them thoroughly crushed, it is unnecessary to trans- fer it into another container. The crusher is a kind of un- covered cage mounted on a sup- Part IV 221 port, to which it is fastened and which is used to carry it about. It is square and made of sound oak planks, and has four sides and a bottom. The latter is pierced with holes, like a sieve, and lets the wine flow through, retaining the stalks and berries. Two opposite sides are provided with a trap, which are raised at the end of each operation, in order to dis- charge the marc into the tub, which is done by pushing the crushed grapes through the open- ing with the beater. 222 Vinei/ards of France § 3 . How Far the Tub Process should be Pushed Red wine acquires its colour by boiling in the tub. The juice of red grapes is in itself white. That this is undoubtedly so is proved by the fad that Cham- pagne white wine is made of black grapes crushed in the wine-press as soon as they are gathered, and without their passing through the tub. The longer the crushed grapes stay in the tub and the longer the boiling, the deeper coloured the wine. The shorter the stay in the tub, the lighter and more agreeable Part IV 223 the wine, but at the same time it is more apt to spoil. Wine which has remained too long in the tub is said to have been "forced." Wine too dark loses its quality, cannot be drunk for several years, and is sour and raw. The sour taste is im- parted by the stalk, and the colour by the skin. Wine is not considered to have been thoroughly fermented until the boiling has brought to the surface of the liquid all the marc, which then floats in the upper part of the tub. Near the end of the boiling process the marc settles down, and if it is not immediately 224 Vineyards of France borne to the press, in less than a quarter of an hour the wine is "forced." BoiUng of the wine in the tub begins earUer or later, depending on the warmth of the weather prevaiHng at the time of the vintage. When the season is warm, care should be taken that the ferment- ing is properly regulated, because at such times the wine boils as soon as crushed. This is not a real boil- ing, however, as it is induced by the heat of the grapes and not by the fermentation of the must. When vintage is late, the Part IV 225 weather is generally cool at the time of cutting the grapes. Then the dorsal carriers do not discharge the grapes either into the tub or into the crusher before ten o'clock in the morning. The grapes arriv- ing at the press before this hour are dumped into the"anchot" placed beside the tub. If these cool grapes were placed at the bottom of the tub, their coolness would retard the boiling, as it is the bottom layer which furnishes the neces- sary heat. In this case the grapes crushed the first are those arriving at the press after ten o'clock. After din- 226 Vineyards of France ner the grapes which arrived be- fore ten o'clock are crushed. At the same time the grapes which are coming in during the day from the vineyard are crushed. In this way the coolness of the first incoming grapes is offset by mix- ing with the grapes which are brought in later. The "Auvernat" boils more quickly than other varieties, as it is more fiery in itself. As this fire is extinguished by boiling, one should not wait until the boiling thoroughly subsides before draw- ing it from the tub and carrying it to the wine-press. Otherwise it Part IV 227 would lose its quality and would have too dark a colour. As it is dangerous to wait until the marc begins to fall to the bot- tom to ascertain how far the boil- ing has progressed, because one may be easily caught with the boiling too far advanced and the wine "forced," and as wine is seldom permitted to boil up to this point, especially high grade wine, other means are resorted to in order to ascertain how far the fermenta- tion has gone. Some wine makers dip a stick into the tub and let the wine drip into a glass. If the wine makes a ring, that is, if upon fall- 228 Vineyards of France ing into the glass it forms a ring of scum and foam, it is sufficiently fermented to be drawn. As the stick dipped into the tub does not draw a sufficient quantity of wine, some wine mak- ers, to make the experiment eas- ier, use a tin plate pumping pipe which is twice as long as an ordi- nary pumping pipe. To drive a passage for the pumping pipe a stick is dipped into the marc. This device pumps a sufficient quantity of wine to enable one to test the colour, odour, and taste of the wine. Sometimes one merely plunges Part IV 229 the hand into the tub, withdraw- ing a handful of marc and smell- ing it. The boiling is continued as long as the odour is sweet and until a strong biting smell is emitted. Some wine makers provide a simple faucet at the bottom of the tub by which they draw the wine, from time to time, to ascer- tain how far the boiling has pro- gressed, or a strong copper faucet may be used for the same purpose, and also to draw all the wine from the tub in order to transfer it to the puncheons when suffi- ciently boiled. 