mm mm Author Title Imprint 16—47372-3 SPO A Pedagogical Study of the Transi tions from Infancy to Childhood and from Childhood to Youth BY SISTER MARY ALMA. M. A. OF THE SISTERS OF SAINT DOMINIC. NEWBURGH, N. Y. A DISSERTATION Submitted to the Catholic Sisters College of the Catholic University of America in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy WASHINGTON. D. C JANUARY. 1921 A Pedagogical Study of the Transi tions from Infancy to Childhood and from Childhood to Youth BY SISTER MARY ALMA, M. A. OF THE SISTERS OF SAINT DOMINIC, NEWBURGH, N. Y. A DISSERTATION Submitted to the Catholic Sisters College of the Catholic University of America in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy WASHINGTON, D. C, JANUARY, 1921 s/ ,\V^ 6\ w mm UaJhWR-aity NATIONAL CAPITAL PRESS, INC., WASHINQTON, O. C- PREFACE Catholic and non-Catholic educators alike hold that one function of education is to prepare our boys and girls for citizenship. Since we live under a form of government vs^here any citizen may become the head of the community in which he lives, or sit in judgment on trangressors of the law, the grave necessity to pronounce a just judgment becomes appar- ent. A man's usefulness to the community depends less upon what he knows than upon what he does, and what he does depends less upon the intellect than upon the will.^ The train- ing of the will towards justice consequently underlies the making of a good citizen. The Catholic educator, however, knows that education has another function to perform ; to pre- pare our boys and girls for citizenship in the Kingdom of Heaven.^ In the light of this truth, we have an additional reason for developing will power. Comparatively few of our pupils will share in the deliberative or judicial functions of the State, yet all without exception must, from time to time, act toward their neighbors from motives based on justice and right, regardless of public opinion and unbiased by selfish interests. Success or failure in such a task depends on the will and may mean happiness or misery here and hereafter. The will, then, must be developed hand in hand with the in- tellect. We are not lacking standards, ineffectual as they often are, for measuring intellectual progress, but we have fewer means by which to measure the progress of the will toward justice. This study seeks to set forth such a standard. The writer wishes to acknowledge her indebtedness to the Very Reverend T. E. Shields, Ph.D., Dean of the Catholic Sisters College, under whose direction the investigation was conducted, for his unfailing helpfulness and encouragement. Gratitude is due in an especial manner to the Sisters in charge of the schools, whose generous cooperation in collecting data has made this investigation possible. 'C/. Summa Theol. St. Thos., lU, Ilae, Q LVIII, A. 4. ' Cath. Ency., N. Y., 1907, Pace, E. A. A PEDAGOGICAL STUDY OF THE TRANSITIONS FROM INFANCY TO CHILDHOOD AND FROM CHILDHOOD TO YOUTH CONTENTS Page Preliminary Statement 7 Method and scope of the inquiry 7 The Tests 9 Directions for the conduct of the tests 10 Description of the tests 11 Chapter I. — Punishments affecting the body 12 Corporal punishments 13 Brutal punishments 30 Chapter II. — Punishments affecting the feelings and the emotions 35 Punishments entailing loss 35 Punishments entailing restitution 39 Punishments entailing shame 40 Punishments entailing fear 44 Chapter III. — The purposes actuating the subject 48 An impulse 49 No purpose 49 An instinctive tendency to restore the balance destroyed by the offense 49 A clearly defined purpose to be attained 59 A desire to correct the offender 62 A desire to be vindictive 66 Conclusions 68 Bibliography 69 List of Tables 72 List of Figures 74 PEELIMINARY STATEMENT Method and Scope op the Inquiry The data presented were collected in. eight parochial schools in the dioceses of Newark, Trenton and New York. While the two thousand, one children of both sexes were drawn from twenty-three nationalities, more of the children were born of American parents than of any other nationality. . Only those acts which are the result of choice are acts of the will. Hemmed in, as the child so frequently is by routine, few opportunities are afforded for free acts; and such oppor- tunities, when afforded, are often lost through the influence of human respect, or when used, the teacher is unaware of the fact. We have sought in this inquiry to offer an oppor- tunity in which the child's own will, unhampered by external influences, but guided by his intellect, could be the motive force, and in which the teacher may have a chance to note the result. These children, ranging in age from five to fourteen, were tested at intervals of three weeks. The tests were de- signed to discover the different forms of punishment which the children would inflict for three different offenses, if they were in a position of authority to do so, together with their motives for inflicting these punishments. In fallen human nature there exists the instinct of retalia- tion, which impels man to inflict suffering for suffering, evil for evil. The youngest child is inclined to give tit for tat.' The highly developed Greek was not free from its influence as may be seen from the following lines from Eschylus :* And you, tremendous Destinies, whose power Is ratified by Jove, mark the firm course Of justice, and by that direct the event. Be the insults of the hostile tongue repaid With hostile insults: Justice calls aloud. Demanding vengeance ; let murd'rous blow Requite the murd'rous blow. The solemn voice, Requiring that oppressive force should feel Oppressive force, is sanctified by age. 'Cf. Moral Phil., Rickaby, J., N. Y., 1908, p. 170. *Eschylus, Choephorae, 11. 336-344. 8 A Pedagogical Study "The clear idea aud strong desire of vengeance, which nature aflfords, shows that there is such a thing as vengeance to be taken by someone: it does not warrant every form of ven- geance^ or allow it to be taken by every man for himself. It consecrates the principle of retribution, not every application of the principle."^ Before the time of Christ, the punishments inflicted were out of all proportion to the crimes committed. The following incident shows that "Woe to the Vanquished" was the goad that urged the warrior to victory. **It was a proud day for the Carthaginian general when he stood as master on the ground of Himera; enabled to fulfill the duty, and satisfy the exigencies, of revenge for his slain grandfather. Tragical indeed was the consummation of this long cherished purpose. . . . All the male captives, 3,000 in number, were conveyed to the precise spot where Hamilkar had been slain, and there put to death with indignity, as an expiatory satis- faction to his lost honor. No man can read the account of this wholesale massacre without horror and repugnance. Yet we cannot doubt, that among all the acts of Hannibal's life, this was the one in which he most gloried ; that it realized in the most complete and emphatic manner, his concurrent aspi- rations of filial sentiment, religious obligation, and honor as a patriot; that to show mercy would have been regarded as a mean dereliction of these esteemed impulses. . . . Doubtless, the feelings of Hannibal were cordially shared, and the pleni- tude of his revenge envied, by the army around him."^ Since offenses differ objectively in the matter of the offense, which may be grave or light and subjectively in the degree of knowledge, advertance and will with which the offender throws himself into the act, distributive justice requires that the punishment meted out be in proportion to the gravity of the offense committed. In proportion as Christianity makes its influence on fallen human nature felt, we find the instinct of vindictiveness yielding to the nobler impulses of justice and mercy. The desire for revenge of the pagan conquerors gives "Rickaby, J., op. cit., p. 173. St. Thos., Cont. Gent., Ill, 140, n. 5., Ill, 144, nn. 8, 9. Plato, Rep. Jowett. Oxford, 1908 Vol. I, 380 B., Vol. II, 615 A. Plato, The Dialogues, Jowett, B., N. Y., 1893. "Phaedo" 113. Aristotle, Rhet. Buckley, London, 1883, I, X, 17. • Grote, G.. Hist., Greece. N. Y., 1879. Vol. X, Chap. 81, pp. 413-414. A Pedagogical Study 9 way to the more just sentences of the Christian judge. In like manner as the child passes from the control of instinct to that of reason and emotion, we maj' expect to see his idea of justice undergo a change. Our inquiry seeks to determine the stages in the development of this virtue, together with the changes in the purposes, which the child has in punishing as he passes from infancy to childhood and from childhood to youth. The investigation then divides naturally into two parts. In the first part we have sought to determine (a) whether the severity of the punishments inflicted is increased or diminished according as the instincts, the reason or the emotions are the controlling power, (b) the ages at which these changes in the character of the punishments take place, (c) the extent to which sex, heredity and the reaction to the suggestions of others have afiPected the results. In the second part we have sought to determine (a) whether the children tested are ruled by an impulse to punish the offender, (b) whether this impulse, if present, is replaced by a more or less clearly defined purpose to be attained by the punishment inflicted, (c) at what age this transition takes place. The evidence which we submit shows the varying relations between the punish- ment inflicted and the offense committed, together with the motives prompting the infliction of each punishment. Tests Copies of the following stories were sent to the teachers of the schools in which the tests were carried on, together with the following explicit directions as to the conduct of the test. Story I A mother gave her little girl a box of paints. One day while the mother was out the little girl painted all the parlor chairs. What would you do to the little girl if you were her mother? Story II A little boy was writing a test. He knew all the answers but one. He copied his neighbor's answer when he thought the teacher was not looking. What would you do to that boy if you were his teacher? 10 A Pedagogical Study Story III The owner of an orchard was anxious to secure all the fruit on a certain tree. He had always allowed the boys all the fruit they wanted. He asked them to spare the fruit of this tree. John took this fruit too. If you were the owner of the orchard, what would you do to John? DIRECTIONS FOR THE CONDUCT OF THE TESTS 1. In the regular language period and in the usual way bring out the idea of purpose in doing a thing. 2. After an interval of two or three days, during which time this knowledge may be expressed in various ways, read the first story to the language class. 3. Direct each child to write in two complete English sen- tences what punishment he would give and why he would give that particular punishment. 4. After intervals of three weeks each repeat the exercise using the second and third stories. 5. Papers are to be retained by the teachers after each test. 6. At a convenient time after the last test, direct each child to write on a separate sheet of paper the following facts: name, age, grade, class rank, birthplace of the father, the child's birthplace, the punishment he most often receives, the punishment he most dreads, the things he fears. (Note) The teacher will please fill in the item regarding class rank by indicating whether the child is above grade, below grade or in the proper grade by means of the letters A, B, or P, respectively. 