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AMERICAN
BEGINNINGS
IN
EUROPE
GORDY
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COPlfRIGHT DEPOSm
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS
IN EUROPE
THE
GENERALL HI^TORIE
j'Mrgima.Nevv-Engkncl.ancl the Summer
Jflc5-\vith the names oftheAdvcnturecs,
Planters,and Governpurs from their
firflbeginnihg An: \s a 4.to this
prefcnt i <5'a ,4 .
I ^c tncHcffberh ttitn be{dt tken m c^^nar
^\lfo tJie Altps and Defcriptionsofallthofe
Countries, their CommoaiticSjpcople ,
Govcmmcni.Cuilomes^anci Rrligion
yet knownc .
DmDED IKTO snCE BOOKES .
TITLE-PAGE OF CAPTAIN JOHN SMITh's GENERALL HISTORIE OF VIRGINIA.
FROM A COPY IN THE NEW YORfc" PUBLIC LIBRARY
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS
IN EUROPE
BY
WILBUR F. GORDY
rORMERLY SCPERINfTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, UASS.; AUTHOR OF "A BISTOBT
OF THE UNITED STATES FOR SCHOOLS," "AMERICAN LEADERS AND HEROES,"
"elementary history of the UNITED STATES," " STORIES OF
AMERICAN EXPLORERS," "COLONIAL DAYS," ETC.
WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
NEW YORK CiJlCAGO BOSTON
y
o
3
1^
1
COPYRIGHT, 1912, 1919, BY
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
St> lu !9fy
K
©CI.A529811
CT
^
t PREFACE
HiSTOKY, it has been wisely said, finds its greatest prac-
tical value in bringing about the moral revelation of the
world in the mind of the child. In organizing the facts of
history with the achievement of this moral revelation in
view, that material should be selected which the pupil
can appreciate and understand, which will be most con-
ducive to his moral and intellectual growth, and which
will be most helpful in explaining his life in its relation
to the lives of his fellows. With the puipose of thus
making history an applied study this book has been
written.
The plan is based upon the outline prepared by the
Committee of Eight for Grade VI, and in the main it fol-
lows this outline somewhat closely. As the author was a
member of that committee, he has had the best possible
opportunity to know just what is the scope of the work
which the outline was intended to cover. Moreover,
after this repoi-t was issued he made out for the schools
of Springfield, Mass., of which he was superintendent, a
course of study in history for Grade VI which was much
like that made out for the same grade by the committee.
For three years he saw this outline thoroughly tested, in
vi PREFACE
the eveiy-day work of the schools. He naturally feels,
therefore, that his experience has been very useful to him
as a preparation for writing '^American Beginnings in
Europe. "
In explaining his purpose he cannot do better than
quote the language of the Committee in its report to
the American Historical Association. "It is by no
means intended,'' says the report, "that the groups of
topics outlined in Grade VI should be taught as organ-
ized history. Such a use of the material suggested would
utterly defeat the purpose in view. Pupils in this grade
are not prepared to study scientific history in its log-
ical and orderly development. But they are prepared
to receive more or less definite impressions that may be
conveyed to them by means of pictures, descriptions, and
illustrative stories arranged in chronological sequence.
In receiving such impressions they will not understand
the full meaning of the great events touched upon,
but they will catch something of the spirit and purpose
of the Greeks, the Romans, and other types of racial
life."
It is the hope of the author that through such impres-
sions the pupil will clearly understand that our national
history is a part of the history of the world, and that it
had its beginnings many centuries before Columbus
started out on his famous voyage of discovery. For some
of our American beginnings we are indebted to the Greeks,
for some to the Romans, for others to the men of the Mid-
dle Ages, and for others still to the peoples of more recent
PREFACE vii
eras. To make this clear the pupil is taken back in
imagination to the time of the Greeks, the Romans, and
the men of the Middle Ages. Simple material of great
racial types like the Greeks and Romans is used to il-
lustrate the traits of character of these peoples, to in-
terest the pupil in some of their most precious memo-
ries, and to give him some hints as to the contributions
they have made to our civilization. In other words, the
pupil will learn in a very simple way when and where
some of the valuable elements of our civilization had
their beginnings, what ways of living our forefathers
brought with them when they came to America, and
something of the spirit which prompted the discovery, the
exploration, and the settlement of the New World.
By means of such impressions, gained through pictures,
descriptions, and illustrative stories, it is believed that the
learner will receive influences which will enrich his in-
tellectual and moral life and prepare him for an intelli-
gent appreciation of the history of his own country.
In "American Beginnings, '' it is hoped, he will get a
glimpse of the meaning of American life which will be of
imtold value to him in his studies at school, but especially
in his later adult life as a citizen and as a man.
Wherever it could be done, there has been a persistent
effort to make representative men the centre of great move-
ments and important situations. By getting a glimpse of
such men as they appeared to those who knew them, and
also some notion, even though shght, of their personal
qualities, the pupil through his sympathetic imagination
viii PREFACE
comes into vital touch with the past and gets deep and
lasting impressions.
For the purpose of emphasizing these impressions,
"Things to Remember '' may be used to great advan-
tage after the reading and study of any chapter. They
give in a nutshell some of the more important facts men-
tioned in the text. A few significant "things" learned in
this way will serve to give a definite and useful quality
to the pupil's knowledge.
The notes "To the Pupil' ^ will be found very useful
not only in testing the child's knowledge of the text,
but also in stimulating his interest in men and events.
The questions are not intended to cover all the facts in
the text. They rather call attention to the more impor-
tant ones and suggest additional questions. They may be
used in connection with the side topics to give variety to
the recitation.
Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon forming the
important habit of locating every event on the map. Not
only in preparing the lesson, but also in reciting it, maps
should be brought constantly into use. Believing this,
the author has taken special pains to see that the maps in
this book contain no useless matter. The aim has been
to put into them only what will help the pupil to under-
stand the meaning of the text.
In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge my deep obliga-
tion to Professor Bernadotte Perrin and Professor George
Burton Adams, of Yale University, for many valuable
suggestions; also to Mr. Forrest Morgan, of theWatkin-
PREFACE is
son Library, Hartford, and to Mr. Alfred M.Hitchcock, of
the Hartford Pubhc High School, both of whom have read
the proof and offered most helpful criticisms; and espe-
cially to my wife, without whose S3^mpathetic encourage-
ment and assistance this book would not have been
written.
Wilbur F. Gordy
Hartford, Conn.,
June 15, 1912
CONTENTS
THE PRESENT AND THE PAST
CHAPTER
PAGE.
I. The Present and the Past i^
THE GREEKS AND WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
FROM THEM
II. The Greeks and Why We Remember Them . . . U
III. The Greeks as Builders and Artists 28;
IV. Greek Boys and Greek INIen 38,
V. Men Who Carried Greek Ways of Living to Other
Lands 47^
THE ROMANS AND WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
FROM THEM
VI. How THE Romans Began 5^
VIL The Struggle Between Rome and Carthage . . 65x
VIII. The Romans in the West . 74
IX. Rome the Capital of an Empire 85
X. Rome and Christianity 104
THE MIDDLE AGES AND WHAT WE HAVE
LEARNED FROM THEM
XL The Germans , II3
XII. The Germans and the Romans 121
XIII. Alfred and the English 12&.
xi
Xii CONTENTS
CHAPTEB PAGE
XIV. How THE English Began to Win Their Liberties . 144
XV. Feudalism: OR, the Lord, THE Castle, AND THE Knight 155
XVI. Village Life in the Middle Ages 174
XVIL Towns and Guilds in the Middle Ages .... 179
XVIIL The Church, the Monastep.y, and the Monks . . 185
THE CRUSADES AND COMMERCE
XIX. The Crusades 203
XX. Results of the Crusades 219
THE DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN WORLD
XXI. Columbus and the Discovery of America .... 229
XXII. The Successors of Columbus 249
XXIII. The Beginnings of Conquest 261
RIVAL POWERS IN EUROPE AND AMERICA
XXIV. England in the Days of Queen Elizabeth . . . 279
XXV. France, Another Rival of Spain 296
XXVI. The King of Spain Defied by His Dutch Subjects . 302
XXVII. Englishmen Join in the Fight Against Spain . .310
XXVIII. English Voyages Westward 320
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAQS
Ti tie-Page of Captain John Smith's Generall Historie of Virginia.
From a Copy in the New York PubHc Library . . . Frontispiece
The Mayflower, One Hundred Feet Long Over All, which Carried
One Hundred and Two People 2
The Olympic, Eight Hundred and Eighty-two Feet Long, which Car-
ries Three Thousand Three Hundred and Sixty People ... 3
A Mariner's Compass 4
A Printing Press of the Time of Gutenberg 5
Wheels of the Egyptians, a Chariot 6
A Roman Plough 6
Primitive Tools 6
An Early Spinning Wheel 6
An Archer Using the Long Bow 6
Early Egyptian Pictures. Ploughing, Breaking Clods, and Sowing . 7
Cuneiform Writing 7
Gods Descending to Aid the Trojans 16
A Pi^eading from Homer 17
A Persian Soldier 19
Athenian Foot Soldiers Charging the Persian Hosts at Marathon . 21
Looking toward Thermopylae from the North-west 23
A Greek Ship 26
A Group of Greek Soldiers, Drawn from Sculptured Decorations on
One of the Temples 26
The Acropolis of Athens Restored 39
Athens and the Acropolis 31
Hermes by Praxiteles 32
Model of the Parthenon Restored, at the Metropolitan Museum, New
York City (Note Size of Soldier by the Column) 33
Statue of Athene which Stood in the Parthenon 34
Venus of Melos 34
Zeus 35
Greek Theatre at Epidauros 36
Spartan Warriors 40
Discus Thrower, by Myron 40
Scene on the Road to Olympia 41
xiii
xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
End of a Foot-Race — the Victor Leaping over His Fallen Rival . . 41
Crowning an Olympic Victor 42
Pericles 44
Socrates 46
Alexander the Great 50
Alexander in Battle. From the Sarcophagus of the Satraps at Con-
stantinople 52
A Roman Slinger 61
The Simple Dress of the Romans 63
Hannibal 68
Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps 69
A Roman Seaport, Ships of War and Other Craft 73
Julius Csesar 75
Caesar's Bridge over the Rhine (Showing Construction) 77
A Roman General Addressing His Troops 78
Roman Baths at Bath, England, as They Look To-day 79
Light Armed Soldier 81
A Roman Camp 82
Roman Standards 83
A Bit of Ancient Wall of Rome 85
The Coliseum, Rome 86
Fighting Gladiator . . , 87
A Chanel Race 88
Scene at the Villa of a Rich R,oman 90
Ruins of the Forum 92
Arch of Trajan, Timgad, North Africa 93
Arch of Constantine, Rome 94
The Appian Way, a Roman Road 95
The Aqueduct at Nimes 97
Claudian Aqueduct on the Roman Campagna 98
Peristyle of the House of Vettius, Pompeii 100
A Roman Book. Papyrus Roll 102
Juno 105
Nero 108
A Portion of a Wall in the Catacombs, Rome 109
Constantine • HO
Old Roman Bridge over the Moselle, Germany 113
Early German and Gallic Habitations, Drawn from a Photograph of
Those Constructed for the Paris Exposition of 1889 .... 114
Another Type of Early German and Gallic Habitation, Drawn from
a Photograph of One Constructed for the Paris Exposition, 1889 115
Return of Victorious Germans from a Fight with the Romans . . 117
Impersonation of the God Wotan on the Operatic Stage .... 118
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv
PAGE
Siegfried Forging His Sword 119
The Huns Sweeping Everything Before Them as They Invaded
Europe .122
Alaric 123
Alaric and His Followers Entering Rome 125
Ruins of a Roman Imperial Palace at Treves, Germany 126
Charlemagne Being Crowned Emperor at Rome 129
A Bit of Stonehenge. The Earliest Architectural Monument in
Britain 130
Saxon Ships 131
The Saxon Invaders 132
Pope Gregory I 133
Old Roman Church of St. Martin, Canterbury 134
St. Augustine 135
Remains of the Viking Ship of Gokstad, After Its Removal from the
Mound Wher^ It Was Found 137
The Bow of the Viking Ship of Gokstad, Showing Restored Steering
Board on the Left, and Complete Ship Above 137
King Alfred ' . . 138
King Alfred Inciting His Followers to Repel the Invasion of the
Danes, Whose Ships Have Been Sighted 140
William the Conqueror 145
A Ship of Duke William's Fleet which Transported Troops for the
Invasion of England. From the Bayeux Tapestry, a Contem-
porary Work 148
Fighting as Pictured in the Bayeux Tapestry, a Contemporary Work 146
Armor of the Time of William the Conqueror 147
The Norman Gateway of Windsor Castle 147
King Richard I, the Lion-Heart 148
Chateau Gaillard, Normandy, France. One of King Richard's Cas-
tles, Once the Main Outpost of His Norman Territory . . . 149
King John Signing Magna Charta 149
Manor House, Acton Burnell, Shropshire. Built for the Holding of
the First Parliament 151
Westminster Hall, where Parliament Was Held 153
The Feudal Fortifications, Carcassonne, France, as They Are To-day 156
Eenilworth Castle, Warwickshire, Founded about 1120. Besieged
and Taken by Royalists, 1266. Prison of Edward II in 1327.
Granted to John of Gaunt. Scene of Entertainments to Queen
Elizabeth, Dismantled under Cromwell ........ 159
The Drawbridge of the Castle 161
The Castle Towers and Battlements, Manned for Defence .... 162
The Great Hall of the Castle, The Oath of Fealty to the Young Lord 163
xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Inside the Main Gate of the Castle. A Minstrel Entertaining the
Gate-Watch 164
The Castle Court- Yard. The Return from a Foray 165
A Part of the Ceremony of the Conferring of Knighthood .... 167
The Vigil at Arms 168
The Trial Gallop 169
Armor of 1440, Said to Be the Best Period 170
Disposition or Line-Up of Knights, at One Side of a Tourney Field,
Showing Figure-Heads on Top of Helmets . . . . . . . . 171
The Armor and Lance of a Knight of 1550 172
Manor House in Suffolk, England 175
Feeding Chickens in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old
Psalter 176
Feeding Pigs in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old Man-
uscript 176
Grinding with a Hand-Mill in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured
in an Old Manuscript 177
Reaping in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old Psalter . . 177
Threshing in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old Psalter . 178
Ploughing in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old Psalter . 178
One of the Old City Gates of York, England 180
The City Walls of York, England .181
Phoenix Tower and a Bit of the Old City Wall, Cheste-, England . . 182
Butchers' Guild Hall, Hereford, England 183
The lona Monastery Buildings which Exist To-day and Date from
the Eleventh Century. The Cathedral Dates from the Thir-
teenth to the Sixteenth Century 186
Interior of lona Monastery Cathedral 187
St. Benedict Performing Miracles, after the Painting by Rubens . . 188
Monks at Work in the Monastery Kitchen 189
A Monk Dressed in the Woollen Cassock 190
Melrose Abbey, Roxburghshire, Scotland. Founded in 1136 by the
Cistercian Order, Sometimes Called the "White Monks" . . 191
Bolton Priory, Yorkshire, England. Founded in 1120 by the Augus-
tinian Order. The Prior Was a Great Feudal Dignitary . . . 192
A Concert in the Monastery 193
Monks Engaged in Literary Work and Copying 194
A Greatly Reduced Page of Illuminated MS. of the Thirteenth
Century 196
Furness Abbey, Lancashire, England. Founded in 1127 by the Cis-
tercian Order. The Abbot of the Monastery Not Only Possessed
Jurisdiction over the Monks, but Governed the People of the
Region as Well 197
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii
PAGE
Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, England, Founded in 1132 by the Cis-
tercian Order 199
View of Jerusalem, from an Old Engraving 204
Pope Urban II Presiding over the Council of Clermont in 1095 and
Calling the Christian People to the First Crusade for the Deliv-
erance of the Holy Land, after an Engraving of the Sixteenth
Century 206
Peter the Hermit Preaching to His Followers 208
The Crusaders before Jerusalem 210
Vision of St. George on Mt. Olivet 212
Godfrey Enters Jerusalem 213
Richard and Saladin in Battle 214
Blondel Hears the Voice of Richard 216
Venice, which Played Such an Important Part in the Development
of Commerce 220
A Door- Way in the Alhambra. The Alhambra Was the Fortress Pal-
ace of the Moorish Kings at Granada, Spain 224
Gallery of the Court of Lions, the Alhambra 226
Marco Polo 229
A Section of a Caravan. The Camels Have Been Unloaded and Are
Resting 231
Prince Henry 233
Vessels of the Fifteenth Century 234
Christopher Columbus 235
Tablet Marking the House in Genoa where Christopher Columbus
Was Born .236
Columbus at the Court of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella . . . 237
The Convent of St. Mary, near Palos, where Columbus Stopped . . 238
Room Occupied by Columbus in the Convent of St. Mary .... 238
Pinta, Santa Maria, Nina. Reproductions of the Vessels of Colum-
bus's Fleet as They Appeared in New York Waters During the
Centennial Celebration of 1892 239
Departure of Columbus from Palos 241
Columbus Taking Possession of the Land in the Name of King Ferdi-
nand and Queen Isabella 243
The Triumphal Entry of Columbus into Barcelona 244
Americus Vespucius 249
Sebastian Cabot 251
St. John's Gate, Bristol, England. A Landmark Contemporary with
Cabot's Residence in Bristol 252
Balboa 255
The Strait of Magellan 258
Cartier 259
xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAOB
Cortez 262
Cortez Parading His Followers Before the Messengers from Monte-
zuma 264
The Death of Montezuma 265
A Street in Cuzco, Peru, To-day, Showing Houses Built upon the Old
Inca Walls 267
The Spanish Soldiers of Pizarro Seize the Inca 268
The Inca Making the Mark upon the Wall 269
DeSoto 270
De Soto's Fight with the Indians 272
De Soto's Grave in the Mighty River He Had Discovered .... 273
An Old Spanish Mission in New Mexico, Erected in 1604 .... 276
Queen Elizabeth 280
The Ancient Palace at Greenwich Called Placentia, the Birthplace of
Queen Elizabeth 281
Queen Elizabeth in One of Her Many Royal Costumes 282
Sir Walter Raleigh's Cloak 283
Queen Elizabeth at Kenilworth Castle 284
English Ladies of Queen Elizabeth's Time . » 285
Elizabethan Costumes, from an Old Print 285
An Elizabethan Room and Furnishings 286
A Spanish Ship of Elizabeth's Time 287
A Dash for Liberty. An Incident of the Early Slave-Trade . . . 288
Drake Sees the Pacific 290
Drake in the Pacific Overtaking a Spanish Ship on Her Way from
China 291
Drake's Men Boarding a Spanish Treasure-Ship in the Pacific . . . 292
Queen Elizabeth Knighting Drake on Board the Golden Hind, at
Deptford, April 4, 1581 293
Martin Luther 294
Francis I 298
Chevalier Bayard 299
Old Spanish Gate, St. Augustine 300
In the Windmill Country, Holland 303
The Reproduction of Hudson's Half Moon, at the Time of the Hud-
son-Fulton Celebration in New York Waters, 1909 303
The Emperor, Charles V 304
King Philip II 305
Duke of Alva 306
William, Prince of Orange 308
Sir Philip Sidney 311
Sir Francis Drake 312
English Man-of-War about 1588 313
LIST OF MAPS xix
PAGE
Frobisher 314
Hawkins .... 315
One of the Finest Flag-Ships Surrendered to Drake without a Protest
When It Fell in His Way 316
Deck Scene on One of the Ships of the Armada during the Fight,
Showing Some of the Spanish Armor of That Time 317
Sir Humphrey Gilbert 321
Sir Walter Raleigh . . •. 323
The Arrival of the Englishmen in Virginia. From a Drawing by John
White, of Raleigh's First Colony, 1585 325
The Lost Colony . . , 327
LIST OF MAPS
PAGE
Ancient Greece (Colored) Between pages 10 and 11
Colonies of Phoenicia and Greece (Colored) . . Between pages 12 and 13
Alexander's Empire (Colored) Between pages 48 and 49
The Wars with Carthage, Hannibal's March to Frontier of Italy . . 67
The Roman Empire at the Beginning of the Christian Era .... 106
The Barbarian Kingdoms (Colored) Facing page 124
England at the Close of King Alfred's Reign 141
General Map of the Crusades 217
The World, as Known in the Time of Columbus, Showing Eastern
Trade Routes 247
English and Spanish Explorers of America 253
Balboa's Route and the Discovery of the Pacific Ocean 256
Map Showing Route of Cortez 266
Routes of Narvaez, De Soto, and Ponce De Leon, v/ith Huguenot
Settlements and Raleigh's Colonies 274
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
CHAPTER I
THE PRESENT AND THE PAST
I. The Strong Men of the Past Our Teachers. — ^We stories of
all listen with eager interest to stories of heroic men and help us"to^
their brave deeds. Such stories appeal to us because they ^^Y^ ?^°^®
point to the noble things we too may do if we learn to
hold noble ideals and aims and to take up hard tasks.
They somehow make us feel grateful to the strong men
whose deeds they tell of; for as we read we easily believe
these men were in many ways much like ourselves,
even though they lived in different times and countries
and worked in ways quite unlike our own. While in
imagination we join with them in meeting their dangers
and in solving their problem^s, we learn how to live more
wisely and how to be of greater service to others. We
know that many of the things these heroes of long ago
had to learn before they succeeded in doing their work
are the very things we too must learn if we are to be
successful.
These men of the past; to whom v/e owe so much, do These men
not belong to any one time or countiy. Some of them beionVt?
hved thousands of years ago, some but hundreds of years ^^iTand
ago, and still others in more recent times. Many had countries
their homes in ancient Greece and Rome, many in the
European countries of the Middle Ages, and even more
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The purpose
of tills book
belonged to more modern times and countries. But in
whatever age or country they Hved^ many of the things
they did are still helping us to-day. For what we are
as a people is largely the outcome of the struggles of
many men, of many ages, and of many lands.
Of course it is not always easy to trace the relation be-
tween the lives of men in far-away days and our own.
Nor is it possible in this little book, even though it were
desirable, to give the history of such men or of the periods
or countries in which they lived. The pages which follow
do not contain what we call organized histoiy. But it
is hoped that in them you may get a few im-
pressions which will help you to understand
the spirit and purpose of the Greeks, the
Romans, and other peoples who have done
something to make our civilization w^hat
it is. If you get such impressions you
will understand better the meaning of your
THE " MAYFLOWER," ONE HUNDRED Qwu historv wlieu vou como to study it,
FEET LONG OVER ALL, WHICH CAR- ^ '^ *^ .1
KiED ONE iiuNDRED AND TWO aud Tvdll sec more clearly the bearing of
PEOPLE .
all histoiy upon your own life.
2. Where Americans Came From. — Not only do our
ways of living come from many lands, but our people
do as well. Our forefathers were emigrants from sev-
eral countries, and millions of people living in the United
States to-day were born across the sea. These millions
of foreign-born men and w^omen represent every civilized
country of the world. Even in our own community it is
probable there are people from many lands.
Howimmi- ivlost, if not all, have come to the United States oe
grants come q^q^^^ steamships, some of which now travel with great
New-comers
in our own
land
TIiE PRESENT AND THE PAST
speed and carry people enough to fill a whole town. The
fastest and best make the voyage from England or France
to New York or Boston in five or six days, and carry
from 2,000 to 3,000
passengers. Some of
these steamers have
four or five decks,
with passenger eleva-
tors, telephones, and
other conveniences^
making them like
large floating hotels.
Of course you Imow
that most of the im-
migrants of to-day
come over as third-
class, or steerage, pas-
sengers. Before they
are admitted to any
of our ports — New
York City, for exam-
ple — they are exam-
ined by the proper offi-
cials to see if they meet
the requirements of our laws for admission into this coun-
try. These laws require that immigrants shall be free from
serious disease, shall not be convicts, and shall be self-
supporting. If they pass the examination the new-comers
are free to go wherever they like, and, unless they decide
to remain in New York, they travel by railroad to the
places which they wish to make their new homes.
THE OLYMPIC, EIGHT HUNDRED AND EIGHTY-TWO FEET
LONG, WHICH CARRIES THREE THOUSAND THREE HUNDKED
AND SIXTY PEOPLE
The ad-
mission of
immigranta
to this
country
4 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Earlier Far different was it with those who in earher days
f^migrants found their way to the western world. As you may
already know, among the first emigrants to settle in our
country were the Pilgrims, who landed at Plymouth in
1620. They knew nothing of the luxuries of the great
modern steamship. They set sail in the Mayflower^ a
boat which carried only 102 passengers, of whom 20
w^ere boys and 8 were girls. Long weeks and months
they were at sea. They suffered many trying experi-
ences, and at times must have longed for the simple home
comforts they had left behind. At last the tempest-
driven Mayflower, with sails rent and timbers strained,
dropped anchor safely after she had been sailing sixty-four
days. The difference between the voyage of 1620 and
that of to-day marks the progress of nearly three cent-
uries in the speed and comfort of ocean travel.
Some 3. What Americans Started With. — ^When the emi-
Sventfons grants from Europe came tp America in the seventeenth
century they brought with them much that the people
of Europe had learned up to that time. But they knew
nothing about many ways of do-
ing things that we know to-day.
The steamship, the railroad,
the trolley-car, the spinning-
machine, the power loom, the
sewing-machine, the telegraph,
A MAKiNEKs COMPASS ^ud tho tclcphone had not been
invented. These and other in-
ventions have come into use since the Pilgrims first
landed on the " bleak New England shore."
But fortunately for the Pilgrims and others who set-
THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 5
tied in America in the seventeenth century, many things inventions
had been invented before their day. Among the most the^c^om/ng^
useful of these were the mariner's compass, gunpowder, ^^.^^-^
A PRINTING-PRESS OF THE TIME OF GT7TENBERO
and the printing-press. With the compass as a guide,
sailors were ready as they had never been before to vent-
ure far out into the sea in search of undiscovered shores;
gunpowder made it easier to overcome wild and savage
peoples; and the printing-press spread abroad the knowl-
edge of new-found lands and of what men were doing
everywhere. By the use of such inventions men could
wield more power over the forces of nature and, what
was of still greater advantage, could accomplish far more
'n their work together. The printing-press has been of
t^special value in cheapening the cost of books and thus
enabling a much greater number of people to profit by
the wisdom of the ages.
Still older
inventions
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
WHEELS OF THE EGYPTIANS, A CHAMOT
A ROMAN PLOUGH
PRIMITIVE TOOLS
These inventions had been made many years before
Columbus crossed the Atlantic; and very much earlier
were many others which to-day
seem so commonplace that we
do not think of them as inven-
tions at all. Some of them are
the house, the boat, the bow^
the hatchet, the plough, and the
spinning-wheel. It was many
years before the rude man of primi-
tive days learned to build a house to
shelter himself, a boat to
carry himself and his goods
over the water, a
plough to break up
the soil, and a
way to express
his thoughts and
feelings in wiit-
ten words and
sentences so as
to make a per-
manent record.
AN EARLY SPINNING-WHEEi
AN ARCHER USING THE
LONG LOW
THE PRESENT AND THE PAST
4. The Invention of the Alphabet. — This last is one
of the most remarkable inventions ever made in the his-
tory of the world. But like most others it came about
slowly, by various
steps in a long
process. Writing
was used long be-
fore printing or earlt Egyptian pictuees. ploughing, breakeng clods,
AND SOWING
even the letters
of the alphabet. Instead of words the Egyptians in the
earlier days used pictures. But as they had neither
paper nor ink, they employed tools of hardened bronze
and made the pictures on stone.
For instance, if they wished to write the word for
man, they cut on the stone a picture of a man, or if
they wished to write the word for
cat, they cut a picture of a cat.
The first step, then, was to use
a picture for every word. The
second step was to use a picture
for a syllable. In this case the pict-
ure was followed closely by other
pictures. The third and final step
was the use of a picture for a sin-
gle letter. In this way the alpha-
bet as we know it to-day grew
out of pictures.
The Babylonians as far back as
we know them had already gone beyond picture writing,
and wrote in an alphabet of their own. They used tab-
lets of clay and wrote with a bronze tool called the stylus.
CDKEIPOKM WBITINa
The
Egyptians
used pictures
instead of
words
The first,
second, and
third steps
in the use
of pictures
The wedge«
shaped
letters of
the Baby-
lonians
8
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The alphabet
as we know
it to-day
Men's
knowledge
of geog-
raphy in
different
ages
As this was square at the end and they used only a
corner of it in writings the mark left on the clay had
the shape of a wedge. Hence arose the name ^^cunei-
form'/' which means wedge-shaped.
The use of the alphabet as we know it to-day came
later. Just when and by whom it was invented is uncer-
tain. It is believed by some that the Cretans were the
inventors of the alphabet and that the Phoenicians carried
it to Greece.
5. How People of Any Age Learn from the Past. — It
appears, therefore, from this brief glance backward, that
we Americans about three hundred years ago, when John
Smith and other Enghshmen reached Jamestown and
the Pilgrims reached Plymouth, started with many things
which had been invented or discovered in the ages long
before our ancestors ever dreamed of coming to Amer-
ica. Such has ever been the way, for it has always been
true that when the men of any time found out a way of
doing things which helped them to live with greater ease
and comfort, those who came after them continued to use
these ways of working, unless they found better ones. In
this manner the people of each age profit by the experi-
ence of those who have lived before them, and at the same
time they themselves invent new ways of doing things.
Thus the old stock of ideas is ever being added to, each
period in the world's histoiy improving a little on what
has gone before.
6. The World as Known When the Christian Era
Began. — The world in 1620, for instance, when the Pil-
grims landed at Plymouth, was quite different from what
it was in 1492, when Cohunbus discovered America. Nor
THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 9
was the difference wholly in ways of living brought about
by useful inventions. It was also in men's greater knowl-
edge of geography. By consulting the map you will see
how different was the earth's surface in 1620 from what
it was as known in the time of Columbus, and, again,
how different still it was at the beginning of the Chris-
tian era, that is, nearly fifteen hundred years before
Columbus found his way to the New World.
The names by which some of the ancient peoples a^e what some
known are not the same as the names by which the peo- pie^^of^an-
ple now living in these countries are known. For ex- cient times
^ ... . were called
ample, those living in what is now England were called
Britons; those in France were called Gauls; those in
Spain were called Iberians; and the chief part of those
in Italy were called Romans. But even in those far-
away times the men of Greece were called Greeks, though,
to be sure, they called themselves Hellenes.
The most intelligent of these peoples v/ere the Greeks, The Greeks
yet in the early day of their history they knew little of ^^J^^hy
what lay beyond their own boundaries. Their ideas of
geography were hazy and fanciful. They believed the
earth to be a plane stretching from the ^Egean Sea in
all directions far away into unknown regions. They
thought that at the extreme north was an island, which
had been discovered by Pytheas, a sailor from Mar-
seilles. They called it Ultima Thule, which means most
distant goal. The best authority now holds that this
was not a real island, but the coast of Norway.
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. Our ways of living have come from many lands, and there-
iFore we owe much to the past, which we learn through the study
10 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
of history. 2. Many of the people Kving in our country to-day
came from other countries, just as our forefathers did. 3. When
the emigrants from Europe came to America in the seventeenth
century they brought with them many ways of doing things that
the people of Europe had learned up to that time.
TO THE PUPIL
1. In what ways do the stories of heroic men help us to live more wisely ?
2. From what countries do most of the immigrants to our land come
now? Which of these countries are represented by immigrants in your
own community?
3. From what countries did our forefathers come?
4. How do immigrants come to-day, and how did our forefathers come?
5. Name some modern inventions which the Pilgrims knew nothing
about. Name three important ones made before the Pilgrims came; and
also some older inventions.
