(Si 
 
 TUfJ ^ 
 
 NED AS A REiQING BOOK H 
 
 VG THE MOST laPORTiNT i tii{-^TION OK 
 
 
 y.n feELEVX£i> FROM THE BI,ST ENGLISH ^ 
 
 ^i J, ORV".i^ lAYJ^R. 
 
 i^ 
 
 I T Tr A . 
 ^ VCK, ANDRLS & WOODRUV; 
 
 ■ -i^^rs an^P'itUtsken. 
 
I-' 
 
THE 
 
 FARMERS' 
 
 SCHOOL BOOK. 
 
 f REPAREI) and WRITtEK BY 
 
 PROFESSOR J. ORVILLE TAYLOR, 
 
 AUTHOR OF THE 
 
 " DISTRICT SCHOOL," AND EDITOR OF THE " COMMON 
 SCHOOL ASSISTANT." 
 
 This work contains the most important information on Agriculture. 
 ITHACA: 
 
 miNTED AND PUBLISHED BY 
 
 Mack, andrus, & woodruff. 
 
 1837. 
 
S03 
 
 Entered, 
 according to Act of Congress, in the year 1837, by 
 J. Orville Taylor, 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court in the Northern Dis- 
 trict of New York. 
 
 6 
 
 Stereotyped by 
 
 3Frnncfs F. SXipleD. 
 
 9^ , \/r^c. 
 
FAIiMERS' SCHOOL BOOK. 
 
 This book should l)e read in Common 
 Schools, in the place of the " English Reader," 
 " Cohimbian Orator," and other similar works. 
 By reading the Farmers' School Book, the 
 children will learn the business of practical 
 life; and this is much more desirable than to 
 read the English Reader, a book they seldom 
 imdersfand, and one they can put to no prac- 
 tical use. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Pi?eface 7 
 
 Introduction 9 
 
 Chap. I. — Chymistr}'— General Principles .... 19 
 
 Chap. II— Caloric 23 
 
 Chap. III. — Ox3'gen 32 
 
 Chap. IV.— Nitrogen 36 
 
 Chap. V.— Atmosphere 37 
 
 Chap. VI.— Carbon— Carbonic Acid 40 
 
 Chap. VII.— Liffhi- Electricity 44 
 
 Chap. VIII.— Hydrogen 46 
 
 Chap. IX— Water 49 
 
 Chap. X.— The Earths 54 
 
 Chap. XI. — How Tillable Lands are made .... 56 
 
 Chap. XII. — Composition of Arable Lands .... 58 
 
 Chap. XIII.— Vegetable Nutriment GO 
 
 Chap. XIV.— Propertie.s of Mixed Earths, and their 
 
 Caliivaiion 63 
 
 Chap. XV. — The Nature of Manures— Varieties . . 65 
 
 Chap. XVI. — The Nature of Manures— continued . 68 
 Chap. XVII. — Stimulating Manures— Lime, Plaster, 
 
 Ashes, and Marl 71 
 
 Chap. XVIII. — Improvement of the Soil 77 
 
 Chap. XIX.— Succession of Crops 81 
 
 Chap. XX.— Gras,ses 85 
 
 Chap. XXI. — Gras.ses — continued . 91 
 
 Chap. XXII.— Hemp 98 
 
 Chap. XXIII.— Hops 106 
 
 A 2 
 
6 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chap. XXIV.-Rutabaga 114 
 
 Chap. XXV.— Pasture 119 
 
 Chap. XXVI.— The Culture of Silk 126 
 
 Chap. XXVII.— History of Silk 128 
 
 Chap. XXVIII.— Silk— continued 133 
 
 Chap. XXIX.— Sugar made from Beets 139 
 
 Chap. XXX. — Beet Sugar — continued 146 
 
 Chap. XXXI.— Best Breeds of Cattle 151 
 
 CuAP. XXXII.— The different Breeds of Neat Cattle 
 
 compared 155 
 
 Chap. XXXIII.— On Buying and Stocking a Farm 
 
 wiih Cattle : 157 
 
 Chap. XXXIV.— The Cow— Raising Calvres ... 161 
 
 Chap. XXXV.— Working Oxen 166 
 
 Chap. XXXVI.— Pasturing Cattle 169 
 
 Chap. XXXVII.— Soiling Cattle 172 
 
 Chap. XXXVIII.— Stall-feeding Beef Cattle . . . 177 
 
 Chap. XXXIX.— Milch Kine 180 
 
 Chap. XL. — The Pasture and other Food best for 
 
 Cows, as it regards their Milk 182 
 
 Chap. XLI. — The Management of Milk and Cream — 
 
 Making and Preserving Butter 185 
 
 Chap. XLII.— Making and Preserving Cheese . . .192 
 
 Chap. XLIII.— Swine 196 
 
 Chap. XLIV.— Diseases of Cattle 199 
 
 Chap. XLV. — Diseases peculiar to Oxen, Cows, and 
 
 Calves 207 
 
 Chap. XLVI.— Diseases of Horses 209 
 
 Chap. XLVII— Sheep 214 
 
 Chap. XLVIII.- Sheep— continued 219 
 
 Chap. XLIX.-The Farm-yard 223 
 
 Chap. L. — The Farm-yard — continued 238 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Children may read and study in the 
 school-room what they will practise when they 
 become men. They now read the " English 
 Reader," or some other " Collection" that they 
 do not understand, or feel any interest in ; 
 and which, the worst of all, never gives them 
 one useful idea for the practical business of 
 hfe. 
 
 This little work has been published to take the 
 place of such almost useless, unintelligible read- 
 ing. Its object is to give children, while they arc 
 receiving their school education, a scientific, 
 practical knowledge of the labours of manhood. 
 To the Young Farmer the work is invalua- 
 ble, and it will seize the feelings and get the 
 attention of every child that is learning to 
 read. The improvement of our schools, and 
 the interests of Agriculture, have long been 
 calling for such a work. It has now appeared, 
 full of the most useful information, yet in a 
 small, cheap form. The schools may obtain 
 it without delay. 
 
8 PREFACE. 
 
 The introduction, and the part which relates 
 to Chymistry, together with a portion of the 
 chapters on Cattle, and the nature and proper- 
 ties of the Soil, it was necessary for me to 
 write. I have been greatly assisted on the 
 subject of Sheep Husbandry by Judge Duel's 
 invaluable periodical, the " Cultivator." That 
 part which relates to the manufacture of Sugar 
 from the Beet is taken from Pedder's Report, 
 the best source of information we have. The 
 chapter on Hemp was written by the Honour- 
 able Henry Clay of Kentucky. Much assist- 
 ance has also been obtained from many of the 
 first writers of the day on Agriculture, and 
 particularly from an able English work called 
 the " Complete Grazier." 
 
 The work is emphatically a choice collection 
 of the most important things which our best 
 writers have said on the science and practice 
 of Agriculture, A concise manual for farm- 
 ers while engaged in their labours, and a large 
 amount of the most useful information for 
 children to read over and over again in their 
 schools. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. The King of Sparta being asked " what 
 things he thought most proper for boys to learn." 
 answered, " Those things which they expect to 
 do when they are men." The young farmer 
 has not taken this advice. He has learned 
 nothing of his profession, while receiving his 
 education. The study of Agriculture has not 
 even been pursued in the district schools ! 
 
 2. When a boy wishes to become a carpenter, 
 or a shoemaker, or a blacksixdth, he considers 
 it necessary to study his business for seven or 
 eight years. And if he chooses one of the pro- 
 fessions — law, physic, or divinity — he devotes 
 ten or twelve years to the study of those things 
 which he expects to do when he becomes a man. 
 If he desires to be a merchant, the different 
 markets, products, and the wants of the people, 
 the facilities of commerce, the value of ex- 
 changes, the supply and demand of articles, 
 
10 INTRODrCTION. 
 
 engross his attention, and all the powers of his 
 mind, for months and years. 
 
 3. But knowledge is more important, more 
 valuable to the farmer, than to the tradesman, 
 or to the professional man. The farmer shon'.d 
 understand Chyimistry, that he may know and 
 change the nature of the soils, tiiat he may 
 riginly prepare the best manures, and wisely 
 mix the dilferent earths — and, also, that he may 
 understand the way- in wliich the plants take in 
 their nourishment from the air and earth, and 
 be prepared to assist them in this nice operation. 
 
 4. He should know something of Geology, 
 that he may see the nature of the different soils, 
 which are mostly made of pulverized rocks. 
 B^'' knowing the nature and location of the 
 rocks in the neighbourhood, he can foxm a Very 
 correct opinion of the nature and properties cf 
 the soil, and judge how far the heavy rains or 
 the droughts will aifect the crops. 
 
 5. Mineralogy should be studied to some 
 extent. Plaster, lime, marl, &c. are discovered 
 by means of this science. The properties of 
 these stimulating manures, so vfiluable to the 
 farmers, would never have been known or 
 applied, if the study of mineralogy had been 
 neglected. There are beds of plaster, marl, and 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 lime, ir almost every section of our country ; 
 and if the farmers would give a little attention 
 to this simple and delightful part of natural 
 science, mines of wealth would open on many 
 a barren corner of the farm. 
 
 6. Manures are now but little studied or 
 understood. They are so made, or so applied, 
 that but little good, compared to what they 
 might do, is derived from them. The moisture 
 of the barn-yard is permitled to soak into the 
 earth, or to run off to uncultivated portions of 
 the farm. Fermentation is either checked too 
 soon, or goes much too far. And the manure 
 is frequently left in the yard till all the nutritive 
 gases have evaporated and become lost in the 
 air. 
 
 7'. Long, warm manures, which should be 
 put on hard, cold soils, are often put on soils 
 that are open and warm. Rotten, cold manures, 
 containing nothing but a few salts, which should 
 be used only on warm, light soils, are mixed 
 with clayey, heavy lands : and a crop that re- 
 quires a certain manure, is frequently dressed 
 Avith one directly opposite in its character. 
 There is not much knowledge of manures, and 
 frequently less judgment in their application. 
 
 8. The rank weeds that grow under the 
 
12 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 fences, on the sides of the road, and among the 
 crops in the field, together with tlie potato topsy 
 might be gathered and throwai into heaps to 
 ferment, and thus furnish to the farmer yearly 
 a large quantity of the most \^aluable manure. 
 Manure is the life of the farm, and the agricul- 
 turist should make all he can, and know how 
 to apply it to the best purposes. 
 
 9. The Grasses are a very important study. 
 Only two or three of these, such as timothy 
 and clover, are generally cultivated. That 
 there are twenty or thirty different kinds well 
 adapted to our soil, and that some of these are 
 much larger and quicker in their growth, is 
 known only to a few. The common grass is 
 raised from year to year without seeking for 
 any thing better. But this is not considered 
 jjrojitable farming. 
 
 10. The different Grains are not always 
 selected for their appropriate soils. Each grain 
 has its own particular food, and the soil that is 
 rich in nutriment for one kind, may have 
 nothing nourishing for another. It requires 
 long observation, and much knowledge of the 
 distinct individual food of the grain we wish to 
 raise, and of the existing properties of the soil 
 we cultivate, to make a, wise adaptation of 
 
Introduction. 13 
 
 grains to soils. A rotation of crops is always 
 necessary, and much study is required to know 
 the best rotation. 
 
 11. How often do farmers sow foul, imperfect 
 seed ! They not only show indifference to 
 Vac most profitable grains, but they not unfre- 
 qiiently, because the trouble is somewhat IgsH, 
 sow seed of inferior growth, or that \trhicli is 
 mixed with the seed of the most destructive 
 and troublesome weeds. By using such seed, 
 the farm soon becomes unfit for cultivation. 
 I-'arniers also neo-lect to destroy the first groAvtIi 
 of any fdril weed. They permit it to go to seed, 
 to spread its roots, and finally to take fall pos- 
 session of the soil, when one hour's v.^ork at 
 itrst would save the farm. 
 
 12. The best breeds of Cattle are not 
 always selected. Although it costs as mAich to 
 Ivccp a siilall, light, bony r&ce of cattle, as it 
 does to feed a square, meaty, heavy breed, yet 
 most farmers still continue to raise the old, un- 
 profitable stock, and appear indifferent to the 
 advantages of the better breeds that have been 
 introduced by observing, enterprising men. 
 Farmers may receive double the profits frorii 
 their cows and beef cattle, if they will only 
 obtain the better, improved breeds. 
 
 B 
 
14 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 13. Sheep, if there is a good selection and 
 proper care, may be made very profitable to the 
 farmer. But their nature is so imperfectly un- 
 derstood, and their favourite, healthy food, so 
 seldom known or procured, that their profits 
 are greatly diminished by the yearly loss of the 
 flock by death. It is surprising that men will 
 continue to lose their sheep from year to year, 
 without paying any attention to their diseases 
 and the remedies. The most profitable breed 
 is not always procured. Habit and indolence 
 still, in many places, continue to raise the 
 English sheep, with its tbin^ long, coarse wooly 
 and its larsfe consumins: carcass. 
 
 CD O 
 
 14. Swine, perhaps, receive the least of 
 our attention. Tlie long snout, the sharp 
 oack, the stilted bony limbs, the maw that is 
 always devouring, yet always squealing for 
 more, are what we see in almost every part of 
 the country. The short nose, the fat cheek, the 
 broad back, and the small short limb, or in one 
 word, the Berkshire Hog, we seldom meet 
 with. Farmers may save half their corn, and 
 have double the quantity of pork, if they will 
 only take a little pains in bettering the race of 
 their hogs. 
 
 15. RooT.s, sucli as the parsnip, the carrot, 
 
INTRODUCTION. IB 
 
 and the rutabaga, should be raised for his cattle 
 by every farmer. One acre of roots will give 
 as much food as three acres of grass. The 
 cattle likewise are kept in a much better con- 
 dition on roots than on hay exclusively. By 
 a little labour in raising roots, the farmer may 
 at least double the profits fix>m his stock. It is 
 unaccountable that turnips, carrots, &c., are 
 not more generally cultivated for cattle ! 
 
 16. The Beet Sugar is soon to become one 
 of the most common and most profitable pro- 
 ducts of the farm. Every farmer can make 
 his own sugar from the beet as easily as he can 
 make cider from the apple. The process of 
 raisino- the beet and that of makino: the sug-ar 
 are described in this book. That which relates 
 to this subject is taken from " Pedder's Report,'^ 
 the latest and most authentic source of infor- 
 mation on this interesting subject. 
 
 17. Silk is also becoming one of our articles 
 of produce. The raising of the silkworm and 
 the mulberry tree, and the manufacture of tlie 
 raw silk, are briefly but fully discussed in this 
 work. The necessary information on this sub- 
 ject is here given in a small space. Farmers 
 should plant the mulberry seed without delay. 
 The culture of silk is simple and very profitable. 
 
16 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 18. Hemp is also a profitable crop for farmers. 
 I have obtained for this work the best treatise 
 on the growth and manufactnre of hemp that 
 has yet been published. It is from the pen of 
 tlie Honourable Henry Clay of Kentucky. He 
 has cultivated this crop lari;ely, and speaks after 
 long and close observation. The culture of 
 hemp may be made profitable in tliis state. The 
 culture of Hops is also very ably and fi-eely 
 described. 
 
 19. The best ARCiiiTECTur.E of farmhouses, 
 of barns and other outhouses, should also be 
 studied by tlie young agriculturist. Conye- 
 nience, security, and protection of the stock, 
 should be studied in the location and structure 
 of the farm buildings. We often see the fences 
 around the barn and the house thrown down 
 by tlie cattle, and the Vvdiole stock allowed to 
 roam in every direction, through the garden, 
 and over the grain and tlie meadows, during 
 the whole feeding time of fall and spring. 
 
 20. And we often see the liog pen between 
 the road and the house, and the barn on the 
 other side of the road directly opposite to the 
 house. These oJojects should be placed in the 
 field directly back of the dwelling. Why it is 
 that some farmers will have the hog pen an^ 
 
INTRODUCTION. IT 
 
 llio barn-yard immediately under the windows 
 and door of their dAvelling I could never ima- 
 gine ] The cattle are permitted to run around 
 the house, and in the door-yard, and bite oiFand 
 tread down the young trees ; and the pigs are 
 permitted to trouble the kitclien door, and to 
 upset -the milk barrel, and to root up the garden ! 
 But I have never been able to tell why this was 
 so. 
 
 21, There is much to learn and much to 
 correct. No other man should be so observins; 
 — so familiar with nature, in all her silent and 
 wonderful operations — so well acquainted with 
 every department of natural science, as the 
 Farmer. Nature and the Farmer, work to- 
 gether — for the same object — in the same work- 
 house — and with the same tools and materials. 
 Nature is struggling with all her great energies 
 to feed and bless the human race ; and to aid 
 her is the work of the farmer. But he will be 
 a poor help, unless he understands her mode of 
 operation. 
 
 22. At present how deficient is the farmer's 
 ■education ! He does not learn that which 
 makes his profession profitable and honourable ! 
 Farming, in too many instances, is merely 
 BLIND IMITATION !— thoughtless, unpro- 
 
 B 2 
 
18 INTRODUCTION". 
 
 ductive toil — the slavish delving of the hands, 
 without the delights or the aid of the intellect! 
 This must be so when there is no science to 
 guide ; when, in their only education, the child- 
 ren learn nothing of their profession! Then 
 let /Aa^ be taught in the common school, which 
 will make farming delightful, lionourahley and 
 j)roJitahle. 
 
THE 
 
 FARMERS' SCHOOL BOOK 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 CIIYMISTRY GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 1. CiiYMisTRY is the science which makes ii8 
 acquainted with the elementary parts of bodies: 
 and, also, with the manner in which these parts 
 act upon each other. The object of chymistry, 
 then, is to find out the elementary parts of sub- 
 stances or bodies — the nat^ire of these constitu- 
 ent parts — the laws which unite and separate 
 them, and the results of this union and separa- 
 tion. 
 
 2. Natural philosophy speaks of the size, weight, 
 hardness, or softness of a body, of a loaf of bread 
 for example, while chymistry finds out the ingre- 
 dients in it— flour, water, salt, and yeast, which 
 make the loaf 
 
 3. Natural philosophy says that m.atter, among 
 several other qualities, has extension, which means 
 length, breadth, and thickness; impenetrability, 
 which means, that no two particles can be in the 
 same space at one time; and divisibility, mean^ 
 jn^, that every piece of matter can be divided into 
 
20 CHYMISTRT — OENERAX PRINCIPXES. 
 
 several smaller pieces. Chymistry shows what 
 all bodies are made of, awd how the elementary 
 parts which compose them are put together. 
 
 4. Substance, or body, means any kind of matter, 
 solid, fluid, or aeriform — any thing we can see, taste, 
 touch, or smell. A stone is a solid body, so is a 
 piece of wood ; water is a fluid body, and the air, 
 vapours, and gases, are aeriform bodief: 
 
 5. Substances are either simple or compound. A 
 simple substance is one that cannot be reduced into 
 any thing more simple. There are fifty-three simple 
 substances ; only thiity-seven of them are used m 
 the arts, or i-n agriculture. 
 
 6. A compound substance is one composed of two 
 or more simple bodies. Water is a compound body, 
 being composed of the two simple substances, oxygen 
 and hydrogen. Almost all the objects we see axe 
 composed of several substances. 
 
 7. A compound body can be separated into its 
 simple elements. Air is a compound body, and can 
 he separated into oxygen and nitrogen — ^^the two 
 simple substances which compose it. Again, put 
 oxygen and hydrogen together, and water is formed 
 — a compound -body 'being made out<of these two 
 simple ones. 
 
 8. There is a tendency in particles and masses of 
 matter to approach each other. This is called at- 
 traction. It acts upon matter at great distances. 
 The sun attracts the earth, the earth attracts the 
 moon ; and if we throw a stone into the air, the 
 earth has such an attraction on the stone as to draw 
 it down again to the ground. When any^ thing 
 •falls, it is drawn to the earth bv a force which We 
 ^1 the attraction of gravitation. 
 
CHYMISTRY GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 21 
 
 ■9. Particles of matter have another tendency to 
 approach each other, called the attraction of cohe- 
 sion. While gravitation acts upon bodies at great 
 distances, cohesion acts only upon particles at insen- 
 sible distances. Cohesion brings particles of matter 
 of the same khid into seeining contact, and keeps 
 tiiem in that situation. 
 
 10. On some particles it acts with great force, 
 and o.n others, the action, if any, is not percepti- 
 ble. On solids its force is intense ; on liquids the 
 force is weaker; and on the particles of air, and the 
 gases, it apparently has no action. There is 
 considerable cohesion in ice, less when changed 
 into a liquid, and not any when changed into a 
 vapour. 
 
 11. Take two bullets; cut a piece from each, 
 so as to niake a fiat surface, put them together with 
 some pressure, and they will stick to each other 
 with great force. A piece of glass, when laid 
 flatly upon another piece, coheres with consider- 
 able force. The c/Dhesion of a stone is destroyed 
 ])ypounding it into a powder, and the cohesion of 
 a lump of sugar is destroyed by dropping it into 
 water — the water having a stronger attraction for 
 the sugar than the particU^s of sugar have for each 
 other. 
 
 12. Heat destroys cohesion, as when ice, or 
 wax, or lead, is melted. It seems to be an oppo- 
 sing power to cohesion. The atoms of bodies 
 would come into actual contact, if it were not for 
 a force called repulsion. This force is supposed 
 to be heat, and prevents the atoms from *^' '' 
 each other. The blacksmith, by infusin 
 
 a piece of iron, destroys, to a degree, its^ 
 
22 CIIYMISTRY GENERAL PRINCIPLES, 
 
 thus rendering it soft and pliable for his use. The 
 hardness or softness of a body is in proportion to its 
 cohesion. 
 
 13. When the attraction of cohesion is exerted 
 suddenly, the particles unite indiscriminately, and 
 form irregular masses. But when it resumes its 
 force more slowly, the particles assume a perpen- 
 dicular arrangement, and form masses of regular 
 figures. This is termed cn/sfalization, and the 
 regular-figured masses are called cryiitals. 
 
 li. Chj^mical attraction, or, as it is more gen- 
 erally termed, chyniical ajfudty, is exerted between 
 the particles of different kinds of matter. Put 
 water and oil into a tumbler, and the oil wili rise on 
 the top, not mixing with the water ; but drop a piece 
 of pearlash into the tumbler, and the oil, water, and 
 pearlash will immediately unite and form soap. 
 The reason is, that the pearlash has a strong 
 chymical affinity for both water and oil, and be- 
 comes a bond of union between them. 
 
 15. Besides the three species of attraction that 
 have been mentioned, there are electric and mag- 
 netic attraction. Rub a piece of sealing wax with 
 a cloth, and put it near a feather, or a pile of fine 
 sand, and the feather or particles of sand will jump 
 o the wax and stick to it. This is electric attrac- 
 ion. By drawing the hand over a cat in the dark, 
 sparks of fire are elicited. This is also electric 
 attraction. The needle is directed to the pole by 
 magnetic attraction. 
 
CALORIC. 23 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 CALORIC. 
 
 1. Caloric is a very thin, subtile fluid. It can- 
 not be seen, and is known only by the sense of 
 touch. It is the cause of all our feelings of warmth, 
 m heat. Its particles repel each other ; that is, 
 they have a tendency to separate and fly off It 
 is imponderable, which means, it has no weight. 
 A body is no hearier when it is hot, or what is 
 the same thing, full of caloric, than when it is 
 cold. 
 
 2. It is found in all substances : in ice, in 
 stones, in wood, in metals, in water, and in air. 
 Every thing contains some caloric. A liquid con- 
 tains more caloric than a solid, and the aeriform 
 subtances, such as air, vapour, and the gases, con- 
 tain more caloric than the liquid substances. The 
 more caloric a substance has, the less solid it is, 
 except clay, and a few other bodies. 
 
 3. The attraction of cohesion makes solids. 
 Caloric, it will be remembered, is an opposing 
 power to cohesion, and therefore makes liquids. 
 Every solid g?fbstance on the earth might be 
 changed into a liquid or vapour, by infusing into it 
 s-uflicient caloric. If we lay a piece of ice on the 
 stove, the caloric soon changes it into water, and 
 then into vapour. 
 
 4. Caloric is communicated from one body to 
 another. If we put the hand on a hot body, calo- 
 lic passes from ii into the hand, and causes th^ 
 
24 . CALORIC. 
 
 feeling- of warmth ; when we touch a body colder 
 than the hand, the caloric goes from the hand into 
 the body. Caloric desires to be in all bodies in 
 an equal degree, and therefore goes from object to 
 object, Avhen bodies are brought together. If we 
 throw a hot ball into a pail of water, the large 
 quantity of caloric ifi the ball goes off'immediately 
 into the water, and in a short time the water and 
 ball hate an equal temperature. 
 
 5. Caloric passes through some bodies with 
 g-reat rapidity, while through other bodies it passes 
 slowly. It goes speedily through an iron rod, so 
 that we cannot touch the hand Avithin a foot of the 
 heated end; but it goes so slowly through glass, 
 that we can take hold of a glass rod within threfe 
 inches of the melting end. Hence, some bodies 
 are called good conductors of heat, or of caloric, 
 and others bad conductors. Iron is a good con- 
 ductor; glass, stones, wood, and charcoal, are bad 
 conductors. 
 
 6. If we take a piece of wire, and a pipe stem, 
 of equal length, and put a piece of wax on one 
 end of each, and place the other ends in the fire, 
 the wax on the wire will melt directly, wdrile the 
 ivax on the pipe stem is no Warmer than when 
 first ptit there—the wire being a good, and the clay 
 a bad conductor of heat. Among the metals, gold 
 is the best conductor of heat, platinum next, silver 
 next, copper next — then iron, zinc, tin, lead, mar- 
 ble, &c. 
 
 7. Silks, woollens, and furs, are bad conductors 
 of heat, and they are for this reason worn in win- 
 ter, that we may retain the heat of the body as far 
 as possible — the body being warmer in winter 
 
CAtORiC, 29 
 
 than the surrounding air, it is wise to keep within 
 us as much of our own caloric as we can. In 
 summer we wish to let the heat of the body pass 
 ofT, and should at this season wear those materials 
 that are good conductors of heat, such as cotton, 
 linen, &c. 
 
 8. Air is a bad conductor oi caloric. On this 
 account a thick blanket is not as warm as a quih ; 
 air being between the two outside pieces and in 
 the cotton. The more open or porous a body is, 
 the less its conducting force. Animals living in 
 cold regions are covered with fine furs, which al- 
 most prevent the hefit's escaping from the body ; 
 while those living in warm parts are covered with 
 coarse, thin hair^ offering no obstacle to the free 
 escape of heat. 
 
 9. Bricks, being bad conductors of heat, are 
 frequently heated and wrapped in a cloth, and 
 used for keeping the feet warm in cold weather ; 
 but a heated piece of plank is still better, because 
 Wood does not lose Caloric as easily as brick. 
 
 10. Black is a better conductor of heat than 
 white. Heat is reflected by white, but passes 
 through black. Take a piece of black woollen 
 cloth, and another of the same size and quality of 
 white, and lay them upon the snow, when the sun 
 is shining. In a few hours the black will be found 
 to have sUnk below the surface of the snow, while 
 the white will remain on the surface. The black 
 cloth lets the rays of caloric pass through it, and 
 melt the snow beneath, while the white reflects 
 the caloric. 
 
 11. When we go into the sun in summer, it is 
 wise to wear a whitish dress-^he white, turning 
 
 C 
 
26 CALORIC. 
 
 the rays of the sun away from us, will make the 
 heat less oppressive. In winter, by wearing black, 
 the ra^^s of the sun enter the clothing, and give 
 warmth to the person. 
 
 12. There are six sources of caloric: viz., tho 
 sun's rays, combustion, friction, the mixture of 
 different substances, electricity, and galvanisr». 
 The sun is the great fountain of heat, and thus of 
 life. Caloric comes from the sun at the rate of 
 200,000 miles in a second of time. Tt warms and 
 thins the frozen juices of the plants in the spring, 
 and cause the sap to circulate through the trunks 
 and branches of the trees. 
 
 13. As there is caloric in every substance, 
 whenever any thing is burned, a separation of the 
 simple elements takes place ; the caloric is set at 
 liberty, and produces in us the sensation of heat. 
 The caloric that was before hidden in the wood or 
 3Dal,. has from decomposition become free and ac- 
 tive. 
 
 14. When two hard bodies are brought together 
 with great force, a portion of the hidden caloric is 
 forced out. By striking a flint with a piece of 
 steel, caloric enough is forced out to melt the bits 
 of steel that are struck off, and this makes what 
 we call a spark. 
 
 15. A freezing body gives off heat. Taking 
 away the caloric (it has been said) makes a liquid 
 a solid. Consequently, when water becomes ice, 
 a quantity of caloric goes off from the water^ 
 This accounts for the moderation of the weather 
 during a snow storm. The caloric that is con- 
 stantly escaping from the freezing vapour warms 
 the atmosphere. 
 
CALORIC. 127 
 
 16. Melting produces cold. When snow and 
 ice melt into water, they must have an additional 
 quantity of caloric, which is taken directly from 
 the atmosphere. Friction produces heat on the 
 same principle as striking one hard body against 
 another: viz., by forcing out the hidden caloric. 
 Instances have occurred of whole forests burning 
 down, by first kindling from the violent friction of 
 the dry branches against each other by the wind. 
 
 17. The most intense heat can be obtained from 
 a galvanic apparatus : strong enough to melt iron 
 as quick as fire melts snow. If a piece of char- 
 coal is ignited by the fire from a galvanic battery, 
 it burns with the greatest intensity, and makes a 
 light so bright that the eye cannot look upon it. 
 
 18. When two substances are mixed, and the 
 mixture takes a more solid form, heat is produced ; 
 for no substance can become more dense without 
 giving oflf calorie. If we take a vial half full of 
 water in the hand, and pour into it a little oil of vit- 
 riol, (sulphuric acid,) the hand will feel warm. 
 The mixture by condensing gives out a portion of 
 its caloric. 
 
 19. The mixture of some substances produces 
 cold. If we put a tablespoon full of epsom salts 
 into a tumbler, and then pour into the tumbler a lit- 
 tle water, the tumbler will feel very cold. In this 
 case the mixture has expanded, and taken the ca- 
 loric from the tumbler. 
 
 20. Caloric expands bodies. When it enters a 
 substance, it removes the particles farther from 
 each other. Hence it enlarges the size of bodies, 
 which become less compact. In this, caloric acts 
 in opposition to cohesion. If we measure a piece 
 
2S CALORIC. 
 
 of iron when it is" cold, and then heat it, we shall 
 find by measuring again while hot, that is has in- 
 creased in length and thickness. 
 
 21. The pendulum of a clock is longer in warm 
 than in cold weather ; as clocks go slower in pro- 
 portion as the pendulum is made longer, they are 
 apt to go too fast in cold, and too slow in warm 
 weather. We may lay it down, then, as a rule, 
 that caloric expands all bodies ; that the expansion 
 of the same body increases with the quantity of 
 caloric which enters it. 
 
 22. When the particles of a liquid are heated 
 they expand, and thus become lighter than those 
 that are yet cold. Consequently the heated lighter 
 particles ascend, and the cold particles descend. 
 Thus, when fire is put under a kettle containing 
 any liquid, two currents immediately take place; 
 the hot particles rising to the surface, and the cold 
 ones falling to the bottom, there to be heated, and 
 then give place to others. 
 
 23. This will show the advantage of placing the 
 fire directly under the kettle ; otherwise the water 
 in the lower part will not readily heat. When the 
 water bubbles and throws off steam, it is heated to 
 what is called the hoiling 'point. This point is 
 212° on the thermometer. 
 
 24. The atmosphere rests, or presses upon every 
 thing on the earth, at the rate of fifteen pounds 
 on each square inch of surface. The water hav- 
 ing this pressure on it, does not so easily bubble 
 up, and the steam does not rise so readily. If we 
 boil water in a vacuum, that is, where there is no 
 air, the degree of heat required i§ less than ill the 
 open air by 140''. 
 
CALORIC. 29 
 
 25. Water boils in a vacuum at a temperature 
 of 72°. Hence the higher you rise above the 
 surface of the earth, the less the pressure of the 
 air, and the more quickly water boils. Water boils 
 sooner by having a lid over the kettle, and on the 
 top of a hill with a less fire than it does in the 
 valley. 
 
 26. Water cannot be made hotter than the boil- 
 ing point — 212®. At this point it flies off iri the 
 form of steam. If we could make a vessel strong 
 enough to helfi the steam, water could be heated 
 red hot, like a piece of iron. But the steam is so 
 strong, and has such a desire to go off, that it 
 would be difficult to confine it. It is the steam's 
 desire to expand that gives the steam engine its 
 power. 
 
 27. When children roast eggs, they crack the 
 shells slightly before they put them into the fire, 
 to keep them from exploding, or bursting, as they 
 usually call it. The egg bursts because the liquid 
 in the shell expands with the heat ; if there is a 
 little crack in the shellthe steam will find vent and 
 do no injury; but if the vapour is confined, the 
 shell explodes with a loud noise, and the egg is 
 scattered through the ashes. 
 
 28. So in the boiler of a steam engine, if there 
 is a proper vent (called safety valve) the steam 
 will do no injury; but if the vent is not good, and 
 the force of the steam is stronger than the boiler, 
 an explosion will take place as certainly as in the 
 roasting of an egg. 
 
 29. Air is expanded by heating it. If a bladder 
 containing air be tied tight at the neck, and held 
 to the fire, it will expand until it bursts. If put 
 
30 CALORIC. 
 
 in a cold place, the bladder will contract ; that is, 
 become partly empty. 
 
 30. When a substance cools quickly, we say its 
 radiating power is great. By polishing a teapot, 
 or any metalic vessel, we lessen the radiating 
 power of the vessel, and increase its reflecting 
 power. That is, a polished surface throws off the 
 heat coming from another body better than a rough 
 surface; but a rough teapot lets the water cool 
 quicker than a bright pot. 
 
 31. It is wise, therefore, to have the vessels 
 which we desire to keep hot water in always 
 polished bright. When a body continues to give 
 off more caloric than it receives, it will become 
 colder than the objects around it. The earth is 
 constantly giving off caloric. During the day the 
 sun gives caloric to the earth, but in the night the 
 earth gives away heat without receiving any ; of 
 course the earth becomes colder during the night 
 than the air. 
 
 32. The moisture in the air, having some of its 
 caloric taken away by the cooling earth, becomes 
 water, and falls to the ground — this is what we call 
 dew. There is no dew when the night has been 
 cloudy, for the clouds are good reflectors, and 
 send the earth's caloric back again, and the ground 
 does not cool. 
 
 33. A piece of bright tin is a very good reflec- 
 tor. When a stove is necessarily placed near a 
 wall, at one side of the room, a piece of tin placed 
 against the wall opposite the stove will reflect 
 much of the heat out into the room, which other- 
 wise would be absorbed by the wall or ceiling. 
 
 34. If we should line a room with tin much less 
 
CALORIC. 31 
 
 fire would be required, but the heat would not be 
 so agreeable, and the dazzling surface would be un- 
 pleasant to the eyes. 
 
 35. When a fire is made in a stove or fire-place, 
 the particles of air next to the stove become warm 
 first ; heat expands them, and being lighter than 
 the cold particles, they rise up to give place to 
 the particles from above, that have not been heated. 
 This makes two currents of air — a cold cur- 
 rent going towards the stove, and a warm current 
 going from the stove — till the room is thoroughly 
 warmed. 
 
 36. We have said that when a body takes in ca- 
 loric it grows larger, and when it gives ofi' caloric 
 it becomes smaller. There is one substance which 
 is an exception to this general rule. This is water ; 
 for when if freezes it must lose some of its caloric, 
 yet it increases in bulk. 
 
 37. We can satisfy ourselves of this fact by let- 
 ting a basin /wiZ of water freeze hard. When fro- 
 zen, the ice will rise considerably above the top of 
 the basin. A housekeeper knows this fact to her 
 sorrow, when she finds her earthen pitchers and 
 glass tumblers cracked, by being suflfered to stand 
 full of water during a cold night. 
 
 38. This exception in the laws of nature shows 
 the wise care our Creator takes of us. If water, 
 like other bodies, should become less in size 
 when frozen, the ice would sink as soon as 
 formed. Then another layer of ice would form 
 to sink in its turn, till the rivers and lakes had be- 
 come one solid mass of ice. The fish must then 
 all die. 
 
 39. The heat of summer would not melt so 
 
32 OXYGEN. 
 
 much ice, and no ships could move through the 
 water; and finally, all animal and vegetable life 
 would be destroyed. But the Creator has made 
 the ice lighter than a piece of water of equal size, 
 and the ice floats on the top, preventing the frost's 
 reaching down far from the surface. The thin 
 sheet of ice soon melts in the spring, and all is 
 free again. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OXYGEN. 
 
 1. Oxygen gas is one of the simple substances, 
 and forms part of almost every body we see. It is 
 one of the principal elements of the atmosphere 
 we breathe ; the air being composed, almost en- 
 tirely, of oxygen and nitrogen. About one quarter 
 of the air is oxygen, and it enters into the compo- 
 sition of every animal and vegetable, and into many 
 of the minerals. 
 
 2. Oxygen gas may be obtained in a separate 
 form by several v/ays. The usual method is to 
 separate it by heat from red lead, manganese, or 
 saltpetre. By applying strong heat to either of 
 these substances, the oxygen is disengaged, and 
 goes off in a separate form by itself, and k caught 
 m a vessel prepared to receive it. 
 
 3. Oxygen gas has neither colour, taste, nor 
 smell. When suddenly and forcibly pressed, it 
 «mits light and heat. In its pure state it is always 
 
OXYGEN. 33 
 
 in the form of a gas, but when it unites with solids 
 it becomes a solid. It is combined with hydrogen 
 to form water, and with carbon forming carbonic 
 acid gas. 
 
 4. Oxygen is found in all kinds of rocks: 
 hence, the earth, the ocean, and the air, abound 
 in it. Oxygen has a powerful attraction for most 
 of the simple substances ; and there is not one 
 of them with which it may not be made to com- 
 bine. 
 
 5. When bodies are united with it, they are said 
 to be oxydized. The rusting of iron is occasioned 
 by the iron's uniting with the oxygen in the air. 
 Gold and silver do not rust much, that is, oxygen 
 does not combine with them readily. Iron we 
 know rusts or oxydizes soon, if left exposed to the 
 air and moisture. 
 
 6. All substances capable of burning burn wuth 
 far greater brilliancy in oxygen gas. A piece of 
 wood having the least spark of fire on it bursts into 
 flame the moment it is put into a jar of oxygen. 
 Even iron and steel, not commonly classed among 
 bodies that burn, undergo a rapid combustion in 
 oxygen gas. 
 
 7. Now, if the air was wholly made of oxygen, 
 every thing would burn up. If we should put fire 
 into a stove, the stove itself would burn. The 
 blacksmith, in heating his iron, would see his ham- 
 mer and anvil bursting into a flame. 
 
 8. But the all-wise Creator has put just enough 
 of oxygen into the air to burn wood, oil, coal, &c. ; 
 but not so much as to render fire dangerous, under 
 proper care. The whole world would burn up by 
 increasing the (quantity of pxygen a Jittle, 
 
34 OXYGEN. 
 
 9. Take all the oxygen out of the world, and 
 nothing would burn. Oxygen is, therefore, called 
 the supporter of combustion. The oxygen in 
 the air makes our candles and fuel burn. When 
 they burn, their ingredients do indeed disappear, 
 but they are not destroyed. Although these in- 
 gredients fly off in a gaseous form, and are com- 
 monly lost to us, still they can be collected and 
 preserved. 
 
 10. When this is done with requisite care, it is 
 found that the ingredients of the bodies that have 
 been burned weigh more after than before com- 
 bustion ; and that the increase in weight is equal 
 to the quantity of oxygen which has disappeared 
 during the burning. Man cannot destroy matter — 
 he can only change its form and appearance. 
 
 11. Combustion, or burning, is nothing more 
 than the rapid union of oxygen gas with combus- 
 tible matter. This rapid union is always attended 
 with a disengagement of heat and light. Before 
 oxygen will unite with combustible matter, the 
 temperature of the materials you wish to burn 
 must be considerably raised. This is done by 
 putting fire, or caloric, on the wood, coal, or candle- 
 wick. 
 
 12. Oxygen is not only necessary to combus- 
 tion, it is also necessary to animal life. No ani- 
 mal can live in an atmosphere which does not 
 contain a certain portion of oxygen; for an ani- 
 mal soon dies if confined in a portion of air from 
 which the oxygen has been previously removed. 
 
 13. If we confine an animal in a vessel that is 
 air tight, the animal will feel no inconvenience at 
 first, but it will soon grow uneasy, breathe hard, 
 
OXYGEN. 9S 
 
 land shortly die. If the air in the vessel is now 
 examined, it will be found to contain no oxygen. 
 While the air had oxygen in it the animal did well 
 enough, but as soon as its breathing had consumed 
 all the oxygein, the animal died. 
 
 14. The object of breathing is to purify the 
 blood; and the oxygen in the air seems to be the 
 purifying principle. As breathing destroys oxy- 
 gen, the air in a room filled with people becomes 
 bad, and unfitted for supporting life. Candles in 
 such a room do not burn briskly, as there is a want 
 of oxygen. 
 