230 Vineyards of France § 4. How Long Grapes Picked from the Bunch should be permitted to Boil Whenever the vine has suf- fered from blossom dropping, the berries are either too small or too thinly scattered on the stalks, and the proportion of stalks in the marc becomes too great. Excess of stalks is apt to make the wine sour during the boiling process and to decrease the quantity of wine. To obviate these two diffi- culties, the grapes are picked from the bunches before being dumped into the tub, and each tub is thus filled with berries, without stalks. Some owners have all their Part IV 231 grapes picked from the bunch. When this is done, the wine may be allowed to boil in the tub with- out any fear of its being forced, as the forcing is occasioned solely by the stalks. In such a case, one may permit one's self to be guided by the colour so as to ascertain when the marc should be carried to the press. Wine made from grapes picked from the bunch is more delicate, rawness being imparted by the stalks. However, such wine is more likely to spoil. Furthermore, in such a case, to prevent its be- coming fatty, the grapes should 232 Vineyards of France be gathered before they are thor- oughly ripe. To remove berries from the stalks, the large, round wicker basket from three to four feet in diameter, with sides five to six inches high, and a flat bottom, is used, the twined wicker leaves forming small square holes of about an inch all around the basket, affording a passage for the berries and the skins, but retain- ing the stalks. When this appliance is used, an " anchot ' ' is placed beside the tub, and on its surface the two levers which are used to turn the pivoted Part IV 233 hole of the wine-press, generally called '* demoiselles," in order to afford a base for the basket. The man beating the grapes, instead of discharging the crushed grapes directly into the tub, takes them up with a bucket and dumps them into the basket. The attendant then rubs the bunches against one another with his hands in order to detach the berries, which fall into the "anchot;" the stalks are then dumped into a container standing nearby. After this operation is com- pleted, the contents of the "an- chot" are poured into the tub. 234 Vineyards of France The stalks are carried to the wine- press, where they are pressed only once to extract any wine they may still contain. The stalks of ten or twelve puncheons give approxi- mately fifty pints of wine, which is brought back to the tub. In spite of the acidity of this wine, such a small quantity is not likely to in- jure the rest, and this process al- lows even such a small amount being taken advantage of. Part IV 235 CHAPTER V How to Regulate the Wine-press THE puncheons and the other casks should be ready by the time the wine is considered as having sufficiently fermented to permit the marc to be carried to the wine-press; that is, they should have been watered, made tight, dried, and mounted in rows on the scaffoldings, each cask resting be- tween two large stones to keep it steady. To take the marc to the wine- press, a man draws it from the tub with a bucket; to convey the bucket from the tub to the wine- 236 Vtnej/ardf of France press, some wine makers have it passed from hand to hand, but this is a very long, tiresome, and waste- ful process. The best plan is to use an oak plank which has a one-inch groove extending along its whole length, sufficiently wide to receive the bucket. This plank is fastened at one end to the top of the tub and at the other end to the wine- press. A man standing near the tub places the bucket on the plank. The bucket slides by gravity along the groove towards the wine- press, where it is received by a Part IV 237 second man, who in his turn hands it to the operator in charge of the wine-press. This handUng is shorter and less tiresome, and no wine is wasted. The marc is poured into the press in such a way as to fill it entirely, excepting a four or five inch space at each of the four cor- ners, which is intended for drain- ing the wine. The press is then covered with sound oak planks, which should projed: slightly all around the edge in order to insure a uniform pressure on the whole mass. Before setting the planks, two 238 Vineyards of France poles should be placed across the marc at a distance of one foot from each