BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS NO. 47 ISSUED SEMI-MONTHLY Official Series, JSfo. 11 Jul » "h 1905 SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING COURSES OF STUDY AND METHODS OF TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS Issued by The Committee on Affiliated Schools The University of Texas PUBLISHED KI THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS Entered as si cond- class mail matter at the Postoffice at Austin, Texas PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS The various publications which are sent out by the University of Texas are classified into the five series of Bulletins listed below, and are officially desig- nated as "Bulletins of the University of Texas." All of these Bulletins, with the exception of the Record, which falls within the general series, are distrib- uted free. Persons wishing to receive any of the series regularly should care- fully specify in writing the particular ones desired. Any single Bulletin will be sent upon request. The subscription price of the Record is one dollar ($1) per volume of four numbers. EDITORIAL STAFF W. J. BATTLE : Editor-in-Chief. C. H. HUBERICH Humanistic Series. F. W. SIMONDS : Scientific Series. KILLIS CAMPBELL Official Series. W. J. BATTLE General Series. W. S. CARTER .Medical Series. H. E. BOLTON Business Manager. Address all business communications to HERBERT EUGENE BOLTON, Austin, Texas. 35-1204-lm , BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS NO. 47 ISSUED SEMI-MONTHLY Official Series, No. 11 July 1, 1905 SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING COURSES OF STUDY AND METHODS OF TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS Issued by The Committee on Affiliated Schools The University of Texas 3 TeacJiing in High Schools. 6. To be affiliated at all, the school must prepare its graduates for the Freshman Class in English, history, and mathematics. 7. Complete affiliation includes enough other subjects to admit its graduates to the Freshman Class without conditions. 8. No high school will be affiliated that does not employ in good faith at least two teachers, and no school will be affiliated in any subject if the recitation-period in that subject be less than 40 minutes. 9. It is expected that the principal or superintendent of every approved school will send to the President a copy of each of his annual reports or catalogues. In return the school will be furnished regularly with a catalogue of the University. The following statement concerning admission by examination is of interest to the authorities of schools desiring affiliation : "The subjects which are accepted for admission to the University on examination are divided into two groups, the first of which is composed of prescribed subjects, the second of electives. For full admission to the University, 12% credits are required, if Latin be offered; of which num- ber 7y 2 credits are in the prescribed subjects, and 5 are in the elective subjects. If Latin be not offered, 13y 2 credits are required for full ad- mission; of which number iy 2 are prescribed, and 6 are elective. For the present, partial admission to the University may be secured by obtaining 6 credits in the prescribed subjects, but the remaining credits (prescribed and elective) must be secured after admission. Further details concern- ing each group are given below. "1. The prescribed subjects with the values attached to them are as follows : (1) Algebra, 1% credits. (2) Geometry, iy 2 credits. (3) English, 3 credits. (4) History, iy 2 credits. * # * * # * "2. The elective subjects with the values attached to them are as follows : ( 1 ) Botany, 1 credit. (2) Chemistry, 1 credit. (3) French, 1% credits. (4) German, iy 2 credits. (5) Greek, 2 credits. (6) Latin, 3 credits. ( 7 ) Physics, 1 credit. (8) Physiography. y 2 credit. (9) Physiology, y 2 credit. (10) Spanish, iy 2 credits. "The applicant" must secure five credits in this group, if Latin be included. If Latin be not included, six credits must be secured. In any Introduction. 3 case three credits must be in foreign language. For the present any applicant who can not present the required amount of eleetives for ad- mission, may, except in the case of Latin, be admitted and allowed to make up the deficiencies by work in the University. Such work, however, will not count towards the degree. "A modern language, French, German, or Spanish — (3), (4), or (10) above — is prescribed for candidates for the degree of Engineer of Mines; and a modern language, restricted to French or German, is prescribed for candidates for the degree of Electrical Engineer. The following addi- tional entrance options art open to candidates for engineering degrees: (11) Mechanical Drawing, 2 credits. (12) Manual Training, 2 credits. (13) Field Work, 2 credits. "To secure credit in any of the subjects the applicant must make a grade of D. In grading examination papers in any subject, prescribed or elective, account will be taken of the candidate's English." The Committee on Affiliation, desiring to be of service to super- intendents and principals and teachers whose schools are seeking affiliation, deem it expedient to offer suggestions concerning the teaching of the several subjects. These suggestions, which were prepared by members of the University Faculty, immediately follow the introductory statement of this pamphlet. The Committee is of the opinion that too many high schools are high schools in name only; that, in fact, the work in these schools is of such quality as properly belongs to elementary schools. It is generally agreed that elementary education should deal largely with instructing the child in the school arts, in the symbols of reading and writing and arithmetic, etc. It is not expected that he will begin in any appreciable degree a mastery of nature or of human nature. The law of his being is such as to preclude his handling in a thorough manner such subjects as require careful discrimination and profound judgment. It is for this reason that grammar and logic and other similar subjects have no place in the elementary school. The student here looks upon each event in his mental process largely as independent of every other event, and but slightly connected with that great series of events, which, when bound together, form the sum total of his intellectual life. He is, indeed, in his intellectual infancy, and he is not expected to draw logical conclusions with respect to the nature of things or the conduct of life. It is true that, so far as possible, the symbols which he learns should not be void of content ; but the truth remains that in early years one should not aspire to be a philosopher, for he is unable to understand the relations of things, a knowledge of which constitutes both the beginning and the end of wisdom. 4 Teaching in High Schools. Eventually the elementary phase of a pupil's school life should pass away, and, in the high school, he should come in direct con- tact with the thoughtful study of the two great groups of human learning, treating, respectively, of nature and human nature. The superficial character of the little knowledge he has derived through elementary instruction is to be corrected, and he is to enter upon that kind of mental effort which will prepare him for dealing in a masterful manner with the greater work of higher instruction in the University. The student in the high school is to begin to rec- ognize processes rather than isolated facts. For example, he should acquire the power to discover the unity in the history of a nation, in a piece of literature, or in a treatise on some natural science. The first real beginnings of culture are to be found in this phase of his education, for he is taught in such a way as to give him that insight by which is to be obtained a rational view of the civilization into which he has been born. But the high school should not become too ambitious, and should not attempt work belonging to the college or the university. High-school pupils should not be encouraged or allowed to undertake studies requiring of the learner that grasp of mind which comes only with training and maturity. It is during this period of his school life, too, that the youth is born again, for, as Rousseau says, "We have two births, so to speak ; one for existence, and the other for living : one for the spe- cies, and the other for the sex." It is when the pupil reaches the high school at the age of twelve or fifteen years that he becomes conscious of this second birth, and so the aim in his education during this period should be to cause him to comprehend, as far as possible, the real purposes of life, and to show him by means of the close relationship existing between his school studies and life in the world, the possibilities and glories of a human being. It is thought by the Committee that sometimes entirely too many subjects are found in the high-school course of study. Crowding the curriculum results in one of two evils, at times in both. First, too little time of the school year may be given to each of the subjects, and, second, the student may be required to pursue so many subjects during any term that the recitation-periods are reduced to such an extent as to render efficient instruction well-nigh impossible. With respect to the first evil, it is obviously better that a few subjects be taught thoroughly than that a great number be treated superficially. To spend fourteen weeks in memorizing the Introduction. 5 definitions and made-to-order classifications of a text-book is a ques- tionable exercise to develop the memory. It is in no sense to be approved as a substitute for long-continued training in a subject, real knowledge of which requires more or less vigorous reflection. With respect to the second evil, it is proper to make the same criti- cism passed upon the first, that superficiality and even vacuity of mind is encouraged. The short recitation of twenty-five or thirty minutes is scarcely begun before it terminates. Discussion, which reveals the real nature of a subject, and which should form a very large portion of instruction in the high school, is possible to the slightest degree (only. The Committee is firmly of the opinion that the normal amount of work to be prosecuted by the average student is given in four studies, in each of which there are five recitations a week, each recitation being forty or forty-five min- utes long. A different combination, for example, five studies each having four recitations a week, might be found desirable. The points upon which the members of the Committee unanimously agree are that twenty recitations a week are preferable to more than twenty, and that each recitation should occupy not less than forty minutes. In the appendix to this pamphlet are to be found out- lines of two courses of study, which, taken in connection with the statements found in the main body of this pamphlet, set forth what the Committee believes will prepare the student for the University, and at the same time furnish excellent training to that greater class of young people whose academic instruction closes with their graduation from the secondary school. The Committee has reasons for believing that the efficiency of the high school is frequently impaired, and seriously impaired, because of the fact that teachers are overworked. It is poor economy on the part of school authorities so to burden a teacher as to injure the quality of his service. Genuine teaching requires the expendi- ture of much vital force, and to require one to conduct recitations all day long is certainly ill-advised. Six recitations each day, it is thought, are sufficient to tax the health and strength of male, and especially of female, teachers. If, in the daily programme, there be more than six recitation-periods, the instructor can make wise use of the vacant period or periods by correcting written exercises, by giving assistance to students needing especial atten- tion, and by devising plans for future work. The correction of written work is of supreme value, and is as necessary to the proper instruction of pupils as is the oral recitation. The labor of correct- 6 Teaching in High Schools. ing exercises should, if possible, be done during school hours, and should not be postponed to the evening hours, which should be devoted to recreation, and to professional work in which the ele- ment of drudgery does not occupy prominence. The Committee desires to recommend very strongly the advisabil- ity of organizing upon the departmental plan, instead of upon the grade plan, the instruction given in the high school. The teacher in the secondary school is not a mere hearer of recitations. He develops insight into subjects. He gives the "color, the tone, the air, the life" to the subject he teaches, and makes it live in his pupils even as it lives already in himself. Such teaching comes from the specialist only, and the high school in which instruction is given by specialists is surely accomplishing the purpose for which the high school is established, and for which the tax-payer can well afford to make generous contribution. By adopting the depart- mental plan, an arrangement can easily be made for abolishing the grade system altogether, and for establishing the course system which now prevails in colleges. If the course system be adopted the youth of superior talents would be afforded opportunity to complete his high-school studies in less time than the regularly prescribed period of four years. It would, furthermore, effectively remove from discussion the oft-repeated criticism that the American high-school course of study requires too many years for completion, and that the bright student, unwilling to sacrifice so much of his time in preparation for college or for life, goes out into the world poorly equipped to solve its problems and undertake its respon- sibilities. The Committee desires to call especial attention to the importance of laboratory work in connection with natural science. It is the unanimous opinion of persons who have the right to speak upon this matter, that the laboratory is an absolutely necessary adjunct to the proper study of science. The investigation of nature through books only is a delusion and a profanation. Elsewhere in this pamphlet are given directions concerning the equipment of labora- tories, and it is to be hoped that, in every school in which a natural science is taught, there will be provided a laboratory, not necessarily expensive, but one by means of which the phenomena belonging to science may be studied at first hand by the student. The Com- mittee desires, furthermore, to call attention to the fact that frequently there is failure in natural science work because of an attempt to give instruction in too many sciences. Such attempt Introduction. 