 15. The people who died in the " Black Hole 
 &( Calcutta," soon consumed all the oxygen in that 
 small place, and as fresh air could not enter, there 
 was nothing left to support life. It is very neces- 
 sary to have rooms, especially school-rooms, well ' 
 ventilated. The bad air should be permitted to 
 pass off, and fresh air have a free circulation. 
 
 16. It is oxygen that turns things sour. Oxy- 
 gen uniting with sweet cider makes vinegar. As 
 the oxygen of the air goes into the cider, it is wise 
 to l«t the cask be only part full, and the bung be 
 left out,, that the air may touch as much of the li- 
 quid as possible. It is the oxygen that turns mo- 
 lasses, beer, maple sap, &c., sour. This effect of 
 oxygen is called its acidifying effect — and makes 
 all the acids and oxyds that we know oL 
 
3d KITROOSN. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 NITROGEN. 
 
 1. Nitrogen is one of the constituents of atmo- 
 spheric air ; oxygen and nitrogen being the two ele- 
 ments which make the air. Nitrogen is a gas 
 without colour, taste, or smell, and does not support 
 combustion or animal life. 
 
 2. It extinguishes all burning bodies that are 
 immersed in it, and no animal can live in it. Ni- 
 trogen can be obtained in a separate state by ta- 
 king the oxygen out of a quantity of air, which 
 leaves the nitrogen alone by itself. 
 
 3. The oxygen can be taken out in this way: 
 burn a piece of phosphorus in a jar, which must 
 be turned bottom upward, with the open mouth 
 resting on water ; or standing an inch or two in 
 the water. The phosphorus burns while lying on 
 the water, till all the oxygen in the jar is con- 
 sumed. The water will then absorb the carbonic 
 acid created by burning the phosphorus, leaving the 
 nitrogen alone in the jar. 
 
 4. Nitrogen is much lighter than oxygen, and 
 consequently than the air. In a crowded room, 
 where the oxygen has been taken out of the air by 
 breathing, the nitrogen rises, and remains near the 
 ceiling. The upper part of a crowded room* there- 
 fore, should be avoided. 
 
 6. In a crowded room there is another bad gas, 
 
ATMOSPHERE. 37 
 
 which falls to the floor, and is destructive of life. 
 This will be described hereafter. 
 
 Nitrogen is found in all animals, but only in a 
 few vegetables. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 1. The air is that very light fluid that surrounds 
 us every where : we live in it, and could not exist 
 without it. It extends forty-five miles above the 
 earth* The attraction of gravitation keeps it to 
 the surface of the earth, in the same manner that 
 any moveable object is kept ; it also revolves with 
 the earth around the sun. The wind is nothing 
 more than the air in motion. 
 
 2. The atmosphere is without colour, invisiblPj 
 has neither taste nor smell, and unless in motion, 
 is not perceived by the sense of touch. It is 831 
 times lighter than water ; that is, a quart of air is 
 831 times lighter than a quart of water. 
 
 3. Its qualities are fluidity, expansibility, elas- 
 ticity, and gravity. Its great fluidity arises from 
 the absence of the attraction of cohesion. This 
 attraction has little or no influence upon the parti- 
 cles of air. 
 
 4. Its elasticity is g^'eat, for 128 bottlefuls of 
 air can be so compressed as to be put into one of 
 the bottles. As soon as the pressure is taken offj 
 the air springs out to its usual volume. 
 
 t) 
 
38 ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 5. The air expands largely likewise. Heating 
 it increases its size, or volume. If a bladder con- 
 taining a small quantity of air be held to the fire, 
 the swelling will be seen, occasioned by the expan- 
 sion of the air within. 
 
 6. The weight or gravity of the air, it has hem 
 seen by comparing it with water, is small. Its 
 lightness is wisely ordered, for if it was even as 
 heavy as water, we should not be able to movo 
 through it with such rapidity. 
 
 7. Its oxygen, we have said, supports animal 
 life, and makes all our fires burn, and its fluidity 
 carries the vapours rising from the seas and lakes 
 over the earth to give drink to the grass, the grain, 
 the trees, and the plants. 
 
 8. If its particles did not move over each other 
 so easily, the air would not be the great carrier of 
 the clouds which supply water to the vegetable 
 kingdom. 
 
 9. The lightness and elasticity of the air ena- 
 ble the birds to use their wings, and go from place 
 to place with the fleetness almost of the aerial cur- 
 rerits. From the great weight of the atmosphere, 
 we are enabled to raise water from the well by 
 means of the common pump. 
 
 10. The atmosphere presses very heavily on 
 he water in the well. When the bucket in the 
 pump is raised, it leaves the bottom part of the 
 pump emptied of its air, and the atmosphere press- 
 ing on the surface of the well, crowds the water 
 up the empty pump. 
 
 11. The pressure of the atmosphere prevents 
 water from evaporating too much ; if the pressure 
 was a little less, we should not have any water on 
 
ATMOSPHERE. 39 
 
 the earth, for a small degree of heat would send 
 the fluids up into the atmosphere. As it is, the 
 degree of heat is admirably adapted to the amount 
 of pressure. The weight of the air binds the wa- 
 ter down, as is were. 
 
 12. The whole weight of the atmosphere is 
 thought to be, by philosophers, equal to the weight 
 of a ball of lead sixty miles through — two thou- 
 sand one hundred and sixty pounds pressure on 
 every square foot of ground. The air presses in 
 every direction : upward, downward, and sidewise. 
 It is owing to this that we are not injured by the 
 great weight of the atmosphere. 
 
 13. When I hold out my hand I feel no weight 
 upon it, because the pressure under and above my 
 hand is equal. It is pressed up as much as down ; 
 the elasticity or spring of the air pressing up. 
 
 14. Amospheric air contains about one part in 
 every thousand of carbonic acid gas. This gas 
 when breathed by animals destroys life. It is 
 much heavier than air, and is frequently found in 
 old wells, pit holes, and low marshy places. It 
 is created by breathing, and falls to the floor of the 
 room. More will be said of it hereafter. 
 
 15. The air also contains water in the form of 
 vapour, and a large quantity of gaseous particles, 
 rising from various bodies exposed to the heat of 
 the sun and oxygen of the air. It is seen that 
 the air is a compound of a great number of sub- 
 stances, and that it is the great receptacle for 
 every thing too light to stay on the earth. 
 
 16. As there are many things that are constantly 
 rising into it, we should do all that can be done to 
 obtain air in as pure a state as possible. In the 
 
40 CARBON. — CARBONIC ACID. 
 
 school-room each pupil destroys the oxygen of 
 about one gallon of air every minute. 
 
 17. The oxygen in the air, it will be remem- 
 bered, is Avhat supports animal life. And from the 
 body of every pupil there is a constant escape of 
 an impure matter, in the form of gas, going into 
 the room, and loading the air with disease. 
 
 18. The air thus unfitted for supporting life 
 should be let off by ventilators in the ceiling, and 
 not retained, as is too often the case, in the school- 
 room, to give the pupils drowsiness, stupor, and 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 CARBON CARBONIC ACID.' 
 
 1. Carbon is extensively diffused through na- 
 ture, and is found in both the animal and vegetable 
 kingdoms. Charcoal is nearly pure carbon ; so is 
 cotton; and the diamond is nothing but pure car- 
 bon crystallized. Lampblack and soot are also 
 chiefly carbon. 
 
 2. Charcoal is formed by heating wood to a red 
 heat, in a place where the air is not admitted. 
 Usually, when charcoal is made, the wood is cov- 
 ered with earth, the whole forming what is called 
 a *' coal pit.^^ 
 
 * The most of this chapter is taken from " Chymistrjr 
 
CARBON CARBONIC ACID. 41 
 
 3. If you burn wood in the open air, the whole, 
 almost, will disappear in the form of vapour and 
 carbonic acid gas ; a small portion of ashes is the 
 only thing left. But charcoal, which is almost all 
 carbon, must not be confounded with the various 
 kinds of coal that are dug out of the earth ; these 
 are called mineral coal. They, it is true, contain 
 a large portion of carbon, but mixed with sulphur, 
 pitch, and iron. They, consequently, are heavier 
 than charcoal. 
 
 4. Charcoal is remarkable for its power of ab- 
 sorbing, or taking in gases of different kinds, and 
 for letting them escape again when it is heated. 
 When newly made, its pores are filled with the 
 first kind of air or gas which comes in contact 
 with it. To free its pores it must be heated, whan 
 it is again ready to absorb other gises. 
 
 5. Hence, charcoal will purify water that has 
 become putrid, and for this reason is very useful 
 to persons at sea, who cannot obtain fresh water. 
 Tainted meat may be made sweet by being boiled 
 with powdered charcoal, or rubbed thoroughly 
 with it. But the housekeeper who uses it for this 
 purpose must remember that it must be heated 
 to redness, and applied to the meat before it has 
 absorbed other gases than the putrid odour of the 
 meat. 
 
 6. Charcoal in the form of lampblack is used 
 with oil for paints and printer's ink ; with iron, 
 it forms steel; with sulphur and nitre, it makes 
 gunpowder. It is in common use for fuel, and 
 especially for cooking operations of various kinds. 
 The diamond furnishes not only the most elegant 
 
 D 2 
 
42 CARBON — CARBONIC ACID. 
 
 ornaments, but is useful in arts ; and is the best 
 substance known for cutting glass. 
 
 7. Carbonic acid gas (sometimes called fixed 
 air) is found in limestone and magnesia, and may- 
 be driven out from these solid substances by heat. 
 This gas is also formed by breathing, fermentation, 
 and combustion. 
 
 8. No animal can live in this gas — they die al- 
 most immediately. It is different in its effects 
 upon the lungs from nitrogen or hydrogen ; they 
 do not support life, carbonic acid gas destroys it. 
 In the two former, animals die for the want of 
 oxygen, in the latter they are killed. It is on ac- 
 count of the deadly nature of this gas, that char- 
 coal is so dangerous when burned in a close room. 
 
 9. The small portable furnaces which are now 
 so much in use for cooking, ironing, and other 
 household operations, should never be used except 
 in the open air, or in a fire-place ; and then the 
 doors of the room should be opened. The char- 
 coal, as it burns, gives off carbon, which, uniting 
 with the oxygen of the air, forms carbonic acid gas. 
 
 10. This gas does not support combustion, and 
 an animal cannot live in air which contains suffi- 
 cient carbonic acid for extinguishing a lighted 
 candle. Hence, the wisdom of letting down a 
 burning candle into old wells, or pits, before any 
 one ventures to descend. If the light goes out, 
 the air is certainly impure, and there is generally 
 no danger if the light continues to burn. As it is 
 heavier than the atmosphere, it sinks into these 
 low, excavated places. 
 
 11. This gas is called carbonic a-cirZ, because it 
 gives to liquid substances an acid, or sour taste. 
 
CARBON — CARBOKIC ACID. 43 
 
 of a peculiar kind, which, though not snarp, is 
 lively and refreshing". The agreeable pungency 
 of beer, bottled cider, &c., is in a great measure 
 owing to the presence of this gas ; by the loss of 
 which, or exposure to the air, they become stale. 
 It causes the sparkling and boiling up of soda 
 water, and the liveliness of the Saratoga mineral 
 waters. 
 
 12. The peculiar properties of yeast or empty- 
 ings are owing to this gas. In struggling to es- 
 cape through the wet flour, or dough, of which 
 bread is made, the carbonic acid gas becomes en- 
 tangled, and causes the little cavities or holes which 
 appear in light bread. Pearlash makes cake light 
 on account of the carbonic acid gas which it con- 
 tains. 
 
 13. We see that the eflfect of this gas on animal 
 life is death, and we also see that this gas is pro- 
 duced in great abundance from the breathing of 
 animals, decomposition or " rotting'^ of animals 
 and vegetables, and the burning of candles and 
 fires. Apparently, it would increase sufficiently 
 in a short time to destroy all animal life. 
 
 14. But the wisdom of the Creator has made 
 the plants of such a nature that they absorb this 
 gas, and the atmosphere which is breathed by ani- 
 mals is purified by the vegetable kingdom. 
 
 15. Carbonic acid gas is food for plants, and 
 they are nourished by what is given off by and 
 destroys animals. Again, the life of animals is 
 oxygen, and plants give off this gas in large abun- 
 dance. How wisely are the two kingdoms related 
 to each other 1 ! Truly, " In wisdom has He made 
 them all." 
 
44 LIGHT — ELECTRICITY. 
 
 CHAPTER VII, 
 
 LIGHT ELECTRICITY, 
 
 1. Light has a very important action upon veg- 
 etation. Plants raised in dark places are nearly 
 without colour, perfume, taste, or firmness of tex- 
 ture. 
 
 2. Whether the luminous fluid called light en- 
 ters into the plants or not, it certainly has a won- 
 derful influence on their combinations. Plants 
 do not emit oxygen gas, excepting when exposed 
 to the rays of the sun ; and it is known, also, that 
 flowers rarely produce fruit if raised entirely in 
 the shade. 
 
 3. When electricity is abundantly diffused through 
 the atmosphere, it has a powerful influence over 
 vegetation. It excites the action of oxygen, and 
 determines the condensation of the aqueous fluids. 
 Grain germinates or sprouts quicker in water filled 
 with electricity. And it is a well-known fact that 
 fermentation takes place most rapidly during a 
 thunder storm : at this time the air is full of elec- 
 tricity. 
 
 4. A liquid consisting of a variety of ingredients^ 
 not very closely united, milk for instance, is de- 
 composed, and becomes sour under a highly elec- 
 tric state of the air — dairy women know that their 
 milk sours very rapidly during a thunder shower. 
 It is the presence of a' great quantity of electri- 
 city that produces this effect. 
 
 5. We have now mentioned the principal ingre- 
 
LIGHT — ELECTRICITY. 45 
 
 dients and principles existing in the atmosphere, 
 which have more or less influence upon plants 
 and animals. The next thing to be considered is 
 water. 
 
 6. When we reflect upon the influence which 
 the atmosphere exercises over vegetation, and over 
 the principal operations carried on by farmers, we 
 are astonished at not finding the simple instruments 
 which tell is changes every moment, 
 
 7. There should be on every farm a hygrome- 
 ter, to ascertain the moisture of the atmosphere ; a 
 thermometer, to indicate the degree of cold and 
 heat ; and a barometer, to determine the weight of 
 the atmosphere. This last instrument would be 
 very valuable, by foretelling the changes of the 
 weather ; the rising of the mercury announces the 
 return of dry weather, and its sinking warns of 
 rain and storms. 
 
 8. It is true, that we can regard these variations 
 only as signs ; but they are signs much more cer 
 tain than those which people derive from the 
 screaming of tree toads, and the changes of the 
 moon. Expensive, complicated instruments, are 
 not wanted ; but cheap, simple, yet determinate 
 ones, should always be had. 
 
 9. Judge Buel, in his invaluable paper, the Cul- 
 tivator, has somewhere described these instruments, 
 and given such directions as will enable farmers to 
 obtain and use them. 
 
46 HYDROGEN. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 HYDROGEN. 
 
 1. Hydrogen is a gas, and one of the simple 
 substances ; it has neither colour, taste, nor smell. 
 Hydrogen and oxygen united form water; and 
 wherever water is found, there is hydrogen. It is 
 the lightest substance that we know of It is 
 found in vegetables and animals, and even in the 
 rocks. 
 
 2. As hydrogen and oxygen form water, it fol- 
 lows that when the oxygen it taken from the water, 
 .he hydrogen is left in a separate form by itself 
 Hydrogen, then, can be procured in the following 
 way. 
 
 3. Put a few bits of iron into a vessel, and pour 
 upon them a little sulphuric acid, and four times as 
 much water, and the hydrogen of the water will 
 rise in a separate gaseous form, when it may be 
 caught in a vessel prepared for the purpose. 
 
 4. The reason of the hydrogen's rising is this : 
 The sulphuric acid aids the oxygen of the water 
 in its strong desire to unite with the iron, which is 
 soon done, leaving the hydrogen to rise, it being 
 extremely iighi. 
 
 5. Hydrogen does not support animal life ; for 
 an animal soon perishes when confined in it. The 
 hydrogen has no destructive quality in it, and death 
 is occasioned, simply, by the want of oxygen, 
 
 6. Neither is hydrogen a supporter of combus- 
 tion j for if we put a candle into it the light goes 
 
HYDROGEN. 47 
 
 out in an instant; yet hydrogen burns furiously 
 when we put fire to it. 
 
 7. The blaze of a candle, or of a piece of wood 
 or coal, is nothing but hydrogen and a little carbon 
 burning — the oil, tallow, coal, and wood, furnishing 
 the hydrogen. The union of the oxygen in the air 
 with the hydrogen and carbon in candles, wood, 
 and coal, is always attended with heat and light, 
 and makes what we call " fire." 
 
 8. If we put hydrogen and oxygen together, and 
 then set fire to the mixture, we shall have a loud 
 explosion, and find that water has been formed. 
 It appears a little strange that ivater can be formed 
 by burning substances ! ! To prr duce this effect, 
 the mixture is two parts of hydrogen and one of 
 oxygen. 
 
 9. The gas we burn in cities, for the purpose 
 of lighting the streets, public buildings, &c., now 
 used instead of candles and lamps, is principally 
 the hydrogen gas. The companies who furnish 
 this gas to the citizens make it from coal. 
 
 10. Coal, when exposed to heat in a closed ves- 
 sel, is decomposed ; and hydrogen, which is one 
 of the ingredients of coal, rises in a state of gas, 
 having a little carbon with it, forming a compound 
 gas, called hydro-carhonat. This is the gas used 
 to light cities, &c., and is transparent, invisible, and 
 burns very readily and rapidly. This is a modern 
 invention, and makes a great saving of oil and 
 tallow. 
 
 11. In mines where they dig out coal, this hy- 
 dro-carhonat gas is found in great quantities. 
 This gas, when found there, is formed either by 
 coal now burning far under ground, or was made 
 
48 HYDnOfiEN. 
 
 by a former combustion, and kept in the caves and 
 holes of the mine till the present time. 
 
 12. When the coal diggers open the mitie, the 
 oxygen contained in the atmosphere mixes with 
 this hydro-carbonat gas. Now we have said that 
 when oxygen and hydrogen are mixed, and then 
 ignited, a deafening explosion takes place. If 
 these miners take fire with them into the mine, 
 they are liable to be blown up at any moment; for 
 this hydro-carbonat gas, we know, takes fire with 
 great readiness, and being mixed with oxygen, will 
 make a tremendous explosion. 
 
 13. As it is so far under ground, the people 
 must have a lanp to see how to work, and ex- 
 plosions have very often happened which killed 
 hundreds of men and horses. This combustible 
 gas will collect there, the coal must be dug out, 
 and the people must have a light to see how to 
 work. 
 
 14. But explosions were constantly taking place, 
 killing great numbers every time, till Sir Humphrey 
 Davy — a great chymist — invented a lamp, called 
 safety lamp, which gives the miners light, but does 
 not set fire to the gas. 
 
 15. This was a great invention, and has saved 
 thousands of lives, and made it safe for people to 
 work in mines, that before no one would enter. 
 
 16. This safety lamp is nothing more than a 
 common lamp, surrounded with a fine wire net- 
 work, or gauze, which covering gives such a shape 
 to the gas when it approaches the blaze that fire 
 is not communicated to the body of gas outside of 
 the network. 
 
UAtfeR. 40 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 1. Water, as has been said, is a compound 
 bod3% consisting of hydrogen and oxygen. It is 
 found in four states; the purest of which is a solid> 
 as that of ice. Increase the quantity of caloric in 
 a cake of ice, and it becomes a liquid; and a still 
 greater increase of caloric makes the liquid a va- 
 pour. 
 
 2. Water is also in a state of composition with 
 other bodies, because in many cases it becomes 
 one of their component parts, as constituting a 
 part of the juices of animals and vegetables. 
 Water contains atmospheric air, which is as neces- 
 sary to the life of the fish as it is to animals that 
 live on land. 
 
 o. The particles of air in the water pass over 
 the gills (the lungs of a fish) and purify the blood. 
 If we take the air out of a bottle of water, and then 
 put a fish into it, there will be almost immediate 
 death. The more pure air the water contains, the 
 healthier it is ; and hence we should not keep wells 
 covered as close as many people do. 
 
 4. Water expands greatly when it changes into 
 steam. The steam of one drop occupies as much 
 room, or space, as 800 drops in a liquid state. At 
 the poles, the water always exists in a solid state. 
 It is so hard there, it can be cut with a chisel like 
 marble. 
 
 E 
 
30 WATER. 
 
 5. Wfiter falling through the atmosphere absorbs 
 inmy i:npurilies which float in the air, and thus 
 purifies the eleiTient we breathe and live in. We 
 say, " How sweet the air is after a shower." 
 
 6.. Salt water is much heavier than fresh water ; 
 a vessel so loaded as to sink in fresh water would 
 float in salt water. 
 
 7. "Water influences vegetation, not only by the 
 nntrilive principles furnished to plants by its decom- 
 position, but by means wholly physical, which we 
 shall first consider. The first effect of water upon 
 a soil appropriated to vegetation is, to moisten and 
 divide the earth, and consequently to favour the 
 extension of roots, the introduction of air, and the 
 development of seeds. 
 
 8. " The second is that of conveying to the seed 
 the first aliment required by it, oxygen, which 
 that liquid always holds in solution in a greater or 
 less degree, and which is, as I have already ob- 
 served, the principal agent in germination. The 
 third office performed by water is that of dividing 
 the manure applied to the soil, of dissolving some 
 portions of it, and conveying them to the organs 
 of the plants in a state fitted for their digestion and 
 nourishment. 
 
 9. "All kinds of water are not equally suitable 
 for this purpose; rain water, which is the purest, 
 and contains the most air of any, is also the best 
 for supplying the wants of plants. Generally 
 speaking, those streams which have their rise in 
 granitic or primitive calcareous mountains are fa- 
 vourable to vegetation ; but it is necessary that they 
 should flow through soils free from metallic salts 
 or earths ; and that they should have traversed, 
 
WATER. 51 
 
 before bein^ used in agriculture, a sufficient space 
 to have become impregnated with a due portion of 
 atmospheric air. 
 
 10. "Streams may not be pure, and yet may bs 
 very serviceable for watering the soil, especially if 
 they carry, or hold in solution, certain salts favour- 
 able to plants, and some animal or vegetable sub- 
 stances. In this case they possess double virtue, and 
 produce double effect. 
 
 11. "Waters may be divided into three classes: 
 the first, comprehending those that are charged with 
 animal matter; the second, those which hold in 
 solution some of the principles of vegetables ; and 
 the third, the pure waters, or those which contain 
 salts in but small quantities. 
 
 12. " The waters of the first class are the most 
 active ; and among them, those w'hich are loaded 
 with the sweat of wool, or with the ammoniacal 
 combinations arising from the fermentation of pow- 
 dered bones, of shavings of horn, or fragments of 
 wool, hold the first rank. AVhen employed in 
 their dry state, as manures, these substances produce 
 their effects very slowly, but exercise a much more 
 energetic action when, during decomposition by 
 putrefaction, their products are absorbedby Avater as 
 fast as formed, and immediately conveyed to the 
 plants. The soft, fleshy, or liquid portions of ani- 
 mal substance, do not produce so lasting an effect ; 
 their decomposition is too rapid for their action to 
 be continued for any length of time. 
 
 13. "The waters of the second class, those that 
 are charged with some of the products of vegeta- 
 tion, either natural or arising from decomposition, 
 form very good manures. When plants have 
 
52 WATER. 
 
 yielded to water all their soluble portions, the sub- 
 sequent decomposition of their insoluble fibres 
 furnishes new soluble products, which serve for 
 nourishment; water imbibes these as fast as they 
 are formed, and transmits them to the plants with 
 which it comes in contact. In this manner dead 
 plants supply food to the living-, and all the elements 
 composing' the first are found differently combined 
 in ti:]c last. 
 
 14. " When natural vegetable products, or those 
 arising from decomposition, are mixed with, or dis- 
 solved in water, or the other animal fluids which 
 are charged with salts, the eflect upon vegetation is 
 much increased, because, in addition to exciting the 
 digestive organs of plants, these salts dissolve some 
 substances which could not in their original state 
 penetrate into these organs. It is for this reason 
 that cakes of rape seed, wild mustard, and nuts, used 
 in the manner mentioned above, afford the best 
 manure known. 
 
 15. "The waters constituting the third class, 
 hold in solution some salts; these salts may be 
 considered as performing several offices in the act 
 of vegetation ; they stimulate the vitality of plants, 
 and increase the activity of their powers; they 
 produce, in fact, upon plants, the same effect as 
 those produced upon the human body by the use 
 of such condiments as marine salt and saltpetre. 
 Salts of the same nature as those contained in waters 
 of the third class, always produce good effects upon 
 the soil to which they are applied, either by sprink- 
 ling the ground with therfl, or combining them with 
 barn-yard manure. 
 
 16. " Though these salts are useful to vegetation, 
 
WATER. 53 
 
 It is necessary to guard against using them in ex- 
 cessive portions ; as they then dry up and destroy 
 the plants. Lands which have been long over- 
 flowed by the sea, refuse to yield any thing to cul- 
 tivation till they have, by the repeated action of 
 fresh water, been freed from the salt with which 
 they had become impregnated. 
 
 17. "Some of the salts that are conveyed into 
 plants by water, exert an influence over them in- 
 dependent of their stimulating power; being de- 
 composed within their organs, and serving, by the 
 assimilation of their constituent principles, as nour- 
 ishment to the plants. The greater part of the 
 salts derived from the animal or vegetable kingdoms 
 are of this description. 
 
 18. " Having considered water as a mechanical 
 power, and as a vehicle for the conve3'ance of food 
 to plantvS, it remains for me to make known its di- 
 rect influence upon them. M. de Saussure has 
 proved by experiment, that plants decompose water, 
 and appropriate to their own uses the hydrogen 
 and the oxygen contained in it; but this assimila- 
 tion is very trifling, if they cannot at the samiCtime 
 absorb carbonic acid. The small increase of weight 
 gained by a plant, in an atmosphere containing only 
 oxygen, sufficiently verifies this. 
 
 19. " Dead plants, which ferment when secluded 
 from oxygen, give out some carbonic acid ; but this 
 only proves the combination between the carbon 
 and oxygen contained in vegetable products. 
 
 20. " Next to carbon, the most abundant princi- 
 ple in plants is hydrogen ; which appears to be fur- 
 nished, in a great measure, by their power of 
 de«omposing water. Hydrogen can be obtained 
 
 E 2 
 
54 THE EARTHS. 
 
 from plants by distillation, but in the decomposition 
 of dead vegetables, it unites either with the oxygen 
 of the air to form water, or it is exhaled in 
 union with carbon as carburctted hydrogen." — 
 Chajital, 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE EARTHS. 
 
 1. "Nearly all vegetables derive their support 
 from the earth. As the earth furnishes the great- 
 est number of plants, its influence upon vegetation 
 is of the greatest consequence ; yet this subject is 
 one of the most difficult things of which we can 
 treat. 
 
 2. " Plants are not, like animals, endowed with 
 the power of moving about from place to place; 
 but are always fixed to a limited portion of the 
 soil. They depend upon the small space which 
 they occupy for the supply of their wants. They 
 can draw food only from those portions of the sur- 
 rounding air, earth, and water, that come next to 
 them. 
 
 3. " It is necessary, then, that plants should find, 
 immediately around them, the nourishing princi- 
 ples necessary for their growth. The}'' should be 
 able to extend their roots, in order to draw from 
 the soil its nutritive juices; and to fasten them- 
 selves in the earth, so as to be secure from being 
 dried up by heat, or uprooted by the winds. It 
 
MOULD. 55 
 
 is important, then, that we examme the nature 
 of earths, and the differences which^ exist among 
 them."* 
 
 MOULD. 
 
 4. All plants, when dead, are more or less readi- 
 ly decomposed ; that is, they separate into their 
 original parts. This change is greatly hastened 
 and helped by the air and heat. As dead plants are 
 the principal food of living plants, it is very import- 
 ant for us to become acquainted with the products 
 of vegetable decomposition. 
 
 5. This falling to pieces, or decomposition, of 
 plants, is most rapid when they are collected in 
 heaps. When large masses of vegetables are in a 
 state of fermentation, heat is always produced ; but 
 if they have been dried, it is important to collect 
 them into heaps, and moisten them slightly. 
 
 6. Sometimes the heat, in this case, is so great as 
 to cause the heap to take fire ; this occurs when 
 hay is- stacked without being sufficiently dry, 
 or when rope, hemp, or flax, is piled up wet. 
 When all the parts of a plant are decomposed, 
 there is left a substance of a brown colour, called 
 mould. This mould contains salts, oils, and some 
 of the earths. 
 
 7. The dying sod of summer fallow is a mould ; 
 and, as has been said, this mould is produced 
 by the fermentation of vegetable matter. Now, 
 farmers frequently make a great mistake in what 
 is called ''■summer falloioing.^^ When the sod 
 is rotting, there is a constant escape of nourish- 
 
 * Chaptal'.s Agricultural Chymistry. 
 
56 HOW TILLABLE LANDS ARE MADE. 
 
 ing matter. The crop ought to have this esca- 
 ping nutriment ; therefore grain should always be 
 growing while the sod is fermenting, or decom- 
 posing. 
 
 8. Land owes its fertility mostly, if not wholly, 
 to the presence of ingredients found in mould, or to 
 qualities similar to those in mould. These m- 
 gredients are furnished by manures, and by the 
 decomposition of plants. But each crop takes away 
 some of these ingredients, and a part is washed 
 away by the rains. 
 
 9. Thus the soil is deprived by degrees of its nu- 
 tritive qualities, till at length nothing remains but a 
 few bare earths. These being deprived of their 
 nourishing juices, are completely barren. , To 
 restore its fertility, the land must be manured afresh, 
 after having yielded several crops. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 HOAV TILLABLE LANDS ARE MADE. 
 
 1. Arable lands are made, almost entirely, by 
 the decomposition of the rocks which form the basis 
 of our globe. The water, which flows in torrents 
 from the tops of the mountains, washes away their 
 sides, till gravel, sand, and mineral slime, are formed 
 and deposited in the valleys below. 
 
 2. The number and size of the stones found in 
 the valleys, depend upon the distance of the 
 ■mountains whence the stones were torn, upon the 
 
HOW TILLABLE LANDS. ABB MADE. 57 
 
 harder or softer character of the rocks in the moun- 
 tain, and upon the force of the currents of water 
 which went from the hills to the valleys. 
 
 3. Nearly all our rich valleys were formed from 
 the rocks in the mountains, and we can know the 
 nature of the soils by examining the elevated lands 
 nnd mountains in the vicinity. The dcposites 
 from mountains whose rocks are made up of 
 quartz, feldspar, and mica, form soils mixed with 
 silicia, alumine, lime, magnesia, and oxyd of iron. 
 
 4. It would, however, be wrong to suppose that 
 the lands formed by the waste of mountains are, 
 throughout, of the same nature as the rock from 
 which they have been produced. The heavier 
 particles are dropped first, nearest the mountain, 
 while the lighter elements, and those that have 
 more affinity for water, are carried farther. 
 
 5. Rivers coming from different parts, and uni- 
 ting, make deposites, which form a soil having 
 very dissimilar ingredients. It frequently happens 
 that this mixture of the mud of two rivers pro- 
 duces a soil more fertile than would be made by 
 either of the rivers sinn-ly ; the qualities of the one 
 servino- to correct the deficiencies of the other. 
 
 6. The soils found on the tops and sides of 
 mountains must have been formed, after a lapse 
 of many ages, by the constant action of the air, 
 water, and heat. These powerful chymical ao-ents 
 soften and pulverize the rocky surface. Those 
 rocks which have a strong affinity for air and wa- 
 ter will necessarily fall to pieces before those that 
 have less afiinity. 
 
 7. As soon as the surface of the rock is furrowed, 
 and the mosses have fastened themselves upon 
 
58 coMPOsxTroN of arable lands. 
 
 it, the plants that require bat little nourishment 
 take root and decay there in their turn. Each suc- 
 cessive decay adds something to the top of the 
 rock, till a soil is produced fit for cultivation. 
 
 8. Man, also, has not only changed the nature 
 of soils, but he has made some of the most produc- 
 tive. By obtaining and mixing vegetable mould, 
 minerals, clays, &c., he has made many a barren 
 spot to blossom and yield an abundant harvest. 
 If we would observe the ingredients which are 
 found in our most fertile lands, we would be able, 
 not only to improve our farms, but to make them 
 larger. 
 
 9. Other causes than those Ave have mentioned 
 have produced arable lands. The numerous lakes 
 which have disappeared; the eruption of volca- 
 noes; the overflowings of the seas; the bony re- 
 mains of animals, and the decay of vegetables 
 buried in the ground, have formed soils of all cha- 
 racters. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF ARABLE LANDS. 
 
 1. The best basis for good lands is a mixture of 
 lime, silicia, and alumine. To make the best lands, 
 these desirable qualities should be mixed in true 
 proportions. Lands may have too much even of a 
 good ingredient ; in such cases, some other neces- 
 sary qualities are excluded. 
 
COMPOSITION OF ARABLE LANDS. 59 
 
 |i 2. We should find out the qualities of the rich 
 (and poor lands, that we may be able to correct the 
 faults of the one b}- the qualities of the other. 
 Every farmer knows when a field is worn out, 
 and, also, when it is in what he calls " good or- 
 der." But does he find out the absent qualities of 
 the reduced land ? Does he know the qualities he 
 adds when he improves the poor land? 
 
 3. An excellent soil for wheat is of this charac- 
 ter : — 
 
 Parts 
 
 Carbonate of lime, 28 
 
 Silicia, 32 
 
 Alumine, 26 
 
 Animal or vegetable matter and moisture, - - 11 
 
 4. In the best earths for tillage have been found 
 the following qualities : — 
 
 Parts 
 
 Silicious gravel, 32 
 
 Calcareous gravel, 11 
 
 Silicia, 10 
 
 Carbonate of lime, 19 
 
 Alumine, 21 
 
 Vegetable remains, 7 
 
 5. In the best earths there is a large proportion 
 of gravel. This renders the soil light and easily 
 worked, and helps the passing off of heavy rains. 
 Sandy soils are frequently too open, containing 
 too much gravel. They should be mixed with 
 clay, that they may hold the water. Clay lands 
 nold the water too long, and should be mixed with 
 sand, that the water may more readily pass off 
 
60 VEGETABLE NLTRlMEJffj 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 VEGETABLE NUTRIMENT. 
 
 1. The atmosphere, it has been seen, furnishies 
 plants with two kinds of food. One of them is 
 carbonic acid, and the other oxygen. The air, 
 also, carries in its bosom a large quantity of 
 Water, in the form of vapour. The coolness of- 
 tiie night makes this vapour fall to the earth, and 
 produces what we call the dew. 
 
 2. The sun comes again in the m.orningi and 
 changes these drops of water into vapour, which 
 will again at night fall on the plants. Thus the 
 plants are moistened every twenty-four hours by 
 the water in the air. Were it not for this, the 
 heat of the sun would dry up the vegetable kin^ 
 dom. 
 
 3. When water ascends from the earth, in the 
 form of vapour, it carries along with it fine parts of 
 decaying vegetables and animals. These putrid 
 substances in the air are injurious to men and 
 animals, but supply the best of food for plants. In 
 order to have the most benefit from the dews, the 
 soil should contain certain qualities which it does 
 not always possess. 
 
 4. If the soil is dry and hard, the dew does not 
 enter into and moisten it. The dew in this case 
 only moistens the leaves of the plants — the roots 
 receive no benefit. It is necessary in this case 
 to soften the earth, that the dews and rains may 
 
VEGETABLE NUTRIMENT. 6t 
 
 reach the roots. For this reason we mellow the 
 ground between the rows of corn, and other crops 
 raised in rows. 
 
 5. Pulling up the weeds that stand in the hill 
 loosens the earth next to the roots and stalks, 
 and also prevents the corn from being choked. 
 This little attention should always be given, as it 
 enables the dew to fall directly on the roots of the 
 plants. 
 
 6. It is highly important for us to ascertain the 
 power the soil has of drawing in the dew from 
 the air; and also the strength of the soil in re- 
 taining the dew. Every farmer may obtain this 
 knowledge. He has only to dry thoroughly an 
 equal quantity of two separate soils, and to weigh 
 them night and morning for several days, and he 
 can form an estimate of the quantity of moisture 
 which each has drawn in during the night. 
 
 7. In this experiment, he should spread each 
 portion of earth over an equal quantity of surface. 
 It is seen that the air and the earth are powerful 
 agents in promoting vegetation. They act upon 
 plants directly by their own principles, and they 
 act as helps by conveying to the organs of plants 
 such substances as are necessary for their sup- 
 port. 
 
 8. Although food is brought to the plants, it is 
 heat alone that invigorates the organs, and enables 
 them to take in the nutriment. So it is with many- 
 animals ; they are benumbed by cold, and animated 
 by heat. All soils do not receive and retain heat 
 alike. Some are always wet and cold, others al- 
 ways dry and parched. ^^ 
 
62 MIXED EARTHS. 
 
 9. Cold, heavy lands, are warmed by long ma- 
 nure, lime, &/C. ; while dry, hot soils, are moistened 
 and improved by clay, marl, and plaster. The 
 manure from the sheep and horse is more heating 
 in its action than that of cows. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PROPERTIES OF MIXED EARTHS, AND THEIR CULTI- 
 VATION. 
 
 1. Soils should vary according to the nature of 
 the plants to be cultivated in them. Some prefer 
 a porous, dry, and arid soil ; others flourish only 
 in land constantly moist. There are some that 
 require a great degree of heat, others vegetate in 
 the midst of snows. 
 
 2. These peculiar tastes of plants ought to be 
 known to the farmer ; then he may select for each 
 one the soil best adapted to it. Or, he may change 
 the character of those he possesses, so as to af- 
 ford to each plant the soil most congenial to it. 
 
 3. For a plant to flourish in a soil, it is not 
 enough that the earths composing it are of the 
 right kind. It is necessary to unite other circum- 
 stances, which are not always to be met with. For 
 example, the arable soils which lie upon rocks 
 vary considerably in depth. The thickness of this 
 bed of soil not only exerts an influence upon the 
 powers of vegetation, but determines the kind of 
 plant which can be raised ou it 
 
MIXED EARTHS. 63 
 
 4. The bed of earth ought to be from ten to 
 twelve inches in depth for grain, and much more 
 than that for clover. For trees it must be much 
 deeper than for grain or clover, or their roots, run- 
 ning to no depth, will extend their shoots to a great 
 distance, and thus exhaust the strength of a large 
 portion of soil. 
 
 5. It makes a great difference of what substance 
 the substratum of the beds of earth is composed. 
 If the substratum be of sand, the soil above will 
 dry more quickly than if it were of marl or clay. 
 A bed of clay under one of sand, contributes to its 
 fertility, by retaining the water which easily filters 
 through the last, and thus preserving its moisture. 
 
 6. But if the water collected upon the clay 
 moisten too long a time the roots of the plants, 
 they languish. Roots may be exposed to living, 
 flowing water, without being injured by it; but 
 stagnant water is always hurtful, and for the most 
 part destructive to them. Hence, farmers should 
 drain their fields and meadows. * Draining, espe- 
 cially under draining, should be more attended to 
 than it has been. 
 
 7. In lands that are too moist, it is good to 
 form beds of pebble stones, upon which a layer 
 of mould should be placed. Excellent meadows 
 are made in this way, upon land which had never 
 before produced any thing but rushes. A clayey 
 or marly soil, resting upon a bed of porous rock, 
 is more fertile than one which rests upon a hard 
 rock. 
 
 8. The reason of this is very simple. In the 
 first case the water filters through the rock, and 
 escapes; in the second, it remains stagnant, ren- 
 
64 MIXED EARTHS. 
 
 dering the soil pasty, and possessing none of the 
 requisites for vegetation. Mucli of the land in this 
 country is spoiled by lettin": the water stand on it, 
 till not only all vegetiition is killed, but it is ren- 
 dered wholly unfit for tillage. 
 
 9. Inclined lands, where the slope is rapid, and 
 the soil light and open, are liable to have the ma- 
 nures carried ofi* by the heavy rains, Even the 
 soil is sometimes very much gullied. This fre- 
 quently happens to lands cultivated upon the sides 
 of mountains, till they become completely barren. 
 Hence, we would conclude that it is unwise to clear 
 up the sides of high hills^, as much as is sonietimes 
 done. Furrows should never be left running up 
 and down the hills, as this makes a channel for the 
 water. 
 
 10. Thorough ploughing contributes largely to 
 the fertility of lands. But in order that it may 
 produce its best effects, it is necessary to have re- 
 gard to some circumstances which are not gener- 
 ally attended to. Ploughing divides and softens 
 the soil — mixes thoroughly its constituent princi- 
 pies — destroys weeds — and frees the ground from 
 those insects which often abound in it. 
 
 11. The ploughings should be more numerous, 
 and conducted with more care, upon a heavy soil, 
 than upon one that is light and porous. Clayed 
 soils .should be ploughed only when dry ; when 
 they have imbibed water they form a soft paste, 
 which should not be worked. Sandy and calca- 
 reous lands may be ploughed at all times. 
 
 12. Deep ploughings are very advantageous to 
 lands, which are of the same nature to a consider- 
 able depth. For those lower parts of the soil 
 
THE NATURE OF MANURES. 65 
 
 which have become filled with the manures, that 
 the rains have carried down below the surface, 
 are thus thrown up, to contribute to the nourish- 
 ment of vegetation. 
 