7. The four papers belonging to each child are to be fastened together. The papers belonging to the boys and to the girls of each grade are to be put in separate bundles. These bundles together with the reports from the teachers of the lower grades are to be forwarded to the writer. 8. Where the children are unable to express themselves in writing, the teachers are asked to test each child separately, orally and alone and record the answers for him. It will be noted that every effort was made to keep the child from feeling that he was being tested in anything except in Eng- lish composition. A Pedagogical Study 11 DESCRIPTION OF THE TESTS The story given for the first test shows clearly that the act was committed without the necessary knowledge, ad- vertence or will that would make the offense grave from a subjective point of view. ''While the mother was out" does not tell that the little girl painted the chairs because the mother was out, but when she was out. The central idea is that she painted the chairs because she had no one to tell her not to do so. The child tested has not to decide regarding the gravity of the offense, from a subjective point of view, he might, however, take for granted that the damage was considerable. In like manner, the story given for the second test requires the child to decide whether the matter of the offense be grave or light, but from the expression, "While the teacher was not looking," it is clear that the offense was committed with at least some knowledge of the evil. In the third story, the offense might be grave or light, objectively, according to the purpose the owner had in Having the fruit, but obviously the offender threw himself into the act with such a degree of knowledge, advertence and will as to make the offense grave from a subjective point of view. In the light of these conditions, distributive justice would require that the second and third offenders would be more severely dealt with than the first offender. The evidence, however, shows that such is not the case. The subjective aspect of the offense has been largely disregarded while the objective consideration has been in terms of material loss. Table I. — Showing the Distribution of Answers Received. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Total Boys test I so 49 50 149 52 52 52 156 303 105 103 105 313 119 119 119 357 670 101 101 100 302 100 102 102 304 606 115 113 111 339 116 116 112 344 683 103 101 103 307 117 116 117 350 657 126 123 124 373 109 106 106 321 694 116 116 113 345 111 111 109 331 676 106 106 103 315 101 102 100 303 618 111 109 110 330 127 130 128 385 715 54 54 52 160 62 63 61 186 346 987 975 Boys test III 971 2,933 Girls test I 1,014 Girls test II 1,017 Girls test III Girls total 1,006 3,037 Total 5,970 The above table shows the number of atiswers received from boys and girls frorn 5 to 14 years of age on each test, the total number of answers rtceived from boys and from girls on all the tests, and the total number of answers received from children of both sexes on all three tests. CHAPTER I Punishments Affecting the Body An examination of the evidence relative to the punishments which the children would inflict shows that these may be roughly divided into two general classes: (A) Punishments affecting the body, (B) Punishments affecting the feelings and the emotions. Under the punishments affecting the body, we have included the milder forms of Corporal Punishment, such as, whip him, strap him and similar expressions, together with the more severe Brutal Punishments, such as, kill him, pull his ear out, chop his hands off and other forms equally cruel. Under the punishments affecting the feelings and the emotions, we have classed punishments entailing (a) some loss on the part of the offender, such as, take the paints away from her, (b) some form of restitution, such as, make him pay for the apples, (c) a feeling of shame, such as, make him stand before the class, (d) a sense of fear, such as, lock him in a dark cellar. The punishments which the very young children would inflict were remarkably severe as compared with the punish- ments which the older children would inflict. We have ex- amined and classified the evidence at our disposal with a view to throwing some light upon the factors entering into this softening of the child's attitude. Special attention was de- voted to the influence of age, sex, heredity and environment. Table II. — Showing Percentage of Children Inflicting Corporal Punishments. Age in Years 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Boys test I Boys test II Boys test III Boys Average . . Girls test I Giris test II Girls test III Girls Average.. . 72.0 51.0 36.0 53.0 86.5 78.8 32.7 66.0 77.1 54.3 42.8 58.0 75.6 57.1 49.5 60.7 67.3 43.5 37.0 49.0 71.0 46.0 34.3 50.3 61.7 32.7 22.5 39.0 62.0 26.7 18.8 36.3 59.2 30.6 16.5 35.5 70.0 27.5 19.6 39.1 61.9 25.2 20.9 36.1 62.3 28.3 27.3 39.2 52.5 12.9 14.1 26.6 53.1 17.1 23.8 31.4 42.4 19.8 13.5 25.3 40.5 16.6 14.0 23.7 30.6 9.1 10.9 16.8 25.1 6.9 10.1 14.0 18.5 3.7 3.8 8.7 12.9 4.7 4.9 7.5 The above table shows the percentage of corporal punishments inflicted by boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage reported on the three tests. 12 A Pedagogical Study 13 CORPORAL PUNISHMENTS From the above table it will be seen that without a single exception a greater percentage of the children would inflict a Corporal Punishment for the first offense than for the second; and from five to ten, inclusive, and at twelve years, a greater percentage would inflict a Corporal Punishment for the second offense than for the third, but at eleven, at thirteen and at fourteen years a greater percentage would inflict a Corporal Punishment for the third offense than for the second. Table III. — Comparison of Tests I and II; I and III; II and III, as to the Percentage of Corporal Punishments Inflicted. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Boys Comp. I & II Boys Comp. I & III Boys Comp. II & III Girls Comp. I&II 29.1 50.0 29.4 7.0 62.0 59.0 29.5 44.5 21.1 24.4 34.5 13.3 35.0 45.0 14.0 35.0 51.0 25.0 47.0 63.0 31.0 56.0 69.0 29.0 50.0 72.1 46.0 60.0 72.0 28.0 59.2 66.2 17.0 54.5 56.0 3.5 75.4 73.1 *9.0 67.0 55.0 *39.0 53.3 68.1 31.8 59.0 65.0 15.0 70.2 64.3 *16.5 72.5 59.7 *46.0 80.0 79.0 *2.7 63.0 Girls Comp. I & III Girls Comp. II & III 62.0 *4.0 The above table shows (1) the rate of decrease in the percentage of corporal punishments reported by iDoys and girls from five to fourteen years of age on the second test as compared with the percentage reported on the first test, (2) the rate of decrease in the percentage of corporal punishments reported on the third test as compared with the percentage reported on the first test, (3) the rate of decrease or increase in the percentage of corporal punishments reported on the third test as compared with the percentage reported on the second test. The * indicates the ages at which there is an increase in the percentage of corporal punishments reported on the third test as compared with the second test. Table III shows that the decrease in Corporal Punishment inflicted by the boys at five for the second offense is 29.1 per cent of the rate for the first offense. This leniency toward the offender in the second test becomes more and more marked until the eleventh year, when the decrease in the rate of Cor- poral Punishment inflicted is 75.4 per cent of the rate for the first offense at the same age. At twelve this reduction in favor of the second offender is lowered to 53.3 per cent fol- lowed at thirteen by 70.2 per cent of the rate for the first offense at the same age. At fourteen when the intellect is capable of throwing most light on the matter, we find a reduc- tion of 80 per cent. At five years the decrease in the rate of Corporal Punishment inflicted on the third offender is 50 per cent of the rate inflicted on the first oft'ender at the same age. This rate of decrease in favor of the third offender varies from 44.5 per cent at six years to 79 per cent at fourteen. The leniency shown by the girls in favor of the offender in the second test varies from a reduction of 7 per cent of the 14 A Pedagogical Study rate for the first oflfense at five years to a reduction of 72.5 per cent at thirteen and of G3 per cent at fourteen years, and in the third test from a reduction of 34.5 per cent of the rate for the first offense at six to one of 72 per cent at nine and 62 per cent at fourteen in favor of the third offender. Here Per Cent J^igru.r-'o I 90 Te St / eo ^ \ To. St n 70 ^ \ s. Tg St m — -.. — ^ \ »v 60 ^ K "^ \ \, 60 ,^ \ \ s. . \ s. hn / \ \ \, H-U / \ % \ N s. 30 \ \^ «.^ .^^__^ N > \ "N ^ \ 2JD \ «v. ^' \ N.^ <' < \. * #' \ \ 10 ™, ' \ ->J '^^ n 1 7 Q 9 10 II 12. 13 I^ Fig. I. — Comparison of percentages of corporal punishment inflicted by boys from 5 to 14 years of age, on Tests I, II, III. we find a slight difference between the evidence presented by the boys- and that presented by the girls. The rate of reduc- tion in the number of Corporal Punishments inflicted by the boys on the second offender continues to increase from five A Pedagogical Study 15 to fourteen with a single interruption at twelve. The girls show three interruptions, at ten, at twelve and at fourteen. The boys do not show as uniform a rate of reduction in favor of the third offender as compared with the first as they showed in favor of the second offender as compared with the first, while Percent ■TOO 90 Ft g u,i^a IT 60 no 60 60 ko 30 2.0 10 \ \ s. Te St / - \ Te. ?t 77 LL » "^ \ Te St. IE' — -• 1 ; \ V / \ y \ \ / \ s. \ . \ S, *\ s \ / \ \ \ s. / f N i \ \ / \ *' \ / \ • \ s, \ 1 k _ '•" > ••> "y V \ 1 *\ ■*^. N \ \ •"" ♦ X \, \ \ ">N \ * .*^«S 6. 9. JO 71 Age irtYbcz-rs 12. 