7 results in giving so little time to any one science that no appreciable advantage is derived by the student. It is the part of wisdom to devote an entire year, or even more than a year, to chemistry or physics or biology, always bearing in mind that work in the laboratory is indispensable. No instruction in a natural science should be attempted before the means for rational teaching are at hand. Let one laboratory be well equipped ; let one science be actually taught; then let a similar policy with respect to another science be inaugurated. In every high school in Texas, it is to be hoped, there is, or soon will be, a well-selected library. Its volumes should be chosen with special reference to the needs of the high-school student. It should contain such books of reference as would be serviceable for collat- eral reading along the several lines of study. Pupils should be actually trained in the use of the library, and their daily recita- tions, their essays, and their exercises in literary societies should give evidence of such training. The library -that is widely used is of inestimable value, while its influence on the masses of the people is by no means to be despised. Every high school owes it to itself and to the people who support it to be a center of culture, and man has devised no more certain and valuable means of culture than that which is afforded in a collection of choice books. Lumber has no place in a school library, nor has rubbish. Ugly bindings, small type, bad paper are not truly economical; they do not tend to develop a taste for books or that love of reading which is one of the fairest flowers of education, and which, when many of the acquisi- tions of school days are forgotten, remains an unfailing source of joy and strength. Among the refining influences of the school the character of its buildings and grounds should not be overlooked. Neatness every- where, scrupulous cleanliness of floors, walls and windows, decora- tion by means of busts and pictures, the presence of flowers, all silently but surely raise the standard of taste, and exercise influence that is potent for gentleness and beauty. From time to time, the Inspector of Schools and other members of the University Faculty will visit and inspect schools already affiliated, as well as those seeking affiliation. These visits will be made, not for the purpose of discovering grounds of adverse criti- cism, but with the earnest desire to strengthen the bond of union between the schools and the University. There is every reason why all the workers in the educational system of the State should 8 Teaching in High Schools. be found in hearty co-operation with one another. We should all be ready at any time to receive, as well as to give, such criticism as may be permitted by courtesy and truth. The Committee on Affiliation, therefore, desires to exercise its functions in such a spirit as can be commended by all who are inter- ested in education in Texas, and it requests the cordial assistance of those charged with the management of our secondary schools, whose progress in the last decade has been great, and to whose greater progress during the next decade the Committee desires to make helpful contribution. Very respectfully, W. S. Sutton, Chairman of Committee on Affiliated Schools. SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING THE TEACHING OF HIGH- SCHOOL SUBJECTS. ENGLISH IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. The ruling purpose of high-school instruction in English, as in all other subjects, should be to develop insight and power rather than to impart information, or, better perhaps, to develop insight and power along with the impartation of knowledge. For we must guard against the error of supposing that there is any inherent opposition between the acquisition of knowledge and the develop- ment of spirit. The two may be divorced, and, unfortunately, often are; then it is that the letter killeth. But knowledge and spirit should go together as body and soul; and they do, I take it, in all first-rate teaching. That this principle has an immediate practical bearing on the theme under discussion, all will allow; that it has a far more important bearing than at first appears, will be evident later on.* If it is desired that this general statement be put in a more defi- nite and tangible form, it may be stated as follows : the high-school student should so thoroughly master the essential facts and prin- ciples of the several English subjects studied as to give him a fair working knowledge of his mother-tongue, both in conversation and in writing, and to enable him to understand and to appreciate what others say or write therein. In a word: while theoretical knowl- edge is not to be discouraged, while indeed a certain amount is indispensable, it is the handling knowledge that should always be uppermost. And so many and such practical exercises should be given as to develop in the student a good habit and a high ideal. The English studies of the high school are generally grouped under three heads — Grammar, Composition (and Rhetoric), and Literature. But, while for convenience these subjects are sepa- rately named, they are not in essence distinct and divisible ; on the *This paragraph and several others in this and the following sections are taken almost bodily from the author's essay on English Composition in the High School, which appeared in the Texas School Journal for Jan- uary, 1897. 10 Teaching in High Schools. contrary, they are so closely interdependent that each is best studied and most effectively taught in the light of this correlation. And it is the failure to observe this correlation that has so often brought English teaching into disrepute. Cannot each one of us recall teachers that failed to show the pupil the vital connection between grammar and composition, who seemed themselves igno- rant of such connection? This relation has been no less forcibly than clearly put by one of our earlier grammarians, Samuel S. Green, in his Analysis: "(1) As a sentence is the expression of a thought, and as the elements of a sentence are expressions for the elements of thought, the pupil who is taught to separate a sentence into its elements is learning to analyze thought, and consequently to think. (2) The relations between different forms of thought and appropriate forms of expressions are seen most clearly by means of analysis and construction.'"* That is to say, grammar must be studied from the synthetic as well as the analytic standpoint; the pupil must build sentences of his own as well as analyze those of others ; grammar and composition must be taught, not in isolation, but in the closest conjunction. And so studied, I venture to say that grammar is never dull. Once more: have not all of us at times failed to show our students the essential connection between composition and literature? The relationship is two-fold. First, the principles of English composition are drawn from the master- pieces of English literature; hence, while text-books on composi- tion are helpful, if not indispensable, the best instruction is to be found in the critical analysis of an English masterpiece, not merely sentence by sentence, as has long been the case, but paragraph by paragraph, section * * by section, and chapter by chapter, as is grad- ually coming to be the fashion. In the second place, the poorest composition ever handed in by a student is as truly a product of the creative faculty as is the greatest masterpiece; for, while in degree they are as far apart as the east and the west, in kind they are absolutely one. To present this view of English composition to one's students is inevitably to lead them the more intelligently to interpret literature and the more earnestly to strive to make their own compositions works of art. Not only are these English subjects often divorced from one another; but what is worse, they are divorced from life. By this *The italics are mine. **In this paper the word section denotes a series of related paragraphs within a chapter. English. 11 I mean that the student, not only of the high school, but, alas, of the college also, at times fails to see that his study of grammar, of composition, and of literature is intimately bound up with every- day life ; that whatever knowledge he has acquired of these subjects will be of incalculable advantage to him whenever and wherever he has occasion to think and to express thought, whether orally or in writing, in the study of science as well as of literature, on the play- ground as well as in the school-room, in the briefest exercise as well as in the most elaborate essay ; in brief, every hour of his life, no matter what may be his occupation. Having stated broadly these general principles, I take up the three English subjects one by one and attempt very briefly to apply these principles to each. At the close of each section there is given a brief bibliography. II. GRAMMAR. In the high school, grammar is to be studied as a means, not as an end; for the science of grammar should, I think, be postponed to the college course. But whatever instruction is given therein, should from the outset have a sound scientific and historical basis. To this end the high-school teacher should acquaint himself at first hand with the history of the English language from its origins to the present by reading representative texts in the original. If, unfortunately, the teacher has not had and cannot give himself the advantage of such training, the next best thing is to study care- fully some standard history of the English language and some authoritative historical English grammar. What is to be guarded against is a systemless practicalism on the one hand and a too strict formalism on the other. The work, of course, becomes more systematic toward the close of the high-school curriculum; and it may be well to give a thorough review of the subject in the senior year. That in one way or another grammar should be studied throughout the whole of the high-school course, the writer is thoroughly convinced. Indeed, he has at times to teach it himself in his University classes. It is earnestly recom- mended, therefore, -that the high-school student be required to master some such book as Whitney's Essentials of English Gram- mar. As stated in section I, grammar should be studied in intimate conjunction with composition and with literature. This does not look to the abandonment of a set text-book in grammar, but to the constant supplementing of the text-book by exercises in com- 12 Teaching in High Schools. position and by the analysis of literary masterpieces, at first pref- erably in prose. Again, the bearing of grammar upon life should be shown by constantly taking account in a tactful and yet firm way of the pupil's conversation and of his papers in subjects other than Eng- lish. The value of the study of grammar has perhaps never been better stated than by Professor Laurie in his chapter on "Language as a Formal Discipline," in Lectures on Language and Linguistic Method: "By the analysis of language, then, you introduce the young intellect to the analysis of its own thinking in its whole range. While engaged in this exercise the abstract powers are so involved in a concrete familiar to all that the formal discipline is not made obtrusive and distasteful. A boy who is intelligently ana- lyzing language is analyzing processes of thought, and is a logician without knowing it. And this is the reason why the study of lan- guage has always been regarded as the best preparation for the logi- cian and the philosopher. Hence, too, it is the best preparation for the study of all or any of the sciences." Last year, in our University Summer School, a course was given on Historical English Grammar for the especial benefit of those teachers who had not had collegiate training in that subject, and the conductor of the course was so delighted with the results that it is proposed to repeat and to extend the course in the summer session of 1905. Bibliography * 1. Text-books Suitable for High Schools : — Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar (G-.) or Whitney and Lockwood's English Grammar (G.). 2. Books for the Teacher and for, Eeference : — Emerson's His- tory of the English Language (M.) or Lounsbury's History of the English Language (H.) ; Morris and Kellner's Historical Outlines of English Accidence (M.) : Kellner's Historical Outlines of * The abbreviations used in this and the following bibliographies are as follows: A. B. C. = American Book Co., New York; Al. =Allyn & Bacon, Boston; Ap.=D. Appleton & Co., New York; C. = T. Y. Crowell & Co., New York; F.=Henry Frowde, New York; G.=Ginn & Co., Boston; H. =Henry Holt & Co., New York; Heath=D. C. Heath & Co., Boston; Ho.= Houghion, Mifflin & Co., Boston; Leach=Leach, Shewell & Sanborn, Boston; Longmans=Longmans, Green & Co., New York; M.=The Macmillan Co., New York; P. =G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York; Scott=Scott, Foresman & Co., Chicago; Sibley=Sibley & Ducker, Boston. English. 13 English Syntax (M.) ; Onions's An Advanced English Syntax (Sonnenscliein & Co., London) ; and the standard historical Eng- lish grammar, that by Henry Sweet, of which there are three ver- sions, all published by Frowde: (1) A New English Grammar,, 2 vols.; (2) A Short Historical English Grammar; and (3) A Primer of Historical English Grammar. For the teacher who de- sires to learn Old and Middle English at first hand, perhaps the best books are Smith's Old English Grammar (Al.) and Liddell's Chaucer (M.). 3. Pedagogical Books: — Carpenter, Baker, and Scott's The Teaching of English in the Elementary and the Secondary School (Longmans) ; Chubb's The Teaching of English in the Ele- mentary and the Secondary School (M.). III. COMPOSITION". The purpose of teaching Composition is, all will allow, to enable the pupil easily and babitually to write and to speak* well. But what is meant by "to write well"? Lest the writer should appear to be advocating individual idiosyncrasies, he will answer in the words of that distinguished scholar, James Morgan Hart, Professor of English Philology and Ehetoric in Cornell University ("The Outlook for English" in The School Review for January, 1894) : "To write well means to spell correctly, to discriminate in the use of words, to arrange words in proper grammatical relation, to group sentences in a paragraph organized around a central thought or opinion, to co-ordinate half a dozen or more paragraphs so as to indicate, approximately at least, some evolution of the thinking faculty." So far as I know, every one whose opinion is entitled to respect is in substantial agreement with Professor Hart. The writer himself used a similar statement in 1891, in an address before the Southern Educational Association on English in Our Preparatory Schools.** So far as composition is concerned, the requirements for admis- sion to college throughout the Union are now practically in accord *After this sentence had been put in type, I received a copy of Scott and Denney's Elementary English Composition (Al.), which is peculiarly happy in showing the intimate and organic connection between spoken and written discourse. The book is intended for the first year of the high school, and is a simple and inspiring introduction to the subject treated. **Published in the Association's Proceedings of that year. 14 Teaching in High Schools. with Professor Hart's definition ; for in almost every catalogue, especially of the older and larger colleges, one reads this sentence : "No candidate will be accepted whose work is notably defective in point of spelling, punctuation, idiom, or division into paragraphs." Although, as stated above, I proposed substantially these require- ments in 1891, they have not been enforced at the University of Texas, because to have done so would have cut off many candidates and many affiliated schools. It is proposed, however, to enforce these requirements at no distant day. As our students from the high schools seem to me weakest in composition, and as a mastery of the principles of composition is indispensable to the appreciation of literature, I offer a few sug- gestions as to the teaching of composition, which are based upon Professor Hart's definition of "writing well." The definition takes account, it will be observed, both of form and of thought; each of which is as necessary to the other as body to soul and soul to body. Tbe importance of thought in composition is, perhaps, univer- sally recognized; but not so with form, if we are to judge from the slovenly manuscripts that year after year are presented by many high-school pupils and that appear over the signature of some teachers. Yet, on sober reflection, the intelligent must see that form as truly expresses thought as the contour of the face indicates the conceptions of the mind and the emotions of the soul. Habit- ually to be careless of form, then, is habitually to be regardless of thought or, at least, of its accurate denotation. I think, there- fore, that every teacher of composition should rigidly demand of his pupils the habitual observance of the conventional "forms" of composition ; that is, to be specific, he should require his students to write a legible hand; to spell correctly, to capitalize properly, to punctuate as he writes, to space and to underscore as occasion de- mands, and invariably to indicate paragraph, section, and chapter divisions. I dwell on this because I believe it to be, in its way, of the utmost importance ; and, since some forms must be used in writing, why should we not adopt those that express sense rather than non- sense? Nor am I pushing this demand one whit beyond what is done by all English teachers of high standing. I have already quoted the regulation adopted by nearly all the colleges of the nation. The following are the words of one of the most successful as well as the most eminent of secondary teachers, Samuel Thurber, English. 