end, for the purpose of sup- porting the planks and prevent- ing their sinking into the marc. Wine-growers call these poles "epingles." After the marc has been ar- ranged in the wine-press, the wine remaining in the tub is drawn out, and apportioned equally among all the puncheons which have been previously made ready for this purpose. The wine dripping from the marc in the wine-press before Part IV 239 the pressing is then added, and even the wine expressed at the first pressing, which is called " set- thng of the shaft." All the puncheons are filled with this first wine, which is the finest, leaving a vacant space of about twenty-five pints. This va- cant space in each puncheon is filled afterward with expressed wine, divided equally among all the puncheons. As the marc is made up of the stalks of the bunches as well as of the skins of the berries, the whole mass being pressed together, ex- 240 VineT/ards of France pressed wine is more raw than tub wine, but at the same time it keeps better. These are the two reasons why this wine is apportioned among all the puncheons, whereby the wine of all the puncheons of the same vintage is made of a uniform quality. Strictly speaking, only two men are required at the press, one to stand at the front and the other in the rear. However, it is wiser to employ three or even four men. A fourth man may be dispensed with except when it is necessary lo turn the press, and generally Part IV 241 one finds sufficient help among his own people without having to resort to outsiders. Before placing the marc in the press, the screw should be lubri- cated throughout its whole length, and also the bottom of the piv- oting hole. A dry, oilless white soap which does not soil is used for this lubrication. The less the screw projects, the less the danger of its being broken. This is the reason why several stages of square wooden blocks, called by the wine-grower "couettes" or "coussins," are in- serted between the planks and the 24-2 Vineyards of France beam. If the screw squeaks during the pressing, it should be lubri- cated again. The pressing should be done leisurely and uniformly, and a rest should be taken from time to time in order to allow the marc to be thoroughly crushed. The cable, one end of which is fastened to the pivot pole and the other to the wheel, should be wound twice around the latter in the first stage of the operation. During the first pressing, the marc which is soaked with wine is more easily and more quickly crushed than during the later Part IV 243 stages, so that the cable unwinds much more quickly. This point should be taken into considera- tion lest one be caught unawares. If this precaution should be negleded, the men operating the press would be exposed to the danger of being wounded by the iron pin which supports the end ring of the cable. This pin, which is merely inserted in the rim of the wheel, would be hurled against the men together with the cable, if they continued to pull the cable after it had been completely un- wound. Four men, or five at the most. 24-4 Vineyards of France are sufficient to operate a long shaft or a wheel press. By employ- ing a greater number of men, the risk is run of breaking some parts of the press, which of course would occasion a serious embar- rassment in the vintage work. After this first pressing, three further pressings follow. Before each of these operations, the col- umn of marc is cut on its four sides, and the marc so cut out is scattered on the surface of the col- umn, which is furthermore com- pressed toward its central axis in order to insure a better expression of the juice. Part IV 245 The "Auvernat" should be pressed at once, in order to pre- vent the marc from becoming heated and the wine evaporating or turning sour. The marc may be permitted to drip from twelve to fifteen hours after the last pressing. The press is then loosened in order not to strain it uselessly. 24-6 Vineyards of France CHAPTER VI How to Treat New Wine WINE in the cask should boil quickly, since this removes the greatest amount of impurities and better clarifies it. Wine thus boiled can be used sooner than that boiled slowly. For this purpose the casks should be filled daily for seven or eight days, and every second day there- after, until such time as they are covered. Moderately hot weather is likely to make boiled wine turn sour. For collecting the wine over- flowing; from the casks when the 7 Part IV 247 wine boils, gutters and small ves- sels are employed. These troughs should be made of tin plate and not of lead, as the latter imparts an unpleasant taste to the wine. The troughs are fitted with a neck, which enters the bunghole of the puncheon and