13 1^ Fig. II. — Comparison of percentages of corporal punishment inflicted by girls from 5 to 14 years of age, on Tests I, II, III. the girls show substantially the same interruptions in the rate of reduction in favor of the third offender as compared with the first, as they showed in favor of the second offender as compared with the first. Our evidence does not show any characteristic difference in the ability of either sex to 16 A Pedagogical Study deteriniue the gravity of the offense and neither seems to possess it in any marked degree. Furthermore, as has been noted above, the third offense, subjectively considered, is more grievous than the second, yet a comparison of the rates of Corporal Punishment inflicted for these offenses, as shown in Table III, substantiates, for the most part, the evidence already presented from the comparison of the first and second and the first and third offenses respectively. The boys vary in leniency for the third offender in preference to the second, from a reduction of 29.4 per cent of the rate for the second offense at five years to 14 per cent at seven years, and from 46 per cent at nine years to 17 per cent at ten, and to 31.8 per cent at twelve years. At eleven, at thirteen and at fourteen the leniency is in favor of the second offender in preference to the third. The girls at five show a leniency of 59 per cent of the rate for the second offense in favor of the third offender as against 29.4 per cent shown by the boys of the same age. This leniency fluctuates from a decrease of 13.3 per cent of the rate for the second offense at six, up to 29 per cent at eight years, and down to 3.5 per cent at ten years and up to 15 per cent at twelve. It will be noted also in this connection that the girls favor the second offender in preference to the third at the same ages that the boys favor him, i.e., at eleven, at thir- teen and at fourteen, but when the boys show a leniency of 9 per cent, 16.5 per cent and 2.7 per cent respectively, the girls show a leniency of 39 per cent, 46 per cent and 4 per cent. The curve is in the same direction but much more pronounced. Although these tests were not all given in the same school, yet everywhere and in all three tests we find (Table IV) a larger percentage of boys giving Corporal Punishment at six than at five years, the advance being 7 per cent, 6.4 per cent and 18.8 per cent, respectively, of the rate at five years, thus show- ing an average advance of 10.7 per cent of the rate at five years. After the sixth year we find a steady, althougli not a uniform, decrease in the rate of Corporal Punishment inflicted until the tenth year for the first and third offenses and until the twelfth year for the second offense. During the tenth year we find an increase of 4.5 per cent and of 26.6 per cent over the preced- ing year in the number of Corporal Punishments inflicted for the first and third offenses, respectively. After the tenth year A Pedagogical Study 17 the percentage giving Corporal Punishment continues to de- crease for these same tests until the fourteenth year inclusive. The second test shows the remarkable increase in Corporal Punishments during the twelfth year of 53.3 per cent of the rate at eleven years. Although this increase occurs two years later than in the other tests, it is more pronounced than at any other time or in either of the other tests. The possibility of its being due to an increased ability to recognize the gravity of the offense is lessened by the fact that at thirteen and at fourteen we find the remarkable decrease of 54 per cent and of 59.3 per cent from the rate at twelve and at thirteen years re- spectively. Our evidence thus far seems to point to a node at six, at ten and possibly at twelve for the boys. The average of the three tests emphasizes the two nodes at six and at ten but obscures the one at twelve. The evidence presented by the girls in each test and on the average shows but two nodes, each being one year in advance of the corresponding node shown by the boys. Another fact worthy of note in this connection is that in each test, as well as on the average, it seems to take from two to three years for the girls to make the second transition while the boys make this transition in one year. Our data do not show the time it takes the girls to make the first transition. Eliminating the element of sex we find two clearly defined transitional phases. The first one begins in the fifth year and extends to the seventh year. The second begins in the ninth and extends to the eleventh year. This, it will be noted, is somewhat different from the evidence presented in relation to the different sexes. At six the rate is the same as at five. At ton the increase over the rate of the preceding year is so slight, 1 per cent, that it can hardly be considered other than the first sign of the phase while at seven and eleven the decrease is so pronounced, 16.3 per cent and 23.2 per cent, respectively, that we might consider the transition to be effected. The decrease at seven, 16.3 per cent, is followed at eight by a decrease of 24 per cent and at nine by a decrease of only 0.7 per cent. At this point we find a preparation being made for the transitional phase that seems to be established at eleven. Again, the decrease of 23 per cent from the rate for the preceding year between ten and eleven becomes 15 per 18 A Pedagogical Study cent between eleven and twelve and 37 per cent between twelve and thirteen and 47 per cent between thirteen and fourteen. Thus we see the change between ten and eleven moderates the severity of the succeeding years, while the one between six and seven seems not to have the element of permanency that the second phase has. Considering only the average of the three tests (Table IV) we find that at six the boys show an increase in Corporal Punishment of 10.7 per cent of the rate at five years and at eleven there is a decrease of 26.3 per cent of the rate at ten years. This last fact might point to the node being at eleven rather than at ten since the average rate of increase at ten is l.G per cent of the rate at nine. In all probability, the transitional phase begins some time between nine and ten and ends some time between eleven and twelve. The decrease at twelve is only 4.8 per cent of the rate at eleven. Table IV. — Showing the Rate of Increase or of Decrease from Year to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Girls inflicting Corporal Punishment between 5 and 14 Years. Years 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 U-13 13-14 i Boys Test I Boys Test II... . Boys Test III.... Boys Average. . Girls Test I Girls Test II Girls Test III... Girls Average.. . 7.0 6.4 18.8 10.7 -12.6 -27.5 51.3 - 8.0 -12.0 -19.8 -13.5 -15.5 - 6.0 -19.4 -30.7 -17.1 - 8.0 -24.8 -.^9.1 -20.4 -12.6 -41.9 -45.1 -27.8 - 4.0 - 6.4 -26.6 - 8 9 12.9 2.9 4.2 7.7 4.5 -17.6 26.6 1.6 -11.0 2.9 39.2 .2 -15.0 -48.3 -32.5 -26.3 -14.7 -39.5 -12.8 -19.8 -19.0 53.3 - 4.3 - 4 8 -23.7 - 2.9 -41.1 -24.5 -27.0 -54.0 -19.2 -33.5 -38.0 -58.4 -27.8 -40.9 -39.0 -59.3 -65.1 -48 2 -48.6 -31.8 -51.4 -46.4 The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of corporal punish- ments inflicted by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a decrease in the rate, where no sign is used an increase is understood. The girls show a decrease at six of 8 per cent of the rate at five, thus substantiating the evidence previously given. This rate of decrease is more than doubled at seven, while at eight it is almost three and one-half times what it was at six. This is followed at nine by an increase of only 7.7 per cent, while in the following year the increase is even less, 0.2 per cent. Between ten and eleven they seem to have readjusted themselves. At eleven we find a decrease of 19.8 per cent from the rate at ten. This decrease is followed at twelve, at thirteen and at fourteen by the decrease of 24.5 per cent, 40.9 per cent and 4(3.4 per cent respectively of the A Pedagogical Study 19 rates for the previous years. Here again the evidence tends to place the transitional phase for the girls one year ahead of that for the boys. We may conclude then that while sex modifies the tendency toward severity to some extent, it does not constitute an im- portant factor of variation. We have considered next the effect of heredity. We wish to determine whether or not the attendance of children of certain nationalities seems to account for the fluctuations in the percentage of Corporal Punishments inflicted, as noted in Table II. In studying the effect of heredity on the attitude of the child toward punishment, an effort was made to tabu- late the responses according to the different nationalities of the children tested. As was noted above, the children, with few exceptions, were born in this country. An attempt was made to ascertain the nationality of both parents but for the sake of simplicity the tabulation was confined to the na- tionality of the father, and in this case we found it necessary to assign a nationality to each man according to the country in which he was born. We are aware that error might occur from such a classification, arising from a mere accident of birth. For example, a man named Murphy born in England, Australia or Canada, would still retain his Irish tendencies. Nevertheless we have classified the data just as we received it and considered the man, not as Irish, but as English, Australian or Canadian as the case might be. However, such conditions were exceedingly rare, forming but a small part of one per cent. Any nation furnishing at least one per cent of the total number of boys or of girls present was classed under the head of that nation. Under the heading, ''Other Nationalities," we have placed those children constituting only fractional parts of one per cent of the total number present. The following nationalities were so included: Swedes, Bo- hemians, Swiss, Scotch, Danes, Greeks, Canadians, Austra- lians, Lithuanians and Alsatians. Table VII, compiled from Tables V and VI, shows the nationalities represented together with the rank of each as regards (1) the numbers present on each test as well as on the average, (2) the tendency of each toward Corporal Punishment. From Table II, we find that the boys on each test, but 20 A Pedagogical Study il V >. C lU be < "5 o S ■O 00 00 t — ■noo-0(N'J'Ov«)>')w-" 'iooO'*>or^(Nr»5POfstNMro>-"Hw(N>-i»Hcst»> OoO'-'*or^>nr^rNooOM'0'^t>-i^O»^t^OfO'^OrNj'<**CNro t^oooo^'-'*-^ooO'^*oror^POf*5c^cNeN(*>^^»-"f^»-'^csf*) " O'OVO>/^lO'»'00"O>'Ol/l>OOr~t^O — 00'0Or«5^ r-.0000'^'-«woOO'^»OPOfN'*:f*:(N0'^*0»Or^^\000'*wOvO^fS>«>O'-i--iO'<1 — OCNP0«5(N'O\0 ■*fO(N-H— (M — -. l-H — OCS00-*00-*r)OvOCNtNIOO-H — 0<^ — 0OvO -H O0vfNO^I^'^(NOOCNfNIO»0-^^Of^*-O(Nf^'^f^^O P-) i l-H a f^ f^ — — ' — -• — • « ^r^r/)rj-r^0Ci/^^>ovo»O'OrNr^Tfr^"~. CM^r^^r^jcNrNu^vO - i s ro 00 Ov>0 r^ >0 t- 00 00t^-*-Hrt(N>OfOf»5'*(NO"'<'^ Oreo s u^C>O>O!*5\Ot^0000r^-*-<--tN*Or^rO'*(NO-'—itOO'^'* <~0 't ^ — ■ — — 1-H H- U^C'O"O'OOt^0000r^^»-'»-'CNVOf^f^'*CNO'-<^^^Of*)^ r^ -t ^1 ^ „ _ _ O H M 00vO00t^\O00r^O\>O>Ol^r^l*)CSrt'*eSTC»-t»5fO>Or-l>O'<)-< (^I ^1 ^ Tf rvi o 4-* m K OOOfO-HOONO'*»OlOCNCS100MOOfO'0»r)f*5f*:0o h- o-<-*ooo>o)00i^uifoia"*(NCN(NOt^'-->-"'^ooo"^ >o 1 III - -J. lOPOr^^ w rv|.^wr^O00'»*O(Ni^y^JfNCNr0Tj-»-'Tj«r>-)*rsO^*^O^^^ l« 1 HH inrfoOCNf^t^OO — OwOO(N'^OOf^OOO<>)OCN— CO [Ij u:)■*^^tNr)^~00 — O — OOtS'-iOOf^OOOtsOtNwO K-, lOTtoOtNror-OO-HO-HOOCN — OOf^^OOOiMOi^ — O CO II LI &I &I l.l I.I II II II II II o 1 ol mOwOPQOmOojowocQOpqomomomOmOmO 5 3 American , . . i Austrian . . . . i Hungarian.. ./ German / Belgian J Italian J Hollander .... Polish ( Russian i English ( French Other Nat. (6 Other Nat. (9 V CIS ^2 cuO ■SH u W OS ™ _ Et3 ^.2 ■ J;J3 CD OJ O) ^ O Ct3 ij >^ 3 ^ O o caJ3 c ^ o V "^ § s J3 c-2 l^-- .