15 of the Girls' High School, Boston ("The Conditions Needed for the Successful Teaching of English Composition," in The School Review for January, 1894) : "The teacher who has a contempt for spelling, for penmanship, for neatness of expressions, being filled with a devouring enthusiasm for aorists, reactions, volts, specific gravities, or what not, is a well known specimen in education. In the higher education, narrow specialist as he is, and haughtily as he may look down upon the aesthetic conventions, he is doubtless wanted, for here habits are already formed and fixed, and young men in this stage must have learned to make their account with idiosyncrasies." Of the same purport is the deliverance of Arlo Bates, poet as well as professor of English (Talks on Writing English, Ho., 1896, p. 29) : "In all composition, it may be remarked, it is necessary to remember that the punctuation is as integral and as important a part of what is written as are the words. * * * The student has not mastered even the prelim- inary stages of composition who is not as sure of the punctuation of a page as he is of its grammatical construction." Equally as emphatic is Professor Hart, who declares (The School Review, Jan- uary, 1893, p. 38) : "There are students in this university (Cor- nell) who are unable to copy correctly what is set before them!" and who asks, "Shall we never live up to the truth that the eye is to be trained to see the signs of speech no less than the figures of geometry ?" But let us not forget the greater half of this definition; for the basis of all composition is thought. Now, the symbols of thought in written discourse are words. But as a rule words mean nothing in isolation; to attach a definite significance to them we must in prose — to the consideration of which we limit ourselves — arrange them into sentences, paragraphs, and whole compositions. Since every piece of composition, then, is made up of words arranged into sentences, paragraphs, or whole compositions, we may consider these four things as the elements of composition. That the skillful han- dling of these elements calls for acute thinking as well as persistent practice, will be allowed by all thoughtful people. Each one of us has had to rack his brain for the fit word; each one has had abundant opportunity to realize that, as John Stuart Mill puts it, "The structure of every sentence is a lesson in logic." How much more true is this of the paragraph, which is not, as a beginner once defined it, "a gob of sentences/' but a group of sentences constitut- ing the development of a single topic ! Strange to say, this third 16 Teaching in High Schools. unit of structure has been definitely treated only during the last thirty-eight years.* At present, however, all first-class instruction in composition is based on the structure of the paragraph. The reason of this is obvious; the sentence is too short, and the whole composition is too long to admit of frequent profitable exercises; while the paragraph, striking the mean, is a godsend to both teacher and pupil. Despite the general discussion of the paragraph in the educational world, I have in recent years met a few teachers who were in the same condition with reference to it that certain Ephe- sians were concerning the Holy Ghost (Acts, 19:2) : "He (Paul) said unto them, Have ye received the Holy Ghost since ye be- lieved? And they said unto him, We have not so much as heard whether there be any Holy Ghost." To use effectively any one of these elements, then, one must think. But may there not be some definite principles underlying and controlling this grouping of words into sentences, paragraphs, and whole compositions? Yes, aside from use, which, Horace tells us, is the general law of lan- guage, there are three principles of composition, which regulate alike the structure of the sentence, of the paragraph, and of the whole composition. They are the principle of unity, which de- mand oneness of thought, singleness of aim; that is, that every piece of composition (sentence, paragraph, or whole) should group itself about one central idea; the principle of emphasis, which de- mands that important thoughts be made prominent, usually by the order or by the number of words expressing the thoughts; and the principle of coherence, which demands that related thoughts be so put together that the relation of each thought-element to its neigh- bor shall be unmistakable. Time forbids even a brief discussion of these principles, but the interested will find a brilliant treatment in Professor Barrett Wendell's English Composition (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1894), the best book on the subject and one to which the writer is deeply indebted. The work in composition should be correlated with that in gram- mar by applying the principles of grammar to the correction of the pupil's own errors in inflection or in syntax. It should be cor- related with that in literature by deducing the principles of compo- sition from prose masterpieces, by applying these principles in turn to the other selections studied, and by frequently assigning *Since 1866, when Bain discussed the matter in his Manual of English Composition and Rhetoric. See Lewis's The History of the English Par- agraph (The University of Chicago Press, 1894), p. 20. English. 17 themes from the literary masterpieces, both from those studied in the class and those read at home. This is a point of vital import- ance, since most great writers have become such largely through the copious reading and careful study of good literature.* Moreover, the work in composition should be correlated with that in all the other subjects taught in the high school by occasionally selecting themes from those departments and by the departmental teacher's requiring good English in every exercise handed him. The teachers of History and Foreign Languages can greatly help the teacher of English and themselves by requiring frequent writ- ten exercises; and the English teacher should at times accept as exercises in composition the papers prepared for the teachers of History and Foreign Languages. Above all, the composition work must not be divorced from the pupil's life. Hence most of the subjects should be such as natu- rally arise, in which he is already interested or can easily become interested. Even grown people write and speak ill when an oppor- tunity is made instead of seized. In a word, the pupil must be made to see that he studies composition, not to be able to get up an essay for public reading on Friday afternoons, but to enable him to think, to write, and to speak the more clearly and effectively on whatever topic engages his attention at any time and in any place. As already stated incidentally, the practice should be abundant; and, if the plan suggested is followed, the most effective sort of practice would be given every day, without the student's knowing it. Certainly no week should pass without some regular exercise. It is believed, too, that it is best to have the instruction in com- position and rhetoric based on some good text-book. And it is expected that the graduate of the Affiliated High School will have mastered theoretically and practically a book of the grade of Her- rick and Damon's Composition and Rhetoric. Finally, it may not be improper to state that in our University * Since writing the above, I have received a little book, Webster's Eng- lish: Composition and Literature (Ho., 1900), which lays particular stress upon the correlation of composition and literature, and which will be of great, help to every high-school teacher of English. Mead's Practical Composition and Rhetoric (Sibley, 1900) is likewise very valuable in this respect, especially the chapter entitled "Topics Based on Reading," which will be of incalculable advantage to the teacher. Another book that stresses the correlation of composition and literature is Scott and Denney's Composition-Literature (Al., 1902). IS Teaching in High Schools. Summer School this year there will be given a course in composi- tion especially designed for teachers ; and those that have not had the advantage of strict training in this subject are earnestly ad- vised to avail themselves of this opportunity. Bibliography. 1. Text-books Suitable for High Schools: — Herrick and Da- mon's Composition and Rhetoric for Schools (Scott) ; Genung's Outlines of Rhetoric (G.) ; Scott and Denney's Elementary Eng- lish Composition and Composition-Rhetoric or Composition-Litera- ture (Al.). 2. Books for the Teacher and for Reference : — Wendell's English Composition (Scribners, New York) ; Genung's The Working Prin- ciples of Rhetoric (G.) ; Genung's Rhetorical Analysis (G.) ; Hill's The Principles of Rhetoric (Harpers, New York) ; Newcomer's Elements of Rhetoric (H.) ; Hale's Constructive Rhetoric (H.) ; Brewster's Studies in Structure and Style (M.) ; Hart's Handbook of Composition (Eldredge & Bro., Philadelphia) ; Scott and Den- ney's Paragraph AY riting (Al.) ; Webster's English: Composition and Literature (Ho.) ; De Quincey's Essays on Style, Rhetoric, and Language, edited by Scott (Al.) ; Baker's Principles of Argument tation (G.) ; Brewster's Specimens of Narration (H.) ; Baldwin's Specimens of Description (H.). 3. Pedagogical Books : — See 3 under Bibliography to Grammar. IV. LITERATURE. But, important as are grammar and composition, they must both yield the palm to literature ; for, in the words of one of the South's most distinguished teachers, the late Professor Thomas R. Price, of Columbia University : "Foremost among all the means of educa- tion, highest among all the duties of the teacher, stands the pleas- ant privilege of reading with his classes the great English authors. For this, if skillfully managed, will serve not only to give solidity to the young men's knowledge of their own language, but, also, what is even more weighty, to stimulate their love of reading and to shape their principles of taste. In doing this or in failing to do this lies after all the true criterion of education." It is now a commonplace, yet one that cannot be too often re- peated, that the study of literature consists in the first-hand, intelli- gent, and sympathetic study of masterpieces, not in the learning of what some one else has said about these masterpieces. How, English. 19 then, shall they be studied? I have already suggested that from these literary monuments may be deduced the principles of gram- mar and of composition; and that these principles in turn will help to elucidate the meaning of the masterpieces. Of course, gram- matical and rhetorical analysis may be carried so far as to take the life out of the best piece of literature in the world; but this would be impossible with a judicious teacher. And a modicum of such analysis is not only a test of the student's comprehension, but is perhaps indispensable to the full understanding of most literature. Again, a piece should be studied in its historical setting: its rela- tion to its author, the country in which he lived, the tendencies of the times, etc. Thus the work in literature supplements that in history and vice versa. By the judicious assignment of biograph- ical and historical topics to the pupil he is not only interested from the outset, but he has prepared for himself the best possible back- ground for the more strictly literary study that is to follow. These preliminary issues settled, one may take up the selection itself. When possible, it should be read in its entirety in one or two sittings at home in order that everyone may acquire a working knowledge of the piece as a whole. A good help to the acquisition of such knowledge and, also, a test is to require a brief, coherent summary of the whole in the best possible English or occasionally in skeleton outline only. Then comes the time for a minute study : for the solving of specially difficult passages ; for the dwelling on others noteworthy for nobility of thought and for beauty of expression; for the occasional memorizing of such passages ; finally for the con- sideration of the artistic worth of the whole and an adequate ap- preciation of what the masterpiece stands for in the world of thought and in the life of man. All that has been said above applies equally to every type of lit- erature. But the artistic element of the masterpiece varies with the type ; we look, for instance, for different qualities in the lyric from what we do in the drama, and in the essay from what we do in the novel. Accordingly, every piece of literature should be studied in the light of the principles of the type to which it belongs. The pupil should be led to discover what are the essential characteristics of the type studied. To this end our histories of literature should, at the first mention of each type, state its essential principles, and, perhaps, give a very brief historical survey of the species, the fuller treatment being left for the later chapters. Books especially help- 20 Teaching in High Schools. ful to the teacher in this regard are named below under the head of literary criticism. If thus far much has been said of summarizing, of types, and the like, and little of the spirit, it is because to the writer there is no known way of getting to the immaterial and spiritual except through the material (words, paragraphs, verses, plot, etc.) ; and because he does not believe it possible intelligently to enjoy the spirit of literature without first being able fairly to understand its elements. Even the Divine Being was not genuinely apprehensible to mortals until He took upon himself the form of man. But the writer believes that it is the spirit that giveth life in literature as well as in religion ; and that the appreciation of the spirit of liter- ature should be the goal of all English teaching. He is convinced, moreover, that a faithful trial of the above plan, which is substan- tially that of all the more successful teachers of literature, will not only rescue the teaching of English literature from much of its vagueness, but will also give it body and soul. In literature, as in grammar and composition, it is best, I think, to base the instruction on a good text-book, but, as already indi- cated, not to limit it thereto. The systematic history of English and American literature should not be attempted until the later years of the high-school course ; but by the end of that period the student should have mastered some such book as Pancoast's English Litera- ture and Bronson's American Literature. Of course, a real mas- tery of these text-books carries with it the intelligent and sympa- thetic study at first-hand of a large number of literary master- pieces, both in prose and verse. And this sympathetic study of the masterpieces, as I said at the outset, is worth infinitely more 'than merely to know the history of English literature. But, in its proper place, the history is of great importance, and it can be learned better, it is believed, from a good text-book than from a lecture. In the high school, as in the freshman class of the college, even a poor text-book is more helpful than most lectures. Occa- sional lectures, however, are distinctly helpful. But, aside from the class-room study of the masterpieces, the high-school student should do much parallel reading, some under direction and some at his own will. He should read, say, at least five books a year, and should make written reports thereon. It is not my purpose to make a list of books suitable for parallel read- ing; this the teacher can do for himself. But the most intelligent instructor will find help in the list recommended in The Report of English. 