discharges into the vessel placed between two adjoining puncheons. Two gut- ters may discharge into the same vessel. When wine boils very actively, care should be taken to empty the troughs in order not to waste any. Wine overflowing from the 248 Vineyards of France cask into the small vessel is poured into an open-mouthed receptacle, which is covered with a double cloth fastened by means of a ring in order to prevent the wine from becoming vapid. The scum and the dregs fall to the bottom. The wine above is good and may be used to fill the casks. Since only the thickest scum, which is absolutely useless, over- flows at first, the troughs and the vessels are not set in place until this occurs. After the wine has ceased boil- ing, all the casks should be sampled in order to ascertain Part IV 24.9 which of the casks have the bet- ter flavour. As soon as the wine has ceased boiHng, it is covered to prevent its becoming vapid. For this pur- pose a vine leaf is generally used, which is held by a superposed tile or a bung turned on its largest side. The cask should be filled and bunged from six to eight days after such covering. At the same time a faucet should be driven be- side the bung, which should be left raised for a few days in order to prevent accidents in case of stresses originating from the wine. After the cask has been bunged. 250 Vineyards of France it should be filled every fortnight up to the Feast of St. Andrew, the thirtieth of November, and then it should be left undisturbed until the end of the winter; that is, until the middle of February. When the casks are full, special care should be exercised to pre- vent freezing, as frost may occa- sion a splitting of the bottoms and a leakage of the wine. Since the casks containing new wine have to be unbunged very often, care should be taken to have the bung projed from the stave in order to facilitate its re- moval. In this way the necessity Part IV 251 of piercing the bung with a bit, or of distorting by using a ham- mer, is prevented. In order to avoid unbunging the puncheons for filHng, some wine makers resort to a new method. Besides the ordinary fau- cet placed on the side of the bung to serve as a vent whenever this is necessary, they place a larger fau- cet on the other side, boring a hole sufficiently wide to receive the spout of an ordinary funnel by means of a large bit. Whenever they desire to fill the cask, they remove both the large and the small faucets, and pour 252 VineT/ardf of France the wine through the large open- ing by means of a funnel. The small opening, besides serving as a vent, shows when the cask is full. In this way, since the faucets are easily fitted in place, one is as- sured that the cask is well closed, as the bung has not been removed. Now it is certain that the more carefully the cask is closed, the better the wine keeps. Nothing is more likely to spoil the wine than air penetrating the cask. Part IV 253 CHAPTER VII White Wine WHITE wines are of two kinds, sweet and dry. The Muscats, otherwise called "Genetins," of St. Mesmin, Ma- rigny, and Rebrechien, are sweet. The grapes are gathered when they begin to rot, and, if possible, after they have been touched by a frost. The hotter the season, the sweeter the wine. These grapes re- main sweet for several months and are still very good after the sweet- ness has disappeared. Dry white wines are made of other grapes than the Muscat- 254- Vinei/ardf of France Genetin, the "Melier" and the ' ' Auvernat-white ' ' being the best; the former prevents the wine from becoming fatty; the latter makes it clearer and more agreeable. These grapes are mixed with in- ferior varieties, such as the "Fram- boise" (Raspberry), the "Gamet," and many others; but the greater the quantity used of the two first mentioned, the better the quality of the wine. If the soil is such as to produce a wine likely to become fatty, a small degree of sourness is im- parted. White wine is not fermented Part IV 255 in the tub. White grapes are brought to the wine-press diredly from the vineyard, and are ar- ranged in the press in the same manner as redgrapes,with a vacant space for pressing. White marc is pressed four times in addition to the preHmi- nary one. As white marc has less fire than red, a sHghter pressure is appHed in order to allow it to drip thor- oughly. 