6. How do people of any age learn from the past?
THE GREEKS AND WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED
FROM THEM
CHAPTER II
THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM
7. What We Owe to the Greeks and the Romans. — ■
There is little doubt but that we owe more to the Greeks
and the Romans than to any other people of ancient times.
Although they lived "over two thousand years ago and
far away on the shores of the Mediterranean^ yet from
them we have learned many things. Our ways of living
would be very different had not our ancestors brought with
them to America Greek and Roman ideas; for many of our
ways are but Greek and Roman ways slightly changed.
8. Geographical Conditions in Greece. — The main- The size
land of Greece was but a small countr}^; about the size of o? Greece
Maine or South Carolina^ and six times the size of Con-
necticut. But it was quite unlike any of these States
in outline or surface. It was a roughly triangular pe-
ninsula. Its most striking feature was its rugged moun- its rugged
tains, Mount Olympus being the highest peak. mountains
The high ridges and peaks cut the land into hundreds The land
of upland plains and valleys, some of which were only Sid^kLas^
tiny basins of a few acres or even less lying among the ^"^ valleys
hills. Everywhere the mountains were so steep and
unbroken that but few roads or even paths connected
one valley with another.
In these upland plains and valleys, shut in by towering
11
12
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
mountains; lived small groups of people, most of them
farmers and shepherds. Since in most parts of Greece the
soil was thin and bare, the men dwelling in these moun-
tain towns had to work hard to make a living from their bar-
ley, wheat; and flaX; and their herds and flocks on the hills.
In one way these conditions worked for good; by making
the men strong; sturdy; and self-reliant. But in another
way their effect was bad, since the people saw little of
others Hving outside their own small community; and thus
became narrow in their ideas and petty in their interests.
But the mountains; which shut them off from other
communities also defended them from the ravages of war.
Even the mountain passes were so few and narrow that a
small number of brave men could hold back an advancing
enemy.
Another feature in the geography of Greece which kept
the towns — or city-stateS; as they later came to be called
— apart from each other was the smallness of its rivers.
If there had been a great river running through the
country it would have helped to bring about trade be-
tween the various groups living near its banks. But the
rivers were all short; because the mountains were at no
point far from the sea. At the end of winter they
were full and strong; while at the end of summer they
became either mere threads of water or dry beds. But
when they were full of water the current rushed with such
force that no boat could sail upon a single river of Greece.
Although the Greek communities of the mainland were
separated from each other; few of them were cut off from
the sea. The eastern and north-western coasts of Greece
were full of bays and inlets reaching up into the land.
THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 13
and these had good harbors. Moreover, the sea was safe,
having as a rule regular winds and clear skies, except in
the short winter. In case of a storm the sailors were
never far from a good harbor, for the islands in the ^Egean
Sea lay close together and provided safe anchorage.
These islands stretched in long lines from the shores of Greek
Greece to the coast of Asia Minor, which made it easy to ^aders^^
make quite long trips without going far from land. This
encouraged trade, and many of the Greeks became sailors
and traded extensively. It was their life on the sea that
more than all else brought the Greeks into touch with other
lands and peoples and developed so strongly their power
of imagination. No other country in ancient days was so
open to the commerce of the world.
9. The Expansion of Greece. — But these mountain Early
people, whom we have just described, were only a small
part of the Greeks. At an early day the mother coun-
try on the continent began to send out colonies to other
lands and continued to do so until the Greeks had spread
over much of the ancient world as it was known at that
time. By the beginning of the fifth century there were
not only Greeks on their mainland of the Balkan penin-
sula, but also Greeks in Sicily and the south part of the
Italian peninsula, Greeks on the islands and shores of
the ^Egean basin, and Greeks elsewhere on the shores of
the Mediterranean Sea and its tributaries. In fact, What Greece
Greece, or Hellas, included not only all of the home included
country, but also the larger Greek world outside of the
home country. It should be noted also that the cult-
ure of the maritime Greeks was in early days far in
advance of that of the Greeks of Greece proper and
colonies
14
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
culminated in the splendor of such cities as Ephesus
and Miletus on the coast of Asia Minor.
10. Jason and the Golden Fleece. — ^Although the an-
cient Greeks long since passed away they left behind
great memories for all who came after them to cherish.
Among these are the wonderful stories they told^ the
famous cities they built; and the heroic deeds of their
great men.
The stories which they delighted to tell and which they
mshed their children to learn are not in most of their de-
tails what we should call true stories. But they merit
mention here because they point to the kind of heroes
the Greeks honored and to the kind of deeds they admired;
and still more Ijecause it was these heroes that they tried
to imitate^ and in so trying they did become more hke
them.
One of the most interesting is the story of Jason and the
Golden Fleece. Jason^ heir to the kingdom of lolchis, was
kept from his throne by Pelias, an uncle, who was hold-
ing it for him until he should become old enough to reign.
One day young Jason came into the presence of his imcle
and declared he now wished the throne for himself. Pe-
lias promised to yield it to him, but at the same time ad-
\ased that before he became Idng he should win glory for
himself by going in search of the Golden Fleece. This
fleece hung in a grove in Colchis, far from Greece, and was
guarded day and night by a fire-breathing dragon which
never slept. Pelias, of course, expected that Jason would
never come back.
Pleased with the idea, Jason at once began to build a
fifty-oared ship. When it was ready, with fifty brave
THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 15
young men he started out on his bold adventure. The
ship was called the Argo, and the young men the
ArgonautS; or Argo-sailors. Having reached Colchis
after many dangers, Jason made known his errand to
the King. That ruler had no notion of parting with the
Golden Fleece, but thought he would soon rid himself
of this bold adventurer.
He therefore set Jason two impossible tasks, and told Jason
him that when he had performed them the Golden Fleece fire-breath-
should be his. One of the tasks w^as to plough a field with *°^ ^^^
two fire-breathing bulls; the other was to plant the teeth
of a dragon which had long before been slain by a foreign
adventurer named Cadmus. By the aid of the King's
daughter Medea, who had fallen in love with Jason and
who was skilled in magic, Jason tamed the bulls so that
the}^ were easy to manage.
Then, after ploughing the field, he planted the dragon's jason plants
teeth, from every one of which sprang forth an armed teeth^and^^
soldier eager for battle. Rushing at Jason to cut him ^ragon^^
down, the warriors were suddenly surprised by a stone
which Jason threw among them. Each believing that
he had been struck by his neighbor, they all at once began
to fight each other and continued the fierce struggle until
all were dead. Jason next turned to the dragon. By the
use of Medea's magic he put him to sleep and slew him.
Then securing the Golden Fleece he carried it back to •
his own kingdom.
II. Hercules a Famous Greek. Hero. — Another of the Thetwdve
heroes of whom the Greeks were proud was Hercules. It
was said that when only a few months old he strangled
two serpents that made an attack on him. But what made
16
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
him famous was the twelve labors he performed by order
of the king he served. These labors reqxiired great
strength and skill. Four of them were single combats with
strange wild animals — the first with a huge lion, the sec-
ond with a hydra having nine heads, the third with a stag
having golden antlers and brazen feet, and the fourth with
a wild boar. Another remarkable feat was the bringing
from the lower world of the three-headed dog Cerberus,
which guarded the gates of Hades.
12. The Trojan War. — ^But the most famous of all the
Greek tales were those centred about the Trojan War,
many episodes of which are told in Homer's poems called
^'Thelhad'^and
^^ The Odyssey,"
According to
the story as told
in "The Iliad/'
Agamemnon was
King of Greece,
and his brother
Menelaus was
King of Sparta under him. In Asia Minor, just across the
Mgesm Sea, was a city called Troy, whose long was named
Priam. Menelaus's wife Helen was the most beautiful
woman in Greece. Once when Priam's son Paris was
visiting Menelaus he won the love of Helen, and carried
her back to Troy with him. He refused to give her up.
To force him to do so, Agamemnon gathered an army
from all Greece and made war against Troy, which after ten
years was captured and burned. The story of the wooden
horse tells how they entered and captured the city.
GODS DESCENDING TO AID THE TROJANS
THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 17
The most noted Greek hero of this war was Achilles, Achilles
f>.nd the bravest of the Trojans was Priam^s son Hector, Hector
who was slain by Achilles in a famous combat.
13. The Story of Odysseus. — Another favorite hero of Odysseus
this war was Odysseus (Ulysses), Ejng of Ithaca, a little tenyears
island on the west coast of Greece. In order to save him-
A READING FROM HOMER
self and his companions on his way homeward, he blinded
one of the Cyclops, one-eyed sons of Poseidon, god of the
sea. In punishment for this act, Poseidon kept Odysseus
wandering for ten years before permitting him to make
safe return to Ithaca. During that time, in which he
lost all his men, he had many thrilling adventures, which
are recounted in Homer's ^^ Odyssey" (the stoiy of
Odysseus).
14. Famous Greek Cities. — Fascinating as are these
stories of adventure — full of pictures of Greek thought and
character — the life of their cities is not less interesting.
Some of the more important ones which played a large part
in the life of ancient Greece still keep their names to-day.
18 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Among them are AthenS; Corinth; Thebes, and Sparta.
Every one of these can trace its history back to the time
when Greece was in her gloiy, and even now they are worth
seeing and knomng. But they have a far deeper interest
to those of us who know sometliing of their ancient hfe
and growth and what their people did many hundred
years ago. Athens and Sparta will claim our attention
when we speak a little later of the Athenians and of the
Spartans.
15. Undying Memories of Greek Courage. — The fa-
mous Greek stories and cities which we have mentioned
constantly remind us of what the Greek people were and
what they acliieved. But stronger reminders still are the
undying memories of Greek courage; for, after all, among
the most precious things we possess is the knowledge of
the deeds of brave men. Among the many instances of
Greek courage we will recount only a few, which will help
us to see how resolute and freedom-loving these people
were.
Greek 1 6. The First Persian Invasion. — ^As we have already
seen, much of the soil of Greece was thin and bare. For
that reason the country could not support a large popula-
tion, and the Greeks were driven to planting colonies on
neighboring shores, as, for example, on the islands of the
iEgean Sea and in Asia Minor, in southern Italy and Sicily,
and on what is now the French and Spanish coast. Of
these we have already spoken.
The revolt After a time the Greek cities in Asia Minor became so
cities in Asia numerous and so strong that they rose in revolt against
Minor ^YiQ Persian King, Darius, who held them under his rule.
To this revolt Athens and its neighbor city Eretria lent
THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 19
their aid, Athens sending twenty ships and Eretria five.
This made King Darius so angry that as soon as he had Darius
put down the revolt in Asia Minor he fixed his mind upon ^^^^
a plan to punish these two insolent cities.
Lest in the rush of other occupations he should
forget his purpose, he ordered his cup-bearei-,
according to Herodotus, a Greek historian, to
remind him at every banquet of the insult he
had received by saying, "Master, remember
the Athenians.'^
How much truth there may be in this story
we do not knov/, but in the year following the
end of the revolt Darius began to make prep-
arations to invade Greece. First he sent
heralds to all the principal Greek cities to de-
mand earth and water as a sign of submission.
This was according to the customs of those
days. Some of the cities obeyed the King's order, but
the Athenians and the Spartans dared to defy the Per-
sian monarch. According to Herodotus, the Athenians
threw the herald that came to them into a pit where he
could get earth, and the Spartans threw theirs into a well
where he could get water. Of course these defiant in-
sults made Darius more angry than ever.
In 490 B. C. Darius sent his army against Greece. It The Per-
soon captured and burned Eretria. Then the Persians at Marathon
made a landing at Marathon, a plain about twenty-four
miles north-east of Athens, and anchored their ships near
the shore close by their camp.
Even before this landing the Athenians had heard of the
burning of Eretria and had sent Pheidippides, a profes-
A PERSIAN SOLDIER
He demands
earth and
water
20 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The Athe- sional ruiiner; to Sparta for aid. He ran with such speed
to^Sparta that he covered the enthe distance of one hundred and
for aid ££^y miles between Athens and Sparta — ^which is the same
as the distance between New York and Albany or between
Cleveland and Pittsburg — in two days or less. The Spar-
tans told the messenger to say to the Athenians that they
could not at that time send troops^ because the full moon
was at hand; when all citizens must celebrate the feast of
Apollo. ^'We will send aid/' they said, ^^in about five
days. " This meant that they could not reach the battle-
field for at least a week.
The Athe- Meanwhile the Athenians marched with all possible speed
at^Marathon to Marathon^ and pitched their camp between the Persian
army and Athens. Here they were j oined by one thousand
men from the friendly little city of Platsea. This made
the Athenian army about eleven thousand, while the
Persian army, according to the estimate of Herodotus,
was many times as large. Miltiades, who had made
himself a great lord over the Thracian barbarians to the
north, had command of the Greeks on the day of the
battle.
The battle For some days no movement was made by either side.
But finally the Persians, who had become impatient, drew
up in line of battle along the shore. The Athenians, who
were almost a mile away, advanced at a very quick step
• which was almost a run. After a long and hard strug-
gle they defeated the Persians and drove them to their
ships. During the last part of the battle it is said that
the hands of a Greek soldier were cut off as he clung to
a Persian vessel in his desperate purpose to prevent its
escape.
THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 21
ATHENIAN FOOT SOLDIEKS CHAEGING THE PERSIAN HOSTS AT JLVRATHON
The Persians embarked very sv/iftly and sailed away, ThePer-
heading for Athens, v/here they expected traitors in the ^adf to^^
city to rise and help them. But Miltiades ralHed his army ^^^^
and hurried homeward, not stopping to rest his tired sol-
diers until they had come to the city. He reached Athens
in advance of the Persians, who, finding the city thus de-
fended and the traitors not daring to rise, sailed back to
Asia without making an attack.
This victory of Marathon v/as a glorious achievement
for Athens and saved for us the wonderful Greece that
we know. Its memory gave the people courage and self-
reliance and spurred them to greater things.
The Athenians were right in believing that they had TheAthe-
not seen the last of the Persians, and they were persuaded ^ ^
by Themistocles, one of their statesmen, to build a navy
of two hundred ships. From this beginning Athens later
became a strong naval power.
A glorious
achievement
22
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Xerxes and
his army
A wonder-
ful sight
Crossing the
Hellespont
The line
of march
17. The Second Persian Invasion. — Five years after
the Persians were defeated at Marathon, Darius died.
But he had begun, before his death, to prepare for an-
other invasion of Greece. His son Xerxes, who succeeded
to the throne, continued these preparations on a very
large scale. In the spring of 480 B. C. he marched against
Greece. His army was the largest that the men of that
time had ever seen. It is said that it contained at least
half a million men (the romantic estimate of Herodotus
was over five millions), and that the fleet consisted of
more than three thousand ships of various kinds, though
none larger than a small yacht of our day.
This army presented a wonderful sight. There were
men in it from forty-six nations and tribes, each wearing
their own peculiar costumes and carrying strange kinds
of arms. One tribe of Persians had daggers and lassoes;
while a band of Ethiopians carried, in addition to their
javelins, stone-tipped arrows with shafts of reeds. Skins
cf wild beasts hung from their shoulders, and their bodies
were painted half red and half white.
To prevent delay, Xerxes had ordered in advance that
a bridge of boats be built across the Hellespont (Darda-
nelles, separating Asia from Europe), and that it should be
all ready on the arrival of his army. It required seven
days and seven nights for the Persian forces to cross this
bridge, which was nearly one mile long.
Let us picture to ourselves the army as it presses for-
ward. The baggage trains and infantry headed the line
of march. Behind them came the cavaliy and then ten
sacred horses with costly trappings. These were followed
by the sacred chariot, drawn by eight white horses, the
THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 23
charioteer walking behind; with reins in hand; for no
one was ever allowed to enter this sacred chariot. Then
came Xerxes himself; a veiy handsome man, riding in a
splendid chariot and surrounded by a thousand horse-
guards with golden apples ornamenting their spears.
After Xerxes came the ten thousand ^^ Immortals,'' picked
men of Persian birth. Last of all, at some distance be-
LOOKING TOWARD THERMOPYL.E FROM THE NORTH-WEST
hind; marched the mass of the army, stretching back
along the road farther than eye could reach. If the army
as estimated by Herodotus had been arranged in ranks
of four and the ranks placed five feet apart; it would
have extended farther than the distance between New
York City and Chicago.
The Persians met with no opposition until they reached The pass of
Thermopylae; a pass which formed the gateway to all ®"°^py
northern Greece. If Xerxes could canture this, all Greece
24
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The three
gates
The Greek
army very
small
Guarding
the path
over the
mountains
as far south as the Isthmus of Corinth would fall under
his power. The pass was about four and one-haK miles
long, extending east and west between a steep ridge of
hills or mountains and the Malian Gulf. It was really
a sea-shore road, bordered chiefly by marshes, though in
places the deep water washed up far enough to allow
boats to land. At one point it was barely wide enough
for a wagon to pass.
There were three very narrow places, or "gates," in
this pass — the west gate, the middle gate, and the east
gate. The west gate, or the first that one reaches in
coming from the north, was very narrow and bordered
by low hills only, so that it was not easy to defend. But
at the middle gate there was a mound edged by deep
water, across which ran an old wall. Behind this wall
the Greeks took their stand, and here the battle was
fought.
The Greek army which was commanded by the Spar-
tan King Leonidas, was very small. The Athenians had
put aU their strength into the fleet. They wished to
defend the pass against a landing of the Persians at that
point.
The entire army consisted of about seven thousand
three hundred men, almost the exact number of Corn-
wallis's army at Yorktown. Of these, one thousand
were set to guard the path which ran over the mountains
from the north and ended in the rear of the pass of Ther-
mopylae, behind the point where Leonidas and his army
were stationed. If the Persians could send a body of
troops over this path it could attack Leonidas and his
men in the rear.
THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 25
The outlook for the Uttle Greek army, face to face with A gloomy
the Persian host, was gloomy enough. But Leonidas did
not waver. He was there to defend Thermopylae.
Xerxes encamped outside the entrance to the pass; ThePer-
the Greeks were behind the wall at the middle gate. When the^ittie^''^
the Persian scouts were sent in advance of the army to dis- ^^^^k army
cover what was going on, they saw the Spartan warriors
outside the wall combing their long hair and taking exer-
cise, as was their custom before fighting in battle. Four
days Xerxes waited for the Greeks to retreat. On the
fifth he made an attack. The best of the Persian troops
dashed against the little Greek army. For two days the
battle raged. Again and again did the Persians advance
to the attack, but the stubborn Greeks would not yield
an inch. The Persian army was held at bay.
On the evening of the second day, however, a Greek trai- A traitor
tor offered for a bribe to lead the Persians over the moun- oTpersians^
tain path. Under his guidance a body of Persians set ^^^^^^g
out early in the evening, took the Greek guards at the top
of the mountain by surprise, and passed on without resist-
ance. The next morning Xerxes, having waited until this
body of troops should have come up in the rear of Leonidas,
ordered the attack. Meanwhile deserters had informed
Leonidas of the loss of the path in his rear, and he had
sent away two thousand eight hundred of his men.
About three thousand six hundred remained, including The heroic
three hundred Spartans. Leonidas thought, perhaps, that and^his^^
there was a desperate chance of saving the pass. At all spa^t^^g
events he was too brave to retreat. He and the Spartan
heroes were ready to fight to the death. And they did!
The battle raged for hours, the Greeks at the last fighting
26
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
i'3e Per-
sians capt-
tiTt and
bmii Athens
The Greeks
win a splen-
did victory
The Greeks
crush the
Persian
forces
A GREEK SHIP
even with their fists and teeth. Leonidas and the three
hundred Spartans fought until not a man of them was left.
When the Greek fleet heard the news of the defeat at
Thermopyla3 it sailed to
Salamis; an island near
Athens. The city of Athens
was deserted; the people of
all Attica taking refuge in
other cities. The Persians
took possession of Athens
and burned the city to the
ground.
Off Salamis; the Persian
fleet fought the Greek, Xerxes watching the spectacle
from a lofty throne built on a hill-side not far away. The
battle began at seven in the morning and lasted for seven
or eight hours. The Greeks won a splendid victory.
Xerxes took his fleet back to Asia and left his best gen«
eral; Mardonius, to continue the v/ar with Greece on land.
The following
year the Persians
met the Atheni-
ans, SpartanS; and
Platseans in the
battle of Platsea,
some twenty-five
miles north-west
of Athens. Here
the Greeks won a signal victoiy and crushed the Persian
forces so that they never rallied. Mardonius was killed^-
and what became of the sur\dving troops is not known.
;roup of greek soldiers, drawn from sculptured
figures in the temple pediment
THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 27
Many of them must have been cut off by the peasantry
in their flight; probably the rest made their way back
to Asia in small bands.
Greek courage had saved European Greece from com- Greek cou:
ing under Persian rule. Without knowing it, the Greeks G^reece^^
were fighting for the good of mankind; for it was far
better that their ideas and ideals should persist rather
than the ideas and ideals of the Persians.
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. The mountains of Greece cut the land into upland plains and
valleys in which the people lived in small groups. 2. Many of
the Greeks, however, became sailors and traded extensively.
3. Greece, or Hellas, included not only all of the home country^
but also, in its widest sense, the larger Greek world outside of
the home country. 4. Among the great memories which the
Greeks left behind are the wonderful stories they told, the famous
cities they built, and the heroic deeds of their great men. 5. When
the Persians made their first invasion of Greece they w^ere defeated
at the battle of Marathon. This great victory saved for us the
wonderful Greece that we know. 6. x\t the battle of Thermopylae,
which took place during another Persian invasion of Greece, the
heroic Leonidas and his brave Spartans fought until not a man of
them was left. 7. In the battles" of Salamis and Platsea Greek
courage saved European Greece from coming under Persian rule.
TO THE PUFIL
1. Explain how it was that the people on the mainland of Greece lived
in small groups.
2. What were the two effects of the conditions under which the people
lived?
3. If there had been a great river running through the country, what
difference would it have made in the life of the people?
4. Explain how it was that many of the Greeks came to be sailors and
traders.
28
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
5. What was the difference between Hellas and the home country?
6. What can we learn from the wonderful stories the Greeks told ? It
is well worth your while to know what these stories are. Who were
Hercules, Achilles, and Odysseus, and what did they do?
7. Name four famous Greek cities and point them out on the map.
8. Why did Darius invade Greece, and what was the result of this in-
vasion? In what way did the victory of Marathon save for us the wonder-
ful Greece that we know?
9. Compare the size of the two armies at the battle of Thermopylae.
Imagine yourself with Leonidas at Thermopylae, and tell what you admire
in him and his three hundred Spartans?
10. In what way was it better that the Greeii^s should defeat the Persians ?
11. Locate the following: Athens, Sparta, Marathon, Thermopylae,
Salamis, and Pktsea.
CHAPTER III
THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS
18. Athens at the Time of Its Greatest Splendor. — ■
Although the Persians had burned Athens to the ground,
the Athenians soon rebuilt it and made it more beautiful
than before. In imagination let us visit the city at the
time of its greatest splendor, in the age of Pericles
(461-429 B. C).
We must remember that Athens, like other city-states
of Greece, was politically not merely a group of houses
with a wall running around it. It included also the coun-
try outside the wall. The Athenians, then, were not only
the people who dwelt within the city walls, but those also
who made their homes in the peninsula of Attica.
In rebuilding the city the Athenians had put up their
dwellings with little attention to symmetry of streets,
which were narrow, crooked, and crowded with houses.
But this was the case in all old cities. The purpose was
THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 29
to make the walls as small in circuit as possible and there-
fore easy to defend against assailants. Those of Athens
were only about five miles around, enclosing an area very
small for the number of people who had to dwell within
the city.
19. The People of Athens. — Since the population of The weii-to-
Attica was about two hundred and fifty thousand, these cared iftt/e°
may have amounted to seVenty-five thousand. The well- ^^^ business
to-do Athenian cared little for V\rhat we call business. In
fact he did not work at all, but spent most of his time
out-of-doors with his fellow-men, talking politics in the
market-place or attending the public assembly. What
the public assembly was we shall see later on.
He rose very early in the morning — about daybreak — a day with
and after a slight breakfast of wine and bread sallied ^° ^^^
forth bareheaded; with his hair carefully dressed and
his cloak pulled about his body, to meet his friends or
take part in public affairs. Later in the morning, if he
was not called to the public assembly, he would take a
walk or ride out to his coimtry house to look after his
estate. • At noon he enjoyed a hearty meal, his real break-
fast, after which he went to the gymnasium either to
take exercise or to look on and enjoy the sports while
chatting with his friends. At sunset he returned to his
home for dinner.
The slaves, of whom there were at this time not less slavery in
than one hundred thousand in Attica, did most of the
physical work of the community. They filled the place
of the mass of hired servants, artisans, farm-hands,
miners, and even professional men, like lawyers, physi-
cians, writers, of our times. They also acted as stewards
30
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
THE ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS RESTORED
and business managers for merchants. All but the poor-
est families had one or two, and fifty was not a large num-
ber for a well-to-do Athenian to own. Some wealthy
citizens counted their slaves by himdreds.
20. The Houses of the Athenians. — ^The dwelhng-
houses of the Athenians were small and not at all attrac-
tive. The front of the house was bare and in many cases
broken only by a single door. When there were windows,
they were either in the second stor}^, or, if in the first
story, were nine or ten feet from the ground. Oil-lamps
were used for lights and drinking-water was drawn from
wells and fountains.
But the Athenians cared only for plain and simple
homes; for they used their houses mainly as places in
which to sleep and eat and as a shelter for their families
32
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
HERMES, BT PRAXITELES
The bronze
statue of
Athene
and their household goods. Owing partly to their crav-
ing curiosity and talkativeness, which made other men's
company necessary to them, and partly to the seclusion
of their women, which made "society''
as we know it impossible, their inter-
ests were not in their little-used dwell-
ings, but in the public squares where
they met and talked and in such public
buildings as their temples and theatres.
They would have thought a costly dw^ell-
ing a mockery of the gods.
21. The Acropolis. — If we wish to see
the real beauty of Athens, therefore, we
must visit the Acropolis, on which stood both temples
and statues. This lay nearly in the centre of Athens.
It was a lofty mass of rock one thousand feet long, irreg-
ularly broad — ^but never more than five hundred feet —
and two hundred feet high. Three of its sides w^ere
steep, and were crowned with walls, for in early times
it had been selected as a stronghold to be used in case of
attack. On its western side alone the approach to the
Acropolis is by an easy ascent. Let us, therefore, take
the pathway leading up this gentle slope.
We ascend a broad marble stairway and, passing
through a magnificent portal, we find ourselves at the
summit of the plateau in the presence of an immense
bronze statue more than fifty feet high, the work of a
sculptor named Phidias. This is Athene, the protect-
ing goddess of the Athenians, the goddess for whom
the city was named. She stands in full armor, with
outstretched spear and shield. The tip cf the spear
THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 33
and the crest of the helmet can be seen many miles
away at sea.
22. The Parthenon. — Near by is Athene's temple, a marvel of
the Parthenon, the noblest building in all Greece. Its
calm grandeur and stately beauty charmed every one
artistic skill
MODEL OF THE PARTHENON RESTORED, AT THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM,
NEW YORK CITY (NOTE SIZE OF SOLDIER BY THE COLUMN)
who saw it, and it was a marvel of artistic skill. It was
built of white marble and was surrounded on all sides by
white marble pillars- which supported the sloping roof.
Besides its vestibules, it had two large chambers, one Thegor-
for the statue of Athene, and one for the sacred treasures, of Athene*"*
In the first room stood the statue of the goddess, made
entirely of ivory and gold. This gorgeous work of art, the
creation of Phidias, was forty-seven feet high. The right
hand held a statue of a winged Victory, six feet high, and
the left one rested on a shield. Her robes, reaching to
her feet, were covered with pure gold, and her shield
and helmet sparkled with almost priceless jewels. In the
34
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
STATUE OF ATHENE
WHICH STOOD IN
THE PARTHENON
second of the two rooms the state treasures
were kept and guarded.
23. Greek Statues and Temples. — The
Parthenon was not the only temple upon the
AcropohS; all of which were richly adorned
with paintings and sculptures, nor were the
two statues of Athene the only statues. The
Greeks delighted to have their sculptors carve
in marble their gods and goddesses. They
behoved that spending money upon beautiful
statues and temples, like those which graced
the Acropolis, was an act of piety, and they
always applauded the men who used their
wealth in this way. They feasted upon such
beautiful works of art, many of which still
exist for us to enjoy to-day. Among the most
familiar statues known to us are the Venus found on
the island of Melos; the Hermes, by Praxiteles; and the
Discus Thrower, by Myron.
24. How Athens Secured Money to Adorn the Acrop-
olis. — You might well ask how Athens came to be wealthy
enough to adorn the Acropolis with so many beautiful
works of art. A few words will explain.
After the defeat of the Persians the
Greeks feared that the enemy would
again return, a fear felt especially by
the Greek cities of Ionia and of the
^gean islandSo These cities, therefore,
under the leadership of Athens, formed
a league, each agreeing to furnish
yearly either war-ships or money for
VENUS OF MELOS
THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 35
a common fund to build a navy. At first this money was
kept in a temple at Delos, but later it was transferred to
the Parthenon. It amounted to about six hundred thou-
sand dollars a year, a sum which would be worth many
times as much now. Some of this money was used to
supplement treasury funds in beautifying Athens and
the Acropolis, although the cities of the league had not
intended it for any such purpose.
25. Greek Gods and Goddesses. — Many of the works Mount
of art naturally took the form of statues to the gods, for the home
the gods were familiar beings in the every-day life of the gods^and^^'
Greeks. Athene, the patron deity of Athens, was one of goddesses
the goddesses that the Greeks worshipped. They
believed that there were many other gods and
goddesses who were in control of the affairs of
men. The chief of these had their home on
Mount Olympus, whose summit, as the people
gazed at it from below, was always veiled in
mist and clouds. Here dwelt Zeus, the king of ^ei-s
the gods and ruler of gods and men; Hera, his
wife and sister, queen of heaven; Apollo, the sun-god;
Aphrodite, the goddess of love; and Hermes, the mes-
senger of the gods.
Besides these, according to the Greek belief, there were Greek gods
numerous other gods and spirits of woods and fields and human
streams. All these, as the Greeks beheved, were much ^^^°^^
like human beings in looks and actions, but they were all
beautiful, and were immortal, and did things on a larger
scale than human beings could do.
26. The Theatre. — ^The Greeks, then, had what we The Greek
call artistic feeling; that is, they had a keen sense of beauty
36
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
beauty. They liked beautiful statues of their gods and
lieroes, such as were carved by their sculptors, and beau-
tiful buildings, such as were erected by their architects.
But they also hked fine hterature, such as was written by
their poets. They were especially fond of plays.
GREEK THEATRE AT EPIDAURUS
The Greek
theatre
In fact; if we wish to see all the free inhabitants of the
city at one . look, we must go to their great theatre.
Here, during the two festivals given each year in honor
of Dionysus, the god of wine, sometimes thirty thousand
people were present. Do not imagine, however, that
this theatre was like ours. It was far from it. It was
built on the slope of the Acropolis and was without shelter
from rain or sun. When in use it was crowded for a
period of several days from dawn until dark. Play after
play was put on in competition for a prize. There was
no pause, not even for meals, though the people, who
THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 37
had eaten a hearty breakfast before leaving their
homes, lunched from time to time during portions of
the play.
The picture is an attractive one. The great theatre, a Greek
in form a half-circle, with graded rows of seats rising one the tiieatoe
above the other, is thronged with people dressed in red,
white, brown, yellow, and other bright colors, reflecting
the rays of the bright sun. The rich sit upon carpets
and cushions which they have brought with them; but
the great mass sit upon the seats without even rests for
their backs. The people are able critics. Now they are
hushed as they witness a thrilling scene; now they clap
their hands and shout; and now they hiss and groan and
kick their heels against the seats. At times they may
even throw missiles at the actors if the play does not .
please them.