21 the Committee on College Entrance Requirements (July, 1899, p. 17). Besides, several excellent series are named below in the bibli- ography. Intelligent class-room study and general reading alike will be impossible without a small but well selected school library; and superintendents, principals, and teachers are urged to make every effort to secure such a library immediately. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. Text-books Suitable for High Schools: — (a) Histories of English Literature: Pancoast's Introduction to English Literature (H.) ; Pancoast's Representative English Lit- erature (with selections) (H.) ; Painter's Introduction to English Literature (with selections) (Sibley). (b) Histories of American Literature: Bronson's American Literature (Heath) ; Pancoast's Introduction to American Litera- ture (H.) ; Newcomer's American Literature (Scott). (c) Texts: The Eiverside Literature Series (Ho.) ; The Lake English Classics (Scott) ; The Students' Series of English Classics (Leach) ; Longmans's English Classics (Longmans, Green & Co., New York) ; Macmillan's Pocket Classics (M.) ; English Readings (H.) ; Heath's English Classics (Heath) ; Syle's English Poems from Milton to Tennyson (Al.) ; Scudder's American Poems (Ho.) ; Weber's The Southern Poets (M.). 2. Books for the Teacher and for Eeference : — (a) History of English and American Literature: Ten Brink's Early English Literature, 2 vols. (H.) ; Brooke's Early English Literature and English Literature from the Beginning to the Nor- man Conquest (M.) ; Saintsbury's Elizabethan Literature, Nine- teenth Century Literature, and A Short History of English Litera- ture (M.) ; Gosse's Eighteenth Century Literature (M.) ; Brooke's English Literature (M.) ; Taine's English Literature (H.) ; Rich- ardson's American Literature, 2 vols. (Putnams, New York) ; Trent's American Literature (Ap.) ; Stedman's American Poets and Victorian Poets (Ho.). (b) Biography: The English Men of Letters Series (Macmillan) ; The Great Writers Series (Walter Scott), to each volume of which is appended a bibliography; Modern English Writers Series (Dodd, Mead & Co.) ; Sidney Lee's Life of Shakes- peare (M.) ; Stephen's Dictionary of National Biography (36 vols., M.) ; American Men of Letters Series (Ho.). 22 Teaching in High Schools. (e) Literary Criticism: Winchester's Principles of Literary Criticism (M.) ; Cross's The Development of the English Novel (M.); Stoddard's The Evolution of the English Novel (M.) ; Perry's .4 Study of Prose Fiction (Ho.) ; Moulton's Shal-espeare as a Dramatic Artist (F.) ; Dowden's Shal-espeare: His Mind and Art (Lemcke & Buecriner; New York) ; Brandes's William Shake- speare: A Critical Study (M.) ; Freytag's Technique of the Drama (S. C. Griggs & Co., Chicago) ; Woodbridge's The Drama: Its Law and Its Technique (Al.) ; Stedman's The Nature of Poetry (Ho.) ; Gayley and Scott's Methods and Material* of Literary Criticism- (G.), with a full bibliography; Brooke's Tennyson: His Art and Relation to Modern Life (P.) ; Brooke's The Poetry of Robert Browning (C). (d) Texts: The Globe Edition of the Poets (M.) ; The Cam- bridge Edition of the Poets (Ho.) ; The Athenaeum Press Series (G.) ; annotated editions of Shakespeare: Furness's (Lippincott, Philadelphia), Wright's (F.), Eolfe's (A. B. C.), Hudson's (G.), the Arden (Heath) ; Ward's The English Poets (4 vols., M.), the best anthology; Palgrave's The Golden- Treasury of the Best Songs and Lyrics in the English Language (M.) ; Hales's Longer English Poems (M.) ; Pancoast's Standard English Poems (H.) ; Stedman and Hutchinson's Library of American Literature (6 vols., The Century Company, New York) ; Stedman's Victorian Anthology and American Anthology (Ho.) ; etc., etc. (e) Dictionaries, etc.: Webster's International (Merriam, Springfield, Mass.) ; Worcester's Unabridged (Lippincott, Phila- delphia) ; The Century Dictionary (The Century Company, New York) ; Gayley's Classic Myths in English Literature (G.) ; Adams's Dictionary of American Authors (Ho.) ; Kyland's Chro- nological Outlines of English Literature (M.) ; Whitcomb's Chro- nological Outlines of American Literature (M.) ; etc., etc. 3. Pedagogical Books. — See 3 under Bibliography to Gram- mar. v. CONCLUSION. In conclusion, let me say that, both in the regular and in the summer session of the University of Texas, the School of English *The Variorum Shakespeare, by Furness, should be in the library of every school. As each volume gives a complete summary of the criticism upon the play treated, the Variorum is a Shakespeare library within itself. So far thirteen volumes have appeared. English. 23 is trying to train up a set of teachers who will be thoroughly con- versant at first hand with the history of the English language and literature, and who will know and exemplify the best methods of teaching grammar, composition, and literature. When requested, the department will nominate teachers of English. In a word, the School of English is at the service of the Affiliated High Schools and of the people of Texas, and Avill count it a privilege to help them in every way possible. Morgan Callaway., Jr., Professor of English. HISTOKY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. History should be so taught in the high school as to assist in developing in the students an intelligent insight. They should be trained to look behind the tales full of human interest that drew them towards the subject in the lower grades and study it rather as a process of political and social evolution which goes on naturally and is theoretically capable of scientific explanation in all its aspects. Above all things they should be led to cultivate the habit of organizing the details of the information they gather inJ:o a rational and systematic body of knowledge, capable of control and use for the acquisition of more. Knowledge thus organized, what- ever may be its subject matter, is properly called science. That method of teaching any subject, from pure mathematics to litera- ture, which strives to fill the memory with a chaotic mass of unre- lated facts can not be too strongly condemned. Owing to the special difficulties that lie in the way of giving rational and com- plete organization to historical knowledge, the method in question is perhaps more mischievous in teaching history than almost any- thing else. It is of little use .to the student to hand over to him, as it were, long lists of names and dates and bits of fragmentary information as to the public doings and experiences of men. He will never see by the help of any such instruction, the real life of the past. The best means of organizing historical knowledge is the use of outlines, which ought to be as rigorously logical as they can be made. The division into periods and sub-periods ought to corre- spond to natural divisions of the historical process itself. For example, an outline of American history would have such main heads as the periods of Discovery and Exploration, of Colonization, of Inter-Colonial Wars, etc., not simply because this arrangement will facilitate the work of teacher and student, but because the actual unfolding of the history was by just such stages or phases. Every new period brings into view a new set of social forces by which it is characterized and distinguished from others; and the reason why periods often overlap is that the new set shows its influ- ence before the old has ceased to work. The real problems of the scientific organization of history show themselves in outline making. They must be ranked, for intellectual difficulty, far above History. 25 those of explaining a single action or event by establishing a cer- tain consecution of facts. They require broad generalizing and fine discrimination. The high-school student may be prepared for the struggle with these problems that will come when he enters the university by judiciously directed exercises in the construction and criticism of outlines and summaries. An outline of the kind here meant is not simply a topical analysis of a text-book, but rather a setting forth in logical arrangement of the main phases of a process of historical evolution. The use of the outline should be enforced by constant reviews that will keep it before the student's mind. This is the only way to save him from being overwhelmed by details, and to give him a sense of real fruitfulness in his efforts. The teacher of history should also strive to vitalize his work. No student of the subject will ever develop genuine insight and full appreciation of the facts with which he has to deal until the past, as he studies it, takes on for him its old life. The more of its orig- inal concreteness and peculiar character he can restore, the better he will understand it. For this purpose he should avail himself, as far as possible, of whatever it has left to the world. Its dress, tools, and armor ; its official, ecclesiastical, and social paraphernalia ; spec- imens of its art; and above all its literature, wherein, more than in all else, appears the "very age and body of the time." Some of these materials, and especially extracts from the literature of spe- cial epochs, are available for work in the high school, and they should be used sufficiently to show the student their value and to stimulate his interest and historical imagination. Of course no large proportion of time can be given to their study until the university is reached, but much will be lost if they are neglected altogether. There are now published in convenient form several collections of extracts from the contemporaneous literature of the different periods of English and American history that might prof- itably be used for reference, or even as texts, in high schools. A few of the most available of these collections are as follows : American History. Hart, Source Boole of American History, for Schools and Read- ers. (The Macmillan Co., New York, 1899.) One volume; 60 cents. Suitable for class use. Old South Leaflets (Old South Meeting House, Boston) ; 133 26 Teaching in High Schools. or more numbers. Single leaflets, 5 cents; $4 per 100. Bound volumes (25 numbers), $1.50 per volume. American History Leaflets. (Lovell & Co., New York.) More than 30 numbers ; 10 cents a copy. English History. Kendall, Source Book of English History. (The Macmillan Co., New York, 1900.) One volume; 80 cents. Colby, F. M., Selections from the Sources of English History. (Longmans, Green & Co., New York), $1.50. General History. Munro, A Source Book of Roman History. (D. C. Heath & Co., Boston), $1. Eobinson, Readings in European History. (Ginn & Co., Bos- ton), $1.50. It is impossible to understand the history of a country without knowing its physiography and the development of its political geog- raphy. Civilization varies with the natural adaptabilities of the land, and almost every change of territorial limits is bound up with some crisis in national life. Therefore history necessarily presupposes a knowledge of physical geography, and includes dili- gent attention to historical. For this reason there should be con- stant reference to relief and epoch maps, and especially a free use of outline maps. It is not necessary, but is rather for historical pur- poses a waste of time, for the students to draw the outlines. Neither is it well for them to be trained merely to copy from a model be- fore the eyes. They may begin with that, but should not stop with it. What they should be taught to do is to fill in on an outline map, without a model, the main territorial subdivisions of the country studied at all the principal epochs of its history. There is a little book by Professor Emerton of Harvard, the Introduction to the Middle Ages, which contains some suggestions to teachers so excellent as to be worth quoting here. "Let all his- torical geography," says the author, "rest upon physical geography, and never fail to bring it back to that. The too common habit of bounding one country by others tends to make pupils forget the natural features of the earth's surface, and they must be constantly reminded of them. It would be well if they could be led always to describe the situation of peoples and places by reference to these natural features. This is of especial importance in a period in which the races are constantly changing their homes and forming History. 27 new political boundaries. If the student has not the 'lay of the land' clearly in his mind, he will be in hopeless confusion. ' "The best way to keep these natural features permanently before the pupil, is to require him to draw maps. By using. . . .outline maps he will readily become accustomed to the fixedness of the sur- face lines and the variableness of the political boundaries. He will see how much or how little the latter depend on the former, and will soon come to have his own ideas about them. . . . Wher- ever an event is mentioned by which the map . . . was changed, let him draw that change for himself. At first he may be allowed to copy his lines from some other map, but he will soon learn to draw his own lines from oral description. The sense that he is making maps for himself will rouse his pride and in- crease his interest. "A mistaken zeal in the matter of dates has probably been the main cause of the disgust felt by most pupils who have been taught history by the old methods. The dates to be learned by heart should be learned carefully, and be continually referred to as the fixed points in the pupil's knowledge. He should repeat them and write them very often, and should be made to form his own chrono- logical tables by filling in between these fixed points such other dates and events as he is likely to remember, and no others. . . . "How much of the textbook ought to be committed to memory is one of the most difficult problems of elementary education. My own answer would be 'only that should be learned by heart which is fitted to become a permanent mental possession.' ... It is an error to suppose that committing a thing to memory makes it one's own. We really own only that which we have made our own by putting it through the machinery of our own minds. The memorizing of another's words can give us only the skeleton of his ideas. If we would really understand him, we must work over for ourselves what he has given us. So in learning history one must memorize only the skeleton of the story, and must clothe this with flesh and blood by means of his own powers of assimilation. The pupil should be required, not to learn the words of [the] book by heart, but to reproduce its contents orally or in writing, as the teacher may require. This caution, which is happily superfluous for many teachers, is unfortunately still necessary in too many cases. Let the memory be called upon for dates, facts of geography, whatever is worth being retained verbally in the mind, and where it is called upon, let the demand be strictly enforced. But let it 28 Teaching in High Schools. never be forgotten that if the pupil once comes to think that study- ing history means memorizing isolated facts, he is lost forever to the cause of historical learning. "The pupil should be encouraged to read whatever bears upon the period [he is studying]. Poems, plays, novels, as well as more detailed histories, should be put in his way, and he should be helped to understand what he reads. He should be required to read pas- sages in larger historical works or articles in encyclopedias, and to report to the teacher in writing whatever adds to the narrative. . . . He will thus learn the greatest lesson of all historical study, that history is not 'all in the book,' but is to be learned from a variety of sources. The present increased interest in historical study is due mainly to the enforcement of this principle." It goes without saying that in history, as in any subject what- ever, students should be trained to accuracy. No slipshod work should be allowed. It is impossible, of course, for the average student to reproduce all the numerous and complex details of his- tory from memory, but he should not be allowed to become so care- less as not to correct himself constantly. The habit of inaccuracy should not be suffered to grow. One of the strongest evidences of inattention to this principle in the teaching of those students who