256 Vineyards of France CHAPTER VIII The Vine Espaliers ESPALIERS are among the main ornaments of gardens, either in cities or in the country. They clothe the walls and make them appear attradlive by the ver- dure of their branches, by the brightness of their flowers, and afterward by their fruits, which grow continuously until, having become fully ripe, they are gath- ered. These espaliers are both use- ful and decorative. Low walls, such as are used to mark boundaries, are more suit- able for ordinary fruit trees Part IV 257 (peach trees, apricot trees, etc.). For vine espaliers, higher walls are more appropriate, especially the walls of buildings. The vines climb easily to a height of twelve and even fifteen feet. Espalier grapes being intended rather for the table than for the tub, preference is given to such varieties as have the pleasantest taste and whose berries are large, even though having a tougher skin. The main varieties used for this purpose are the following: first, Muscat, called " Frontignam. " The white variety is preferred to the red as being more palatable. 258 Vineyards of France Second, another variety of white Muscat, called "Passe-Musque." The former has a full although shorter bunch, thickly set with round berries. It is recommended on account of its sweet and fra- grant juice, and furthermore for its fine yellow colour when ripe, which appeals both to the sight and to the palate. The latter has a bunch almost twice as long as the former. The berries are large and elongated; they are less fragrant, but sweet. This variety is subject to blossom dropping. However, if, in spite of this trouble, it succeeds in saving Part IV 259 one-fourth of its berries, the bunch still appears fully set and fine and the berries ripen even better. Both the " Frontignam " and the "Passe-Musque" are used for making excellent jams. The latter, however, is preferable to the other. It is sweeter and has a finer fla- vour ; but on the other hand, the "Frontignam" is better if either sun or oven-dried. The quality of the wine does not correspond to the quality of the grapes. For this reason they are seldom used for wine making, and since they are suitable only 26o Vineyards of France for espaliers, the cultivation of this variety is very much re- stricted. The espaliers should be so arranged as to have a southern exposure. Such an exposure al- lows a freer access to sunshine, thus enhancing the fragrance and colour of the grapes. They may also be given a w^estern and even an eastern ex- posure, but never a northern one, as this w^ould deprive the grapes of their delicious flavour. The less advantageous the exposure, the more inferior the quality of the berries becomes. These tv^o varieties are also Part IV 261 used for arbors, covering either alleys or enclosures. Where an arbor is intended to cover an en- closure, the hornbeam, the lin- den tree, and the yew tree are preferable to the vine. In such a case one of the ends of the arbor should face the south and the other the north, so that the sides may face along their en- tire length, one eastward and the other westward, and profit by the sunshine for one-half of the day. If the ends of the arbor faced east and west, the north side would bear only tasteless grapes, owing to lack of sunshine. 262 Vineyards of France CHAPTER IX Rapes THERE are two kinds of rapes. The first is made of berries alone, with which a puncheon is one-half or two- thirds filled and later is filled with wine. Some wine makers mix the berries with the stalks, but this pra6i:ice is wrong, as it is likely to impart the flavour of the stalks to the wine. The second kind of rape is made of chips and berries. The chips are placed first in the puncheons. Three or four dorsals of berries are then poured through Part IV 263 the bunghole and the puncheon is afterward filled with wine. These rapes should be made by using the stronger and more deeply coloured grapes. For this reason preference is given to the "Samoireau" whenever it is pos- sible to procure this variety. These two kinds of rapes are not made outside of the wine- growing districts. On them are passed such weak wines as are liable to spoil, which restores the quality of the weak wines and makes them suitable for drinking. They are also used to obtain a uniform quality of wine whenever 264 Vineyards of France one has in his cellar several dif- ferent types. For this purpose a puncheon or even half a punch- eon of each kind of wine is poured on the rape. The casks intended for this purpose should be made of very carefully selected wood, and should be strongly hooped and fitted with fixtures at each end, because when once placed in the cellar, they should not be moved again, as such shifting interferes with the clearing of the wine. This may be used about three months after vintage time. One begins by drawing from fifty to Part IV 265 sixty pints, which is replaced by the wine that one wishes to treat. Once the rape has been started, the cask should be filled every eight days; otherwise, the chips nearest the bung are likely to dry out and even to become mouldy, and the rape to become spoiled. There is a third kind of rape, which is made of chips only. Wine merchants request this rape from the seller who disposes of his crop before vintage time. These rapes are used mainly by Paris wine dealers to impart strength and colour to inferior wines, and to make them more salable. 