At the foot of the amphitheatre is a large flat space The choms
almost in the shape of a circle. Here a group of people
are dancing and singing. They are the chorus who
chanted the emotions aroused by the action of the
play, and beyond them, on a narrow stage a few feet
high, are the actors, v/ho wear masks. There is little
scenery.
To the Greeks the theatre was not simply a place of The
amusement as with us. It started as a rehgious festival, orTek^Me^
and later came to have a great influence over their lives.
It was to them as magazine, newspaper, novel, and teacher
combined. The plays were of a high order. Some of
the greatest dramas of all times were produced on the
Athenian stage, plaj^s which we read and study to-day
because of their beauty and surpassing literaiy cjuality, ^
38 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. Athens, like other city-states of Greece, included also the
country outside the wall. 2. The Parthenon was the noblest
building in all Greece. 3. The Greeks had a keen sense of beauty.
They liked beautiful statues of their gods and heroes, such as were
carved by their sculptors, and beautiful buildings, such as were
erected by their architects. All their temples were richly adorned
with paintings and sculptures.
TO THE PUPIL
1. Imagine yourself to be an Athenian and tell how you spent some
day.
2. Taking an imaginary trip in Athens, describe the streets and the
houses, and then ascend the Acropolis and tell what you see there.
3. What part did slavery play in the life of Athens?
4. Who was Athene? Get as definite an idea as you can of her statue
in the Parthenon.
5. Name three of the most familiar Greek statues known to us.
6. What and where was the home of the chief Greek gods and goddesses?
7. In imagination visit a Greek theatre and tell what you see there.
What large part did the theatre play in the life of the Greeks ?
8. Locate on your map every country that is mentioned ; also every city.
CHAPTER IV
GREEK BOYS AND GREEK MEN
The tram- 27. The Training of the Athenian Boy. — As the Greeks
m^of the believed that a beautiful body indicated a beautiful soul,
they made bodily exercise an important part of a boy's
training. In Athens gymnastics were taught at the wrest-
ling grounds, which were partly shaded fields on the out-
skirts of the city. Here, with naked bodies well oiled,
the boys practised wresthng, jumping, boxing, running,
GREEK BOYS AND GREEK MEN 39
and throwing the discus and spear. When the work was
over they scraped off the oil and plunged into fresh water
for a bath. As a result of their training in sports the
boys had strong, manly, graceful bodies.
At sunrise every morning, in all kinds of weather, the The school
Athenian boys trooped to school. The school buildings ^"^^"^e&
were not large and pleasant like ours. They were ill-fur-
nished and without desks. Sometimes the school was held
in the open air, and then there were not even benches.
At school the boys were taught music and grammar. Music and
Music included singing and playing on musical instru-
ments, though the main object was an acquaintance with
the songs of the poets. In the study of grammar, largely
through the use of Homer and other Greek poets, the boy
was not only to learn how to use his mother tongue, but
also to gain knowledge of life, of the gods and his relations
to them, and also of the kind of service he should render
his state. For the Athenian always kept in mind the
preparation of the boy for the part he was later to play
as one of the rulers of the Athenian state.
As for the girls, they received no training even in read- The train-
ing or writing, except what their mothers and nurses were ^'^ ° ^^
able and willing to give them. To the Greeks this seemed
quite enough, for Greek women were expected to spend
nearly all their time within their homes attending to the
duties of their households. The girls were therefore
taught to cook, spin, weave, and do things pertaining to
the care of the home and to the children in the home.
28. The Training of the Spartan Boy. — ^The life of a The train-
boy in Sparta was one that you would think rather severe, body
but very likely he got used to it and enjoyed his games and
40
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The life of
the boys
rough and
hard
Every boy
trained for
war
SPARTAN WARRIORS
in the gymnasium wi
sports. At seven years of age he
was taken from his home for good
and sent to a school-master, who
was a state official having other
boys under his care. All the boy's
time was occupied in school work,
in wliich the training of the body
received most emphasis. Exercise
:s constant and thorough, and in-
cluded running, wrestling, throwing the spear, riding, and
a rough game which resembled foot-ball.
The conditions of the life of the boys were rough and
hard. Their beds were of reeds and rushes which they
collected from the river, where they bathed every day,
no matter what the weather. Their clothes w^ere veiy
light, the same in winter as in summer. They wore no
shoes nor hats. For much of their food they v/ere obliged
to forage or to obtain it by stealth. To be sure, a boy
caught in the act of stealing was punished, but because
he was clumsy and not because he had done wrong.
iVt twenty, boys entered military
service. Indeed, the great aim of the
Spartans was to make of every boy a
hardy warrior. They cared yery little
fcr anything but the al3ility to make
and keep Sparta a strong city. The
best Spartan, from their point of view,
was the man who was able to endure
hardships, and who was strong in cour-
age and skilful in battle. The famous
farewell of the Spartan mother, ^^Come
DISCUS THROWER, BT MTEON
GREEK BOYS AND GREEK MEN
41
SCENE OX THE KOAD TO OLYJIPIA
home with your shield or
oil it/' shows that the
women worked for the
same end. The man was
expected without a mo-
ment's hesitation to sac-
rifice property, wife/chil-
dren, or hfe itself for the
welfare of Sparta. He
who had shown himself
a coward was shunned and scorned by all. • The life of
the individual was held as nothing compared to the good
of the state.
29. The Olympic Games. — ^The Greeks held many fes-
tivals in honor of their godS; the most famous of which
were the Olympic games.
These were held once in
every four years at Olympia
in Elis. At first they lasted
but one day, but later the
time was extended to five
days. Wliile the games were
going on, wars betw^een Greek
states ceased so that the
roads were safe for travellers,
who came from all over
Greece and from the Greek
colonies. Those from a dis-
tance brought slaves, who
carried such needful things
as tents, bedding, clothing,
END OF A FOOT-RACE — THE VICTOR LEAPING
OVEB HIS FALLEN RIVAi
42
AlviERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The games
The rewards
of the victor
and food; for there were no hotels in those days. Con-
testants from all the Greek states took part. They
were required to train for the games for ten months, and
for the thirty days just before the games in the gymna-
sium at Elis.
The games began at daybreak and lasted until after
dark. The earliest competition was the short distance
foot-race. Longer foot-races
were added later, then
wrestling, boxing, and the
pcntachlon, a contest
made up of five events, viz.,
running, jumping, wrestling,
throwing the discus, and
thro v/ing the javelin. A later
contest still, but one which
came to be the most impor-
tant of all, was the race of
chariots with four horses.
This prize for all winner
was a crown of wild olive,
v/hich was the greatest object
cf ambition for eveiy^ Greek
youth. You may think tliis of Httle value. But there
was also a banquet given in honor of the victor. Poets
were hired to sound his praises and men cf his own city
bore him home in triumph. Sometimes, when he reached
his home, part of the city w^alls were taken down in order
that he might not have to travel in the common road. A
statue also was often erected for him, and he was highly
honored by his fellow-citizens all the rest of his life.
CROWNING AN OLYMPIC VICTOR
GREEK BOYS AND GREEK MEN 43
30. The Greek Assembly in the Open Air. — ^At the age The Athe-
of eighteen the Athenian boy was required to take an bSSmesa
oath never to disgrace his holy arms; never to forsake his ^**^^®°
comrade in the ranks, but to fight for the holy temples
and the common welfare, either alone or with others; to
leave his coimtry better than he had found it; to obey
the laws; and to held in honor the religion of his coun-
tiy. When he took the oath he received the warrior's
shield and spear. He was made a full citizen at twenty,
when he became a member of the public assembly.
The oath shows that Athens gave to every citizen a Every free
share in the common life of the city and expected him to member of
take his part in the work of the state. As a member of ^gj^^f^
the public assembly he helped to make the laws and to
decide what should be done for Athens. In other words,
he was a member of the Athenian democracy, in which
the citizens were both the rulers and the ruled. This
great truth, that every free citizen should have a part in
making the laws and in ruling the state, the Greeks were
the first to teach the world.
The assembly was held in the open air, and early in the The pubUc
Forenoon, on a hill just outside the city. Every man who ^^^®™ ^
attended in the time of Pericles was paid a small fee, and
any member of the assembly, whether rich or poor, had
the right to address the meeting. The speakers wore
crowns of myrtle and stood on a stone platform ten or
eleven feet high, reached by a flight of steps.
31. Pericles the Orator and Statesman. — Let us im-
agine ourselves at one of these meetings on a day when
Pericles is to speak. There are thousands in the vast
throng, for all are eager to hear the gifted orator. The
44
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Pericles
the orator
Pericles
the states-
man
place of assembly is in the shape of a half-circle and covers
an area of two and one-half acres. Some of the men sit on
stools brought from their homes and others find places
upon the bare earth.
When Pericles ascends the stone platform we note his
serious face and his noble bearing. At once we fall under
the spell of his presence. It is clear that
he loves Athens and feels a deep interest
in the welfare of the people. He speaks
briefly; but Iris words carry weight; and
he con\T[nces his hearers that they should
vote for the measure he urges upon them.
Pericles was a man of wealth; accom-
plished; broad-minded; and devoted to the
interests of the people. He tried to teach
them that each man's happiness depended
on the welfare of the whole body politic.
As a far-seeing statesman, he believed that all citizens
should share in the rule of the city, and that they should
be trained for that duty. He therefore encouraged edu-
cation. As a lover of art; he sought to make Athens
beautiful; and it was largely through his influence that
the Acropolis was adorned with statues and with the
Parthenon; the most beautiful temple in Greece and in
the ancient world.
32. Socrates the Philosopher and Teacher. — ^Another
well-known Athenian was SocrateS; who was both a phi-
losopher and teacher. As a philosopher — a word which
means a lover of wisdom — ^he was a sincere seeker after
truth. As a teacher he wished to help others toward
right living.
GREEK BOYS AND GREEK MEN 45
There were many philosophers in Greece who spent Greek
their time teaching in pubHc places for money. They p^^^^^^p^^'s
were, surrounded by rich men and youths just entering
upon their duties as citizens. Their teachings were in-
tended to train for cleverness and power in debate.
Socrates stood quite apart from this group. He was a Socrates
m.an of ungainly figure, with a snub nose, thick lips, ^®°^^
and bulging eyes. He dressed shabbily and wore no
shoes. Although he was poor, he refused to take pay
for his teaching. He even gave up his work as a
sculptor and devoted all his time to teaching men to seek
after the truth and learn what was best for their welfare
and happiness.
He talked with all who cared to listen to him, whether Socrates
they were rich or poor. Day after day he could be seen
in the market-place, in the gymnasium, or in the streets,
teaching a crowd of delighted, eager listeners, men and
boys alike. He asked them questions to make them think
about the deep problems of life. ^'Know thyself'^ was
his constant theme.
But he talked so plainly about men's faults that he made Socrates
many enemies, who at last decided that they would try Sfemies
to put him out of the way. They therefore brought two'
charges against him. One was that he was false to the
gods, and the other that he was giving very harmful
advice to young men. He was tried before a jur}^ of 501
men. At the end of the trial 220 of the jury voted in
favor of Socrates and 281 against him.
It was decided that he must die by drinking poison, The death
the universal way then in Greece of inflicting the death ^ °^^^ ^
penalty. So he was sent to prison, where he remained
46
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
about a month until his death. During that
time his friends visited him daily and al-
ways found him cheerful. On the day of
his death he was surrounded by a group of
sorrowing friends from the hour when the
prison doors were opened until evening.
Then Socrates drank the hemlock. Up to
the last moment of his life he talked bravely
about the meaning of life and the future of
the human soul. Another famous Greek
philosopher was Plato. He was the disciple of Socrates
and the teacher of Aristotle who, as we are soon to
learn, was the teacher of Alexander the Great.
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. To the Greeks a beautiful body indicated a beautiful soul.
2. The aim of the Spartans was to make of every boy a hardy
warrior. 3. The Greeks were the first to teach the world that
every free citizen should have a part in making the laws and in
ruling the state. 4. Pericles was a great orator and statesman.
5. Socrates was a great philosopher and teacher.
TO THE PUPIL
1. Why did the Greeks pay so much attention to the training of the
"body ? Tell all you can about the school life of the Athenian boy and of
the Spartan boy.
2. What were the Olympic games, and what were the rewards of the
victor ?
3. What is meant by Athenian democracy ? What great truth were the
Greeks the first to teach the world ?
4. What do you admire in Pericles ? What did he do for Athens ?
5. What kind of man was Socrates ? Row did he look ? What did he
teach ?
MEN WHO CARRIED GREEK WAYS TO OTHER LANDS 47
CHAPTER V
MEN WHO CARRIED GREEK WAYS OF
LIVING TO OTHER LANDS
33. Spread of Greek Knowledge and Ways of Living. —
We have briefly recalled a few of the greatest memories
of the Greeks — their myths and stories, their famous
cities that still survive, and their glorious victories over
the Persian hosts. In imagination we have visited Athens,
and admired the work of her builders, her artists, and her
dramatists, and learned something of her great orators
and statesmen, and of her philosophers and teachers.
All these men did great things for their city-states and Sailors,
for their country. But the influence of Greek thought colonists
and character was not confined to the small country
which we know by that name on our maps, nor to the men
who lived within its boundaries; for the knowledge and
ways of living which the Greeks learned spread abroad
to other lands. The men who brought about the spread
of learning were the sailors, traders, and colonists, not
with such a purpose in mind, but just in the ordinary
e very-day work of their lives.
We have already seen that the many excellent harbors Greek
on the eastern coast of Greece and in the islands dotting
the iEgean Sea all the way from Greece to Asia Minor
encouraged the Greeks to engage in trade with other lands.
They built many ships and traded extensively. They
went to the shores of the Black Sea for grain, which was
abundant there, as it is yet. Here they planted colonies,
and also as we have seen in other parts of Asia Minor, in
48
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
the islands of the ^gean Sea, and around the shores of
the Mediterranean. How widespread these colonies were
a brief list will show you. Smyrna in Asia Minor, Cyrene
in Africa, Sybaris, Croton, Tarentum in Italy, Syracuse
in Sicily, and Massilia (Marseilles) in France were a few
of them.
34. The Lack of Union among the Greek States. — Of
the men who in a later period did much to spread the Greek
ways of living, none is to be compared with Alexander
the Great. The story of his career is one of the most
wonderful in history, and for its beginning we must re-
turn to Athens and note the condition of affairs in Greece
about the time when Pericles died (429 B. C.).
All along we have noticed the lack of union among the
Greek states. It was the fatal weakness of the Greek
people. The Athenian loved Athens, the Spartan loved
Sparta. Each was willing, if need be, to give up his life
for his own city. But there his patriotism ended. He
cared almost nothing for any part of Greece outside of the
narrow boundaries of his native state, and worse than that,
the jealousies between the various city-states kept them
apart. They never united except for brief periods, and
then in the face of great common dangers like the Persian
invasions.
Even when a group of cities did unite, it was, as a rule,
under the leadership of the one which was strong enough
to overshadow all the rest. Athens, Sparta, and Thebes
in turn tried to make itself supreme, but in each case the
attempt failed. For about a century after the death of
Pericles the Greek cities were either fighting or preparing
to fight each other. At last Philip, King of Macedonia,
MEN WHO CARRIED GREEK WAYS TO OTHER LANDS 49
in a great battle (the battle of Chseronea, 338 B. C.) con-
quered all the Greek cities and made himself master and
leader of Greece.
The Macedonians as a people were strong, rude men The Mace-
of peasant race, who hved in a region lying north of ^^°^^^
Thessaly and cut off from it by lofty mountains. They
were mountain shepherds, having a keen relish for hunt-
ing and for war. The man who had not killed a wild
boar could not sit at the banquet with other men. Such
people knew little and cared little for the refinements of
life. To a great degree without cities and even without
fixed places of abode, and eating and drinking from wooden
platters and cups, they did not mind toil and hardship.
These sturdy men, with King Philip as leader, proved re-
sistless in battle, and the united armies of Greece went
down before them.
35. Alexander the Great. — Two years after the bat-
tle of Chseronea Philip died and his son Alexander as-
cended the throne. He was then only twenty years old,
but had already showed signs of becoming a masterful
leader of men. He was of average height, of a fair
complexion and ruddy face, with the body of a trained
athlete.
From his early boyhood he had been interested in Alexander
books, and studied under Greek tutors. At thirteen he ^^^^^^
was put under the instruction of Aristotle, one of the
world's greatest philosophers, and through him, no doubt,
acquired his strong love of Homer and the other Greek
poets. It is said that he was so familiar with the ''Iliad''
that he could repeat much, if not all, of it from memory,
and that during his campaigns he always had a copy with
50
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Alexander
and the
horse
Alexander's
ambition
He crosses
the
Hellespont
Mm. Certain it is that during his entire career he made
Achilles, its leading character, his hero and example.
A characteristic story is told that shows how clever and
intelligent the boy was. A beautiful but untamed horse
was brought to his father's court. It was so hard to bring
under control that it was
about to be sent away when
Alexander begged that he
might try his hand at taming
it. Having noticed that the
animal was afraid of its shad-
ow, he turned its face toward
the sun. Then, keeping hold
of the reins, he let it go forward
a little before curbing it gently
and jumping on its back. Soon
he was galloping over the
course as easily as if he had been master of the horse for
yeai-s. This is suggestive not only of his bodily skill, but
also of his skill in handling animals.
36. Alexander in Persia and the East. — Soon after
Alexander became king, the Greek cities, counting upon his
youth and lack of experience, tried to regain their liberty
and free themselves from Macedonian supremacy. But
he quickly put down the uprising and then at once turned
his attention to the East. For his ambition was to con-
quer Persia and all of the East and form there a great
empire of which he should be the supreme head.
With an army of thirty thousand infantry and four
thousand five hundred cavalry he crossed the Helles-
pont. As he approached the shore he hurled his spear
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
MEN WHO CARRIED GREEK WAYS TO OTHER LANDS 51
into the earth; and in full armor leaped upon the land.
In such manner he chose to show how he would conquer
Asia and become its master.
Before taking up his march he visited the scenes of He visits
the Trojan War, and there stood by the tomb of Achilles, '^^^^
whom he so much admired. At Ilium (Troy) he visited
the column set up in memory of Achilles, and worshipped
at the temple dedicated to Athene. Later he built a new
city on the site of Troy.
In the many battles that he fought in his career of His troops
conquest he was always foremost in a dash upon the ^ ™"^^ "^
enemy and always fearless in the presence of danger.
This was one of many reasons why his troops admired
him. They also loved him because he took a deep per-
sonal interest in their welfare. For he often went to
see those who were sick and tried to comfort them by
kindness and sympathy.
We cannot follow closely his career of conquest through His won-
Asia, which lasted about ten years. We can only say that ^ " career
wherever he went he was successful. He. not only made
himself master of the Persian Empire, but even extended
his conquest into India. lie hoped to become the ruler
of the world. In the midct of a wonderful career, how-
ever, he fell sick and died at the age of thirty-two.
37. Alexander Carries Greek Ideas into the Persian Alexander
World. — ^Alexander was more than a warrior and con- ofdties*^
queror. He also carried Greek ideas into the Persian
world. This he did partly by the cities he founded.
Through his work the arts of Greece were carried to the
many parts of the East where, we are told, he founded
more than seventy cities. He showed great ability in
b'J,
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
How these
cities grew
Centre of
intellectual
life
selecting their sites, many of which became great trade
centres and played a largo part in the commerce of the
world.
It is interesting to know how these cities grew from small
beginnings to be of great importance. At first we find
in each merely a group of
tired-out soldiers from Alex-
ander's army. But, as the city
growS; Greek traders, mer-
chants, and workmen are at-
tracted to it. These were
followed by Greek philoso-
phers and men of science.
Then in time each new city
became a centre of Greek life
and thought and its influence
spread into the surrounding
country.
38. The City cf Alexan-
dria. — ^The most important
of all these cities was Alexandria, which was founded in
Egypt at the mouth of the Nile. Alexander saw the pos-
sibilities of the site of the village already there, and at once
had the harbor built so that it would be of practical use.
He laid out two principal streets crossing each other at
right angles, with less important ones parallel to them,
and marked sites for both Greek and Egyptian temples.
The two principal thoroughfares were adorned with col-
onnades for footways.
Alexandria became one of the leading commercial cities
of the ancient world. Caravans from the Persian Gulf
ALEXANDER IN BATTLE. FROM THE
SARCOPHAGUS OF THE SATRAPS
AT CONSTANTINOPLE
MEN WHO CARRIED GREEK WAYS TO OTHER LANDS 53
and ships on the Red Sea brought the wonderful products
of India and China. Spices from Arabia, gold and ivory
from Africa; amber from the Baltic, copper from Cyprus,
and many more things from the ports of the Mediterra-
nean came here to be exchanged. It was the great market
where the wealth of Europe changed hands with that of
Asia. Yet it was not for its commerce that Alexandria
was most noted. It was more famous as a centre of
intellectual life, due in a large measure to the wisdom of
the Egyptian rulers.
If we had visited the city a century after the death of its exten-
Alexander, that is, at the time of the Ptolemies (the dy- seum and
nasty founded by Alexander's general, Ptolemy, after the jltrSy^*
great conqueror's death), we should have been most in-
terested in its extensive museum, or imiversity, as we
should call it to-day. This was a collection of buildings
which received its name because the work to be done
there was sacred to the Muses. There were art galleries,
lecture-rooms, and dining-halls; also beautiful gardens
with shady walks, statues, and fountains. Here poets
and scholars walked and talked and sang. Its great
library of about five hundred thousand volumes or man-
uscripts had been selected with great care in various
countries. There was none other like it in the world.
On our visit we should have found, worldng in this Scholars in
museum, hundreds of scholars pursuing their studies with ® ^^
all the aid that wealth could supply; for the Ptolemies
were eager to encourage the search for truth of all kinds.
The scholars were even fed and lodged by the King.
One of them (Eratosthenes) was a student of geog- Ptolemy and
raphy. Like modern geographers, he wrote and talked °^^ "^
54 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
about the roundness of the earth and tried to measure its
size on the equator. A student of his work; named
Ptolemy, some centuries later became the most famous
of map-makers, and was very helpful to Columbus when
he. was planning for his first voyage across the Atlantic.
In such ways students working quietly in the splendid
library of Alexandria were fiading out things of great
value to the world. Here and elsewhere Greek scholars
were doing much to advance the cause of science. The
work of the Greeks in medicine, botany, mathematics,
astronomy, and other sciences proved most helpful to
men of science in later times.
39. The Spread of Greek Ideas and Ways of Living. — •
Historians differ as to what Alexander's purpose may have
been in foimding these Greek cities of which Alexandria
was the chief. But whatever his purpose, we know that
he prepared the way for the spread of Greek ideas and
ways of living. For wherever the Greeks went as mer-
chants, traders, and colonists, they carried not only
Greek art and culture, but Greek life. Temples, theatres,
and gymnasiums were built, all repeating the life of the
home cities. These buildings, adorned with graceful col-
umns and carvings, and decorated with beautiful statues,
paintings, and vases, all wrought with exquisite workman-
ship, became the carriers of Greek civilization to many
peoples of many lands.
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. Greek sailors, traders, and colonists brought about the spread
of Greek knowledge and ways of living. 2. The lack of union was
a fatal weakness among the Greeks. 3. Alexander the Great made
^lEN WHO CARRIED GREEK WAYS TO OTHER LANDS 55
himself master of the Persian Empire and extended his conquest
into India. He also carried Greek ideas into the Persian world.
4. He founded many cities, the greatest of which was Alexandria
in Egypt.
TO THE PUPIL
1. Point out on your map as many Greek colonies as you can.
2. In what way did a lack of union prove a fatal weakness among the
Greeks ?
3.. Tell what you can about the boyhood of Alexander the Great.
4. What was his ambition after he came to be king ? What did he
accomplish as a warrior and conqueror ?
5. Why was it an advantage to the world that he should found many
cities ? Locate the most important of these and tell all you can about it.
6. Are you locating on your map all the countries and cities mentioned
in the text ?
THE ROMANS AND WHAT WE HAVE
LEARNED FROM THEM
CHAPTER VI
HOW THE ROMANS BEGAN
40. The Conquering Romans. — ^While Alexander- was
conquering the East and extending Greek life and learning
in Asia, another people to the west of Greece, of whom
Alexander probably knew little, was rising into power.
These people were the Romans, and they dwelt in Italy.
At this time they had just mastered their nearest neigh-
bors and were cariying their conquests to more distant
tribes. Before completing their work in the w^orld, they
were to become masters not only of Italy, but of all the
countries on the Mediterranean and of western Europe.
Let us look at them and their country more closely.
41. Geographical Conditions in Italy. — Italy, hke
Greece, is a peninsula, although it is much larger than
Greece. It stretches far down from the Alps into the
Mediterranean for a distance of seven hundred miles.
Lying between Greece, Spain, Gaul, and Egypt, in the
centre of the Mediterranean, ancient Italy was well
situated for world trade. But, as its eastern coast was
steep and without good harbors, this trade had to de-
velop on its southern and western shores, where the har-
bors were good and more frequent.
56
HOW THE ROMANS BEGAN 57
Although mountainous, the surface was quite different The moun-
from that of Greece, for the mountains did not divide it jt^y °^
into many small sections. The Apennines, running through
the centre of the peninsula, formed a mountain belt with
a strip of coast-land on either side, that on the west being
much wider and more fertile than the one on the east.
Easy mountain passes, however, connected the two coasts
and served, in the early days of Roman history, to unite
the various tribes rather than to separate them.
The mountains to the north of Italy, the Alps, also con- The Alps
tained many passes, but these did not serve so good a pur-
pose. For as the moimtains were less steep on the north-
ern slope than on the southern, hostile tribes could the
more easily swoop down over them, bringing terror and
destruction to the dwellers of the plains.
The rivers of Italy were mostly short. Only two of Thesitua-
them were good for trade. These were the Po and the Rome
Tiber. It was on the banks of the Tiber, fifteen miles
from its mouth and midway between the sea and the
mountains, that Rome was situated. Her position, in the
heart of Italy, helped her to make herself the commercial
centre of the peninsula, and at the same time served to
divide her enemies so that she could subdue them one by
one. She was also near enough to the sea for commerce
with the outside world, and yet far enough from it to be
safe from the pirates of early times.
42. The Beginnings of Rome. — The early Romans had A viUage
other enemies than pirates to deal with, and these were ° ^^
the neighboring tribes. They had therefore selected, as
a site for their village, one of a group of seven hills and
upon it had built a stronghold. Later on they united
58
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Romulus
and Remus
with another small tribe living to the north on a second
of the seven hills, and formed a city-state. This they
enclosed by a wall. Two small tribes living within a
village of mud huts, protected by two hills and a single
wall — such was the second stage in the growth of the city
which was soon to cover the seven hills and in time make
herself the mistress of the world.
43. The Story of Romulus and Remus. — Who thc
Romans were, where they came from, or when they settled
in Italy we do not know. But the stoiy of Romulus and
Remus tells what the early Romans believed. It is one
of the many legends that have come down to us. These
legends are not history, but at the same time they may
have been founded on actual occurrences in some in-
stances.
According to the legend, the Roman people sprung
from one of the heroes of Troy, ^Eneas, who wandered to
Italy and married the daughter of the King of Latium
(the central province of Italy, of which Rome afterward
became the head) . One of his descendants was the mother
of Romulus and Remus, twin boys, whose father was Mars,
the god of war. Soon after they w^ere born the wicked
Eng, their uncle, had them thrown into the Tiber. The
basket in which they were set adrift was caught by the
roots of a fig tree, a wolf suckled them, and a shepherd^
finding them, brought them up as his own children.
When Romulus became a man he slew the wicked King,
and the two brothers founded a city (753 B. C.) on the
banks of the Tiber near the place where they were rescued.
In a quarrel, Romulus killed his brother Remus and called
the city they had built after himself, Roma. Here he
HOW THE ROMANS BEGAN 59
reigned alone for many years, made laws for the people,
and gave them a religion. During a thunderstorm he
was carried away to the skies, and thereafter he was
worshipped as a god.
A A The Story of Horatius at the Bridge.— Romulus The last
44* AAAc yj*,\jxj .IT Roman King
was followed, so legend tells us, by other kmgs, mcludmg
some of Etruscan blood, the Etruscans being a tribe to
the north of Rome. But in time the Romans drove the
last of these rulers, called Tarquin the Proud, out of the
city and shut the gates against him.
According to the stoiy which the Romans proudly told, Th^^Ro-.^^^
Tarquin, desiring to regain his power, sought help from across the
certain Etruscan cities. With a large force he marched ^"^^e
against Rome and captured the fortified hill on the oppo-
site bank of the Tiber. The Romans, driven from the
hill, retreated across a narrow wooden bridge to the city.
It was plain that if this bridge was not destroyed the
enemy would soon be in Rome itself.
Horatius, a brave warrior, therefore called to the citi- Thr^e^brave
zens to cut down the bridge while he and two companions
turned at its entrance and faced the advancing army.
These three brave warriors, standing side by side, with
their strong shields held the enemy at bay, while other
Romans furiously hacked away at the wooden timbers of
the bridge. When at last it began to give way, Horatius
begged his companions, both of whom were wounded, to
save themselves by retreating.
He remained alone to guard the bridge— one man against Homte ^^
an army. Amazed at his bravery, the enemy drew back fn,m^^
for a moment and then rushed upon him with redoubled ^^P
fury. But they were too late to save the bridge. With a
60
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
crash the last supports broke and it was swept away by
the swiftly flowing river. Clothed as he was in heavy
armor, lioratius plunged into the muddy water and, amid
a shower of arrows from the enemy, swam unharmed to
the opposite .shore, where his friends greeted him with
shouts of joy.
45. The Bitter Struggle between the Patricians and
the Plebeians. — ^Although the Romans were rid of the
TarquinS; they did not escape serious troubles in govern-
ing themselves. By the time they had driven away their
last King (509 B. C.) they had within their walls several
tribes which they had brought in, one after another, to
join the city-state. From the beginning the people were
divided into two classes. The first three tribes, two of
which we have already mentioned, were called Patricians,
and those added later were called Plebeians. The Patri-
cians thought themselves better than the Plebeians, so
they tried to keep in their own hands all the important
powers of government. They insisted that the principal
officials of Pome should be selected from their own number.
In time the Plebeians objected to such a plan as being
unfair to themselves and demanded better treatment.
A long and bitter struggle began, which lasted hundreds
of years. During this time the Plebeians secured the
famous Twelve Tables of the Law, which made plain to
all just what the laws were; and finally they won a great
victory by obtaining, through a body which was known
as the Plebeian Assembly, a share in making the laws
(287 B. C). So it came about that all the freemen, as in
Athens, could now have some share in governing them-
selves.
HOW THE ROMANS BEGAN
61
46. The Story of Cincinnatus. — ^While this struggle TheRo-
was going on within the city itself, the Romans were in ™nstant
constant warfare with other tribes and cities in various warfare
parts of Italy. Sometimes they met with defeat for a
time, but in the main they were successful and grew
steadily by adding to their number other tribes and cities,
which; however, they kept wholly subject to themselves.
A glimpse of one of these early wars with a mountain
tribe is given in the story of Cincinnatus.
According to this legend, the Roman army had been cincinnatus
surrounded and was in a very dangerous situation. When enemy^
the bad news came to Rome, there seemed to be only one
thing to do. That was to appoint as dictator their lead-
ing citizen, Cincinnatus, a member of an old Patrician
family. Messengers found him ploughing his little f^irm
just across the Tiber. When he received
the news of his appointment he wiped from
his forehead the sweat and dust and at once
left his plough. Entering the city, he raised
an army and promptly marched against the
enemy. In sixteen days he had defeated
them, and was back again living the simple
life of a modest farmer.