enter the University is the frequent mispronunciation of proper names. If these names are Greek or. Latin, there are a few simple and easily applied rules that will prevent error in most cases, and these should be learned and used constantly in dealing with ancient history. As to other names, students should be referred to some authority for their correct pronunciation, which should be always insisted on. By way of conclusion, the attention of teachers is earnestly di- rected to three books devoted to the pedagogy of history. They are A History Syllabus for Secondary Schools (Heath, 1904), pre- pared by a special committee of the New England History Teach- ers' Association; Bourne (H. E.), The Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and Secondary Schools (G-inn, 1902) ; and Mace (W. H.), Method in History, for Teachers and Students (Ginn, 1898). These books contain valuable outlines of various portions of the field of history, discussions of methods of teaching the subject, and lists of reference works adapted to high school use. George P. Garrison, Professor of History. MATHEMATICS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. The teacher of arithmetic in the graded or high school should have in mind two principal aims, namely, to impart a comprehen- sion of the principles underlying the rules of computation and a high degree of accuracy in carrying out these computations on mod- erately large numbers. Although the accurate handling of com- plicated arrays of figures requires considerable practice — more than can be given and more than it is desirable to give in the ordi- nary school course — a systematic drill in oral and written work will, if judiciously employed, result in a high degree of accuracy in ordinary work. Neat and methodical arrangement of all written work should be insisted upon. Students should be required to check subtraction by adding subtrahend and remainder, short divisions by multiplying divisor and quotient. The teaching of Rational Arithmetic, i. e., the principles under- lying the rules of computation, requires careful handling. In fact, the demonstration of many of these rules should be deferred until a beginning is made in algebra. Thus the algorithm for finding the greatest common factor of two numbers or for extracting the square root is best deferred until algebra is begun. On the whole a review of rational arithmetic during the first year's algebra would greatly improve the student's knowledge of both subjects. The time devoted to -practical arithmetic is in many schools ex- cessive, and an earlier beginning in Algebra would be conducive to a better knowledge of the reasons underlying the rules of compu- tation and to a greater skill in actual numerical work. In the teaching of algebra as in all mathematical instruction, pro- cesses, i. e., an orderly deduction of theorems, and not memorizing should be the constant aim of the teacher. Factoring should be taught by abundant drill, solution of quad- ratics should always be by "completing the square," and not by a formula. The relations connecting the roots and coefficients should be proved and frequently employed. The strident should be drilled into an accurate practice in dealing with surds and rationalizing processes. Oral drills in simple algebraic reductions should be freely used. 30 Teaching in High Schools. Geometry is perhaps the best and the worst taught of all the subjects in the high school. The principal defect in the teaching is that the structure of the various proofs is not carefully analyzed and explained. It should be pointed out to the student why a cer- tain group of theorems must necessarily he invoked in proving a given theorem, why the drawing of certain auxiliary lines and planes are useful in the proof, and why others can not be; the arrangement of the proof in separate steps each with its appro- priate citation and in due logical order should be insisted on. Figures should be accurately and neatly drawn. Drawing instru- ments suitable for the purposes can now be bought for a few cents. A set of carefully graded originals should be judiciously used, and in order that the less gifted pupils be not discouraged by tasks be- yond their powers, the more difficult ones should be assigned only to the best students. Before beginning the subject of strictly deductive geometry, an easy set of exercises in drawing, modeling, and paper folding, in which the student would become familiar with the figures about which he is to reason deductively at a later stage, would be most useful. The teaching of solid geometry is much easier and more effective if supplemented by the use of a few models, which any boy with the least mechanical turn can easily construct. The teacher that can bring his pupils to feel that they have a mastery of their geometry, a feeling of confidence in the integrity of their own mental processes, has succeeded as a teacher of geom- etry. In conclusion, a word may be said as to an important matter of detail : One of the most effective methods not only of inspiring but of sustaining the learner's interest in geometry is to require each pupil to keep a note-book in which are entered carefully drawn figures and accurately worded proofs of originals, and such other theorems as may be deemed desirable. Such books should he in- spected by the teacher, and be graded both for neatness and accu- racy. M. B. Porter, Professor of Mathematics. LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. The preparatory course now required for entrance to The Uni- versity of Texas embraces : 1. Grammar, with special stress upon inflections and the syn- tax of the simple sentence. 2. Prose composition : the translation of elementary English prose into Latin. 3. Translation: a. Viri Romae, or other introductory Latin; b. Caesar, three books; c. Cicero, Manilian Law and two other orations; d. Vergil, Aeneid, book I. 4. Scansion, the dactylic hexameter in connection with the Aeneid. I would venture to address a few words to my Latin colleagues in the Public High Schools, which, with the branches at Galveston and Austin, constitute "The Greater University of Texas," as to how we may best turn these requirements to the advantage of our students. It is very important for us all to work together, and especially in Latin, for the University classes pick up in the middle, precisely where the high schools leave off, and unless the foundation is well laid by the school, there is no chance of getting a good superstructure built upon it. Our fourth year's work here — the Freshman class — depends on each of the previous- high-school years, and each is of very great importance. 1. Forms and Pronunciation: Nothing is so important at first as the mastery of the forms. In the first year the student should learn, not only to recite, but also to write his forms, always mark- ing the quantities and the accents, and dividing the syllables. He should be cautioned that when text-books write homin-is and amav- ero, it is to teach the stem formation, while ho-mi-nis, a-ma-ve-ro represent the only correct syllable division. It will not be useless even to indicate "length-by-position" by drawing a line under the two consonants that give position, as in the following words : a-spec-tus, de~-speotus, a-gri or a-gri (genitive to a-ger), but only a-cris (genitive to a-cer.) In this connection it is important to learn the classification of the consonants into mutes and liquids, 32 Teaching in High Schools. sonants, surds, (mediae, tenues,) and aspirates, and the subdivi- sions of the mutes into labials, dentals and palatals. The correct placing of the accent is to be insisted on : a student might be par- doned for not knowing the quantity of the syllable na- in na-tu-ra, but is is inexcusable not to know that -tu-, the accented penult, is long, or that -ra is short, if a nominative, but long, if an ablative; it is inexcusable to pronounce eadem (nom. sg. fern, and nom. plur. neut.) like eadem (abl. sg. fern.). The time to learn the pronunciation of Latin is when the pupil is learning his forms. Every beginners' book in Latin known to me marks every long vowel by a line placed immediately above the vowel. Un- marked vowels are short, and unmarked diphthongs (se, ce, au, ui are the only diphthongs commonly met with) are always long. It is essential to teach the quantity because the accent of every Latin word depends on the length of the syllables. Pupils repeatedly come from the high schools, even from affiliated high schools, who do not know what syllable of a Latin word to accent, or what is meant by "long-by-position" and "long- by-nature," though all these points are set down correctly in even the most elementary books for beginners. Here I suggest a means of lessening one difficulty. It is perhaps true, as the books say, that the quality of the long vowels and the short vowels is the same, but it results in students pronouncing Latin et like English "ate," as they pronounce Latin non to rhyme with English "don," and not, as they ought, to rhyme with English "lone." In practice, then, I would ask our teachers to use the following scheme, in which a difference in quality is sometimes invoked to make clear the difference in quantity. Pronounce Latin short a like a in (English) "Cuba;" long a as in "far." Pronounce Latin short e like e in (English) "met;" long e as in "fete." Pronounce Latin short i like i in (English) "pin;" long i as in "ma- chine." Pronounce Latin short o like o in (English) "not;" long o as in "note." Pronounce Latin short u like oo in (English) "foot;" long u like oo in "boot." Pronounce Latin ae like English ai in "aisle." Pronounce Latin au like English ou in "house." Pronounce Latin oe like English oi in "boil." Pronounce Latin ui like English we in "we." For practical purposes Latin y equals Latin i; and qu is a single con- sonant. It is of the very greatest importance for the pupil to learn the quantity of all the endings that show the case, the mood and tense, person and number of Latin words: this constitutes, — nothing short of this does constitute, — a knowledge of the forms. In brief: The student should acquire once for all from his in- troductory book a lasting knowledge of all the forms he has met, and in his subsequent reading and grammar work this knowledge of Latin. 33 the forms must always be kept alive. Similarly a correct pronuncia- tion once acquired must never become slovenly. This will demand much reading aloud on the part of both student and teacher, and I suggest that every reading lesson be reviewed as follows: the teacher to read aloud the review intelligibly, phrase by phrase, and the pupil to render this by ear, not having his text open before him. To secure exact results in all form-work, the teacher will need to make much use of the blackboard, and correct many written tasks. Barber's Latin Charts (Scott, Foresman & Co., price about $8.00) might prove of great service in the teaching of forms and quantity if school boards would provide them. 2. Syntax : The study of syntax in any good elementary book is introduced piece-meal, one or two principles at a time. I would recommend in this connection diagramming after a simple system which would arrange the subject and its modifiers in one column, the object and its modifiers in another, and the predicate and its modifiers between : of course there would be no object column if the leading verb were intransitive, and with copulative verbs the adjective or other predicate might be put in the third column. The preparatory Latin course ought to teach the student almost all the case syntax, barring certain subtleties, he will ever need to know. In the reading of the second and third years the pupil will meet with most sorts of dependent clauses in Latin. He ought to be specially taught from his grammar to distinguish between adject- ive, substantive, and adverbial clauses, and, under the latter, between final, consecutive, causal, concessive, temporal and condi- tional varieties, in their larger outlines. By properly grouping these clauses the number of general principles is not great. Thus the student will see the general framework, not only of Latin, but of languages in general. It is better to learn first that a leading verb is modified temporally, causally or concessively by a cum- clause than to learn the details of the moods used after cum. In diagramming, this c?zm-clause should be set down in the column devoted to the predicate, though it might, within that column, be itself arranged diagrammatically. 3. Prose Composition: Writing Latin is the very best means to learn the language: "writing maketh an exact man." Writing should be started almost from the beginning, first as a means of teaching forms, quantity, and accent, and then for the sake of syntax. By the second year writing should have at least one 34 Teaching in High Schools. weekly period devoted to it exclusively, and I would recommend about two short sentences to go with each reading lesson as well. If the teacher prefers the method of exercises based on the texts he is actually reading in his class, the books of Moulton (Ginn & Co.), Daniell (Sanborne), and Dodge and Tuttle (Am. Book Co.) follow this plan, but attempt as well to cover the syntax system- atically. For the detached sentence plan, which concentrates the attention on a few principles at a time, and which the Latin in- structors in The University of Texas, on the whole, prefer, Jones's (Scott, Foresman & Co.), Bennett's (Allyn & Bacon), and Gilder- sleeve's (University Publ. Co.) books may be mentioned. The English books of Bamsay (The Macmillan Co.) and Bitchie (Longmans, Green & Co.) are also of great merit. In all exer- cise work the syllable quantities should always be marked. Enthusiasm, even, for Latin composition might be roused, if the pupil were made to see that he is also getting excellent in- struction in English composition from the careful analysis that must necessarily precede the translation of English sentences into Latin. 4. Translation : The present requirements, measured by the pages of the standard texts, cover about 90 (a), 70 (b), 50 (c), and 20 (d) pages. Of these amounts (a) and more than half of (b) should be completed by the end of the second year in high- school Latin, leaving the remainder of (b), (c), and (d) for the third year. As to teaching translation, students ought to learn how to trans- late in written as well as in oral versions. Frequent exercises to acquire this power should be assigned. I would suggest that at least once a month in the second and third years a passage of ten lines or such a matter be assigned for written translation. This might be rendered with bald literalness in one version, while in a parallel column genuine English might be called for. No better practice in English composition can be given than this, and by this means the enthusiastic Latin teacher might remove the reproach that the classics are not practically useful, when, in fact, if we take them diligently, they help to a very superior control of the mother tongue. The student has acquired some control not only of his powers of expression but of his thinking powers as well when he learns to render Manlius Galium caesum torque spoliavit, not by (1) "Manlius spoiled the slain Gaul of his necklet/' but by (2) "Manlius slew the Gaul and tore his necklet off." So Manlius Latin. 35 Gallo caeso torquem detraxit should finally be rendered "M. slew the Gaul and took his necklet off." Similarly the student must not render Manlius, stricto gladio, in Galium invadit by (1) "M. his sword having been drawn advanced upon the Gaul," but by (2) "M. having drawn his sword advanced etc.," or by (3) "M. with drawn sword etc." So, in idiomatic English, forte aderat Caesar is not (1) "Caesar was present by chance" but (2) "Caesar happened to be there." Whether or not the student must needs pass through bald trans- lations like those marked (1) before reaching the more idiomatic ones marked (2) is too large a question to discuss here; but no Latin teacher with a conscience sensitive to the duty and privilege of teaching English through Latin will ever let his pupils stop short of the ideals of translation presented in the versions marked (2). We do not insist on just those authors mentioned in the require- ments. The "Junior" (Allyn & Bacon) and "Second Year" (Gihn & Co.) Latin books recently, issued contain good substi- tutes for (a), and so does First Latin Readings (Am. Book Co.). No substitute should be less in quantity than the requirements, however, and there should be no substitute for Cicero's Pro lege Manilia, also called De Imperio Cn. Pompeii. 