-3 2-0 A Pedagogical Study 21 especially ou the third test, show a pronounced advance in the rate of Corporal Punishment inflicted at six over the rate at five. Of the fifty boys present at the first test (Tables V-VI, Part I), twenty-five were Americans, eighteen were Austrians, the remaining seven boys were of five different nationalities. We note too that the following nationalities were not repre- sented among the five year old bojs at any of these tests: Hugarians, Italians, Poles, English, Kussians and French. The American boys inflicted 58.3 per cent of all the Corporal Punishments of that year, the Austrians taking second place with 25 per cent of them, the remaining nationalities repre- sented inflicting 16.6 per cent of them. The vast majority (Part III) of the Americans present, 84 per cent of them, selected that form of punishment; a much smaller percentage of the Austrians, 50 per cent of them, while all of the Irish, Germans, Hollanders and other nationalities present inflicted Corporal Punishment, the Belgians alone not inflicting it. Although it is impossible to draw a conclusion from such conflicting evidence, founded on such inadequate data, yet it would seem that, if 21 out of 25 Americans, or 84 per cent of them, and 9 out of 18 Austrians, or 50 per cent of them, would inflict a Corporal Punishment, we have stronger, even though not conclusive, evidence of their tendency in that direction than when three out of three Irish present or 100 per cent of them, or when the only German present would inflict that form of punishment. At six all except the French are represented. The Americans and the Austrians furnish 40 per cent and 29.5 per cent re- spectively of all present; the Irish, 9.5 per cent; the Hun- garians, Poles and Hollanders, 3.8 per cent each ; the Germans, Belgians, Kussians and Italians, 1.9 per cent each ; the two re- maining nationalities 0.9 per cent each. We find (Part III) that 100 per cent of the Hungarians, Belgians, English, Italians and Other Nationalities present inflicted Corporal Punishment, 80 per cent of the Irish, 78.5 per cent of the Americans, 75 per cent each of the Poles and Hollanders, 70.9 per cent of the Austrians, 50 per cent each of the Germans and Kussians inflicted that same form of punishment. Thus we see that at six the Americans take third place and the Austrians 22 A Pedagogical Study ^ O^ 00 PO f^l fN cs r^l ro «^ »-i O "I « lO fO (N M,«0O0O0— oooooooooo t<5fOrOlCO-H<-i(S-H — -<0000000 000'«'^0— O ^^■^^rtr^^tNi-fjO— —OOOOOOOOOOOOO-'O 0 «00— lOOOOOOO — r^-<(N>-«>0-ir •«fOM»-i>-icn'tt^ro^OOO'-00 0'-iOO'-<»<0 0«S — •^r»rOP^(NOrot^OcsOOOOO'-*wO^OOO^OOO vO^^»/)'^0*f^r^»o*-H*-«^OOrs^(N-HrMOO»^r^x: ^T. ^"C J^-Ti ^T! ^"C '^'C ^t; ^"C ^13 ^Tl '^Tl ^"C O-tJ 0-- O-H 0-- 0-- 0-- 0-3 O-S 0-S O-S o-a O-S O-S mOp50momomoP3 0mOpaoc30moa30paOmo pq iij ffi d. pc; W o . f*> ^ CN ^ »00 '-' ^^O O ^O O PDO O O fO fN (NO ^O -^ *^J^:i oE.S »4-^ ,o ^ ft u o T. o C v*_, J cs X3 >. 4) 3 OX! XI \^ ,, , 3 C •C V rt n •1-' u R 0) 3 XJ-O V T3 C % rt +J 01 c ^ > r o x; a! •v; — y / / y / s _ ^^ ..^ f J ^ y / \ . / % / y z' \ / '^'■ f y ' 8 Aq, 9 10 e trCYecLTS n 12, 73 /4 Fig. IV. — Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing loss inflicted by girls from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III, and the average percentages reported on the three tests. in part at least, to the unusually high rate of increase, 117.3 per cent, in the percentage of punishments entailing shame. On the third test we find three interruptions in the rate of in- crease, at six, at ten and at twelve, while the average shows two interruptions, at six and at ten. (Fig. III.) On the 38 A Pedagogical Study first and second tests we find a very slight increase while on the third test there is a marked decrease between the ninth and the tenth year. This may be evidence of a nodal point between nine and ten. If so, it substantiates that presented in rela- tion to the tests on Corporal Punishment. Table XL — Showing the Percentage of Children Inflicting Punishments Entailing Loss. Age in Years. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 8.0 9.7 11.8 15.6 20.5 20.6 30.1 32.0 42.3 14.3 19.4 30.6 25.6 36.6 37.4 51.0 57.5 65.1 24.0 12.3 18.0 28.8 46.6 43.5 54.8 49.3 64.5 15.4 13.8 20.1 23.3 34.5 33.8 45.3 46.2 57.3 3.8 6.7 13.0 21.5 11.1 21.1 21.6 24.7 44.8 1.9 15.1 31.3 28.4 28.4 33.9 49.5 43.1 61.6 17.3 10.9 23.5 37.5 35.0 42.4 41.2 49.0 73.4 7.6 10.9 22.6 29 1 24.8 32.4 37.4 38.9 59.9 14 Boys Test I " II.... " III... Average . Girls Test I " II " III " Average. 31.4 66.6 75.0 57.6 50.0 63.4 72.1 61.8 The above table shows the percentage of punishments entailing loss inflicted by boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage reported on the three tests. On the first test the girls show a more and more marked tendency as they advance in age from five to eight, inclusive, and from ten to fourteen, inclusive, to inflict a punishment entailing loss, the rate at fourteen being 13.1 times what it was at five. (Fig. IV.) The decrease at nine is partly ac- counted for by the great percentage of Corporal Punishments inflicted at that age. But the increase in the rate of Corporal Punishments inflicted at nine (Table IV) over the rate at eight is only 12.9 per cent while the decrease in punishments entailing loss is 48.3 per cent from the rate at eight (Table XII) or approximately four times this increase. More prob- ably it is due to the large increase, 56.3 per cent, in the punish- Table XII. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Girls Inflicting Punishments Entailing Loss. Years , Boys Test I Boys Test II.... Boys Test III... Boys Average Girls Test I Girls Test II.... Girls Test III... Girls Average 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 32.1 21.2 21.6 32.2 31.4 0.4 46.1 6.3 35.6 57.7 -16.3 42.9 2.1 36.3 12.7 13.2 -48.7 46.6 60.0 61.8 -6.6 25.9 -10,0 30.8 -10.3 45.6 15.9 48.0 -2.0 34.0 1.9 24.0 76.3 94.0 65 .3 -48.3 90.0 0.4 14.3 81.3 694.7 107.2 9.2 0.0 19.3 46.0 -12.9 42.9 -36.9 115.5 59.5 -6.6 21.1 -2.8 18.9 49.7 43.4 107.3 28.7 -14.7 30.6 15.4 4.0 53.2 13-14 -25.7 2.3 16.2 0.5 11.6 2.9 -1.7 3.1 The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishments entailing loss inflicted by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a decrease in the rate, where no sign is used an increase is understood. , A Pedagogical Study 39 ments entailing shame (Table XVI). All three tests as well as the average show either a decrease between eight and nine or no change whatever. Here we have additional evidence that the girls make the transition one year before the boys. PUNISHMENTS ENTAILING RESTITUTION The offenses mentioned in the first and third tests are violations of commutative justice, therefore distributive justice requires that restitution be made to the offended party. It will be noted from Table XIII that neither boys nor girls, five years old, have any idea of the necessity of requiring restitution for the losses sustained. Morever, the idea is extremely vague until the twelfth j^ear with both sexes. At thirteen it is less prominent than at twelve. At fourteen the boys show an increase on the first test over the rate at twelve, but on the third test there is not a single example reported. On the other hand, 8.1 per cent of the girls inflicted this form of punishment on the third test but not one of them inflicted it on the first test. Although neither boys nor girls give evidence of a clearly defined idea of restitution at any time, yet it would seem that from eight to fourteen the idea is more clearly defined in the minds of the boys than of the girls. The second offence does not violate commutative justice, hence restitution is not required. However, we have con- sidered the punishment, writing the examination over or writing another examination as an example of restitution, although it is not restitution, since the child from whom he copied was not deprived of anything. It appears like restitu- tion only in the sense that the offender is restoring to himself the power that would have accrued to him from the successful working of the problem.*' Except at seven, at eight and at twelve a greater percentage of boys than of girls have required restitution on the second test. The boys give evidence, as shown from Table XIV, of a slight retardation in the development of the idea of restitution between the ninth and the tenth year, while the girls show this retardation between the eighth and the ninth year. Here we have fur- ther evidence that the boys are passing through a transitional 8C/. Summa Theol. St. Thos., Ila, Ilae, Q LVIII, A. 2. 40 A Pedagogical Study phase between the ninth and the tenth year, the girls having passed through this phase the previous year. Table XIII. — Showing the Percentage of Children Inflicting Punish- ments Entailing Restitution. Age in Years. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 00.0 0.9 0.0 0.8 3.9 3.1 3.4 7.5 5.4 00.0 5.8 0.9 2.6 5.9 7.3 18.1 5.6 14.6 00.0 0.9 0.0 1.8 4.8 8.0 7.0 11.6 5.4 00.0 2 5 0.3 1.7 4 8 6.1 9.5 8 2 8.4 00.0 0.8 1.0 0.8 0.8 2.7 00.0 5.9 3.9 00.0 3.3 2.9 9.4 5.9 6.5 12.6 11.7 10.8 00.0 0.8 0.0 0.8 3.4 4.7 2.7 8.0 4.6 00.0 16 1.3 3.6 3.4 4.6 5.1 8.5 6.4 14 Boys Test I Boys Test II Boys Test III.. . Boys Average. Girls Test I Girls Test II Girls Test III.. . Girls Average. 11.1 14.8 00.0 8.6 00.0 9.5 8.1 5.8 The above table shows the percentage of punishments entailing restitution inflicted by boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage reported on the three tests. Table XIV. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Girls Inflicting Punishments Entailing Restitution. Years 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 Boys Test I 387.5 126.9 166.6 182.3 00.0 -37.2 325.0 -8.3 -20.5 23.7 66.6 27.0 237.5 11.8 38.2 39.3 9.6 147.9 -12.5 55.7 100.0 90.9 -42.5 10 8 120.5 -69.0 65.7 -13.6 -i'.i 196.2 66.6 -28.0 160.7 -53.4 2.4 33.8 -7.6 -42.5 -24.7 105.5 Boys Test II -84.4 188.8 1.3 Boys Test III -100.0 -88.0 25.0 -12.1 466.6 -20.0 224.1 2.3 Girls Test I 100.0 Girls Test II 12.0 Girls Test III -76.0 -18.7 176.9 -9.3 The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishments entailing restitution inflicted by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a decrease in the rate, where no sign is used an increase is understood. PUNISHMENTS ENTAILING SHAME Under this heading we have included such punishments as by their very nature entail shame, i. e., standing or kneeling before a class, wearing a fool's cap and being scolded. We have included the last mentioned form in this class of punish- ments because a large majority of the children reported tliat they dreaded being scolded because it made them feel ashamed. By far the greatest percentage of those who inflicted punish- ments entailing shame resorted to scolding. Morever, it is the only form of this class either boys or girls reported having received. Shame and fear affecting the deeper emotions more than punishments affecting the bod}" or the possessions of the individual represent a more refined form of cruelty ; yet, since most of the punishments inflicted under this heading consisted of scolding, it does not in all probability mean that the children who inflicted it displayed a spirit of cruelty. A Pedagogical Study 41 Table XV.- -Showing the Percentage of Children Inflicting Punishments Entailing Shame. Age in Years 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Boys Test I Boys Test II Boys Test III Boys Average . . . Girls Test I Girls Test II Girls Test III Girls Average . . . 4.0 12.2 18.0 11.4 0.0 9.6 11.5 7.0 4.7 10.6 11.4 8.9 3.3 10.0 8.4 7.2 7.9 13.8 5.0 8.9 6.0 12.7 8.8 9.1 13.0 30.0 12.6 18 5 8.7 28.4 20.5 19.2 10:7 19.8 16.5 15.6 13.6 30.1 29.0 24.2 6.3 25.2 10.4 13.9 9.1 25.5 13.2 15.9 10.3 14.6 13.2 12.7 14.4 14.4 22.0 17.2 10.3 9.4 14.5 11.4 17.8 18.6 17.0 17.8 14.4 7.3 5.4 9.0 13.3 16.9 9.3 13.1 12.9 1.8 15.3 10.0 22.5 15.8 8.1 15.4 Fig^are IT The above table shows the percentage of punishments entailing shame inflicted by boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage reported on the three tests. Percent JOO 90 80 70 60 50 Uo 30 20 J ea 't I J. 7 - — — - 1 7 ■ - J- IV<£ 'J^C w o - — — - / / \ \ / / \ .^ ^^' \ •,^ / / * ^ ."■•-< ..^ \ ^^ ^-. .^ ^ A C^,^ *■ •... — T ^ y^ "^ >^ ^y ^ ->^ ^ 'V -v -7' ^^ 70 ■-'=^^^^ 5 6 7 a 9 /O /I /Z 73 /4 Age LTL Yeczrs Fio. v.— Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing shame inflicted by boys from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III, and the average percentages reported on the three tests. 42 A Pedagogical Study From the above table it will be seen that from five to eight, inclusive, the girls do not, for the most part, resort to punish- ments entailing shame as frequently as do the boys, but from nine to fourteen they resort to them more frequently. Although the boys show a higher rate on the average at five than the girls show at the same age, this is followed during the next two Percent 700 90 80 70 60 50 30 20 10 Figrizre JZI 1 'be 't . r 1 I - -- -- - n T - . 4x^. ?jrc 2qt p - — — - •"* "^ *' ^^•-%. •^ / /^ ,/ N \ ".^ / / 0^ \n — r >« ^ — -^ / ,^ _. ."' / y ^^ ^ ^ ^ :> ^- — ■j:- ■*«-" -^ V ^ * "■•- ... ^ ^ ^ 5 7 3 9 70 n Aqe irhYeczrs 12 13 74 FiG.VI. — Comparison of perceulages of punishment entailing shame inflicled by girls from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III, and the average percentages reported on the three tests. years by a decrease in the rate for the boys, while the girls show a slight increase at six and a greater increase at seven, which brings them above the boys at that age. At nine the boys show on the average a decided decrease from the percentage at eight, A Pedagogical Study 43 the girls, on the other hand, show a more marked percentage of increase. The boys continue to inflict fewer punishments of this class until the fourteenth year, when there is an increase of 11.1 per cent of the rate for the preceding year. With the girls the increase and decrease alternate from nine to fourteen, except at twelve. Here, as in all the evidence previously presented, the boys show marks of a transitional node between nine and ten. It will be noted from Table XVI that the first instance of a decrease on all the tests occurs with the girls at ten. If this is the mark of a node, it is the first evidence we have seen that the boy made the transition before the girl. Table XVI. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Girls Inflicting Punishments Entailing Shame. Years . Boys Test I Boys Test II. . . . Boys Test III... Boys Average. Girls Test I Girls Test II.... Girls Test III... Girls Average. 5-6 20.0 -13.1 -36.6 -21.9 4.1 -26.9 2.8 6-7 64.5 30.1 -56.1 0.0 81.8 27.0 4.7 26.3 7-8 64 . .S 117.3 152.0 107.8 45.0 123.6 132.9 110.9 8-9 -17.6 -34.0 30.9 -15.6 56.3 5.9 41.4 26.0 9-10 -41.1 27.2 -36.9 -10.8 -33.0 -15.2 -20.0 -34.2 10-11 63.4 -42.0 26.9 -8.6 58.2 -43.5 73.4 8.1 11-12 0.0 -35.6 9.8 -10.2 23.6 29.1 -25.7 3.4 12-13 39.8 -22.3 -62.7 -21.0 13-14 -10.3 -75.3 183.3 11.1 -25.2 69.1 -9.1 -6.5 -45.2-12.9 -26.4 17.5 The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishments entailing shame inflicted by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a decrease in the rate, where no sign is used an increase is understood. We now submit evidence showing how far these children react to the suggestions of others. From five to eight and from eleven to fourteen the boys show a steady increase in the number of scoldings they were accustomed to receive as punishments. During the ninth and tenth years, the period when they show a marked decrease in the number of such punishments which they inflicted, we find also a marked de- crease in the number they received. From eleven to fourteen, inclusive, they received a greater and greater percentage of such punishments, yet we do not find them inflicting a larger number of them at the same time. From five to fourteen the girls show a steady increase in the percentage of such punish- ments received. We cannot then say that they are reacting to the suggestions of others as much as the boys, neither can we say that reason affects their answers as much as it does u A Pedagogical Study those of the boys, do not show. What the factor of variation is our data PUNISHMENTS ENTAILING FEAR Under this heading we have included the following punish- ments; lock him in a dark cellar, send him to jail or to a reform school. On the first and second tests neither boys nor girls resort to any form of punishment entailing fear to any marked degree, and in the small percentage of cases inflicting it the first form is used. On the third test both boys and girls resort to punishments entailing fear more frequently than on the other tests, and usually it takes the second form. This may be accounted for by the fact that the Austrian school is located directly opposite the State Prison, It will be seen (Table VII) that the Austrians furnish the second largest number of children for these tests. From previous evidence this class of boys is remarkable for the severity in the punish- ments inflicted. Table XVII. — Showing the Percentage of Children Inflicting Punish- ments Entailing Fear. Age in Years 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Boys Test I 2.0 10.2 18.0 10.0 5.7 5.7 30.7 14.0 0.9 2.9 24.7 9.5 2.5 2.5 24.3 9.7 2.9 5.9 38.0 15.2 3.0 1.9 26.4 10.4 2.6 2.6 31.5 12.2 3.4 5.1 17.8 8.7 0.9 2.9 12.6 5.4 2.5 4.3 10.2 5.6 3.9 1.6 14.5 6.6 2.7 2.8 8.4 4.6 0.0 0.0 9.7 3.2 3.6 1.8 7.3 4.2 2.8 0,0 6,7 3.1 0.9 0.0 9.0 3.3 1.8 0.0 10.0 3.9 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.5 3.7 Boys Test II 0.0 Boys Test III Boys Average Girls Test I 3.8 2.5 1.6 Girls Test II 0.0 Girls Test III Girls Average 3.2 1.6 The above table shows the percentage of punishments entailing fear inflicted by boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage reported on the three tests. Table XVIII. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Oirls Inflicting Punishments Entailing Fear. Years 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 Boys Test I -55.0 -71.5 37.2 -5.0 -56.1 -56.1 -20.8 -30.7 22.2 103.4 53.8 60.0 20.0 -24.0 8.6 7.2 -10.3 -55.9 -17.1 -19.7 13.3 168.4 -32.5 -65.3 11.5 -60.0 -55.7 -26.4 -15.6 -42.6 333.3 -44.8 15.0 22.2 8.0 -34.8 -17.6 -17.8 -100.0 -100.0 -33.1 -51.5 33.3 -35.7 -13.0 -8.6 -35.7 105.5 Boys Test II . Boys Test III -30.9 -3.1 -75.0 -100.0 23.2 -21.4 49.2 25 8 66.6 -62.0 Boys Average Girls Test I -35.8 66.6 Girls Test II Girls Test III -ioo.o -84.8 Girls Average -16.3 -35.6 220.0 The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishments entailing fear inflicted by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a decrease in the rate, where no sign is used an increase is understood. PeKCffnt 50 ^O 30 20 JO O A Pedagogical Study Ftgrure I///' 45 y \Vi?r^XQ \ 7e&t .U m ■ I 5 7 Aq^ 9 JO n iz 13 /4 Fig. VII. — Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing fear inflicted by boys from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III, and the average percentages reported on the three tests. Percent Mgrure y//i c?c/ 7 es t . T . //r> 1 7- - L Z- .... .... .. "^n ^ \V6 Tt zq a - — ■'• •., J on , '"' •» in ■^ -...^^^ *,^ '"- "^. ro — '^ ^^ ^^ F ^ f^ ^, ^ '^ a 9 70 71 A^e iru Years 7Z 73 /4 Fig. VIII. — Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing fear inflicted by girls from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III, and the average percentages reported on the three tests. On the first test from five to nine, inclusive, the girls inflict punishments entailing fear more often than the boys, but from ten to fourteen the boys inflict it more often than the girls except at eleven, when they do not resort to it at all. On the 46 A Pedagogical Study second test, unlike the first test, from five to eight, the girls in- flict it less often than the boys, but from eight to eleven, inclu- sive, they inflict it oftener than the boj^s. From eleven to fourteen, inclusive, the boys do not inflict it at all, and from twelve to fourteen, inclusive, the girls do not inflict it at all. On the third test, with the exceptions of the fifth and twelfth years, the boys inflict it more often than the girls. As no one reported receiving the second form of this punishment, they cannot be reacting to the suggestions of others, but in all probability they have been threatened with this form of punish- ment. Without exception every child who reported having received a punishment entailing fear reported also that he dreaded this form of punishment. Only seven boys and six- teen girls reported having received the first form. Obviously then they are not reacting to the suggestions of others. In the study of the data regarding the purposes for which these punishments were inflicted we shall see that the purpose plays an important part. Table XIX. — Shoioing the Percentage of Children Inflicting Punish- ments Affecting the Body. Age in years 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Boys Test I Boys Test II Boys Test III Boys Average. . . Girls Test I Girls Test II Girls Test III Girls Average . . . 86.0 55.0 40.0 60.3 88.4 80.7 36.5 68.5 79.0 58.1 47.5 61 5 83.1 60.4 52.0 65.1 69.2 44.4 37.0 50,2 73.0 46.0 35.2 51.4 64.3 34.5 24.3 41.0 62.0 27.5 20.4 36.6 59.2 30.6 16.5 35.4 70.0 27.5 19.6 39.1 62.6 25.2 20.9 36.2 62.3 28.3 27.3 39.2 53.3 12.9 14.1 26.7 53.1 17.1 23.8 31.4 42.4 19.8 13.5 25.2 40.5 16.6 14.0 23.7 30.6 9 1 13.6 17.7 25.1 6.9 10.1 14.0 18.5 3.7 3.8 8.6 12.9 4.7 4.9 7.5 The above table shows the percentage of punishments affecting the body inflicted by boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage reported on the three tests. Table XX. — Showing the Percentage of Children Inflicting Punish- ments Affecting the Feelings and the Emotions. Age in years 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Boys Test I Boys Test II Boys Test III Boys Average. . . Girls Test I Girls Test II Girls Test III Girls Average . . . 14.0 36.7 60.0 36.9 9.5 17.2 59.5 28.7 16.0 38.7 49.3 34.6 13.3 30.9 44.4 29.5 22.6 51.2 61.0 44.9 23.0 48.8 58.7 43.5 32.0 60.8 74.7 55.8 34.4 71.3 76.6 60.7 36.0 65.2 80.5 60.5 28.0 68.7 77.6 58.1 33.9 71.5 76.4 60.6 35.6 68.8 68.7 57.7 43.8 83.7 84.7 70.7 39.6 78.3 73.2 63.7 52.6 72.5 82.1 69.0 49.3 73.4 83.0 68 5 63.9 87.0 85.3 78.7 63.5 89.3 87.3 80.0 59.1 83.2 94.1 78.8 74.1 88.7 91.5 84.7 The above table shows the percentage of punishments affecting the feelings and the emotions inflicted by boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age on each test and the average percentage reported on the three tests. A Pedagogical Study 47 Table XXI. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Oirls Inflicting Punishments Affecting the Body. S-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 lO-U 11-12 12-13 13-14 Boys Test I -8.1 5.6 18.7 1.9 -5.9 -25.1 42.4 -4.9 -12.4 -23.5 -22.1 -18.3 -12.1 -23.8 -32.3 -21.0 -7.0 -22.2 -34.3 -18.3 -15.0 -40.2 -41.7 -28.7 -7.9 -11.3 -32.0 -13.6 12.9 0.0 3.9 6.8 5.7 -17.6 26.6 2.2 -11.0 2.9 39.2 0.2 -14.8 -48.8 -32.5 -26.2 -14.7 -39.5 -12.8 -19.8 -20.4 53.4 -4.2 -5.6 -23.7 -2.9 -41.1 -24.5 -27.8 -54.0 -0.7 -29.7 -38.0 -58.4 -27.8 -40.9 -39.5 Boys Test II -59.3 Boys Test III -72.0 -51.4 Girls Test I -48.0 Girls Test II -31.8 Girls Test III -51.4 -46.4 The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishment • afifecting the body inflicted by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a decrease in the rates where no sign is used an increase is understood. Table XXII. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Girls Inflicting Punishments Affecting the Feelings and the Emotions. Years 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 Boys Test I 14.2 5.4 -17.8 -6.2 40.0 79.6 -25.3 2.7 41.2 32.2 23.7 29.7 72.9 57.9 32.2 47.4 58.7 18.7 22.4 24.2 49.5 46.1 30.4 39.5 12.5 7.2 7.7 8.4 -18.6 -3.6 1.3 -4.2 -5.8 9.6 -5.0 0.1 27.1 0.1 -11.4 -0.6 29.2 17.0 10.8 16.6 11.2 13.8 6.5 10.3 20.0 -13.3 -3.0 -2.4 24.4 -6.2 13.3 7.5 21.4 20.0 3.8 14.0 28.8 21.6 5.1 16.8 — 7 5 Boys Test II -4.3 Boys Test III 10.3 Boys Average 1 Girls Test I 16 6 Girls Test II -0 6 Girls Test III 4.8 Girls Average 5 8 The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishments affecting the feelings and the emotions inflicted by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign in- dicates a decrease in the rate, where no sign is used an increase is understood. CHAPTER III The Purposes Activating the Subject We are here concerned to determine, first, whether the child is governed by a vague impulse or by a clearly defined purpose to be attained by the punishment he inflicts ; secondly, when this impulse, if present, is replaced hy a more or less clearly defined purpose. Accordingly the reasons for which the children tested inflicted the various forms of punishment, were tabulated. These reasons fall readily into five groups: (1) Because wrong was done, i. e., "Hit him because he copied"; (2) To prevent a repetition of the ofl^ense, i. e., "Take the paints away so she can't do it again"; (3) To cause pain, i. e., "Make him stand before the class, because it will make him feel ashamed"; (4) To administer justice, "An-eye-for-an- eye" form of justice, i. e., "Hit him because he deserved it" ; (5) To correct the ofl'ender, i. e., "Whip her and then she will know bettter next time." 92.7 per cent of the total number of answers received were included under these five heads; 5.6 per cent gave no reason whatever for the punishments inflicted. Obviously, the impulse here was too vague to be expressed. The remaining 1.7 per cent gave a variety of reasons, sixteen different ones, for their attitude toward the offender, clearly showing that they either misunderstood what was required of them, that the offense was too slight to warrant their consid- eration of the matter or that the offender was not in fault. The first and second groups clearly show an im- pulse to restore the balance destroyed by tlie offense or to prevent its being destroyed in the future. These two groups, together with the 5.6 per cent who gave no reason for the punishments inflicted, we have grouped under the heading, An Impulse. The third and fourth groups seem to be prompted by a spirit of vindictiveness, while the fifth group reveals a genuine desire to correct the offender, the most perfect motive prompting a correction of any kind. Whether prompted by vindictiveness or by the more laudable motive of correcting the offender, obviously the children tested had a more or less clearly defined purpose in mind when they in- 48 A Pedagogical Study 49 flicted the punishments. Accordingly we have grouped these purposes under the heading, A Clearly Defined Purpose. AN IMPULSE It will be seen (Tables XXIII and XXIV) that from the fifth to the eleventh year, a greater percentage of all tested are impelled by An Impulse than by A Clearly Defined Purpose to be attained, but from the eleventh year on, this condition is reversed, and we find the greater percentage seeking to attain a certain end by means of the punishments inflicted. The first period is sub-divided into well marked divisions of three years each. The second period does not present evidence of sub-divisions, at least not irom the data on hand. On all three tests a greater percentage of boys at six are impelled to punish from An Impulse than at five years. On the average the increase is 13.2 per cent of the rate at five as against 34.6 per cent decrease in the rate governed by A Clearly Defined Purpose at the same age. At seven this Table XXIII. — Showing the Percentage of Children Impelled by An Impulse. Age in years 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Boys Test I Boys Test II Boys Test III Boys Average. . . Girls Test I Girls Test II Girls Test III Girls Average . . . 74.0 61.1 82.0 72.3 82.6 82.6 80.7 81.9 79.9 78.4 87.5 81.9 75.5 78.0 74.7 76.0 74.2 79.0 92.0 81.7 81.0 84,1 82.2 82.4 62.5 69.7 85.5 72.5 63.6 83.5 85.3 77.8 63.9 75.0 86.3 75.0 83.6 70.5 79.4 77 8 56.2 60.9 69.3 62.1 60.4 70.6 69.7 66.9 45.5 40.4 51.3 45.7 36.0 47.7 47.6 43.7 29.0 37.7 34.9 33.8 28.5 24.4 40.0 30 9 25.2 29.2 36.3 30.2 12.4 17.5 20.9 16.9 22.1 31.4 32.5 28.6 30.5 25.3 30.9 28.9 The above table shows the percentage of boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age who were impelled by an impulse when they inflicted the various punishments on each test, and the average percentage reported on the three tests. Table XXIV. — Showing the Percentage of Children Governed by A Clearly Defined Purpose. Age in years 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Boys Test I Boys Test II Boys Test III Boys Average . . . Girls Test I Girls Test II Girls Test III Girls Average . . . 26.0 30.5 18.0 24.8 15.3 17.2 19.1 17.2 17.1 20.3 11.3 16.2 21.8 21.8 24.3 22.6 23.6 19.6 8.0 17.0 18.0 14.5 13.6 15.3 35.6 27.3 14.4 25.7 35.2 15.4 11. 5 20.7 32.9 21.6 10.5 21 6 15.3 26.6 19,6 20.5 41.8 37.4 30.5 36.5 36.6 29.2 30.1 31.9 51.6 58.5 47.6 52.5 60.3 49.5 50.4 53.4 68.7 60.3 61.0 63.3 67.2 74.3 60.0 67.1 73.8 66.9 63.5 68.0 84,0 80.7 78.9 81 2 66.6 68.4 67.2 67.4 64.4 73.0 68.8 68.7 The above table shows the percentage of boys and girls from 5 to 14 years of age who were goverded by a clearly defined purpose when they inflicted the various punishments on each test, and the average percentage reported on the three tests. 50 A Pedagogical Study increase is augmented on the second and third tests, while the first test shows a slight decrease from the rate at six, but not sufficiently great to reduce the average rate at seven more than 0.2 per cent below that at six and thus increase the average percentage governed by A Clearly Defined Purpose Percent 100 90 Ji^tgr are IZI 7 es t I L 'oj "S" ^> i \ G ir Is — — - -- /" K V \ 1 / \ \ ^- N s 1 \ \ > . \ 1 1 \ \ \ d-- — * \ \ \ \ 1 N \ \ \ \ N ■^ y / \ fC \ / / \ f 60 70 60 50 Uo 30 20 70 ^56 7 8 9 JO II iZ 13 Vi A^e trhVeccrs Fig. IX.— Comparison of percentages of boys and girls impelled by an impulse on Test I. 4.9 per cent of the average percentage at six. It would seem then that at six and at seven the boys show less evidence of the influence of reason than at five. Tables XXV and XXVI showing the percentage of children, regardless of sex, impelled by An Impulse and the percentage governed by A Clearly Defined Purpose give further evidence of this fact. A Pedagogical Study 51 Percent JOO 90 F^tg'ure XI 7^ SB t^ 1 i: o> ^^s "•v ^^ ■■" ■■ • — . ^ N (7 iri f^ -- - — - / ^-' • \, \ N / \, / ^, \ / > X \ \ \ / \ \ \ y \ \ \ \1 y \ \ \ \, \ ■ s \, \ \ 1 ^ r 80 10 60 50 4o 30 20 10 ~ 5 6 7 3 9 W II 12. 13 t^ Ag'e in. Ye ccrs Fig. X. — Comparison of percentages of boys and girls impelled by an impulse on Tet t II. 52 A Pedagogical Study Percent 100 90 BO 70 60 50 UO 30 2.0 10 Figure ^KZ / J ^et It. H ^ s y l^ "% \, Be W^ ■ V y ^- "' s •s \ Gl rU 7" "■ — ■ — ' ■V ^ y f \^ \ \ \ \ \ s ' \ > \ \ > ^ \ \ / / \ ' 5 6 7 8 9 ro n IZ^ 15 l^ A^e LrzYears. Fig. XI. — CompariaoD of percentages of boys and girla impelled by an impulse on Teat III. A Pedagogical Study 53 F7.(jr/rn XII Per Cent too 90 30 70 60 50 Uo 30 20 JO 5 6 1 Q 9 10 n IZ 13 1^ Ag'o irt Yoczrs Fig. XII. — Comparison of the average percentages of boys and girls mpelled by an impulse. Av^ drc zq^ 3 Be ^y^ / V Gi ^is ' — — .— ^ *■ -^ y /. y^ \ — -- \ / \ \ V \ V s \ \\ V \ \ V k ^ ^ \ 4 V /' f > / 54 A Pedagogical Study Per Cent JOO 90 SO 70 60 50 ^ 30 ZO 10 ° 5 Fig'ureXHL Tet St J Be >)/if i \ ' Gi. 'U •> — - — — \ / y^ ^ / f ^ 7 1 A f ( y / J Y / / / 'i f / \ ^ / 1 / 7 ' i t 1 \ s ^ , y / 1 y ^ \ ? ->» / \ t f 12^ 13 f^ 1 3 9 10 II Age LrLYears Fig. XIII. — Comparison of percenlages of boys aud girls governed by a clearly defined purpose on Test I. A Pedagogical Study 55 Percent loo /iYrTnT(=^ XIV Te^ 7t ZT 90 Be ^y^ 3' " eo Gi rU 3 ~ -- - — • — y 70 / 1 / f (^ .— — - ^ f ^ X / — f so \ / J f / ^0 / / J V , 30 / t 1 \ / s. , '/ r .^ 7n N y y n / , ^^ ^ / 10 n 5 6 7 3 9 ID n 12^ 13 I^ Fig. XIV. — Compari'-on of percentages of boys and girls governed by a clearly'defined purpose on Test II. 56 A Pedagogical Study P&rCent inn Ftg'ure A'l/' J ^s i J ^ 90 Be 'y- BO p ~ Gi -u y ^ ■ — — - -- / \ \ 70 / 1 \ / p^n / ^ / 50 // ^^ ■' iK) / y 30 / - ' ./ 7D y _ ^' \ / / N N \ / / 7 ■ \ N (^ >< >^ ~--^ / lO ^ X #o 5 6 1 8 9 10 11 12. 15 I^ Ag'e in Years' Fig. XV. — Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a clearly defined purpoM on Test III. A Pedagogical Study 57 PerCen lOO 90 J^tg-izre irVT ^ ^Vt TC T'^ J Be yt > "*■ Oi -U '- -- — - / / > \ f ^ \ y^' / V --^ // x" ^ \ ^ /. y ^ SO 10 60 SO ^0 30 ZO 10 5 6 1 a 9 JO IT 12. /3 1^ Ag-e truVeccrs Fig. XVI. — Comparison of the average percentages of boys and girls governed by a clearly defined purpose. 58 A Pedagogical Study Table XXV. — Showing the Percentage of Children Regardless of Impelled by An Impulse. 8ex, Age in years 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Test I 78.3 71.8 81.3 77.1 77.7 78.2 81.1 78.9 77.6 81.5 87.1 82.0 63.0 76.6 85,4 75.1 73.7 72.7 82.8 76.4 58.3 65.7 69.5 64.5 40.7 44.0 49.4 44.7 28.7 31.0 37,4 32.3 18.8 23.3 28.6 23.5 26.6 Test 11 28,3 Test III 31.2 Average 28.7 The above table shows the percentage of children of both sexes from 5 to 14 years of age who were impelled by an impulse when they inflicted the various punishments on each test and the average percentage reported on the three tests. Table XXVI. — Showing the Percentage of Children, Regardless of Sex, Governed by A Clearly Defined Purpose. Age in years 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Test I 20.6 23.8 18.5 21.0 19.4 21.0 17.8 19.4 20.8 17.0 10.8 16.1 35.4 21.3 12.9 23.2 24.1 24.1 15.0 21.0 39.2 33.3 30.3 34.2 55.9 54.0 49.0 52.9 67.9 67.8 60.5 65.2 78.9 73.8 71.2 74.6 65.5 Test II 70.7 Test III 68.0 68.0 The above table shows the percentage of children of both sexes from 5 to 14 years of age who were governed by a clearly defined purpose when they inflicted the various punishments on each test and the average percentage reported on the three tests. The girls show a substantial gain on all three tests at six over the rate at five, the average rate of gain being 31.3 per cent in the percentage governed by A Clearly Defined Pur- pose. This increase is accompanied by a loss of 7.2 per cent of the average rate at five in the percentage who were im- pelled by An Impulse. At seven, however, on each test there is a marked increase in the percentage impelled by An Im- pulse and an equally well marked decrease in the percentage governed by A Clearly Defined Purpose. Thus we see that at seven, when the reason is generally supposed to exercise considerable control over the actions, there is less evidence of its influence with the girls as well as with the boys, as has been pointed out, than at five or at six. Evidently some factor not shown from our data is acting as a retarding agent in the development of the judgment. At the beginning of the second part of the first period, i. e., the eighth year, the reason as a controlling factor seems, for the most part, to hold a more prominent place than heretofore. Both boys and girls show an increase, 51.1 and 35.2 per cent, respectively, of the average rate at seven in the percentage im- pelled by A Clearly Defined Purpose. The following year, how- ever, much of this ground is lost by the boys, who show a decrease of 15.9 per cent of the rate at eight, while the girls A Pedagogical Study 59 show but little change, 0.9 per cent decrease. Although both boys and girls show an increase in the tenth year in clearness of purpose, yet the average percentage impelled by An Impulse is still much greater than the average percentage governed by A Clearly Defined Purpose. Thus it will be seen that two points of retardation stand out in the development of the idea of pur- pose, between five and six and between eight and nine for the boys and between six and seven and possibly Ijetween eight and nine for the girls. Clearly the ninth year marks a nodal point in the development of the judgment of both sexes but especially in that of the boys. Table XXVII. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Gdrls Impelled by An Impulse. Years Boys Test I . . Boys Test II. Boys Test III Boys Average, Girls Test I . . Girls Test II. Girls Test III Girls Average. 5-6 6-7 7.9 -7.1 28.3 0.7 6.7 5.1 13.2 -.2 -8.5 7.2 -5.5 7.8 -7.4 10.0 -7.2 8.4 7-8 -9 9-10 10-11 -15.7 2.2 -11.7 7.6 -7.0 0.9 -11.2 3.4 -21.4-31.4 -0.7-15.5 3.7 -6.9 -5.5 0.0 -12.0 -18.8 -19.5 -17.2 -19.0 -33.6 -25.9 -26.4 -27.7-40.3 0.1-32.4 -12.2-31.7 -14.0-34.6 11-12 -36.2 -6.6 -3.1 -26.0 -20.8 -48.8 -15.9 -29.2 12-13 -13.1 -22.5 -4.0 -10.6 -56.4 -28.2 -47.7 -45.3 13-14 -12.3 7.5 -10.4 -5.2 145.9 44.5 47,8 71.0 The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishments inflicted from an impulse by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a decrease, where no sign is used an increase is understood. Table XXVIII. — Showing the Rate of Increase or Decrease from Year to Year in the Percentage of Boys and Girls Governed hy A Clearly Defined Purpose. Years Boys Test I . . . . Boys Test II . . . Boys Test III.. Boys Average Girls Test I Girls Test II..., Girls Test III.., Girls Average. 5-6 -34.2 -33.4 -37.2 -34.6 42.4 26.7 27.2 31.3 6-7 38.0 -3.4 ■29.2 4.9 -12.8 -33.4 -44.0 -32.3 46.6 39.2 80,0 51.1 95.5 6.2 ■15.4 8-9 -7.5 -20.8 -27.0 -15.9 -56.5 72.7 70.4 35.2! -0.9 9-10 27.0 73.1 190.4 68.9 139.2 9.7 53.5 55.6 10-1 1 23.4 56.4 56.0 43.8 64.7 69.5 67.4 67.3 11-12 33.1 3.0 28.1 20.5 11.2 50.1 19.0 25.6 12-13 7.4 10.9 4.0 7.4 25.0 8.6 31.5 21.0 13-14 -9.7 2.2 5.8 -0.8 -23.3 -9.5 -12.8 -15.3 The above table shows the rate of increase or decrease in the percentage of punishments inflicted from a clearly defined purpose by boys and girls on each test and on the average of the three tests between the consecutive years from 5 to 14. The minus sign indicates a de- crease, where no sign is used an increase is understood. A CLEARLY DEFINED PURPOSE Although from the ninth to the thirteenth years, inclusive, there is an ever increasing percentage of children of both sexes governed by A Clearly Defined Purpose, yet not until the eleventh year, the beginning of the second period, does the 60 A Pedagogical Study rate exceed that governed by An Impulse. We may con- clude then, from the data at hand, that the transition has been made and the control so persistently held and so reluctantly relinquished by the instincts is now assumed by the reason. It will be seen from Tables XXIII and XXIV that the average percentage of boys impelled by A Clearly Defined Purpose at fourteen is less in absolute value than at thirteen, yet the relation between the average percentage impelled by An Impulse at thirteen is 44.4 per cent of the average percentage governed by A Clearly Defined Purpose at the same age, while at four- teen it is only 42.4 per cent. With the girls this relation at four- teen is more than twice what it was at thirteen, yet it cannot be concluded that the instincts have again assumed control. This condition may be due to one of two causes or to their combined effect. It will be seen from Table XXVIII that on the average the girls make three times the advance between twelve and thirteen that the boys do, thus bringing their average percent- age at thirteen up to 81.2 per cent, or 13,2 per cent more than the boys' pevcentage at the same age. Again, while they show a decrease of 15.3 per cent between thirteen and fourteen, yet their percentage then is higher than the boys' percentage at the same age; and, although on the average they show an increase between thirteen and fourteen of 71 per cent in the rate impelled by An Impulse (Table XXVII) as against a decrease of 5.2 per cent shown by the boys during the same period, yet their average percentage at fourteen is only 0.3 per cent more in absolute value than the percentage shown by the boys at the same age (Table XXIV). The high emo- tional state at thirteen may have been the cause of the strong desire to correct the offender shown at thirteen, this being the chief element contributing to the increase at this time. When the emotional state has again become normal at four- teen, we find an increase of 2.3 per cent of the rate at twelve in the percentage controlled by A Clearly Defined Purpose with a corresponding decrease of 6.4 per cent of the rate at twelve in the percentage impelled by An Impulse. Un- doubtedly the thirteenth year marks a nodal point in the girls' emotional life, while the boys' emotions seem not to be a disturbing element at that time. A second cause may be \ A Pedagogical Study 61 found in the fact that at fourteen there is scarcely one-half the number of pupils of either sex present at the test as at thirteen. Thus a slight increase or decrease in the number controlled by the different motives would cause a much greater increase or decrease in the percentage than if more were present. The decrease in the percentage governed by A Clearly Defined Purpose at fourteen is therefore more appar- ent than real with both boys and girls but especially with the boys. 62 A Pedagogical Study Percent /oo ^iQ-uTe yvii Th, St I 90 3i ^V' s 80 at Hs > — — — / / 70 / / \ / ^ V 60 /f \ 1 / / 50 / / / 1 1 / ^0 y / 1 ( 30 // / / / J / 20 // \ / 70 \ / / "^ > n 7^^ '5676 9 10 11 12 13 1^ Ag'e t riy Ybcxrs Fio. XVII. — Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a desire to correct the offender on Test !• A Pedagogical Study C3 Per 100 Cent jt^'LQureXVIll n ^s tl T 90 B, ^.y s - BO Gi rl s — ■ — - / / ^ 70 t / \ \ ^ - \ 60 1 ( / / 1 / / 50 / y / / UO //' / / 30 1 //' /1 / ZO N, ^^/ ^ ^, -- ^ X ' >^ / 70 ^ y _ __ ___ ._ / ^^ ^ n 5 6 IS 9 10 /! 12, 13 /4 Fig. XVIII. — Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a desire to correct the offender on Test II. 64 A Pedagogical Study Per Cent 100 90 80 10 60 50 30 ZO 70 O 5 Fio. XIX.- FigrureXlX Te St m - J3i ^y s ~ Gi rl s — — . - / \ / \ / V /^ ^ — / / r / / / / yl f' / / t / ^ J 1 / / / / / *-■ .*-•' ^ < f / ^ 6 1 a 9 10 n 12. 13 iH A qe in, ybcc rs -Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a desire to correct the offender on Test III. A Pedagogical Study 65 Percent 700 90 SO lO 60 50 ^O 30 20 FtgureXX 10 o U \vt TC zg-. C3 Be 'y\ 3 ■ Gh rl 3 — i ( \ / ( \ > / \ 4 / r \^ "^ / // // J / / / / / "--« / /- -' , ^ 1^ -^ 5 6 1 Q 9 10 7/ JZ J3 I^ Ac^o tTu Ysccrs Fig. XX.— Comparisons of the average percentages of boys and girls governed by a desire to correct the offender. 66 A Pedagogical Study Per Cent 30 ZO F^ig'izre XX / A ?S t u ' B^^^ t ^^ — \ O ir l& ' — — — \ > y > . X N, ^ ^ ^ ^ ■''" ^•~- •■~-~. ^'' ,-■ ^ 10 5 6- 7 8 9 /O /r /2 /3 /4' Ag'G in YeccrB Fig. XXI. — Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a spirit of vindictiveness on Teat I. Ftgfure xx/l Percent 30 :lo 10 '-^^^ '5 6 7 e 9 10 n J2 /3 /4 A(je hrvYeccrs Fig. XXII. — Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a spirit of vindictiveness on Test II. 7 hs t. 7 B 07> r£: ^ \ c yt 7^ \£ __ — — > \ V- s. \ \ ^ ^ V <,'' :h y' % • / ^ ^ 1 •* ^, \ A Pedagogical Study 67 Percent 30 FtgrizreAXiii Fig. XXIII. — Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a spirit of vindictiveness on Test III. Percent 30 ZO 70 Figure :KXEI /Iv ■er •^< re J 3c V, S' -y' \ c l-L rz s — ' — - .J\ s" \ s -- i^ „^ - — ., ^ ^■^ -^^ .'- '■' r^ "•~-- '56 7 a 9 10 n 12 13 j4r A(jo troVeccrs Fig. XXIV. — Comparison of the average percentages of boys and girls governed by a spirit of vindictivenesB. 68 A Pedagogical Study Conclusions We can hardly fail to note from the data at hand that the vast majority of all the children tested, regardless of age or sex, seem to lack the power of appreciating the gravity of an offense. Moreover the element of sex does not seem To affect in any marked degree either the character of the punishments inflicted or the motive governing their selec- tion. Our observations seem, on the whole, to substantiate the position of previously established transitional nodes and to emphasize a preparatory stage for each node. During these preparatory stages there appears to be a breaking up, as it were, of the conscious life. This is shown by a greater severity in the character of the punishments inflicted as well as by a retardation in the development of a clearly defined purpose in the infliction of the punishment. Aside from these periods of seemingly peculiar reversions, we find a more marked severity in the character of the punishments inflicted, during the instinctive stage than during either of the other stages. Unfortunately we have not convincing evidence upon which to base conclusions regarding the effect of heredity on the reaction to the suggestions of others. Apparently the instincts seem to hold sway over the motive governing the act longer than over the act itself. They seem to be more or less effectually dislodged as a controlling power in selecting the form of punishment much earlier than in determining the motive in punishing. This may be accounted for by the fact that imitation may easily exercise an influence in the case of the act itself, while it could not so easily influence the motive. BIBLIOGRAPHY Philosophical, Historical, Educational and Scientific References Aristotle, Treatise on Rhetoric, translated by Buckley, T., London, 1883. Baldwin, J., Mental Development in the Child and the Race, New York, 1906. Feeling and Will, New York, 1895. Bible, The: The Epistles of St. Paul. The Gospels. Catholic Encyclopedia, New York, 1907-14. Articles: "Education," by E. A. Pace. "Justice," by T. Slater. Chamberlain, A. F., The Child, New York, 1911. CoMPAYRli: G., L'Evolution Intellectuelle ct Mo7-ale de VEnfant, Paris 1896. Donaldson, H., Growth of the Brain, London, 1895. EscHYLUs, Choephorae, translated by Potter, R., New York, 1836. Grote, G., History of Greece, New York, 1879. Hall, G. S., Adolescence, New York, 1904. Youth, New York, 1907. Children's Lies and Children's Collections, Worcester, Mass., 1890. The Contents of Children's Minds on Entering School, New York, 1893. James, W., Principles of Psychology, New York, 1913. Talks to Teachers on Psychology, New York, 1899. KiRKPATRicK, E., Genetic Psychology, New York, 1910. The Individual in the Making, Boston, 1911. Fundamentals of Child Study, New York, 1898. Marshall, H., Instinct and Reason, New York, 1898. Morgan, L., Hahit and Instinct, London, 1896. Instinct and Experience, New York, 1912. Partridge, G., The Genetic Philosophy of Education, New York, 1912. Plato, The Republic, translated by Jowett, B., Oxford, 1908. The Dialogues, "Gorgias" and "Protagoras," translated by Jowett, B., New York, 1873. "Phaedo," New York, 1893. "Laws," New York, 1889. Preyer, W., Mental Development in the Child, translated by Brown, H., New York, 1893. The Mind of the Child, translated by Brown, H., New York, 1888-89. 