47. The Remarkable Success of the
Romans. — ^The stories cf lioratius and of
Cincinnatus suggest to us the kind of men
these early Romans were. For nearly five
hundred years after the alleged founding of
Rome (753 B. C.) such men had slowly but surely ex-
tended her power until they had made her the leader of
Italy. The remarkable success of the Romans, we shall
A ro:,:an slingeh
62 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
find; therefore, was due in part to the geography of Rome
and Italy, but in a far higher degree to the men them-
selves. They did a great work in Italy, and later on in
the world outside of Italy, because they were fitted for
their task. It was what the men were in themselves that
explains their great deeds.
48. The Early Roman's Manner of Living. — ^Before
following them into this larger phase of their history, let
us pause to note a few conditions of their every-day liv-
ing, a few prominent traits in their character, and a few
ways in which they dealt with other cities, tribes, and
peoples.
For hundreds of years after the founding of their city,
most of the Homans were peasants who owned little
farms many of which contained not more than four acres.
As a rule they lived outside the walls, coming into the city
only on market days and for special occasions. The
father and his sons did most of the work, as there were but
few slaves and the families were large. There w^ere also
cattle-owners and some traders and merchants. Nearly
all that they needed in food and clothing v/as prepared in
the home by the women-folk and slaves.
Let us, in imagination, visit one of these peasant fami-
lies and see for ourselves how few w^ere their home com-
forts. We find the entire family living in a mere hut
without windows and with a single door. On the side cf
the room facing the door is a hearth, and in the roo^
directly above is an opening which serves the double pur-
pose of letting out the smoke and letting in the light.
Sitting about a rude table, on stools equally rude, we
find the family eating meal boiled with water and drinking
HOW THE ROMANS BEGAN
63
either water or milk.
Their dress is as sim-
ple as their house and
food. The man has
wrapped about his
waist a strip of cloth,
and over this he
wears a woollen shirt,
or tunic, which has
short sleeves and
reaches down as far
as his knees. We
notice, however, that
when he leaves his
house a little later to
appear in pubhc he
puts on a toga. This
is a white woollen blanket, which he folds before grace-
fully wrapping it about his body. Both men and women
go without hats and without stockings, but they wear
shoes or sandals.
49. The Roman Family. — Such was the early Roman's Absolute
manner of living. The father had absolute power in his the father
own household. He could do what he pleased with all the
household goods. He also had the right to banish, sell as
slaves, or even put to death, his children. Although this
may seem strange to us, it did not seem strange to the
Roman. To him the family meant much, but a single
individual meant little. In order that the family might why the
be strong, any member of it must be ready to give up all absolute^
for its best welfare. The reason for this was that fight- p®^^"^
THE SIMPLE DEESS OF THE ROMANS
64
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
ing was a constant necessity. Every family was a little
military company, and the captain had to be obeyed in-
stantly and wholly or all might be killed or made slaves.
It was better, then, they thought, for the head of the
family to decide what was best to do, even if the deci-
sion led to the death of his own child.
50. Roman Patriotism. — ^Just as a member of the house-
hold should be willing to put aside any wishes and interests
of his own for the good of the family, so should any citizen
of Rome be ready to pass through any trial, endure any
suffering, meet any danger, or even give up life itself, if
by so doing he could better serve his country. The Ro-
mans of those earlier days were faithful to one another
and loyal to their state. They cheerfully submitted to
law and order. In fact the world has never seen a finer
example of patriotism. Their intense love of country
played a very important part in making them great.
Such men were heroes.
51. The Romans Extend Their Power in Italy. — ^Their
respect for law and order not only made it easier for them
to unite, but it also helped them to bind together the peo-
ples they conquered. For although they treated these
conquered peoples as subjects, they gave them better laws
and far greater security than they had had before, and
allowed them much freedom in managing their local
affairs.
On the conquered land the Romans settled communi-
ties of loyal Roman citizens; and these '^ Little Romes,"
scattered here and there throughout Italy, became centres
for the spread of Roman ideas and ways of doing things.
All the tribes and cities were connected with Rome by a
THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ROME AND CARTHAGE 65
superb system of public roads. Thus the Romans stead-
ily extended their power imtil, about five hundred years
after the founding of the city, they had become the mas-
ters of all the present Italy south of the Rubicon River.
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. Italy was well situated for world trade. 2. Rome also had
an important situation. 3. The remarkable success of the Romans
was due in a measure to the geography of Rome and Italy, but in
a far higher degree to the men themselves. 4. In the early days
of their history the Romans lived a simple life. 5. The father had
absolute power in his own household. 6. The Romans were a
heroic and nation-loving people.
TO THE PUPIL
1. Explain in what way both Italy and Rome were well situated.
2. Tell the stories of Romulus and Remus, of Horatius at the bridge,
and of Cincinnatus. What do you thmk of Horatius ? Of Cincinnatus ?
3. What was the bitter struggle between the Patricians and the Plebe-
nftns, and how did it end ?
4. How do you explain the remarkable success of the Romans?
5. Imagine yourself in the home of a Roman and tell all you can about it.
6. In what ways were the Romans patriotic ? What do you admire in
isaese people ?
7. Tell what you can about how the Romans extended their power in
Italy.
CHAPTER yil
THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ROME AND
CARTHAGE
52. How the Struggle Began. — ^After Rome had gained Rome in
control of the tribes and cities in Italy, and had made their itaiy
people either citizens or allieS; it was plainly her duty to
defend them against their enemies and to protect their
66
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
"The Greek
cities in
Italy and
Sicily
Carthage a
trading city
The first
war with
Carthage
commerce. It became necessary, after carrying her con-
quests to the southern shores of Italy, for her to extend
them farther.
The Greek cities of that region, as well as those of the
neighboring island of Sicily, had been from time to time
much vexed by bands of sea robbers. The cities would
not unite for defence, but, like the Greek cities of their
home land, held aloof from one another and even quarrelled
among themselves. The cities of Sicily had frequently
called in Carthage to help them settle their troubles, and
this gave her a footing on the island.
Carthage was a famous trading city on the north coast
of Africa (close by where Tunis now is), almost directly
south of Rome and about a hundred miles away. Her
population was perhaps a million, and she had control of
much of northern Africa, of the islands of Corsica and Sar-
dinia, and also of parts of Sicily and Spain. Her immense
commerce had given her great power, which of course she
wished to extend just as Rome wished to extend hers.
This could be done only by destroying the Roman fleets,
for no two countries in those days would share trade in
peaceful competition.
The two cities, therefore, became bitter rivals; and as
only a narrow strait between Sicily and Italy separated
them, they were bound to come to blows for the posses-
sion of the island. AVhen, in 264 B. C, Rome sent aid
to one of the Greek cities of Sicily, Carthage accepted the
act as a challenge, and the first Carthaginian war began.
It lasted twenty-four years. Carthage met with severe
defeat. She was obliged to give up Sicily, and had to
pay Rome an enormous sum of money.
68
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Hannibal's
oath
War with
Rome
53. Hamilcar and Rome. — Hamilcar, the last of the
Punic generals who fought in the war for Sicily, bore such
a hatred toward Rome that he longed to humble her.
Although Carthage was still rich and powerful, her mer-
chants cared more for trade than for avenging their honor,
and so they would not pro\dde an army, Hamilcarj there-
fore, undertook to conquer Spain, where both Rome and
Carthage had settlements, and there to secure men and
money for making war upon Rome. Before he could ac-
complish his purpose he fell in battle. But he left a son,
Hannibal, who in time carried out his mshes.
54. Hannibal and War with Rome. — ^WTien Hannibal
was only nine years old, his father had taken him to the
altar of the great god of Carthage,
where the boy swore always to hate
Rome and to do everything in his power
to injure her. Hannibal never forgot his
oath; and when, at the age of twenty-
eight, he was put in command of the
Carthaginian army in Spain, he began
to make good his word. By attacking
Saguntum, a city on the Spanish coast,
which was an ally of Rome, he provoked
a declaration of war (218 B. C); but
before the Roman fleet could reach Saguntum, Hannibal
was far on his way toward Italy. By the route he had
chosen, Rome was eleven hundred miles away — a dis-
tance greater than that between New York and Chicago.
55. Hannibal Crosses the Alps. — We need not follow
in detail this long war. But let us give our attention to
the famous passage of the Alps and to one or two incidents
HANNIBAL
THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ROME AND CARTHAGE 69
in the many years of campaigns and battles. We can then
see what a wonderful man Hannibal was, and how great
a thing it was for the Romans to defeat him.
Having crossed the Pyrenees and forded the Rhone, Hannibal's
he began late in October the ascent of the Alps, with some- ^"^^
thing like fifty thousand men and fifty-eight elephants.
These elephants were used for a sort of heavy cavalry, their
immense size frightening the foe and breaking his ranks.
To cross the Alps was a gigantic undertaking, and put a trying
to severe test his courage and skill as a general. The very b^^^qX
first day the army was at-
tacked by hostile moun- ^^-^j,
tain tribes from the ';
heights above. They \
hurled javelins and rolled
great masses of rocks
upon Hannibal's troops.
The pathway was narrow
and the mountains were
steep and slippery. Hun-
dreds of men and horses
lost their footing and fell
thousands of feet to their death on the rocks below. It
looked as if the whole army might be destroyed. But
Hannibal was equal to the situation. Having learned
that the mountaineers did not keep watch during the
night, he sent after dark a body of troops to occupy the
position which the enemy had held during the day.
When the natives appeared on the next morning, they
were quickly driven off, and the way was left open for
the entire army to pass on in safety.
HANNIBAL AND HIS ARMT CROSSING THE ALPS
70
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The false
guides
More
trouble for
the army
Intense
suffering of
men and
beasts
The great
Hannibal
Four or five days later another tribe of mountaineers,
carrying branches in their hands in token of peace, offered
to act as guides for Hannibal. But leading his army into
a narrow defile, they fell upon it with savage iury. It
was only after a hard fight that he was able to drive off
his foes.
On reaching the summit, Hannibal found the descent
to be even harder than the climbing had been. The
mountains were steeper to the south and the pathway
more dangerous. At one point an avalanche blocked the
way, and it required three days to cut a pathway wide
enough for the elephants to pass.
When, fifteen days after beginning the ascent, the whole
army reached the plain below, twenty thousand men had
been lost; and the survivors, ragged, weak, and worn,
looked like walking skeletons. Many horses also had
died, and those still alive were so weak that they could
hardly stand. Only the strongest of men and of beasts
had been able to endure the intense suffering from cold
and hunger, as well as from the blinding snowstorms and
the fierce attacks of the hostile tribes.
Yet during all this period of trial and hardship, Hanni-
bal never lost courage. Fearless and tireless in action,
cool and steady in the face of danger, he pressed rapidly
onward. Many nights he slept on the bare earth with
no covering but his long cloak. All such hardships he
shared with his men, and this gained their lasting good-
will and friendship. They were always ready to follow
wherever he might lead. They trusted him as a man;
they idolized him as a general ; and his perfect command
over them made them wellnigh invincible in battle. He
THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ROME AND CARTHAGE 71
was one of the greatest generals of all times, as the Romans
were soon to find out.
56. The War Long and Terrible. — In the terrible war
which he carried into the heart of Italy; and even to the
very gates of Rome, he showed wonderful ability; some-
times almost destroying an entire army at one blow, and
at other times getting away from the enemy when they
thought they had entrapped him.
The battle of Trasimene is a good example of his skill Hannibai^
in battle. Trasimene is a lake in Etruria^ about one hun- enemy in a
dred miles from Rome. Close by its northern shore ran *^^^
a road along which the Roman army would naturally pass.
At two points in this road high mountains came so close
to the shore that only narrow passes were left. Between
these two passes the land broadened into a plain with
mountains on one side and water on the other. By clos-
ing the two passes a trap could be made, from which
escape would be very difficult for those once caught.
Hannibal made ready the trap. He concealed a strong
body of men near each pass in order to close it up when
once the enemy had entered. Then he hid the rest of the
army in the woods and underbrush covering the mountain
sides. The soldiers were to attack the Roman army as
soon as it was penned in.
On the morning cf the battle a thick fog helped to a thick fog
keep Hannibal's army more completely out of sight.
Hannibal waited patiently until the Roman legions were
well inside the trap. Then from aU sides his men fell upon
them. The slaughter was terrible. The Roman army
was almost totally destroyed.
His genius again flashed out in the ruse of the oxen.
72
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The ruse
of the oxen
Hannibal
the victor
in every
battle
The Senate
and the Ro-
man people
brave
An able Roman general had so completely surrounded
Hannibal's army, which was encamped in a valley not
far from the city of Capua, that it seemed impossible for
him to escape. But he was too shrewd to be caught.
At night he ordered his men to tie burning fagots to the
horns of two thousand oxen and drive them up the moun-
tain side. When the Romans saw the mass of moving
lights, they supposed it was the Carthaginian army; so
they climbed the mountains to prevent their escape.
Then the wily Hannibal calmly marched through the pass
which the Romans had left unguarded.
Thus for fifteen years the terrible war went on. In the
first three of these years four pitched battles were fought,
in every one of which Hannibal was the victor. Even
when the Roman army greatly outnumbered his own, it
w^as no match for him. During the rest of the time the
two armies never came face to face in open fight, but
Hannibal plundered and terrified the people and ravaged
the country until vast stretches lay waste and barren.
Great was the distress and suffering in Italy, as you can
well imagine.
At one time Hannibal marched his army right to Rome
itself, and threatened to capture that very centre of the
nation. But at no time during this distressing war did
the great ruling body, the Senate, waver in its firm and
unyielding purpose to carry on the war. Its members were
unselfish and patriotic, and the Roman people, upon whom
the losses fell so heavily, stood back of them in this resolve
not to give up. They were fighting for their homes and
their country; and to these sturdy, patient, nation-loving
men, death itself was more welcome than defeat.
THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ROME AND CARTHAGE 73
It is not surprising that Hannibal could not conquer Rome's
such a people. His task might have been easier if he had faltSui
been able to get the help he expected from Rome's allies. *° ^®'
But very few of them deserted Rome, and those really
because they were forced to do so. They were bound
A ROMAN SEAPORT, SHIPS OF WAR AND OTHER CRAFT
to Rome by ties of race and of religion, and they could
not hope for nearly so good a government from these Afri-
cans as that which they already had under Roman law
and order.
57. Rome Crushes the Power of Carthage. — Finally
when the Romans carried the war into Africa, Hannibal
had to leave Italy in order to defend Carthage. On the
plains of Zama, not far from Carthage, a battle was fought
between Hannibal and the Roman commander Scipio
(202 B. C), which not only ended the war but crushed
forever the power of Carthage in the ancient world.
74 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Some years later Hannibal died in exile. About fifty
years after the battle of Zama the Romans burned Car-
thage to the ground.
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. Rome and Carthage came to be great rivals. 2. In the first
war between them Carthage met with severe defeat. 3. Hannibal
was wonderful in his power over men and in his skill as a general.
4. In the terrible and distressing war both the Senate and the
Roman people were brave, unselfish, and patriotic. 5. The war
ended in the defeat of Carthage, and about fifty years later Rome
burned Carthage to the ground.
TO THE PUPIL
1. How did there come to be war between Rome and Carthage ?
2. What was Hannibal's oath, and how did he begin to make good his
word ?
3. Imagine yourself with him when he crossed the Alps and tell about
your experiences. At this time how did Hannibal show his greatness ?
4. What was the ruse of the oxen ?
5. How do you explain the fact that Hannibal was the victor in every
battle ?
6. Explain why Hannibal could not conquer Rome.
7. Why were Rome's allies faithful fo her ?
8. What became of Carthage ? What became of Hannibal ?
9. Locate on the map all countries and cities mentioned in the text.
CHAPTER VIII
THE ROMANS IN THE WEST
58. The Romans Extend Their Conquests. — After
bringing under her rule Italy- and Carthage, Rome began
to push out her borders in all directions. Just as Alex-
ander the Great had conquered Egypt and the Persian
Empire, and had prepared for the spread of Greek ideas
THE ROMANS IN THE WEST
75
and ways of living, so the Roman nation after the conquest
of Carthage reached out into the lands lying all about the
Mediterranean Sea, and made ready the path for the
Roman customs to travel.
We should hke to watch Rome as she brings under her
rule Egypt, Greece, and other countries in the East, but
we must keep our minds mostly upon that part of the life
stor}^ of the Romans which helps to explain how the great
things they worked out came to be a part of our American
hfe.
59. The Romans in the West. — Let us, then, follow
them as they push their way into the country that bor-
dered Italy on the north-w^est, which they
called Gaul, and then on across the English
Channel to the island of Britain. We must
needs learn something also of the early strug-
gles with the Germans. We shall then see
more clearly how Roman customs and ideas
grew to be a part of those of England, France,
and Germany, and shall understand how it
was that the men who came to America from
these countries brought with them much that
had been taught by the Romans.
60. Caesar and the Germans. — ^Their first
advance was northward into Gaul, and this
caused their first conflict with the Germans. Julius The
Caesar, who was the greatest of all the Roman generals, in Gaul
led this advance. But he had not gone far before he
found that he had to reckon with a man far more dan-
gerous than any Gallic leader. This man was Ariovistus,
a German king. Some years before, this giant king had
JULIUS CESAR
76
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Caesar's
bridge
across the
Rhine
led an army out of the forests of Germany across the
Rhine. Invited by two of the Gallic tribes^ he had come
to fight for them against another tribe. After helping to
conquer their foes, he and his victorious followers pro-
ceeded to take into their own hands the leadership of
all Gaul.
The growing power of this German king was a great
obstacle to Caesar^ who decided to get rid of liim. He
therefore at once made plans to secure food supplies for
his army; and took up the march against Ariovistus.
It was not long before the natives and traders of Gaul
began to bring in reports of the huge size, the fierce eyes,
the wonderful braver}^, and the great number of these
f 3arless German warriors, who for fourteen years had not
come under the shelter of a roof. The Roman soldiers
.were seized with panic. Some of them wept. Many made
their wills. Others begged that they might go back to
their homes, although they insisted, in their shame at
seeming to fear men, that it was only the trackless forests
of which they were afraid.
But Caesar did not hesitate in his purpose. He was more
than willing to measure his well-drilled legions against
the German forces. Soon a battle was fought, and the
Germans were badly defeated. They fled to the Rhine,
Ariovistus with the rest. Some of them got away in
boats, some swam across, but most of them perished.
From this first meeting with the Germans, Csesar
learned a lesson of great value. He had tested the fighting
ability of the huge, fierce warriors, and had come into a
wholesome respect for their fighting powers. He also
knew that there were vast hordes of them in the German
THE ROMANS IN THE WEST
77
Cesar's bridge over the rhine (showing
construction)
forest. In order that he might be able to advance with
his army swiftly into their territory, he made use of the
Roman skill to build, in what seemed to the Germans a
miraculously short time, a huge bridge over the Rhine.
6i. Caesar Invades Britain. — After some three years Reasons for
of warring with the Gauls, Caesar decided to invade Brit- *^® evasion
ain (55 B. C.). This was
because the Celts of Britain
were kinsmen by race of
those in Gaul, and not only
sent them help, but fur-
nished them an easy ref-
uge across the Channel
when hard pressed by the
Romans. So the Roman
conquest of Gaul was not
secure unless the Britons were conquered and curbed as
well. Doubtless also Caesar wished to obtain more booty
and glory for himself and Rome.
On this first expedition he crossed the English Channel The first
in three hundred small vessels, and with an army of from "^^^^^°°
eight thousand to ten thousand men. Approaching the
coast of Britain near the spot where Dover is now, he
found the shore covered with the enemy's forces, whose
chariots moved along the shore as fast as his galleys sailed
through the water. Although the natives fought bravely
to prevent him from landing, the well-drilled Romans suc-
ceeded in driving them away. But the Britons, although
they retreated inland for safety at this time, returned
later to annoy the invaders. On the water there was
trouble also, for a storm had injured the Roman fleet.
78
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
This danger was repaired^ and after a stay of only three
weeks, Caesar sailed back to Gaul.
Next spring he again invaded Britain, this time with
eight hundred vessels, and with a force of twenty thou-
sand to twenty-five thousand foot soldiers and two thou-
A ROMAN GENERAL. ADDRESSING HIS TROOPS
sand horsemen. On this occasion he landed unopposed,
pitched his camp on the sea-shore, and advanced inland.
Cassivelaunus (Caswallon), a Celtic chief and the leader
of the Britons, instead of fighting a battle, withdrew into
the forests and marshes. Caesar's troops, following, were
attacked in the rear by other chiefs of Britain whose land
had been crossed. Still other Britons attacked his camp
on the sea-coast. Meanwhile a storm injured the Roman
fleet. Caesar by remaining longer would have run the
risk of being detained till his army was thinned or cut
to pieces by these assaults. As the gain was not worth
iHE ROMANS IN THE WEST
79
ROMAN BATHS AT BATH, ENGLAND, AS TBEY LOOK TO-DAT
the danger, he made peace with the natives and again
sailed back to Gaul after a stay of sixty days. His only
80 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
booty was some slaves. He had done nothing but alarm
the Britons and give them a sense of Roman power.
What 62. The Romans Conquer Britain. — It was Caesar's
®^^ last visit to this island. Indeed we must pass over
nearly a century before we find the Romans again enter-
ing Britain. But if we take this long look ahead; we shall
see that they then conquered all but the northern part,
brought it under Roman rule, and stayed three and a half
centuries, building many cities and roads. This period
of Roman occupation in Britain is longer than the Eng-
lish occupation of America has been.
The cities were centres of Roman life, where luxurious
villas, baths, and amphitheatres helped to make life
agreeable for the officers and garrisons stationed there,
and for the families of merchants and traders. London,
York, Lincoln, and Chester still contain parts of the old
Roman walls built during those years. Some of the best
highways that are now in use in England have for their
foundations the old Roman roads. Four of them centred
at London and three at Chester.
Caesar's 63. An Uprising of Gallic Tribes. — Coming back to a
daring dee p^j-^Q J ^,^q years after the Romans entered Britain the
second time, we find that many of the tribes of Gaul had
risen to throw off the Roman yoke. These Gallic tribes
were already well advanced in the arts of living and
bitterly opposed Roman rule in Gaul. A brave young
general, Vercingetorix, was their leader. Before the up-
rising had reached its full strength, Caesar, the Roman
ruler of Gaul, suddenly appeared. News of the uprising
had reached him in Italy, where he was busy with
affairs of state. Although it was the middle of winter,
THE ROMANS IN THE WEST
81
with a small escort of cavalry he had hastened through
the heart of the enemy's country to put himself at the
head of his troops. Such a daring deed none but a man
of heroic nature would ever attempt.
But even after reaching his army, Csesar faced a danger- The plan of
ous situation, as we shall soon see. Vercingetorix was a getorix"
brave and able leader. He knew that, in
open battle, the well-trained Roman legions
would be certain to defeat his troops. So he
decided to adopt a kind of guerilla, or irreg-
ular, warfare. His plan was, by burning
the towns and villages and laying waste the
land, to starve Caesar's army out of Gaul.
It worked well for a time AMierever Csesar
marched he found the country deserted and
saw the smoke of burning villages. More
than twenty towns were burned in a single
day.
But the people of Bourges were so proud
of their prosperous city that they could not
bear to see it destroyed, and flatly refused to burn it. Trying days
Csesar made an attack upon it, and for weeks it stub- Romans
bornly held out. The Roman soldiers suffered severely
from cold. In his efforts to cut them off from food,
Vercingetorix attacked them again and again, and was so
successful that at times they were without bread for days
together. But Csesar persisted until he had captured
the city. Then, in order to make a terrible object-lesson
for the rest of Gaul, he massacred all its inhabitants.
A little later, when Csesar attacked Vercingetorix at Caesar
the town of Gergovia, he was repulsed with heavy loss.
LIGHT-ARMED SOLDIER
82
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Caesar wins
a victory
A trying
siege
The outlook for bringing Gaul again under Roman con-
trol was dreaiy. Even Caesar was discouraged. To meet
the desperate situation he marched in the direction of
Germany, and there enrolled in his army a strong force
of German cavalry.
64. Caesar Defeats Vercingetorix. — In the meantime
the Gauls, greatly encouraged by the way things were
going, determined to wage
war on a larger scale than
before. Vercingetorix was to
fortify Alesia (about thirty
miles north-west of the pres-
ent Dijon), and, avoiding
open battle, was to give
Caesar all the trouble possi-
ble while the Roman army
was on its march to that city.
But his men were so eager to fight that Vercingetorix
could not control them. He was forced, therefore, into
an open battle with the Romans, now greatly aided by
the German cavalry, and met with a severe defeat.
Then he retreated to Alesia and there awaited Caesar.
The siege that followed was a trying one — for Caesar, for
the people of the city, and for Vercingetorix. There were
many weeks of untold suffering. At last when the Gallic
soldiers and the people of Alesia were almost without
food, Vercingetorix sent out into the open plain between
the city and the Roman army all who were unable to
fight — the women and children, the sick and the aged.
He hoped Caesar would take them prisoners and give them
food. But Caesar had no food for his own men. And so
A ROMAN CAMP
THE ROMANS IN THE WEST
83
HOMAN STANDARDS
before the veiy eyes of fathers, husbands, and friends,
these helpless men, women, and children died in the
agonies of hunger.
At last after desperate fighting the Gauls surrendered. The fate of
and Vercingetorix, dressed in full armor, rode proudly into od?"^^^*'
the presence of Caesar. Then, giving up his arms and his
steed, he sat down in si-
lence at the feet of his
conqueror. Five years
later this daring leader
of a lost cause was led
in a triumphal proces-
sion through the streets
of Rome; and wMe his
conqueror was offering
solemn thanks to the
gods at the summit of the Capitol, he was beheaded
at its foot for the part he had taken in an uprising of
his countrymen against Roman rule in Gaul. For the
French, Vercingetorix is a national hero to-day.
65. The Romans Successful Teachers. — In this brief The Romans
account of Caesar's invasions of Gaul and Britain, and of ^ctorious^
his war with Ariovistus, w^e get little more than a few im- ^amors
pressions of the way in which he extended Roman power
in the West. What we wish to remember, however, is
not so much the battles he fought, or the extent of his con-
quests over the Gauls, the Germans, and the Britons, as
the fact that, like Alexander the Great, he was making
ready for the spread of Roman thought, Roman customs,
and Roman ways of living. The Romans were more than
victorious warriors. They were also successful teachers of
They were
also
successful
teachers
84
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
the countries they ruled with their wise laws. The very
barbarians who fought them knew and envied their su-
periority, copied their manners, tried to live like them,
bought their wares, were glad to come under a rule of law
like theirs, and by degrees became civilized like themselves.
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. After the conquest of Carthage the Roman nation reached
out into the lands lying all about the Mediterranean Sea and made
ready the path for Roman customs to travel. 2. Since Roman
customs and ideas grew to be a part of those of England, France,
and Germany, the men who later came to America from these
countries brought with them much that had been taught them by
the Romans. 3. What we wish to remember, then, is not so much
the battles Csesar fought, or the extent of his conquests over the
Gauls, the Germans, and the Britons, as the fact that, like Alex-
ander the Great, he was making ready for the spread of Roman
thought, Roman customs, and Roman ways of living.
TO THE PUPIL
1. How far did the Romans extend their conquests ? Point out as
many as you know of the countries they conquered.
2. What did Caesar do in Gaul and in Britain ?
3. Who was Ariovistus ? How did Caesar get aid from the Germans
later ?
4. Why did Caesar invade Britain, and with what results ?
5. Tell all you can of Roman Ufe in Britain during the three and a half
centuries of Roman rule there ?
6. Who was Vercingetorix ? What did he try to do? What became
of him ?
7. What is meant by saying that the Romans were not only successful
warriors but also successful teachers ?
8. Are you using your map in the preparation of every lesson ?
ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE
85
CHAPTER IX
ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE
66. The Vast Empire and Its Capital. — In time the The Roman
Romans brought under their control most of the civihzed ^^^^
world and made of it one great state^ or empire, as it was
called later. In Europe this included all of Italy, Greece,
Spain, France (Gaul), and what is now England, as well
as parts of Germany, of Austria-Hungary, of the Balkan
states, and of the Turkish Empire. In general, we may
say that all of Europe lying south of the Danube and west
of the Rhine came to be a part of the Roman Empire.
Such was its vast extent. Its centre and capital was The capita)
Rome, which at the time when
Augustus was Emperor probably
contained not far from a million
and a half people, or something
like as many as Philadelphia con-
tains now. An imaginary visit
to the city in the days of its im-
perial greatness will give us a
glimpse of its magnificence.
Passing through its narrow,
winding streets we soon find
ourselves gazing in admiration at
massive public buildings which
for hundreds of years played a large part in the life of
the rich and the poor. Since in the days of the empire
the Romans made pleasure-seeking one of their chief
aims, let us first go to the principal centres of amuse-
^^MR^"
RHBv
A BIT OP ANCIENT WALL OF EOME
86
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
ment — the theatre^ the amphitheatre, the circuS; and the
bath — and see what takes place there.
67. The Theatre. — ^Although the theatre furnished a
sort of amusement for great numbers of the lower classes,
it did not reach such a position of dignity and influence as
.^.^^.s;^ it had held at
'"^^ - ^ """ Athens. We may
therefore pass it
by with the simple
statement that the
plays were not, as
a rule, such as peo-
ple of fine feeling
and pure thought
would care to wit-
ness.
68. The Coli-
^'^'^
THE COLISEUM, ROME
The gladi-
ators and
the contests
seum. — But the
forms of amusement which appealed to all sorts and con-
ditions of men in Rome were the gladiatorial show and
the chariot races. The gladiatorial contests were held
in the amphitheatres, the largest and greatest of which
was the Coliseum. Its wonderful ruins can still be seen.
It covered nearly six acres, and seated eighty-seven
thousand men and women, who took a keen delight in
the cruel spectacles they witnessed within its walls.
We can imagine the vast throng seated and eager for
the exciting events of the day. First comes a procession,
which includes a parade of chariots. Then follow the
gladiators themselves. Armed with swords and spears,
they march around the vast arena before they engage in
ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE
87
FIGHTING GLADIATOR
deadly combat with one another or with wild beasts.
Sometimes they fight in pairs and sometimes in large
numbers. At other times the bloody duel is between two
animals much unlike, as a Hon and a bear, a wild boar
and an elephant, or a bull and a tiger.
The more the people saw of these brutal scenes the more Brutal
SC6I16S
they craved such entertainment. In one
case the contests lasted for one hundred
and twenty-three days, and during these
days some thousands of animals were killed
and ten thousand gladiators fought.
69. The Circus Maximus. — ^Rivalling the
amphitheatre in excitement and interest
was the circus, where the chariot races were
held. The largest one in Rome was the Cir-
cus Maximus, a structure of such mammoth
size that it would seat four hundred thousand spectators.
Four and sometimes six chariots took part in a race.
Each was drawn by a number of horses, from four to ten
abreast, the driver standing erect, dressed in a short
colored tunic. The colors used for the tunics were red,
white, green, and blue. Each driver's color was worn also
by those among the on-lookers v/ho hoped to see him win.
Thus the spectators were divided into four parties. Each
man's interest centred in the success of his chosen color.
Seven times around the course sped the charioteers, cover-
ing a distance of about four miles. The turns were so
sharp that, when the horses were racing at full speed,
chariots were sometimes upset or smashed and their
drivers maimed or killed. Such accidents made the excite-
ment all the keener. The clatter of the chariots, the cries
The chariot
races
88
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
A CHARIOT liACE
Successful
charioteers
of the drivers^ and the wild shouts of the thousands of
spectators made "a scene which one who witnessed it could
never forget.
Some of the most successful charioteers, who were either
freedmen or slaves, made large fortunes. It is said that
one of these had earned sixty thousand dollars by the time
he was twenty-one years old, and that still another left
his son more than one million four hundred thousand
dollars.
70. The Baths. — Another way in which the rich
sought amusement was in the public baths. These build-
ings were like huge and luxurious club-houses. Not only
could men take hot, cold, swimming, or steam baths, but
they could spend their time pleasantly in other wa}'s.