5. Scansion : In connection with the translation of the Aeneid, pupils should be taught the scansion of the dactylic hexa- meter. Teachers would do well before trying to scan the Aeneid, to read aloud Ivingsley's poem of Andromeda, which will show in English the cadence of the hexameter. By the use of Gleason's Gate to Vergil (Ginn & Co.) the work in scansion would be greatly facilitated. I would now note a few of the shortcomings I have observed during my experience as an examiner of students in the last few years. They almost never know the constructions of intransitives ; thus they will write incorrectly persuadeor and not mihi persua- deiur for the passive "I am persuaded;" and unconcernedly make the third person form of the verb do duty for the first or second, particularly in relative clauses. They are as apt to write Appolo as Apollo; aedes Apollinaris is "The Apollinaric house," or some such thing, not "The temple of Apollo;" helium Sei'torianum is not "the war with Sertorius," but always "the Sertorian war" : — these examples to caution teachers to set their faces earnestly 36 Teaching in High Schools. against the young student's carelessness about proper names and adjectives. Such spellings as genative and accusative exhibit the same carelessness. Why after two months' close association with Catilina will students spell Cataline? Students are slovenly, too, in not distinguishing between such words as orior and ordior, quaero and queror, moror and morior, pario and paro and pareo. Latin does not lack in words like these which demand of the stu- dent the most careful attention. The high-school teacher and the college teacher as well must guard against making Latin courses all one grind at grammar. The pupil's attention may be called to many subsidiary subjects. Stories from Eoman history and mythological stories might well be introduced early into the course, perhaps as subsidiary reading before the pupils reach the high school. Even such books as Quo Vadis, The Last Days of Pompeii, and Farrar's Darkness and Dawn might be put in the pupil's hands ; these would almost cer- tainly interest him, and would incidentally convey a good deal of information about Eoman modes of life and thought. I especially recommend that each student read, or better, have his teacher read to him, Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome. A great many high-school pupils do not come to college. For the benefit of these particularly I recommend along with the class work in each author the books on Caesar, Cicero, and Vergil in the series of Ancient Classics for English Beaders (Lippincott), and the student would not be hurt by having read to him Conington's verse-translation of the Aeneid. Every high-school course should make provision for work in Classical Geography and Antiquities. This work need not be formal, but incidental to the reading work, and co-ordinated with the work in general history. A cheap Classical Atlas- is published by Sanborn (Boston), and one copy for reference should be in every school library. Eeferences might also be made to books like John- ston's (Scott, Foresman & Co.) or Preston and Dodge's Private Life of the Romans (Sanborn, cheaper edition in paper), to let pu- pils see for themselves what the daily life of Eoman men and women was like. I wish it were practicable for all of our Texas high schools to make their plans to acquire by degrees a small working collection of books on the classics. A good first book of reference to purchase would be Seyffert's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, $3.00 (Mac- millan). A copy of Harper's Latin Dictionary, $6.50, ought also Latin. 37 to be available, and the student should be shown how to use it. Occasional exercises in synopsizing the definition of an important word would teach the student how to use dictionaries in general, and it would certainly be profitable for one to study out the deriva- tion of the secondary and figurative meanings from the primitive. Further books to recommend for a school collection are Gow's Companion to School Classics (Macmillan), Gayley's Classic Myths (Ginn & Co.), Mackail's Latin Literature (Scribner's), and such a book as Guhl and Kroner's Private Life of the Creeks and Romans. Schreiber's Atlas of Classical Antiquities (Macmillan) is an excellent book to convey instruction by means of pictures and diagrams. For some years past I have secured from each student entering our Freshman class a statement of the work he had accomplished in his preparatory course; and I trust I shall be understood as having at heart only the best interest of "The Greater University of Texas" when I state that of these matriculates many report no work at all in Latin writing, and many fall a good deal short of the requirements in translation from the Latin, while very few have enjoyed any careful and accurate instruction in scanning. Measures must be taken to call in question the affiliation of all schools that fall short of the prescribed course. Affiliation in any subject imposes an obligation to perform all the work required for entrance in that subject. This is the place to say to the Latin teachers of Texas that the Latin requirements at our State University are predicated on a diligent but not very exacting three years' preparatory course; and that this standard is a full year in time (more than a year in amount of ground covered) lower than the the standard of admis- sion actually enforced in some other good state universities. We ought gradually to raise our standard, not because the University shall require it, but because our high schools shall demand it. When our high schools shall say that Texas must have high schools that go as far as the high schools of Michigan and Illinois, then the University can set a higher standard of admission in Latin (and Mathematics). Progress has already been made, for many of our schools are giving four-year courses in Latin that gave but three-year courses five years ago, and some of these four-year courses are doing more work than we require for admission, nota- bly the Ball High School of Galveston. I trust the number of these will so increase that it will be practicable henceforth to main- 38 Teaching in High Schools. tain an advanced section in Freshman Latin, open only to the best prepared students. In such a section more inspiring methods of work could be adopted and much more ground covered. May the time soon come when all the high schools of Texas will claim the right to give as much Latin in their courses as the Ball High School now gives, and so conform to the standard of the larger part of our country. In order that our teachers may have before them in convenient form a description of what we may call the "ideal 1 standard" I quote from the National Educational Association's "Report of Committee on College Entrance Requirements," the course of study recommended by the American Philological Association, and adopted by the general committee as above mentioned. Proposed four year Latin Course. {Five periods weekly throughout the four years.) : First Tear. Latin lessons, accompanied from an early stage by the reading of simple selections. Easy reading: twenty to thirty pages of a consecutive text. In all written exercises the long vowels should be marked, and in all oral exercises pains should be taken to make the pronunciation conform to the quantities. The student should be trained from the beginning to grasp the meaning of the Latin before translating, and then to render into idiomatic Eng- lish ; and should be taught to read the Latin aloud with intelligent ex- pression. Second Year. Selections from Caesar's Gallic War equivalent in amount to four or five books ; selections from other prose writers, such as Nepos, may be taken as a substitute for one, or at most, two books. The equivalent of at least one period a week in prose composition based on Caesar. Reading aloud and translating, together with training in correct meth- ods of apprehending the author's meaning, both prepared and unprepared passages being used as material. The memorizing of selected passages. 1 To avoid the mistake occasioned by the original paper on Latin teach- ing in "Bulletin No. 1" I expressly note that the requirements for admis- sion to the University of Texas are set down at the beginning of this paper. The course that follows, printed in a smaller type, is the course that we may hope to see established in the Texas high schools in ten, fifteen, or twenty years, as circumstances, under the guidance of our active school men, may make expedient. Latin. 39 Third and Fourth Years. Sallust's Catiline (or Selections). Cicero: six to nine orations (including the De Imperio On. Pompeii). Ovid: 500 to 1500 verses. Vergil's Aeneid: six to nine books. The equivalent of at least one period a week in prose composition based on Cicero. The reading of Latin aloud. The memorizing of selected passages. The teacher who will candidly compare this proposed course with the requirements now enforced at The University of Texas will be bound to admit (1) that The University of Texas does not ask any excessive preparation in Latin; and (2) that few of our schools cover in three (or four) years anything like as much ground as the "ideal course" lays down for that length of time. The study of Latin, acknowledged to be highly effective as a mental discipline, and contributory at every step to an improved knowledge of English, depends for its value on the efficiency of the instruction given. One cannot teach Latin without knowing it, and unless one has enjoyed at least three years of Latin in a good high school and two years more of advanced work under com- petent teachers, preferably in a college, one may seriously ques- tion whether he "has a call" to teach Latin On the other hand, experienced teachers, "apt to teach," who have enjoyed fewer ad- vantages of special Latin training, would find themselves greatly benefited by taking two or more courses in the summer schools of The University of Texas. The classical teachers of The University will esteem it a priv- ilege to be of service at any and all times to the Latin teachers in the high schools. Edwin W. Fay, Professor of Latin. ADDENDUM. Attention is called to the course given in the Houston High School (1900-1901). The first three years of this course, it will be observed, cover all the ground required for entrance to the Fresh- man class. It will be necessary in many schools to devote four years to this three-year course. In this case provision might be made by putting the first year in Latin in the last year of the grammar school. Four years, five times a week, forty-five minutes each period. Course 1. (1) First Latin Book, Collar and Daniell. (2) Easy Stories — Via Latina. (3) Sentence work every day. (4) Constant drill on quantity, forms, and easy principles of syntax. Course 2. (1) Caesar: Gallic War (Books I-IV), book I studied inten- sively for forms and principles of syntax. Grammar ref- erences required. (2) Prose Composition, based on text, — once a week (Moulton and Collar's Preparatory Latin Composition). (3) Drill on changes made in Oratio Obliqua. Course 3. (1) Cicero: In Catilinam (I-IV). (2) Drill on phrasing. Drill on forms. Drill on principles of syntax. (3) Prose Composition, based on text (Moulton and Collar). Sentences given after each oration is finished. (4) Vergil: Aeneid (Book 1). Scansion: principles and prac- tice. Course 4. (1) Vergil: Aeneid (Books II-VI). The hexameter empha- sized. Addendum. 41 (2) Prose Composition: Exercises arranged by the instructor to cover basic principles of syntax. College sight tests often used. (3) Cicero : Pro Archia. Eead last to impress the students with good prose form. Translations often written. (4) Prose Composition based on text (Moulton and Collar). Notes on this Course. Instead of four books of Caesar the teacher may give the four "Roman" Lives of Nepos (Harnilcar, Hannibal, Cato, Atticus, — about 28 pages) and two books of Caesar (about 50 pages), or any 80 pages of Caesar or other historical prose of equal difficulty. The University now asks for three books of Caesar, or an equivalent in other authors. In place of the four Catilines of Cicero, teachers are requested, because of its simplicity and non-technical nature, always to give the Manilian Law (24 pages), and enough more of Cicero to make 50 pages in all. In place of the 1st book of Vergil's Aeneid, teachers might give an equal amount (756 lines) of Ovid, — by all means teaching the hexameter. The above course is not to be construed into a recommendation of any particular text-books. In general, teachers should use the books they know how to use best. The teachers who can make good use of Gildersleeve-Lodge's Latin Grammar, "School Edition," will be introducing their pupils to the grammar in use at the University. N. B. — Longmans, Green & Co. have issued a book on The Teaching of Latin and Greek, by Professors Bennett and Bristol of Cornell. This furnishes teachers of the classics in our high schools with a valuable pedagogic help. The Eeport of the Committee of Twelve issued by the American Philological Association contains hints of value for this purpose. It can be procured from Ginn & Co., Dallas, for 10 cents. E. W. F. GKEEK IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. Success in an undertaking is usually in proportion to the pains with which its object is kept in view. In the study of Greek, though incidentally we gain a great deal more, and ultimately we aim at a knowledge of Greek civilization, our primary aim is the ability to read Greek. According as one can read Greek with un- derstanding and appreciation he is a Greek scholar. In the dis- covery of the means best adapted to secure this end lies the secret of teaching Greek. To understand an inflected language a knowledge of three things is needful, — forms, syntax, the meaning of words. Without know- ing forms, it is impossible to tell the relations of words; without knowing syntax we cannot determine the structure of sentences; without knowing the meaning of words, we are manifestly helpless. To try to learn the three separately is fatal. From the start they should continually reinforce and supplement one another. The acquisition of forms can be lightened by proper analysis and intelligent comparison with Latin, but, after all, it is largely a matter of memory. Constant drilling and frequent reviews are indispensable. In syntax it is harmful to puzzle the student over queer or un- common uses, either in the text read or in the grammar, but by every means at command, by question and explanation, by special grammar references and by systematic grammar study, by com- parison with other languages, and, above all, by the writing of Greek sentences, the teacher must fix ineradicably the general prin- ciples that govern the construction of Greek sentences. Syntax is not studied for itself, though it affords an unrivaled mental drill, but because without it no real progress is possible in securing the power to read. With most students of Greek, its vocabulary is a greater diffi- culty than forms or syntax. Nevertheless, rational methods greatly lighten the task. Association with cognates and derivatives in other languages, especially English, is one. Memorizing outright a small number of words every day and never losing them is another. If told that a word occurs, say, sixteen times in the Anabasis, most Greek. 