 13. Deep ploughings are also useful in those 
 lands where the upper layer is too clayey and 
 compact, and re^ts upon a bed of sand and car- 
 bonate of lime. By ploughing deep, the sand or 
 lime is mixed vvnth the clay above, rendering it 
 more fertile than it could be made by any other 
 means. An equally good result is obtained from 
 deep ploughing in the opposite case, that is, when 
 a soil, too sandy or calcareous, rests upon an argil- 
 laceous bed. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE NATURE OF MANURES VARIETIES. 
 
 1. Whatever is drawn m oy the organs of 
 plants, and contributes to their growth, may be 
 called manure. The three kingdoms of nature 
 furnish substances for manures. Those generally 
 used are decomposed vegetables and some ani- 
 mal matters. Salts serve principally to stimulate 
 plants ; and hence, we have substances that may 
 be called stimulants, and other substances that act 
 directly as the nourishers of plants. 
 
 2. The nutritive manures contain parts which, 
 when dissolved in water, are capable of entering 
 into the roots, stalks, and leaves of the plants. It 
 
 F 2 
 
66 THE NATURE OF MANURES. 
 
 is generally thought best to let these substances 
 putrify or ferment; for this separates the parts, 
 and makes them more easily dissolved in water. 
 
 3. When fermentation is taking place, the gases, 
 such as carbonic acid, carburetted hydrogen, azote, 
 and ammonia, are produced, and furnish food 
 for plants. This will show the wisdom of having 
 a crop growing while the sod is rotting, or, in 
 other words, fermenting. And this shows summer 
 fallowing to be a very bad practice; as in this 
 case all the gases go off into the air without having 
 any plants to feed. 
 
 4. Fermentation should not go too far in the 
 barn-yard or in the heap. If it does, there is 
 nothing left but some fixed salts, mixed with those 
 earths and juices which have resisted its action. 
 It also permits the gases we have mentioned, 
 which are the life of plants, to escape and waste 
 in the air. Fermentation, to a great degree, 
 should take place in the soil we wish to raise the 
 grain from. 
 
 5. The very best kind of manure is usually 
 lost in this country. In England and France the 
 litter from the stables is carefully conducted 
 into reservoirs, made and placed for the purpose. 
 The liquid is taken out of these vats, and thrown 
 over straw, dry leaves, weeds, &c. In this way 
 it is saved, and made to assist fermentation. In 
 this country we either let it soak into the ground, 
 or run off into useless, uncultivated places, 
 
 6. Many farmers heap up, in large piles, the 
 collections of the barn-yard, and allow them to 
 rot uncovered and exposed to the changes of the 
 weather. This is wrong. These heaps should 
 
THE NATURE OF MANURES. 67 
 
 be covered by a slight roof of straw or boards, to 
 protect them from the rain. Separate layers 
 should be formed of each clearing of the stables. 
 
 7. These layers should be from a foot and a 
 half to two feet in thickness; and when the heat 
 produced in them by fermentation rises in the 
 centre to more than 95°, or when the mass begins 
 to smoke, it should be turned, to prevent decompo- 
 sition from going too far. As the manure lies in 
 yards, in heaps and thin layers, the fermentation 
 is very unequal : some parts have undergone too 
 much decomposition, and some not enough. 
 
 8. Fermentation should go on alike in the whole 
 mass, and be arrested as soon as the straw begins 
 to turn brown. To do this, the mass may be 
 spread, or carried into the fields, to be immediately 
 mixed with the soil. Or, we may mix with it 
 mould, plaster, muck, straw, dry leaves, &c., while 
 lying in the 3^ard or in heaps. 
 
 9. There has been much said of late on the 
 subject of fermentation. Some contending that 
 the manure should be considerably rotted, and 
 others that a very little fermentation is much better. 
 Before deciding upon this question, we should have 
 reference to the soil to be manured. If this be 
 compact, clayey, and cold, it is better that fermen- 
 tation have taken place but slightly. 
 
 10. Unfermented manures soften and divide 
 hard soils, and render them open to the air and 
 water; and they also, while undergoing fermenta- 
 tion, lighten and warm the earth. But if the soil 
 be light, warm, and porous, the fermented manure 
 is preferable, because it gives out less heat, and 
 instead of opening the earth, already too open, it 
 
68 THE NATURE OF MANURES. 
 
 makes it more compact. Experience has made 
 these facts known to all observing farmers. 
 
 1 1. When we wish to apply manure to any par- 
 ticular soil, we should ascertain the peculiar quali- 
 ties of that soil, and than select the kind of manure 
 adapted. Animals bearing wool furnish the warm- 
 est manures; these may be mixed with the coldest 
 soils. The next warmest is afforded by horses ; 
 while that of cows and oxen contains the least 
 heat of any. The latter is ffood for hot, sandy 
 land. 
 
 12. Bones and horn scrapings have become in 
 the hands of farmers powerful agents in fertih'zing 
 the soil. These parts of animals are principally 
 composed of phosphate of lime and gelatine. 
 Bones and horns should be ground or pounded 
 fine, before mixing them with the soil. Farmers 
 lose much by not attending to these parts of ani- 
 mals. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE NATURE OF MANURES—CONTINUED. 
 
 1. The excrement of birds is another very val- 
 uable manure ; better than that of quadrupeds, for 
 birds digest their food more thoroughly. It also 
 contains more animal matter, and is richer in 
 salts. This article is one of commerce between 
 some of the isles of the Pacific and South Amer- 
 
THE NATURE OF MANURES. 69 
 
 ica. Fanners in the United States neglect this ma- 
 nure entirely. The nutriment under the sheds re- 
 main unseemly and useless from year to year. 
 
 2. Sir Humphrey Davy has proved by experi- 
 ments, that rye, wheat, barley, and oat straw, have 
 but two per cent, of manure in them. That is, 
 only two pounds of manure in one hundred pounds 
 of straw. The ninety-eight pounds consists en- 
 tirely of fibre, which is a long time in decompo- 
 sin2:. 
 
 3. In the whole vegetable kingdom, there is not 
 a substance that aflbrds so little aliment for plants 
 or animals, as the dry straw of grain. If it is 
 thrown into the yard to soak up the moisture, to 
 mix with the excrement, and to ferment, in this con- 
 dition it increases largely the quantity of manure. 
 In this way it should alwa^'s be applied. 
 
 4. Weeds, leaves of trees, and all the succulent 
 plants, which grow so abundantly in ditches and 
 waste lands, under fences, and by the road side, if 
 cut when in flower, and slightly fermented, furnish 
 from twenty to twenty-five times more manure than 
 straw does. These weeds and plants, carefully col- 
 lected, furnish to the farmer an immense resource 
 for enriching his lands. 
 
 5. If the farmer would cut these weeds for this 
 purpose, he would be a double gainer; for in this 
 way he would prevent the foul seed from spreading 
 over his land. It is surprising that agriculturists 
 will let the foul plants go to seed, undisturbed, from 
 year to year. The farm soon becomes full of pois- 
 onous plants, which choke the crops, and draw up 
 all the strength of the soil. 
 
70 THE NATURE OF MANURES. 
 
 6. Farmers should make a small excavtition, 
 near a stream of water, and into this hole throw all 
 the weeds, coarse grass, leaves, potato tops, &c., 
 which may be gathered in summer. By letting a 
 little water to this collection, the whole heap would 
 soon ferment enough to make excellent manure. 
 How much farmers lose by not attending to this 
 one simple thing ! ! 
 
 7. There is another source of manure generally 
 overlooked. The sides of the highway soon be- 
 come covered with a rich sod, made by hogs, sheep, 
 and cattle, which run in the road. This sod 
 should every two or three years be carried into 
 the fields and mixed with the soil. It would be 
 a gieat addition to the nutriment made on the 
 farm. i 
 
 8. There is a species of manure called comyost. ^ 
 This is made by arranging beds of different kinds 
 of manure one above another, taking care to make 
 such a mixture as is suited to the soil to be enriched 
 by it. Suppose we wish to form a compost for a 
 clayey, stiff soil. 
 
 9. The first bed must be made of plaster, gravel, 
 or mortar rubbish ; the second of the litter and ex- 
 crements of horses or sheep; the third, of sweep- 
 ings of yards, paths, barns, and of lean marl, dry 
 and calcareous; of muck from swamps; the remains 
 of hay, straw, &c. ; and all this in its turn must be 
 covered with a layer of the same materials as the 
 first. 
 
 10. Fermentation will take place in the beds of 
 nutriment, and the liquor flowing from these will 
 mingle with the materials of the other layers. 
 When the whole mass exhibits the signs of a high 
 
STIMULATING MANURES. 71 
 
 heat and a brown colour, it must be carried into the 
 fields. Care must be taken to mix well the sub- 
 stances composing the different layers. 
 
 11. If the compost be designed to improve a 
 light, porous, and calcareous soil, it must be formed 
 of materials of a very different character. In this 
 case, it is necessary that argillaceous principles 
 should prevail. 
 
 12. The materials must be com/pact, the manure 
 of the least heating kind, and the fermentation con- 
 tinued till the ingredients form a yielding and glu- 
 tinous paste. The earths must be clayey, half 
 baked and pounded, or consisting of fat and argil- 
 laceous marl, and the mud from low places. Of 
 these all the layers must be formed. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 STIMULATING MANURES LIME, PLASTER, ASHES^ 
 
 AND MARL. 
 
 1. Lime is familiarly known to farmers by the 
 same name that is generally used by chymists. It 
 is obtained by the aid of heat from rocks which go 
 by the name of limiestones. These are combina- 
 tions of lime wifh carbonic acid, which is fixed in 
 them by chymical attraction, but which, when driven 
 off by heat, takes the same form as the air of the 
 atmosphere, or becomes a gas. This gas, from this 
 circumstance, has been called fixed oir, by which 
 
72 STiMtJLAtlKG MANURES. 
 
 name it is often known as causing the sparkling and 
 froth of cider and beer. 
 
 2. The principal part of limestone is therefore 
 called by chy mists carbo7iate of lime. Carbonate 
 of lime is also found in shells, both those of living 
 animals and those which exist in the ground in a 
 fossil state. The former is mixed with animal mat- 
 ter, which is more or less separated from the latter, 
 according to the time which has elapsed since the 
 death of the shell fish. 
 
 3. Marl, in the sense in which the term is used 
 by chymists, is a mixture of clay with carbonate of 
 lime. The English writers on agriculture have 
 not observed this distinction, and the term is some- 
 times applied by them to a decomposed chalk, 
 which may contain little or no clay ; and some- 
 times to the clay, which contains no carbonate of 
 lime. 
 
 4. In fact, the name is frequently applied by them 
 to any earthy matter found below the vegetable soil 
 \\';!ch is capable of increasing its fertility. From 
 tills misapprehension, the substances which go by 
 the name of marl in New Jersey, Maryland, and 
 Virginia, do not correspond with the chymical defi- 
 nition, but are generally beds of fossil shells, mixed 
 in various proportions with earthy and saline mat- 
 ters of various kinds. 
 
 5. Lime is a substance very different in its cha- 
 racter from the two earths of which we have previ- 
 ously spoken. When prepared by heat from any of 
 the original forms of its carbonate, it retains their 
 shape unaltered, but may have its colour changed, 
 and always loses considerable in weight. 
 
 6. It is now acrid, caussticj and corrosive, and has 
 
sonic proprrties in common with potash, which are 
 thc'iffore ulkalii'e. Ui' these tiic most iniportmit is, 
 th;!t it unites wifh acids to form coiiipoiinds included 
 in tlit* nfeneral class of salts. 
 
 7. Of t!ie s;i]ts (^f lime, which are in^portant to 
 the farnicr. t!]e tlir-'e principal are: the rarbonalt:, 
 vrhich, as we have stated, is foe.nd in lisntstone, 
 chaik', shells, ;ind marl : ihi^ sufp'ni!iu ii') which lime 
 is combined with sniphuric acid, and which, in 
 combin-jtion with water, is the substance so well 
 I'.nown lo o;ir fii mers under the name of pi ;ster of 
 Paris, or Uss familiarly by that of g-ypsum ; te.c 
 pho^phafc, whirh constitutes a large part of thy 
 bones (;f animals. 
 
 8. Lime, \\dien exposed to air, attracts ca/oonic 
 acid, which isalwi^ys to be found in the atmosphere ; 
 it thus passes back to the state. of carbonate, but in 
 so doiftg- <jradunl!y fd1s to powder, and is then snid 
 tube air slacked, if slacked uilh water, it also 
 falls to a pnw;lf^r, which still retains the caustic 
 character o( the bu:nt lime: but this powder, when 
 e.xposed to the air, unites with carbonic acid more 
 rapidly than when in mass. 
 
 9. Three principal modes of proceeding" are in 
 use for npplyino; lime. The first is the most sim* 
 pie, and is the most ireneral wherever lime is ob- 
 tained cheaply, and where culture is but little ad- 
 vanced in perfection, and manual labour is dear. 
 This is puttinnf the lime [the burned limestone] im- 
 mediately on the ground, in little heaps, at twenty 
 feet average distarice, and each heap containing', ac* 
 cording to the rate of liming, from a cubic foot of 
 the stone to half that quantity. When the lime has 
 been slacked by exnosure to the air, aad has faliea 
 
 ^ G 
 
74 STIMULATING BIANUKES. 
 
 into powder, it is spread on the surface so as to be 
 equally divided. 
 
 10. The second mode differs from the first in this 
 respect: the heaps of stone are covered with a coat 
 of earth, about six inches thick, according- to the 
 size of the heap, and this coat is equal to five or 
 six times the bulk of the lime. When the lime be- 
 gins to swell, by slacking, the cracks and openings 
 in the heap are filled with earth: and when the 
 lime is reduced to powder, each heap is worked 
 over, so as to mix thoroughly the lime and the earth. 
 If nothing hurries the labour, this last operation is 
 repeated at the end of fifteen days; and then, after 
 waiting two. weeks more, the mixture is spread over 
 the soil. 
 
 11.. The third process, which is adopted Avhere 
 culture is more perfect and lime is dear, and which 
 combines alF the advantages of liming, without 
 offering any of its inconveniesces, consists in making 
 compost heaps of lime and earth or mould. For 
 this, there is first made a bed' of earth, mould, or 
 turf, of a foot or thereabout in thickness. The 
 clods are chopped down, and there is spread over a 
 layer of unslacked lime, of a hectolitre for the 
 twenty cubic feet, or a ton to the forty-five cubic 
 feet of earth. 
 
 12. Upon this lime is placed another layer of 
 earth, equal in thickness to the first; then a sec- 
 ond layer of lime; and then the ^heap is finished 
 by a third layer of earth. If the earth is moist, 
 and the lime recently burned, eight or ten days 
 will suffice to slack it completely. Then the heap 
 is cut down and well mixed — and this operation is 
 repeated afterward, bfefore using the manure, which 
 
STIMULATING MAXURES. 75 
 
 is delayed as long as possible, because the effect 
 on the soil is increased with the age of the com- 
 post ; and especially if it has been made with 
 earth containing much vegetable mould. 
 
 13. This method is the one most used in Belgi- 
 um and Flanders: it is becoming almost the exclu- 
 sive practice in Normandy : it is the only practice, 
 and followed with the greatest success, in La 
 Sarthe. Lime in compost is never injurious to the 
 soil. Light soils, sandy or gravelly, are nov tired 
 by repetitions of this compost. No country or au- 
 thor charges lime, used in this way, with having 
 been injurious to the soil. In short, this seems the 
 most sure, the most useful, and the least expensive 
 mode of applying lime as manure. 
 
 14. Lime is the life of wheat, and should be 
 used on land in this country more generally than 
 it has been. We would recommend, to most farm- 
 ers, the second method mentioned above, of apply- 
 ing it to the soil. 
 
 15. Plaster is profitably and extensively used in 
 this coi7ntry. On the sandy lands, the white or 
 Nova Scotia plaster is thought best ; but used on 
 the loamy, clayey soils, the western plaster is sup- 
 posed to be equally good, if not better. Plaster, 
 or gypsum, as it is sometimes called, does not help 
 low moist lands as much as it does dry uplands. 
 On soil of the latter kind, it should be used more 
 generally than it has hitherto been. It will well 
 pay the expense and trouble. 
 
 16. Plaster was made known to us by Benjamin 
 Franklin, upon his return from Paris. As Frank- 
 lin wished the effects of this manure to strike the 
 attention of all cultivators, he wrote in great let- 
 
76 
 
 S T I M U L A r 1 N G >I A N U R K S, 
 
 ters in a field of clover by ihe side of a pnblic 
 road, "This has been plastered.'' The rich ve^e- 
 i.ition which was seen in the. plastered portion, 
 ]ed him to adopt this method. 
 
 17. VoLUines upon the ex-^f^llencos of pl;ipter 
 woijld not have prolaced so spt-edy an edert. 
 From that period \vc h rro useJ great q^r.mtities of 
 phi-^tcr. 
 
 IS. Gvpsuni is a co^riponiid of sulphuric ludd 
 a:jd lim-.', co.iUiiiiiti'j- more or less water fryst.illized. 
 Ainolerale heat de;):'ii'es it of i!s watei', <!u\ ren- 
 ders it of a dirker colour, il can then be reduced 
 to powler, and ernr/oyrd in that state. 
 
 19. The o'ypsum shoul.i lie se-itlered by hand, 
 v/hen the leaves an 1 pLm's begin to cover the 
 groun 1. It is best to do this dar:n.g a light rain, as 
 it is. well to have th;^ leaves a litth- rnois'ened, that 
 they iniy retain a smill partion of the plaster, 
 Tne efl^ct of plaster is seen for three or fotjr 
 yeirs. Tiie use of it on.ght to be rt-suinf'd R.t the 
 on 1 of th It time, if not soon'T. From thr.'o to 
 fouv hi5n Irej ponn Is should he thrown upon ;in 
 ac'-e. Wh-n us.-l on corn or notritoes, it should be 
 thro'vu into th^> hii's. 
 
 23. As'ie.^ projiice;;] by biV.-ninT wood are ex- 
 celk.mt stimu!ini.s, though without h^ung leached, 
 ashes are, U3u■^l!v^much too active. BtU after hav- 
 ing been deprived, hvthe action of w.it-'r, of nearly 
 all theirs lbs, th.-y still probuce great effects. In 
 this stite they are calk'-d J cached ashes. How 
 often do we s:-e larg(3 piles of these ashes left, 
 proiribly in the way, from year to year. If fann- 
 ers kne V their value, they would scatter theni over 
 the land without dehiy. 
 
IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 77 
 
 21. Leached ashes are most powerful upon low 
 lands and meadows. Here they not only help the 
 growth of good plants, but free the soil from weeds. 
 By the use of these ashes, lands drenched with 
 water may be freed from rushes, and prepared for 
 yielding clover, and other plants of good kinds. 
 They amend clayey soils, and promote vegetation. 
 Farmers should be careful to scatter them over the 
 fields, and not throw them into the door-yard from 
 year to year, where they are entirely lost. 
 
 22. Marl is usually nothing more than a mixture 
 of lime and clay. Shell marl is composed of lime 
 and sand : this last kind is best for sand land, and 
 the former for clay land. The shell marl is found 
 in great quantities in New-Jersey, and has quad- 
 rupled the value of many farms. This is particu- 
 larly the case in Monmouth county. There are 
 also large beds of marl in the state of New- York, 
 but little attention has as yet been given to this 
 valuable species of manure. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL, 
 
 1. To improve the soil is to render 'it moresuite'd 
 to the growth of plants. Before this can be done, 
 we must know the particular aliment which the 
 different plants require, and the present qualities 
 of the soil we wish to act upon. We always work 
 in the dark when we do not thoroughly and ao- 
 
 G ^ 
 
/8 I>IPROVl:!\IEXT OF TliE SOIL. 
 
 curately understand the end for which we are toil- 
 ing, and the bubsta'nce we are actiri/^^ upon. 
 
 2. The soil can be increased by mechanical 
 means. It is known ih.-n the beMt caiths produce 
 but Jittle, if they be not stirred by the spade, the hoe, 
 or the plough. This operation dividt-s and softens 
 the earth. It br-ngs to th^ sir. face the manures of 
 all kinds, which the rains had c:uisid to sin!-: below 
 it. It hejps the spreading of the roots, and rnixe.s 
 ihe manure with the earth. 
 
 3. Ploughing also destroys v.-.^ed.'', and causes 
 them to serve as manure. An;j, ]:istly, it frees 
 the soil from verniin, w hich would oiherwise mul- 
 tiply in it to the destruction of the hnrvest. Plough- 
 ing forms the basis of agriculture, for v/ithout it 
 tiiere can be no barvc-st. Ground that we are 
 very particular with siiould be s'irrt'd with the hoe 
 or spade, as these instru.m<-nts are more thorough 
 than the pdough. 
 
 4. It is. in most cases, a good practice to har- 
 row the ["all grain in the spring. The drag, how- 
 evpi', should be ligiit, and the teeth made of wood. 
 Ttiis opr-ratlon cp^-ns the earth, and lets in tlie air 
 and moisture, 'i'he, roli-er should be used on rough, 
 open soils. This instrument is sometimes used 
 en wet, he;5vy hmd, with much injury. Reduced, 
 clavcy bind, will become too hard, without any as- 
 5ijtanf-f> from th.c rolltr. 
 
 5. But on lumpy, porou-s land, the roller should 
 be used. It unites and levels the surfjice of the 
 ground, and piresses the seeds into contact with 
 the earth. The roller also makes a fine prepar- 
 ation for the scythe. It is not unfrequently the 
 case, that the frosts of snrinn- raise the roots of 
 
IMpnOVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 79 
 
 grain out of the i^round, when they are left bare, 
 and soon die. By roiling the land at this time we 
 crowd the roots again into the earth. This will 
 often save a crop. 
 
 6. That the subject may be clearly understood, 
 we will distinguish soils at.; clayey, calcareous, si- 
 licious, and sandy. These divisions seem to com- 
 prise all those req'jirino- to be amended. And the 
 (jn.ility of the earth we find in each will tell us 
 wliat must be done to make an improvement. 
 
 7. A clayey soil is rendered pnsty (what farmer? 
 call sticky) by rain.=:, and it is hardened and cracked 
 by hiMt. This soil absorbs moisture from the air 
 only on its surface, but takes in the water from the 
 rain so nbundantly, that the roots of plants are in 
 dan:rer, in a wet time, of being drowned. This 
 gre it q'lantiry of water also frequently stagnates ; 
 and this soon destroys the crop. 
 
 8. \ n clayey soils, the freezing and thawing throw 
 oiit ihe ro<it3 of the grain, and leave them exposed 
 to the f;OGt ;inl winds. In this condition, the orain 
 wltiler li'dh. To remedy this, in part, we should 
 pass t'le roller over the grain after every thaw. 
 Til is will cover and crowd the roots of the grain 
 into t!ie earth. 
 
 9. Every thing that will tend to soften thisclayc}^ 
 earth, to render it more light and porous, and to 
 hasten the passage of water through it, is adopted 
 to the improvement of this kind of soil. V/e should 
 mix with this earth calcareous sands, broken shells, 
 chalk'?, lean marl, ashes, lime, &c. The piough- 
 ings should be deep and frequent. The green crops 
 should be turned in. And there should be a plen- 
 tiful use of the hot manures. 
 
80 IMPROVKMENT OF THE SOIL. 
 
 10. Calcareous soils possess properties entirely 
 different from those of the clayey soils. The rains 
 drain through them easily, and they throw off 
 moisture readily by evaporation. The air, again, 
 can penetrate the sandy soil, and deposite the mois- 
 ture with which it is charged. 
 
 11. The tillage of these soils is light and easy; 
 and as they are loose and porous, provided they 
 have sufficient depth, roots spread in them easily. 
 To improve these soils we should make them capa- 
 ble of holding water, and this may be done by a 
 dressing of fat marl or calcined clay. These soils, 
 being naturally warm, require the fresh manure of 
 neat cattle. The rich mud drawn from rivers and 
 low places, may be used with great success in im- 
 proving calcareous soils. 
 
 12. The custom of allowing lands to rest after 
 having produced several harvests, has long been in 
 practice, and is still followed, to a great extent, 
 in this country. It is thought that land ought to 
 rest to recover its strength, or productive virtue. 
 The necessity of rest in animals, probably gave rise 
 to this idea. But nothing is more unfounded in 
 truth. If lands are properly managed, they need 
 not rest. 
 
 13. The scarcity of manure has been, again, 
 another cause of letting lands lie fallow. But the 
 ease with which fodder may be cultivated, furnishes 
 the means of supporting an increased number of 
 animals, and hence of obtaining an increased quan- 
 tity of manure. With the help of this the farmer 
 need not let his lands lie idle. He may make sulfi- 
 cient manure to keep his land most of the time 
 under the plough. 
 
SUCCESSION or CROPS. 81 
 
 14. A great advantage has arisen from the sys- 
 tem of rotation of crops, which is foui:ci to ans\\er 
 all the purposes of fallowing. By skilfully ar- 
 ranging a succession of crops of grain, artificial 
 fotlJer, leguminous plants, roots, &c., the earth is 
 enriched, instead of being impoverished. The 
 ground is likewise cleansed from weeds, and more 
 abundant crops are obtained at less expense. 
 
 15. During those years when certain fodders, 
 such as clover and trefoil, require no other care than 
 that of harvesting them, the farmer can bestow all 
 his attention, manures, and the labour of his cattle, 
 upon such other portions of his farm as may need 
 improvement. So that, instead of having one half 
 of his land lying as an unproductive fallow, it may 
 be covered with herbage, affording the finest food 
 for cattle. 
 
 16. The soil will be growing richer, instead of 
 poorer, and may be prepared for raising grain, with- 
 out the addition of any barn-yard manure. Farmers 
 should keep sheep, not only for the orofit on the 
 wool, but for the purpose of aiding the soil. And 
 they should make all the manure they can, from 
 every plant that may grow upon the farm. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. ^ 
 
 SUCCESSION OF CROPS. 
 
 1. The soil and climate may be well adapted 
 to the cultivation of a particular plant, and yet 
 that plant not do well, if sown on the same piece 
 F 
 
82 succ::ssioN of crops. 
 
 of ground from year to year. To manage land 
 profitably, various kinds of vegetables must be raised 
 on it in succession. The rotation must also be 
 conducted with intelligence, that none unsuited to 
 the soil or climate be introduced. 
 
 2. It is the art of varying the crops upon the 
 same soil, of causing different vegetables to suc- 
 ceed one another, and of skilfully managing the 
 effect of each upon the soil, whii-.h can alone estab- 
 lish that good order of succession which constitutes 
 croyj-ping: 
 
 3. A good system of cropping is the best surety 
 of success that a farmer can have. Without this, 
 all is vague, uncertain, and hazardous. To estab- 
 lish a good system of cropping, a degree of know- 
 ledge is necessary, which, unhappily, is wanting to 
 the greater part of our practical farmers. Certain 
 fjicts and principles, which may serve as guides in 
 this important branch of agriculture, will now be 
 stated. 
 
 4. All flanls exhaust the soil. They take from 
 it certain properties, which, if not replaced by art, 
 will leave the soil so much impoverished. If 
 crop after crop is taken from the same field, the 
 ground will become fairly exhausted. The earth 
 cannot give nutriment to plants without being im- 
 ])Overished. 
 
 5. But all plants do ytoL exhaust the soil equally. 
 Although the air, water, and moisture in the earth, 
 are the common food of plants, yet different plants 
 have not the same aliment. Some love a dry soil, 
 some a wet, while others will grow only in the 
 richest lands. Every plant has its own favourite 
 
SUCCESSION OF CROPS. 83 
 
 food; and some are large, and others are small 
 eaters. 
 
 6. The grains and most of the grasses having 
 but few leaves, do not receive much food from the 
 air or water, but obtain most of their nourishment 
 from the ground. These, consequently, exhaust 
 the soil more than such plants as have large fleshy 
 leaves, which feed upon the air and water, and draw 
 carbonic acid and water into the earth. Nearly 
 all the plants that are cut for fodder are of this 
 kind. 
 
 7. In most cases, those plants which are cut 
 green, or while in flower, exhaust the soil but lit- 
 tle: till this period they have derived their support 
 almost entirely from the air and water. The stalks 
 and roots are charged with juices, and those parts 
 that are left in the earth, after mowing, will restore 
 to the soil all that had been received from it by the 
 plant. 
 
 8. Plants of different kinds do not exhaust a soil 
 in the same manner. They exhaust only that por- 
 tion of the soil which comes in contact Avith their 
 roots. A plant that has a long, single root, may 
 be able to find an abundance of food in land, the top 
 of which has been impoverished by short spreading 
 roots. 
 
 9> Plants of the same kind always send their 
 roots in the same direction. They, consequently, 
 are supported by the same layers of earth. A tree 
 seldom prospers that has taken the place of an- 
 other of the same kind. If there has been suffi- 
 cient time, since the old tree was taken away, for 
 its roots to rot and thus supply manure, the second 
 
S4 SUCCESSION 01" CHOI'S. 
 
 growth may flourish. But unless this is the case, 
 the tree will not be healthy and thrifty. 
 
 10. It has been proved that plants have taste 
 and choice regarding their food, it is, in fact, with 
 them as with animals, there are some elements coin- 
 irion to all, and some peculiar to each kind. This 
 is beyond doubt, since a certain plant takes up 
 one quality, and some other plant an opposite 
 quality. 
 
 1 1. All plants do not restore to the soil either the, 
 same qaantity or the same quality of manure. The 
 grains take most from the soil and return least to 
 it. Plants with large roots and stalks, frequently 
 return to the soil as much as they t:ske from if. 
 From what has been said, we may draw the fol- 
 lowing conclusions : 
 
 1^. Although the soil may be well prepared, it 
 cannot nourish a long succession of crops without 
 becoming exhausted. 
 
 Each harvest impoverishes the soil to a certain 
 extent, according to the degree of nourishment 
 which it restores to the earth. 
 
 The cultivation of spindle roots ought to succeed 
 that of top and running roots. 
 
 13. We should not return too soon to the cultiva- 
 tion of the same kinds of vegetables in the same 
 soil. 
 
 It is very unwise to allow two kinds of plants, 
 which permit the ready growth of weeds, to be 
 raised in succession. 
 
 Plants that derive their principal support from 
 the soil, should not be sown, unless the soil is suf- 
 ficiently provided with manure. 
 
 14. 'Whcii the soil shows symptoms of exhaus- 
 
GHASisES. 85 
 
 tion, the cultivation of those plants that restore 
 most to the soil must be resorted to. These prin- 
 ciples are confirmed by experience. 
 
 15. We have here stated a system of agricul- 
 ture, rich in its products, but more rich in its 
 economy. It sates labour and ndnure. All culti- 
 vators ought to be governed by them. Their ap- 
 plication, however, must be modified by the nature 
 of soils and climates, and the particular wants of 
 each locality. 
 
 CHAPTER XX, 
 
 GRASSES. 
 
 1. I HAVE found in our publications on agri- 
 culture, very little information on the improvement 
 of our meadow and pasture grounds. Indeed, the 
 names of our native grasses are scarcely enumer- 
 ated, much less are their habits described, or 
 their relative merits for hay and pasture pointed 
 out, in any American work which has fallen with- 
 in my notice. A considerable portion of our lands 
 are unsuitable for the system of convertible hus- 
 bandry, that is, an alternation of grain and grass 
 crops. 
 
 2. Of this description are our stiff clays, marshes, 
 and swamps, and all of those lands in which' til- 
 lage is rendered difficult by reason of hardpan, 
 stones, or wetness. These should be improved as 
 permanent meadows and pastures ; and it is of 
 
 H 
 
86 GRASSES. 
 
 the first importance to the f.iniier to know the 
 grasses which will render them most conducive to 
 profit; for that our grass grounds arc as suscep- 
 tible of improvement as our tillage grounds, by a 
 suitable selection of seeds, and suitable man;'ge- 
 rnent, must be apparent to every reflecting mind. 
 The improvement and productiveness of our cat- 
 tle and sheep husbandry, which at this time de- 
 servedly engage much of the public attention, de- 
 pend materially on this bran<^h of farming. 
 
 3. Siccet-scented Vernal Grass. This is a grass 
 of diminutive growth, and is not worth cultivating* 
 for hay. It is nevertheless considered as valuable 
 in pasture, on account of its affording very early 
 feed, and grovving- quick after being cropped. Its 
 proper situation is klgh, well-drained meadows. 
 It constitutes, in such meadows, in Massachusetts, 
 at least one half of the whole crop. Its chief fault 
 is that it is too early for the other grasses, but it 
 afibrds a second and even a third crop if cut early. 
 It is the grass which gives the finest flavour, so 
 grateful to milch cows. 
 
 4. Meadow Foxtail possesses all the advantages 
 of early growth with the preceding, and is much 
 more abundant in product and nutriment. It gen- 
 erally constitutes one of five or six kinds which are 
 sowed together, by the English farmers, for pas- 
 ture; and afTords withal a tolerable crop of hay. 
 It does best in moist soils, whether loams, clays, 
 or reclaimed bogs. Sheep and horses have a bet- 
 ter relish for it, says Sir G. Sinclair, than oxen. 
 
 5. Rough Cocksfoot. Dr. Muhlenburgh and T. 
 Cooper concur in opinion that this is the orchard 
 gra-73 of tho Unit'M States, though some that I have 
 
GRASSES. 87 
 
 raised as orchard grass does not seem to corres- 
 pond with the figure of the dactylu glomerata in 
 the second volume of Dickson's Farmer's Com- 
 panion. In England, cocksfoot is taking the place 
 of rye grass with clovers. Arthur Young speaks 
 in hiffh commendation of it ; though all writers 
 concur in the opinion, that it should be frequently 
 and closely cropped, either with the scythe or cat- 
 tle, to reap the full benefit of its great merits. 
 
 6. I should prefer it to almost every other grass ; 
 and cows are very fond of it. Cooper rates it 
 above timothy, and says it is gradually taking the 
 place of the latter, among the best farmers about 
 Philadelphia. This is probably owing to the fact 
 that it is earlier than timothy, and of course more 
 suitable to cut with clover for hay. Its growth is 
 early and rapid, after it has been cropped. It 
 does well on loams and sands, and grows well in 
 shade. 
 
 7. If further facts are wanting in favour of this 
 grass for pasture, the reader will find them in an 
 article in the American Farmer of the fourteenth 
 November, 1823, supposed to be Colonel Powel's, 
 a gentleman who combines as much science with 
 judicious practice, especially in cattle and grass 
 husbandry, as any person in the Union. He says, 
 " I hav^e tried orchard grass for ten years. It pro- 
 duces more pasturage than any artificial grass I 
 have seen in America." Sow two bushels of seed 
 to an acre. 
 
 8. Tall Oat Grass. Both Arator (Mr. Taylor) 
 and Dr. Muhlenburg have placed this at the head 
 of their lists of grasses, which they have recom- 
 mended to the attention of the American farmer. 
 
88 GRASSES. 
 
 The latter says, it is of all others the earliest and 
 best grass tor green fodder and hay. The doctor 
 was, probably, not apprized of its deficiency in 
 nutritive matter, as indicated in the table. 
 
 9. It possesses the advantage of early, quick, 
 and late growth, for which the cocksfoot is es- 
 teemed, tills well, and is admirably calculated for 
 pasture grass. I measured some on the twentieth 
 of June, when in blossom, when it should be cut 
 for hay, and found it four and a half feet long. 
 The latter math is nearly equal in weight, and 
 superior in nutritious matter, to the seed crop, 
 
 10. Tall Fescue, although a native grass, has 
 not fallen under my personal observation. It 
 stands highest, says Davy, according to the ex- 
 periments of the Duke of Bedford, of any grass, 
 properly so called, as to the quantity of nutritive 
 matter afforded by the whole crop, when cut at the 
 time of flowering; and meadow catstail (timothy) 
 grass affords most food, if cut at the time when 
 the seed is ripe. 
 
 11. It grows naturally in wet grounds, in bog 
 meadows, and on the sides of ditches, often to the 
 height of four or five feet. Our ignorance of ag- 
 ricultural botany, and of the intrinsic value of this 
 grass, can alone have prevented its being more 
 generally known and cultivated. It must be very 
 valuable for wet grounds, as from its rapid growth 
 it is calculated to smother or keep down the 
 coarser kinds, which naturally abound in these situ- 
 ations. 
 
 12. Rye Grass is extensively cultivated in Scot- 
 land and the north of England ; and where cocks- 
 foot has not superseded it, is generally mixed 
 
GRASSES. S9 
 
 with clover seeds. It is rather declining in pub- 
 lic estimation. It does well in pasture; and as it 
 contains much nutriment, is considered valuable 
 for cows and sheep. Dickson says it does best in 
 rich moist meadows. Young does not speak well 
 of it. 
 
 13. Red Clorer. There are many species of 
 the trifolibbvi, and several varieties of the red clo* 
 ver. VVhether the kind we generally cultivate is 
 the praieiise, or not, I am unable to determine. 
 The character of red clover as a meliorating fertil- 
 izing crop, is too generally known to require illus- 
 tration. It cannot be depended upon for perma- 
 nent grass lands; though it yields to no grass for 
 alternating u'ith grain, inconvertible husbandry. 
 
 14. It formerly was as indispensable in a course 
 of crops in Norfolk, England, (w4iich has been con- 
 sid.-red pre-eminent for good tillage,) as turnips; 
 and the maxim was, and still is, " No turnips, no 
 crops." But it appears from Young's survey of 
 that county, that it cannot now be depended on 
 oftener than once in from eight to twelve years. 
 Trefoil, white clover, cocksfoot, rye grass, &c., 
 are therefore alternated with red clover, in the 
 grass years. There is reason to believe, that 
 neither red clover, nor other grasses, will bear re- 
 peating for a course of years upon the generality 
 of the soils. 
 
 1.5. They exhaust the ground of the peculiar 
 nourishment required for their support. In Great 
 Britain, white clover, trefoil, rye grass, or cocksfoot, 
 is generally sown with red clover seeds. From 
 twenty to thirty pounds of seeds are sown to the 
 acre, la the oorthera states, timothy is gjenerally 
 
 H a 
 
90 GRASSES. 
 
 sown with clover ; though the mixture is an im- 
 proper one for hay; for the clover is fit for the 
 scythe ten or fifteen days before the timothy has 
 arrived to maturity. If sown alone, from eight to 
 sixteen pounds of clover seed should be put on an 
 acre; more on old land than on new. 
 
 16. White or Dutch Clover {trifolium rcperis) 
 is considered in England of importance to hus- 
 bandry, if we are to judge from the great quantity 
 of seed which is there sown annually. With us, 
 many districts produce it spontaneously; but it is 
 too seldom sown. It shrinks greatly in drying, 
 and does not contain as much nutritive matter as 
 red clover ; yet its value as a pasture grass is uni- 
 versally admitted. Its increase is very much fa- 
 cilitated by a top dressing of gypsum, lime, or 
 ashes. 
 
 17. Lucerne, although affording much more 
 green food, contains less nutriment in a single 
 crop than red clover. It must, however, be borne 
 in mind, that it grows much quicker than clover, 
 and will bear cutting twice as often. In the soil- 
 ing system, an acre of lucerne will keep four cat- 
 tle or horses from the fifteenth of May to the first 
 of October. 
 
 18. I sowed seed in 1821, at the rate of six 
 pounds the acre, with barley. It has stood the 
 winters well, much better than clover ; and has been 
 in a state of progressive improvement. Drought 
 has not affected it. The plants are very tender 
 the first year, and require either a very clean 
 tilth, or to be kept free from weeds and grass with 
 a hoe the first year. It should have a deep loam, 
 as it sends down tap roots five or six feet; and it 
 
GRASSES. 01 
 
 is equally necessary that the ground should not be 
 wet. 
 
 19. It may be sown either in drills or broadcast, 
 with or without grain. Fifteen pounds of seed are 
 required for the acre if drilled, and twenty are not 
 too much if sown broadcast. To the proprietor of 
 a dairy, an acre or two of lucerne would be valu- 
 able, to be fed to his cows in addition to ordinary 
 pasture. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 GRASSES — CONTIXlTED. 
 
 1. Long rooted Clover is a native of Hungary, 
 and I do not think has ever found its way across 
 the Atlantic. The root is biennial, and if sown in 
 the fall, lists only during the next season. It pene- 
 trates to a great depth in the ground, and conse- 
 quently is but little affected by drought. It there- 
 fore requires a deep, dry soil. 
 
 2. The product of this grass, when compared to 
 others that are allied to it in habit and place of 
 growth, proves greatly superior. It affords twice 
 the weight of grass, and more than double the nu- 
 tritive matter that is given by the common clover. 
 It gives abundance of seed; and, says G. Sinclair, 
 if the ground be kept free of weeds, it sows itself, 
 vegetates, and grows rapidly, without covering in, 
 or any operation whatever. 
 
 3. Four years it has propagated itself in this 
 
^2 GRASSES. 
 
 manner on the space of ground which it now oc- 
 cupies, and from which this statement of its com- 
 p:irative value is made. This species would, no 
 doubt, prove a valuable acquisition to our husband- 
 ry, whether we consider its value for green food, 
 hay, or as a green crop to be turned in preparatory 
 to grain. 
 
 4. Sain Foin is peculiarly adapted to a calca- 
 reous or chalky soil. It is true, it is cultivated in 
 Norfolk, England, which is a soU of sand and 
 loam, naturally destitute of calcareous matter. But 
 it is common there to dress their lands with clay 
 marl, which abounds with carbonate of lime; wilh- 
 oul which dressing, says Young, Norfolk soils will 
 not grow sain foin. 
 