266 Vinei/ards of France CHAPTER X Temperature of the Wine Cellars CONTINUOUS fermenta- tion dissipates the spirits of wine; it becomes weaker and weaker, and then spoils. Anything that increases this fermentation hastens its deterio- ration. Anything slowing it down furthers its preservation. From this it follows that heat is unfavourable to the wine, and coolness favour- able, as shown by experience. Precautions for the preserva- tion of the wine should be taken according to the universally ac- knowledged methods. Part IV 267 The reason that wine is kept in cellars is because they are cool and— what is equally important — have a uniform temperature. The sensations one experiences upon entering a cellar would lead to the opposite conclusion. To become convinced of this fa6l, it is only necessary to look at a ther- mometer permanently installed in agood cellar at a depth of not more than eighteen or twenty feet be- low the surface. This will show, first, that at any season of the year the ther- mometer remains constant be- tween the temperate mark and the 268 Vineyards of France freezing point, the variations scarcely exceeding seven or eight degrees all the year round. Sec- ond, that the freezing point is ap- proached only when the outside temperature is very low, and the moderate temperature at the time of the most intense summer heat. It results therefrom that cellars are actually colder in winter than in summer, in spite of the current notion that temperature varia- tions in cellars are the opposite of those of the outside air. It is true that one has the feel- ing that cellars are warm in win- ter and cold in summer; but this Part IV 269 is misleading, and is due merely to an unconscious comparison with the outside temperature. They are thought cold because one has just left a warm atmosphere and warm because one has just left a colder temperature. Since the temperature in the cellars during the winter is higher than that outside, it is advisable to keep new wine on the ground floor of a barn until the end of March, when it may be transferred. At that time the temperature of the cellar is only slightly higher than that outside, thereafter becoming gradually lower. 270 Vineyards of France In order to keep cellars cool, their entrances and their windows should face either north or east, never south or west. A southern or western exposure would de- stroy the coolness of the cellar by admitting the warm air, and thus injure the wine. The second obstacle to the pre- servation of the wine is the ad:ion of the air, which penetrates into the puncheons and into the casks when they are not carefully sealed. It increases natural fermentation and spoils the wine. The adion of the air is shown by the flowers that form on the Part IV 271 surface of the wine in the vessels from which it is drawn daily for current use, and by the fad: that it becomes weaker as the bottom of the cask is reached. The same thing is noticed in bottles which have been left stand- ing instead of being laid down. The cork, even if perfectly tight, becomes dry and shrinks, thus af- fording a passage to the air, which causes the formation of these flowers and weakens the wine. If the bottle is laid down, the cork is dampened and does not shrink but remains perfectly tight, and the wine does not spoil. Corks 272 VineT/ardf of France sealed with pitch offer a still better protedion. The best way to ascertain whether the puncheons, casks, etc., are tightly closed, is to press the knee against the head. If the receptacle is perfectly tight, no whistling sound is heard at the bung. Furthermore, if the con- tainer is well filled, no wine spouts from a hole driven through it by a bit, owing to the lack of inner pressure. Since air is injurious to wine, the containers should be kept as full as possible. They should there- fore be filled up from time to time Part IV 273 to take the place of the wine which evaporates as well as of that which is absorbed by the casks themselves. It is estimated that each cask requires a pint monthly. Care should be taken that no puncheon is filled up with a weaker or older wine. It is better to give the preference to a younger and stronger one. Furthermore, the cellars should be kept perfectly clean and free from any corrupt- ing odour. THE END ^'^.. „ '' i/^:/^^^B