43 students will think it a saving of labor to learn the word and be done with it. In this connection the word lists in Harper and Wallace's Anabasis are of much value. Another plan, productive of excellent results, is the grouping together of words of the same origin and tracing their connection in meaning. Admirable examples of such groups are contained in the vocabulary to Goodwin and White's Anabasis. Prefaced by lessons on the formation of words and explained by a skillful teacher, they are as interesting as profitable. Better than all such means as these is the habit of self-depend- ence. Most of the words in a sentence the student can recognize at once. By an effort he can recall others. As to the uncommon words, by observation of their relation to the rest of the sentence as shown by their form, by examination of their formation, by use of the imagination, it is possible in most cases to arrive at what they must inevitably mean. To confirm such a judgment and fix the word in the mind, it is necessary to use the lexicon, and use it care- fully. To turn to the lexicon without earnest effort at self-reliance is excellent finger exercise, but it is deadly to the mind. Serviceable alike for forms and syntax and words is composition in Greek. As a drill in all these, nothing can take its place and there is no surer test of real scholarship. It is not an end in itself, but it necessitates a command as well of details as of general principles that is of inestimable help when applied to the reading of a Greek author. For the first year, Greek sentences should be written daily. During the second, at least one period a week should be devoted to composition. To write in the spirit of the Greek, and anything else is surely superfluous, it is necessary at first to imitate some good model. This model it is best perhaps to find in the text being read. Hardly inferior to writing Greek as a means of learning the structure of sentences and in the cultivation of a feeling; for style is the reading of Greek aloud. It is a great help, too, in forms and pronunciation, teaching by ear as well as by eye. For the first two years, it is well always to read the day's passage aloud, either before or after the translation, but never without expression. We do not, or should not, read English as if it were meaningless. Why then read Greek sentences like lists of words in a vocabulary? Beading in concert is useful, the teacher with proper emphasis reading a clause first, the class then reading in unison after him, 44 Teaching in High Schools. slowly and distinctly, every member making himself heard. A class once accustomed to this can read together without trouble, the teacher leading with a strong voice, but not giving out the pas- sage clause by clause as before. In poetry, of course, this is easier than in prose, and even more profitable. There is no surer way to learn the measured flow of the verse or to gain a correct idea of time. Still, reading in concert does not permit of the finer ex- pression of meaning demanded in individual reading. To this it but paves the way. If such a thing were possible, it might be well to dispense with translation entirely. Unfortunately, teachers, being seldom mind- readers, are forced to ask their pupils to translate in order to find out whether they understand what they read. Yet translation is profitable for other reasons also. It is a capital drill in clearness and elegance of expression in English. That is, if it be really translation. Perfect translation is rendering the thought of one language into another, without loss, without addition, in a style reproducing the characteristics of the original. This requires in the translator a genius akin to that of his author. He must have perfect knowledge of the other's language and perfect facility in his own. We may not succeed in becoming expert translators, but it is worth while to try. From the first day to the last, the good teacher will never tolerate bad English. His own renderings being irreproachable, he will insist upon idiomatic, if possible elegant, English from his students. Literal translation can not be either. It results in that horrible translation lingo that is justly the great reproach of classical teaching. Of course a passage must be under- stood before it can be translated. This once secured, it makes little or no difference how "free'' the rendering is. If it gives all the thought of the original and no more, in an appropriate English style, it is a good translation. Let the work begin with an introductory book that is not too minute, White's First Greek Boole, or Ball's Elements of Greek, for instance. Each lesson should be mastered. From the beginning, accuracy is essential. Errors uncorrected produce slip-shod habits. The teacher himself will be scrupulously accurate always. In the sounds of the letters, it is best to follow the rules as given in White or Ball. They embody the best American usage. Let the words be pronounced always with the principal stress on the accented syllable. This is not what accent meant to the Greeks, but it is the best we can do. Greek. 45 It is pleasant to vary the work of the introductory book with the reading of a collection of easy stories like Moss's Greek Reader. Short, attractive stories, such as these, stimulate the student to read them for their own sake. After the introductory book and the easy reader come the Anaba- sis, grammar and composition book. Goodwin and White's Anaba- sis is perhaps the most satisfactory, though Kelsey and Zenos, and Harper and Wallace are preferred by many. Between the two popular grammars, Goodwin and Hadley-Allen, there is little to choose. Goodwin's is the more recent. For composition, there is no really satisfactory manual. Choice had best, perhaps, be made between Woodruff, Collar and Daniell, Harper and Castle, and Pearson. They are all constructed on the imitation theory, the exercises being based on passages from Xenophon, chiefly the Anabasis. In a good school, the first year's work of five forty-five minute periods a week will include the introductory book and the whole of a book of stories like Moss's; or, if the stories be not read, the first book of the Anabasis, except the ninth chapter. The second year, also of five three-quarter hour periods a week, is long enough for the first four books of the Anabasis, besides composition. If only three books can be read, let them be the first, third and fourth. The fourth is much more interesting than the second. Homer it is better to postpone to the third year, if the curriculum include one; or to the University. Nobody has a right to begin Homer without a thorough grounding in Attic prose. In the work of the first years in Greek the learning of new forms is tiresome, and the strange vocabulary is an ever-present stum- bling block. It is the teacher's part to smooth the way. Let things never drag. "Snap," combined with unfailing patience and sympathy, goes a long way to make the student enjoy his class hours, and carry the interest to his study. Then, too, sidelights from history, mythology, art, public and private antiquities, will carry a class over many a hard place, and may kindle an enthusiasm utterly unexpected. After all, the ideal of classical scholarship is a knowledge of classical civilization, and though language and literature are now our chief concern, they are not all we have to guide us. Moreover, there should be pictures illustrative of classical art and scenery, the more the better. They are cheap now and wonder- 46 Teaching in High Schools. fully good. Let there be a plaster cast or two — the Venus of Milo and the Hermes of Praxiteles, first of all. The unconscious influ- ence of such things is strong not only in rousing an interest in things Greek, but in creating a refined taste in general. Next to wall pictures and casts, lantern slides give best results. A good lantern can be had for $25, and excellent slides for forty cents apiece. If the teacher be a clever workman, he can make them himself for much less. Better even than sidelights from the teacher is what the student finds out for himself. Let him have access to the proper books and be taught how to consult them. Every school should have at least the nucleus of a classical library. Among the books first bought should be a history of Greece (Botsford : The Macmillan Co., $1.25; or Oman: Longmans, Green & Co., $1.20; or Myers: Ginn & Co., $1.25), a classical dictionary (Smith, revised by Marindin: D. Appleton & Co., $5.00), a dictionary of antiquities (the new Smith, revised and shortened by Cornish : H. Holt & Co., $4.00, or Seyffert: The Macmillan Co., $3.00), a classical atlas (Kiepert: Band, McNally & Co., $3.00; or Murray's, Oxford University Press, $1.50), a manual of Mythology (Gayley: Ginn & Co., $1.50, or Bulfinch : H. Altemus, $1.25 ; or Murray : C. Scribner's Sons, $1.25) ; a history of Greek Art (Tarbell : The Macmillan Co., $1.25 ; or Collignon's Manual of Archaeology; Cassell & Co.. $2.00), a history of Greek Literature (Jevons: C. Scribner's Sons, $2.50, or Fowler: D. Appleton & Co., $1.40, or Mahafly: The Macmillan Co., $4.00). Besides these there should be Schreiber's Atlas of Classical Antiquities, translated by Anderson (The Macmillan Co., $8.00), Gardner and Jevons' Manual of Greek Antiquities (C. Scribner's Sons, $4.00), Gulick's Life of the Ancient Greeks (D. Appleton & Co., $1.40), Goodwin's Greek Moods and Tenses (Ginn & Co., $2.00), and Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon (The American Book Co., $10.00). In all his work the teacher will remember that his primary object is to teach the student to read Greek. Everything else is subsidiary to this. The true teacher will know what is essential and what is not; what must be stressed and what passed lightly over; yet he will not forget that "Haste makes waste," and that the fruit of carelessness is muddy thinking. W. J. Battle, Professor of Greek. MODERN LANGUAGES IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. INTRODUCTORY. The true value of all linguistic and literary study is primarily the disciplinary value which is inherent in all language study when properly taught. A secondary value is the knowledge gained of the life and literature of the country in which the language is spoken and their influence upon civilization, the preparation for intellectual pursuits that require the ability to read these lan- guages for information, and lastly the practical knowledge of the language which will be useful in business and travel. The second- ary advantages are probably fully as important, if not more so, than the general discipline derived from study. In the hands of competent teachers the disciplinary training received in the study of modern language can and ought to be equal to that obtained from the study of any language. For though the forms of the French, Spanish, or German language may be more easily acquired than those of the Greek or the Latin, yet the reasoning powers of the scholar can and ought to be as thor- oughly developed by an exact and comparative study of idiomatic expressions and peculiar constructions which show the different lines of thought along which the various nations approach the same fundamental idea. Difficulty is not a test of discipline, for the latter is the result only of careful and correct teaching. The study of a living language has a reflex action upon one's own language, for it gradually leads one to a careful observation of the similarities and dissimilarities existing between the two lan- guages, enlarges his vocabulary, and opens up new modes of thought for his contemplation. The trend of modern life is too varied and cosmopolitan to be limited to one language. For the paramount interests of mankind are too important to be centered in one na- tion. The living issues of the day are universal and he who would keep abreast of the times must be thoroughly versed in the world's best literature. Therefore a knowledge of the languages of those nations which are the leaders of modern thought is the only safe introduction to their life and literature. For modern intellectual 48 Teaching in High Schools. and social activity find their expression in the poetry and prose, science and theology produced by each age the world over. The ability to read and speak a foreign language necessarily broadens one's field of usefulness, adds to his own ideas those of other na- tions, and opens up to him new and unexplored avenues of pleas- ure. For "in nearly all branches of knowledge at the present time a large part of the best that has been written is to be found in the German and French languages." These advantages call for a liberal provision for the study of the modern languages in the preparatory schools. They should be given a fair chance to show their worth in the educational system of the State, which, when they are properly taught, is not less than that of the ancient languages, as is admitted in the words of Presi- dent Eliot, Educational Reform, p. 378 : "It seems to me that the teaching of modern languages in many of the schools * * * has now reached such a stage that we may fairly say that a training in French or German, or both, can be given which is just as sub- stantial, strong, and useful a training as any other that is given in the same period." The following suggestions are offered as indicating the kind of preparation required for admission to the University. The pronunciation is a. matter of primary importance for the beginner. Constant drill should be kept up until right habits are firmly fixed. It will be necessary to train both the ear and the vocal organs of the learner; oft-repeated imitations of a good pro- nunciation are the only sure means of acquiring an approximately accurate pronunciation. The teacher should never grow weary of correcting faults, even though perfection does not follow. A knowl- edge of phonetics is an invaluable aid to the teacher in correcting faulty pronunciation, for it enables him to see the difficulty of the pupil and to help him to overcome it. The next important step after the acquisition of a good pronun- ciation is the ability to use properly the idioms of a language. A thorough drill in the idioms acquired by the memorizing and fre- quent repetition of colloquial sentences is therefore urgently recom- mended. The best drill will be in short dialogues in the language taught, which the teacher can easily improvise by noting down suitable sentences from the reading. These sentences should be written in improvised exercises, as well as repeated orally. French. 49 In dealing with grammatical forms the teacher must dwell upon them until they become secondary nature. It will require con- stant repetition, but the time spent will tell throughout the whole course and will be a gain to both teacher and pupil. Let the teacher concentrate upon those words that belong to the language of every day life and make sure of these. The rest will come of themselves. Useful hints on teaching French and German will be found in the following works : Eeport, of the Committee of Twelve of the Modern Language Association of America (published by the Bureau of Education) ; Methods of Teaching Modern Languages (D. C. Heath & Co.) ; A Practical Study of Language, by Henry Sweet (Henry Hclt & Co.). FRENCH. I. First and second years : Fraser and Squair's French Gram- mar, Joynes's Fairy Tales* (Heath) ; Merimee's Colomba (Holt) ; France's Abeille (Heath) ; DeVigny's Cachet Rouge. (Heath) ; Daudet's Le Petit Chose (Heath). II. Third and fourth years: Fraser and Squair's French Grammar; Maupassant's Huit Contes Choisis (Heath) ; Augier^s La Pierre de Touche (Ginn) ; Labiche et Martin's Moi (Alhyn and Bacon) ; Sand's La Mare au Diable (Holt) ; Theuriet's Bigarreau (Heath) ; Thiers's Bonaparte en Egypte (Holt) ; Michelet's La Prise de la Bastille (Ginn) ; Taine's Les Origines de la France Con- temporaine (Holt); Hugo's La Chute (Heath). Remarks on the First and Second Year's Work. Grammar and Composition: In the first two years the pupil should master the equivalent of the first 175 pages of Fraser and Squair's French Grammar,' not including the less important ir- regular verbs, and including some important sections of the re- mainder of the book. Fraser and Squair's grammar is recom- mended for its judicious arrangement of material and copious exer- *Although somewhat old-fashioned, the language of those tales is not sufficiently different from modern French to be objectionable. 