For attached to the high-class baths were gymnasiums,,
lounging, and resting rooms adorned with statues and pict-
ures, libraries, and even gardens where visitors could meet
for walks and conversation. In the same building were
ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 89
also shops and restaurants. The baths were usually
crowded. Sometimes men spent the entire day there.
"Two baths a day make two days," they said, and they
often took many in the course of a day to increase the
joy of hving.
71. The Palace and the Villa. — Still more amazing The golden
in its dazzling splendor was the golden house of Nero. It N°ero^ ^
covered an area of a square mile; its walls glittered with
gold, gems, and pearls; and it contained thousands of
graceful columns and beautiful wall paintings and statues.
Although this wonderful palace had no rival in Rome, The luxuri-
yet many wealthy Romans owned luxurious villas. Like °"^ ^ ^^
the golden house of Nero, they were ornamented with
marble columns, beautiful pictures, urns richly carved,
and vases of marble, bronze, silver, and gold. Far dif-
ferent were such gorgeous dwellings from the one-room
cabins in the early days of simple living in Rome.
72. The People of Rome. — ^These magnificent build- Slaves
ings and this grandeur of living point to the untold wealth ^^ ^°°^®
which the Romans had acquired through their conquests.
From the same sources also they had acquired great num-
bei-s of slaves. Some of these had been captured in war,
and many others had been brought to Rome through her
extensive slave trade. It is believed that after the con-
quest of Gaul by Caesar, slaves made nearly one-half of the
population of Rome.
What was true of Rome was true in greater or less de- slaves
gree of other parts of Italy. Millions of slaves crowded "^ ^^^
the peninsula. They were very cheap. It is said that
at the close of a successful war in the East the Roman
commander sold his captives for an average price of eighty
90
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The idle
rabble in
Rome
Two classes
of freemen
«t^ i
cents a head. The man was poor who did not own at
least three or four slaves, -and it was not uncommon for
a rich land-owner to own hundreds. He employed cheap
slave labor to culti-
vate his huge estate,
formed by uniting the
many small farms
which his wealth
made it easy for him
to buy. Thus he
could raise grain at
less cost than could
the man who tilled
his own farm. So the
small farmers were
driven out of busi-
ness. They sold their
land and flocked to
Rome, where wdth
their families they be-
came a part of the
idle rabble of the
city. After a while
these shiftless folk looked down upon labor as unworthy
of freemen, and in time slaves came to be almost the only
workers in Rome.
The freemen were mainly divided into two great classes
— the very rich and the ver}^ poor. Both of these classes
despised labor, and both spent their time in idleness. The
luxury-loving rich enjoyed feasting and revelry; the loaf-
ing, beggarly rabble sought free bread and excitement.
u:
SCENE AT THE VILLA OF A RICH ROMAN
ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 91
How different were these Romans, who gave themselves
up to idleness and amusement, from those plain, sturdy,
self-rehant peasants of the early days! Then obedience
to law and service to the state were the watchwords. At
that time Rome was poor in money and goods, but rich
in strong, brave men. Now she was wealthy in money,
slaves, houses, and lands, but poor in character and man-
hood.
73. The Senate. — ^The same causes that corrupted
the people corrupted the Senate also. During the strug-
gle with Carthage this body had kept up the spirit of
Rome. Now it was unfit to govern. At the time when
Hannibal was waging war in Italy, most of the senators
were strong and patriotic. Nov/ the members of that
body had become weak and corrupt. Hence the Senate
failed, and victorious generals one by one strove to put
themselves in control at Rome. For many years a series
of struggles went on between rival leaders, the most Rival
prominent of whom were Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Crassus, ^®^^®^
and Julius Caesar. Each professed a different aim, though
the first four called themselves merely servants of the
government. Caesar openly made himself master of the
government and the Senate yielded to him as its supe-
rior and head of the Roman world.
74. The Forum. — ''Rome," it was said, ''was the centre
of the world, and the Forum w^as the heart of Rome. " In
early times, when it was the only open square in Rome,
it was used as a market and for holding the religious and
state ceremonies.
Even in the time of Caesar it was very small, not as large Statues, col»
as the usual city square, and was crowded with statues bSfdm^^
92
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
RUINS OF THE FORUM
The people
in the
Forum
Coveted
honors
and columns erected in honor of distinguished men.
Here stood many noble buildings. Among them were
temples, halls of justice, and the curia, or senate house.
In the Forum was
the rostrum, or
platform, from
which orations
were made to the
people.
The original
Forum — there
were now others
— was small for
the imperial busi-
ness that had to
be done there, and was, therefore, generally full of people.
It was said that when a Roman was not at home he was
in the Forum. In one part were to be found lawyers
and brokers canying on their business; another part was
given up to money-lenders; in another were gathered the
idle rabble; and in still another the nobles and senators
met. Here, in fact, went on the stirring life of Rome.
Here one could see men talking over the news of the day;
orators making speeches to the people; on certain days,
religious festivals and games; and even, at times, trium-
phal processions on their way to the Capitol.
75. A Roman Triumph. — ^The desire nearest the heart
of every Roman general, was that he might have a tri-
umph; that is, that he might win a great victory for
Rome, and as a reward be given a celebration by the
city. If he should be fortunate enough to win this honor,
ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE
93
he would be a famous man all his life and statues of him
would keep his glory alive after his death.
As soon as a commander had conquered an enemy or
won a province for Rome^ he sent word to the Senate.
They considered the matter and; if the victory was a
satisfactoiy one, they decreed a public thanksgiving.
As soon as the war was over^ the general hastened to
Rome. But he did not enter the city, for as soon as he
should pass through the gates his command would be
over, and he could not have a triumph unless he was still
at the head of his army.
Outside the walls, in one of the temples, the Senate
met him and heard his report. If it was decided to allow
him a triumph the Senate voted a sum of money for the
celebration. They
also arranged that
the general should
retain his command
within the city dur-
ing the triumph.
Let us join an ex-
pectant throng who
have gathered to view
a triumph. They
ARCH OF TRAJAN, TIMGAD, NORTH AFRICA
crowd the steps of the
public buildings, jostle each other for standing-room, and
fill the door-ways. Grandstands put up along the way
are filled with eager on-lookers. Every one is gayly
dressed. The temples are open and fragrant with flowers.
AVhile we wait in the Via Sacra, the general is congratu-
lating his soldiers and rewarding ttiem for their servicec
The victori-
ous general
and the
triumph
The Senate
and the
triumph
A crowd
gathers to
see the
triumph
Entrance
into citv
94
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The general
and his
body-guard
We must have patience until he can get into his car and
drive to the Triumphal Gate. Here he will be met by
the magistrates and the Senate, who then turn about
and head the gay procession.
Behind the magistrates and the Senate come the
trumpeters, followed by wagons loaded with the spoils
of the war. All sorts of interesting trophies are dis-
played — models of
the conquered cities,
pictures of the newly
acquired region and
its rivers and moun-
tains, jewels and
w'orks of art, em-
broidered cloths, gold
and silver, and every-
thing which may in-
terest the people.
Now come the flute-
players, preceding the animals, white bulls or oxen with
gilded horns, which are to be sacrificed, and the priests
who are to perform this ceremony. If any strange ani-
mals have been captured, such as elephants, they come
next, then the insignia of the enemy, and finally the
captives themselves, whom the people look at with great
curiosity, for sometimes they come from far-distant
lands.
Now appear the victors in single file escorting the
general in his glory. He is standing in his circular chariot
drawn by four horses. His robe is of gold embroidery,
covered with a flowered tunic, and he carries a laurel
AKCU OF CONSTANTIXK
ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE
95
bough in his right hand; and a sceptre, in his left. On
his head rests a laurel wreath. By his side are his little
children or perhaps his closest friends. A slave, standing
behind him, holds above his head a jewelled crown. His
body-guard is composed of his grown-up sons, and promi-
nent officials and citizens, all on horseback. Last of all
come the infantr}^, with laurel adorning their spears,
laughing and shouting and singing hymns to the gods as
lustily as they choose.
Reaching the Capitoline Hill, the procession begins End of the
the ascent. The chief captives are led aside into a prison ^""°^P
and put to death. Then the sacrifices are offered, and the
laurel wreath placed in the lap of Jupiter. Following
this comes a great feast in the temple, in honor of the gen-
eral; and at the close of the day, or of the two or three
days, in case the triumph is so long, he goes to his home
attended by a throng of citizens, with pipers and torch-
bearers in the lead.
76. The Roman Roads. — ^The arch of triumph through Purposes of
which we have just seen the triumphal procession pass roads
illustrates well the remarkable skill of the Romans in
engineering. In fact they w^ere not only the first to make
architectural use and on a large scale of the arch and
the dome, but were also mas-
terful builders of bridges.
They were great builders in
other ways also. Among the
most noted examples of
their work were huge struct-
ures like the CoHseum, the
Circus Maximus, the baths,
THE APPIAN WAY, A ROMAN ROAD
96
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
How the
roads were
used
The con-
struction
of the
aqueducts
and the theatres. But the building in which the prac-
tical makers of an empire especially excelled was the
structure of roads and aqueducts. As for roads, no
other countries then had anything but dirt paths; but
wherever the Romans conquered a district, they placed
garrisons at important centres and connected them with
each other and with Rome by well-built roads, so that
the people of that time could truly say, "All roads lead
to Rome.'' The heavy blocks of stone used in paving
were so strong that long sections of the roads still exist
to-day.
These thoroughfares served the same purpose in the
ancient world that railroads do to-day. They helped to
keep Rome in close touch wdth all parts of her territoiy,
and made it possible to move troops rapidly to points
where they were needed. At intervals there were sta-
tions for relays of horses. In carrying important mes-
sages, horsemen would ride with desperate speed, hastily
mounting a fresh horse at each station. In this way a
letter or important news of any kind could be carried
hundreds of miles in a single day. Wagons were also em-
ployed to transport state officials, as well as merchants,
travellers, and their goods. The most famous of all. the
roads is called the Appian Way. This still exists and runs
in a south-easterly direction to Brindisi on the eastern
coast, three hundred miles from Rome.
77. Roman Aqueducts. — Another striking example of
the engineering ability of the Romans is their method
of supplying Rome with water. They were not so
fortunate as the Greeks in their water supply. The
Greek cities were amply provided with pure water by
ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE
97
THE AQUEDUCT AT NIMES
numerous springs and good wells; but the water of the
Tiber and of the city wells in Rome was not good to drink.
So the Romans had to bring pure water from the hills at
a distance. This they did by means of aqueducts, or
artificial water channels. These the Romans constructed,
as nearly as they could, in such a way as to have a gradual
inclination downward from the place where the water
entered the aqueduct to the place where it was delivered
for use in Rome.
In time there came to be fourteen of these magnificent The aque-
structures which were built of stone. The channel it- "^tchanne
self was a trough of brick or stone lined with cement
and covered over, and here the water ran in a steady
stream, either through the trough or through pipes laid
98
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
there. When a hill interfered with its course a tunnel was
made; but when a valley was to be crossed, the channel
was supported on solid masonry or on arches of stone.
The greater part of the greater number of aqueducts
was underground. One or two of the longer ones were
mainly above ground, but none were altogether without
CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT ON THE ROMAN CAMPAGNA
underground parts. Reservoirs were built in the city
for -receiving and distributing enormous quantities of
water which was needed for private houses, public baths,
ponds, fountains, and so on. Each private house had a
cistern to receive the water from the reservoir. Promi-
nent even to-day in the landscape just outside of Rome
are the ruins of the aqueducts through which water
flowed into the city hundreds of years ago.
78. The Greeks Influence the Romans. — ^Having taken
a rapid survey of the imperial city, we may well note the
fact that the Romans, in much of their building, came
under Greek influence. This was true in their private
ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 99
houses as well as in their temples, theatres, gymnasiums,
and other buildings. They followed the Greek custom
also of adorning their buildings with statues, paintings,
urns, vases, and other things of beautiful design and work-
manship. Lacking the artistic genius of the Greeks, the
Romans never produced objects of such rare grace and
beauty as those which adorned the Greek cities, especially
such cities as Athens, Antioch, and Alexandria. But
when they conquered Greece they brought back to Rome
as a part of their immense booty, taken from Corinth and
other cities, thousands of statues, bronzes, paintings, and
other works of art.
Such plunder of Greek cities was most unfortunate for The
Greece, but to us it seems more like the rescue of a great preT^rve
legacy which Greece had created and was unable to ^^®^^ ^^
hold. The Romans appreciated what they could not
create, and in beautifying and adorning their magnificent
buildings and their luxurious palaces and villas they pre-
served the glory of Greek art and transmitted it to the
world.
79. Education and Books. — Great as was the influ- Influence
ence of Greek art upon the Romans, that of Greek liter- literature
ature was, perhaps, equally marked. In Rome it became
the fashion for rich men to study and discuss Greek plays,
Greek philosophy, and Greek poetry, and to have the best
Greek books in their libraries. Many of these books came
with booty after conquest, and many also from mer-
chants and traders. After a time all men of even modest
learning were expected to speak and write in Greek. In
this way many Greek words crept into the Latin language,
which, in turn, has passed them on to us.
Influence of
Greek
slaves and
teachers
100
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Closer even than their Hterature was the personal con-
tact with the Greeks themselves. When Rome conquered
Greece, thousands of the best educated men of that coun-
try were made slaves and brought to Rome. Many of
PERISTYLE OF THE HOUSE OP VETTIUS, POMPEII
them read to their masters from books written by Greek
historians, poets, and philosophers, and large numbers
came to be the teachers of Roman boys. Thus they did
much to spread Greek ideas and ways of living among the
Roman people. In fact, the Romans found so much that
was new, strange, and beautiful in the life of the Greeks,
that they wished their boys to learn the Greek language
and literature. Hence these studies came to be a neces-
sary part of the schooling of every well-taught boy.
ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 101
Homer's ^' Iliad" and ''Odyssey" were made regular text-
books, and were studied not merely for language and
literature; but also for geography^ history, and religion.
Before this period of Greek influence the education of Education of
Roman boys was most practical. Up to the time when boy°°^^°
children were seven years old, they were trained at home
by their mothers. Then the boys began going to school,
but the girls remained at home to be further taught by
their mothers. On their way to school, which opened be-
fore sunrise, the boys of well-to-do parents were attended,
as in Athens, by slaves, called pedagogues (''child teach-
ers"), who carried their books and writing material for
them. Their teachers, who were either slaves or f reed-
men, taught the boys such things as would prepare them
for the life of the citizen and the soldier. So they not
only studied reading, writing, and arithmxctic, but also
learned swimming, riding, and throwing the javelin.
It was not until the time of Augustus that the Romans Roman
had much literature of their own. Then historians like ^^^^^^^^®
Livy and Tacitus, and poets like Virgil, Ovid, and Horace,
wrote books which helped to make the "Augustan Age"
famous. Their works have come down to our own time.
They are studied in our high-schools and colleges to-day,
and are read with profit and pleasure by students of the
ancient world.
The books used in those ancient times were not like Books of
ours; for we must remember that the people did not have f^es°
paper as we know it, and that printing had not been in-
vented. All the books had to be written by hand with
thick black ink. Papyrus paper was used instead of our
cotton or wood paper. This was made from the pith of
102
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The
"volume"
Booksellers
and their
books
a reed-like plant which grew along the Nile River, in
Egypt. The strips of papyrus were made from six to
thirteen inches wide, and were glued together, end to end,
so as to form as long a sheet as was needed for the book.
The sheet might be ten feet, fifty feet, one hundred feet, or
much longer, for its length depended
upon the size of the book. This strip
was rolled up and unrolled, so that
instead of calling it a book we should
properly speak of it as a roll. The
writing was in fine, clear characters.
It was in columns running with the
width of the roll; that is, the roll
w^hen set on end was in a position
to be read.
A ROMAN BOOK
PAPYRUS ROLL
This long sheet was fastened at
each end to a rod of polished ivory or wood, generally
ending in knobs. Around one of these rods the whole
sheet was wound like a window-shade and tied with
thongs. The roll formed a ^'volume," this word being
derived from a Latin word meaning ^Ho roll." Then a
stiff label, bearing the title and the author's name, was
tied to the knobs, and the book was ready for the
bookseller or the library.
The booksellers at first made their own copies of the
books for sale, and kept assistants for more rapid produc-
tion. These assistants were slaves or paid freedmen.
Their work was often made easier by dictation, one per-
son dictating for several scribes at once. The booksellers
hung the titles of books on the door or on the pillars of
their shops, and sold their books at moderate prices.
ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 103
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. The Romans brought under their control most of the civiHzed
world and made of it one great empire. 2. In the days of the:
empire the Romans made pleasure-seeking one of their chief aims,,
the principal centres of amusement being the theatre, the amphi-
theatre, the circus, and the bath. 3. It is believed that after the
conquest of Gaul slaves made nearly one-half the population of
Rome. 4. The freemen were mainly divided into the very rich
and the very poor. 5. The Senate was now unfit to govern be-
cause the senators had become weak and corrupt. It finally
yielded to Csesar as its superior and head of the Roman world..
6. The Greeks, through their buildings, their works of art, and
their literature, had large influence over the Romans. 7. In the
time of Augustus the Romans themselves had historians and poeta
which helped to make the "Augustan Age" famous.
TO THE PUPIL
1. Point out on the map the countries in Europe that were included in
the Roman Empire.
2. What was the Coliseum ? The Circus Maximus ?
3. Into what classes were the people of Rome divided ?
4. In what way had the Senate become unfit to govern ? Why ?
5. What was the Forum ?
6. What was the purpose of a Roman triumph ?
7. What were the principal uses of the Roman roads ?
8. In what ways did the Romans come under the influence of the Greeks?
Explain in particular the influence of Greek slaves and teachers.
9. Tell what you can about the education of a Roman boy.
10. How did the books of ancient times differ from ours in the way they
were made ?
104
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
CHAPTER X
EOME AND CHRISTIANITY
Early
Roman
worship
Roman
worship and
the welfare
of Rome
Some Ro-
OLan deities
80. Roman Religion. — In their religion, as in their art
and Hterature, the Romans borrowed from the Greeks,
but they thought of their gods in a different way. The
early Romans, like the Greeks, worshipped spirits, which
they believed to be all about them. These spirits dwelt
in rivers, forests, fountains, and like places, and took an
active part in the life of nature and of man. The Roman,
however, did not think of his gods and goddesses as per-
sonal beings to be loved, but rather as forces to be feared.
He was as practical and straightforward in his religion
as he was in other matters. If he was true to the gods, he
beheved, they would be true to him; but he could not ex-
pect them to favor him and protect him from evil unless he
duly honored them by proper worship and sacrifice. In
their worship the Romans had deeply at heart the wel-
fare of Rome. It was in their intense love of country that
they showed real and deep religious feehng. We may
almost say that their patriotism was their religion.
Devotion and loyalty to Rome were devotion and loyalty
to the gods of Rome.
One of the great Roman deities was Vesta, goddess of
the hearth. In early Roman days the hearth was the
centre of the house, and the family in gathering about it
for meals made each meal an act of worship. In the tem-
ple of Vesta at Rome, a fire was kept continually burn-
ing, as if the whole people were one great family. A
spark of fire, which we can now strike so easily, was to
ROME AND CHRISTIANITY
105
them a sacred thing. Every family worshipped also the
Lares, which were ancestral spirits, and the Penates, which
were gods of the household. Other important Roman
deities were Jupiter, the supreme ruler of the earth. and
sky; Juno, his wife; Pluto, the god of the underworld;
Neptune, the god of the sea ; Venus,
the goddess of love and beauty; and
Minerva, the goddess of wisdom..
8i. The Emperor Augustus and One-man
.,., -. rule in
His Worship as a God. — Although, Rome
as noted elsewhere, Julius Caesar by
his army had made himself master
of Rome, he could not protect him-
self from the revenge of the sena-
tors, and several of their party mur-
dered him. For a number of years
after his death, there were many
wars among the various factions at
Rome. But at last (31 B. C.) Csesar's
grandnephew, who was afterward
called Augustus, triumphed over all his rivals and estab-
lished one-man rule forever in Rome. He was called em-
peror (commander-in-chief) and cam.e to be worshipped as
a god. His mle was wise, and he gave the Roman world
such order, peace, and prosperity as it had never had before.
82. The Beginning of Christianity.— It was during his jesus^
reign of peace throughout the Roman world that Jesus Bethlehem
was born in Bethlehem. This was a quiet little town in
the Roman province of Judaea. A province was a con-
quered country outside of Italy. At the time when Jesus
was crucified at Jerusalem, Tiberius was the Roman em-
JUNO
ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 107
peror and Pontius Pilate was the governor sent out by
Rome to the province of Judsea.
The followers of Jesus Christ were called Christians, Paul and
and one of the most noted of the early Christians was the chnsSs
Apostle Paul. He was a Jew with a Greek education,
born in Tarsus (a city of Asia Minor), and was a Roman
citizen. You may remember that when Paul was brought
to trial in Judsea, he claimed that as a Roman citizen it
was his right to appeal to Rome for a special trial. To
Rome, then, he was sent in chains as a prisoner; and at
Rome he was later put to death because he w^as a Christian.
83. The Persecution of the Christians. — Paul was not
alone in suffering death on account of his religious faith.
Many of the early Christians were killed, and all were
treated as pubhc enemies. This seems cruel to us, but
the Romans thought they had good reasons for getting
rid of men and women whom they deemed dangerous.
One reason was that the Christians held then* rehgious The Chris-
serviccs in secret. The Romans did not hke this, because religious ser-
they believed the Christians were doing evil things which secret^
they did not wish to have made known. The Romans also
believed that the Christians had formed secret organiza-
tions. But secret organizations were forbidden by the
government, for it was thought that they might plot
against the state. Hence the Christians were punished
as pubhc enemies.
Moreover, the Christians would not take part in the The chris-
worship of the emperors. ^' There is but one God," they to worship
declared, "and we will worship Him alone. We can- ^^^q^'
not worship the emperors, nor can we worship any of
the Roman gods." When we remember that the Ro-
108
. AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Some refuse
to join the
army
Cruel treat-
ment of the
Christians
Saint Peter
and
Saint Paul
mans honestly believed that unless the gods were duly
honored and worshipped the empire would be destroyed,
and that denying the divinity of the emperor was the same
as denying his right to reign, we can easily see why they
regarded the Christians as dangerous to the state.
The Romans had no doubt, therefore, that the Chris-
tians were public enemies. But many of the Christians
gave further proof of their disloyalty, as the Romans
thought, by refusing to join the army. "It is wrong to
fight," said some Christians. "You are unwilling to de-
fend and protect your country, '^ was the angry retort of
the Romans.
Thus we see that the Romans really thought that the
Christians were dangerous to the state. So they put them
to death, torturing them in all sorts
of cruel and shocldng ways. Seme
were tied up in the skins of anim.als
and tossed into the arena to be torn
to pieces by hungr}^ wild beasts. On
one occasion the Emperor Nero
opened his gardens to the people, and
the torches he used to light up the
gay scene at night were the burning
bodies of Christians, which had been
NERO covered with tar and fastened to
crosses.
Among those who suffered death under the Emperor
Nero were Saint Paul and Saint Peter, both of whom are
said to have been put to death on the same day. Paul,
being a Roman citizen, was killed by a sword, and Peter
was crucified on a spot near Nero's gardens. A beautiful
ROME AND CHRISTIANITY
109
church, called St. Paul's, outside the walls of Rome, is
supposed to mark the spot where Paul died; and you
perhaps know that St. Peter's Church in Rome is a very-
great and very grand church, probably the most famous
in the world.
84. The Catacombs. — During this time of persecution What the
in Rome the Christians had to worship in secret places, are
The most noted of these w^ere the Catacombs. They are
underground passages
two and one-half to five
feet broad and eight feet
high, stretching for about
three miles under that
part of the city which lies
on the west bank of the
Tiber. The passages
branch off in different di-
rections and are cut one
under another, making at
least three different levels, or ^^ stories, " so that there is
a perfect labyrinth of them. Here in stone niches hewn
in the rock that formed the side of the passages were
buried the early Christians. Sometimes as many as eight
niches were cut one above the other. Near the little
chambers where rested the bodies of martyrs, their friends
liked to be buried. Funeral services also were held in
these chambers^ by the light of the old Roman lamps.
When the Catacombs were begun, there w^as no need of
secrecy about them, for the Roman always respected burial
places. It was only after the persecutions that the usual
doors were closed and entrance was made in secret ways.
A PORTION OF A WALL IN THE CATACOMBS, ROME
:!10
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The fact that it is thought that from one to six milHon
bodies were buried in the Catacombs shows in what num-
bers people had adopted the Christian faith. In its early-
days the progress of Christianity had been slow and un-
noticed. The number of Christians was small; and con-
sisted mostly of workingmen and slaves coming from the
lowest classes of society and attracting but little notice
from those in high places.
When it first came to the attention of the great, they
tried to crush it. But with the weakening of Roman
character, which we have observed, the Roman nation
became weaker and weaker, for a strong and good nation
is made only of strong and good men. The belief in the
power of Jupiter and the other gods was dying out. This
left room for the Christian faith to spread more and more
rapidly until, by the middle of the fourth century, it had
largely taken the place of the old worship.
85. The Emperor Constantine and Christianity. —
Early in the fourth century the Emperor
Constantine had allowed the Christians to
worship freely. Later he went still further
and made Christianity the national religion
(325 A. D.), and was himself baptized as
a Christian. You will remember the name
of this man, who was the first Christian
Emperor, if you keep in mind that it was
for him that Constantinople was named.
Its old name was Byzantium; but he
rebuilt this ancient Greek city and made
it, instead of Rome, the capital of the
CONSTANTINE
empire.
ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 111
86. Things We Have Learned from the Greeks and the The Greeks
Romans. — From the foregoing chapters it is evident that Se Romans
the genius of the Romans was veiy different from that Practical
of the Greeks. For example, both were great builders,
but the buildings of the Greeks were graceful and beauti-
ful, because the Greeks were artistic, while those of the
Romans were massive and imposing, because the Romans
were practical.
The Greeks were as patriotic as the Romans; but their Greek
patriotism was narrowed to their own little city-states. narrow^°^
Only in the presence of an overwhelming danger like the
Persian invasions, which threatened to bring disaster on
all alike, could they sink their jealousies for the time and
join one another in the common cause. The danger over,
they fell back at once into their old-time habits of caring
for none but their own community.
To the Romans is due the great work of building up Roman
the nation. This they were able to do because they had troad*^^™
a broader patriotism than the Greeks; that is, they had
interests in common with a wider circle of people than
those living close beside them. They also had the power
to organize one great state by binding together many
tribes, peoples, and countries.
Both systems have been of priceless worth to men. Both sys-
The Athenians taught the world the great value of pr^lieL
democracy, which meant giving to every free man a ^3"^*^^
share in the government by allowing him a part in
making the laws. The Romans taught the great value
of law, order, and organization. By means of these they
established their empire.
Thus did the Greeks and Romans find out ways of
112 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
American living and of doing things that are a valuable part of
in Greec? American life to-day. We still use some of their forms of
and Rome j^^^ ^^^ government; we still imitate their architecture
and their engineering; we still enjoy their works of art
in our museumS; our public buildings, our schools, and
our homes; and we still study in our high-schools and
colleges, as well as read by our firesides, books written
by their poets^ their historians, and their philosophers.
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. From the stand-point of the Romans, devotion and loyalty to
Rome were devotion and loyalty to the gods of Rome. 2. During
the peaceful rule of the Emperor Augustus, Jesus was born in
Bethlehem. 3. The Romans bitterly persecuted the Christians
because, as the Romans declared, the Christians were dangerous
to the state. 4. But later the Christian faith spread rapidly until
the Emperor Constantine made Christianity the national religion.
5. The Greeks were artistic and the Romans practical; Greek
patriotism was narrow, Roman patriotism broad; the Greeks
built up the city-state, the Romans the nation. 6. There were
many American beginnings in Greece and Rome.
TO THE PUPIL
1. How did the Romans connect their worship with the welfare of
Rome ?
2. How did there come to be one-man rule in Rome ?
3. Where was Jesus bom, and in whose rule ?
4. Who were the Christians, and why were they persecuted ?
5. What were the Catacombs, and how were they used ?
6. Why was the progress of Christianity at first slow ? When was it
made the national religion ?
7. What things have we learned from the Greeks and from the Romans ?
8. Name as many as you can of American beginnings in Greece and
Rome.
THE MIDDLE AGES AND WHAT WE HAVE
LEARNED FROM THEM
CHAPTER XI
THE GERMANS
87. The Romans and the Germans. — ^You will remem- German
ber that after Gsesar had defeated Ariovistus and his J^e Roman^
German followers in Gaul, and had driven them back frontier
into their own land, he built a massive bridge across the
Rhine, hoping ,.. ^ _^_^._
that it would aid r^""' ^-^^^^^^^^0^'^'' ^ '^L<^ . -j"
the Romans in
keeping the Ger-
mans out of
Gaul. But, even
with the aid of
the bridge, the
Roman legions
that guarded the
Rhine and the
Danube could
not hold back the restless barbarians. Many times,
during the next few hundred years, invaders crossed the
frontier in wave after wave, and few ever went back,
most of them finding new homes within the empire.
Thinking to put an end to these inroads, the Romans The Romans
sometimes themselves became the invaders. But they conquer the
could not conquer their rude foes to the north, nor were ^®"^^s
113
OLD ROMAN BRIDGE OVER THE MOSELLE, GERMANY
114
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The circular
cabin
they able to push the boundaries of the empire beyond
the Rhine and the Danube. To make these boundaries
more secure, Germans were taken into the Roman le-
gions to keep out their fellow-Germans. Caesar was the
first to do this, and often in later times whole tribes with
their chiefs were thus enhsted and settled along the fron-
tier. Why these world conquerors w^ere always baffled
by a horde of rude barbarians, unskilled in the arts of
war, is a question we may well ask. To discover the
reason, w^e must know something of the men themselves
and their ways of living.
88. The Germans in Their Homes. — Suppose that in
those far-off days we had wandered into one of the track-
less forests of
Germany. After
picking our way
through thicket
and sw^amp, we
might have
found ourselves
on the edge of a
clearing of con-
siderable size. In
its centre stands
a cabin, cir-
cular in shape,
with a thatched roof from which smoke is rising through
The German a hole in the top. Lifting our eyes from this primitive
dwelling, we notice at a distance a tall, strong-looking
man with long flaxen hair and blue eyes, wearing a
mantle of wool — ^unless he happens to be fur-clad. He
EARLY GERMAN AND GALLIC HABITATIONS, DRAWN FROM A
PHOTOGRAPH OF THOSE CONSTRUCTED FOR THE PARIS
EXPOSITION OF 1889
THE GERMANS
115
is the owner of the hut, and is just returning from a
hunt. Waiting for him at the door is his wife, wearing a
purple mantle or cloak, just like the man's except that
it is of linen. Her arms are bare from the shoulder.
Not far off are the children, playing at battle. They too
are thinly clad for this cold chmate; but they are brought
up to be hardy warriors, and are never indulged.
Dinner is ready for the hungry himter, who eats at a The hunter
table by himself and consumes a great quantity of veni- ^* ^^^
son, milk thickened with acid, and fruit.
His drink is beer of his own brewing and
made from grain raised on his own land.
To-morrow, if there is no hunt and he is
not called to battle, he will get up late,
take a warm bath, and then spend the rest
of the day in eating and sleeping. It may
be that many days and weeks, one after
another, will run on in the same way; for
when he is not hunting or at war, he does
little but sleep and eat. Very often he
drinks too much of the home-made beer;
often to while away the time he plays
games of chance with his neighbors; for he is too igno-
rant to find amusement in other ways. He has no books
of any kind, and could not read them if he had.