69 70 A Pedagogical Study QuAiN, J., Elements of Anatomy, Vol. I., Pt. I., London, 1892. Vol. III., Pt. I., London, 1893. Vol. IIL, Pt. IL, London, 1895. Vol. IIL, Pt. III., London, 1894. RicKABY, J., Moral Philosophy, New York, 1908. Shields, T. E., Philosophy of Education, Washington, 1917. Thomas Aquinas, Saint, Summa Theologica, Paris, 1887. Summa Contra Gentiles, Taurini, 1914. Tracey, F., Psychology of Childhood, Boston, 1909. Tyler, J., Growth and Education, Boston, 1907. WiLLMAN, 0., Didactic als Bildungslehre, Braunschweig, 1882-89. magazine articles Barnes, E., "Punishment as Seen by Children," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. III., pp. 235-245, October, 1895. BoHN, Wm. E., "A Child's Questions," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. XXIII., pp. 120-122, March, 1916. BuRNHAM, W. H., "Child Study as a Basis of Pedagogy," Report of Commissioner of Education, 1892-1893, Vol. I., p. 359. Gilbert, C. B., "Relation of Child Study to the Work of a City Super- intendent," National Educational Association Proceedings, 1896, p. 881. Hall, G. S., "Child Study as a Basis for Psychology and Psychological Teaching," Report of Commissioner of Education, 1892, Vol. I., p. 357. "Notes on the Study of Infants," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. I., p. 127, June, 1891. "Recent Advances in Child Study," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. XV., p. 353, September, 1908. "The Study of Children," Report of Commissioner of Education, 1892, p. 366. "Topical Syllabi for Child Study," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. III., p. 6, October, 1894. "Notes on the Study of Infants," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. I., p. 127, June, 1891. "Some of the Methods and Results of Child Study Work at Clark University," National Educational Association Proceed- ings, 1896, p. 860. Hancock, John A., "A Preliminary Study of Motor Ability," Peda- gogical Seminary, Vol. III., p. 9, October, 1894. Haskell, Ellen M., "Imitation in Children," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. III., p. 30, October, 1894. Howard, Frank E., "Psychological Differences Between Children and Adults," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. XX., p. 236, June, 1913. Johnson, G. E., "Education by Plays and Games," Pedagogical Semi- nary, Vol. III., p. 97, October, 1894. N A Pedagogical Study 71 O'Shba, M. v., "Interests in Childhood," National Educational Asso- ciation Proceedings, 1896, p. 873. Pabkeb, F. W., "Work of the Illinois Society for Child Study," Na- tional Educational Association Proceedings, 1896, p. 844. Schallenberger, M., "A Study of Children's Rights as Seen by Them- selves," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. III., p. 87, October, 1894. Thuebeb, C. H., "What Children Want To Do When They are Men and Women," National Educational Association Proceedings, 1896, p. 882. Van LiEw, C. C, "Child Study a Part of the Teacher's Art," National Educational Association Proceedings, 1896, p. 864. WiEiES, S. E., "A Preliminary Sketch of the History of Child Study in America," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. III., p. 189, October, 1895. LIST OF TABLES Page I. Showing the distribution of answers received 11 II. Showing percentage of corporal punishments inflicted, by tests, age and sex 12 III. Comparison of Tests I and II; I and III; II and III; as to the percentage of corporal punishments inflicted 13 IV. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from year to year in the percentage of boys and girls inflicting corporal punishments between 5 and 14 years 18 V and VI, Pt. I. Showing distribution of children present on each test, by age, sex and nationality 20 V and VI, Pt. II. Showing distribution of children inflicting corporal punishments, by tests, age, sex, and nationality 22 V and VI, Pt. III. Showing the percentage of corporal punishments in- flicted by tests, age, sex and nationality 26 VII. Showing rank in numbers present and rank in percentage inflicting corporal punishments, by tests, sex and nationality 25 VIII. Showing percentage of children inflicting brutal punishments 31 IX. Showing number of children inflicting brutal punishments 32 X. Showing number of children inflicting brutal punishment, by tests, age, sex and nationality 33 XI. Showing the percentage of children inflicting punishments entailing loss 38 XII. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from year to year in the percentage of boys and girls inflicting punishments entailing loss 38 XIII. Showing the percentage of children inflicting punishments entailing restitution 40 XIV. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from year to year in the percentage of boj's and girls inflicting punishments entailing restitution 40 XV. Showing the percentage of children inflicting punishments entailing shame 41 XVI. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from j'ear to year in the percentage of boys and girls inflicting punishments entailing shame 43 XVII. ShoAving the percentage of children inflicting punishments entailing fear 44 XVIII. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from year to year in the percentage of boys and girls inflicting punishments entailing fear 44 XIX. Showing the percentage of children inflicting punishments affecting the body 46 XX. Showing the percentage of children inflicting punishments affecting the feelings and the emotions 46 XXI. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from year to year in the percentage of boys and girls inflicting punishments affecting the body 47 72 ^ A Pedagogical S'^udy 73 Page XXII. Showing the rate of increase or of decrease from year to year in the percentage of boys and girls inflicting punishments affecting the feelings and the emotions 47 XXIII. Showing the percentage of children impelled by an impulse 49 XXIV. Showing the percentage of children governed by a clearly defined purpose 49 XXV. Showing the percentage of children, regardless of sex, impelled by an impulse 58 XXVI. Showing the percentage of children, regardless of sex, governed by a clearly defined purpose 58 XXVII. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from year to year in the percentage of boys and girls impelled by an impulse 59 XXVIII. Showing the rate of increase or decrease from year to year in the percentage of boys and girls governed by a clearly defined purpose 59 LIST OF FIGURES I. Comparison of percentages of corporal punishment inflicted by boys from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III 14 II. Comparison of percentages of corporal punishment inflicted by girls from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III 15 III. Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing loss inflicted by boys from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III and the average percentages reported on the three tests S6 IV. Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing loss inflicted by girls from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III and the average percentages reported on the three tests 37 V. Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing shame inflicted by boys from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III and the average percentages reported on the three tests 41 VI. Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing shame inflicted by girls from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III and the average percentages reported on the three tests 42 VII. Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing fear inflicted by boys from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III and the average percentages reported on the three tests 45 VIII. Comparison of percentages of punishment entailing fear inflicted by girls from 5 to 14 years of age on Tests I, II, III and the average percentages reported on the three tests 45 IX. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls impelled by an impulse on Test 1 50 X. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls impelled by an impulse on Test II 51 XI. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls impelled by an impulse on Test III 52 XII. Comparison of the average percentages of boys and girls impelled by an impulse 53 XIII. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a clearly defined purpose on Test 1 54 XIV. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a clearly defined purpose on Test II 55 XV. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a clearly defined purpose on Test III 66 XVI. Comparison of the average percentages of boys and girls governed by a clearly defined purpose 57 XVII. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a desire to correct the ofifender on Test 1 62 XVIII. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a desire to correct the offender on Test II 63 XIX. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a desire to correct the offender on Test III 64 XX. Comparison of the average percentages of boys and girls governed by a desire to correct the offender 65 XXI. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a spirit of vindictiveness on Test 1 66 XXII. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a spirit of vindictiveness on Test II 66 XXIII. Comparison of percentages of boys and girls governed by a spirit of vindictiveness on Test III 67 XXIV. Comparison of the average percentages of boys and girls governed by a spirit of vindictiveness 67 74 VITA Sister Mary Alma Kitts was born in Rensselaer Falls, New York, September 10, 1876. She received her elementary edu- cation and a part of her high school education in the public school of her native place. She was graduated from the Pots- dam State Normal School in 1896. She taught in the elemen- tary schools in New York State from 1896 to 1899. From 1899 to 1901 she was assistant principal of the public high school, Hermon, New York. During 1902 she taught in the elementary public school at Chappaqua, New York. In 1903 she entered the Novitiate of the Sisters of St. Dominic, New- burgh, New York. She was instructor in Mt. St. Marys Academy from 1905 until 1912, pursuing courses in private and at the Sisters Summer School, Catholic University. During 1912 she taught in Holy Angels Academy, Seattle, Washington. From September, 1913, until June, 1915, she was a student in residence at the Catholic Sisters College and the Sisters Summer School, completing the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in August, 1914. In June, 1915, she received the degree of Master of Arts from the Catholic Sisters College. She was permitted to work in absentia from September, 1915, until June, 1916. From Sep- tember, 1916, until June, 1917, she was again a student in residence at the Catholic Sisters College. In 1917 she was appointed inspectress of the parochial schools in charge of the Sisters of St. Dominic of Newburgh, New York, during which time she collected and tabulated the material forming the body of the foregoing thesis. 75 tpJrJ. W}) LIBRARY OF CONGRESS '^A-'i'M 019 842 463 8