 5. This writer considers it "one of the most val- 
 uable plants that were ever introduced into the agri* 
 cuhure of C4reat Britain." The well-known Mr. 
 Coke cultivates foui hundred acres of this grass, 
 and sows it without other seeds. Several attempts 
 have been made to cultivate sain foin in this coun- 
 try, but hitherto, 1 believe, without success. 
 
 G. Tiniolhy. This grass is distinguished in 
 Great Britain by the name of meadow calslail ; in 
 New England by that of herdU grass. It is one of 
 the most valuable grasses that are cultivated ; and 
 what is worthy the notice of every farmer, it affords 
 more than double the nutriuient when cut in the 
 seed thu it does in the flower. 
 
 7. In tenacious, stronn*, and moist soils, it is fn- 
 litlf>d to prect^dence, pprhnps over anv single grass 
 for h:iy, yet dofs not s^^m to be suitable to rni.K with 
 clovpp seeds when inlen led for meadow. Another 
 consideration, which renders it particuldrly worthy 
 
GRASSES. 93 
 
 of attention, is the seed which it affords, and which 
 may be saved without materially diminishing the 
 hay crop. From ten to thirty bushels of seed may 
 be taken -from an acre of timothy, which, at the 
 price it now bears, is of itself a handsome remune- 
 ration. 
 
 8. Florin has of late years been brought into no- 
 tice in Great Britain, by the experiments of Dr. 
 Richardson; who particularly recommended it for 
 the cold boggy soils of the mountainous districts, 
 where ordinary grasses would not thrive. The pe- 
 culiar value of the fiorin, and of other grasses of 
 the agrostis family, arises from their fitness ioxicin- 
 ter pasture ; as they lose very little of their bulk or 
 nutriment by remaining in the soil after they have 
 ceased to grow. 
 
 9. Its name (creeping hent or couch grass) im- 
 plies a difficulty in mowing it, except on a surface 
 perfectly smooth. We have seen it recommended 
 to the notice of American farm,ers; but from the 
 very limited progress which seems to have been 
 made in its cultivation, we infer that it has fallen 
 short of public expectation. 
 
 10. Upright Bent Grass. Dr. Muhlenburg con- 
 siders this the hercVs grass of the southern, and the 
 foul meadow of the eastern states, of which white- 
 top and redtop are varieties. This grass is more 
 congenial to our climate than to that of England. 
 In any boggy soils, both varieties of this grass 
 have come in spontaneously, as soon as the ground 
 has been cleared and drained, have soon formed a 
 compact sod, and afforded good hay and good pas- 
 ture. 
 
 U. Flat' stalked Meadow Grass. This, accord- 
 
94 GRASSES. 
 
 inp: to Mnhlenburgh, is the blue grass, which is 
 considered as a pest in many of our tillage grounds. 
 The small crop which it sfives, and the little nutri- 
 tive matter which this affords, show the little de- 
 pendance that ought to be placed on it for grazing, 
 or for hiy. 
 
 12. Smooth- stalked Mcarloio Grass is a native 
 plant, and is well adapted for permanent pastures. 
 It grows quickly after being cropped, and does well 
 upon dry ground. Floating Fescue grows well in 
 swamps and bog soils, vvhere good kinds are most 
 wanted. 
 
 13. I would suggest, with much deference, whe- 
 ther grasses may not be divided, for the practical 
 benefit of the farmer, into three kinds, to wit: 1st, 
 Cit'tivated grasses. All kinds, strictly speaking, 
 which the soil does not produce spontaneously, are 
 cultivated grasses. Butihet^rm, as generally used, 
 and as I here employ it, applies only to such as are 
 sown to alternate, loith grain, pulse, and roots, in a 
 systematic rotation of crops. 
 
 14. The grasses selected for this purpose, are, 
 generally, the red clovers, lucerne, sain foin, or- 
 chard, timothy, tall ont, and rye grass. Clover is 
 the primary depondance on all soils which will 
 grow it, and especially where o'vpsunn can exercise 
 its mairic powers. As vegetables are s;iid to e.K- 
 haust the soil in proportion to the smallness of their 
 leaves, (the larger the leaves, the more nutriment 
 they draw from the atniosphere, and the less from 
 the soil.) clovers are entitled to the hioh comm*^nda- 
 tion thoy have obtained amono: American firme^-s. 
 But as these plants are liable to premature destruc- 
 tion by the frosts of winter, it is both prudent and 
 
GRASSES. 95 
 
 wise to intermix with their seeds those of some other 
 grasses more to be depended on. 
 
 1;"). For this purpose, on sands, loums, and 
 gravels, and these constitute the soils usually em- 
 ployed in convertible husbandry, the orchard grass, 
 and tall meadow out grass, appear to be best calcu- 
 lated to insure profit. I'hey grow early, delight 
 in a clover sod, and are fit for the scythe when 
 clover is in the bloom, the time when it ought to 
 be cut. The hay from this mixture may be made 
 before harvest commences ; and if the soil is good, 
 a second crop may be cut almost equal to the first. 
 If intended for pasture the second year, either of 
 these grasses will afford more abundant food than 
 timoth|. 
 
 16. In clays, the meadow foxtail, an excellent 
 grass, might be substituted, though, according to 
 Sinclair, the tall oat grass will do well here also. 
 In luct soils, where clovers do not grow well, tim- 
 othy and meadow reed grass would be a good selec- 
 tion, sown either separately or together, 
 
 17 Lucerne and sain foin require a deep, dry 
 soil, and are generally sown w'ithout other seeds. 
 The first does not attain to perfection before tbe 
 third year; and both, where successfully cultivated, 
 are permitted to occupy the ground from six to 
 eight yen vs. 
 
 18. 2d. Meadoic grasses. In selecting these, the 
 object is to obtain the greatest burden of good hay, 
 and to mix those kinds which may be profitably cut 
 at the same time. For clayey and moist soils, many 
 valuable and nutritious kinds seem to be well adapt- 
 ed ; that is to say, meadow foxtail, timothy, tall 
 out, meadow syft grass, floating fescue, rye grass, 
 
96 GRASSES. 
 
 reed meadow, smooth-stalked meadow, American 
 cocksfoot, upright bent or herd's grass, and tall 
 fescue. 
 
 19. And the last five are .peculiarly suited to 
 swamp or hog soils. For dry loams, sands, and 
 gravels, which never ought to be kept long in grass, 
 the cocksfoot, or orchard grass, and tall oat, are 
 probably the best; and to these might be added red 
 and white clover. The great difficulty is to pre- 
 vent the deterioration of meadows. This takes 
 place from the better grasses running out, and giv- 
 ing place to coarser kinds, in moss, and to useless 
 or noxious plants, aided often by a neglect to keep 
 them well drained. 
 
 20. The finer and more nutritious kinds thrive 
 best in moist, though they will not live long in luct 
 soils. Hence it is of the first importance to keep 
 the surface soil free from standing water, by good 
 and sufficient ditches; and it often becomes neces- 
 sary, and in most cases it is advisable, on a flat sur- 
 f ■'•'% to lay the land in ridges at right angles with 
 \\\'' drains. 
 
 21. Another precaution to be observed, is not to 
 feed them with stock when the soil is wet and 
 poachy. Harrowing in the fall has been found 
 beneficial to meadows. It destroys mosses, and 
 covers the seeds of grasses which have fallen, or 
 may be sown, and thus produces a continued suc- 
 cession of young plants. In Europe, lime is used 
 with good effect as a top dressing to grass lands, as 
 are also ashes. 
 
 22. With us, the annual application of a bushel 
 of gypsum to the acre is found beneficial. It not 
 only thickens the verdure with clover, but is of 
 
GRASSES. 9'' 
 
 advantage in most other grasses. Stable manure 
 should be used only when it can be spared from 
 the more profitable uses of tillage. When the 
 means above enumerated fail to ensure a good 
 crop of hay, it is time to resort to the plough, and 
 a course of crops. 
 
 23. 3d. Pasture grasses. But few of the grass- 
 es most valued in GreiU Britain for pasture are 
 the natural growth of the United States; but it is 
 believed that if the seeds are once introduced upoi^ 
 our farms, we shall imJ little difficuity in nutural- 
 izing them. Neither the orchard nor vernal grass, 
 which are said to be indigenous to our country, is 
 recognised in the grass lands which have come 
 within my observation; yet they constitute, with 
 foxtail and tall oat grass, the earliest and most val- 
 uable varieties for perennial pastures. 
 
 21. The meadow foxtail and orchard grass, 
 together with our white clover and green meadow 
 grass, poa trivialis, (which seldom require to be 
 sown,) I think would form the best selection for 
 all grounds which are moderately dry. The rye 
 and oat grasses, or meadow soft grass, might be 
 either substituted for the first two, or combined 
 with them. 
 
 25. These would afford spring, summer, and 
 fall feed, abundant in quantity, and wholesome 
 and nutritious in quality. On wet soils, (though 
 pastures require to be drained as well as mead- 
 ows, to ensure a rich herbage,) the tall fescue, 
 smooth stalked meadow, upright bent, and herd's 
 grass, may be introduced to advantage. Gypsum 
 is applied to pastures with the same benefit that it 
 latomG^dQws.-^Tid^e Bud. r 
 
96 HEMP. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 HEMP. 
 
 1. The preparation of the ground for sowing 
 the seed is by the plough and horses, until the 
 clods are sufficiently pulverized or dissolred, and 
 the surface of the field is rendered even and 
 smooth. It should be as carefully prepared as if 
 it were for flax. This most important point, too 
 often neglected, cannot be attendf^d to too much. 
 Scarcely any other crop better rewards diligence 
 and careful husbandry. Fall or winter ploughing 
 is practised with advantage : it is indispensable in 
 old meadows, or old pasture grounds, intended for 
 producing hemp. 
 
 2. Plants for seed are ordinarily reared in a 
 place distinct from that in which they are cultiva- 
 ted for the lint. In this respect, the usage is dif- 
 ferent from that which is understood to prevail in 
 Europe. The seeds which are intended to repro- 
 duce seeds for the crop of the next year, are 
 sowed in drills about four feet apart. When tbey 
 are grown sufficiently to distinguish between the 
 male and female stalks, the former are pulled and 
 thrown away, and the latter are thinned, leaving 
 the stalks separated seven or eight inches from 
 each other. 
 
 3. After the seeds are thrashed out, it is ad- 
 visable to spread them on a floor, to cure properly, 
 and prevent their rotting, before . they are finally 
 put away for use the next sprinij. ScL-ds arc not 
 
HEMP. 99 
 
 generally used, unless they were secured the fall 
 previous to their being sown, as it is believed they 
 will not vegetate if older ; but it has been ascer- 
 tained that when they are properly cured and kept 
 dr}'-, they will come up after the first year. It is 
 important to prevent them from heating, which 
 destroys the vegetating property, and for that pur- 
 pose they should be thinly spread on a sheltered 
 floor. 
 
 4. The seeds, whether to reproduce seeds only, 
 or the lint, are sowed about the same time. Opin- 
 ions vary as to the best period. It depends a good 
 deal upon the season. The plant is very tender 
 when it first shoots up, and is affected by frost. 
 Some have sowed as early as the first of April ; 
 but it is generally agreed, that all the month of 
 May, and about the tenth of it especially, is the 
 most favourable time. 
 
 5. When the object is to make a crop of hemp, 
 the seeds are thrown broadcast. The usual quan- 
 tity is a bushel and a half to the acre ; bwt here 
 again the farmers differ, some using two bushels, 
 or even two and a half. 
 
 G. The ground can only sustain and nourish 
 a certain quantity of plants: and if that limit be 
 passed, the surplus will be smothered in the growth. 
 When the seeds are sown, they are ploughed or 
 harrowed in ; ploughing is best in old ground, as 
 it avoids the injurious effect of a beating rain, and 
 the consequent baking of the earth. It would be 
 also beneficial subsequently to roll the ground with 
 a heavy roller. 
 
 7. After the seeds are sown, the labours oif the 
 cuhivator are suspended, until the plants are ripe, 
 
100 HEMP. 
 
 and in a state to be gathered ; every thing- in tbe 
 intermediate lime being left to the operations of na- 
 ture. If the season be flivourable until the plants 
 are suffiuiently high to shade the ground, (which 
 they will do in a kw weeks, at six or eight inches' 
 height,) there is strong probability of a good crop. 
 When they attain that height, but few articles sus- 
 tain the effect of bad seasons better than hemp. 
 
 8. The maturity of the plant is determined by 
 the evaporation of the farina, already noticed, and 
 the leaves of the plant exhibiting a yellowish hue : 
 it is then generally supposed to be ripe, but it is 
 safest to wait a few da^rs longer. Very little at- 
 tentive observation will enable any one to judge 
 when it is fully ripe. In that respect it is a very 
 accommodating crop, for if gathered a little too 
 soon, the lint is not materially injured, and it will 
 wait the leisure of the farmer some ten days or a 
 fortnioht after it is entirely ripe. 
 
 9. Two modes of gathering the plants are 
 practised, one by pulling them up by the roots, an 
 easv operation with an able-bodied man, and the 
 other by cutting them about two inches (the nearer 
 the better) above the surface of the ground. Eich 
 mode has its partisans, and I have pursued both. 
 
 10. When pulled, it is done by the hand, which 
 is better for the protection of an old leather glove. 
 The labourer catches twenty or thirty plants to- 
 gether, with both hands, and by a sudden jerk 
 draws them without much difficulty. The opera- 
 tion of cutting is performed with a knife, often 
 made out of an old scythe, resembling a sickle, 
 not so long but broader. The knife is applied 
 
HEMP. 101 
 
 much In the same way as the sickle, except that 
 the labourer stoops more. 
 
 11. Whether pulled or cut, the plants are care- 
 fully laid on the ground, the evener the better, to 
 cure; which they do in two or three days, in dry 
 weather. A light rain falling on them while lying 
 down, is thought by some to be beneficial, inasmuch 
 as the leaves, of which they should be deprived, 
 may be more easily shaken off or detached. When 
 cured, the plants are set up in the field in which 
 they were produced, in shocks of convenient size, 
 the roots or butt ends resting on the ground, and 
 the tops united above by a band made of the plants 
 themselves. 
 
 12. Previous to putting them Kp in shocks, 
 most cultivators tie the plants in small hand bun- 
 dles, of such a size that each can be conveniently 
 held in one hand. Before the shocks are formed, 
 the leaves of the plants should be rapidly knocked 
 off with a rough paddle or hooked stick. Some 
 suffer the plants to remain in these shocks until 
 they are spread down to be rotted. Others, again, 
 collect the shocks together as soon as they can 
 command leisure, (and it is clearly best,) and form 
 them into stacks. 
 
 13. A few farmers permit these stacks to re- 
 main over a whole year, before the plants are ex- 
 posed to be rotted. I have frequently done it with 
 advantage, and have at this time two crops in 
 stalks. By remaining that period in stalks, the 
 plants go through a sweat, or some other process, 
 that improves very much the appearance, and, I 
 believe, the quality of the lint ; and this improve- 
 
 I 2 
 
102 nSMP. 
 
 ment fully compensates the loss of time in bringing 
 it to market. 
 
 14. The method of rottinq- is that which is 
 generally practised in Kentucky. The lint so 
 spread is not so good for may purposes, and es- 
 pecially for rigging and ships, as when the plants 
 nave hern rotted by immersion in water, or, as it is 
 generally termed, water rotted. 
 
 15. The greater value, and consequently high- 
 er price of the article prepared in the latter 
 way, have induced more and more of our farmers 
 every year to adopt it; and if that prejudice w^ere 
 subdued, which every American production unfor- 
 tunately encounters when it is first introduced and 
 comes in contact with a rival European commod- 
 ity, I think it probable that in a few^ years' we 
 should be able to dispense altogether with foreign 
 hemp. 
 
 16. The obstacles which prevent the general 
 practice of water rotting are, the want of water 
 at the best season for the operation, which is the 
 month of September ; a repugnance to the change 
 of an old habit ; and a persuasion, which has 
 some foundation, that handling the plants after 
 their submersion in water during that month is in- 
 jurious to health. The first and last of these ob- 
 stacles would be removed by water rotting early 
 in the winter, or in the spring. 
 
 17. The only difference in the operation, per- 
 formed at those seasons, and in the month of Sep- 
 tember, would be, that the plants would have to 
 remain longer in soak before they were sufficiently 
 rotted. 
 
 18. The plants are n?ually spread down to be 
 
HEMP. 103 
 
 dew rotted from the middle of October to tlie mid- 
 dle of December. A farmer who has a hirrj. crop 
 on hand, puts them down at different times, for his 
 convenience in handlinof and dressing thj.m. Au- 
 tumnal rotting- is more apt to give the li it a dark 
 and unsightly colour than winter roitiii^. The 
 best ground to expose the plants upon is meadow 
 or grass land, but they are not unfrequently spread 
 over the same field on which they grow. 
 
 19. The length of time they ought to remain 
 exposed, depends upon the degree of moisture and 
 the temperature of the weather that prevail. In a 
 very wet and warm spell, five or six weeks may 
 be long enough. Whether they have been suffi- 
 ciently rotted or not is determined by experiment. 
 A handful is taken and broken by the hand, or ap- 
 plied to the brake, when it can be easily ascer- 
 tained, by the facility with which the lint can be 
 detached from the stalk, if it be properly rotted. 
 
 20. If the plants remain on the ground too 
 long, the fibres lose some of their strength, though 
 a few days longer than necessary, in cold weather, 
 will not do any injury. I^ they are taken up too 
 soon, that is, before the lint can be easily separa- 
 ted from the woody part of the stalk, it is harsh, 
 ani the process of breaking is difficult and trou- 
 blesome. Snow rotting, that is, when the plants, 
 beinof spread out, remain long enough to rot, 
 (which, however, requires a greater length of time,) 
 bleaches the lint, improves the quality, and makes 
 it nearly as valuable as if it had been water rotted. 
 
 21. After the operation of rotting is performed, 
 the plants are again collected together, put in 
 shocks or stacks, or, which is still better, put under 
 
i04 ntm^ 
 
 a sbed or some covering. When It is designed to 
 break and dress them immediately, they are fre- 
 quently set up against some neighbouring fence. 
 The best period for breaking and dressing is in 
 the months of February and March, and the best 
 sort of weather, frosty nights and clear thawing 
 days. The brake cannot be used ad'/antageously 
 in wet or moist weather. 
 
 22. It is almost invariably used in this state 
 out of doors, and without any cover ; and to assist 
 its operation, the labourer often makes a large fire 
 near it, which serves the double purpose of drying 
 the plants and warming himself It could not be 
 used in damp weather in a house, without a kiln, or 
 some other means of drying the stalks. 
 
 23. The brake in general use is the same hand 
 brake which was originally introduced, and has 
 been always emplo3'ed here, resembling, though 
 longer than the con^.mon flax brake. It is so well 
 known as to render a particular description of it 
 perhaps unnecessary. It is a rough contrivance, 
 set upon four legs, about two and a half feet high. 
 The brake consists of two jaws with slits on each, 
 the lower jaw fi.ved and immoveable, and the upper 
 one moveable, so that it may be lifted up by means 
 of a handle inserted into a head or block at the 
 front end of it. 
 
 24. The lower jaw has three slats or teeth, 
 made of tough white oak, and the upper two, ar- 
 ranged approaching to about two inches in front, 
 and in such manner that the slats of the upper 
 jaw play between those of the lower. These slats 
 are about si.x: or seven feet in length, six inches in 
 depth, and about two inches in thickness in their 
 
UEMP. ICj 
 
 ]o\ver edges ; they are placed edgewise, rounded 
 a little on the upper edges, which are sharper than 
 those below. 
 
 25. An ingenious and enterprising g-entleman 
 in the neighbourhood of Lexington has been, ever 
 since the erection of the above-mentioned machine, 
 trying various experiments, by altering and im- 
 proving it, to produce one more perfect, which 
 might be beneficially employed on rotted hemp, to 
 diminish the labours of the brake. He mentioned 
 the other day that all of them had failed ; that he 
 had returned to the old hand brake ; and that he 
 was convinced that it answered the purpose better 
 than any substitute with which he was acquainted. 
 
 26. The quantity of nett hemp produced to the 
 acre is from six hundred to one thousand weight, 
 varying according to the fertility and preparation 
 of the soil, and the state of the season. It is said 
 that the quantity which any field will produce may 
 be anticipated by the average height of the plants 
 throughout the field. Thus, if the plants will aver- 
 age eight feet in height, the acre will yield eight 
 hundred weight of hemp ; each foot in height cor- 
 responding to a hundred weight of the lint. 
 
 27. Hemp exhausts the soil slowly, if at all. 
 An old and successful cultivator told me that he 
 had taken thirteen or fourteen successive crops 
 from the same field, and that the last was the 
 best. That was probably, Irowever, owinj? to a 
 concurrence of favourable circumstances. Nothing 
 cleanses and prepares the earth better for other 
 crops (especially for small grain or §frasses) than 
 hemp. It eradicates all weeds, and when it 13 
 
106 iioprf. 
 
 taken off, leaves the field not only clean, but smooth 
 and even. 
 
 28. The rich lands of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, 
 are, I have no doubt, g-enerally well adapted to the 
 cultivation of this valuable plant; and those states 
 enjoy some advantages for the cultivation of it, 
 Vk'hich this does not possess. Their streams do 
 not dry up as much as ours, and they can consequent- 
 ly employ, better tlian we can, the agency of water 
 in the preparation of it. 
 
 20. Their projected canals, when completed, 
 will admit of its being carried to the Atlantic cap- 
 itals at less expense in the transportation than we 
 must incur in sending it. On the other hand, the 
 unfortunate stote of slavery among us, gives us, at 
 present, probably a more certain command of labour 
 than those states have. — Henry Clai/. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 HOPS. 
 
 1. The hop is a native plant. It is found grow- 
 ing spontaneously on the banks and intervals of 
 many of our large rivers. There are several dis- 
 tinct species, all bearing a near affinity to each 
 other — (I have noticed five.) At present they are 
 cultivated together promiscuously; no preference 
 having been given to any particular one of them by 
 the brewer. But I am of the opinion that there is 
 
HOP?, 107 
 
 an essential diiierence in their qualities: that one 
 may be the best for pale ale, another for strong 
 beer, and a third for porter; and I presume, ere 
 Jong, particular attention will be paid to ascertain 
 their different qualities. 
 
 2. The soil best calculated fur the production of 
 hops, I consider to be a sand\^ loam, rather low and 
 moist. I am led to this conclusion partly from my 
 own observation, and further (considering nature 
 an infallible instructer) from finding the lands 
 which produce them naturally (intervals and the 
 banks of large rivers) to be oi" this kind. Yet, I 
 must observe, I have s^en very fine crops raised on 
 very diiierent soils. 
 
 3. I should recom.meuii the following mode of 
 prepariufT the land and managing the crop. In the 
 fall (October) plough the land deep, nine or ten 
 inches. In the spring following, pass a heavy, 
 sharp iron-toothed harrow over the land, in the sam.e 
 direction in which it was ploughed ; after which, 
 spread your manure evenly over t!ie same, sixteen 
 cords per acre, and more, if the land be much re- 
 duced : then cross plough the land near]}'- the same 
 depth, and farrow it as for planting corn, the fur- 
 rows to be at least four feet apart. 
 
 4. It is cuslomary to plant corn or potatoes 
 with the hops — (I should jjrefer potatoes.) Plant 
 every other hill in every other row with hops, thus 
 placing the hop hills at least eight feet apart. Put 
 four cuttings from the running roots, about eight 
 inches in length, into each hill, and cover them the 
 common depth of potatoes. Many yards have been 
 much injured by being planted too closely. It is 
 
lOfi HOPS. 
 
 of great importance to have the hills so far distant 
 from each other as to admit a free current of air to 
 pass through the yard. 
 
 5. All the attention requisite the first season after 
 the hops are planted, is to keep them clean from 
 weeds, which is easily done when hoeing the crop 
 planted among them. In the fall, (October,) to 
 prevent their being injured by the hard frosts of 
 winter, iay out of your cart one shovelfull of com- 
 post nature on the top of each hill ; manure from the 
 hog sty I should prefer. 
 
 G. In each following spring, before the hops are 
 opened, as it is termed, spread evenly over the yard 
 about eight cords of manure per acre, (coarse strawy 
 manure I should prefer, as it will have a tendency 
 to keep the land loose,) and plough the field both 
 v/ays at the first hoeing. They require but three 
 hoeings in a season, unless necessary to subdue the 
 weeds; the last of which should be performed 
 when the hops are in full blossom, (about the be- 
 ginning of August.) 
 
 7. After the first crop, it is necessary to open the 
 hops, every spring, by the middle of May ; which 
 is performed by making four furrows between the 
 rows, turning the furrows from the hills, and run- 
 ning the plough as near to the same as possible 
 without injuring the main roots. Then the earth is 
 removed from the roots with a hoe, all the running 
 roots cut in with a sharp knife within two inches of 
 the main roots; the topsof the main roots must also 
 be cut in, and then the hills covered with earth about 
 two inches deep. 
 
 8. The next thing necessary to be done is to set 
 the poles. Tlaia should be done as soon as the 
 
HOPS, 109 
 
 hop vines begin to make their appearance. By so 
 doings much time and labour will be saved in tying 
 up the vines to the poles, as many of the vines will 
 naturally take to the poles. There should not 
 be to exceed two vines to one pole, nor to exceed 
 two poles to one hill, nor any pole to exceed 
 sixteen feet in height. Many yards have been 
 ver}"- much injured by letting a greater number of 
 vines grow on' one pole, and almost destroyed by 
 overpoling. 
 
 9. Very much depends on paying due attention, 
 in the spring, to select the most thrifty vines, and 
 training them to the poles, which is done by fasten- 
 ing them to the poles with a piece of yarn, slightly 
 twisted together with the thumb and finger. It 
 will be necessary to inspect your hop-yard frequently 
 until the hops begin to blossom, and "tie up the 
 vines," as it is termed, as they are subject to be 
 blown off' the poles by every high wind. 
 
 10. As soon as the hops are ripe, which is about 
 the beginning of September, they must be imme- 
 diately gathered, or the crop is lost. The quality 
 of the hops depends considerably on their being 
 picked clean from leaves and stems. The labour 
 of picking or gathering the hops may be well per- 
 formed by women and children, having one man 
 to a bin to handle the poles and to inspect the 
 pickers. 
 
 11. The bin is a wooden box, about nine feet 
 long, three feet wide, and two and a half feet high, 
 made of thin pine boards, (that it may be easily 
 moved over the yard,) across which the poles are 
 laid, and into which the hops are picked by hand. 
 Care should be taken, when gathering the hops, to 
 
 K 
 
110 HOPS. 
 
 cut the vinf;i tvvo il^i't fi"o;:i ihc ground, thrit the 
 roots may not be injurej by bleeding. 
 
 12. The most important pirt ia the rn.mage- 
 m.'nt of hop.s is the curing- or drying of them. 
 More I would note, that hops alwaycs grow first 
 sort, and thst cM second sort and refuse hops are 
 made so by unfortunate or unskilful .management. 
 3,Iiuih depends on having a W(^llconstractfd kiln. 
 For the convenience of putting the hops on the 
 L'ihi, the sid ' of the hill is generally chosen for its 
 situation. Care should be taken that it be a dry 
 situation. 
 
 13. The kiln should be di-:;; out the same big- 
 ness at the bottom as at the top; the side walls 
 laid up perpendicularly, and filled in solid- with 
 stone, to give it a tunnel form. Twelve feet 
 square nt th.^ lop, two h^t square at the bottom, 
 and at least eight feet deep, is deemed a conve- 
 nient size. On the top of the walls sills are laid, 
 having joists let into them, in lilce manner as for 
 laying a floor; on which laths, about one and a 
 lialf inches wide, are nailed, leaving open spaces 
 between them three fourths of an inch, over which 
 a thin linen cloth is spread and nailed at the edges 
 to the sills. 
 
 Id. A board, about twelve inches wide, is set 
 up on each side of the kdln, on the inner edge of 
 the sill, to form a bin to receive the hops. The 
 larger the stones made use of in the construction 
 of the kiln, the better; as it will give a more 
 steady and dense heat. The inside of the kiln 
 should be well plastered with mortar, to make it 
 completely air tight. Charcoal (that made from 
 3'ellow birch or maple I should prefer) is the only 
 
HOPS. Ill 
 
 fuel proper to be used in drying- hops. The kiln 
 should be well heated before any hops are put on, 
 and carefully alteuded, to keep a steady and regular 
 heat. 
 
 15. Fifty pounds of hops, when dried, is the 
 largest quantity that should be dried at one time, on 
 a kiln of this size ; unless absolutely necessary to 
 put on that quantiti^ a less would dry better. The 
 green hops should be spread as evenly and as light- 
 ly as possible over the kiln. The fire at first should 
 be moderate, but it may be increased as the hops 
 dry, and the steam is evaporated. 
 
 16. Hops should not rem-ain~long in the bin or 
 bag after they are picked, as they will ver^,'- soon 
 heat and become insipid. The hops should not 
 be stirred on the kiln until they are completely 
 and fully dried. Then they should be removed 
 from the kiln into a dry room, and laid in a heap, 
 and there rem^iin, unmoved and unstirred, until 
 bagged, which is done with a screw, having a box 
 made of plsuk, the size the bag is wished, into which 
 the cloth is laid, and the hops screwed into the 
 box, which is so constructed that the sides may be 
 removed, and the bag sewed together while in the 
 press. 
 
 17. The hops, after lying a hw days, will gather 
 a piitial moisture, called a sweat. The sweat will 
 probably begin to subside in about eight days, at 
 which time, and before the sweat is off^ they ought 
 to be bagged in clear dry weather. As the exact 
 time when the hops will begin to sweat, and when 
 the sweat will begin to subside or dry off, (the pro- 
 per time to bng them,) will vary with the state 
 of the atmosphere, it will be necessary to examine 
 
112 HOPS. 
 
 the hops from day to day, which is easily done by 
 taking some of them from the centre of the heap 
 with your hand, 
 
 18. If, on examin ition, you find the hops to be 
 very damp, and their colour altering, which will 
 be the case if they were not completely dried on 
 the kiln, and not otherwise, you must overhaul them 
 and dry them in the air. The most convenient size 
 for a bag of hops, to handle and transport, is ahout 
 five feet in length, and to contain about two hundi eel 
 and fifty foimds. 
 
 19. The best bagging is coarse strong tow 
 cloth, of our domestic manufucturing; next to that, 
 Russia hemp bagging. The East India sugar and 
 gunny bags, so called, ought never to be used. The 
 sugar bags are of an unreasonable weight, and 
 both they and the gunny bags are of no value to 
 the brewer; whereas, the other bags are worth 
 prime cost. 
 
 20. It is now common for those who have en- 
 tered considerably into the cultivation of hops, to 
 build houses over their kilns, which, in wet weather, 
 are very convenient; otherwise, a kiln in the open 
 air would, in my opinion, be preferable. It is 
 necessary to have these buildings well ventilated 
 with doors and windows; and to have these kept 
 open night and day, except in wet weather, and 
 then shut those only which are necessary to keep 
 out the rain. 
 
 21. If a ventilator was put in the roof of the 
 building, directly over the centre of the kiln, about 
 six feet square, built like those in breweries and 
 distilleries, I am of the opinion it would be found 
 very advantageous. I have seen many lots of 
 
RUTABAGA. 117 
 
 9. The soil must be rich and dry ; and the more 
 it inclines to a sand loam the belter. Clay is the 
 worst, and wet soils will not answer at all. Prepa- 
 rations. My general practice has been, to manure 
 well a piece of pasture, or clover ley, from which 
 the hay has first been cut, plough it handsomely 
 over, and harrow it well. 
 
 10. Soivhig, 6fc. I sow in rows, at two and a 
 half or three feet, with a drill harrow. The soon- 
 er the preceding operations succeed each other the 
 better. I have sown broadcast, but the expense of 
 thinning and culture is increased. A man will 
 drill in three or four acres a day. We allow a 
 poi}nd of seed to the acre, though half this, prop- 
 erly distributed, is enough. Sow from the twenty- 
 sixth of June to the tenth of July. 
 
 11. Culture. I use a cultivator, that maybe 
 graduated to the space between the rows, drawn by 
 a horse, as soon as the plants can be well distin- 
 guished. This is repeated in a few days, back and 
 forward, and the implement carried so close to the 
 drills, as to leave only strips of from four to ten 
 inches, which are then thoroughly cleaned with 
 a skim hoe, and the plants thinned to eight and ten 
 inches' distance. The cultivator soon follows for a 
 third time, and if necessary, the skim hoe, when the 
 crop is generally left till harvest. The great aim is 
 to extirpate the weeds, and to do this while they 
 are small. 
 
 12. Harvesting is postponed as long as the sea- 
 son will permit. The roots are then pulled up and 
 laid on the ground, the tops of the two rows to- 
 wards each other. The pullers are followed by a 
 
118 RCTABAOA. 
 
 man or boy with a bill hook, who with a light blow 
 cuts the tops as fast as three or four can pull. Three 
 men will in this wa}' harvest, of a good crop, three 
 hundicd bushels in a day. 
 
 12. The tops are gathered into heaps, and taken 
 to the yard in carts daily, for the stock, until they 
 are consumed. An acre will give from five to ten 
 cart loads of tops. The roots are piled in the field, 
 if dry: the pits, two or two and a half feet broad, 
 covered with straw and earth, and as cold weather 
 approaches, with manure, to prevent frost. N. B. 
 V/iih a crowbar, make one or more holes on the 
 crown of the pit, which must be left open, to let 
 off ihe rra'cfied air, and to prevent the roots from 
 heating-. 
 
 14. U:>c. The tops serve for autumn. As soon 
 as the miid weather of spring will justify, I break 
 through the frost, and take the contents of a pit 
 to my barn, and cover the roots with straw or 
 liny. From thence they are fed to mj?" stock, being 
 fir.-;t chopped up with a s?iik, (Dutch meat chop- 
 per,) or spade. They are excellent for sheep, espe- 
 cially for thosf; thr.t have young; and hogs and 
 horses eat th(^m freely. Steamed, they are used in 
 the north of Enq-land for horses, as a substitute for 
 gram. 
 
 15. I have fittened sheep and bullocks upon 
 them with profit. They constitute, particularly 
 from February to June, an excellent culinary vege- 
 table for the table. A bullock will thrive fast upon 
 two bushels a day, and will consume hardly any 
 hay, and requires no drink. 
 
 IG. Product and Cost. My average crop has 
 been six hundred bushels per acre, though others 
 
PASTURE. 119 
 
 have raised much heavier products. The cost in 
 manure and labour, when they are secured for 
 ■winter, has been from two to three cents per 
 bushel. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 PASTrur. 
 
 1. To mLin:iiT;s pasture land advantig-eousiy, it 
 should be well' fenced in small lots, of four, eight, 
 or twelve acres, according to the largeness otl one's 
 farm and stock; and these lots should be bordered 
 at least with rows of trees. It is best that trees of 
 some kind or other should be growing scattered in 
 every point of a pasture, so tiiat the cattle may never 
 have to go far in a hot hour to obtain a comfortable 
 shade. The grass will spring earlier in lots tliat 
 are thus sheltered, and they will bear drought 
 the better. But too great a proportion of shade 
 should be avoided, as it will give a sourness to the 
 grass. 
 
 2. Small lots thus sheltered are not left bare of 
 snow so early in the spring as larger ones lying 
 bare, as fences and trees cause more of it to remain 
 upon the ground. The cold winds in March and 
 April hurt the grnss much when the ground is 
 bare. And the winds in winter will not suftei* 
 snow to lie deep on land that is too open to the 
 rake of winds and storms. 
 
 3. It is hurtful to pastures to turn in cattle t-oo 
 
120 PAsrrRE. 
 
 early in the spring; and most hurtful to (hone pas- 
 tures in which the grass springs earliest, as in very 
 low and wet pastures. Potching such land in the 
 spring destroys ihe sward, so that it will produce 
 the less quantity of grass. Neither should cattle 
 be let into any pasture until the grass is so much 
 grown as to afford them a good bite, so that they 
 may fill themselves without rambling over the 
 whole lot. 
 
 4. The twentieth of May is early enough to turn 
 cattle into almost any of our pastures. Out of some 
 they should be kept later. The driest pastures 
 should be used first, though in them the grass is 
 shortest, that the potching of the ground in the wet- 
 test may be prevented. 
 
 5. The bushes and shrubs that rise in pastures 
 should be cut in the most likely times to destroy 
 them. Thistles, and other bad weeds, should be 
 cut down before their seeds have ripened; and ant 
 hills should be destroyed. Much may be done 
 t ' '. ards subduing a bushy pasture by keeping cat- 
 t:.' hiiugry in it, A continual browsing keeps down 
 tlie young shoots, and totally kills many of the 
 bushes. Young cattle may mend such a pasture, 
 and continue growing. 
 
 6. But as to cleared pastures, it is not right to 
 turn in all sorts of cattle promiscuously. Milch 
 kine, working oxen, and fatting beasts, should have 
 the first feedino-of an enclosure; afterward, sheep 
 and horses. When the first lot is thus fed of!^ 
 it should be shut up, and the manure that has 
 been supplied should be beaten to pieces, and well 
 scattered. Afterward, the second pasture should 
 be treated ia the same manner, and the rest in 
 
Pasture. 121 
 
 course, feedirio^ tbo wettesl pasture after the driest^ 
 that the soil may be less potched. 
 
 7. Something- considerable is saved by letting all 
 sorts of grazinn; animals take their turn in a pas- 
 ture. By means of this, nearly all the herbage 
 produced will be eaten; much of which would 
 otherwise be lost. Horses will eat the leavings of 
 horned cattle; and sheep will eat some things that 
 both the one and the t)ther leave. 
 
 8. But ifi ill a cotirse of pasturing, by means of 
 a fruitful year, or a scanty stock of cattle, some 
 grass of a good Kind should run up to seed and not 
 be eaten, it need not be regretted ; for a newsuppl}'- 
 of seed will fill the ground with new roots, which 
 are better than old ones. And I know of no grass 
 that never needs renewing from the seed. 
 
 9. A farmer need not be told, that if he turn 
 swine into a pasture, they should have r"r<gs in their 
 noses, Unless brakes and other weeds need to be 
 rooted out. Swine may do service in this way. 
 They should never have the first of the feed; for 
 they will foul the grass, and make it distasteful to 
 horses and cattle. 
 
 10. Let the stock of a farmer be greater or less^ 
 he should have at least four enclosures of pasture 
 land. One enclosure nj^y be fed two weeks, and 
 then shut up to grow; then another. Each one 
 will recruit well in six weeks; and each will have 
 this space of time to recruit. But in the latter part 
 of October, the cattle may range throug-h all the 
 lots, unless some one has become too wet and soft. 
 In this case, it ought to be shut up, and kept so till 
 feeding time the next year. 
 
 11. But that farmers may not be troubled with 
 
 ' L 
 
l''22f PASTURE. 
 
 low miry pastur -^s, they should drain them, if it 
 be practicable, or can be done consistently with their 
 other business. If they should produce a smaller 
 quantity of gra?^ afterward, it will be sweeter, and 
 of more value. It is well known, that cattle fatted 
 in a dry pasture have better-tasted flesh than those 
 flitted in a wet one. In the old countries it will 
 fetch a higher price. This is particularly the case 
 as to mutton. 
 
 12. Feeding pastures in rotation is of greater 
 advantage than some are apt to imagine. One acre 
 managed according to the above directions, will turn 
 to better account, as some say who hare practised it, 
 than three acres in the common way. 
 
 i.3. By the common way, I would be understood 
 to mean, having weak and tottering fences, that will 
 drop of themselves in a iew months, and never can 
 resist the violence of disorderly cattle; suffering 
 Weeds and bushes to overrun the land ; keeping all 
 the pasture land in one enclosure; turning in 
 all sorts of stock together; suffering the fence to 
 drop down in autumn, so as to lay the pasture 
 common to all the cattle and swine that please 
 to enter; and not putting up the fence again till 
 the first of May, or later. Such management is too 
 common in all parts of this country, with which I 
 am most acquainted. I would hope it is not uni- 
 versal. 
 
 14. Land which is constantly used as pasture 
 will be enriched. Therefore it is advisable to mow 
 a pasture lot once in three or four years, if the 
 surface be so level as to admit of it. In the mean 
 time, to make amends for the loss of pasture, a mow- 
 ing lot may be pastured. It will thus be im- 
 
PASTURE. 123 
 
 proved; and if the grass do not grow so rank 
 afterward in the pasture lot, it will be more clear 
 of weeds, and bear better grass. Alternate pastu- 
 ring and mowing has the advantage of saving a 
 good deal of expense and trouble in manuring the 
 mowing grounds. 
 
 15. Though pastures need manuring less than 
 other lands, yet, when bushes, bad weeds, &c, 
 are burned upon them, the ashes should he spread 
 thinly over the surface. The grass will thus be 
 improved; and grass seeds should be sown upon 
 the burnt spots, that no part may be vacant of 
 grass. 
 
 16. Sheep, calves, and horses, unless they are 
 worked, it is said, require no water in the pastures. 
 The want of water induces them to feed in the 
 night, when the dew is on, and the grass the mor-e 
 nutritious. Cows, however, want pure wa*er. In 
 pastures which are on hillsides, water may gene- 
 rally be obtained by digging horizontally into the 
 side of the hill till it is found, and then carrying it 
 out with a pipe. — Deane. 
 