But his wife is far from idle. She has the care of the The village
house and children, as well as the tilling of the land. Sniiy^
The master of the house owns his own lot and holds a
share in the common pasture-land of the village. By
village we must not think of a street with rows of houses;
for each dwelling stands by itself, on any spot which has
ANOTHER TYPE OF EARLY GER-
MAN AND GALLIC HABITATION,
DRAWN FROM A PHOTOGRAPH
OF ONE CONSTRUCTED FOR THB
PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1889
116
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The meeting
of freemen
The proud
spirit of the
warrior
The chief
and his
body-guard
attracted the owner, and is surrounded by a plot of
ground. There is not a store or pubHc building of any-
kind in this village. Every family gets its own food as
well as it can; the wife, children, old men, and slaves
raising the barley and wheat, while the husband does the
hunting and fishing.
89. The Assembly of Freemen. — If we wish to see
the better side, of the master of the household, we must
go with him to battle; for since war is his chief business,
it is as a warrior that he shows his strongest virtues.
Before his summons to war, will probably come a call to
the assembly of freemen. In an open plain he and his
comrades sit down together, fully armed, each with a
bright-colored shield and a short, narrow-bladed spear.
Here they discuss questions bearing upon the welfare of
the tribe.
00. The German Warriors Freedom-Loving, Loyal,
and Brave. — In all public matters, such as their choice
of a leader, the men of the tribe stand on an equal foot-
ing; for they are men of proud spirit, with a keen sense
of personal honor, and they love independence and free-
dom. When the leader of the meeting puts a question,
the men shout if their vote is ^^no," and clash their spears
if it is ^^yes." To-day there is a loud clashing, for they
have been asked v/hether they wish to make war on a
neighboring tribe, and they are eager to fight.
Having voted for war, they next choose a strong,
brave warrior and hunter for their chief. Then each
chieftain, or head of a clan, gathers his followers about
him. The flower of these is chosen for a special body-
guard. It is an honor to belong to one of these body-
THE GERMANS
117
guards, which are composed of youths of the finest fam-
ihes and with a great reputation for bravery. Their duty
is to protect their leader, and never to leave him.
Having once chosen a chief to their liking, they must Loyalty and
be loyal to him even to death. Cowardice, indeed, is ^^^^®^
RETURN OF VICTORIOUS GERMANS FROM A FIGHT WITH THE ROMANS
looked upon as worse than death, while to die on the
battle-field is something greatly to be desired; for after
death the brave go to Valhalla, the warrior's paradise.
Nor must the chief let his followers outdo him in bravery,
or he will lose their respect and bring shame upon him-
self for all time. He is loyal to the tribe; his men are
loyal to him. To desert a leader or to lose a shield in
battle is a lasting disgrace.
When a boy reaches manhood, he is brought into the The young
solemn assembly of freemen and presented with a spear ^^"^°^
and a shield. He is thus made one of the defenders of
118
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The women
brave and
warlike
Their gods
and heroes
his tribe. But he does not become a full-fledged warrior
until he has killed his man.
Even the women have a warlike spirit. They go with
the men to war, and in the hour of battle they dress
woundS; give food to the fighterS; urge them on to vic-
tory, and; if they see them giving w^ay, sometimes even
rush in and fight. Such brave women were held in high
esteem by their warrior husbands, who sought their ad-
vice on all matters of importance. In their respect for
women, these barbarians were far in advance of the
civilized nations whom they supplanted.
91. German Gods and Heroes. — But it is in the
beautiful myths and legends of these early races that we
find most clearly outlined the vir-
tues they respected and the re-
wards they longed to possess.
Like the Greeks and Romans, they
had many gods and heroes. In
name and character and in the
form of worship they received,
however, these w^ere quite differ-
ent from the Greek and Roman
deities. In the first place, the
Germans built no temples to their
gods. Their only churches were
sacred groves presided over by
priests. Here the people wor-
shipped Wotan, the greatest of
their gods; Thor, god of the thun-
der, Wotan's son ; and all the spirits of the woods and
air and fields and streams, the great objects of nature
i^^^M'
IMPERSONATION OF THE GOD WOTAN
THE OPERATIC STAGE
THE GERMANS
119
such as the sun and moon and stars, and the earth and
the mysterious thing called fire.
Wotan was the god of war. His dwelling-place was Wotan and
Valhalla, or ^Hhe hall of the slain.'' Here dwelt with ^^^^^^
Wotan chosen heroes who had perished in battle, and now
spent their time feasting and fighting in his service. In The Vaikyne
Valhalla dwelt also the Valkyrie, beautiful maidens, who heroes"^''
were sent out daily by Wotan, fully armed, to select brave
warriors for his service. With lightning playing all
about them and with gleam-
ing spears, they rode through
the air upon their flying
steeds, and at night retiu-ned
across the rainbow bridge to
Valhalla, each bearing with
her a fallen hero. It was his
hope of this shining reward
— to serve Wotan in Valhalla
— that helped the warrior to
fight so bravely.
The Germans also had, like The
the Greeks and Romans, iied^"^^^°"
stories of heroes and their
brave deeds. The most
noted of the hero legends
are to be found in the NibelungenHed, sometimes
called the German Iliad. Although it was not written
until many centuries later, parts of it were perhaps
sung by the minstrels of those early days, and the
stories were handed down orally from generation to
generation.
SIEGFRIED FUKbli^
HIS SWORD
120 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The worth Of these stories Siegfried is the hero; and many thrill-
and^^good ^^S incidents are told which show the worth of loyalty
faith a^nd good faith — ^loyalty of friend to friend, of warrior
to chief and chief to warrior, loyalty to promise and to
oath, to the gods and to religion. Upon good faith rests
every triumph, and when faith is broken, misery and
ruin follow. In this matter of good faith, as well as in
that of personal freedom, these barbarians were above
the civilized Greeks and Romans whom they succeeded.
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. The Romans could not conquer the Germans nor were they
able to push the boundaries of the empire beyond the Rhine and
the Danube. 2. The men of the German tribes stood on an equal
footing. They were men of proud spirit, with a keen sense of per-
sonal honor, and they loved independence and freedom. 3. Loy-
alty and bravery were cardinal virtues, and cowardice was looked
upon as worse than death. Even the women were brave and war-
like. 4. The Nibelungenlied is sometimes called the German Ihad.
TO THE PUPIL
1. Imagine yourself in the home of a German family and tell all you
can about the dress, the food, and the daily life of the hunter and his wife.
2. Describe the German village.
3. Who were in the chief's body-guard, and what was their relation to
liim ?
4. What did the Germans think of bravery ? Of cowardice ?
5. Who was Wotan ? Who were the Valkyrie ? What was Valhalla ?
6. What was the Nibelungenlied and who was Siegfried ?
THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS 121
CHAPTER XII
THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS
92. German Tribes Move Westward and Southward. Why the
— In the early centuries of the Christian era, these rest- MbS^moved
less German tribes continued to move westward and ^nd*^^^^
southward. They were driven by growing numbers to southward
seek more and better land; and also by the desire to
share in the far-famed wealth of the Roman Empire.
Its fertile plains and splendid cities had long been known
to them by report through traders, and through their
own warriors who had served in Roman armies.
In the third century certain tribes broke through the Attiia and
barriers of. the west, and made their way to northern * ® ^^
Italy, but were there held back by the armies of the
empire. In the fourth centui^^, however, they were
urged on by a more pressing need. For the Huns, fierce
Mongolian tribes originally from north-eastern Asia, who
had for centuries been working westward, were close upon
them. Like a tornado they swept everything before
them. Attiia, their chief, was a terror to all less bar-
barous tribes, and later became known as the ^'scourge
of God."
At this time one of the most powerful of the German The Goths
tribes was the Goths. A part of them, the Ostro-Goths Romans^^
(Eastern Goths), submitted to the Huns. Another
part, the Visi-Goths (Western Goths), crossed the Danube
and came into deadly conflict with the Romans. They
defeated and killed the Roman Emperor Valens at
Adrianople in what is now Bulgaria, but under his sue-
122
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Alaric the
King of the
Goths
Other tribes
break
through the
western
frontier
cesser, TheodosiuS;* they settled peacefully in the lands
he gave them south of the Danube.
Here they remained quiet for a time, but upon the
death of Theodosius they rose up against the Romans.
They made Alaric
their king. He
was young and
strong. Although
he had been
trained in the
Roman legions
and had twice
been in Italy, he
loved better the
freedom of the
north and the
ways of his own
people.
First he led
them into Greece,
plundering and
destroying as he
went, and making
his name a terror not only in the east, but in the west.
Meantime other tribes of Germany, pushed by the con-
quests of the Huns, had broken through the western
frontier of the Rhine. Some of them turned south into
Italy, but were starved into submission. Others, among
* Theodosius, a man of great ability, was known as Theodosius the
Great. He was the last ruler of the whole empire. Upon his death
(395 A. D.) it was divided between his two sons. Honorius was Em-
peror of the West and Arcadius, his brother, was Emperor of the East.
THE HUNS SWEEPING EVERYTHING BEFORE THEM AS THET
INVADED EUROPE
THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS 123
them the Burgundians and the Vandals, entered Gaul.
The Burgundians settled on the upper Rhine, in the
province which still bears their name, and became allies
of Rome. The Vandals, after plundering Gaul, crossed
the Pyrenees into Spain. The Romans never regained
control of these provinces.
93. Alaric Advances upon Rome. — After the breaking Alaric
of the western frontier, Alaric took courage to advance ^^°^*^®
upon Rome. He believed that he was
specially called to do this; for as he was
passing a sacred grove, he had heard
a voice saying over and over again,
^^ Proceed to Rome and make that city
desolate." The words kept ringing in
his ears until at last he seemed to have
no other choice.
Taking their women and children
with them, according to the custom of
barbarian nations, the Goths marched
westward, ravaging the land as they went. After many The Goths
defeats and the loss of many warriors, they crossed the Rome^^®^
Alps and arrived at the very gates of Rome. The Goths
laid siege to the city. Day after day they lay encamped
before it, and daily the Romans watched for aid from
the Emperor at Ravenna which he had made his capital.
It never came. There was no food. Finally a plague
fell upon the starving people.
Then the Romans sent an embassy to Alaric, and with Alaric and
much bravado said they were not afraid of him, and ® ^^ ^^^^
would all come out and fight him unless he would make
fair terms. But Alaric, knowing how helpless they were.
124
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
laughed loudly and answered with a Gothic proverb,
"Thick grass is easier mowed than thin.'' ^^What,
then, are your terms?" they asked. ^'I demand all your
gold; your silver, your movable property, and your
slaves," was the haughty answer. Dismayed by these
words, the Romans then asked, ^^If you take all these
things, what do you leave to us?" "Your lives," was
The ransom the gruff answer. But when^ later on, a body of sena-
tors came to Alaric to plead for easier terms, it was
agreed that the Romans should give as a ransom five
thousand pounds of gold, three thousand pounds of
silver, four thousand silk tunics, three thousand hides
dyed scarlet, and three thousand pounds of pepper. The
terms of the ransom show that the barbarians were
aheady acquiring a taste for Roman luxuries.
94. Alaric Captures and Plunders Rome. — Then Ala-
ric, with this immense booty, marched northward till
he reached the fertile lands of northern Italy. Here
he wished to remain and settle with his followers as the
allies of Rome. Instead, therefore, of seizing the lands
already his by conquest, this barbarian conqueror asked
that they be allotted to his people by the Emperor.
When the Emperor Honorius stupidly refused, Alaric
offered to furnish militaiy aid to Rome if he could have
provisions and some land. The Roman Emperor dallied
and broke promises. Alaric marched back to Rome,
but once more spared the city, hoping to make terms.
Finally, about two years after the first siege of Rome, his
patience worn out by delays, Alaric in deadly earnest
appeared with his army before the city for the third
time, and captured it with little or no opposition.
\5 k
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SQ
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THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS
125
For three days Rome was given over to the plunder- Marie's
ing barbarians, but the sacred buildings and all who ^^^^
sought refuge within their walls were spared. Then
Alaric marched down to the southern coast of Italy.
ALARIC AND HIS FOLLOWERS ENTERING ROME
Before he could carry out his further plans of conquest,
however, he suddenly died. That the Romans might not
find and dishonor his body, it is said that the current
of a river was turned aside and a grave dug in the bed.
Here they laid their brave leader, surrounding his body
with treasures. The captives who had dug the grave
were then killed, lest they should at some time reveal
the secret. After Alaric 's death, his people went north-
ward into southern Gaul, where they settled and later
extended their rule into Spain.
The capture of Rome by barbarians (410) was one of
126
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Why the
Romans
failed
Why the
Germans
succeeded
the most astounding events of history. The marvel is
not that a noble city had been pillaged and plundered,
but that Rome, the centre of the world and for six hun-
dred years the ruler of nations^ had timidly given way to
these barbarian hordes.
95. Why the Germans Succeeded in Conquering the
Romans. — ^Yet the simple fact is that the Romans failed
because they had become unfit to carry forward the work
they had done when they
were strong and sturdy
men. Since the days of
Augustus their power as
a nation had been weak-
ened through increasing
luxuiy and self-indul-
gence. And while the
Romans were growing
weaker, the restless barbarian hordes north of the Danube
were increasing in numbers and in power. They knew
nothing of ease and comfort. In their hard struggle as
hunters and warriors in the forest wilds of Germany they
had become manly, self-reliant, and masterful. As we have
seen, many thousands of them were serving in Roman
armies as hired soldiers, for the ease-loving Romans were
no longer willing to endure the hardships of war. Many
thousands more, also, were slaves and freedmen on the
estates of wealthy Roman nobles. Under these condi-
tions the Germans had learned much about the life of
the Romans, had ceased to fear them, and desired to get
control of what the Romans were not strong enough to
hold.
fT£^^^^^^'
EUINS OF A ROMAN IMPERIAL PALACE AT TREVES, GERMANY
THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS 127
Before the close of the fifth century (476); the last
Roman Emperor of the west was deposed. Not a prov-
ince in western Em'ope was then Roman; the ruling
power had come into the hands of the Germans. Surely
the old reign of Italy was passing away, and a new Europe
was about to take its place.
96. A New Europe under the Control of the Ger-
mans. — ^This new Europe was to be under the control
of these vigorous men from the north. As we shall see,
it took them many hundred years to appreciate the
best things that had been done by the Greeks and the
Romans. Therefore they did not stop with over-throw-
ing the Roman Empire. They also destroyed many
citieS; and in some places swept away nearly all that
Rome had done. But they preserved more than they
destroyed; and added to what the Greeks and Romans
had done many ideaS; customs, and ways of living which
have made life richer for us all. They were in fact both
the successors and the heirs of the Romans, and as such
took up the work of the Tiliddle Ages, which began in the
fifth century and ended in the fifteenth.
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. The German tribes were driven by growing numbers to seek
more and better land, and also by a desire to share in the wealth
of the Roman Empire. 2. The Goths, one of the most powerful
of the German tribes, defeated the Romans. 3. In 410 Alaric,
the king of the Goths, captured Rome. 4. The Romans failed be-
cause their power as a nation had been weakened through increas-
ing luxury and self-indulgence. 5. The Germans succeeded not
only because they had been increasing in numbers, but also because
128 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
they were manly, self-reliant, and masterful. They were the suc-
cessors and heirs of the Romans. 6. The Middle Ages began in
the fifth century and ended in the fifteenth.
TO THE PUPIL
1. Give three reasons why the German tribes moved into the Roman
Empire.
2. Who v^as Alaric ? What kind of man was he, and what kind of train-
ing had he received ?
3- Tell what you can about the following: the siege of Rome; Alaric
and the embassy; the ransom.
4. Why did Alaric capture Rome ?
5. Explain why the Romans failed and why the Germans succeeded.
6. In what ways were the Germans unlike the Romans ?
7. What is meant by a new Europe under the control of the Germans ?
When did the Middle Ages begin and when did they end ? It is worth
your while to remember these dates.
8. Are you making constant use of your maps ?
CHAPTER XIII
ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH
The Franks 97. The Franks in France. — We have seen how, early
in the fifth centuiy; certain German tribes broke through
the Roman frontiers into Gaul, swept southward into
Italy; and captured Rome, the capital of the empire.
Toward the close of the same centuiy, other tribes of
Germans, the Franks, who had been dwelling on the
middle and lower Rhine, began the conquest of north-
ern Gaul. Under the leadership of Clovis, one of the
most powerful chiefs of that time, they conquered the
last of the Roman territor}^ in Gaul, which greatly in-
creased their power, and then extended their sway over
the German tribes who had occupied the east and south.
ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH
129
Thus the Franks brought under one dominion nearly
all that country now known by the name of France.
Clovis adopted the faith of the Christians, and hence-
CHARLEMAGNE BEING CROWNED EMPEROR AT ROME
forth the Frankish government went hand in hand with
that of the church, a union which was of great value to
both.
The greatest successor of Clovis was Charlemagne, who charle-
came three centuries later. He added to his realm most of ^^^ Ws
what is now Germany and the western half of the Empire ^°^^
of Austria, and in the year 800 was crowned Emperor at
130
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Rome. He is one of the most famous men of all time.
We should remember him not only as a great warrior and
statesman, but also as a lover of learning who started
many schools and did much for education in his day.
Although his empire did not last as a whole, out of it
grew the feudal system, of which we shall speak later,
and the union of the German and Roman ways of living.
98. German Tribes Invade and Conquer Britain. —
We have now to learn that still other German tribes,
some from Denmark and some from northern Germany^
invaded and conquered Britain. These were the Angles,
Saxons, Jutes, and Danes, the Angles being the tribes
from which England (Angleland) at a later day received
its name.
After the Romans withdrew their armies from Britain
in the early part of the fifth century, it was invaded by
the Picts from Scotland, the
Scots from Ireland, and bands
of Saxon pirates from the
/^►r« ^ mi coast of Germany. The Brit-
ons first appealed to Rome
p"'- ^ ' "/• ' 11 r--— ^^^ ^^^' "^^^ Rome was too
busy protecting herself from
the Goths. Then they turned
to the Germans. Under two
leaders, Hengist and Horsa,
a band of Jutes landed at
the island of Thanet in 449.
After helping the Britons to overcome their enemies, they
decided to remain and conquer the country, and in this
conquest the Angles and Saxons took part. These tribes
A BIT OF STONEHENGE. THE EARLIEST ARCHI-
TECTURAL, MONUMENT IN BRITAIN
ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH
131
The
destructive
Germans
came from the region which hes between the Baltic and
the North Seas^ and includes Denmark and the states ot
north-western Germany.
99. What the German Tribes Destroyed in Britain. —
Since these German tribes lived far to the north, they
had not come under the influence of the Romans as had
the tribes further to the south, and therefore were not
so far advanced in the
arts of living. On that
account they were more
destructive than their
fellow-tribes. They laid
waste citieS; burned
country mansions and
splendid Roman palaces,
and murdered, enslaved,
or drove out of the land
many of the people. Nor did these pagan warriors have
any regard for sacred buildings ; for they burned to ashes
Christian churches, and drove off or slaughtered monks
and priests. Wherever they went, in fact, during the
first one hundred and fifty years of their stay in Britain,
they put an end to Christianity.
100. Christianity in Britain. — How large a footing the The Druids
Christian faith had gained in Britain during the stay of
the Romans is uncertain. We know that when they
conquered Britain they found the people there under
the sway of priests called Druids, who worshipped in
oak groves and offered human sacrifices. We know
also that, on account of the bitter opposition of the
Druids, the Romans destroyed them. Christian mis-
SAXON SHIPS
132
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The invading
Angles and
Saxons
Gregory
and the
Angle boys
sionaries in the time of Constantine labored to make
converts among the natives, but their influence was
probably not felt much outside the towns and cities.
In their career of destruction, these Angles and Saxons
were very different from the other tribes that invaded
the continent. There the
invaders adopted the cus-
tom.s, language, and faith
of the people they con-
quered ; but in Britain the
old civilization was swept
away, and even the lan-
guage, Latin and Celtic,
gave place to that of the
conquerors. All classes
spoke the Germanic
tongue.
loi. The Coming of
Christian Missionaries. —
One bond of union with
the past and with Europe,
however, was established by Christian missionaries. A
pretty story is told of how missionaries from Rome were
sent to convert these rude German pagans. One day an
abbot of Rome, named Gregory, saw a group of beauti-
'ful boys waiting in the market-place of the city to be
sold as slaves. ^'Who are these children?" asked he of
the slave-dealer. ^^ Heathen Angles," w^as the reply.
'^Not Angles but Angels," said Gregory, '^with faces
so angel-like! From what country do they come?"
When he found that they came from Britain and were
THE SAXUN i.-
ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH
133
heathen, he grieved because such fine boys were brought
up in ignorance and sin.
102. Augustine and the Monks at Canterbury. — The
Later on, when Gregory became Pope, he sent to Britain Augusfine
a monk named Augustine,
with a band of forty other
monks, to convert the people
to the Christian faith. At
first the monks were afraid
to go, for people told them
fearful tales of the English
barbarians. But Gregory
would not let them turn back.
They set sail for Britain and
landed on the Isle of Thanet
(597). After a few days.
King Ethelbert of Kent,
whose wife was a Christian,
came to the isle to meet them.
As he thought they were
magicians and mio;ht throw a
speU over him, he and his fol-
lowers met them in an open field instead of in a building.
Let us try to picture the scene. Here under the
branches of a spreading oak are seated King Ethelbert
and Queen Bertha. Beside the King are his counsellors
and body-guard, and near the queen are her maids and
her chaplain. A crowd has gathered to see the royal
reception of the strange priests from over-seas, and you
may be sure that little Kentish boys and girls are some-
where near to see what is going on.
The royal
reception
134
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
An
interesting
procession
The sound of men's voices is heard. Then appears a
body of priests bearing in front a tall silver cross and a
banner with a picture of Christ on it. Following them is
a procession of forty monks in russet robes and cowls,
headed by a boy singer. They walk slowly, two by two,
chanting and praying for the salvation of the English
OLD ROMAN CHURCH OF ST. MARTIN, CANTERBURY
The King
gracious to
the monks
The
monks at
Canterbury
as they advance. Behind them all is Augustine himself.
AVhen they reach the assembled English, Augustine sits
down and preaches the Gospel to the wondering listeners.
The King is gracious to the new-comers. They may
remain in the kingdom, he says, and he will see that they
have a house in Canterbur}^, his capital. He will not
allow them to be in want, and they may pursue their
work among his people in peace. This welcome was a
great encouragement to the weary monks.
They walked on toward Canterbury and, looking down
from a neighboring hill, saw in a little meadow crossed
by a stream an old town surrounded with Roman walls.
Just outside stood the old Roman church of St. Martin,
ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH
135
which they for a time were to use. The building is still
standing to-day. Here they had also a monaster}^, and
lived the quiet, religious life of monks, holding constant
service to which every one was welcome, and working
faithfully to convert the people to the Christian faith.
103. The Spread of Christianity in Britain. — King Thousands
Ethelbert was one of the first converts to accept the chrisSans
faith, and soon his example was followed by many others.
One Christmas day more than ten
thousand people were baptized.
Augustine was appointed arch-
bishop of Canterbury, and down
to the present time his successors
as heads of the official English
church have had the same title.
In a short time nearly all v/ho
lived in Kent had become Chris-
tians, and many converts were
made in other parts of the island,
won by the devoted hves of the
missionaries.
When Augustine and his monks
began their work in the south,
missionaries from the church in
Ireland and the islands west of Scotland were already Success of
busy converting the people in the north. They were sio?arilT
followers of St. Patrick, who had made Ireland a centre ^^ ^^® ^^^^
of Christianity after the Celts were driven out of Eng-
land by the Saxons. Their missionaries were enthusiastic
and devoted men, and won many converts by their un-
selfish lives. Monasteries spread rapidly. But it was
ST. AUGUSTINE
136
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The
monasteries
as centres
of religious
life and
learning
The
Vikings
The
Vikings as
warriors
the Roman form of Christianity which finally prevailed
over all England.
With the Roman monks came Roman literature and
culture, and the monasteries became centres not only
cf religious influence, but of learning as well. Those of
Northumbria were not excelled by any in western Europe.
It was here that English literature took its start, the
most famous man of letters of the seventh, and early
eighth centuries being the English monk Baeda, called
''The Venerable Bede."
Although Christianity lost its hold in Britain for a
time after Augustine's death, his work was so thorough
that it was never wholly destroyed, and in time the
Christian faith overspread the entire countr}^
104. The Coming of the Vikings. — Britain had not
seen the last of her German invaders with the coming
of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. In the eighth and
ninth centuries she was beset by the fiercest, most brutal,
and least civilized cf any of the barbarian invaders.
These were the Vikings, or Northmen, bold sea rovers
who came swarming down from Scandinavia, ^isiting
the coasts not only of Britain but of all western Europe.
In later centuries, as we shall see, they sailed even to
Iceland and Greenland. Fighting and plundering were
their greatest joy, and they kept Europe in fear for
generations.
The Northmen included both Danes and Norwegians;
but the Danes were the terror of Britain, and it was
feared that the whole country would fall under their
sway. They were better trained in fighting, and had
much more effective weapons, than the other German
ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH
13;
tribes. Not only had they coats of mail; but swords,
spearS; and powerful axes.
Their ships w^ere long, light; open vesselS; and moved Viking
quickl}^ The largest were worked by twenty oarsmen, ^ ^^^
REMAINS OF THE VIKING SHIP OF GOKSTAD, AFTER ITS REMOVAL FROM THE
MOUND WHERE IT WAS FOUND
and each vessel had a heavy square sail to use in favor-
able winds. They were painted black, with high prow
and stern. The prow was carved into the shape of a
snake's or a dragon's head. Around the bulwarks hung
the round; painted shields of
the fighters. TVTien one of these
black vessels came suddenly and
swiftly sailing up the river with
its fierce crew, it struck terror
to the hearts of the people.
Year by year their numbers
multiplied. Swift as the wind,
at first they made only short
raids, harrying the coasts. But
each time they came they went the bow of the viking ship of gokstad,
further inland, attracted by the
showing restored steering board oh
the left, and complete ship above
138
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The Vikings
raid Britain
The little
Alfred and
the book of
Saxon
poetry
The Danes
harass the
country
cultivated lands and prosperous townS; which were once
more a feature of Britain. They raided York; London,
and Canterbury, and in time seized the whole country
north of the Thames. They were about to advance upon
Wessex, which lay to the south, when finally a leader
rose up against them. This was King Alfred.
105. Alfred and the Danes. — Alfred,
by some considered the best and great-
est King that England ever had, was
the youngest child of Ethelwulf, King
of Wessex and Kent. His mother was
a noble lady of the race of Cerdic, one
of the original Saxon invading chiefs.
Either from her or from the Romans
— for he spent a part of his boyhood
in Rome — Alfred learned to love
knowledge and books.
This is well illustrated in a pretty
stoiy which is told of his childhood. When he was only
four years old, his mother showed him and his brothers
a book of Saxon poetry. It was a beautiful book, illu-
minated in brilhant colors, and written by hand, as
books were in those days. She promised to give it to
the one who should repeat the poems from memory\
The httle Alfred ran away with it to his teacher, and
soon returned and repeated it to his mother, word for
word. Even if this stor}^ is not true, it shows how greatly
famed Alfred was for his desire for knowledge. He was a
bright,, attractive boy, of winning speech and manners.
All through his boyhood the Danes were harassing the
country and terrifying the people; and when at twenty-
KING ALFRED
ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 139
two years of age he became king (871); he had to give
his whole time to beating them back. As they were
ignorant themselves and hated those who sought knowl-
edge, they sacked abbeys, burned schools and monas-
teries, and slaughtered the monks.
Alfred fought nine battles with them. He was de- The Danes
feated each tim^e, and his army not only became weak, Aifr^e^d
but lost its courage. Finally, at the beginning of the
winter, he was forced to retreat into a region of woods
and swamps. The people thought he was lost. It was
a long, dreaiy winter for him and his followers.
In later dr.ys the people were fond of telling stories story of
of how Alfred spent his time during this trying expe- and%.e
rience. While these stories may not be true, they help ^^jji^^^^^'^
us to see what the people thought of the man who did
so much to make England a better country. According
to one of these stories, he once took refuge in the hut
of a cowherd who knew him, but whose wife did not.
Seeing his ragged clothing, she thought him of little
account. She was baking bread before the open fire,
and told him to watch it while she went out; but he had
more important matters on his mind. When the woman
returned, Alfred was sitting in a brown study, with the
bread burning imder his nose. His reward was a sharp
scolding for being so stupid, as the woman thought him.
Another story, popular among the people, reveals Alfred as a
his ability to play on the harp and sing. He gathered °^"^^^^
his comrades into a safe place, disguised himself as a
minstrel, and went to the Danish camp, where his sweet
music charmed the warriors. The king heard of his
ability and called him to the royal tent. Here Alfred
140
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
overheard the Danish plan of campaign. He sHpped
away, called his men, and; making a sudden attack on
his enemies, put them to rout.
As a fact, however, Alfred spent his winter as a gen-
eral and statesman should, in gathering, drilHng, and sup-
phdng his army. This explains to us why he won a \dc-
KING ALFRED INCITING HIS FOLLOWERS TO REPEL THE INVASION OF THE DANES,
WHOSE SHIPS HAVE BEEN SIGHTED
toiy when he met his enemy. As spring came on, he
gathered his men behind his fortress at Athelney. AMien
he unfolded his standard, men rejoiced, for many had
given up him and the kingdom for lost. Many new re-
cruits, eager to fight under a brave leader, joined his
army; and although his force was not large, he made a
sudden and desperate attack on the Danes at Ethandune.
He drove them to their camp, besieged them for four-
teen days, and forced them to surrender.
In the treaty which followed, the Danes agreed to settle
142
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
down peacefully north of the Thames and to become
Christians. All England south of the Thames remained
to Alfred. In fact; as a result of this victoiy^ the English
and the Danes came gradually to be united as one people.
1 06. Alfred Improves His Kingdom. — After defeat-
ing the Danes, Alfred had time to improve his king-
dom. The laws were ver}^ confused, since each tribe
had had different ones. So Alfred had all the best laws
gathered into one book, beginning with the Ten Com-
mandments, and forced all his people to obey them.
Another important matter to which he gave much thought
and time was the building of a fleet of swift war vessels;
for his experience with the Vikings had taught him the
great value of ships in warding off invaders. This was
the beginning of the English navy, which has done so
much to make that little island-countiy a great world-
power.
His great desire, however, now that law and order
could be kept, was to educate the people. England had
the most beautiful books in the world at this time, but
few people could read them except the monks. And
now that learning had so fallen off during the inroads
of the Danes, many even of the monks could not under-
stand Latin. Alfred, therefore, rebuilt the abbeys and
schools which the Danes had destroyed, and at his court
established a school for his own children and the children
of his nobles and bishops and friends. They were taught
not only to read and write in their own language but to
read Latin. Wlierever he knew that there were learned
men, he sent there for them and brought them to his
court, to teach him and his people.
Great '
ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 143
As most of the standard works of that day were in Alfred and
Latin and Alfred wished his people to have the benefit litllature'
of them^ he made translations of those he considered the
most useful, and sent copies to all his bishops. He
wrote a few books himself and gathered all the English
ballads into one volume.
This work of Alfred's was important far beyond the
help it gave to his own people and time. For it made
English, which was the language of the common people,
a language of literature. His translations fixed its form
and preserved it for succeeding generations.
Alfred became a powerful ruler and left his kingdom '^Alfred the
far stronger and far better than he found it. All his
people loved him, for he was devoted to their welfare.
Well has he been called ''Alfred the Great."
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. The Franks brought under one dominion all that country
now known by the name of France. 2. Charlemagne was crowned
Emperor of Rome in the year 800. He is one of the most famous
men of all time. 3. A band of Jutes landed in England in 449.
Wherever the German invaders went during the first one hundred
and fifty years of their stay in Britain they put an end to Chris-
tianity. 4. Augustine and forty monks landed in England in 597.
They had a monastery at Canterbury. 5. Monasteries spread
rapidly, and in time the Christian faith overspread all Britain.
6. King Alfred defeated the Danes, who had been harassing the
country. As a result of his victory over them, the English and
the Danes came gradually to be united as one people. 7. Alfred
had all the best laws gathered into one book, made translations
of standard works, and wrote some books himself. He made Eng-
lish a language of literature.
144 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
TO THE PUPIL
1. From what people did France get its name ?
2. Who was Charlemagne and when did he live ?
3. What German tribes invaded Britain ? How did England get its
name ?
4. Who were the Druids and what became of them ?
5. Imagine yourself at the royal reception given to Augustine and his
monks, and write an account of what took place.
6. What did these monks do for Christianity in Britain ?
7. Who were the Vikings ? Describe these vessels and their methods
of making raids.
8. Tell the story of little Alfred and the book of Saxon poetry. What
does this story illustrate ?
9. Write out as clearly as you can the story of Alfred and the cowherd's
wife.
10. What important things did King Alfred do to improve his kingdom ?
Note especially his work in making English a language of literature.
11. Now give as many reasons as you can for calling this noble king
Alfred the Great.
12. Are you making constant use of the map ?
CHAPTER XIV
HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN THEIR
LIBERTIES
Rolloand 107. Rollo and the Vikings Invade France. — As we
Normandy j^ayg already said, England was not the only country
that suffered from the inroads of the Vikings. France
was constantly invaded in the same way. One band of
these warriors, under a leader named Rolf or Rollb, in
the tenth century seized a part of northern France.
As the king could not hope to drive them out, he invited
Rollo to settle down with his men and become his vassal.
Rollo agreed; and in time this district came to be known
HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN LIBERTY 145
as Normandy, and the people were called Normans, a
contraction of '^Northmen."
As time passed, many Northmen settled here; and their The
leaders, the dukes of the Normans, were often as power- fh^Normans
fill as any king in Europe. One of these we are especially
interested in because he took such an important part in
English history. This was
William, who became Wil-
liam I of England and is
know^n as William the Con-
queror.
1 08. William, Duke of William's
. , TVT ^ claim to the
the Normans, Conquers throne
England. — When Edward
the Confessor, King of the
English, died without leav-
ing an heir, Harold, the
WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR O 7 ;
greatest noble in the king-
dom, was elected to succeed him. But Wilham, Duke
of the Normans, who had no good claim to the throne,
declared that it had been promised to him by Edward;
and that Harold himself had sworn on the sacred relics
that he would assist him in getting the crown.
He made haste to collect an army, sailed to England, wiiiiam,
defeated Harold at the battle of Hastings, or Senlac, in |^^| ^iJ ^^^
1066, and the next Christmas day was crowned king
in Westminster Abbey. He brought all the people under
his rule, but promised to let them be just as free as they
had been under their former kings. Though King of
the English, he still remained Duke of the Normans.
In England he, his two sons, and his grandson are called
the Norman kings.
146
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
William's 109. The Influence of the Normans upon England. —
the feudal The influence of the Normans upon England was marked
system ^^ several ways. In the first place; they were a quick-
witted and clever people^ the
most masterful in all Europe.
They had remarkable power
of doing things well on a large
scalC; and this showed itself at
once. William placed strong
castles all over the kingdom,
in which he put vassals loyal
A SHIP OF DUKE WILLIAM S FLEET WHICH
TR\NSPORTED TROOPS FOR THE INVA-
SION OF ENGLAND, FROM THE BAYEUX
TAPESTRY, A CONTEMPORARY WORK
The
building of
monasteries
and
cathedrals
to himself and sternly exacted
from them, and from their vas-
sals in turn, the strictest obe-
dience. In this way he built up the feudal system in
England, with a strong central government. The same
ability showed itself in the building of churches and
monasteries, which became a great power in the land.
It was during this period that many of England's great-
est cathedrals were begun, the Norman style of archi-
tecture, brought from France, displacing that of the
earlier Saxon.
FIGHTING AS PICTURED IN THli BAYEUX TAPESTRY, A CONTEMPORARY WORK
HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN LIBERTY 147
ARMOR OF THE TIME OF "WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR
In yet another way, more gentle but not less perma-
nent, was the Norman influence felt, and that was m
language and literature. French became the language
which the upper
classes spoke, just
as Latin was the
language of the
church, and only
the common peo-
ple in the eveiy-
day walks of life
spoke Anglo-Sax-
on. English hter-
ature was well-
nigh forgotten,
and English
thought for centuries was fashioned by the French,
no. The Wicked King John. — One of William's suc-
cessors was King Lichard I, the Lion-Heart, who as-
cended the throne in 1189. He was a brave warrior and,
as we shall see further on, spent much of his time fight-
ing as a crusader
m the Holy Land.
During his ab-
sence, his wicked
brother John plot-
ted to get the
throne for himself,
and when Rich-
ard, on his way
home from Je-
Nonnan
influence in
language and
literature
King John
plots against
his brother
THE NORMAN GATEWAY OP WINDSOR CASTLE
148
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
A worthless
and wicked
king
ji lawless
Uing
King John
robs soldiers
and sailors
rusaleni; was taken prisoner, John thought that now he
could surely be khig, as he hoped that Richard would not
be set free. But the English people, at a great sacrifice,
raised a large sum of money, and bought Richard's freedom.
After Richard's death John became King of England
(1199). He was such a worthless and wicked king that
we feel sorry to think he ever held the
throne. But if he had been better,
perhaps the people would not have been
roused as they were to demand their
rights.
John^s wicked deeds were so many
that we can only mention a few of them.
We have already seen how he plotted
against his brother. He showed him-
self treacherous at another time by
marrying a young woman who was
pledged to marry the son and heir of
one of his own nobles. As this was against the feudal
law, it brought him into further trouble.
During John's reign, Philip of France invaded Nor-
mandy and won it from John. John did not try very
hard to prevent him from doing this; but when it was
done, he gathered his army and navy together in Eng-
land and prepared to fight Philip. AATien all the fleet
was assembled, and the soldiers had left their homes and
their work and come to the coast, the King changed his
mind and sent them all home again. The worst of this
action was that he made eveiy soldier and sailor pay a
fine, because they had escaped from going to war. This
was an act of robbeiy.
KING RiCHAKD I, THE
LION-HEART
HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN LIBERTY 149
, churches
^^ also
He also robbed the He robs the
churches. He refused
obey the Pope, and the Pope,
as punishment; ordered that
every church in England
should be closed. The cler-
g>^men thought they must
obey the Pope; but when-
ever they did; John took
their property from them,
as well as all the money
belondno; to their churches.
chateau gaillard
normandy, france. one of king
Richard's castles, once the main
OUTPOST OF his NORMAN TERRITORY
the King's outrages must
leader, the Archbishop of
at a meeting held in St.
Paul's, showed them how
John might be made to
sign a charter; that is, a
written statement in
which he should agree
that there were certain
things he could not do,
and that the people had
certain rights he could
not take from them.
To this the barons
agreed, and made known
to John their demands,
saying that they were
'to"
III.
King John Signs the The need of
rry, -. a charter
Great Charter. — ihe barons
or nobles of England felt that
not be endured. Acting as a
Canterbury, Stephen Langton,
KING JOHN SIGNING MAGNA CHARTA
150
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
John
forced to
sign the
Great
Charter
The
promises in
the charter
What the
Great
Charter
means
to us
Henry III
and Simon
de Montfort
ready to fight if necessary. The King was terrified. He
wished to escape giving the charter^ but he had no army
to fight the barons, and all the people hated him. Finally
he yielded; and called a meeting which was held in the
meadow cf Runnymede, near Windsor, on the Thames
River. The barons' camp was on one bank, the King's
on the other, and on an island between were the dele-
gates who were to discuss the charter. They soon agreed
upon one, and John signed it. But he did not intend to
keep his agreement.
The charter — called Magna Charta (Great Charter)^
was long, and contained many promises made by the
King to the people. Of these, two were very important.
The first was, that the King should never collect more
money than was due him without first getting the con-
sent of the Great Council of barons and knights. This,
meant, among other things, that he would never again
fine soldiers and sailors because he decided not to em-
ploy them. The second promise was that the King would
never again throw men into prison without showing just
cause. All who were arrested for wrong-doing must be
tried in court, as they are in our times, and if they were
not found guilty they must be set free. The most valu-
able feature of the charter was that all the rights which
came to be founded upon it, were for the com.mon peo-
ple as well as the nobles. It is this which has created
the democratic freedom of the English-speaking peoples.
112. The English Parliament. — John's son, Henry
III, was only a boy when his father died, and until he-,
was grown up noblemen ruled for him. When at length
he began to reign for himself, people saw that he was.
very weak and unfit to govern a growing kingdom. Her.
HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN LIBERTY 151
did not like to take advice, and he was constantly chang-
ing his mind. Finally the barons could endure him no
longer. They made war on him, and took him and his
son Edward prisoners. Then their leader, Simon de
Montfort; ruled in his stead, though he was not called
king.
Simon de Montfort's rule was important, for it was he The
who called the first Parliament. Before this the Great Pariilment
Council had been attended by the barons and bishops.
Now not only these
nobles and clergymen
were summoned (12G5),
but also two men from
each of certain towns
and two from every
shire (county). This
was a long step for-
ward. It meant that
the common people
were to have a share in the government. De Montfort's
rule was short, however; for the King's son escaped from
prison, and in a sudden attack Simon de Montfort was
killed and the barons defeated.
Edward proved to be a strong and wise King, beloved Edward i
by his people. His favorite motto was ^^Keep your ParUament
promise,'' and he always tried to keep his. It was not
until 1295 that he called a full Parliament such as Simon
de Montfort's, but it proved to be such a successful way
of consulting the people that afterward a full Parhament
became the rule. Thus the people of all classes were
represented in the government.
MANOR HOUSE, ACTON BURNEI.L, SHROPSHIRE. BUILT
FOR THE HOLDING OF THE FIRST PARLIAMENT
152
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The people
gradually
lose their
rights
The
equality cf
German
freemen
The moots of
the village,
the hundred,
and the
shire
The village
moot the
beginning of
the town
meeting
An important event in Edward's reign was the renewal
of the Great Charter^ with special promises in it that the
King would not take money from the people unless the
full Parliament was willing that he should.
113. American Beginnings in Germany and England.
— This struggle between the King and the barons was no
sudden thing. For centuries the people had been gradu-
ally losing their rights while the King had been growing
in power. To find out how much they had lost and what
they were tiying to get back; let us look at them as they
were in the forests of Germany long before they left their
homes for other lands.
You will remember that those rugged Germans prized
their independence as they prized their life; that in their
meetings each freeman helped to elect the chief who
should lead him in battle; and that all freemen stood on
an equal footing when matters affecting the good of the
people were discussed. Now when the German tribes
went across the North Sea to England in the fifth cen-
tury, they carried with them their ways of managing
their affairs. Each village had its moot, or meetings
where all the freemen assembled to regulate the affairs
of the village. A group of villages large enough to fur-
nish a hundred warriors formed a hundred^ and later a still
larger group formed a shire. Just as the village had its
moot to attend to the affairs of the village; so had the
hundred and the shire each its moot to look after the
larger affairs of its people.
But while all the freemen met in the village moot;
only a small number of freemen from eveiy village were
elected by the whole body to represent them in the moot
HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TQ WIN LIBERTY 153
of the hundred and of the shire. In the village moot
each man had the right to share equally in the govern-
ment by taking a part in the meeting. This was the
beginning of that valuable American institution called
the town meeting, where all the voters of the town come
together to regulate their local affairs.
The electing of men in the village moot to represent The moots
them in the larger moots of the hundred and the shire hundred and
was the beginning of the American system of represen- {J^^innh^ s^^
tative government. In these larger bodies^ as in our ofrepre-
State legislatures and in our Congress, each voter shared government
equally in the government, not
by taking part directly, as in
the town meeting which is held
near his home, but by helping
to elect men to represent him.
This is the representative s}^s-
tem which those early Angles
and Saxons, with a love of fair
play and a keen sense of indi-
vidual freedom, made a part of
the political life of England, just
as, in later years, Anglo-Saxons
brought it to our own land.
The beginnings of much that
we freedom -loving Americans
enjoy in our political life to-day
are to be found in the village moots of Germany and of
England.
In the centuries of struggle following the conquest of
England by the German tribes, the people, as we have
WESTMINSTER HALL, M^HERE PARLIAMENT
WAS HELD
154 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The English Seen, lost much of their power. But the kingship always
and^om^^° remained elective; and finally^ as we have noted, the
Congress representative system came into full swdng in the Eng-
lish Parliament, where all classes of people are now
represented just as all classes are represented in our
National Congress at Washington.
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. The Vikings invaded France as well as England. A band of
these seized a part of northern France. After a time this district
came to be known as Normandy and its people as Normans.
2. William, Duke of the Normans, was made King of the English
(1066). 3. The influence of the Normans upon England was
marked in several ways. 4. King John was so worthless and wicked
that the barons or nobles of England felt that his outrages must
not be endured, so they forced him to sign the Great Charter
(1215). 5. The most valuable feature of the charter was that all
the rights which came to be founded upon it were for the common
people as well as the nobles. It is this which has created the
democratic freedom of the English-speaking peoples. 6. The
struggle between King John and the barons indicates that for
centuries the people had been gradually losing their rights w^hile
the King had been growing in power. When the German tribes
went across the North Sea to England in the fifth century they
carried with them their ways of manar^ing their affairs. And you
will remember that among the German tribes all freemen stood on
an equal footing when matters affecting the good of the people
were discussed. 7. The village moot was the beginning of the
American town meeting; and the moots of the hundred and the
shire were the beginnings of such representative government as
we have in our State legislatures and in our National Congress at
Washington.
FEUDALISM 155
TO THE PUPIL
1. Who were the Vikings and what two countries did they invade ?
2. Can you explain how William, Duke of the Normans, came to be
King of the Enghsh ?
3. Why did he place strong castles all over the kingdom ?
4. In what ways was the Norman influence upon England marked ?
5. In what ways did John show himself to be a worthless and lawless
King?
6. What is a charter ? Name two very important promises made by
the King to the people in the Great Charter.
7. Tell what the Great Charter means to us. You will see from this that
the barons were doing things which prepared for the greater democratic
freedom of the English-speaking peoples who were to come after them.
8. Who was Simon de Montfort and what did he do ?
9. Do you see clearly how the village moot was the beginning of the
town meeting in our own country and how the moots of the hundred and
the shire were the beginning of our representative government ?
10. In what respect are the Enghsh Parhament and our National Con-
gress alike ?
CHAPTER XV
FEUDALISM: OR, THE LORD, THE CASTLE,
AND THE KNIGHT
114. How the Feudal System Began. — After the Ger- Each
mans got control of affairs in the countries of western Sves°iS^*^
Europe, they brought to an end much that had been built °^^ ^^
up by the Romans. They swept away many of the cities,
and failed to keep in repair the superb system of z'oads
and bridges which had closely connected all parts of the
empire. As a result travel, and the carrying of letters,,
messages, and goods, came to be so difficult that in time
trade between one country and another, or even betweeu
156
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
one place and another^ often in great measure stopped.
Each community; therefore; had mainly to hve its own
life. It raised its own food and used only those things
which its own people could supply. It also handled
THE FEUDAL. FORTIFICATIONS, CARCASSONNE, FRANCE, AS THEY ARE TO-DAY
How each
community
was
governed
but little money; for there was but little money to be
had; and the old barter of goods for goods suited the local
trade fairly well in most things.
The method of governing the people became equally
primitive. For since Rome was no longer able to mam-
tain law and order; and there was no strong central gov-
erning power anywhere in western Europe; each com-
munity had to keep order for itself and protect itself
against danger and violence; just as it had to provide
the food and other things needed for its daily life.
FEUDALISM 157
115. Charlemagne's Empire. — ^There was a brief
period during the empire under Charlemagne when con-
ditions were improved. This great leader of the Franks
in his long reign of nearly half a centuiy (768-814) had
brought within his vast empire^ as we have seen^ much
of what is now western Europe, and had ruled it with
a strong hand.
But Charlemagne's empire did not last. After his charie-
death it was broken into so many fragments that such ^pfre ^
a thing as the authority of a stron^; central state, like J^^oken into
^ ° ^ ^ ^ fragments
that in our own count r}^ to-day _, passed away. In the
dark and dreadful time of strife and hatred which fol-
lowed; things went from bad to worse. There was a
desperate struggle of rival leaders for power, and when
these leaders were not striving to ward off barbarian
attacks, they were quarrelling among themselves.
116. The Rich Land-owner and Personal Service. — The rich
In the great confusion and disorder of these times, the i^^uier^and
ownership of land played a large part. The rich land- i^w-giver
owner was the most powerful man in any rural locality,
and he became the ruler and law-giver of the people
who lived on his land. It was his duty to provide some
way of protecting life and property, and of maintaining Protection
law and order in the community. To do this, he must ^^^ service
have men willing to fight for him, men to attend his
courts of justice, where disputes were settled and wrongs
righted, and men to do the every-day work of providing
food, clothing, and the usual conveniences of life. These
three forms of personal service he could secure by grant-
ing to various men the use of his land. They needed
protection; he needed personal service.
158
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The cere-
mony of
making a
man a vassal
If we wish to learn how this exchange of the use of
land for personal service was brought about, and what
were the relations between the powerful man who ruled
and the weaker men who served him, we must study
the feudal system. This began to take deep root in
western Europe in the ninth and tenth centuries.
117. The Lord and the Vassal. — Imagine that you
are a great land-owner or baron, and that you turn over
a part of your land to a man to hold and to use for you.
That land is called a fief, or feud, and the man who re-
ceives it is called a vassal. In return for the use of the
land, your vassal promises to fight^ for you, who are now
his lord, to attend your law court, and under certain
conditions to pay you money. The fighting may be in
defence of your castle or in an attack upon your enemies;
and the payment of money may be for your ransom if
you are made a prisoner, for the knighting of your
eldest son, or for the marriage of your eldest daughter.
In return you, the lord, promise to protect your vassal,
and allow him to govern as he sees fit all the people who
live on the land he is to hold and to use.
The agreement is made in a formal way. The cere-
mony is an interesting one. The vassal with bare head
kneels before you, his future lord, places his hands be-
tween your hands, and repeats these words: "From
this time forward I will be your man." You, the lord,
raising your vassal to his feet, give him the kiss of peace,
and he in turn declares, ^^I will be faithful to you and
defend you even at the risk of my life.'^ In token of
the grant of land, you then give him a twig or a clod of
earth.
160
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The
relation
between the
lord and his
vassal
William the
Conqueror
and the
land-owners
of England
Why men
became
vassals
By such a formal ceremony as this, every lord bound
himself to protect his vassal, treat him justly , and allow
him to remain in control of the land as long as he kept
his part of the agreement and was loyal to his lord. Thus
the relation between the lord and his vassals was very-
much like that which we saw existing between the chief
and his warriors in the German forests.
ii8. The Theory of the Feudal System. — According
to the theoiy, as finally worked out by the la^^yers, the
greatest of all land-owners was the King. He was the
lord of all the land in his kingdom. Some of his vassals
were powerful nobles, each of whom had vassals who
paid homage to him just as he himself paid homage
to the King. But when William the Conqueror became
King of England, he compelled all the land-owners, of
any account, to pay homage directly to himself; and
in this way he greatly strengthened the royal power in
England. The abbot, as head of a monastery, might
also be lord over vassals, and a vassal under a lord.
William required from each bishop and abbot the same
homage and feudal service that he would require from
a noble holding the same land.
We of to-day also buy protection when we pay taxes to
the state or the nation. The amount is so veiy small,
however, that it is no burden, and so peaceful are the
times that we cannot easily realize the danger and tur-
moil of those lawless days when every one in the land
from the lowest to the highest, lived in constant fear of
being plundered, robbed, or murdered. A violent attack
by barbarian invaders or even by a neighboring lord
might come any day without warning. Therefore pro-
FEUDALISM
IGl
tection of life and property was worth all it cost. But
if the lord was to be the protector of his vassals he must
have not only men to fight for him, but a stronghold for
defence. Such he provided when he built his castle.
119. The Castle. — Let us visit one of these castles, The castle
which was both a fortress and a dwelling-place, bearing roundLls^'
in mind that castles differed from one another in many
of their details.
As we approach
we catch our first
glimpse of it on
a distant hill,
which commands
a view of the
surrounding
country, and af-
fords an excel-
lent location for
defence. Hug-
ging the hill
closely is a scat-
tering village of
peasant huts,
with meadows and pasture lands stretching away to
dense woodlands beyond. Surrounding the castle are
huge stone walls, twelve feet thick and forty feet high.
Just outside the walls is a great moat, or ditch, sixty The moat,
feet wide and fifty feet deep, which may be filled with ^fdgt^Ind
water. Before we can enter the only gateway in the the gateway
castle w^alls, we must wait for the drawbridge to be let
down over the moat. It is now upright against the
THE DRAWBRIDGE OF THE CASTLE
162
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The
towers and
battlements
towers of the gateway, to
which it is joined at its
inner end by means of
strong hinges. To the
outer end of the bridge
are fastened long chains
by which it is let down
by some one in the tower,
who turns a windlass.
We cross over, but we
cannot yet pass through
the wall into the court-
yard; for the portcullis,
1 an iron gate, bars the en-
i trance. Presently, if we
are patient, this will
move from our pathway.
It will not swing on
hinges like an ordinary
gate, but will be raised
by a windlass in the
tower.
If we are observing, we
have noticed that at inter-
vals on the walls there are towers and battlements which
serve to strengthen the defence of the castle, and to
protect the defenders when they shoot their arrows,
hurl rocks and stones, or pour boiling oil or pitch upqn
the enemy below; and the only windows are narrow
slits, easily defended, from which missiles can be safely
launched. On the walls stand watchmen also, who are
THE CASTLE TOWERS AND BATTLEMENTS,
MANNED FOB DEFENCE
FEUDALISM
163
constantly on the lookout for an approaching enemy
and ready to give the alarm by a trumpet blast.
So you see that in the days when cannon and heavy How the
guns were unknown, for gunpowder did not come into attackeT^
use in western Europe until the early part of the four-
teenth century, it was extremely difficult to capture a
THE GREAT HALL OF THE CASTLE. THE OATH OP FEALTY TO THE YOUNG LORD
castle when there were brave men to defend it. Arrows,
lances, swords, and battle-axes would make but little
impression on such powerful stone walls. To beat them
down, the warriors of the Middle Ages had a huge engine
called a battering-ram to force an opening in the castle
walls. It consisted of a great beam, or forest tree, with
a head of iron, which was sometimes like a ram's head in
shape, and was swung by a chain on a strong frame.
The attacking party also at times dug their way under
1G4
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Inside the
castle
The
furniture
and rooms
the walls. But if a castle was strongly defended^ the
only sure w^ay of capturing it was to lay siege to it and
cut off its supplies, thus starving the people into sub-
mission.
The area inside the castle walls sometimes covered
several acres. Could w^e pass through the court-3^ard
— ' ' ^^' and enter the castle just as
it was in the Middle Ages,
we should not think it very
comfortable or convenient,
even though the one we have
in mind was the veiy best in
the countr}^ The main room
was an immense hall^ where
the lord, his family, his guests,
and his retainers and servants,
all ate together; and most of
the servants slept here unless
they slept in the stable. In
the middle of the clay floor
was a blazing fire, with an
opening in the roof above to
let out the smoke. At one
end of the hall was a wooden
platform, or dais, on which
stood the table for the noble and his family.
There w^re no glass window^s, and the walls were bare
and roughly plastered. The rude furniture was mostly
built into its place so that it could not be moved. No
one knew what it was to have a private room. Nor did
rooms open into passageways, but into one another; so
INSIDE THE MAIN GATE OF THE CASTLE
A MINSTREL ENTERTAINING THE GATE
FEUDALISM
1G5
that to get to a distant one^ it was necessary to pass
through several others.
120. The Hard, Rude Life of the Nobles.— It was a Fighting
hard rude life which even the nobles led in the tenth and ^"^ ""^
1 .-M'
A
I
THE CASTLE COURT-YARD. THE RETURN FROM A FORAY
eleventh centuries. :Fighting was their chief business.
They gloried in war and knew little of anything else.
They cared nothing for books, and most of them could
not even write their own names. If they were not light-
ing— but we must remember that petty warfare was
nearly always going on— they spent their time in sports. The life o£
Hunting and hawking were favorite occupations when
166 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
the weather permitted; but in the long winter evenings
they played chess for a pastime and listened with pleas-
ure to the songs of minstrels, and no doubt quarrelled
somewhat over their drinking cups. It was this lack of
anything in time of peace to keep men busy at hard,
honest work which has left the tradition that a country
needs frequent wars to keep its men strong and manly.
This may have been true in the Middle Ages, but it is
not at all true in our times.
121. Knighthood and the Knights. — But the amuse-
ments they prized most of all were the tournament and
the joust, which we shall understand better when we
learn about knighthood and the knights.
Knighthood From the latter part of the tenth centur}^, it became
feudaurm ° the custom for the men of the higher social classes to-
fight on horseback, although the common people con-
tinued to fight on foot. Out of the custom arose the
word chivalry {cheval being the French word for horse),.
which is much like our word cavalry. The warrior who'
rode the horse was called a knight and belonged to a
separate order called knighthood. This order has well
been named the flower of feudalism, for it was the blos-
soming of the ruder virtues which made the life of the
later centuries of feudalism endurable.
Ideals of The knights were men who, in those days of evil and
violence, held lofty ideals and tried to keep ahve the
Christian faith. They were not perfect men; indeed,
some of them were very wicked, and coarse, and cruel;,
but they were pledged to noble deeds, and many of them
tried to keep their pledges. We shall now see how men_
became knights, and what they tried to do for the world..
the knights
FEUDALISM
16-
At first any brave men could earn knighthood; but The
later on only those of noble birth could enjoy this honor, the^^page^
At seven years old, the boys of lesser nobles were sent
to the castle of some great and powerful lord to begin
their training for knighthood. Such a boy was the con-
stant attendant of both his master and his mistress. He
waited on them in the hall, followed them in the hunt;
and served the lady in the bower and the lord in the camp.
A PART OF THE CEREMONY OF THE CONFERRING OF KNIGHTHOOD
He was taught the meaning of religion^ love, and right
living; and was trained not only in hunting and hawking,
but also in such military exercises as carrying a shield
and handling the lance.
Having served as a page until he was fourteen, he be- The
came a squire, and either at the same castle or at some llfe^sq^re^
other of his own choosing, he was taught to ride, to use
his weapons, and to hunt; for a knight must be a good
horseman, a good swordsman, and must be able to use
his hawk in hunting.
At twenty-one he was made a knight, by a ceremony ^^e cere-
which varied with different times and places but which making a
from the twelfth century came to be chiefly religious, kmgift^
168
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
For we must remember that the knight was not only a
warrior; he was also a Christian, and one of his prin-
cipal duties was to defend the church. On the evening
before he was to be knighted the young man took a bath,
during which two grave
knights counselled him
as to his knightly duties.
After the bath two
knights put on him a
white shirt and a russet
robe with long sleeves
and a hermit's hood.
Then in a gay procession
he was led to the chapel,
where wines and spices
were served, after which
he was left with a priest.
The rest of the night
he passed in prayer. At
daybreak mass was cele-
brated, and later in the
day knights and squires
took him to the castle
hall. After his spurs had been fastened to his heels, the
prince whose duty it was to knight him, girded on his
sword, embraced him, and striking him three times on
the shoulder with the flat blade of the sword, said, '^Be
thou a good knight." Then the company went to the
chapel, where the new knight, laying his right hand
upon the altar, promised to support and defend the
•church.
THE VIGIL AT ARMS
FEUDALISM
169
As a good knight, his vows bound him to obey and The vows of
protect the church, to defend the weak and helpless, to ® ^^^
be absolute^ truthful, to be loyal to his chosen lady, and
to defend all ladies of gentle birth. Men of that time
did not realize that a true Christian knight should be
THE TRIAL GALLOP
the defender of all women, whether they were rich or
poor. Still the ideals were high and fine, and have sur-
vived in the ideals of a gentleman of to-day. The days
of true knighthood will never pass. Even yet we speak
of men as chivalrous when they are like the knights of
the Middle Ages in noble ideals.
The knight, as we have seen, always fought on horse- The
back. Both he and his horse w^ere w^ell protected by weapons of
armor that was difficult to penetrate by the weapons *^® kmght
in use in those days. He wore a plumed helmet, a shield,
and a coat of mail; and for weapons of attack carried a
sword and lance, and sometimes a battle-axe. When he
went to war, a squire attended him as a body servant.
170
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The purpose
of the joust
and the
tournament
It was the duty of the squire to look after his master's
horse and weapons^ and to come to his assistance if he
was wounded. In the course of time, the armor of the
knight became so heav}^ that it required a strong horse
to carry him.
122. The Joust and the Tournament. — After the
squire had become a knight, he set about training him-
self for the jousts and tournaments, the great social
events of that time. Jousts were
contests between single combat-
ants, while tournaments were
more like mimic battles. They
might be simple festal occasions,
or serious trials of strength be-
tween hostile factions.
We have seen that war was al-
most the only interest the nobles
had. Accordingly, when real
war was not in progress, mimic
wars, or tournaments, were
planned, such as Sir Walter Scott
describes with graphic power in
"Ivanhoe," and Tennyson in
"Idylls of the King." These not only furnished interest
and entertainment, but also the only military training to
be had at that time. The noble who gave the tourna-
ment could judge from it which of the knights would be
the ablest warriors, and, the weak or clumsy were effectu-
ally weeded out.
Rules That the knights had high standards for themselves
tournaments IS shown by the rules relating to tournaments. Since
ARMOR OF 1440, SAID TO BE THE
BEST PERIOD
FEUDALISM
171
they were regarded as contests of honor, no knight could
lake part in one if he had ever committed a crime, offended
a lady, broken his word, or taken an mifair advantage of
an enemy in battle. In other words, the knight must
be pure, courteous, truthful, and fair.
Let us suppose that some great nobleman has pro- An imagi-
claimed a tournament. Heralds have been sent far and aTouma-
near to summon the ablest knights, and foreign cham- "^^^*
pions have been specially invited. Many knights and
ladies arrive. They are lodged in the castle, in the neigh-
boring town, or in tents under the trees in the meadows
outside the castle. On
the day of the combat
the tents of the knights,
and the lists — that is, the
field of the fight — are
decked with banners and
coats of arms, and the gal-
leries where the knights
and the ladies, and some-
times even the King and
Queen, sit are gay with
hanging tapestries and
gorgeous costumes. In the
field are groups of knights
and the judges. The
horses, gaily decked with
rich trappings, are champ-
ing their bits and pranc-
ing nervously, in their disposition or line-up of knights, at one
„ , „ SIDE OF A TOURNEY FIELD, SHOWING FIGURE-
eagerness lor trie iray. heads on top of helmets
172
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The mimic
battle
A. ccstly
prize
The combatants are in two divisions^ one at
each end of the field. There may be hundreds
of them. In fact they compose two small
armies. The herald proclaims the rules of the
combat, the opposing bands advance on horse-
back, each knight showing his lady's color, or
device. Then the signal is given, and they
charge forward amid excited cries and cheers
from the gallery. Usually their weapons are
blunt sw^ords or lances, but the contest is very
rough and sometimes many are killed. Each
knight endeavors to knock his opponent from
his horse or break his lance. The clang of
armor, the clash of broken spears, the
shouts of spectators, the waving of
kerchiefs, all add to the intense excite-
ment. Sometimes in the hottest part of
the fight a strange knight, or a troop
of knights all dressed alike, swoop from
the crest of a neighboring hill and turn
the tide of a battle..
Wiien the victory is decided, a costly
prize is awarded — jewels, armor, or a
fine steed, and best of all, the praise
of the victor's lady. In these mimic
battles, of which there were many, the
knights found their best opportunity
to win glory for themselves and the
app.^oval of their ladies.