 17. We learn from English writers on agricul- 
 ture, that three modes have been adopted in Great 
 Britain for consuming clover and other herbage 
 plants by pasturing. These are tethering, or fasten- 
 ing the feeding animal to a stake, hurdling, and 
 free pasturage. In the Agricultural Report of 
 Aberdee7ishire, it is stated, that there are some cases 
 in which the plan of tethering can be JDractised with 
 more profit than even soiling. 
 
 18. In the neighbourhood of Peterhead, for in- 
 stance, they tether milch cows on their grass fields, 
 in a regular and systematic method, moving each 
 
124 PASTURE. 
 
 tether forward in a straight line, not ahove one foot 
 at a time, so as to prevent the cows from treading 
 on the grass that is to be eaten : care being always 
 taken to move the tether forward, like a person cut- 
 ting clover with a scythe, from one end of the field 
 to the other. 
 
 19. In this way, a greater number of cows can 
 be kept on the same quantity of grass than by any 
 other plan, except where it grows high enough to 
 be cut and given them green in houses. In one 
 instance, the system was carried to great perfection 
 by a gentleman who kept a few sheep upon longer 
 lethers, following the cows. 
 
 ;20. Sometimes also he tethered horses afterward 
 upon the same field, vvhicli prevented any possible 
 Avaste, for the tufts of grass produced by the dung 
 of one species of animal will be eattn by those of 
 another kind without reluctance. This mode. was 
 peculiarly calculated for the cow-feeders in Peter- 
 head : as from the smallness of their holdings, they 
 could not keep servants to cut, or horses to carr)^ 
 home the grass to their houses, to be consumed in 
 a green state. 
 
 21. In hurdling- OiT clover or herbage crops, a 
 portion of the field is enclosed by hurdles, [move- 
 able wooden fences,] in which sheep are connned, 
 and as the crop is consumed, the pen is changed to 
 a fresh place, until the whole is fed off. This prac- 
 tice is very extensively adopted at Holkham, 
 [England,] and is peculiarly calculated for light 
 and dry soils. Its advantages are, that the grass 
 is more economically consumed ; that the stock 
 thrives better, having daily a fresh bite ; and that 
 
'tASttJRE. 12B 
 
 tlie dung" which falls, being- more concentrated, is 
 more likely to be of use. — Loudon. 
 
 22. Water should be provided for every field 
 under pasture ; and also shelter and shade, either 
 by a few trees, or by a portable shed, which may 
 be moved with the stock from one enclosure to 
 another. Where there are no trees, rubbing posts 
 are also a desirable addition. In Germany they 
 have portable sheds, Vv-hich are employed both in 
 summer and winter, and generally with a piece of 
 rock salt fixed to a post for the cattle to lick at 
 will. 
 
 23. Some graziers mix a few sheep and one ot 
 two colts in each pasture, which both turn to ac- 
 count, and do little injury to the grazing cattle. 
 In some cases, we are told that sheep are benefi- 
 cial to pastures, by eating dow^n and destroying- 
 white weed, and some other useless and pernicious 
 plants. 
 
 24. So various is the appetite of animals, that 
 there i^s scarcely any plant which is not chosen 
 by some and left untouched by others. The fol- 
 lowing is said to be a fact, known and practised 
 on by graziers in Holland. When eight cows 
 have been in a pasture, and can no longer obtain 
 nourishment, two horses will do verj^ well there 
 for some days ; and when nothing is left for the 
 horses, four sheep will live upon it: this not only 
 proceeds from their differing in the choice of 
 plants, but from the formation of their mouths, 
 which are not equally adapted to lay hold of the 
 grass. 
 
 25. Stocking- a pasture with as many sheep as 
 it will support is recommended, for forming a teia- 
 
 L 2 
 
126 CULTURE OF SILK. 
 
 der herbage, and causing- the grass to mat or grow 
 very thick at the bottom. An English writer says, 
 " In turning out horses to grass in the spring, it is 
 usual to choose the forenoon of a fine day to do it 
 in ; the natural consequence is, the horse fills him- 
 self during the sunshine, and lies down to rest 
 during the cold of the night; thereby probably ex- 
 posing himself to disorders. In some parts of 
 Yorkshire a better practice prevails: the horse is 
 turned out at bedtime ; the consequence is, he 
 eats all night, and sleeps in the sunshine of the 
 next day." 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 THE CULTURE OF SILK. 
 
 1. The principal articles made use of for cloth- 
 ing among civilized people, are wool, flax, cotton, 
 and silk, all of which consisting of fine fibres, 
 those fibres are twisted into threads, and woven 
 into various kinds of cloth. Each of these pos- 
 sesses, perhaps, some peculiar advantage in quality 
 which the others do not; but that which univer- 
 sally holds a most decided preference over all the 
 others, is silk. 
 
 2. It is superior in strength, and infinitely so in 
 softness and in beauty. It is produced by a large 
 insect of the- caterpillar kind, called in English tho 
 silkworm, but in natural history is commonly called 
 the hombix morly or rmilhernj caterpillar. This 
 
CULTURE or SIXK. 127 
 
 worm spins out the silk from the substance of its 
 own body, winding itself up in a ball, which, when 
 finished, is about the size and shape of a robin's 
 
 3. From this ball, which is called a cocoon, the 
 silk is wound off for use, in a continuous thrend, 
 from the outside to the centre, which contains the 
 ckry sails, or the remains of the worm when it has 
 done spinning-. If the silk is not wound off in a 
 few days after the cocoon is completed, the chrys- 
 alis changes its form, and comes out in that of a 
 moth or small butterfly, of a whitish-gray colour, 
 and of a very clumsy form, being incapable of 
 flying, though it has wings. 
 
 4. In a {^\x hours after leaving the cocoon, the 
 female moth lays her eggs, Vvdiich are about the 
 size of a mustard seed, and from two to four hun- 
 dred in number. These eggs are preserved in a 
 cool place until a fresh crop or litter of worms is 
 wanteiJ, when they are placed in a warm atmo- 
 sphere, where they hatch spontaneously in a short 
 time. 
 
 5. The Vv-orms are at first very small, but being 
 fed on the leaves of the mulberry tree, they grow 
 to nearly or quite the size and length of a linger, 
 and commence spinning cocoons as before. The 
 cocoons from which the silk is to be wound or 
 reeled, are exposed to heat by steaming, baking, or 
 otherwise, to kill the chrysalis. 
 
1^8 HISTORY OF SlLK» 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 HISTORY OF SILK. 
 
 1. The discovery of the nse of silk, and the 
 modes of procuriRg and manufacturing it, was un- 
 questionably made by the Chinese, at a period of 
 Very remote antiquity; we know nothing, there- 
 fore, of its early history, except what we lear-H from 
 them. 
 
 2. The account they give us is, that it was dig- 
 covered in its native forests of mulberry; and 
 that about seven hundred years before the days of 
 Abraham, an emperor called Haung-to, whose 
 name they hold in great veneration, persuaded his 
 wife, Si-ling-chi, to have the silkworms gathered 
 and domesticated, and to teach his subjects the 
 management of them, and use of the silk. If this 
 account be true, the fir^t silk grower was an 
 emperor. 
 
 3. The silk business, however, appears to have 
 been for a long time, probably for many ages, con- 
 fined to a part of the Chinese dominions, called 
 Serica. But in process of time, garments com- 
 posed of it were carried by traders, 'travelling in 
 caravans, through trackless sands and deserts, to 
 Syria and Egypt, a journey which it took about 
 eight or nine months to perform. 
 
 4. These garments were sold to merchants, whc 
 again sold them at enormous prices, and they 
 were, no doubt, for a long period, the principal 
 source of wealth to the last-mentioned nations. 
 
HISTORY OF SILK. 129 
 
 5. This tedious overland carrying trade was, 
 for a long" time, chiefly monopolized by the Per- 
 sians, who, about three hundred and fifty years 
 before the Christion era, extended it to Greece, 
 where the silk found a prodigious demand, owing 
 to the immense wealth of the Grecians; and the 
 Phaniicians also engaging in the trade, it found its 
 way throughout the south of Europe. But even 
 those who brought it to Europe knew not what it 
 was, where it came from, nor how it was pro- 
 duced. 
 
 G. By the Romans, in the third and fourth cen- 
 turies, it v/as considered an article of too much 
 extravagance to be indulged in, except by those of 
 immense wealth and pride. But about the fifth, 
 and beginning of the sixth century, it began to be 
 a subject of incpiiry among the Romans, from what 
 part of the world this precious article came, and 
 what was the secret of its production. 
 
 7. About this time, two monks, who had been 
 missionaries to China, returned, and brought with 
 them the seed of the mulberry, and gave informa- 
 tion how the silkvv'orms were reared and fed upon 
 the leaves, and how those worms spun the silk. 
 But to carry the silkworms or their eg§^ out of 
 China was forbidden on pain of death. 
 
 8. Still, however, in consequence of the liberal 
 rewards ofi'ered by the Emperor Justinian, these 
 persevering individuals returned, and after a long 
 pilgrimage, having obtained the eggs at the risk 
 of their lives, brought them to the emperor, con- 
 cealed in a hollow cane. 
 
 9. The culture of silk was now engaged in by 
 families of the highest standing; but ^yas chiefly 
 
130 HISTORY OF SILK. 
 
 carried on under the immediate protection of the 
 emperor, for his own benefit; but, at his death, the 
 monopoly could be maintained no longer, and the 
 business was entered into by individuals with great 
 avidity ; and during four hundred years the silk 
 was distributed by the Venetian merchants through- 
 out the west of Europe. 
 
 10. But in the year 1 146. Roger the Norman, 
 king of Sicily, invaded Greece, and capturing a 
 great number of silk growers and weavers, car- 
 ried them to Palermo, his capital. By the Sara- 
 cens also it was carried into Spain, and it soon 
 after found its way into Italy, where, in 1300, it 
 was so far advanced as to yield a revenue to the 
 state. 
 
 11. It now also found its way into France, and 
 was encouraged by Louis XI. and Charles VIII., 
 and still more by Henry IV., who established it 
 as one of the principal sources of wealth to his 
 nation, which standing it has maintained ever 
 since. 
 
 12. It began to be introduced into England a 
 little before, and during the reign of Elizabeth ; 
 and James I. endeavoured much to establish the 
 silk culture in that kingdom. He addressed let- 
 ters, written with his own hand, to the lord lieu- 
 tenants of every county in the kingdom, accom- 
 panied with mulberry seeds and plants, together 
 with a book of instruction. But though near the 
 close of his reign he effected something towards 
 establishing the manufacture of silk, nothing pro- 
 fitable was done in its production, and probably 
 never can be in that kingdom, owing to the humid- 
 ity of the atmosphere. 
 
HISTORY OF SILK. 131 
 
 13. In the reign of George II. much was effect- 
 ed in improving the silk manufacture by Sir Tho- 
 mas Lamb, and his brothers John and Henry, and 
 it has increased progressively to the present time. 
 The throwsting mill, erected by the Lambs in 
 Derby, is still standing, and is regarded with great 
 interest, though its usefulness is much superseded 
 by subsequent improvements. 
 
 14. It was probably owing to the difficulty of 
 producing silk in England, that attempts were made 
 to introduce it into the then British cok^nies, as 
 early as the twentieth year of the reign of James 
 I., who gave special instructions to the Earl of 
 Southampton, that as he had " understood that the 
 soil of Virginia naturally yieldeth stores of excel- 
 lent mulberries, he would urge the cultivation of 
 silk, in preference to tobacco, which bringeth with 
 it many disorders and inconveniences." 
 
 15. In 1623, the colonial assembly directed mul- 
 berry trees to be planted ; and soon after laid a 
 penalty of three pounds of tobacco upon every 
 planter who should fail to plant at least ten mul- 
 berry tree5 for every hundred acres of land in his 
 possession. A premium of ten thousand pounds 
 of tobacco- was offered to any person who should 
 export two thousand pounds worth of raw silk. 
 
 16. These encouragements had, in a great meas- 
 ure, the desired efect ; the agriculturists engaged 
 spiritedly in the business, and great numbers of 
 mulberry trees were planted. Among others, a 
 Mr. Walker had seventy thousand trees growing 
 in 1664. "As early as 1732, at the settlement of 
 Georgia, the lands were granted upon the express 
 condition tliat one hundred white mulberry trees 
 
132 HISTORY OF SILK. 
 
 should be set on every ten acres of land when 
 cleared. 
 
 17. In 1755, Mrs. Pinckney, a very distinguished 
 lady of South Carolina, took with her to England 
 ji sufficient quantity of very superior silk to make 
 three dresses. Considerable sewing silk was made 
 in Georgia during the war of the revolinion. In 
 1770, a filature for reeling silk was established at 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 18. But the silk growing and manuflrctliting 
 enterprise appears to have been wholly lost sight 
 of, during the general confusion and distress which 
 prevailed during the revolution^ except in Connrct- 
 icut, where it had been introduced as early as 17G0, 
 by the patriotic exertions of a Mr. Aspinwal, and 
 where it has been continued upon a small scale 
 ever since; but this has been chiefly confined to 
 sewing silk. 
 
 19. But a general awakening to a sense of the 
 great importance of the silk growing and manu- 
 facturing interest has lately taken place, and noAV 
 appears to extend through every part of the United 
 States ; and there is every reason to anticipate a 
 most successful result. 
 
giLK CONTINtJi;». iSS 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIli. 
 
 SILK CONTINUED MODE OF PROCEEDING IN REAR- 
 ING THE WORMS AND PRODUCING SILK. 
 
 1. The first step in the silk business is to pro- 
 cure and have in readiness an ample supply of 
 food for the number of worms intended to be kept, 
 which food consists chiefly of the leaves of the 
 mulberry tree, though there are matiy other leaves 
 on which they may occasionally be fed, particu- 
 larly the lettuce ; but it is doubtful whether ah}^- 
 thing except the mulberry leaves can be perma^ 
 nenlly depended on, either for sustailiing the worms 
 or producing silk. 
 
 2. There are several Species and liuftieroliS 
 Varieties of the mulberry, some of which are in- 
 digenous in this country, and others of foreign 
 origin ; but thotigh the silkworm will feed oti 
 nearly all of them, yet some are much preferable 
 to others. 
 
 8. It '.vks formerly supposed that none but the 
 r/hite Italian mulberry would answer the purpose; 
 but lately, beautiful specimens of silk have beeri 
 exhibited from worms fed on leaves of several 
 kinds of native mulberry, particularly the red ancf 
 the purple. White mulberries are also found in 
 some of the most remote forests in the United 
 States, probably equal in value to those brought 
 from Italy. 
 
 4. But several varieties have recently been in* 
 H 
 
134 SILK CONTINtTED. 
 
 troduced from different parts of the world, which 
 appear to be greatly supeiior to those formerly in 
 use, among which are the Dandolo, the Brusa, and 
 the Chinese, or morus multicaulis, which last takes 
 iis name from the multitude of sltnder stalks or 
 sprouts which shoot up from it. 
 
 5. From present appearances, thisTLoy be safely 
 pionounced superior to any other for feeding silk- 
 worms. Its leaves are exceedingly large, and 
 from its low and shrublike form, they require much 
 less time and labour in gathering — they are m.uch 
 sooner brought to maturity — are more palatable and 
 more nutritious to the worms, and produce more 
 and better siik. 
 
 6. When a sufficient number of mulberry plants 
 have been propagated, and have grown large enough 
 to be divested of their leaves, the next step will be 
 to procure a small stock of eggs. This, with the 
 Chinese mulberry, may be effected in a very short 
 time, for the young trees may be multiplied by 
 layers and cuttings from ten to a hundred fold an- 
 
 ' nually ; and considerable quantities of leaves may 
 be taken from them the second year from the seed- 
 bed. 
 
 7. When the trees have begun to put forth their 
 leaves in the spring, the eggs of the silkmoth are 
 placed in a warm situation (but not in the direct 
 rays of the sun) to produce hatching, which will 
 take place in about five or six days. 
 
 8. When the worms are hatched, they attach 
 themselves to the leaves of small twigs of mulberry, 
 by which they are carried to the place where they 
 are to be fed. They are then about the twelfth 
 
SILK CONTINUED. 135 
 
 part of an inch in length, and those that are healthy 
 are generally of a black colour. 
 
 9. In the first stage of feeding the worm, they 
 may be laid on tables, on shelves, or even on rough 
 boards temporarily placed for the purpose, and 
 covered with paper, and fed with tender leaves 
 chopped fine. In about four days, they begin to 
 appear torpid, and cease eating, in which state they 
 remain twenty-four or twenty-six hours, during 
 which time they shed their skin, which is called 
 moultino. 
 
 10. This operation they generally perform four 
 times, and the intervening times before, between, 
 and after the moultings, are called ages. The first 
 four ages are from four to eight days each, and the 
 fifth and last age occupies about ten days, at which 
 time the worms attain their full size. 
 
 11. As the silkworms increase in size, they in- 
 crease also in appetite, and especially during the 
 Icjist ages, they dev^our large quantities of leaves. 
 About the thirty-second day they generally cease 
 feeding, and prepare to spin their cocoons. Little 
 twigs, especially of oak, with the leaves on and 
 dried, are then placed for them to climb on, Avhcn 
 they commence spinning, and winding themselves 
 in, and in about from four to eight days they com- 
 plete their work. 
 
 15. The cocoons intended to be reserved for 
 eggs are then selected, and in about twelve days 
 the moth will come out. They are then placed on 
 papers in pairs, male and female, in a dark room ; 
 and in from twenty-four to thirty-six hours from 
 the time of leaving the cocoon, the female moth 
 will have laid her complement of eggs, which is 
 
136 SILK CONTINUED. 
 
 generally from three to four hundred. Both the 
 male and female die shortly after the female has 
 done laying her eggs, and never eat after leaving 
 the cocoons. 
 
 23. Those cocoons which are designed for pro- 
 ducing silk are prepared by killing, or, as it is 
 commonly called, stifling the chrysalis, which is 
 done by baking or steaming, or sometimes by the 
 heat of the sun ; and being thus prepared, they are 
 ready for reeling. 
 
 14. When the silk is to be reeled, several co- 
 coons are placed together in a vessel of hot water, 
 in order to soften the gummy or glutinous matter 
 which holds the fibres of the cocoon together. By 
 stirring them round in the hot water with a kind of 
 wisp, the ends of the fibres are collected, and the 
 silk is reeled off with a brisk motion, each cocoon 
 yielding a continuous fibre, several hundred yards 
 in length. 
 
 15. As these fibres, taken singly, would be too 
 fine for use, several of them are united together in 
 reeling, and the glutinous substance connected with 
 the silk connects and binds them in a single thread, 
 of any size required. It may be reeled on any 
 common reel ; but when the business is extended, 
 long experience has dictated a form of reels much 
 better adapted to the purpose. 
 
 16. The silk thus reeled is called raw silk, and 
 intended for market in that state, is sold by the 
 pound, in skeins or hanks. The ingenious Mr. 
 Gay, of Providence, has invented a plan of wind- 
 ing the silk from the cocoons on spools or bobbins, 
 which bid fair to be a valuable improvement. 
 
 17. The loose fibres which, sui'round the cocoons 
 
SILK CONTINUED. 137 
 
 previous to reeling, are carefully separated, and are 
 called floss, or waste silk. Those cocoons, also, in 
 Avhich the chrysalis has been preserved, and others, 
 from not being perfectly formed, and, of course, not 
 susceptible of being reeled, are denominated waste 
 silk, and when carded and spun, answer a variety 
 of purposes. 
 
 18. The establishments where silk is reeled are 
 called filatures, some of which are very extensive, 
 and the buildings appropriated to rearing and feed- 
 ing silkworms are called cocooneries. 
 
 19. The raw silk is transferred to the manufac- 
 turer, who transforms it into the elegant articles of 
 dress and ornament we see offered for sale; in many 
 of which (Treat ingenuity and refined taste are dis- 
 played. But the people Avho produce them in 
 foreign countries, from whence we import many 
 millions of dollars worth every year, have no more 
 ingenuity, and probably, in most cases, less refine- 
 ment of taste, and less enterprise, than the people 
 of our own country; and no article of silk can be 
 imported, that cannot, in a short time, be produced 
 in this country of equal value and beauty. 
 
 20. The production of silk is certainly one of the 
 most lucrative, as well as pleasing and interesting 
 employments w^hich human industry can be engaged 
 in. In the cultivation of the Chinese mulberry it- 
 self — the facility with which it is propagated by 
 cuttings, or layers — its peculiar tenacity of life — 
 its beauty as a shrub, with its numerous stalks, 
 bending with their burden of broad and shining 
 leaves, cannot but afford pleasure to an agriculturist 
 of any .refinement of taste. 
 
 21. The gathering the leaves and feedin.g the 
 
 M 2 
 
1S8 SILK CONTINUED. 
 
 worms give light and wholesome exercise, enliven- 
 ed by the anticipation of a rich reward ; while the 
 spectacle of millions of insects feeding with avidity, 
 and growing in a few days from a scarcely visible 
 speck to several inches in length ; then almost si- 
 multaneously ceasing to eat, and commencing to 
 spin and wind themselves in a thick coat of silk, 
 affording more than ample compensation for the 
 food they have received ; after a few days reappear- 
 ing, changed to a butterfly, for no apparent purpose 
 but to deposite the eggs for a succeeding generation, 
 ]nust be, to a reflecting mind, a rich subject for con- 
 templation. 
 
 22. It must afford no less agreeable anticipa- 
 tions to the patriot, to reflect, that in a very few 
 years, the growing and manufacture of silk in the 
 United States will not only afford a living, and 
 perhaps wealth, to thousands, who are now, and 
 would otherwiee remain poor and destitute, but 
 will save to the country the imm.ense sums which 
 are now annually sent out of it to purchase arti- 
 cles which we can as well produce ciirselves, and 
 probably cheaper than thoae from whom we buy 
 them. 
 
 23. The growth of silk i^ peculiarly adapted to 
 /he minds, capacities, and tastes of youths of both 
 sexes ; we fondly hope, therefore, that those of that 
 class into whose hands this little book may fall, 
 will feel sufficiently awakened by the importance 
 of the subject, to endeavour to become more fully 
 acquainted with it, which they can do by procuring 
 such publications as treat of it more extensively, 
 and perfecting the knowledge thus acquired by 
 practice. 
 
BEET SUGAR. 139 
 
 24. The best source to which we can refer our 
 readers for a thorough knowledge of the silk busi- 
 ness, is " The Silkiiwrmr a monthly periodical, pub- 
 lished in Albany, by Mr. S. Blj^denburgh, and, we 
 believe, the onlv one in the United States, and per- 
 haps in the world, devoted solely to the subject. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 SUGAR MADE FROM BEETS. 
 
 What is here said on beet sugar is taken from 
 Pedder's Report to the " Beet Sugar Society of 
 Pennsylvania." The latest information from the 
 highest authority. 
 
 1. What is the quality of land best suited to 
 the growth of the beet? A healthy subsoil is indis- 
 pensable; after this, it is cultivated on almost any, 
 of course, with various degrees of success. In the 
 neighbourhood of Boulogne, the manufacture of 
 sugar from the beet has been discontinued, ex-^ 
 pressly on account of the unsuitableness of the 
 soil, which is chalk, with a very shallow depth of 
 mould. 
 
 2. Monsieur C considers the soil of New 
 
 Jersey {a sandy soil, not apt to burn in the summer) 
 as very likely to be excellent for the purpose; the 
 facility with which the crop might be taken up, 
 and the advantages of obtaining the roots free from 
 filth or clay, are valuable considerations ; the iattef 
 
140 BEET SUGAR. 
 
 will conduce much to their preservation during the 
 
 winter. 
 
 3. What is the mode of cultivation 7 Plough 
 the land in winter, and lay it dry; obtain a pulvcr* 
 izod surface before sowing, and drill the seed 
 eight pounds per acre; hoe the land in the inter- 
 vals of the rows (which might be twenty inches 
 apart, if the land is not very rich, or twenty-four 
 inches) as soon as the plants have made tolerable 
 progress ; at the second hoeing, thin the plants 
 in the rows to the distance of about fifteen inches, 
 asd the third hoeing may be performed with a 
 horse hoe. 
 
 4. AVhich are the best kinds of seed 7 The 
 Avhite, or Silesian, and the rose coloured, are the 
 only kinds now sown in a large way; the 3a^]low 
 is still sown by a few, but to no great extent. 
 Other kinds are said not only to yield no sugar, 
 hut to be destructive to the process of crystalliza- 
 linn, if mixed or worked with them. The greatest 
 care is taken to select the best roots for the produc- 
 tion of seed, both as to their kinds and perfect for- 
 mation ; the largest roots are not the best for this 
 purpose'. 
 
 5. Which is the best time for sowing the seed? 
 As early as the season will admit, as the greatest 
 advantage is derived from an early crushing; some- 
 times as much as two per cent, of sugar, besides 
 the ease with which it is made to crystallize, the 
 quality bcino" also superior: the latter part of 
 April and all May is considered the proper sea- 
 son, but this might be extended to the first day of 
 June. 
 
 6. When is the proper time for taking up ths 
 
BEET SUGAE. !41 
 
 crop? For reasons just stated, the crop should be 
 taken up as soon as the roots have completed their 
 growth ; the months of September and October are 
 the proper seasons. 
 
 7. What is the manner of protecting the crops 
 during winter? Heat is as injurious to the roots 
 as cold, as it induces fermentation, which is destruc- 
 ive of the saccharine. The best-preserved roots, 
 
 which I have seen, were deposited in long trenches, 
 formed by throwing out the earth to the sides, and 
 forming with it sloping banks, 2h- feet in height ; 
 these trenches were ten feet wide, and about 100 
 feet long, in a dry soil, where the roots were packed 
 without straw either at the bottom or sides, the tops 
 of the heaps conical, and covered with a slight coat 
 of straw, which was thickened during the severity 
 of winter. 
 
 8. But the almost universal practice is to bury 
 them in pits, dug in the fields where the roots are 
 grown, 17 feet long, 2^ feet deep, and 2 feet 
 broad; each pit contains 3000 pounds of roots, is 
 dug and the roots covered for one franc, or twenty 
 cents, per pit. This is by no means a good method ; 
 the throwing out of the earth mixes a great quan- 
 tity of the steril subsoil with the enriched upper 
 stratum, and removing the roots during winter is 
 the cause of much injury to the soil, by the cutting 
 in of wheels in wet weather ; it prevents also the 
 proper cultivation of the land, by ploughing to lay 
 dry. 
 
 9. What is the method of manufacturing sugar 
 m all its processes? The manufacture of sugar 
 consists of seven distinct processes. 
 
 10. Cleaning the Roots. In many large facto- 
 
142 BEET SUGAR. 
 
 Ties, this is done by washing in long wooden cylin- 
 ders, with open sides, which revolve by the power 
 of steam in cisterns of water : the roots are thrown 
 in at one end of this cylinder, and are carried round 
 and ejected at the other by a spiral or Archimedes' 
 screw; and if the work could be effectually per- 
 formed by this means, it would be a great saving of 
 expense, but the fact is, it is, at best, a most ineffi- 
 cient mode. 
 
 1 1. If the roots have grown in a stiff soil, quan- 
 tities of earth will still be found adhering to iheni, 
 inangre all 5^our attempts to free them from it. 
 This will do great injury to the teeth of the rasp 
 while crushing, and will, I presume, be of no value 
 in the cake as food for sheep or cattle. The large 
 roots are often found to be hollow, and partially de- 
 cayed at the crown ; this putrid matter being acetous, 
 is peculiarly destructive to the yield of saccharine, 
 and no washing will remove it. 
 
 12. The end of the tap root and the lateral fibres 
 are almost useless to the production of sugar — often 
 very injurious; I therefore prefer to clean by scra- 
 ping with a knife, when the earth and decayed 
 parts are easily removed; the cuttings are greedily 
 devoured by cattle and hogs, and that portion only 
 of the "lot is used which is best calculated to yield 
 a superior quality of sugar. 
 
 13. CrushiiLg or Rasfing the Roots. In no 
 manufactory, except where maceration is practised, 
 is this proce'ss performed by any other means than by 
 the rasp. This is a wooden barrel, set transversely 
 with steel saws at half an inch apart. It is 13^- 
 inches wide, and 23 inches diameter, and when pro- 
 pelled by steam makes about 900 revolutions in a 
 
BEET SUGAR, 143 
 
 minute, crushing into impalpable pulp 90 pounds 
 of roots in that space of time. Pressing by cylin- 
 ders has often betn tried, but found to be totally 
 inapplicable to the purpose. 
 
 14. Pressing the PvJv. The heat engendered 
 by the process of rasping, brings on instantaneous 
 fermentation, which is destructive to the yield of 
 sugar: no time is therefore lost in submitting the 
 pulp to the action of the press, by which the juice 
 is extracted in a surprisingly short space of time. 
 In no instance did 1 see this operation performed by 
 any but hydraulic pressure, the power of which is 
 astonishino-ly great. 
 
 15. The machine for this purpose is very ex- 
 pensive, but when obtained, the saving of labour 
 and time is great. The pulp fiills from the rasp 
 into a square box below, from whence it is taken in 
 a deep icooden or copper shovel and put into a bag, 
 which is held open for its reception ; it is then 
 placed upon a frame of wicker-work, standing upon 
 a small handbarrow resting upon wheels, where it 
 is spread evenly in the bag, and the mouth is then 
 turned down to prevent the escape of the pulp while 
 under the press; it is then covered by another 
 wicker frame and another bag, until the pile con- 
 sists of thirty-five bags and wicker frames. 
 
 16. The whole is then removed to the press, 
 where a man takes and deposites them on the wood- 
 en platform, which rests on the bed of the press, 
 and the pressure is then applied. So soon as the 
 juice is extracted, the pressure is taken offi the bags 
 are emptied of the dry cakes, and the press is ready 
 for another load. 
 
 17. These presses are always worked in pairs. 
 
144 BEET SUGAlC. 
 
 SO that while one is pressing the other is being' 
 loaded. The juice flows from the press into a cis- 
 tern beneath the floor, whence it is immediately 
 pumped into the defficating pan, which is placed so 
 high that the contents may flow from it by a pipe 
 into the evaporator. 
 
 18. Deification. The defi^cator is a copper pan, 
 into which the juice is pumped, so as to fill it within 
 four inches of the top, wheri heat is applied, either 
 by means of steam or fire. As soon as the juice 
 has attained the healt of 58° Reaumur, (162P 
 Fahrenheit,) lime is added, in exact proportion to 
 the acid contained in it, which is ascertained by 
 chymical tests. The lime is prepared by slacking 
 with hot water, and mixing, so as to be of the con- 
 sistence of cream, and when it is added, the greatest 
 care is taken to mix it most intimately with the 
 juice, by stirring it with a wooden spatula. 
 
 19. After this it is suffered to rest, and the heat 
 is raised to the boiling point, when it is suddenly 
 c'l'v^ked by withdrawing the steam or fire; as 
 ?M)ii as the juice has become perfectly clear, it 
 ib run off" into the first evaporator, taking care that 
 none of the scum or sediment at the bottom of 
 the pan passes with it. The scum and sediment 
 are then collected, put into bags and pressed, to 
 obtain all the juice they contain ; after which, the 
 residum is thrown to the dunghill, a valuable 
 manure. 
 
 20. Evaporatidn. The evaporator is a copper 
 J)an, into which the clear defficated liquor flows, 
 until the pan is about a third part full ; to this a 
 small quantity of animal charcoal is added, and 
 the fire or steam is applied ; here it is boiled until 
 
BEET SUGAR. 145 
 
 it marks 21° by the saccharometer, when it is 
 passed into a receiver, whence it flows into the 
 clarifiers for purification. During the boiling, if 
 the juice rises in the pan so as to threaten to over- 
 llow, a small quantity of tallow* is added, which 
 causes an immediate subsidence, and facilitates 
 evaporation. 
 
 :^l. Clarifying. The clarifiers are wooden or 
 copper pans, 2 feet 8 inches deep, 20 inches di- 
 ameter at top, 11 inches diameter at bottom, each 
 with a small brass cock near the bottom. A cop- 
 per strainer, standing on three feet, and covered 
 with canvass, is placed in the bottom of each clari- 
 fier, which is then filled with granulated animal 
 charcoal, (about 100 pounds in each pan,) and is 
 covered with another copper strainer and cloth, and 
 then the sirup is permitted to flow upon it until the 
 pan is full. 
 
 22. After it has stood some time, the cock is 
 opened, the sirup is. permitted to flow slowly into a 
 cistern, and the pans are refilled as fast as they 
 empty. From the cistern the sirup is pumped into 
 the condenser, for a last evaporation. These clari- 
 fiers are emptied of their animal carbon twice in 
 the day, and filled with other, fresh burnt from the 
 kilns. 
 
 23. It is found that some of the saccharine re« 
 mains in this carbon ; it is therefore put up to re- 
 ceive the juice from the defflcator as it passes into 
 the first evaporater, by which means the saccha' 
 rine is extracted ; after which the animal carbon is 
 turned out to be washed, preparatory to another ca** 
 
 • Butter u breferabk. 
 
 N 
 
f46 BEET SUGAR. 
 
 cinatlon, whereby it is rendered fit for further use, 
 ad infudtum. 
 
 24. Co7icentralio7i. The clarified sirup is evap- 
 ornted in the condenser to 41*^, at which point it 
 indiciites signs of fitness for crj^stallization, which 
 may be known by the usual test, drawing between 
 the finger and thumb ; when if the thread break, and 
 the end draws up to the finger in a kind of horny 
 substance, it is enough. Another mode is, to blow 
 through the holes of the skimmer, when, if the 
 sirup be sufficiently tenacious to form air bubbles 
 and fall to the ground, and on bursting leave a 
 white substance, it is immediately removed from 
 the fire. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 lEET SUGAR CONTINUED. 
 
 T. What is the yield of sugar per acre and cost 
 of manufacture, independent of the expense of 
 cultivating the crop? Much contrariety of opinion 
 exists upon tliis subject. Under favourable cir- 
 cumstances, I have reason to know that 8^ per 
 cent, of sugar has been obtained. This consists of 
 first, second, and third qualities, and leaves only the 
 molasses, which cannot be crystallized by any pro- 
 cess now known. 
 
 2. In the estimate of the cost of the manufacture 
 of sugar, the profit upon the beet culture must be 
 made to appear, as also the profit arising from the 
 
BEET SUGAR. 147 
 
 feeding of cattle nnd sheep, with the molasses and 
 cakes, and the value of the manure. To this add 
 the profit arising from the preparation of animal 
 carbon, which every extensive manufacturer pre- 
 pares for his own use, and the value of the seed, 
 which all such are enabled to send to market, and 
 I estimate the cost of sugar to the manufacturer at 
 44" sous (4^ cents) per pound. 
 
 3. What mode of expending the refuse of the 
 sugar house for the fattening of cattle ? The 
 cakes are preserved in magazines sunk in the 
 ground, where they are beaten hard, and left to fer- 
 ment. At the end of 6 or 9 m.onths, they are cut 
 out in a vinous state, and given to cattle and sheep; 
 excellent for the purpose. A sheep w^ill eat 6 
 pounds of this food (mixed \vith a small quantity of 
 oil-cake, say about 2 pounds for 10 sheep) a day. 
 Cattle, while fatting, eat 75 pounds of beet-cake 
 and 6 pounds of oil-cake per day. 
 
 4. The molasses is mixed with water, and 
 poured upon chopped straw in cisterns, w^here it 
 remains for 24 hours, when it is given to horses, 
 cattle, and sheep, which devour it voraciously. The 
 sheep pens are strewed with lime instead of straw, 
 a most excellent mode, as it saves straw which 
 might be cut into chaff, and conduces to the health 
 of sheep, as well as to their cleanliness. The 
 nme prevents and cures the foot rot, and is the 
 means ot forming a large quantit}^ of most valuable 
 oonnpost, which is applied as a spring dressing to 
 yeung clover ; the effect is instantaneous. Sheep 
 fatten in 2 months, or 60 days. 
 
 5. The cakes from 100 pounds of beet, wdth 
 a mixture of molasses and straw, are sufficient food 
 
148 BEET SUGAR. 
 
 for 3 sheep per day. From 2000 pounds of beet, 
 food for 60 sheep for 1 dny; froni 1 acre of 
 beet, therefore, food for 60 sheep for 20 days ; 
 the cakes from 3 acres of beet, with an allowance 
 of straw and molasses, and the above quantity of oil- 
 cake, are sufficient to fatten 60 sheep for the market. 
 
 6. What kind of cattle, and at what age 
 are they preferred, so as to give the greatest 
 profit for fattening, and the usual time of feed- 
 ing? CHen are not put to fatten until five years 
 old, being worked on the farms until that age. 
 Cows fatten well, and all descriptions of cattle 
 are fed in as short a time as upon other customary 
 food. 
 
 7. The sugar which was fjrwarded, together 
 with the beet seed, was obtained from a refinery 
 at Paris. The samples of unrefined sugar which 
 were delivered, are ho7ia fide from the bett, and 
 were procured from the diflerent manufactories 
 Avhich I have visited, and show the various qualities 
 and sorts distinctly. 
 
 8. What crop precedes the beet, and what is 
 the estimated quantity ? In many places beet is 
 grown every second year, a crop of grain inter- 
 vening; in some places every year in succession j 
 a field in the neighbourhood of Arras has borne 
 beet, either as a crop for crushing or for seed, for 
 the last fifteen years. It is sown after every 
 crop, but does best, perhaps, after clover, the land 
 being ploughed in winter, and got ready for an 
 early spring sowing. Oats often precede the 
 beet, but in this case it is usual to manure for the 
 beet, the manure buried in drills after the English 
 method. 
 
BEET SUGAR. 149 
 
 i 
 
 0. What crop succeeds it, &c. ? Too often 
 wheat, a bad practice. The land should be laid 
 dry for the winter, and sown with a spring crop, 
 clover always accompanying it. Such crops are 
 excellent ; wheat light and small eared, apt to 
 blight, quantity often not more than 18 or 20 bush- 
 els per acre. 
 
 lOv Is the crop ever manured for? Yes, after 
 oats, for it is found that manure is not, of neccs- 
 siij/, injurious to the crop of sugar, as it was once 
 thought to be. 
 
 ll" What kind of manure is used, and what 
 effect are different manures supposed to have (if 
 different are used) on the saccharine? An abun- 
 dant supply is always found in the farm-yard, for 
 as the beet is sow^n as a fallow crop, generally 
 without dung, it throws the usual time for manu- 
 ring one year back, a/i incalculable assistance to 
 the dung-heap. The refuse of the sugar house is 
 reserved as a top dressing to the clovers ; bones 
 are too valuable to be used as manure, as they are 
 required for clarifying the sugar: lime not in use, 
 except for strewing the floors of the sheep sheds, 
 where it becomes one of the richest and most valu- 
 able manures known. 
 
 12. What is the weight of the average crop of 
 beet and grain? Under favourable circumstances 
 and seasons, beet 40,000 pounds per acre, oats 
 and barley 35 to 40 bushels, wheat 25 to 30 or 33 
 bushels per acre. 
 
 13. Are crops most productive of saccharine 
 on sandy soil, or loam ? Light soils are preferred, 
 if they are not of a burning nature. Moisture is 
 4iecessary to the growth of the beet; but if they 
 
 N 2 
 
150 FiF.ET SUGAR, 
 
 are raised on land with a wet subsoil, they wilJ 
 rot in the winter, although they may appear, at the 
 time of taking up, to be perfectly sound. Deep 
 soils produce large crops, but they are not valued 
 on that account, the small roots often producing 
 more sugar than large ones. No judgment can 
 be formed but by experiment. 
 
 14. What is the rotation of crops ? Beet, beet, 
 beet. Beet, wheat, beet. Oats, beet, barley with 
 seeds. What is the price of the best beef, fed 
 from the beet of a sugar house, when compared 
 with beef, otherwise fed ? Equal, as cattle are 
 never finished with beet-cakes alone; an allowance 
 of oilcakedoes the business more quicldy. 
 
 15. How does the use of the lefuse of the su- 
 gar house affect the produce of the dairy ? Good 
 for all kinds of cattle. Cows which give milk 
 must not be fed with fermented cakes, as they 
 communicate an unpU:isant flavour to the butter. 
 Molasses, when mixed with water, and poured on 
 cut straw or hay, and left for twenty four hours, is 
 excellent for the purpose. 
 
 16. W^hat are the expenses of conducting a 
 beet sugar manufactory, and what the estimated 
 profits ? The raising of the heet and the majiufac- 
 turing of the sugar should ahvays accompany each 
 other, and an estimate made of both united would 
 show the result. If the beet is grown, and sold to 
 the sugar maker, the land is robbed of the manure 
 arising from the expenditure of the crop, and al- 
 though great profits might arise at first from this 
 system, it must in the end prove ruinous. 
 
 17. And if the sugar maker has to purchase 
 his roots for crushing, he often meets with those 
 
BEST BREEDS OF CATTLE. 151 
 
 which yield but little sugar; he sells the cakes 
 and molasses to those who get his profit upon feed- 
 ing, and his manure, from the sugar house, for less 
 than a quarter part of its value. I have scarcely 
 met with any one who is contented with his share, 
 if divided, although there are many who are com- 
 pelled so to act. The perfection of the beet-root 
 culture in France is, when it is joined to the making 
 of suo^ar. 
 
 18. In the town of Arras, a person has estab- 
 lished a sugar house upon a very economical 
 scile, performing much of the labour and superin- 
 tendence in person; he erected most of the ma- 
 chinery with his own hands, and is a very intelli- 
 gent nirin. He rents land, properly prepared, of 
 the firraers in the neighbourhood, for the growth 
 of his crops of beet, at the charge of froui 200 to 
 230 francs per acre; he has no means of feeding 
 sheep with tlie cakes, and the molasses and ma- 
 nure he sells to those who are making a profit from 
 this branch of his business; it must be a good 
 trade which could bear such weeding; and yet he 
 made 110,000 pounds of sugar last season. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 BEST BREEDS OF CATTLE. 
 
 1. The Devonshire breed is supposed to have 
 descended directly from the wild race. Its head 
 is small, clean, and free from flesh about the jaws, 
 
152 BEST BREEDS OF CATTLE. 
 
 deerlike, light and airy in its countenance, neck 
 long and thin, throat free from jowl or dewlap, 
 nose and round its eyes of a dark orange colour, 
 ears thin and pointed, tinged on their inside with 
 the same colour that is always found to encircle its 
 eyes. 
 
 2. Horns thin, and fine to their roots, of a 
 cream colour, tipped Avith black, growing with a 
 regular curve upward, and rather springing from 
 each other. Light in the withers, resting on a 
 shoulder a little retiring and spreading, small, and 
 tapering below the knee, fine at and above the 
 joint, and where the arm begins to increase it be- 
 comes suddenly lost in the shoulder. Thin loose 
 skin, covered with hair of a soft and furry nature, 
 inclined to curl Vvhenever the animal is in good 
 condhion and in full coat, bright blood red, without 
 w^hite or other spots. 
 
 3. The Devon cattle are highly esteemed both 
 for feeding and draught ; but are not so much 
 valued for the dairy.. For all the purposes of la- 
 bour, whether activity, docility, or strength and 
 hardiness, this breed can scarcely be excelled. 
 The ordinary average weight of the oxen, when 
 fatted at five years old, is about eleven hundred, 
 and that of full-sized cons seldom exceeds eight. 
 
 4. The Sussex breed difiers but little from the 
 Devonshire: when pure, the cattle are invariably 
 dark red; and those which are marked with a mix- 
 ture of either white or black, although called Sus- 
 sex, are always crossed with foreign blood. 
 
 5. The Hereford breed is a variety of the 
 Devon and Sussex, but is larger, broader, and 
 weightier than either. Tiie prevailing colour a 
 
BEST BREEDS OF CATTLE, 153 
 
 reddish brown, with white faces; the hair fine, 
 and the skin thin. In the true-bred Hereford cat- 
 tle there is no projecting bone in the point of the 
 shoulder, which in some breeds forms almost a 
 shelf, against which the collar rests. 
 
 6. The horn pushes aside a little, and then turns 
 up thin and tapering ; remarkably well feeling, and 
 very mellow on the bones. The quality of the 
 meat not hard, but fine as well as fat ; little coarse 
 flesh about them, the bone being small in propor- 
 tion to their weight. Their disposition to fatten is 
 equal, or nearly so, to that of any other breed in 
 the island. 
 
 7. They are, however, ill calculated for the 
 dairy; their disposition to accumulate flesh being 
 opposed to the qualities of good milking cows ; an 
 observation which will equally apply to every 
 breed, when similarly constituted. A breed of cat- 
 tle equally adapted to the shambles, the dairy, and 
 the plough, is indeed not to be met with ; experi- 
 ence teaches that these properties are inconsistent 
 with each other. 
 
 8. The Hereford cattle are by many good judges 
 considered to approach the nearest to that perfect 
 state, of any of the large breeds. They arrive 
 early at maturity, and are fit for labour ; but it is 
 as fatting stock that they excel, and it is a different 
 variety of the same breed that is preferred for the 
 dairy. 
 
 9. On comparison with the Devon and Sussex, 
 the Hereford breed will probably not be found 
 equally active and hardy in the yoke ; but it is gen- 
 erally considered to exceed them in the quality of 
 fatten ins". 
 
134 BEST BREEDS OF CATTLE. 
 
 10. The short-horned cattle are more generally- 
 known as the Durham or Yorkshire breed. This 
 breed was made known in England about forty 
 years ago, and has rapidly risen in the public es- 
 timation. The cattle are ver^r large, and are beau- 
 tifully mottled with red or black upon a white 
 ground. Their backs are level — throat clean — 
 neck fine, and body full and round. 
 
 11. They have a very fine coat, and thin hide. 
 They differ from the other breeds, not only in the 
 shortness of their horns, but in being wider and 
 thicker in their form, and consequently feeding to 
 greater v/eight : also, in affording the greatest 
 quantity of tallow when fatted: and in having very 
 thin hides, with much less hair upon them than 
 any other kind except the Alderneys. 
 
 12. They also possess the valuable properties 
 of fattening kindly at an early age, and of yielding 
 large quantities of milk. The quality of the latter, 
 however, is not so rich as that of some other spe 
 cies. This breed is now preferred in this country 
 and in England, though the Devonshire makes the 
 best oxen. 
 
 13. The Galloway breed are black or dark brin- 
 dled. They are without horns, except occasion- 
 ally a small bunch resembling them. They are 
 rather under the medium size, being smaller than 
 the Devons, though in some other respects resem- 
 bling them. 
 
 14. Galloways are a hardy race, subsisting on 
 the coarsest pastures, and increasing rapidly when 
 removed to more favourable situations ; they fatten 
 kindly on the best parts. Their flesh is of the 
 finest quality ; and the joints being of a moderate 
 
DIFFERENT BREEDS COMPARED. 155 
 
 size, more suitable for private families than those 
 of the larger breeds. They are remarkably good 
 milkers ; and are well adapted to poor lands. 
 
 15. The Ayrshire breed ranks deservedly high 
 in the estimation of dairymen. The head is small, 
 but rather long and narrow at the muzzle — the eye 
 small, but quick and lively — the boms small, clear, 
 bended, and the roots at a considerable distance 
 from each other. The neck is long and slender, 
 and tapering towards the head, with little loose 
 skin hanging below — and shoulders thin. The 
 skin is thin and loose — hair, soft and woolly — the 
 head, horns, and other parts of least value, small, 
 and the general figure compact and well propor- 
 tioned. 
 
 16. Such are the chief breeds now in high re- 
 pute. But it must be admitted, that there are great 
 deviations in many animals of the same, and of 
 the most approved stocks ; and there are, besides, 
 many crosses and local breeds distinguished by 
 the name of the district, or the breeder, which it 
 would be tedious to particularize. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF NEAT CATTLE, 
 COMPARED. 
 
 1. From what has been said, the reader will 
 probably be enabled to form some estimate of the 
 value of the respective breeds of cattle. The two 
 
l56 DIFFERENT BREEDS COMPARED. 
 
 kinds, however, which are chiefly reared, are the 
 long-horned and the short-horned. Concerning 
 their merits and demerits, there has long been a 
 difference of opinion among the most experienced 
 breeders. On that subject, therefore, it may not 
 be ahogether useless to offer a i^w comparative 
 remarks for the consideration of the young farmer. 
 
 2. The long-horns excel in the thickness and 
 firm texture of the hides, in the length and close- 
 ness of the hair, in their beef being finer grained 
 and more mixed and marbled than that of the short- 
 horns, in weighing more in proportion to their size, 
 and in giving richer milk. But they are inferior 
 to the short-horns in giving a less quantity of milk, 
 in weighing less upon the whole, in affording less 
 lallow when killed, in being slower feeders, and 
 of a coarser make. 
 
 3. In few words, the long-horns excel in the 
 hide, hair, and quality of the beef; the short- 
 horns in the quantity of beef, tallow, and milk. 
 Each breed has long had, and probably may have, 
 its particular advocates ; but, if I may hazard a 
 conjecture, is it not probable that both kinds may 
 have their particular advantages in different situa- 
 tions ? 
 
 > 4. Why may not the thick, firm hides, and long 
 close-set hair of the one kind, be a protection and 
 security against those impetuous winds and heavy 
 storms to which the north part of this country is 
 so subject ; while the more regular seasons, and 
 mild climate, at the south, are most suitable to the 
 constitutions of the short-horn? 
 
 5. Further trials of their respective qualities 
 must be accurately made and faithfully recorded, 
 
STOCKING A FARM WITH CATTLE. 157 
 
 before an undisputed preference can be awarded 
 to either ; for it cannot be concealed that local 
 prejudice is often opposed to fact. The long-horns 
 appear best adapted for grazing, being well pro- 
 tected by thick hides and long hair, and seemingly 
 intended by nature for the range of pasture land. 
 
 6. The short-horns, on the contrary, have thin 
 hides and short hair, and being of a more tender 
 constitution than the former, and arriving to greater 
 weight, seem better calculated for the system of 
 stall-feeding ; while the Devons have the advan- 
 tage as working oxen. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 ON BUYING AND STOCKING A FARM WITH CATTLE. 
 
 1. The first object of attention to the farmer 
 is to consider the proportion between his stock, and 
 the quantity of feed which will be necessary to 
 support them. The nature, situation, and fertil- 
 ity of the soils that compose his farm are worthy 
 of notice ; also, the purpose for which he de- 
 signs more particularly to rear or feed his cattle ; 
 whether for the pail, or for beef 
 
 2. In fact, it will be expedient to observe the 
 greatest exactness in this proportion, because if 
 he should overstock his land, he Avill be compelled 
 to resell before the cattle are in a fit state for the 
 market, and, consequently, at certain loss ; while, 
 on the other hand, he will incur a loss in his profit, 
 
 O 
 
158 STOCKING A FARM WITH CATTLE. 
 
 if he does not stock his land with as many cattle 
 as it will bear. 
 
 3. Formerly, a great prejudice prevailed in fa- 
 vour of big-boned, large beasts, but it has been as- 
 certained that this breed is, in point of profit, 
 much inferior to the middle-sized kind. By a 
 careful attention to the selection of stock, great 
 progress may be made towards the improvement 
 of the different species. Among the various pro- 
 fessional breeders of modern limes, few have at- 
 tained greater celebrity than the late Mr. Bake- 
 well of England, to ^Yhom wc are indebted for 
 many new and important improvements in the 
 science of rearing cattle. 
 
 4. The principle which he invariably adopted, 
 was to select the best beast, that would weigh 
 most in the valuable joints ; so that, while he 
 gained in point of shape, he also acquired a more 
 hardy breed. By attending to the kindliness of 
 their skin, he became possessed of a race \Ahich 
 was more easily fed and fattened than any other. 
 
 5. For many years, the practice was to judge 
 by the eye only, without regarding the other qual- 
 ities of the animal. But, in the present improved 
 age, a more rational mode of forming the judgment 
 has been adopted. The sense of touch is now 
 brought in aid of the sight. By repeated practice, 
 the art of judging of the kindliness to fatten has 
 been brought to such perfection, that any well-in- 
 formed breeder will tell, almost instantaneously, 
 in what points or parts they will or will not fatten. 
 
 6. In the selection, therefore, of live stock in 
 general, the young farmer will find it necessary 
 attentively to consider the following particulars : 
 
STOCKING A FARM WITH CATTLE. 159 
 
 Beauty, or symmetry of slia'pe ; in which the form 
 is so compact that every part of the animal bears 
 an exact consistency, while the carcass should be 
 deep and broad, and the less valuable parts (such 
 as the head, bones, &c.) ought to be as small as 
 possible. Further, the shoulders should not only be 
 light of bone, and rounded off at the lower point, 
 but also broad, and well covered with flesh. The 
 back also ought to be wide and level throughout. 
 
 7. In rearing live stocl', of any description, it 
 should be an invariable rule to have the increase 
 from small-boned, straight-backed, healthy, clean, 
 kindly skinned, round-bodied, and barrel-shaped 
 animals. 
 
 8. In the purchasing of cattle, whether in a lean 
 or fat state, the farmer should on no account buy 
 beasts out of richer or better ground than those 
 into which he intends to turn them. For, in this 
 case, he must inevitably sustain a ver}^ material 
 loss, by the cattle not thriving, particularly if they 
 be old. It will, therefore, be advisable to select 
 them, either from stock feeding in the neighbour- 
 hood, or from such breeds as are best adapted to 
 the nature and situation of the soil. 
 
 9. Docility of disposition, without being deficient 
 in spirit, is of equal moment. Independently of 
 the damage committed by cattle of wild tempers 
 on fences, fields, &c., it is a fact, that tame beasts 
 require less food to rear, support, and fatten them : 
 consequently, every attention ought to be paid 
 early to accustom them to be docile and familiar. 
 
 10. Hardiness of constitution, particularly in 
 bleak and exposed districts, is indeed a most im- 
 portant requisite. In every case -it is highly es- 
 
160 STOCKING A FARM WITH CATTLE. 
 
 sential to a farmer's interest to have a breed that 
 is liable neither to disease nor to any hereditary 
 distennper. 
 
 11. Connected with hardiness of constitution is 
 early maturity. This, however, can o«ly be at- 
 tained by feeding- cattle in such a manner as to 
 keep them constantly in a growing state. By an 
 observance of this principle, it has been found 
 that beasts and sheep thrive more in three years, 
 than they usually do in five when they have not 
 sufficient food during the "winter. In the common 
 mode of rearing, their growth is checked. 
 
 12. Working, or an aptitude for labour. Whe- 
 ther kine be purchased for the plough or for the 
 purpose of fattening, it will be necessary to see 
 that they are young, in perfect health, full mouthed, 
 and not broken in any part. That the hair stare 
 not, and that they are not hidebound, or they will 
 not {q,^^ kindly. 
 
 13. The same remark is applicable to cows 
 intended for the pail. Their horns should be fair 
 and smooth, the forehead broad, udders w^hite, 
 yet not fleshy, thin and loose when empty, (to 
 hold the greater quantity of milk,) but large when 
 full. 
 
 14. Beside the rules above stated, there are some 
 particulars with regard to the age of cattle and sheep, 
 which merit the farmer's consideration. Neat cat- 
 tle cast no teeth until turned two years old, when 
 they get two new teeth ; at three they get two 
 more; and in every succeeding year get two, until 
 five years old, when they are called full mouthed,. 
 Though they are not properly full mouthed until 
 six years old, because the two corner teeth, which 
 
THE COW RAISING CALVES. 161 
 
 are last in renewing, are not perfectly up until they 
 are six. 
 
 15. The horns of neat cattle also supply an- 
 other criterion by which the judgment maybe as- 
 sisted, after the signs afforded by the teeth become 
 uncertain. When three years old, their horns arc 
 smooth and handsome ; after which period, there 
 appears a circle, or wrinkle, which is annually 
 increased as long as the horn remains ; so that, ac- 
 cording to the number of these circles or rings, 
 the age of a beast may be ascertained with tolerable 
 precision. 
 
 16. Sometimes the wrinkles are defaced, or ar- 
 tificially removed, by scraping or filing. This is 
 a fraudulent practice, too frequently adopted, in 
 order to deceive the ignorant or inexperienced 
 purchaser, as to the real age of the animal. These 
 circles, however, must not be confounded with 
 the ringlets which are sometimes found at the 
 root of the horn, and which are a pretty sure in- 
 dication that the animal has been ill-fed during its 
 growth. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 THE cow RAISING CALVES. 
 
 1. A PERFECT COW ought to have a fine head, 
 with a broad, smooth forehead ; black eyes ; clean 
 horns, and a smooth, elastic skin. 
 
 2. Cows are purchased either with a view of 
 
 O 2 
 
162 THE COW—RAISING CALVES. 
 
 being fattened for sale, for increasing, or for the 
 purposes of the dairy. If for beef, it will be ad- 
 visable to attend to the kindliness of their skins, 
 and disposition to fatten. With regard to those 
 which are intended for breeding, care should be 
 taken to select the best of that particular stock in- 
 tended to be raised; and for the dairy, those which 
 yield the most, and the richest milk. The last 
 subject will be trtated more at large under that 
 head. 
 
 o. The desirable qualities of a dairy cow are, 
 that she should give an abundant supply of milk; 
 Aitten readily; and turn to good account in the 
 shambles. But, in fact, those beasts which yield 
 great quantities of milk seldom fatten quickly. 
 There is, it is true, a middling kind of cows, 
 which give a tolerable quantity of milk, and also 
 keep in pretty good condition. 
 
 4. But, though many of this sort will become 
 very fat when they are dried, or their milk is takun 
 from them, yet they w^ill not fatten so speedily or 
 so well as tljose which yield a less portion of 
 milk, and which are more kindly disposed to fatten 
 while they are in a milking state. 
 
 5. As, however, the dairy constitutes, in many 
 parts of this country, an object of great importance, 
 it is a point worthy of the most deliberate consid- 
 eration, whether a particular breed ought to be kept 
 for that purpose only, or whether it be preferable 
 to have stock calculated partly for the butcher, and 
 partly for the dairy. 
 
 6. " It is probable," observes Sir John Sinclair, 
 "that, by great attention, a breed might be reared, 
 the males of \yhich might be well calculated, in 
 
THE COW— RAISING CALVES. 163 
 
 every respect, for the shambles ; and the others 
 of which might, when young, produce abundant 
 quantities of good milk; yet, when they reached 
 eight or nine years of age, might be easily fattened. 
 This, he justly remarks, would be the most valu- 
 ble breed that could be propagated in any country; 
 and, indeed, some of the best English and Scot- 
 tish breeds have almost reached that point of per- 
 fection." 
 
 7. There are two modes of feeding calves : — 
 one is, to permit them to run about with the cow 
 the whole of the first year; and the other mode is, 
 to separate them when about a fortnight old, and 
 bring them up by hand. The former expedient 
 is generally allowed to be productive of the best 
 cattle, and is adopted in those countries where fod- 
 der is abundant and cheap. In others, where it is 
 found prudent to reserve a portion of the milk, the 
 latter plan is pursued. 
 
 8. Whether calves are designed to be raised foi 
 breed, labour, or feeding, care should be taken thaf 
 they have a sufficient supply of good pasture. P 
 this be scanty at first, they rarely, if ever, attain to 
 large growth. Various plans have been suggested, 
 and tried with considerable success, for rearing 
 calves without any, or, at least, with a small quan 
 tity of milk. The time of separating them from 
 the parent cow, varies from one fortnight till they 
 are seven weeks old ; but the latter period is prefer 
 able, on account of the state of the calves, if sepa 
 rated at an earlier age. 
 
 9. In winter, the calves may be fed with luke- 
 warm skimmed milk and water, having bran or 
 
164 THE COW— RAISING CALVES. 
 
 oats in it, and some very sweet hay by them, till 
 the grass is ready. If the farmer have carrots, 
 they form an excellent article of food, and render 
 the use of oats unnecessary. About three gallons 
 of milk daily are sufficient for the support of a calf 
 until he begins to eat. It should be given regu- 
 larly at the same hours; and he should be kept as 
 ■quiet as possible, as rest is found to promote his 
 growth. 
 
 10. Some feed partly with meal mixed in the 
 milk, after the third or fourth week ; or gradually 
 introduce some new whey along with the meal, and 
 Tifterward withdraw the milk altogether. Hay tea, 
 •flaxseed jelly, &c., are also sometimes used with 
 advantage. But milk, when it can be spared, is 
 by far the best, as well as the most natural food. 
 Another mode of rearing calves has been suggested, 
 to render the use of new milk unnecessary, while 
 the expense is reduced in the proportion of two 
 thirds. 
 
 11. It is effected in the following manner: Let 
 lialf an ounce of common molasses be well mixed 
 with a pint of skimmed milk, then gradually add 
 •one ounce of finely powdered flaxseed oil-cake, 
 stirring it till the mixture be properly made, after 
 which it is to be added to the remainder of a gal- 
 lon of milk. The whole, being made nearly of 
 the temperature of new milk, may then be given 
 to the animal. After a short time, the quantity 
 of pulverized oil-cake may be increased. This 
 method is said to have been advantageously adopt- 
 ed. 
 
 12. An infusion of hay tea, or hay water, has 
 been also applied to the purpose of rearing calves 
 
THE COW RAISING CALVES. 165 
 
 with the smallest quantity of milk. In order to 
 make this infusion, such a portion of fine, sweet hay, 
 cut once or twice, is put into a small earthen vessel 
 as will fill it. The vessel is then filled with boil- 
 ing water, and carefully closed; at the end of two 
 hours a brown, rich, and sweet infusion will be pro- 
 duced, not unlike alewort, or strong tea, which will 
 remain good for two days. 
 
 13. In the rearing of calves, much, however, de- 
 pends on the regularity of feeding them. The 
 common practice is, to supply them with food twice 
 in the day, in the morning and at evening. Then 
 they generally receive as large a quantity as their 
 craving appetites can take. Hence the digestive 
 organs are necessarily injured, and numerous ani- 
 mals either become tainted with disease, or perish 
 from the inattention of their keepers. When, by 
 feeding them thrice in the day, at equal intervals, 
 and allowing sufficient room for exercise, (when 
 they are not intended to be fattened,) they will not 
 only be preserved in health, but they will also 
 greatly improve in condition. 
 
 14. Whatever food be allowed to young calves, 
 care should also be taken not to change it too sud- 
 denly. A calf must have attained a certain de- 
 gree of strength before it can dispense with the 
 food most natural to its age. It should always, 
 therefore, be allowed as long as possible. It is a 
 common notion, that, provided young stock acquire 
 size, their condition is immaterial ; and, after the 
 first winter, they are generally turned into the 
 toughest pasture, and kept during the following 
 winter on straw, with, perhaps, a little indifferent 
 hay. 
 
166 WORKING OXEN. 
 
 15. But they should be kept on good pasture 
 during the summer, and allowed roots, with some 
 sound hay, in the winter, and green food in the 
 spring ; a contrary mode, though the most econom- 
 ical, is decidedly disadvantageous; for the worst 
 breed will ultimately be improved by good feeding, 
 \vhile the best will degenerate under a system of 
 starvation. 
 
 IG. With regard to those calves which are in- 
 tended for the draught, it will be advisable to accus- 
 tom them, while young, to be handled and smoothed, 
 and tied up to the manger ; as they may, when they 
 come to be broken in, be handled with less appre- 
 hension of danger. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 WORKING OXEN. 
 
 1. A GOOD OX for the plough should be neither 
 too fat nor too lean. In the former case, he will 
 be lazy; and in the latter, he will be weak and un- 
 fit for labour. His body ought to be round, joints 
 short, limbs strong, eyes full, his coat smooth and 
 fine, and every part well put together, so that his 
 strength may be easily seen. Another requisite is, 
 that he may answer to the goad, and be obedient to 
 the voice ; but he can only be governed by gradual 
 use and gentle treatment. 
 
 2. Calves designed for the yoke, should not be 
 broken in earlier than two and a half, or three 
 
WORKING OXEN. J 67 
 
 years, lest they be overstrained ; nor should that 
 operation be deferred longer, as they will become 
 headstrong or stubborn. Their work should then 
 be so proportioned as not to affect their growth, 
 which continues till about their seventh year. If 
 this be not attended to, their value will be lessened 
 in a greater degree than will be compensated by 
 their labour. 
 
 3. The strength of this animal, when properly 
 trained and managed, is very great. He has pa- 
 tience to endure fatigue; but being naturally slow, 
 he must not be urged beyond his usual pace. The 
 only method by which success can be attained is, by 
 patience, mildness, and even by caresses; for com- 
 pulsion and ill treatment will irritate and disgust 
 him. 
 
 4. Hence, great assistance will be derived from 
 gently stroking the animal along the back, by pat- 
 tinof him, and encourag"insf him with the voice, and 
 occasionally feeding him with such aliments as are 
 most grateful to his palate. When he has thus be- 
 come familiar, a yoke may be put upon his neck, 
 when he should be fastened to a plough with a tame 
 old ox, of equal size. 
 
 5. Next, the oxen should be employed in some 
 light work, which they may be suffered to per- 
 form easily and slowly ; thus they will draw 
 equally, and the young steer will be gradually in- 
 ured to work. After working in this manner, he 
 should be yoked with an ox of greater spirit and 
 agility, in order that the steer may learn to quick- 
 en his pace. By thus frequently changing his 
 companions, as occasion may allow, he will, in the 
 course of the first month, oi six weeks, af bis la- 
 
168 WORKING OXEN. 
 
 bour, be capable of drawing with the briskest of 
 the stock. 
 
 6. Another circumstance of essential importance 
 in breaking'in young oxen is, that, when first put 
 to work, they be not fatigued or overheated. 
 Till they are thoroughly trained, therefore, it 
 will be necessary to employ them in labour only 
 at short intervals — to indulge them with rest du- 
 "ring the noonday heats of summer, and to feed them 
 with good hay, which, in this case, is preferable to 
 grass. 
 
 - 7. In fact, while oxen are worked, they tnust be 
 kept in good condition and spirits, by moderate, but 
 wholesome sustenance. Further, on their return 
 home from labour, it will greatly contribute to pre- 
 serve their health if their feet be well washed, pre- 
 vious to leading them into their stalls ; otherwise 
 diseases might be generated by the dirt adhering 
 to them; while their hoofs, becoming soft and ten- 
 der, would necessarily disable them from working 
 on hard or stony soils. 
 
 8. The extremes of heat and cold ought also 
 to be carefully guarded against, as disorders not 
 unfrequently arise from excess of either tempera- 
 ture; and they are peculiarly exposed to fevers and 
 the flux, if chased or hurried, especially in hot 
 weather. 
 
 9. Farmers, generally, exercise but very little 
 skill in managing oxen. They run ahead of the 
 cattle, and cry "Come along;" and then run back 
 to them, and give them a cut or two, and then walk 
 on ahead of the cattle again. By such driving, the 
 oxen are made very slow. 
 
 10. The driver should walk by their side, and 
 
Pasturing cattle. I6d 
 
 dlose to them. He should accustom them to walk 
 fast, and encourage them by his voice, and not 
 break their spirits by pounding them with a large 
 pole, as is frequently done. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVL 
 
 PASTURING CATTLE. 
 
 1. The feeding and fattening of cattle, whethei* 
 fur labour or for sale, is the most important in the 
 whole economy of the grass farm. Hence the 
 farmer should previously consider the nature and 
 
 ferlil'ity of his pastures, and the extent and quality 
 of his other resources. According to these, he 
 ought to regulate his system of grazing, soiling, 
 or stall-feeding. 
 
 2. He should then select those beasts only which 
 evince the most thriving disposition to fatten with 
 the least consumption of food, and pasture them upon 
 such lands as are best calculated for the respective 
 breeds. He should not take cattle from rich to 
 inferior soils, but, wherever it is practicable, 
 choose them from lands of nearly the same quality 
 as those destined for their reception. It is also 
 proper in all situations which are not provided 
 with wholesome water, to avoid selecting cattle 
 from those districts where it abounds in a state of 
 purity. 
 
 3. In order to graze cattle to advantage, it will 
 be profitable to change them from one pasture to 
 
170 PASTURING CATTLE. 
 
 another, beginning" with the most inferior grass, and 
 gradually removing them into the best. By this 
 expedient, as cattle delight in variety, they will cull 
 the choicest part of the grass, and by filling them- 
 selves quicklv, they will rapidly advance towards a 
 proper state of fjtness. 
 
 4. The gross which is thus left may be fed off 
 with liibouring cattle, and lastly with sheep. Hence, 
 it will be advisable to have several enclosures, well 
 ftnced and sheltered, and abundantly supplied with 
 \vholesome water. Respecting the best size for 
 such enclosures, there is a difference of opinion. 
 From four to eight acres, perhaps, is the most ap- 
 propriate : though, if any be of a greater extent 
 than this, they may be divided by a temporary fence 
 for this purpose. 
 
 5. Thus the greatest and strongest cattle will be 
 separated from the weaker ones. For, if cattle of 
 various sizes are mingled together, the more power- 
 ful beasts will master the others, driving them from 
 place to place, and trampling upon or wasting more 
 food than they can eat. 
 
 6. In. the grazing of cattle, a variety of circnm- 
 stnnces will claim the farmer's attention, in order 
 to conduct his business either with regularity or 
 profit. He ought to take especial care not to turn 
 his stock out into the pastures in the spring, before 
 there is a full bite, or the grass has obtained a suffi- 
 cient degree of length and maturity. 
 
 7. Where beasts are turned into fields, great cir- 
 cumspection is required, to see that they do not 
 eat to snch excess as to become bloivn or hoven. 
 That disorder, however, may be prevented, either 
 by feeding the animals so as to gratify the cravings 
 
pasti;rixg cattle. 171 
 
 of appetite before they are turned into the pas- 
 ture, or by constantly moving them about the field 
 for a few hours after they have been turned in. 
 Should they, notwithstanding, be attacked witli that 
 dangerous swelling, they may be relieved by adopt- 
 ing the remedies pointed out in the chapter ©f dis- 
 eases. 
 
 8. The hard or light siocJci'/ig of pasture ground 
 is a point on which many experienced graziers are 
 by no means agreed. By seme, it is contended 
 that pastures ought to be stocked very lightly, 
 I'hey say, that although much of the produce is 
 thus allowed to run to seed, which the cattle will 
 not eat, and is trodden under foot, and thus wast- 
 ed^ yet experience, say the advocates for light 
 stocking, evinces that a greater profit will, upon the 
 whole, be thence derived, than by any other 
 practice, on account of the superior thriving of the 
 animals. 
 
 9. By others, it is maintained that the practice 
 of light stocking is to be condemned. They say, 
 it not only tends to diminish the produce of the 
 fields, but also to encourage the growth of coarse 
 and unprofitable grasses. They contend that the 
 hard slocking of grass lands, particularly those of 
 a rich quality, is indispensable to good manage- 
 ment. 
 
 10. It is recomm.ended by a third party, that 
 mixed stock should be always kept on the same 
 field. The foul grass produced by the manure of 
 somie animals will then be consumed by others. 
 And, as it is well known that different species of 
 cattle prefer different kinds of grass, there is aa 
 evident advantage in this practice. 
 
172 SOILING CATTLE. 
 
 11. In every field, plants spring up, some of 
 which are disliked by one class of animals, while 
 they are eaten by others. Hence, it becomes neces- 
 sary to have a great variety of cattle in the same 
 pasture. 
 
 12. On this it is, however, to be observed, that 
 where a great variety of animals are allowed to 
 go at large in the same pasture, they rarely feed 
 with that tranquillity which is necessary to ensure 
 thriving. It frequently happens that one class or 
 sort of beasts wishes to feed or to play, while others 
 are inclined to rest. 
 
 13. Thus the}'- mutually tease and disturb each 
 other ; and this inconvenience is increased, if any 
 sort o{ 'pe?ining or confinement be attempted. Hence 
 it is obvious, that the practice of intermixing various 
 kinds of live slock is productive of evils, which are, 
 in many instances, greater than those resulting from 
 the waste of food intended to be prevented by this 
 practice. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV II. 
 
 SOILING CATTLE. 
 
 1. Soiling simply means cutting the grass in 
 summer and feeding the cattle, instead of letting 
 them run in the field. By introducing the practice 
 of soiling, a very considerable saving of land will 
 be efifected, one acre of cut grass soiled being 
 equal to three acres used as pasture; and one acre 
 of cut clover being equal to two acres pastured. 
 
SOILING CATTLE. 173 
 
 In this case the clover is not trampled upon, and 
 grows much faster than if it were oftet. corroded 
 with the teeth of an animal, or the young leaves 
 nibbled off before they are sufiicienily formed. 
 
 2. It has even been affirmed, that sixteen acres 
 of cut clover and tares, will feed as many horses 
 and cattle as thirty-six acres of the same kind of 
 n;rass would do if used in pasturage. As all plants 
 draw much of their food from the atmosphere, by 
 means of their foliage, they are deprived of their 
 chief support, and never attain perfection, if the her- 
 bage be trodden before it has arrived at matu- 
 rity. 
 
 3. There is also a very consider able saving in 
 the quantity of food consumed, as well as a greater 
 variety of plants eaten. When animals are suf- 
 fered to go upon the field, many plants are neces- 
 sarily trodden under foot and bruised, or partly 
 buried in the earth. In this state they are greatly 
 disrelished by cattle, and are suffered to run to 
 waste. 
 
 4. This circumstance never could occur, if the 
 practice of cutting were adopted. Cattle also will 
 eat with avidity many plants, if cut and given to 
 them in the house, which they never would touch 
 while growing in the field : such are the dock, 
 cow parsley, thistles, nettles, and numerous other 
 plants. 
 
 5. As to the influence of soiling on the health 
 •and comfort of cattle, the balance is conceived to 
 be in favour of the cutting system, when compared 
 with that of pasturing. Thus, they are not liable 
 to be blown or hoven, or to be staked or injured by 
 breaking fences. And it is well known that wheia 
 
 P 2 
 
174 SOILING CATTLE, 
 
 animals are exposed to the sun, in the open air, they 
 are not only greatly incommoded, on many occa- 
 sions, by the heat, but are also annoyed by swarms 
 of flies, gnats, and hornets, which obviously tends 
 to impede their thriving. 
 
 6. At other times they are hurt by chilling blasts, 
 or drenched by cheerless rains. Under proper 
 management, in well-constructed stalls, all these 
 evils would be removed, and they would be kept 
 in a uniform state of coolness, tranquillity, and case. 
 Lastly, by judiciously mingling green vegetables 
 with dry food, as circumstances may require it, 
 and by varying the different articles so as to pro- 
 voke appetite, not only the health but also the 
 thriving of the creatures will be greatly augmented, 
 beyond what they could be by any other mode of 
 treatment. 
 
 7. The proportionate increase of manure, obtained 
 by soiling and stall-feeding, further evinces their 
 superiority over pasturing. Manure is the life and 
 soul of husbandry. And there can be no doubt 
 that the quantity of manure made during the sum- 
 mer, may be made to equal the produce during the 
 winter. The quality/ must depend on the nature of 
 the food. 
 
 8. As to the quantity/ of herbage afforded from 
 the same field, under the cutting and grazing sys- 
 tems, the balance will be found equally in favour 
 of the former. All animals, it is well known, de- 
 light more to feed on the young and fresh shoots 
 of grass than on such as are older. Hence, it in- 
 variably happens, that those patches in pastures 
 which have been once eaten bare, in the begin- 
 ning of the season, are kept very short during tliat 
 
SOILING CATTLE. 175 
 
 Season, by the animals preferring them to other 
 parts of the field where the grass is longer ; so 
 that the latter are often suffered to continue in a 
 great measure untouched. 
 
 9. Another circumstance, which is not generally- 
 known, is, that grass, when it has attained a cer- 
 tnin length, becomes stationary. Notwithstanding 
 it wiir retam its verdure in that state for some 
 months, yet, were it cut, it would continue in a 
 constant state of progress, proportioned to the fre- 
 quency of its being cropped. Experiments have, 
 indeed, been brought forward to prove that with 
 clover, rye grass, lucerne, and tares, double the 
 jinmhcr of cattle may be supported in much better 
 condition, when Cut, than when pastured. 
 
 10. Many exaggerated statements have been 
 produced in support of the system of soiling; but, 
 without attaching implicit faith to these, we are 
 convinced, that, by judicious management in this 
 respect, the profits of the grazier may oe largely 
 augmented. 
 
 i 1. The following facts and conclusions are un- 
 doubtedly true. A spot of ground which, when 
 pastured upon, will yield sufficient food for only one 
 head, will maintain three, head of cattle in the sta- 
 ble, if the vegetables be mowed in proper time, 
 and given to the cattle in a proper order. 
 
 12. The stall-feeding yields at least double the 
 (juantity of manure from the same number of cattle. 
 The best and most efficacious manure is produced 
 in the stable, and carried to the fields at the proper 
 period of its fermentation. Whereas, when spread 
 on the meadow, and exhausted by the air and sun, 
 its power is almost wasted. 
 
176 SOILING CATTLE. 
 
 13. The cows used to stall-feeding- will yield a 
 much greater quantity of milk, and increase faster 
 in weight, when fattening, than when they go into 
 the field. They are less subject to accidents, do 
 not suffer by the heat, by flies and insects, and if 
 every thing De properly managed, they remain in a 
 constant state of health and vigour. 
 
 14. The stalls may be so constructed as to ad- 
 mit a regular circulation of air, and yet shelter 
 them from the attacks of flies. The cattle may 
 also be allowed the freedom of an open j^ard. In- 
 deed, in that season, fold-yards, with open sheds, 
 are much to be preferred to stalls. This is the 
 practice in England, where the management of 
 stock is well understood. 
 
 15. Air is, indeed, indispensably necessary to 
 the preservation of the health and the speedy fat- 
 tening of animals. If they are kept too hot, they 
 will perspire profusely, and their hides will itch : 
 this vexes them, and necessarily retards their quick 
 feeding. When grass is to be given, it ought to 
 be cut in the morning for the evening food, and in 
 the afternoon for the morning. The afternoon 
 crop should be carried to the barn, or some othei 
 convenient place, and spread out in order to exhale 
 its superfluous moisture. 
 
 16. In the early part of the season, when grass 
 is scant, it may be mixed with the hay or straw 
 on which the cattle are fed. If the mixture be 
 made up over night, the dry provender will be 
 found to have acquired a sweet vegetable taste, 
 and to be rendered so moist and palatable as to be 
 more readily eaten. 
 
STALL-FEEDING BEEF CATTLE. 177 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 STALL-FEEDING BEEF CATTLE. 
 
 1. Parsnips are employed not only for feeding- 
 store cattle, but particularly for fatting oxen. This 
 flesh is considered superior to any other beef, and 
 commands an additional price. 
 
 2. Next to parsnips we may class the carrot — 
 a most useful root. Mangel-wurtzel comes next 
 in order in feeding cattle: indeed, in some late 
 experiments, it has been found superior to car- 
 rots, and nearly equal to parsnips. Turnips, espe- 
 cially rutabaga, also supply a nutritive article for 
 food. 
 
 3. These roots may be fed or thrown on the 
 land in the following manner. A cart enters a 
 field, in which stands a boy, who, as the vehicle 
 is goin^ along, throws the roots out, with their 
 tops and stems on, as they are drawn out of the 
 ground. 
 
 4. The second method of giving these roots to 
 cattle is by means of close bins, while the beasts 
 are kept in a loose strawyard. The tap root, and 
 also the tops, unless they are fresh and palatable, 
 should be previously cut off, so that the fatting 
 animals receive only the bulb. The tops, if eat- 
 able, may be consumed by store cattle. 
 
 5. The third method consists in keeping the cat- 
 tle tied up in open sheds, with mangers for receiv- 
 ing the roots. The roots may be cut into pieces, 
 which will make t?iem more oalatable. 
 
178 
 
 STALL FEEDING BEEF CATTLE. 
 
 6. In autumn, while the weather continues mod- 
 erate, the beeves may be allowed to remain abroad. 
 But whenever it .sets in very wet, or becomes in- 
 tensely severe, they should be kept under shelter, 
 either until their fattening is completed, or the 
 warmth of spring again invites them abroad. 
 
 7. Among the various vegetable productions 
 that have been appropriated to the stall-feeding of 
 cattle, none have occasioned greater discussion 
 than potatoes. They furnish an excellent supply 
 when cut and steamed, and appear adequate to the 
 fattening of cattle, in connexion with a small por- 
 tion of other food. 
 
 8. These roots should, at first, be given in small 
 quantities, which should be gradually increased to 
 one or two bushels per da}^ dry food being al- 
 ways intermixed, and the proportion of hay being 
 regulated by the effect which the potatoes produce 
 on the bowels. There ought to be at least five 
 servings in the day. According to the quantity of 
 roots which a beast can be induced to eat with ap- 
 petite, he will Aitten the sooner, of course with 
 less expense and miore profit. The potatoes need 
 not be cut, except at first, in order to entice the 
 beasts to eat them ; but they ought always to be 
 fresh and clean. 
 
 9. Flaxseed, when mixed with a due propor- 
 tion of hay or meal, affords an excellent composi- 
 tion for stall-feeding and fattening. It is prepared 
 in the following manner: To seven parts of 
 w^ater let one part of flaxseed be put, for forty- 
 eight hours ; then boil it slowly for two hours, 
 gently stirring the whole lest it should burn. Af- 
 terward cool it in tubs, and mix it with m.cal, bran, 
 
STALL-FEEDING BEEF CATTLE. 179 
 
 or cut straw, in the proportion of one bushel of hay- 
 to the jelly produced by one quart of flaxseed, 
 well mashed together. This quantity given daily, 
 with other food, will forward cattle rapidly; but it 
 must be increased v/hen they are intended to be 
 completely fattened. 
 
 10. With regard to oxen used in draught, it 
 should be observed, that they ought to be well fed, 
 while they are kept in constant employ, particu- 
 larly in the commencement of spring and in au- 
 tumn, when their' labour is most wanted. During 
 those seasons, they should be supplied with abun- 
 dance of cut hay, and v>'ith an allowance of a 
 bushel or two of steamed potatoes, turnips, or car- 
 rots, per day. 
 
 11. if the labour be unusually severe, a mod- 
 erate quantity of oats should be allowed. Some 
 farmers endeavour to support working oxen on hay 
 alone, and the possibility of this is one great ar- 
 gument used in favour of their employment; but it 
 will be generally found to injure them in a greater 
 proportion than the saving in food. 
 