123. What We Owe to Knighthood. — After the use
of gunpowder began in the fourteenth century, the
THE ARMOR AND LANCE OF
A KNIGHT OP 1550
FEUDALISM 173
armored horseman lost much of the advantage he had
enjoyed in battle over the man on foot, whose principal
weapon was the bow and arroW; and little by little the
influence of knighthood waned.
This did not mean the loss of all the good which The knight
chivaliy had brought^ however. For the knight had the German
same keen sense of freedom^ the same proud spirit; and barbarian
the same love of war that belonged to the German bar-
barians before they left their forest homes; and when he
vowed that he would obey and protect the churchy that
he would defend the weak and the helpless, that he
would be lo}' al to his lord and to his chosen lad}', and
that he would alwa^^s be brave and truthful, he w^as
setting up a standard of conduct which w^ould never be
permitted to die. Some of the strongest ties that bind
men together in their common work for the betterment
of human life to-day reach back to the age of feudalism
and knighthood. ' ^
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. As there was no strong central governing power anywhere in
western Europe, each community had to keep order for itself and
protect itself against danger and violence just as it had to provide
the food and other things needed for its daily life. 2. The rich
land-owner was the most powerful man in an}" rural locality, and
he became the ruler and law-giver of the people who lived on his
land. He, as lord, gave them the use of his land, and they, as
vassals, gave him, in return, some form of personal service. 3. The
castle was both a fortress and a dwelling-place. 4. Knighthood
was the flower of feudalism. The vows of the knight bound him to
obey and protect the church, to be absolutely truthful, and to
defend all ladies of gentle birth. 5. The great social events of
174 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
that time were the joust and the tournament. 6. Some of the
strongest ties that bind men together in their common work for
the betterment of human Hfe to-day had their beginning in the
days of feudaUsm and knighthood.
TO THE PUPIL
1. Explain why each community had to govern itself and supply itself
with ahnost everything it needed for its daily life.
2. How was it that the rich land-owner came to be a ruler and law-giver ?
3. Why was it that men greatly needed protection in those days ? Eow
did they get it ?
4. Explain the relations between the lord and his vassal. Imagine your-
self a lord and tell as clearly as you can what you have a right to expect
from your vassal for protecting him.
5. Why did the lord need a castle ? In an imaginary visit to one, de-
scribe it as it appears to you. Try to get a clear picture in your mind
before you begin to tell what the picture is.
6. Now go inside the castle and tell what you see.
7. What can you tell about the life of the lord ?
8. What was the page, and what were his duties ?
9. What was the ceremony of making a squire a knight ?
10. What were the vows of the knight ? What were his armor and
weapons ?
11. What was the purpose of the joust and the tournament ? Imagine
yourself present at a tournament and picture what you see.
12. In what respects were the knights like the early German warriors ?
In what ways were the vassals like the body-guard of the German chief ?
13. What do v/e owe to knighthood ?
CHAPTER XVI
VILLAGE LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES
The lord and 1 24. The Lord and the Manor. — Having noted some-
his vassals ^j^-^^g q£ ^Yiq life of the noble and the knight, we may
now turn briefly to those who filled a humbler place
among the people. As we have seen, in order that a
powerful baron might get vassals to fight for him and
attend his courts of justice, he granted estates for them
VILLAGE LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES
175
and the serfs
MANOR HOUSE IN SUFFOLK, ENGLAND
to use and govern. Each of these vassals — and they
might be nobles and lords themselves — also gave por-
tions of his estate, under similar conditions, to still other
vassals. In other words, the same man might have a
lord over him and vassals under him.
The estate which a lord held under his control was The manor
called a manor (sometimes called a vill also). It was
cut into two divisions. The
first; which the lord kept for
his own use, was called the
domain. The second he turned
over to serfs, who paid him
for its use in part by working
for him on his domain, and in
part by giving him a portion of
what they produced on the land
which they cultivated for themselves. This land of the The serfs
serfs was broken up into many parts, as a rule into long ^^^ ^^® ^^°^
strips, a number of which, scattered about the manor,
were allotted to each serf for his own use. In addition
to the field which the serfs cultivated, they had the use
of meadows, pastures, and woods for their pigs and cattle.
While the serf did not own any of the land, yet the lord what the
could not take it from him so long as he did as he had the^^iofd^^
agreed. The terms of agreement varied with different
estates. Those which the Abbot of Peterborough (Eng-
land) made with his serfs will illustrate fairly well the
ordinary relations which existed between a lord and his
serfs. Every week in the year, except three, they were
to work for him on the domain; and each .was to give
him annually a bushel of wheat, eighteen sheaves of
176
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Some duties
of the serfs
oats, three hens, one cock, and five eggs, besides tilHng
the lord's fields and gathering his harvest.
The serfs on any estate were to cut and haul wood
for the fires in the lord's house, keep his castle and other
buildings in repair, and perform
all other labor that he needed to
have done. The house in which
<=|fc^- . "2 lord lived was called the manor
L\'-A^ ^W^^^^^^S^ house, if it was not a castle. It
m^^^wi^^^^^M. stood near the \dllage where the
serfs lived and in the midst of
FEEDING CHICKENS IN THE FOUR-
TEENTH CENTURY, AS PICTURED
IN AN OLD PSALTER
the farm lands.
125. The Life of the Serfs.
Their houses We can hardly realize how miserable these peasants
were. Their houses were wretchedl}^ built of timber
covered with mud or thatch, and each had but one room,
which was without windows. In the middle of the floor
w^as a fire, and a hole in the roof above let out the smoke.
The fire gave the only heat the shivering family had,
and its smouldering embers the only light after nightfall.
The peasant and his fam-
ily went to bed on heaps
of straw, in the clothes
they had worn all da}^
Their food was bad.
The bread was ^^as dark
as mud and as tough as
shoe-leather." All ^^inter long they were without veg-
etables or fresh food of any kind, even fresh meat; and
as salt was very expensive, the hams and bacon were
poorly preserved, and generally spoiled before the winter
Their food
and drink
FEEDING PIGS IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY,
AS PICTURED IN AN OLD MANUSCRIPT
VILLAGE LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES
r
GRINDING WITH A HAND-MILL IN THE
FOrRTEENTH CENTURY, AS PICT-
URED IN AN OLD MANUSCRIPT
was over. Honey and evaporated fruit juices were their
only sweet; for sugar was costly. Their drink was water,
home-brewed beer, or cider. There was no tea or coffee,
and no strong drink except their own brew of beer.
Tobacco was unknown. The
cattle were as badly fed as
the people, and were nothing
but '^skin and bone'' and
undersized.
For dress, they wore a Their dress
rough garment which left
arms and legs uncovered, and
which was tied with a rope
around the waist. This they
wore day and night. They were wholly uneducated.
Very few knew even how to read; and as their life was
hard and wretched, they were almost as savage and
cruel as the wild beasts.
The English peasantry were badly off, but the con- Their
. . . • -^ 1 r^ wretched
dition of the sens m 1^ ranee and Germany was even condition
worse. For the nobles there
were not held in check under
a strong central government as
nearly always in England, and
were constantly at war. War
commonly meant the burning
of villages, the plundering of
the little stores of provisions belonging to the serfs, and
the inflicting of shocking personal injuries on them.
The serfs were not capable farmers. We should hardly The serfs
expect them to be, considering how ignorant and mis-
REAPING IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY,
AS PICTURED IN AN OLD PSALTER
178
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Poor tools
THRESHING IN THE FOURTEENTH CEN-
TURY, AS PICTURED IN AN OLD
PSALTER
crable they were. For one thing, they had poor tools.
They had no iron ploughs, but only a sort of wooden
hoe with which they dug into the
earth. Their forks and rakes also
were of wood. For weeding they
had two sets of tools. In the moist
ground, where the weeds came out
easily, they used wooden tongs;
but when the ground w^as hard and
dr}^, they pushed the weed away
from them with a forked stick, and
then cut it off close to the ground wdth a sharp hook.
They had axes and sc}i:hes also, saws, wheelbarrows,
butter-churns, and so on;
but we do not know how
good these tools w^ere.
126. Other People be-
sides Serfs on the Manor.
— There might be some
freemen on the manor who held and used their land like
serfs. There were also a few people who were better off
than the laborers. These were not farmers, but they
paid rent to the lord. Such were the priest, the miller,
the blacksmith, and other craftsmen. Nearly ever^^thing
used in the manor was made there, for in the early Mid-
dle Ages there was very little trading between villages.
PLOUGHING IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY,
AS PICTURED IN AN OLD PSALTER
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. The estate which a lord held under his control was called a
manor and sometimes a vill. The part of the estate which the
lord kept for his own use was called the domain. 2. The remainder
TOWNS AND GUILDS IN THE MIDDLE AGES 179
of the manor he turned over to serfs, who paid him for its use in
part by working on his domain and in part by giving him a por-
tion of what they produced on the land which they cultivated for
themselves. 3. While the serf did not own any of the land, yet
the lord could not take it from him so long as he did as he had
agreed. 4. The condition of the serfs was wretched. 5. Nearly
everything used in the manor was made there, for in the early
Middle Ages there was very little trading between villages.
TO THE PUPIL
1. Explain again the relation between the lord and his vassal.
2. What was the manor ? How was it divided ? What was the
domain ?
3. What was the relation between the lord and the serf ? What was
the serf's relation to the land he used ?
4. What was the difference between a serf and a vassal ? Between a
serf and a slave ? Which do you think was better off ?
5. Tell all you can about the houses, food, and drink, and the dress of
the serfs.
6. What kind of tools did they use ? What kind of farmers were they ?
CHAPTER XVII
TOWNS AND GUILDS IN THE MID13LE AGES
127. Towns. — When the German barbarians took villages and
control of the countries in western Europe, they Hved °^^^
mostly in villages. There is little doubt that up to the
twelfth century the greater part of the people in Eng-
land, Germany, and northern and central France lived
in the country on the great estates belonging to feudal
lords, abbots, and bishops. But in the latter half of
the Middle Ages, as trade developed, the villages which
clustered about the monaster}^, or rested under the pro-
180
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
tection of castle walls, and some which were located
on the sea-coast, grew into towns and even cities.
Walls, gates, On account of the continuous warfare of this period,
watchmen^ it was found expedient, as in ancient times, to surround
towns and small cities by massive walls, often eight to
J I ten feet thick, and twenty-five
to thirty feet high. As in the
case of castles, just outside the
wall there was a deep and broad
moat or ditch. Opening on a
few of the principal streets were
strong gates with a tower on
each side. At the principal gate
was a castle where a garrison
was kept, and on the roof of the
gate-tower was stationed a watch-
man ready to blow a horn in
warning if an enemy approached.
Scattered here and there along
the city wall were kept a few
guards chosen from the citizens and relieved daily.
Small towers, like Httle arsenals, stood about one hundred
and twenty feet apart along the entire length of the wall.
Just outside the walls of these mediaeval towns and
cities were farming lands, beyond which extended the
pastures, meadows, and woodlands belonging to the
people in common. City herdsmen and field watchmen
were appointed to drive the flocks out of the town to
pasture and to stand guard during the day, for in these
dark and dangerous times nothing was safe from the
robber bands.
ONE OF THE OLD CITY GATES OF
YORK, ENGLAND
The sur-
roundings of
the towns
TOWNS AND GUILDS IN THE MIDDLE AGES 181
Entering a gate of one of these cities, we should pass The streets
through narrow streets, some of them Httle more than houses^
alleys, with the upper stories of the houses jutting out
over the lower until they almost meet. Many of the
towns were so crowded with houses that there were few
,^^"%
THE Cirr WALLS OF YORK. £NGLAND
or no open spaces except the market-place. The walls
of some of these cities, for example those of Chester,
Carcassonne, and Rotenburg, are still standing as pict-
uresque relics of the days of feudalism.
128. Guilds. — In our time, eveiy man is his own The town
master and free to live where he likes and to do what owner
suits him best so long as he does not interfere with the
rights of others. But in the early part of the Middle
Ages, every town in western Europe belonged to some
lord or to a monaster}^, just as did the manors. The
peoDle of the town had to pay heavy dues to the ow:ner,
182
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Why the
people
demanded
charters
The
merchants
and artisans
and they had Ht.tle trade with other towns. They made
almost eveiything that they needed for themselves^ and
had little more freedom than the serfs on the farms.
When traders from distant countries began to come in,
about the twelfth centuiy, these towns-people wanted
to exchange goods with them. They would give the
articles they made in ex-
change for what the traders
brought. This was difficult
to manage, because the lords
were so strict and so exact-
ing. When the towns be-
came strong enough, they
revolted and demanded
charters; that is, permission
to cany on trade as they
wished without the lord's
meddling, and a written
promise from the lord not
to tax or fine them except
at certain definite times and
for certain definite sums of
money. Usually they were given the right to govern
themselves and to form trade guilds.
These guilds were a very important part of the town
life, and a necessary part at that time. The men en-
gaged in trade were both merchants and artisans. All
the goods were sold in the shops where they were
made. The mxn felt it necessary that every one should
have as good a chance as his neighbor to sell his wares,
that competition should not lower prices, and that a
PHCENIX TOWER AND A BIT OF THE OLD
CITY WALL, CHESTER, ENGLAND
TOWNS AND GUILDS IN THE MIDDLE AGES 183
flood of new workers should not lower wages beyond
a fair limit.
Accordingly^ all the men engaged in a certain trade The rules of
formed a corporation, or guild, and promised to obey ^ ^ ^"^
certain rules. For instance, all the cobblers, or shoe-
makers, of a town would form one of these guilds, and
choose officers from among them-
selves to see that the rules were
obeyed. These rules stated, among
other things, how many apprentices,
or pupils, each shoemaker could
have in his shop, and how long a
time these apprentices must spend
in learning the trade; at how high
a price certain kinds of shoes should
be sold; and how shoes must be
made. The rules also provided that
every pair of shoes must be thor-
oughly inspected before it was sold,
and that disorderly and disobedient members of the guild
should be punished. In joining the guild, the shoemakers
(or goldsmiths, or whatever they might be) agreed to
help any member if in trouble, and in case of his death
to aid his widow and children.
These guilds were not open to every one. No man The con-
could belong to one who had not spent years as an ap- entering a
prentice in learning the trade, and the number of appren- s"*^^
tices was very limited. To be a goldsmith, an appren-
tice worked for ten years, and for other trades a shorter
time. The apprentice lived in the house of his master
and worked very hard, but was paid nothing, although
BUTCHERS GUILD HALL, HEREFORD,
ENGLAND
184 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
he was boarded and clothed. When he became a jour-
neyman, he received wageS; but was still obliged to work
for his master. He could not go into business inde-
pendently until he became a master- workman.
A privilege It was a great privilege to belong to a guild. Nobody
a^guiid^^ ^° ^^'as allowed to practice a trade who did not belong to
one; and only the members of guilds took part in the
government of the town. Often they came to be very
wealthy, through their membership fees and fines and
gifts from rich members. The members were very
proud of their guild and of the privileges it brought to
them. Some of the important ones persist in European
cities to-day.
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. On account of the continuous warfare of this period it was
found expedient, as in ancient times, to surround towns and small
cities by massive walls. 2. In the early part of the Middle Ages
every town in western Europe belonged to some lord or to a mon-
astery, just as did the manors. 3. When traders began to come
in about the twelfth century the townspeople wanted to exchange
goods with them. This was difficult to manage because the lords
were so strict and exacting. 4. When, therefore, the towns became
strong enough they demanded charters; that is, permission to
carry on trade as they wished without the lord's meddling and a
written promise from the lord not to tax or fine them except at
certain definite times and for certain definite sums of money.
Usually they were given the right to govern themselves and to
form trade guilds. 4. All the men engaged in a certain trade
formed a guild because they felt it necessary that every one should
have as good a chance as his neighbor to sell his wares, that com-
petition should not lower prices, and that a flood of new workers
should not lower wages beyond a fair limit.
THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 185
TO THE PUPIL
1. How were towns and cities protected, and why ?
2. Who owned the towns ?
3. Why did the people demand charters ? What rights and privileges
did the people secure through these charters ?
4. What were the trade guilds and what were their rules ?
5. Why was it a great privilege to belong to a guild ?
CHAPTER XVIII
THE CHURCH, THE MONASTERY, AND THE
MONKS
129. The Growing Power of the Christian Church. — The
We have just learned what a power feudalism was in church^
the Middle Ages. Along with this institution and quite ^^^ll^ history
equal to it in importance was the Christian church.
We have learned, also, how the Christians, in spite of
bitter persecution by Rome, continued to grow in num-
bers and influence until, in the first quarter of the fourth
century, the Emperor Constantine not only allowed them
freedom of worship, but made Christianity a state re-
ligion. Constantine's successors went further. First they
made it the only state religion and then the only religion
of any sort that was allowed.
We might have expected that the overthrow of Rome The grow,
by the Germans would put an end to the growth of the church^
Christianity. On the contrary, as the Roman govern-
ment became weaker, the Christian church grew stronger,
for its priests and bishops became the only protectors
of the people against plunder and outrage. And when
the Roman civil power was overthrown altogether, the
186
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
graded system of the church — Pope^ bishops, priests, etc.
— actually took the place of the destroyed civil govern-
ment with its graded system of officials.
Thus when Rome could no longer hold together the
parts of the empire, the only bond which prevented
M?^!e^ Ages ^^^^P^ ^^'^^^ falling into hopeless and entirely separate
fragments was the Christian faith. Then, just as Rome
The Roman
Catholic
Church su-
THE lONA MONASTERY BUILDINGS WHICH EXIST TO-DAY AND DATE FROM THE ELEVENTH
CENTURY. THE CATHEDRAL DATES FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
The Pope
and the
bishops
had been supreme in her days of splendor, so did the
Roman Catholic Church become for a time supreme in
the Middle Ages, not alone as a religious power but as a
political power.
The head of the church was the Pope, who dwelt
at Rome. Under him were many bishops, scattered
throughout the Christian world, each controlling a dis-
trict called a diocese. The principal church of each
diocese was called a cathedral. The same system holds
THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 187
to-day. But the institution by which the church did
its great work in the Middle Ages was the monastery.
130. How the Monasteries Began. — In early times, Hermits
when there was so much fighting among nations, and
no one lived in peace or safety, there were men who
chose to dwell apart in some lonely place and there
give their lives
to holy thinking
and prayer. In
Egypt; where
this practice be-
INTERIOR OF lONA MONASTERT CATHEDRAL
gan, men went
singly into the
desert and lived
as hermits.
There, they be-
lieved, with no
one near to interrupt their thoughts, they would be
free from all temptation and could make themselves
more pleasing to God. Later on, however, men found Monks and
that it was better to live in groups, for in this way they °^°°^^*®"®s
could not only support themselves more easily, and be
independent of the outside world, but they could learn
from each other and inspire each other to do nobler work.
The men who formed groups of this kind were called
monks, and the houses in which they lived were called
monasteries.
Monks first appeared in western Europe about the Monasteries
middle of the fourth century, and it was not long before western ^^'
monasteries spread all over the west. St. Patrick, of ^^^^P®
whom we have already spoken, is said to have introduced
188 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
the monaster}^ into Ireland. On lona, a small island
off the western coast of Scotland; his followers built a
great monastery^ one of the most famous of that day.
Near it was also a nunnery. Before the beginning of
the sixth century^ there were in western Europe hun-
dreds of monasteries and thousands of monks. For
ST. BENEDICT PERFORMING MIRACLES, AFTER THE PAINTING BY RUBENS
such large numbers of men to live and work successfully
together, it was found necessary to organize them; that
is, to have officers and also rules to govern them.
The abbot 131. St. Benedict's Rule. — With this need in view,
one of the greatest leaders of the monks, St. Benedict,
prepared his rule (about 526), which was generally fol-
lowed in the west for four centuries. According to this,
the abbot who governed the monastery was elected
by the monks, who served a long period of probation
The vows of before being admitted to the order. As their life was
to be one of self-denial, they took three vows. They
the monks
THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS
189
The power
of Cluny
promised that they would give up all their property,
that they would never many, and that they would obey
the rules and regulations of the monastery. They must
not only spend much time in prayer and thought, but
they must work also.
132. The Famous Cluny. — Early in the tenth cen-
tur}^, what afterward proved to be the most important
monastery of that time, was
established in Burgundy. This
was the famous Cluny, whose
monks followed a ^^rule" some-
what different from that of St.
Benedict, though they wore the
Benedictine habit. At first it
had only twelve monks, but
later it became a great power,
with dependent monasteries in
many places, all controlled by
the abbot of the parent monastery.
Cluny were very great men.
The monks at Clun}^ were required to perform each How the
da}^ a certain amount of labor, like shelling beans and their t1me^°
weeding in the gardens, though only enough to keep
them humble and free from empty pride. Of the re-
mainder of their time, the part not spent in religious
exercises was to be given to reading, copying manu-
scripts, and singing.
Cluny became a centre of teaching. The monks kept ciuny as a
a school there for novices; that is, for boys who might teaching
later become monks. Very stern, strict teachers these
monks were, not sparing the rod even for slight offences.
MONKS AT WORK IN THE MONASTERY KITCHEN
The first abbots of
190
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
Hospitality
and charity
at Cluny
The monk
and the
soldier
They looked carefully after the children's health also,
as well as after their morals.
Hospitality and charity were cardinal duties, and were
looked after by two important officers; one took charge
of guestS; and the other of wanderers and beggars.
Every day, no matter how hard the times were, generous
alms in money and food were given to the poor. So it
came about that Cluny was beloved by the poor, just
as it was courted by the rich and great. Other monas-
teries !:ided the poor also; but Cluny established the
practice as a constant duty, never to be neglected.
133. The Dress of the Monks. — It is not our purpose
to follow the many orders of monks, nor to speak in
detail of special monasteries. A brief gen-
eral view will serve our purpose. As our
glance turns back over the centuries of the
Dark Ages and its chief figures pass before
our eyes, the flowing black robe of the monk
stands out in striking contrast to the gleam-
ing armor of the soldier and the richly colored
costume of the knight. But his sombre garb
is suited to this man of holy vows, whom
we shall find it interesting to follow as he
moves quietly about in his field of service.
Although his monastery might be wealthy,
perhaps immensely so, the monk did not own
any personal property. Even his garments
The cassock belonged to his order; that is, to his monastery. His
clothes were coarse and plain, the principal garment being
a long woollen cassock, white or black, but generally
black, with long sleeves. Over this he wore a black
A MONK DRESSED IN THE
WOOLLEN CASSOCK
and the cowl
192
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The cloister
and the
buildings
that
surround it
mantle with a large hood; called a cowl; unless he was
at work. When he was at work the cowl was replaced
by a shorter sleeveless tuniC; with a hood such as peas-
ants wore. On his feet he wore sandals. Sometimes in
cold weather shoes and stockings and warm cloaks were
supplied; but quite as often the dress remained the same
in winter as in summer. St. Benedict advised plenty of
wholesome food; but in many monasteries the food was
very light and scant.
134. The Monastery Buildings. — The monasteiy build-
ings were at first small; plain structures; and as there
w^as no thought of providing comfort or privacy; the
monks were crowded into as few rooms as possible.
Later; as the mon-
asteries grew in
wealth; sizC; and
importance; their
abodes became
much more pre-
tentious. An open
court; or cloister,
with a garden
surrounded bv a
BOLTON PRIORY. YORKSHIRE, ENGLAND. FOUNDED IN 1120 "
BY THE AUGUSTINIAN ORDER. THE PRIOR WAS A GREAT shaded Walk,
FEUDAL DIGNITARY
formed the heart
of the monastery; while the surroundings of the court
might include cells for the monkS; a chapel; a chapter
housC; work alcoveS; the dining-room; a sitting-room; and
quarters for the abbot and guests. As we should expect;
the church was the most important part of the monas-
teiy, the grandest ones being cathedrals.
THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS
193
135. The Sites of the Monasteries. — The sites of The growth
the monasteries varied greatly. Sometimes there was monastery
no choice of location, as the land was a gift; and again
the monks purposely chose undesirable land, to give
themselves employment in improving and reclaiming it
for agriculture. Often the necessity of a retired and
safe location forced them to take untilled soil. But
many times, when cir-
cumstances were favor-
able, they were able to
choose fertile grounds,
with a stream and per-
haps a fish-pond. There,
year by year, the build-
ings of the monastery
would rise — first the
cloister and the church,
then the abbot's lodge
and other necessary
buildings. These would
be enclosed with a stone wall, and beneath this, as in
other large estates, the cottages of laborers and servants
would lie.
136. Occupations of the Monks. — The monks did The monks
great service in establishing farming on a dignified and
intelligent basis. We are told that they were the first
scientific farmers after the fall of Rome and the invasions
of the barbarians. A great deal of land was reclaimed
and made valuable by them, and dangerous swamps
were drained. They kept live-stock, raised crops of
all kinds, grew their own vegetables, made cider and
A CONCEET IN THE MONASTERY
194
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
What the
monks did
cheese, and often kept bees or bred horses. This sort of
work was an important part of the Hfe of the monastery.
The In later times, as you have learned, the monastery
Stena^g^'eat was often a great feudal estate. Besides farming, many
feudal estate other industries were carried on. The monks were the
millers, carpenters, and masons, and in the early days
they were their own cooks. They were the fine and
careful artisans and craftsmen of the day, preserving
the knowledge of handicrafts for more peaceful ages.
And some were archi-
tects; also sometimes
they made, arms and
musical instruments.
They were the physi-
cians of the commu-
nity, studying and
practising medicine.
They studied music,
painted, and did wood-
carving and weaving.
Besides this, they were
also the teachers of the
young, as we have seen at Cluny. In the midst of all
this activity their religious duties were not forgotten, for
they worshipped together seven times daily, one of their
meetings being at midnight.
137. The Monks' Service to the World in Copying
Books. — ^But their greatest service to the world, per-
haps, was their work in copying books; for by doing this
they preserved for us many works which would other-
wise have been lost or destroyed. '
SIONE3 ENGAGED IN LITERARY WORK AND COPYING
THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 195
In the large room called the scriptorium we may The monks
picture from ten to twenty of the younger monks writing or^writm|"^^
at slanting desks. The novices are probably at work on ^o^^s
missals, or service books, for the choir. The room is
silent; for no talking is allowed. Presently we notice a
keen-eyed, elderly monk, who is giving advice to a flaxeii-
haired boy, possibly about the color or design of an
initial letter.
Separated from the main room are alcoves where the
older and more skilful monks are busy with choicer manu-
scripts. They may be copying or they may be writing
books of their own. These, of course, would be mainly The monks
religious. Others may be at work on a chronicle, for we of hiSo^^
must remember that it was the monks who preserved for
us nearly all we know of the history of the Middle Ages.
Each monastery kept its own record of current events.
For centuries the monks were practically the only The
educated class. Nearly all English literature down to mi^^trnT^
Chaucer's day (1340-1400) was written in monasteries,
or at least by monks — mostly chronicles and religious
works in prose and verse. Some of our finest hymns
were written in monasteries.
All the copying had to be done by hand and was very How the
slow, painstaking work. It is not surprising, when we take wTi'done
into account the amount of copying done, that some-
times mistakes were made. The monks did not use the
loose, careless hand which people write to-day. Each
letter was most carefully formed. Black ink was used,
though commonly the titles of the books were in red.
Sometimes, in the early Middle Ages costly manu-
scripts were written in gold or silver on parchment,
196
AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
The monks
preserve the
Greek and
Roman
classics
Education
for a long
time in the
hands of
monasteries
.^^fe
tinted purple or yellow. But later on the capital letters
alone were gilded in this way, and were made very artis-
tic and graceful decorations of the page. Papyrus was
used; to some extent,
as by the Greeks and
Romans; but later,
vellum made from
calfskin, and then
parchment from
lambskin, took its
place.
We are told that
few of the classics of
Greek or Roman lit-
erature would have
been left to us had
not the monks col-
lected, preserved, and
copied them in such
great numbers. We
can hardly realize
what a loss this would
have been to the
world. Some of the most beautiful and valuable work in
copying! was done by the Benedictine nuns, who excelled
even tae monks in skill and patience.
138 The Monks as Teachers. — For many centuries
the cnly schools were those which the monks kept.
Indeed, from the time of Charlemagne until about the
eleventh century, education was entirely in the hands
ot the monasteries. When, about the eleventh century,
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THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 197
universities came to be founded; the higher education
passed to them. But the monks still taught most of
the elementary schools. These were not merely for
boys who expected to become monks, but schools for ciaXes ^
boys of all classes in the community^ the sons of knights
Schools for
PURNESS ABBEY, LANCASHIRE, ENGLAND. FOUNDED IN 1127 BY THE CISTERCIAN
ORDER. THE ABBOT OF THE MONASTERY NOT ONLY POSSESSED JURISDICTION
OVER THE MONKS, BUT GOVERNED THE PEOPLE OF THE REGION AS WELL
as well as the sons of serfs and freemen. Sometimes
one monastery maintained several free schools. Thus
they kept alive an interest in learning, which perhaps
would otherwise have been lost.
139. How the Monks Treated the Sick and Strangers. The monks
— Part of the work done by the monasteries, as we have hospitals^
seen in the case of Cluiw, was in establishing hospitals
for sick people, just outside the walls of the monaster}^,
or in the towns. In those days no such provision was
made for the sick as we make in our own cities now;
198 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
though endowed hospitals and government charities were
far from being unknown. So the monks built and sup-
ported hospitals^ helped by gifts from wealthy people,
and nursed the sick. It is hardly necessary to add that
in this good work the nuns were of great assistance. In
the eleventh centur}^, an order of monks was founded
which had as their chief aim the healing of the sick and
suffering. They built hospitals in many places, and did
a great deal of good.
The enter- One of the most important duties of the monks, as
stra^e^s we saw at Cluny, was the entertainment of strangers.
For this purpose, some of the best rooms of the mon-
astery were especially designed. Guests of all ranks,
knights and ladies, travelling priests or monks, minstrels,
poor men and beggars, all were entertained with equal
courtesy. No charge was made; but those who had
money paid what they could afford. It was not con-
sidered courteous, as a rule, to stay more than two days
and two nights, although the visit often lasted much
longer. In each case one of the foremost monks was
made the host.
The In lonely sections of the country, and among the
refuge for mountains, the monasteries were the only refuge for
travellers travellers. No doubt the good monks were well paid
for their hospitality by hearing from such wayfarers the
news of the outside world. And no guest ever left these
asylums without receiving some gift from the monks.
"The bell At a monastery in the midst of wild mountains in
wanderers" France, a bell was rung for two hours every evening, as
a summons to travellers who might have lost their way.
It was called 'Hhe bell of the wanderers." Along sea-
THF CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS
199
coasts, toOj where there were dangerous rocks, the monks
rang bells as signals to sailors, and were always ready
to receive smp wrecked mariners. Some monks in Scot-
land placed a great bell on a dangerous rock, still called
Bell Rock, so that the motion of the waves would ring
it and warn ships away. In such ways as these the
FOUNTAINS ABBEY, YORKSHIRE, ENGLAND. FOUNDED IN 1132 BY THE
CISTERCIAN ORDER
monks did great service to the people, and won love and
loyalty to themselves and to their religion.
140. The Monks Render Many Noble Services to
Mankind. — ^Thus we find that the monks did many noble
services for mankind. By their tireless labor, deserts
were made gardens, pestilent swamps became fertile
farms, and labor gained a new dignity unknown in the
days of Roman slavery.
The monks, by their missionary work, did much toward
Christianizing western Europe. The monasteries be-
came centres of learning and religion, of quiet work and
The monks
as teachers
200 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE
study, in the midst of dark and stormy times. Had
not the monks made dihgent search for the best books
and copied them carefully, much of the great body of
classical literature would have been lost. They fur-
nished the only education which was to be had, and gave
it to rich and poor alike.
the monks They Were the charitable societies, the mainstay of the