 12. But whatever articles of food may be used, 
 they ought to be given with as much regard to 
 re.giilarity of time and quantity as is practicable. 
 If a small part be at any time left unconsumed, it 
 should be removed before the next feed is given, 
 otherwise the beast will loath it. In stall-feeding, 
 it is too common a practice to give a certain al- 
 lowance, every day, without regard to any cir- 
 cumstance. But it is a fact, that a fattening beast 
 will eat with a keener appetite on a cold day than 
 in warm, damp weather. Hence his food ought 
 to be proportioned accordingly. 
 
180 MILCH KIN£. 
 
 13. By giving the same quantity every day, tlis 
 animal may be cloyed ; thus his appetite becomes 
 impaired, the food is wasted, and several days will 
 necessarily elapse before he can recover it. At 
 least three periods of the day, as nearly equidistant 
 as possible, should be selected, when such an al- 
 lowance should be given to each animal as he can 
 eat with a good appetite; which point can be reg* 
 ulated best by attending duly to the state of the 
 w^eather, or season, and the progress he makes in 
 flesh. As he fattens, his appetite will become 
 more delicate, and he will require more frequent 
 feeding, in smaller quantities. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 MILCII KINE, 
 
 1. Red cows have been long celebrated for the 
 excellence of their milk ; and the calves of such 
 cows have been proverbially deemed good. But 
 colour in this respect is a matter of no moment ; 
 the breed alone should claim the farmer's attention. 
 Yet cows even of the same race will not always 
 yield the same quantity of milk ; and of those which 
 yield the most, it is not unfrequently deficient in 
 richness. 
 
 2. Trials are easily made, by keeping the cows 
 on the same food, weighing the quantity consumed 
 by each, and measuring their milk. Then keep- 
 ing and churning it, a fev/ times, separately. Thus, 
 
MILCH KlSt. 181 
 
 reckoning the cost of the provender, and the pro- 
 duce of the milk of each, and comparing the resuk, 
 it will be soon discovered which is the most prof- 
 itable animal. Comparisons of this kind are not 
 often made; for farmers usually purchase what- 
 ever stock they ean most conveniently or most 
 cheaply lay their hands on ; and are then content 
 to keep them, so long as they turn out tolerably 
 well. 
 
 3. This is the height of bad economy ; for an 
 indifferent cow will eat as much and require as 
 much attendance as the best; and thus occasions 
 a daily loss, that will soon exceed the saving in 
 the original price. The man who takes the pains 
 to acquire a good stock, and has the sense to keep 
 it, lays the sure foundation of a fortune. 
 
 4. It will be found, that those cows which yield 
 least in quantity have the richest milk. Yet both 
 quantity and quality constantly vary, even in in^ 
 dividuals of the same breed, age, and appearance, 
 and are always affected by the mode of feeding. 
 When kept on old meadow, the butter will have a 
 better flavour than when the cows are fed on arti-^ 
 ficial grasses. 
 
 5. Grains, cabbages, turnips, and other succu* 
 lent roots, will increase the quantity of the milk, 
 yet hay and corn will add most to its richness. 
 Lean cows never yield either so much or so good 
 milk, as those which, without being actually fat, 
 are kept in proper condition. 
 
 Q 
 
182 BEST FEED FOR COWS, 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 THE PASTURE AND OTHER FOOD BEST FOR COWS, 
 AS IT REGARDS THEIR MILK. 
 
 1. As the nature of the gr; ss has a very con- 
 siderable inflaence on the quality and quantity of 
 milk which cous produce, the attention of the 
 thinking farmer will be directed to this point. In- 
 stances have occurred, where six cows, fed on 
 some pastures, have yielded as m.uch milk as 7iine, 
 or even a dozen, will afford on inferior ground. 
 
 2. It is obviously his interest to have his cows 
 well fed, rather than to keep up a particular num- 
 ber, without heeding whether they are properly 
 supplied or not. Plence, it will be proper to suit 
 the milch cows to the nature and fertility of the 
 soil; and on no account to purchase them from 
 pastures superior to those destined for their recep- 
 tion. 
 
 3. To obtain an abundant supply of good milk, 
 it is not alone requisite that the grass be plentiful, 
 but also that it be of that quality which is relished 
 by the cattle. The long, rank grass, growing in 
 orchards or other places, in general feeds well, 
 and produces a flush of milk. Yet such milk will 
 neither be so rich, nor carry so much cream in 
 proportion, as the milk of those cows which are 
 fed upon short fine grass ; nor, of course, will the 
 butter be so good. 
 
 4. The quality and quantity of milk are mate- 
 rially affected by driving them to a distance from 
 
BEST FEED FOR COWS. 183 
 
 the house to the pasture ; hence it will be proper to 
 have the cow sheds in as central a part of the farm 
 as possible. 
 
 5. In the manag-ement of cows, it is essential 
 that the}'- be at all times kept in high health and 
 good condition. If they are suffered to fall in flesh 
 during the winter, it will be impossible to have an 
 abundant supply of milk by bringing them into high 
 condition in the summer. Hence, if cows are lean 
 in the spring, no subsequent management can bring 
 them to yield, for that season, any thing like the 
 quantity they would furnish, if they had been well 
 kept during the winter. 
 
 6. Farmers cannot be easily persuaded to afford 
 high feeding to unproductive stock ; nor is that re- 
 quisite for cows that are dry; but the common prac- 
 tice of keeping them during that period on straw 
 alone, or on the worst hay, is very improvident. 
 During that inclement season, som.e nutritious food 
 should be provided for them, and the animals be 
 kept moderately warm. 
 
 7. Beasts will thrive more, and yet not eat so 
 much, when kept warm, as when they are shiver- 
 ing with cold. When fed on straw, or coarse hay, 
 without any green food, till towards spring, their 
 milk vessels become dried, and they will not after- 
 ward yield either much milk, or of good quality, 
 until they are turned out to pasture. The milk of 
 lean cows is always thin, and as deficient in quan- 
 tity as nutriment. 
 
 8. For this purpose, a small quantity of any of 
 the succulent roots vinll be found sufficient, in addi 
 lion to their usually dry food. Even a very few 
 Swedish turnips in a day will be found essentially 
 
184 BEST FEED FOR COWS. 
 
 useful in preventing costiveness, binding of the hide, 
 and the drying up of the juices. 
 
 9. In Holland, where; it is well known that the 
 management of cows is carried to the highest per- 
 fection, they are curried in the same manner, and 
 kept as clean as horses in the stable. 
 
 10. It has already been intimated, that the best 
 summer food for rows is good grass. Additions to 
 hay for winter food are those most commonly em- 
 ployed for fatting cattle — pars7iips and carrots, 
 which roots not only render the milk richer, but 
 also communicate to the butter made from such 
 milk a fine colour, equal to that produced by the 
 most luxuriant grasses. 
 
 11. The m an g el-tour tz el, in Europe, is preferred 
 to every other vegetable for feeding cattle in gene- 
 ral. On potatoes cows will thrive well, so that 
 with one bushel of these roots, together with soft 
 meadow hay, they have been known to yield as 
 large a quantity of sweet milk, or butter, as they 
 usually afford when fed on the finest pastures. 
 
 12. Turnips, the utility of which is too well 
 known to require any particular detail here, are apt 
 to impart an unpleasant flavour to butter, unless 
 great care be taken to remove all the decayed leaves. 
 Also, flaxseed jelly and grains. By the judicious 
 use of these various articles, together with a due 
 admixture of dry food, the quality of the milk is 
 very materially improved. 
 
 13. Salt should become an object of serious at- 
 tention to every one engagpd in husbandry. Some 
 of the advantages of its application to stock may be 
 thus enumerated: It restores the tone of the stom- 
 ach, when impaired by excess in other food, and 
 
MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM. 185 
 
 corrects the crudity of moist vegetables and grasses 
 in a green state. 
 
 14. It helps digestion, keeps the body cool, by 
 which many disorders are prevented; and it de- 
 stroys botts. It renders inferior food palatable ; 
 and is so much relished by cattle, that they seek 
 it with eaoerne.ss, in whatever state it may be 
 found. When given to cows, it increases the 
 quantity of their milk, and has a material effect in 
 correcting the disagreeable taste it acquires from 
 turnips. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 THE MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM— MAKING 
 AND PIIESERVING BUTTER. 
 
 1. It is necessary to be very cautious in choosing 
 milkers. If a cow be roughly handled, it is not 
 only painful to her, but will also cause her to with- 
 hold her milk. If it be gently drawn, she will 
 yield it freely. A^d it is of importance that it be 
 drawn to the last drop, for it will otherwise decrease 
 at each succeeding milking. 
 
 2. It is well to feed the cows at the time of 
 milking, for while eating they give out their milk 
 with greater freedom. They are also prevented, 
 by the motion of their jaws, from the common and 
 very pernicious trick of withholding their milk; 
 by which, if not promptly prevented, they will soon 
 become dry. 
 
 ' ft 2 
 
l.% MANAGEMENT OF MlLK AND CREAM. 
 
 3. In this country, it is the general practice td 
 milk cows twice in the course of twenty-four hours; 
 but in summer the proper periods are at least three 
 every day, and at intervals as nearly equidist;int as 
 possible. Very early in the morning, at noon, and 
 a little before the approach of night. For it is said 
 to be a fact, that cows, when milked thrice in the 
 day, will yield more milk in point of quantity, and 
 of as good, if not better quality, than they will un- 
 der the common mode of milking only in the morn* 
 ino- and eveninfT. 
 
 4. After the milk is drawn, it should be carefully 
 strained into the cream dishes, which should never 
 exceed three inches in depth, and which ought to 
 be perfectly clean, sweet, and cool. If any ill fla- 
 vour is apprehended from the cows having eaten 
 turnips, &c., the addition of one eighth part of boil- 
 ing water to the milk, before it is poured into the 
 dishes, will, in a great degree, remove it ; and, when 
 filled, the dishes ought to be set upon shelves, there 
 to continue till the cream is removed. 
 
 5. It should also be observed, that the milk 
 first drawn from a cow is always thinner and infe* 
 rior in quality to that afterward obtained; and this 
 richness increases to the very last drop that can be 
 drawn. The portion of cream rising first to the 
 surface is richer in point of quality, and greater in 
 quantity, than that which rises in the second equal 
 spice of time, and so of the rest; the cream con- 
 tinually decreasing, and growing worse than the 
 preceding. 
 
 6. Thick milk produces a smaller proportion of 
 cream than that which is thinner, though the cream 
 of tho former is of a richer quality. If thick milk, 
 
MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM. 187 
 
 therefore, be diluted with water, it will afford more 
 cream than it would have yielded in its pure 
 state, though its quality will, at the same time, be 
 inferior. 
 
 7. Milk carried about in pails, or other vessels, 
 agitated and partly cooled before it be poured into 
 the milk pans, never throws up such good and 
 plentiful cream as if it had been put into proper 
 vessels immediately after it came from the cow. 
 From these fundamental facts, some important in* 
 ferences, serving to direct the practice, may be 
 deduced, among which we can only notice the fol' 
 lowing :— 
 
 8. It is of much importance, that the cows be al* 
 ways milked as near the dairy as possible, to pre- 
 vent the necessity of carrying and cooling the milk 
 before it is put into the dishes. And as cows arc 
 much hurt by far driving, it must be a great advan- 
 tage in a dairy farm, to have the principal grass 
 fields as near the dairy homesteads as possible. 
 
 9. The practice of putting the milk of all the 
 cows of a large dairy into one vessel, as it is milked, 
 there to remain till the whole milking be finished, 
 before any part is put into the milk pans, seems to 
 be highly injudicious. There is a loss sustained 
 by the agitation and cooling, and the owner of the 
 dairy is prevented from distinguishing the good 
 from the bad cow's milk, so as to enlighten his judg' 
 ment respecting the profit that he may derive from 
 each. 
 
 10. If these pans were labelled with the cow's 
 name, the careful dairyman would be enabled to re 
 mark, without any trouble, the quantity of milk af« 
 
188 MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM. J 
 
 forded by each cow every day, as well as the pecu- ] 
 liar qualities of the milk. ' 
 
 11. A small quantity of clear water, cold in j| 
 summer and warm in winter, put into the bottom of j 
 the milk pan, will be found to assist the rising of ^ 
 the cream ; but it is thought by some persons to be | 
 prejudicial to the butter. 
 
 12. If it be intended to make butter of a very 
 fine quality, it will be advisable to reject entirely 
 the milk of all those cows which yield cream of a 
 bad quality. Also, in every case, to keep the milk 
 that is first drawn from the cow, at each milking, 
 entirely separate from that which it got last. It is 
 obvious, that if this be not done, the quality of the 
 butter m.ust be greatly debased, without much in- 
 creasing its quantity. 
 
 13. It is also obvious, that the quality of the but- 
 ter will be improved, in proportion to the quan 
 tity of the last-drawn milk which is used. Those 
 who wish to be singularly nice, will do well to keep 
 for their best butter a proportion only of the last- 
 draum milk; in like manner of ihe fir at- drawn 
 ■cream. 
 
 14. Milk consists of three component parts, 
 blended into one, and distinguished as butyraccous, 
 or oily substance, of which butter is composed; 
 caseous m-Me^T, from which cheese is formed; and 
 serum, or whey. To separate these is the chief 
 o'^ject of the dairy. With regard to butter, two 
 different modes have been adopted: the one, from 
 the cream alo7ie ; the other, from the milk and 
 cream united. The former operation is thus per- 
 formed : 
 
 15. The milk is carefully skimmed by means 
 
MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM. 189 
 
 of a skimming dish, and the cream poured into 
 a vessel, till enough is obtained for churning. 
 When the cream has been collected, it should be 
 put into a deep, covered vessel, for the action of 
 the air on the surface dries it. It should be 
 well stirred with a stick or spoon once or twice a 
 day. 
 
 16. The time of keeping depends on the weather. 
 If the cream from each milking be kept separate, 
 it may remain a week without being injured; but 
 if sweet cream be mixed with that which is sour, 
 they ferment, and soon become sour. It is far bet- 
 ter to keep the cream from every milking apart, 
 and thus allow each to become sour of itself. The 
 contrary practice should never be adopted, unless 
 it be intended to churn the moment the whole mass 
 has become acid. 
 
 17. With respect to the operation of churnmg, 
 we would particularly remark, that it ought to be 
 regularly continued till the butter is come. If the 
 motion be, in summer, too quick, the butter will, in 
 consequence, ferment, and become ill-tasted ; and, 
 in winter, it will go back- In hot weather, the 
 business of churning may be much facilitated by 
 immersing the churn about one foot deep into a 
 vessel of cold water, and continuing it there until 
 the butter is made. 
 
 18. It is hurtful to the quality of the butter to 
 pour much cold water on it during this operation. 
 If the butter is too soft to receive the impression of 
 the mould, it may be put into small vessels, and 
 these be permitted to float in a tub of cold water, 
 beneath the table, ^oithout wetting the butter, which 
 will soon become sufficiently firm. Or, when but* 
 
190 MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM. 
 
 ter is first made, after as much of the milk hasi 
 been got out as possible, it may be thinly spread" 
 on a marble slab, and the remaining moisture be| 
 absorbed by patting it with clean dry towels. 
 
 19. Water is well known to be a great dissol-n 
 vent; at least, if it be not essentially so, it serves as*! 
 a conductor to air, which is universally such. Fresh' 
 butter, then, in consequence of imbibing water, and 
 water being saturated with air, is always in a pro- 
 
 -^ressive state of decay. 
 
 20. Not so when water is excluded ; its oleagi- 
 nous parts are admirably calculated to secure it 
 from putrefaction, and it is not improbable that but- ^■ 
 ter might be made with as little trouble as in the ^ 
 present method, to keep the whole year fresh and 
 sweet, with the least particle of salt, solely by the 
 exclusion of water. In order to effect this, the '^| 
 floor of the dairy should be kept perfectly dry, for ^ 
 water thrown down in hot weather will assuredly ^ 
 rise again in vapour, and affect the milk with its i 
 humidity. ^ 
 
 21. The vessels used for holding the milk, the ■ 
 churn, and all the dairy utensils, after being first 
 washed clean, should then be rinsed a first and ■ 
 second time with sweet milk ; a cruet, washed 
 ever so clean with water, will cause vinegar to 
 become dreggy — but if rinsed with a little of the 
 same, will always appear limpid and clear. No 
 water to be put in with the cream when it is 
 churned. 
 
 22. The butter, as it is taken out, to be put into 
 a tray, full of holes, and placed over any other 
 vessel ; but not to be squeezed into lumps, as it 
 will drain the better for being loose in its texture. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF MILK AND CREAM. 191 
 
 It should then (after having well drained) be re* 
 moved to a tray without holes, and be kneaded with 
 the hands (first rinsed in whey) and formed into a 
 thin flat cake, slightly sprinkled with salt, and left 
 in that state for about half an hour; by which time 
 the salt will have extracted the whey, and it may 
 be made up in the usual manner. 
 
 23. Butter thus freed from the remaining milk 
 is called fresk butler ; and, when sold on the spot 
 or in neighbouring markets, it is formed into rolls 
 weighing a pound, or more. But where it is in- 
 tended to be kept, or sent to a distance, it is salted^ 
 and put into casks, usually denominated half firkins, 
 firkins, and tubs. 
 
 24. Previous to putting the butter into these 
 vessels, especial care must be taken that they be 
 well seasoned by frequent washing and exposure to 
 the air for two or three v/eeks. As it is very 
 difficult to season new firkins, it will always be 
 preferable to employ those which have been already- 
 used, where they can be returned to the dairy 
 owner. 
 
 25. The most speedy method of seasoning fir- 
 kins is, by the use of unslacked lime, or a large 
 quantity of salt and w^ater, well boiled; with which 
 they should be repeatedly scrubbed, and after- 
 ward thrown into cold water, to remain there three 
 or four days, till wanted. They should then be 
 scrubbed as before, and well rinsed with cold 
 water ; and, before the butter is put in, every part 
 of the inside of the firkin must be well rubbed with 
 sah. 
 
 26. Butter may also be preserved sweet without 
 salt, by adding a certain quantity of fine honey, 
 
192 MAKI^O AND PRESERVING CHEtttf:. 
 
 in the proportion of one ounce of the latter to a 
 pound of butter, and mixing them thoroughly, so 
 that they be perfectly incorporated. A mixture of 
 this sort has a sweet pleasant taste, and will keep 
 for years without becoming rancid. 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 MAKING AND PRESERVING CHEESE. 
 
 1. The goodness of cheese, as well as of butter^ 
 depends much on the quality of the milk. The 
 Season, and particular way of making it, also have 
 a very considerable influence upon it in this re- 
 spect—more, perhaps, than the material of which it 
 is prepared. We shall, therefore, briefly notice 
 these circumstances. 
 
 •2; The best scasoji for this purpose, is from the 
 niininencement of June till the close of September. 
 There is no doubt, however, that good cheese may 
 be made throughout the year, provided the cows be 
 well fed in the winter. It is also worthy of atten- 
 tion, that milk abounds most in caseous matter 
 during the spring, and with the butyraceous in sum- 
 mer and autumn. 
 
 3. The Cheshire cheese, made in England, is 
 celebrated for its excellence, and we shall give 
 the mode of making it, adopted by the Cheshire 
 dairymen. 
 
 3. The thermometer of a Cheshire dairywoman 
 is constantly at her lingers' ends. The heat of the 
 
Making and preserving cheese, 193 
 
 iniik when set is regulated by the warmth of the 
 room and the heat of the external air; so that the 
 milk may be the proper length of time in suffi- 
 ciently coagulating. The time is generally thought 
 to be about an hour and a half. 
 
 5. The evening's milk — of suppose twenty cows 
 — having stood all night in the cooler and brass 
 pans, the cheese m.aker, (in summer,) about six 
 o'clock m the * morning, carefully skims off the 
 <;ream, which is put into a brass pan. While the 
 dairyv/oman is thus employed, the servants are 
 milking the cows, having previously lighted a fire 
 under the furnace, which is half full of water. 
 
 6. As soon as the nigbt's milk is skimmed, it is 
 all carried into the cheese-tub, except about three 
 fourths of a brass pan full, {three to four gallons,) 
 which is iminediately placed in the furnace of hot 
 water^ in the pan, and is made scalding hot; then 
 half of the milk thus heated is poured to the cream, 
 which, as before observed, had been already skimmed 
 into another pan. 
 
 7. By this means all the cream is liquefied and 
 dissolved, so as apparently to form one homogeneous 
 or uniform liquid, and in that state it is poured into 
 the cheese tub. But before this is done, several 
 bowls or vessels full of new milk, or perhaps the 
 whole morning's milk, will generally have been 
 poured into the cheese tub. 
 
 8. In some celebrated dairies, however, they do 
 not, during the whole summer, heat a drop of the 
 night's milk; only dissolve the cream in a brass 
 pan, floated or suspended in a furnace of hot water. 
 In other dairies, they heat one third, one half, 
 or even more than that, of the previous night's 
 
tOi MAKING AND PRESERVING CHEES£. 
 
 milk. But in all, they are careful to liquefy, oi 
 raelt the cream well, before it is mixed Avith the milk 
 in the tub. 
 
 9. Whatever may be the general custom in any 
 given dairy, respecting the heating of the milk, the 
 practice varies according to the weather. It is 
 generally on poor clay lands that the milk most re- 
 quires warming. On good rich soiis, it will not 
 bear much heating; at least, by so doing, the pro- 
 cess of cheese-making is rendered more difficult. 
 
 10. The process of making cheese is much more 
 difficult than that of making butter. The quality 
 depends more on the mode of performing that 
 operation', than on the richness of the milk. The 
 temperature at which the milk is kept before it is 
 formed' into cheese, and that at which it is coagu- 
 lated, or turned into curds, are objects of the great- 
 est iniportance in the management of a cheese 
 dniry. The temperature of the milk ought not to 
 exceed 55, nor to be under 50 degrees of Fahren- 
 heit's thermometer. For coagulating, it should be 
 from 90 to 95. 
 
 11. W the milk is kept warmer than 55, it will 
 not throw up rhe cream so well as at the lower 
 degree. It is also subject to get sour, and give a 
 bad taste to the cheese. If it be allowed to be much 
 colder than that, it becomes difficult to separate the 
 curd from the whey, and the cheese made from it 
 will be soft and insipid. 
 
 12. If th^ curd be coagulated too hot, it becomes 
 tough ; much of the butyraceous matter will go off 
 with the whey, and the cheese will be hard and 
 tasteless. The thermometer should, therefore, al- 
 ways be employed in every dairy. Although ths 
 
MAKING AND PRESEKVING CHEESE, 19o 
 
 dairy women may at first be prejudiced against it, 
 yet its evident utility and great simplicity will even- 
 tually reconcile them to its use. 
 
 13. The greatest care should be taken thorough- 
 ly to extract every particle of whey from the curd. 
 No cheese will keep well while any whey remains; 
 and if any part become sour, the whole will ac- 
 quire a disagreeable flavour. Similar effects are 
 produced by the use of an immoderate quantity 
 of rennet; it is also apt to blow up the cheese 
 full of small holes. This last effect will be pro- 
 duced, if it be allowed to remain too long on one 
 side. 
 
 14. A very experienced dairyman is of opinion, 
 that from nine to twelve months' time is requisite to 
 ripen a cheese of from fourteen to twenty pounds 
 weight. It is laid down as a rule, in the process 
 of making cheese, that the hotter it is put together, 
 the sounder it will be; and the cooler, the richer, 
 d^d more apt to decay. It should be kept in an 
 airy, but not in a cold place. If the moderately 
 dried leaves of the young twigs of the common 
 birch tree be placed on the surface or sides of 
 cheeses, they will be found very serviceable in pre- 
 venting the depredations of mites. 
 
 15. It is a good practice to strew a little dry 
 moss, or fine hay, upon the shelves on which the 
 cheeses are laid ; for when new, they sometimes 
 adhere to the board, and communicate a damp- 
 ness to it that is prejudicial to the other side of 
 the cheese, when turned. It also promotes their 
 drying. 
 
 16. At a more advanced stage, they may be laid 
 upon straw; but, at first, it would sink into and 
 
19Q SWINE. 
 
 deface the surface. To which we will add, as 
 general maxims — that great cleanliness, sweet ren- 
 net, and attention to the heat of the milk and break- 
 ing the curd, are the chief requisites in cheese- 
 making. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 SWINE. 
 
 1. The Chinese breed were originally obtained, 
 as their name imports, from China. Of these, 
 there arc two nearly distinct kinds j the u-fiite, and 
 the black. Both are small ; and, althousfh of an ex- 
 traordinary disposition to fatten, will seldom arrive 
 at a greater weight than 300 pounds, at two years 
 of age. 
 
 2. The white are better shaped than the blacky 
 but they are less hardy. They are both very 
 small limbed ; round in the carcass; thin skinned, 
 and fine bristled; and have the head so bedded in 
 the neck, that, when quite fat, the end only of the 
 snout is perceptible. They are tender, and difficult 
 to rear, yet from their early aptitude to fatten, they 
 are in great esteem with those who only rear young 
 porkers. 
 
 3. Their flesh is rather too delicate for bacon ; 
 it is also deficient in lean. They likewise cut up 
 to disadvantage, when intended for ham. How- 
 ever, they possess the valuable properties of being 
 
SWINE. 197 
 
 very thrifty, and of fattening on a small quantity of 
 food. 
 
 4. The Berkshire breed has attracted universal 
 admiration. The specific characters are a reddish 
 colour, u'ith brown or black spots; sides very 
 broad ; body thick, close, and well formed : short 
 legs; the head well placed, and the ears large, and 
 generall}'- standing forward; but sometimes pendent 
 over the eyes. 
 
 o. Another distinctive mark of thi-s breed is, that 
 the best are without bristles ; their hair is long and 
 curly ; and from its rough appearance, seems to in- 
 dicate coarse skin and flesh ; but, in fact, both are 
 fine; and the bacon is of very superior quality. 
 The hogs arrive at a very large size, and have 
 been reared even to the weight of 800 pounds. 
 All the better and improved kinds are from either 
 the Chinese or Berkshire breed, or from the cross- 
 ing of these two breeds, 
 
 G. The marks of a good hog are, a moderate 
 length, in proportion to the size of the body ; the 
 nose short ; the cheek plump and full ; neck thick 
 and short; quarters full; carcass thick and full; 
 hair fine and thin ; with a symmetry adapted to the 
 breed to which it belongs. Above all, it is es- 
 sential, that it be of a kindly disposition to fatten 
 early. 
 
 7. Farmers differ much in their plans of raising 
 holding stock for pork. Some permitting their 
 shoats to run at large eighteen months, till they are 
 penned up to fatten ; this is the most troublesome 
 and least profitable way. Others give them a range 
 in clover pastures, and begin to fatten them earlier. 
 I apprehend there is a much more profitable way, 
 
 R 2 
 
198 swinj:, 
 
 and attended with less trouble foi' those who have 
 the right breed. 
 
 8. According to the quantity of pork wanted, 
 should be the number of females kept over, and 
 there should be no other hogs on the farm [that is, 
 kept over winter] but of this kuid. These should 
 be fed in the most attentive manner. As soon as 
 the young begin to feed freely out of the trough, 
 they should be separated, and afterward fed regu- 
 larly with green tares, clover, boiled potatoes, 
 ground peas, unmerchantable corn, or any other 
 nourishing food ; turning them out every day inta 
 a small yard, where there is a shallow poad for 
 them to lie in. 
 
 9. This method, .as it is attended with little trou- 
 ble, and leaves so small a quantity of stock on hand 
 to winter over, appears to me to be more economi- 
 cal, in every point of view, than ar>y other which 
 is practised. Some farmers assert, that "March 
 pigs, killed about Christmas, are the most profitable 
 for pork." Others say, " pigs ought never to be 
 wished until June; for the cost of earlier pigs ex- 
 ceeds the profit." 
 
 10. Some recommend keeping hogs in pastures, 
 with slops from the dairy, &c., till near the last 
 of August; others say a little later. All agree, 
 that near this time they manifest a disrelish for 
 grass. Small patches of peas will then be conve- 
 nient to turn them into for a few weeks. About 
 the first of September, begin with boiled potatoes 
 and pumpkins, mashed together with a little Indian 
 meal, ground oats and peas, or other grain, stirred 
 into the mixture. 
 
 11. From two to four weeks before killing time. 
 
DISEASES or CATTLE. 199 
 
 the food should be dry Indian corn, and clean cold 
 water. Hogs should never know what liberty is, 
 (unless it be in clover pasture,) but should be kept 
 close all their lives, and as inactive as possible. 
 With this method, almost double the quantity of 
 pork can be produced with the same expense of 
 feed. Young pigs require warm meat to make 
 them grow. Corn and cold water will make them 
 healthy ; but warm beverage is considered as requi* 
 site to a quick growth. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV 
 
 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 1. The brute creation are, in general, liable to 
 fewer diseases than mankind; and, as their dis- 
 eases are less complicated, the}'- are, of course^ 
 more easily relieved. The treatment of sick cat- 
 tle has hitherto been confined chiefly to the most 
 illiterate persons — to men equally unacquainted 
 with anatomy, and with the relative powers of medi- 
 cine. Hence many thousands of valuable beasts 
 have necessarily perished for want of that assist- 
 ance which attentive observation, aided by sedulous 
 inquiries, mJght have remedied, if not altogether 
 prevented. 
 
 2. Various are the maladies to which cattle are 
 liable ; though constant and careful examination of 
 their health will greatly contribute to the preven- 
 tion of diseases. It will frequently happen, how- 
 
SOO DISEASES OF CATTI-fi. 
 
 ever, that they become sick, either from the effects 
 of our variable climate, or from causes which all 
 the vigilance of the farmer cannot possibly control. 
 It would greatly swell the limits of the present 
 work were we to enumerate every malady incident 
 to cattle. 
 
 3. We shall therefore confine oUr attention to a 
 few of those which are of most common occurrence. 
 But it cannot be sufliciently impressed upon the 
 owner of cattle, that, in all sudden cases, it will be 
 his real interest promptly to call in the aid of some 
 expert cattle doctor. 
 
 4. Colds are frequent attendants in the rearing of 
 numerous animals, and are too well known to re- 
 quire any minute description. In these affections, 
 as in every other malady, prevention is preferable 
 to cure. It will, therefore, be necessary to preserve 
 cattle from undue exposure to sudden blasts of wind, 
 particularly from the northeast, and not to suffer 
 them to lie in wet pastures. 
 
 5. Chillin,^ the surface of the body causes an 
 undue determination of the blood to some internal 
 organ, which not unfrequenlly terminates in acute 
 inflammation. The lungs and bowels are more lia- 
 ble to suffer from cold and wet than any other parts 
 of the body, and hence it is that colds often leads to 
 diseases of these parts. 
 
 6. When they become confirmed, or settle on 
 some internal part of the body, the affected cattle 
 may be easily discovered by the hollowness of 
 their flanks, the roughness of their coats, the itm- 
 ning or weeping of their eyes, and the heat of the 
 breath. Colds prevail chiefly in the brute creation, 
 as among mankind, in those springs which follow 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE. 201 
 
 mild winters; and as they become contagious if 
 long neglected, the diseased beasts should be se- 
 lected as soon as possible, and separated from the 
 rest of the herd. 
 
 7. Formerly, it used to be the practice to keep 
 beasts affected with cold as warm as possible, and 
 no doubt many have fallen sacrifices to this very 
 improper mode of treatment. Unless sweating 
 can be excited, the warm atmosphere in which an- 
 imals were kept only tended to increase the in- 
 flammation. Thus the disease, which at first was 
 confined perhaps to the windpipe, has extended to 
 the lungs, and has either produced inflammation of 
 the membrane lining the air cells, or of the sub- 
 stance of the lungs themseh'-es. 
 
 8. As those medicines generally termed sudo- 
 rifics are not always found to excite sweating in 
 animals, they of course never can be relied on for 
 producing that effect. It is better to keep the beast 
 affected with cold ia such a situation that he may 
 breathe a perfectly pure and cool air, without being 
 exposed to draughts or wet. In order to relieve 
 the lungs, and other parts of the body, from the 
 load of blood they are forced to receive, from two 
 to four or more quarts of blood may be drawn, ae- 
 cording to the urgency of the symptoms. 
 
 9. The Colic may be ascertained by the restless- 
 ness of the diseased animal, which rises up and 
 lies down almost incessantly, continually striking 
 its head and horns against any object that occurs. 
 Young cattle are chiefly affected by the colic. This 
 disease is attended either with a scouring or with 
 cosliveness, and of course must be treated accord- 
 ing to those two circumstances. 
 
202 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 10. In the former case, there is generally an 
 acid in the stomach, which should be corrected by 
 the administration of about an ounce or more of 
 magnesia in a quart or more of warm water ; and 
 this should shortly be followed by a dose of castor 
 oil. Should the scouring continue after the proper 
 use of purgatives, and the coat be staring and 
 rough, the animal should be housed. Its diet 
 should be nutritive, and wheat-flour gruel, with a 
 drachm of laudanum, if necessary, should be given 
 three or four times a day. 
 
 11. Foul. This disease affects the feet of cat- 
 tle. It is generally caused by gravel or some 
 other hard substance getting between the claws. 
 The part affected must be cleansed by washing, in 
 order to discharge the offensive matter contained 
 in the claws ; after which they should be dressed 
 with a mild digestive ointment, and kept perfectly 
 clean from all dust. 
 
 12. Should, however, ulceration appear, some 
 local stimulant may be applied, and the part should 
 be dressed with a saturated solution of alum. If 
 the disease spread under the horn, this must be 
 freely pared away, and the part dressed with some 
 mild causiic or ointment, according to the state of 
 the parts. 
 
 13. Hoven. No distemper is of more frequent 
 occurrence among cattle than that of being swol- 
 len, hloion or hoven, as it is usually denominated 
 by farmers. It is induced either by too sudden 
 removal from an inferior to a rich pasture, or 
 by eating too eagerly of turnips, clover, or any 
 other succulent food. The stomach is loaded with 
 food, and the process of chewing the cud being 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE. 203 
 
 prevented, decomposition takes place, gas is gen- 
 erated, and the animal becomes swollen with con- 
 fined air, which distends the stomach and intes- 
 tines, 
 
 14. Its preventive is obvious, and consists sim- 
 ply in turning cattle into such rich pastures only 
 when they are not pressed by hunger, so that their 
 appetite may be soon gratified. Or they should be 
 gently driven about for a few hours, that the ani- 
 mals being thus suffered to graze a very short time 
 at once, the stomach may become gradually accus- 
 tomed to it. 
 
 1.5. Specific. Let three quarters of a pint of 
 olive oil, and one pint of melted butter, or hog's 
 lard, be mixed together, and given to the animal 
 by means of a horn or bottle ; if no favourable 
 change be produced in a quarter of an hour, the 
 same quantity may be repeated. This dose is 
 calculated for neat cattle : for sheep, when hoven 
 or blown, a wineglass full and a half, or two 
 glasses, will be sufiicient, to be given in like man- 
 ner. And it is asserted that this remedy is a spe- 
 cific for the malady in question, effecting a cure 
 within the short period of half an hour. 
 
 i"6. Looseness, or Scouri-ag, equally affects oxen 
 and' cows, though its causes in both are different. 
 In general, it arises either from want of sufficient 
 food, both in quality and proportion ; from being 
 overheated' or overworked ; from feeding on wet, 
 unwholesome fog, or after grass; or on bad hay 
 and straw; and from not Being lodged in dry situ- 
 ations; though it is sometimes a hereditary taint. 
 
 17. But whatever be the cause, as soon as the 
 scour or lax begins to appear, (and it may be 
 
^01 DISEASES OF CATTLfe. 
 
 easily known by the general debility and loss of 
 flesh, the increasing- paleness of the eyes, and 
 irregular beating of the pulse, weakness of appe- 
 tite, &c.,) it will be necessary to house the beast, 
 and put it to dry food ; which, in early stages of 
 the disease, will mostly efiect a cure. Should the 
 looseness increase, a pound of mutton suet, boiled 
 in three quarts of milk, till the former is completely 
 dissolved, may be given in a lukewarm state. 
 
 18. The PantOjS, or Panting Evil, prevails 
 chiefly during the intense heat of summer, though 
 it is sometimes occasioned by sudden colds. It 
 may be easily known by the panting, or heaving, 
 of the animal's flanks, which is likewise accom'- 
 panied by trembling and decay of flesh. In this 
 treatment of this disease, it will be R'ecessary to 
 house the beast, and give it every six hours (during 
 the continuance of the chilly symptoms) one quart 
 of warm strong beer, in which one table spoonful 
 of laudanum, a similar quantity of ground or grated 
 ginger, and two table spoonfuls of spirit of hartshorn, 
 have been previously infused. 
 
 19. His food should consist chiefly of sweet dr\r 
 hay, with warm water, in which nitre may be dis- 
 solved, if a fever be approaching; and the animal 
 should be well littered with abundance of straw. 
 As he gains strength, he should be gradually ac* 
 customed to the air, and after a short time Avill be 
 fully recovered. 
 
 20. Poisons. While grazing abroad, cattle are 
 subject to a variety of accidents, by eating the 
 leaves of yew, various species of crowsfoot, and 
 other acid plants, as well as by bites from mad 
 dogs, or venomous reptiles. In the former case, 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE. 205 
 
 the most eftectual practice consists in drenching 
 the animal with a mixture of equal parts of luke- 
 warm salad oil and vinegar, afterward giving a 
 gentle purgative of Glauber's salts. 
 
 21. With regard to bites of mad dogs, the only 
 remedy is to eradicate the lacerated part, either by 
 excision, or by the actual cautery, the wound being 
 kept open for a considerable time ; but in cases of 
 bites by serpents, or vipers, we know of no better 
 rem^edy than the continued and copious use of 
 spirit of hartshorn, both as an application to the 
 part affected, and also internally as a medicine. 
 
 22> The Staggers. This disorder is variously 
 known by the nam.es of the daisy, dizziness, epi- 
 lepsy, lethargy, turning, or vertigo, that sufficiently 
 indicate its symptoms, the chief of which is a 
 lethargic drowsiness, accompanied with a waver- 
 ing, unsteady, and staggering gait. The seat of 
 this malady is either in the brain or in the stomach. 
 In the former case, it is usually produced by h}- 
 datids, or small transparent bladders filled with 
 water, or by some other matters, immediately act- 
 ing upon the brain. Where this is the cause, med- 
 icine can afford no assistance whatever. 
 
 23. Where the staggers is caused by plethora, 
 or too much fulness of blood, bleeding and cool- 
 ing purgative medicines should be resorted to. As 
 it is necessary to confine the beast in a warm 
 stable or shelter, it will greatly contribute to pro* 
 mote the circulation, thus necessarily stagnated for 
 want of exercise, by rubbing him every day with 
 dry straw, and allov/ing him plenty of litter to pro- 
 mote perspiration. 
 
 24. In the Mad Slaa-gcrs, (which disease, how- 
 
 S 
 
206 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 ever, is chiefly noticed in horses,) the animal throws 
 itself about with the greatest violence, and exhibits 
 every symptom of inflammation of the brain, which 
 is, in fact, the proper name of the disease. Bleed 
 till the animal faint, and give laxative drenches and 
 clysters, repeating the bleeding if necessary. The 
 diet must consist of bran. 
 
 25. Womids. Cattle, in general, are subject to 
 a variety of accidents, which the limits of our work 
 forbid us to specif\'-, and which, indeed, are so 
 numerous, that it is scarcely possible for human 
 foresight to provide for every contingency. Hence 
 our remarks will be confined to the most appro- 
 priate remedies for punctures, bruises, or common 
 wounds. 
 
 26. In cases of common fresh wounds, nothing 
 more is necessary than to apply a salve, consisting 
 of white lead and oil of turpentine incorporated, 
 together with a little brandy, to the lips of the cut, 
 which should be drawn as closely together as pos- 
 sible, and carefully to exclude the air. But if the 
 laceration be deep, it must be washed with warm 
 milk and water ; after which, the wound may be 
 filled with lint or tow, dipped in a digestive oint- 
 ment, composed of Venice turpentine and balsam 
 of capivi, of each one ounce, with two ounces of 
 yellow basilicon. The wound must, as in the 
 former case, be kept from air and dirt, or its heal- 
 ing will be materially retarded. 
 
 27. The following remedy has been recom- 
 mended as a certain styptic for fresh wounds: 
 Bruise equal parts of stinging nettles and salt in 
 a mortar, till a pulp or mash is formed, and ap- 
 ply it to the wound ; the bleeding of which, it is 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE. 207 
 
 asserted, will immediately cease, however deep or 
 dangerous such wounds may be. Not having had 
 experience of its efficacy, we cannot vouch for its 
 utility; but as the articles are always at hand, 
 this specific, if such it be, certainly deserves a fair 
 trial. 
 
 28. Where, however, an animal has received 
 any blows or bruises, without breaking the skin, 
 it will be sufficient to bathe the part affected with 
 camphorated spirit of wine; but if the swelling be- 
 come inflamed, it will be requisite to make a slight 
 incision below the bruised spot, in order to promote 
 suppuration, after which the following salve, or 
 plaster, may be applied. 
 
 29. Let frankincense and Venice turpentine, of 
 each one ounce, be gradually incorporated over a 
 slow fire, with two ounces of Burgundy pitch ; and, 
 when of a proper consistence, let a sufficient quan- 
 tity be spread upon a pledget of tow or strong linen 
 rag, and well fastened on with a bandage. 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 DISEASES PECULIAR TO OXEN, COWS, AND CALVES. 
 
 1. Oxen are subject to few maladies, exclusive 
 of those incident to neat cattle in general, except 
 the effects produced in these animals by the oxfi}^ 
 or gadfly, as it is variously termed. This insect 
 has spotted wings, and a yellow' breast; it is fur- 
 nished with a long proboscis, armed with a sharp 
 
208 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 dart, enclosing two others within it. The gadfly 
 particularly infests oxen, in the backs of which 
 these insects deposite their eggs, where the young 
 are nourished during the month of June. 
 
 2. Throughout the summer they plague the cat- 
 tle by means of their darts to such a degree, that 
 they are often induced to rush into the water for 
 relief till the approach of night. It has been sug- 
 gested, that the production of these terrible insects 
 might be greatly checked, if not prevented, by 
 washing oxen and cows in the spring with a 
 decoction of tobacco, or any other bitter and acrid 
 vegetable. 
 
 3. Coui^h, or Iloosing. This disease may be 
 easily known, by the shortness of breath and dif 
 ficult respiration that invariably accompany it. 
 Sometimes it arises from extraneous matters ad- 
 hering to the throat, which produce an unusual 
 tickling in that part ; but more commonly it origi- 
 nates from co?^*.'; taking cold. 
 
 4. A regular supply of sweet, succulent food, to- 
 gether \vith warm housing, (especially during the 
 winter,) is the only certain remedy that can be 
 depended upon in this case; though some have 
 recommended one ounce of pulverized aniseed, a 
 similar quantity of tar, and the vinegar of squills, 
 to be infused in a quart of warm ale, sweetened 
 with honey. With this liquor the animal must be 
 drenched every day for several weeks, otherwise 
 no beneficial effects can be expected from such 
 treatment. 
 
 5. Scouring, or Looseness, is generally the first 
 malady that attacks calves. As soon as the loose- 
 riess is discovered, it has been recommended to 
 
DISEASES OP HORSES. 209 
 
 ^tint the calf in its diet, and to give an egg^ boiled 
 hard and chopped small, by drenching, fastingf. 
 A mixture of pulverized chalk and wheat meal, 
 m.ade into balls with gin, or strong ale, has also 
 been recomm.ended as a medicine which may be 
 administered with safety. 
 
 6. Cough. Where calves are exposed, at too 
 early an age, to all the vicissitudes of the weather, 
 before they acquire sufficient strength to undergo 
 the changes of this climate, they are liable to take 
 frequent colds ; the consequence of which is a coug/i^ 
 that often proves fatal if it be neglected. 
 
 7. For curing this malady, it has heen recom- 
 mended to pour half a table spoonful of spirit of 
 turpentine into the calf's nostrils, which must be 
 held upward, in order that the turpentine may flow 
 into the throat: at the same time, the nose should 
 be smeared with tar, and the animal kept within 
 doors for a few hours, repeating this treatment as 
 often as the cough is troublesome. 
 
 CHAPTER XL VI. 
 
 DISEASES OF HORSES, 
 
 1. Of all domestic animals, the horse is, per- 
 haps, more liable to disease than any other ; and 
 this is not to be wondered at, when we consider 
 the toil he is frequently forced to undergo — the 
 brutality with which he is often treated — the ten- 
 der age at which he is very generally compelled 
 
 S 2 
 
SiO DISEASES OF llORSE^. 
 
 to work-^and the improper treatment he commonly 
 meets with from those even who are most desirous 
 of using him well, and who, in most instances, err 
 through ignorance. 
 
 2« BolU are short, thick, reddish worms, sur- 
 rounded by small prickles, and armed with two 
 hooks or claws, by means of which they attach 
 themselves firmly to the horse's stomach. They 
 frequently ejcist in Such quantities as to cause 
 many serious diseases, not only of the viscus in 
 which they are lodged, but also of the brain and 
 nervous system, wlih which the stomach is well 
 known to sympathise. 
 
 3. Common oil, given fasting* in doses of from 
 half a pint to a pint, has been knowh to succeed in 
 destroying these insects. But as good a method 
 of getting rid of them as any, is to keep the horse 
 fasting during the night, and in the morning to 
 g-ive him about a pint of Warm milk, sweetened 
 with honey; and, five or ten minutes after, a 
 drench composed of one quart of warm water or 
 thin gruel, and four or five ounces of common salt. 
 
 4. Several other species of worms exist in the 
 horse, and are not uiifrequently met with even 
 in the large blood vessels. The most efficacious 
 mode of destroying them, is to give one or two 
 drachms of calomel at night ; to keep the horse fast* 
 ing, and in the morning to administer the follow* 
 ing ball : — 
 
 Barbadoes aloes, - * - - - 5 drachms. 
 
 Ginger, li drachms. 
 
 Oil of Carraway, .... 15 or 20 drops* 
 
 Castile Soap, 3 drachms. 
 
 Sirwp enough to form the ball. 
 
B.' Ot a clren(?.h made by dissolving four or five 
 Ounces of comnnon salt in a quart of thin gruel, 
 and three or four ounces of olive oil. Previous to 
 physicking a horse, he should be kept on warnl 
 bran mashes for a Couple of days; and care must 
 be taken, after givhig the medicine, that he be not 
 exposed to cold or wet, or allowed to drink cold 
 Water. 
 
 6. A I'lin at grass is perhaps the best remedy 
 for worms ; and where this cannot be had, soiling 
 on green food will be found beneficial. Oil of 
 turpentine, in doses of three or four ounces in a 
 pint of grltel, is a Very efQcacious remedy for 
 Worms. 
 
 7. Colic is getiCrally produced by an overloaded 
 stomach; which, impairing the digestive process. 
 Causes a great quantity of air to be formed, which 
 distends the stomach, and produces those symp- 
 toms hereafter to be noticed. It is also frequently 
 induced by allowing a horse to drink cold water, 
 or hard u-eli water, or by feeding him on new oats 
 or hay. 
 
 8. As this disease, unless relieved, is liable to 
 terminate in inflammation, it may perhaps always 
 .be proper to bleed to the extent of two or three 
 quarts. Also, to administer a clyster, made of half 
 a pound or more of common salt, atid five or six 
 quarts of warm water or gruel ; to which may be 
 added half a pint of olive oil. 
 
 9. Then gin and water, and brandy and water, 
 are perhaps as good medicines as can be had for 
 this purpose, and possess the advantage of being 
 more simple. Four ounces of spirit to twelve of 
 water, are the proportions in which they may be 
 
Ui2 DISEASES OF HORSES* 
 
 used ; that is, one pint of spirit and water should 
 tjontain one fourth spirit and three fourths water. 
 Should the animal not appear relieved in the space 
 of half an hour, the above remedies may be again 
 resorted to with greater freedom. 
 
 10. The symptoms of colic are as follows : The 
 horse appears restless and uneasy; frequently paws 
 his litter 5 looks around at his flanks; falls down; 
 rolls on his back ; gets up suddenly, and after a 
 ^hort time falls again, with other demonstrations of 
 extreme pain. 
 
 11. Cold, or Cdiarrh. This disorder is gene- 
 "rally induced by exposing a horse to cold or v/et, 
 nvhile in a state of perspiration. Its symptoms are, 
 'dulness and watering of the eyes, cough, discharge 
 from the nostrils^ sore throat, quickness of breath- 
 ing, genefal lassitude, and accelerated pulse. (A 
 hcAlthy horse^s pulse beats from thirty-six to forty 
 strokes in a mirviite.) 
 
 12. As Catarrh is an inflammatory complaint, it 
 is proper, in the first instance, to bleed largely : five 
 or six quarts of blood may be drawn, unless the 
 animal becomes faint before that quantity be ab- 
 stracted. The diet should consist of bran mashe&, 
 •containing a small quantity of nitrate of potash, 
 '(about half an ounce,) given three times a day; and 
 the horse should be kept in a cool stable, or loose 
 box, or turned into a dry yard. 
 
 13. When the throat is very sore, an emolient 
 •drink, composed of decoction of marsh mallows, or 
 flaxseed, with mucilage of acacia and liquorice, may 
 be given. When catarrh terminates in chronic 
 cough, the best remedy is, attention to diet, exercise^ 
 ^nd grooming. The horse should never be allowed 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES. 213 
 
 to overload his stomach, especially with hay ; he 
 should be kept moderately open by means of l3ran 
 mashes or clysters, AA-hen requisite. 
 
 14. Take one ounce of bruised squills, three of 
 garlic, and tweU-e of vinegar; macerate the squills 
 and garlic in the vinegar, for one hour, in a mode- 
 rately warm oven; then strain off the liquid, and 
 add one pound of honey, or molasses. Three or 
 four ounces of this mixture may be given at a time, 
 in bad coughs ; and when great irritation appears to 
 exist about the windpipe, one teaspoonful of tincture 
 of opium may be added to every dose. 
 
 15. Bruises should always be poulticed, or fo- 
 mented with hot water. A towel dipped in greasy 
 water is a good application. Gal/s. When a 
 horse is galled by the saddle or harness, or when 
 he is chafed between the arm and chest, an accident 
 which frequently happens in travelling through 
 muddy roads, the following lotion will be found ser- 
 viceable ; — 
 
 Sulphate of zinc • • - 1 ounce. 
 
 Super acetate of lead - - 1 ounce. 
 Water 1 quart. 
 
 16. Strains. The beet method of preventing 
 the inflammation attendant upon a strain is, imme- 
 diately on the receipt of the injury, to bleed, and 
 wrap the injured part in a large poultice. The 
 horse should then be physicked, and kept to a low 
 diet. Some people, instead of poultices, employ 
 cold applications ; as, 
 
 Super acetate of lead - - 1 ounce. 
 
 Vinegar 4 ounces. 
 
 Water 1 pint. 
 
214 SHEEP. 
 
 Their effect is the same as the poultice ; each 
 tending to reduce inflammation. On the whole, 
 we are inclined to give the preference to the poul- 
 tice. 
 
 17. When a strain is neglected for some time, 
 and the inflammation has gone off, bleeding will be 
 improper. Blistering, and, in some cases, firing, 
 must be resorted to. There are several sorts of 
 strains ; as strains of the back sinews, of the pastern 
 joint, of the shoulder, loins, &c. ; but our limits do 
 not permit us to give a detailed account of their dif- 
 ferent symptoms. The rationale of their treatment 
 is in all cases the same. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 SHEEP. 
 
 1, The Saxon and Spanish merino, South Down, 
 New Leicester, Bakewell,and Policerate, are some 
 of the best varieties. The Saxony sheep imported 
 into this country were from a variety of flocks, of 
 which the electoral was the parent. 
 
 2. The Saxon and Spanish merino are the most 
 profitable sheep for fleece. The electoral were 
 originally from Spain. At the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century, one was carried from Spain as 
 a present to the Elector of Saxony; and from thence 
 they derived their name. The South Down and 
 New Leicester are the most proper for their mut- 
 
SHEEP. 215 
 
 ton. The Policerate are remarkable only for their 
 four horns. 
 
 3. Proper Soil. Sheep delight in pure, free 
 air, and dry pasture, and seem constitutionally 
 fitted for rocky and stony situations ; and, indeed, 
 it is the opinion of many intellig-ent men, and 
 with much reason, that stony uplands are essen- 
 tial to their health ; that on rough, dry soils, 
 they are not so subject to the many diseases 
 which afflict them, as when kept on moist, soft 
 places. 
 
 4. Sheep, if fed in a country of plains, and rich 
 pasture, increase in size, and their fleece becomes 
 heavier and coarser. If in an elevated country, 
 where the pasture is short and thin, the size and 
 fleece diminish, Avhile the texture of the latter is 
 improved. 
 
 5. Carctaking. As soon as sheep are brought 
 into the yard for winter, the different kinds of lambs, 
 ewes, and wethers, should be carefully separated, 
 and kept apart. It is important, that those in one 
 yard should be as nearly of a size as possible ; then 
 there will be no stronger ones among them, to drive 
 the weaker ones from their food. All will then 
 feed alike, and do well. 
 
 6. The flocks ought to be as small as we can 
 conveniently make them. Each flock should not 
 consist of more than from fifty to one hundred — 
 fifty is the better number. 
 
 7. It is also necessary to have a separate ^'•ard 
 for old and poor sheep, and if there are any in the 
 flock that do not subsequently thrive well, they 
 should be removed into what is commonly callea 
 the hospital. 
 
216 SHEEP. 
 
 8. These hospital sheep, by being few in number, 
 having a good warm shed, a sheaf of oats, or a few 
 screenings from under the fanning mill, once a day, 
 will soon begin to improve. 
 
 9. Sheep ought to be rather sparingly fed, three 
 times a day, and out of racks, to prevent them from 
 running over and trampling on the hay. It is of ser- 
 vice to give them a feeding of straw, or pine tops, 
 if you please ; it invigorates their health, and makes 
 a change in their food. 
 
 10. They should be daily watered, and if their 
 hay has not been salted, likewise have a lick of salt 
 occasionally. Sheep should have access to shedg, 
 where they may be fed in stormy weather. 
 
 11. If they can always go to a shed, they will 
 resort to it as an indulgence; this indulgence will 
 soon become a habit ; they will have no inclination 
 to motion, but will become debilitated, and lose their 
 appetite. It would be well for farmers to make it 
 a practice to count their sheep once a day, to see if 
 any are missing; to examine them, and see if any 
 are sick, and if there are, to remove them from the 
 flock, and take care of them until they are entirely 
 recovered. 
 
 12. Raising Lcniihs. Lambs should not be shorn 
 the first season ; they need their fleece to protect 
 them during the cold weather, and it is found that 
 nothing is gained by early shearing. Lambs should 
 always be left at home, when sheep are to be wash- 
 ed, as they are saved much fatigue ; besides the ad- 
 vantage of havmg the sheep go directly home after 
 washing, without any trouble. 
 
 13. To ensure the life and health of every lamb, 
 the sheep should be in good condition^ — should be 
 
SHEEP. 217 
 
 fed with fresh grass, as it adds greatly to the quan- 
 tity as well as quality of the milk. Lambs should 
 be taken from the sheep the last of August ; and 
 then fed for three months on oats in the bundle. 
 
 14. Lambs will live twenty-four hours, and ^ven 
 longer, without any nourishment ; and, as a general 
 rule, should not be fed until you disco v^er, by their 
 actions, they are willing to eat; then they will 
 drink without any trouble. They should be fur- 
 nished with as much milk as they will drink. 
 
 15. Food. Sheep should have plenty of saU, 
 They should be fed on carrots, potatoes, turnips, 
 and a little coarse grain occasionally. If you have 
 not these roots^ provide them another year ; for 
 there is no spring food more profitable than tur- 
 nips. They are extremely nourishing, and tend 
 greatly to enrich and increase the milk of the 
 ewes. 
 
 16. Sheep, through the winter, should be fed on 
 rutabaga and mangel-wurtzel, regularly, once a 
 day. Dry provender and green food, which do not 
 abound in cold and watery juices, are most appro- 
 priate and salutary for them. 
 
 17. Diseases of Sheep. The diseases of sheep 
 are various, and often prove fatal. They, therefore, 
 need our attention. Of these diseases, the most to 
 be feared is rot, which often extends over whole dis- 
 tricts of country. It prevails most in wet seasons, 
 and at this time is the rrlost fatal. The chief cause 
 of this disease is pasturing on wet land. It is well 
 known that sheep kept on dry soil, are seldom, if 
 ever, troubled with rot. 
 
 18. The animal affected does not at once show 
 symptoms of disease, but frequently remains for ri 
 
 T 
 
218 SHEEP. 
 
 long time in apparent health ; and likewise shows 
 ar great tendency to feed. 
 
 19. The signs of rottenness in sheep, are, un- 
 doubtedly, familiar to all shepherds. The sheep 
 becomes emaciated, its eye becomes heavy and 
 glassy ; the wool, on being pulled slightly, comes 
 readily from the skin ; the breath becomes fetid ; 
 and as the disease progresses, the skin is often 
 marked with spots, and the waste of flesh increases 
 until the sheep dies. 
 
 20. The rot often attacks a large flock at once, 
 and sometimes only two or three of a flock. Du- 
 ring the progress of this disease, the fluke, a small 
 animal, appears on the parts connected with the 
 liver. These animals increase as the disease ad- 
 vances ; and are sometimes very numerous. 
 
 21. Remedy. Salt, in most cases, prevents and 
 cures this disease. As soon as the symptoms ap- 
 pear, salt should be placed near the animals in pans 
 or troughs, in large quantities ; and the sheep will 
 readily consume it. In the early stages of this 
 complaint, change of food is highly beneficial ; this 
 alone, in some cases, has been found sufficient to 
 effect a cure. 
 
 22. The HiULgcr Rot. This arises from the 
 want of suflicient food, which produces an unhealthy 
 state, leanness, and often death. In this disease the 
 wool generally falls off the animal. Remedy. — 
 Plenty of nutritious food. 
 
 23. Pining. This disease is common among 
 sheep, and sometimes proves very fatal, destroy- 
 ing whole flocks. This disease arises from the 
 ^vant of exercise, the want of water, and from feed- 
 ing en '^'t\y dry prjsturs. They sh&'iili also have 
 
g-HEEP. 219 
 
 access to running water. Remedy. — Change of 
 food will very often remove the disease ; if this 
 should fail, the sheep must be removed to a richer 
 and moister pasture. They should have access 
 also to a running stream. 
 
 24. Diarrhcea, or Dysentery. Th^se are also 
 diseases of sheep. Diarrhoea is most generally 
 produced by a too hasty growth of grass in spring. 
 It is frequently hurtful to lambs. Remedy. — The 
 sheep should immediately be removed to a drier 
 pasture; and be fed with corn until they recover. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 SHEEP CONTINUED. 
 
 1. Scab. Sheep are also troubled with diseases 
 of the skin. The principal one is called scrofula; 
 it may be known by the extreme itching, and erup- 
 tions of the skin. Remedy. — Flour of sulphur, 
 mixed with a little lard or fresh butter. The wool 
 should be opened, and the skin well rubbed with 
 this preparation. A decoction of tobacco and spirit 
 of turpentine, mixed with a little soft soap, have also 
 a very good effect. 
 
 2. The decoction of tobacco may be obtained by 
 boiling the tobacco in brine or salt water. The 
 liquid, when prepared, is applied from a vessel, like 
 a teapot, with a spout, or from a bottle, with a 
 quill passed through the cork. A person lays the 
 wool back in lines, so as to expose the skin, 
 
220 SHEEP. 
 
 and then pours out the liquid along the lines upon 
 it. 
 
 3. If the distemper be very violent, a mercurial 
 preparation will be necessary. This can be pro- 
 cured in the apothecary stores, under the name of 
 sheep ointment. It is made in balls, and when used, 
 it is dissolved in oil, and applied to the skin. 
 
 4. Foot Rot. This is an inflammation of the 
 foot, followed by breaking out of sores in the hoof 
 It generally occasions the entire lameness of the 
 anima]. Remedy. — The tainted part of the hoof 
 must be pared away, and the ulcerous matter re- 
 moved ; the foot should then be washed with soap 
 and hot water, and the surface be dressed with 
 son^e caustic, the best of which is muriate of anti- 
 mony. 
 
 5. In the early stages of this disease, it can be 
 cured by paring, and by cleansing the hoof with 
 soap and water, and dipping it in boiling tar. An- 
 other remedy for this disease : The hoof should be 
 scraped clean, and spirit of turpentine poured in. 
 This should be done once in eight days, till the cure 
 is effected. Three or four applications are ^e^e- 
 rally sufHcient. 
 
 6. Ifi/datids, or Water in the Head. This is a 
 common occurrence. The cause of this complaint 
 is a small animal, which finds its way into the 
 brain ; which, if not speedily removed, causes the 
 death of the sheep. This creature resembles a 
 bladder filled with water, and for a long time was 
 supposed by many shepherds to be water. 
 
 7. The hydatids is frequently found in other 
 parts of the body, as the liver and spleen. When 
 the brain of the sheep is diseased, it shows symp- 
 
BHEEP. 221 
 
 toms of great pain ; leans its head to one side, and 
 continues turning round, and finally dies. 
 
 8. Remedy. — The remedy for this complaint is 
 to reach the hydatids, and to extract it, or to pierce 
 it in such a manner as to destroy its life. When it 
 is situated at the surface of the brain, the part feels 
 soft, and it may be reached by an awl, or by a sharp 
 penknife. A little round piece of the scull is to be 
 cut, and lifted up like a lid. 
 
 9. The hydatids being made bare, is to be taken 
 out with pincers, and the liquid absorbed by a small 
 sponge. The scull is then to be put back into its 
 place, and dressed with tar on a bit of kid. When 
 the hydatids is in the heart of the brain, it can 
 be reached by putting a fine wire up the nos- 
 trils. 
 
 10. Sheep Bvjg. This generally prevails where 
 the sheep are in an unhealthy state. The bug is of 
 a fiat form ; and is found about the throat and other 
 parts, and occasions great irritation. Remedy. — 
 Turpentine, tar, or tobacco juice, seldom fails to 
 effect a cure. 
 
 11. Sheep Maggot. This is the most destruc- 
 tive enemy that attacks sheep. The fly lays her 
 eggs on the skin of the sheep, and the larvae are 
 hatched in great numbers, and grow with aston- 
 ishing quickness. They frequently spread over 
 the whole body, and consume the skin, and eat the 
 flesh. 
 
 12. The sheep manifest great suffering, and run 
 with great rapidity, until they become exhausted, 
 and finally lie down and perish. In moist and 
 warm seasons, the maggot is most troublesome. 
 The shepherd should be careful to inspect his 
 
 t 2 
 
222 SHEEP. 
 
 sheep every day, and clip away all the dirty pieces 
 of wool. Remedy. — The maggot may efiectually 
 be destroyed by a solution of the corrosive subli- 
 mate. 
 
 13. Cure for Sheep Ticks.. Take for fifty sheep 
 about two pounds of tobacco, soak it five or six 
 days in two gallons of water; then strain the liquor 
 off: put into, a pot, over a slow fire, five quarts of 
 tar, ten quarts of lar4, stir them well till melted; 
 then pour it into the tobacco liquor, mixing it 
 thoroughl}'. 
 
 14. Then add thirty-five quarts of old buttermilk ; 
 aud when about milk warm, take a sheep, lay it 
 on its side, open the wool, and apply the remedy; 
 taking care, at the same time, to keep the sheep in 
 such a position that the liquid will run all over the 
 skin, and not on the wool. One quart is sufficierit 
 ior each sheep. A vessel with a small spout should 
 be used, to prevent its pouring too fast, or spilling 
 over the wool. 
 
 15. The right time for this operation i§ a warm 
 dry day, about the first of March. Shearing. This 
 should be performed about the fifteenth of June, 
 after the cold rains have subsided. Great care 
 should be taken, while shearing, not to cut the skin 
 of the sheep, as it not only makes the animal poor, 
 but makes the wool Vv'hich grows over the cut 
 places much coarser. 
 
 16. Care of the Wool. Greasing the sheep once 
 twery six months, is highly recommended by some, 
 as it is thought beneficial to both the carcass and 
 the wool. Wool which has been shorn two or 
 three years does not spin or nil so well as when 
 kept only pne year.. 
 
THE FARM-YARD. 228 
 
 17. Wool should be kept in a dry, but not a 
 very warm situation. The wool intended for ex- 
 portation should be carefully folded up, each fleece 
 by itself, and tied and sent to market. The best 
 wool is raised on healthy sheep, and on those 
 which are usually kept in good order, and receive 
 proper food. 
 
 18. How to tell the Age of Sheep. The age of 
 sheep may be known by examining the front teeth. 
 They are eight in number and all of a size; and 
 appear the first year. In the second year, the 
 two middle ones drop out, and two larger ones 
 supply their places. The third year, two other 
 small teeth, one from each side, fall out, and are 
 replaced by two large ones ; so that there are now 
 four large teeth in the middle, and two pointed 
 ones each side. 
 
 19. The fourth year there are six large teeth, 
 and two small ones remaining, one at each end of 
 the range. In the fifth year, all the small teeth 
 are lost, and the whole of the front teeth are large. 
 In the sixth year all begin to be worn, and in the 
 seventh some drop out or are broken. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 THE FARM-YARD. 
 
 1. No subject of rural economy is of greater 
 importance than the judicious disposition of the 
 outbi^ildings of a farm ; yet there is, perhaps, les^ 
 
224 THE FARM YARD. 
 
 consideration bestowed on this point than on any 
 other. It is obvious to the most common observer, 
 that the size of the various outhouses ought to be 
 regulated by the extent of the farm, and also by the 
 branch of husbandry which is carried on. 
 
 2. In a dairy farm, there are fewer buildings 
 requisite than in any other department of agri- 
 culture; but it is nevertheless highly necessary 
 to have distinct buildings for the various sorts of 
 cattle; and the whole of these should be so ar- 
 ranged and distributed as to facilitate the opera- 
 tions of the labourers. 
 
 3. Further to promote this object, the whole of 
 the buildings should, if possible, be placed within 
 the same enclosure. The yard in which they are 
 situated should also be secured against all outward 
 access ; if the buildings ate not so connected as 
 to form a complete enclosure, the spaces between 
 them should be tilled up vvith wall, or high paling, 
 and the yard should be closed by solid gates. 
 
 4. AVhere chalk can be commanded, the surface 
 or bottom of the yard should be bedded or coated 
 with it, or with some other material impenetrable 
 to water; by which means the moisture, in the 
 smallest degree, will be effectually prevented, and 
 consequently a great saving obtained in the article 
 of manure. The construction of the yard should 
 be nearly concave, or shelving to the centre, in 
 order to collect the drainage. 
 
 5. In order to avoid this expense, which is, in 
 fgct, very trifling, most farmers bottom the yards 
 with earth, or rubbish, to absorb the drainage, and 
 thus form a compost in the yard itself. This 
 saving, even were it larger, can be of no impor- 
 
THE FARM-YARD. 225 
 
 tance in comparison with the injury done to the 
 store cattle by thus retaining the moisture under- 
 neath them. Dryness of situation is of the most 
 essential consequence to their health, and indis- 
 pensable to their thriving. 
 
 6. The driest bottoming- is furze; but stubble, 
 potato tops, or any other loose refuse, will answer 
 the purpose ; over which the y^rd should be bed- 
 ded deep in straw. Earth, though most valuable 
 in a compost, should never be used within the 
 yard. Of the principal offices requisite to a farm, 
 we now proceed to ^ive an outline. 
 
 7. Ox Stalls, or Feedi?ig Houses. The structure 
 of these buildings is very simple. It is requisite 
 that each interval, or stall, should not only be pro- 
 vided with a crib, for dry food, but there shQul4 
 also be, in the centre of each, a trough, for the 
 reception of water, which may be conducted into 
 them by means of tubes leading from the pump. 
 The size must depend upon the manner in which 
 the farm is occupied ; but it ought never to be for- 
 gotten, that the beast should have aviyle accommq 
 dation. 
 
 8. In order to erect feeding houses to advantage, 
 great attention should be bestowed on their situa- 
 tion. They ought to lie dry, and not be exposed 
 too much to the sun, or tp the heat of the weather. 
 It will be advisable to lay the floors in a gently 
 sloping direction, with proper drains, and also for 
 the more easy removal of the litter. 
 
 9. The floors are variously paved. By some 
 it has been recommended to have the pavement of 
 stone pitched; but the least expensive method is to 
 lay the floor with bricks. The doors also shoulcj 
 
226 THE FARM-YARD. I 
 
 be so hung as to open outward, by which means a , 
 vVaste of room will be prevented, and the sheds , 
 will be rendered more secure against intruders. \ 
 Their safety will also be greatly increased by hang- 
 ing them with a fall to the catch. 
 
 10. The width of stalls is various. For two 
 middle-sized working oxen, seven feet^ have been 
 found sufficient, and 7iine feet for those of a larger 
 size. Cows require equal, if not more room, for 
 the convenience of milking them; and it is always 
 best to place them in single stalls. The stalls 
 should not be made too wide, lest the cattle turn 
 round in them ; for thus the stronger beasts would 
 have an opportunity of injuring their weaker fel- 
 lows. This danger may be avoided by placing 
 a post in the middle of the stall, immediately be- 
 fore the shoulders of the cattle. 
 
 11. Where the system of stall-feeding is adopt- 
 ed on a large scale, it will be necessary that there 
 be a regular temperature maintained. Otherwise 
 the confined respiration of many animals must 
 necessarily tend to generate disease. Hence, 
 though a loft may be built over the stalls for the 
 reception of provender, a funnel may be passed 
 through it from the ceiling of the feeding house 
 to the roof, which will allow of the e.scape of the 
 foul air. 
 
 12. It will also be advisable to construct latticed 
 windows, or apertures, at a considerable distance 
 from the ground, at the gable ends of the feeding 
 houses, and to supply them with shutters, which 
 may be closed or withdrawn as the season of the 
 year, or the temperature of the weather, may ren- 
 der necessary. Where 'it is practicable, such 
 
THE FARM-YARD. 227 
 
 opening should be towards the north or east, in 
 order that they may derive some benefit from the 
 genial rays of the morning sun, and from the 
 cooler air of the day in summer. The large front 
 doors may sometimes be set open for the purpose 
 of further ventilation. 
 
 13. Various modes are employed for securing 
 cattle in' their stalls ; but when the common method 
 of tying up is insufficient for the security of vi- 
 cious beasts, the following will be found to answer 
 the purpose: A fixed iron chain, by way of a 
 halter, should be fastened to a standard, mortised 
 into the fi'ont side of the manger and the joist 
 above. 
 
 14. It is composed of two parts: one of these 
 has sixteen links, and is two feet in length, meas- 
 uring from the staple ; the other, which contains 
 twenty-six links, measures about thirty-nine inches, 
 and serves as a collar. At one end of this collar 
 chain there is a ring, about one inch in diameter, 
 and at the opposite extremity a key, three or four 
 inches in length, having a hole at its middle, by 
 which it is joined to, and freely plays in the last 
 link. 
 
 15. The first chain, which by one end is fixed 
 to the manger, is by the other linked into a mid- 
 dle link of the collar chain, and thus forms two 
 arms, which, being thrown round the neck of the 
 beast, and the key being thrust through the ring, 
 and placed at a bar across it, makes a very secure 
 fastening. 
 
^^ THE FARM-YARD'. 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 •THE FARM-YARD CONTINUED. 
 
 1. Among the smaller buildings of a farm, not 
 the least worthy of notice is a cart and tool house, 
 for the reception of the wagons and implements, 
 which, when not actually employed, are oftert 
 heedlessly left on the srpot where they are last 
 ttsed. 
 
 2. An open spot, free to every wind, should be 
 selected. The roof ought to be supported on pil- 
 lars, high enough to admit a loaded wagon, and 
 containing lofts for the care of light implements, 
 sacks, or other small spare articles. But as the 
 only object is to preserve the carriages and tools 
 from the effects of w^et, this cah be attained by 
 mere sheds, the most economical mode of erecting 
 which is, to project a roof from the back of a barn 
 or stable. 
 
 3. Calf Pens. In most parts of this country, if 
 is the practice to appropriate a part of the cow- 
 house to the reception of calves; a measure which 
 cannot fail of producing uneasiness among the 
 cows, which often withhold their milk in conse- 
 quence of the bleating of the young animals. It 
 is preferable to have the pens at sach a distance 
 from the feeding house that the cows cannot hear 
 them. 
 
 4. The construction of these buildings is so 
 simple and so well known, that a particular de- 
 scription is deemed unnecessary. They should 
 
THE FARM-YARD. 229 
 
 be latticed, so as to admit fresh air, as a moderate 
 and rather cool temperature ought at all times to 
 be kept in calf pens. Light should be excluded, 
 as darkness inclines all artimals to rest, and the 
 quieter calves are kept, the better (hey will thrive. 
 The strictest cleanliness should also be observed, 
 and every attention paid to keep them dry and 
 sweet. 
 
 5. If possible, they should open either into the 
 stack-yard, or the orchard, or some small and quiet 
 enclosure, in order to afford an opportunity of oc- 
 casionally turning out calves that are intended to be 
 reared. When the profit arising from the rearing 
 of swine is duly considered, it will be admitted, that 
 the rearing of a piggery demands nearly as much 
 attention as a dairy, 
 
 6. A piggery should be in a circle, or it must 
 fail in convenience. According to this idea, in 
 the centre there should be the boiling or steam- 
 ing house, with a granary for corn, meal, &c. 
 Around this, a range of cisterns oUght to be dis- 
 posed, in divisions, for I'eceiving immediately from 
 the steam apparatus, and also by tubes from the 
 granary. 
 
 7. Around these should run a path, then a fende 
 or paling, in which are the troughs, with hang- 
 ing lids, for supplying food directly from the cis- 
 terns, on one side, and for hogs feeding on the 
 other. A range of yard next. The potato stores, 
 or pyes, should at one end point near to the en- 
 trance, and water must be raised to the coppers 
 and cisterns at once by a pump ; a trough, or other 
 conveyance, from the dairy to the cisterns, for milk, 
 tvhey, &c. 
 
230 THE FARM-YARD. 
 
 8. An arrangement like this would be very con- 
 venient, while the expense attending it would be in- 
 considerable. Great profit might be derived by 
 setting apart a plot of natural or artificial grasses, 
 into which the swine might be turned at pleasure. 
 Those who do not possess a convenient pig appa- 
 ratus, can have little idea of the great use of it in 
 making manure. This alone becomes an object, 
 that would justify any good farmer in going to a 
 certain expense, for attaining so profitable a part of 
 what ought to be his farm-yard system. 
 
 9. This plan, however, is calculated only for 
 those farms where the fattening of swine is carried 
 on extensively. Where these animals are kept 
 chiefly for domestic consumption, it will be suffi- 
 cient if hog sties be constructed with due regard to 
 warmth and dryness, and divided into various parti- 
 tions for the reception of swine, according to their 
 age and varieties. 
 
 10. Each division should be between six and 
 seven feet in width, of such height as the largest 
 pigs can conveniently enter, and should be provided 
 with a small space sufficiently capacious for holding 
 the feeding troughs. 
 
 11. If possible, troughs should be so arranged, 
 that oftal, milk, &c., may be conveyed into them 
 from the milk h^ouse, or scalding house, by means of 
 pipes ; and as these animals often thrust their feet 
 into the troughs, and thus waste a considerable por- 
 tion of food, this may be avoided, by fixing sticks 
 in a frame over the troughs, not unlike a rack ; ot 
 a thin piece of plank may be nailed on the back 
 part of the troughs, and so project as to allow their 
 heads only to enter. 
 
THE FARM-YARD. 231 
 
 12. This object may also be attained, when 
 swine are put up to fatten on dry food, by fixing 
 a conical hopper (holding any given quantity) in 
 a trough, with the broad end upward, and covered 
 with a strong lid. At the lower end should be an 
 aperture for giving out the meat into the trough, 
 where the animal may eat it as it falls, without 
 being capable of spoiling or wasting any portion 
 of it. 
 
 13. By adopting the expedient here suggested, 
 the further advantage will be derived in fattening 
 swine, that, by feeding more leisurely than in the 
 common mode, their food will probably be more 
 thoroughly masticated ; the effect of which has been 
 thought to render their fat more firm, and of a bet- 
 ter flavour. 
 
 14. Root Houses are buildings, the utility of 
 which, on those farms where the system -of stall- 
 feeding is adopted, is very great. They should 
 adjoin the feeding house, and be provided with a 
 steamer, for the purpose of preparing the vegetables 
 for the use of the cattle. This simple machine, in 
 fact, is indispensably necessary on all farms, where 
 the feeding of cattle is conducted to any extent, and 
 will not be found useless even on those in which it 
 is not an object of attention. 
 
 15. An apparatus for steaming consists of a brick 
 or stone stove, about three feet in every direction, 
 in which is fixed a pot, or kettle, six or eight inches 
 deep, and eighteen or twenty inches in diameter. 
 Over this boiler (when about half full of water) is 
 placed a hogshead, or cask, the bottom of which is 
 perforated with numerous holes, about an inch in 
 
232 THE F.^RM-yAFD. 
 
 diameter, so that the 5tealn may freely pas3 through 
 the roots. 
 
 16. The top of the cask is usually left open, 
 which might more advantageously be covered with 
 a thick coarse cloth. The cask may either be re- 
 moved by a rope and pulley, suspended from the 
 ceiling, or it .may be turned over, when the roots 
 are sufficiently steamed, 
 
 THE END. 
 
DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 Agriculturist, a farmer. 
 
 Attraction^ the power by which bodies tend towards each 
 
 other. 
 Affinity, an agreement between bodies. 
 Acidifying, souring 
 Aqueous, watery. 
 Ammonia, a light thin alkali. 
 Assimilation, uniting several bodies into one of the same 
 
 nature. 
 Alumina, a primitive earth, pertaining to alum. 
 Arable, fit for ploughing. 
 Argillaceous, clayey. 
 Azote, a gas destructive to animal life. 
 Acrid, sharp, biting to the taste. 
 Agrostis, bent grass. 
 Acetous, sour. 
 Ad infinitum, indefinitely, without end. 
 
 Berkshire, a place in England. 
 
 Biennial, continuing for two years and then perishing. 
 
 Bona fide, truly in good faith. 
 
 Chemistry, the science that discovers the nature and pro- 
 perties of matter. 
 
 Cohesion, a kind of attraction, a force that draws particles 
 of matter of the same kind together. 
 
 Crystallization, the act by which separate parts unite and 
 form a regular »olid body. jj 
 
 e 
 
234 DICTIONARY OF 
 
 Caloric, a very thin subtile fluid, that which causes the feel- 
 ing of heat. Heat is the name of the feeling; produced 
 by caloric. Caloric is diffused through every thing. 
 
 Combustion, the act of burning. 
 
 Carbon., one of the simple elements. 
 
 Calcareous, having qualities of lime. 
 
 Caustic, corroding. 
 
 Corrosive, eating, wearing away. 
 
 Calcined, converted into a powder. 
 
 Cocoon, a ball of silk in which the silk-worm winds itself. 
 
 Cylmder, a long circular body, a roller. 
 
 Coslivcness, tightness of bowels. 
 
 Digestion, preparing food in the .stomach for nourishment. 
 Drench, a portion of medicine. 
 
 Electric, from electricity, which means an invisible subtile 
 
 fluid, ditfused through all nature. 
 Expansibility, the capacity of being enlarged, 
 Elasticity, the properly in bodies by which they recover 
 
 their former figure, after pressure or being pulled. 
 
 Friction, the effect of rubbing one body against another. 
 Fluidity, capable of flowing, a liquid state. 
 Feldspar, a mineral made up of thin scales. 
 Farina, the pollen, the fine powder on the plant. 
 
 Geology, the study of rocks. 
 
 Gravitatio7i, the force which draws bodies together, or to 
 
 the centre of the earth. 
 Gases, simple substances in the form of vapours. 
 Galvanic apparatus, an instrument that developes electricity 
 
 without the aid of friction for some chemical eftect. It 
 
 produces an intense heat. 
 Gravity, that force which draws bodies to the centre of the 
 
 earth. 
 Gelatine, a mixed animal substance, dissolvable in water, 
 
 Hydrogen, a prirnary part of water, a simple element, 
 Hygrometer, an instrument for measuring the pioislure iu 
 the .i^tmosphere. 
 
TECHNICAL TXRMA. 235 
 
 Hectolitre, a measure containing nearly Iwo bushel?. 
 Hydraulic pressure^ water pressure. 
 
 Lime, calcareous earth. 
 
 Liquids, bodies that flow, like milk, water, Ac. 
 
 Leguminous, consisting of pulse. 
 
 Mineralogy, the study of ores, minerals, &c. 
 
 Marl, a kind of earth possessed of considerable lime, veget- 
 able or animal matter. 
 
 Magnetic, from magnetism. 
 
 Manganese, a metal of a dusky white. 
 
 Magnesia, one of the primitive earths. 
 
 Mica, a mineral made up of thin limber scales, having a 
 shining surface. 
 
 Marl, a mixture of lime and clay, and lime and sand. 
 
 Nitrogen, an original element, found in air, and in many 
 other substances. 
 
 Oxidized, rusted. 
 
 Oxygen, one of the elements of the air — that part of the air 
 which supports life. 
 
 piaster, a union of lime, sulphuric acid, and water. 
 Phosphorus, a combustible substance, of a yellowish colour. 
 
 It burns very readily, mm mm mm mm 
 
 Pearlash, refined potash obtained from the ashes of wood. 
 Petrifaction, soft substances changed to the hardness of a 
 
 stone. 
 Piggery, a hog-pen. 
 
 Quartz, a hard flinty mineral. 
 
 Repulsion, a power that drives particles of matter from 
 
 each other. 
 Radiating, passing through. 
 Refiecting, throwing back rays of lj|fht and heat. 
 Residuum, remainder, 
 
 StimiltUing, exciting. 
 
236 SICTIONART, STC. 
 
 Solids, hard bodies, such as do not run like water. 
 Safety-valve, a moving valve to let off steam from the boiler. 
 Salt-petre, a substance formed by uniting potash and nitre. 
 Silicia, one of the primitive earths. It is hard aiad flinty, 
 
 and is generally found in the state of stone. 
 Substratum, under layer. 
 Silicious, hard, stony, flinty. 
 Saccharine, having the qualities of sugar. 
 Spatula, a flat stick for spreading or stirring. 
 
 Thermometer, an instrument that discovers the degree of 
 heat that may be in any thing. 
 
 Vacuum, an empty place having nothing in it, not even air. 
 
%f-^ 
 
 
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