50 Teaching in High Schools. rises, which are, however, open to the objection that they can be written more or less mechanically. Composition should begin at once, and pupils be required to write an exercise daily. Exercises should frequently be assigned which cover all the ground gone over, and do not merely illustrate one or two rules. Pupils should be asked to state accurately the reasons for all they do. They should, for instance, be able to answer such questions as these: When is the hyphen used? When does elision occur? What are the rules for position of verb and subject in questions? How are the rela- tive pronouns used ? It is true that pupils can, without being able to formulate any rules, learn to do many of these things by mere practice. It is also true that the attempt to do this usually results in slovenly work, and. later, in an incurable dislike of the subject. The memorizing of sentences should begin early ; it is the best means of learning the pronunciation ; yet it is, perhaps, well not to insist too strongly on this before the pupil has begun to feel at home in the language. Conversation : The teacher must be guided largely by the spe- cial circumstances of the work in determining the importance of practice in conversation, and how much time is to be given to the subject. Only in exceptional cases does it seem advisable to stress this kind of work at the expense of the rest. It is important in teaching pronunciation. Used judiciously, it may serve to stimu- late interest, and this consideration alone is sufficient to justify a certain amount of it. Under no circumstances should the pupil be encouraged or allowed to speak in broken or ungrammatical sen- tences. There can be no doubt that the best preparation for con- versation is a solid basis of grammar, and it should, therefore, not be introduced too early. Heading : It is suggested that the reading be not begun before the second half of the first year's work. It is the custom with many teachers to begin reading much earlier than this. One ad- vantage of the plan, it is claimed, is that it gives the pupil the feel- ing that he is progressing rapidly, and ensures interest. It is also claimed that, after all, the chief difficulty in learning a modern language is the acquisition of a vocabulary, and that it is, there- fore, desirable to begin reading early, and to read as much as pos- sible and as rapidly as possible. In reply it might be urged that the novelty of translating soon wears off, that grammar can be French. 51 made interesting to pupils who are willing to work — and the others need not be considered, — that the interest which comes from doing something thoroughly is the only wholesome form of interest, and that to postpone the reading until a solid 'foundation of forms has been laid is the shortest way in the end. The reading should pro- ceed slowly and carefully for some time, say until the end of the first year; after this, it may be well to combine accurate reading and careful explanation of all difficulties with rapid reading. Sight reading, during the first two years, seems of doubtful profit. Idio- matic translations are doubtless a good training in English. The teacher must determine how far he is responsible for the pupil's English. The first text read should be selections of easy, modern prose, and narrative rather than dramatic. Many texts are pub- lished by Heath, Ginn, Holt, and others, and it is easy to make a selection. Standard authors should be preferred. In the course of two years some four or five hundred pages should be read. Cer- tain texts have been suggested above, but no special advantage is claimed for them over others. If too much stress seems to have been laid on the grammar, it may be well to remark that many of the students who apply for admission to the advanced courses in the University are found to be in a very hazy and muddled condition, and more difficult to teach than if they had no French at all. It should also be noticed that the practical, rapid and natural methods are largely responsi- ble for the contempt in which the modern languages are not alto- gether undeservedly held as disciplinary studies. Third and Fourth Year's Work. Grammar and Composition : In the course of these two years, a fairly full grammar, such as Fraser and Squair's, or Edgren's, should be completed. Composition should comprise, in addition to illustrative sentences from the grammar, practice in writing sen- tences based on text. The teacher can easily prepare such sen- tences, or he can use some of the many exercise-books based on this plan. The next step should be reproduction of passages read. It does not seem desirable to attempt original composition or transla- tion of selections, not especially prepared for the purpose. The writing of idiomatic French is extremely difficult, and no good is done by writing French which is not idiomatic. 52 Teaching in High Schools. Conversation : If the teacher wishes to stress conversation or to conduct the recitation in French, his course will probably meet with popular approval and with the approval of his classes. Yet this is not conducive to the acquisition of a large vocabulary by the pupil, and in such performances, the teacher is usually the chief performer. The pupil profits according to the effort he puts forth. Eeading: It is probably best to confine the reading to nine- teenth century authors, unless an exception be made for one or two plays of Moliere. It is probably well, also, to partake sparingly of the French poets. The novelists and dramatists furnish most of the texts read with accidental excursions into the historians and critics. A certain amount of sight reading may prove profitable. From eight hundred to a thousand pages should be read in the third and fourth years. SPANISH. In general, the remarks already made concerning modern lan- guage teaching are applicable here likewise. Care should be taken to do thoroughly whatever is done. Spanish, being a compara- tively simple language for the beginner, and being considered still easier than it is, is often carelessly taken up. Definite training in vocabulary, phrase and sentence work is of paramount importance, the construction should receive constant attention, orthographical principles should be mastered at the beginning and constantly practised, accents should not be neglected, and, if con- versation is used as a class-method, it should have for basis oral reproduction of material read by or to the pupils, and should be definite. Cultivate the ear and a feeling for the language, so that the pupil may not only gain knowledge of the language, but power to learn more of it. The following suggestions are offered for a four-year high-school course, with five recitations weekly of forty-five minutes each. Grammar and Composition: During the first two years the es- sentials of the grammar should be thoroughly and accurately pre- sented and well drilled on ; as a rule, it is wise to avoid much gram- matical detail at first, especially with young students. The method of presentation will differ according to the age of the pupils, their general preparation and their linguistic equipment. What iej Spanish. 53 taught should be clearly given, and its importance and logical con- nection well understood. At this stage it is probably best to lay stress on the regular verbs and the auxiliaries (teaching gradually the most common irregular verbs at the same time) ; on the correct use of verb tenses, especially tenses indicating action in the past; on the use of the pronouns; on passive and easy reflexive con- structions; on the fundamental idiomatic uses of ser, estar, haber, tener, hacer; on idioms involving numerals; on the use and posi- tion of adjectives; on simple infinitive and subjunctive construc- tions. From the first, a correct understanding should be required and correct habits implanted with regard to the principles of con- struction, and to the use of dependent clauses. Composition to begin ; sentences to be frequently written ; review exercises to be given covering ground gone over, as well as exercises illustrating special principles. Memorizing of good illustrative sentences may prove helpful in many ways. Again, let thoroughness be insisted upon in the grammar work, keeping the interest aroused. During the third and fourth years the grammar should be re- viewed, and the topics already studied should be emphasized and expanded. Syntax must be dwelt upon. Among the topics of peculiar importance are now: the subjunctive and the conditional future, the quasi-auxiliaries, the correspondence of tenses, the much abused para and por, imperfect and aorist constructions, etc. The construction of the sentence should be studied from a more advanced standpoint; composition should be continued, and its scope gradually widened, care being always taken to insist upon the use, in writing, of idiomatic Spanish. Throughout the grammar course, after principles are mastered, they may be profitably reviewed in connection with the reading done, and upon this again, reproduction and other forms of com- position may be based. This affords variety, and usually tends to give life and interest to the work. Besides, such methods are likely to result in the acquisition of a fairer vocabulary and a deeper insight into the language than can usually be gained by total dependence on disconnected sentence work. As to books, a few may be suggested. With young beginners Knoflach's Spanish Simplified often gives good results; Marion y des Garennes's Introduction a la Lengua Castellana, if carefully handled, gives a good introduction for practical purposes ; the same 54 Teaching in High Schools. is true of De Tornos; Giese's First Spanish Bool- is excellent, if reading be made the central point of interest and the basis of the grammar taught; Garner's Spanish Grammar is convenient, espe- cially to follow a very brief outline course such as that given by Knoflach or Marion y des Garennes; Monsanto's grammar is prac- tical, but ill-arranged and hardly systematic. Hills and Ford's Spanish Grammar, recently published, is a very useful book, practi- cal and well-arranged, and covering the essentials. For more ad- vanced work, either of Ramsey's Spanish Grammars is best; Knapp's, though very good, lacks revision and exercises. The teacher should own and consult at least one or two advanced grammars written in Spanish, especially the most recent edition of the Gra- matica de la Academia espahola, and Bello y Cuervo's or Pena's very useful grammars. Heading: As soon as practicable, reading should be introduced into the course; apart from other things, attractive stories, after all, do vary the work pleasantly, even at an early stage. But the reading must proceed carefully, and, at first, slowly. After the first stage, continued works of standard prose authors should be preferred where they are accessible; D. C. Heath & Co., Wm. Jen- kins, B. D. Cortina, Henry Holt, Appleton, The American Book Co., all publish commendable texts. At first, and particularly for very young pupils, and as material for varied work (or later for sight reading), good readers, such as those published by Silver, Burdett & Co., are useful. Ramsey's and Matzke's readers are very good; Knapp's is difficult, but contains excellent extracts. During the first and second years, probably some three to four hundred or four hundred and fifty pages may be read; during the third and fourth, something over twice as much. Enough good, idiomatic Spanish should be read to give the students something of the spirit of the language; tales like Trueba's Molinerillo or Val- des's Jose doubless leave a definite mark. It will be found inad- visable to introduce into the high school specimens of the classical drama, but some of the modern plays, such as Moratin's El Si de las Ninas, make good reading. In judiciously made extracts, the Don Quijote may be approached in the fourth year, seldom earlier. Well-selected essays afford variety in the reading. Interest may be aroused by putting into the hands of pupils, in- formally, such books as Conant's Primer of Spanish Literature, German. 55 Mrs. Oliphant's Cervantes, and the volumes on Spain and Mexico in the Story of the Nations Series. Spanish thought and litera- ture are distinctively national, and anything that helps to a true picture of Spanish life in the broad sense will give a better in- sight into the literature. GERMAN. 1. First and second years: Grammar and Composition — Essentials of German grammar; translation of easy, idiomatic English into German ; special attention given to the construction of the article, noun, adjective, pronoun and verb; constant atten- tion paid in reading and speaking to pronunciation and to German- English cognates. Heading and Conversation: Reading of easy, idiomatic Ger- man — especially graded stories, — and composition work based on the text required. Repetition of the passsages read in the pupil's own words will form material for conversation, but should be sparingly indulged in. About three to five hundred pages read in all. Text-books: A Brief German Grammar, by W. D. Whitney (Holt) ; Elementary German Grammar, by C. P. Ottis (Holt) ; Graded German Lessons, by W. Eysenbach, revised by C. Collar (Ginn) ; The Elements of German, by H. C. Bierwirth (Holt) ; A German Method for Beginners, by F. J. Lange (Allyn and Bacon) ; A Practical German Grammar, by Calvin Thomas (Holt) ; Essentials of German, by B. J. Vos (Holt) ; A German Grammar, by Joynes-Meissner (Heath) ; Beginning Grammar, by H. C. Bierwirth (Holt) ; A German Reader and Theme-Booh, by Calvin Thomas and W. A. Hervey (Holt) ; A German Reader, by H. P. Jones (Appleton) ; A German Reader, by Huss (Heath). Or, better, any collection of short stories like Bernhardt's Im Zivielicht. Third and fourth years : Review of elementary grammar based on easy modern prose; modern German idioms, word-order, sen- tence-structure, use of model auxiliaries, German-English cog- nates, bi-weekly composition based on some appropriate text; especial attention is given to free composition, word-formation, synonyms, idiomatic and conversational German stressed; modern 56 Teaching in High Schools. German short stories and comedies are read, about three to five hundred pages in all. Suitable books for reading may be se- lected from the intermediate texts of Ginn, Heath, Macmillan, Appleton, American Book Company, Allyn and Bacon, and others. Grammars same as above. Remarks on the First and Second Year's Wor~k. The work of the first and second year should consist mainly in drill on forms, on modern German idioms, word-order, sentence- structure, etc. Stress should be laid on pronunciation and here the teacher will have to do the work himself. Unless he knows the German pronunciation perfectly and can teach it from personal knowledge, and not from book knowledge, little progess will be made. No standard pronunciation exists in German any more than in English, but an accepted one does to a certain extent pre- vail. The grammars, however, do not give accurate rules, nay, worse, they often give false pronunciations that exist nowhere; hence the need of a good teacher. Beading should be begun as early as possible and drill in pronunciation connected with it. Grammars containing good idiomatic colloquies are best suited for these years, as the pupil will thus get the best idioms of the German with a knowledge of grammar and the vocabulary. These colloquies also a»fford a fine opportunity for conversation, if the teacher wishes to make use of it. It is best, however, to postpone conversation until the third or fourth years. Selections for reading are so abundant now-a-days that one can hardly fail to find something suited to any class. Graded readers, selections of graded stories and short stories are the best to begin with. In selecting, one should be careful and get a story not only written in idiomatic German, but also treating of German cus- toms and manners. For instance, Das Madchen von Treppi, though written in good, idomatic German, deals with Italian life and manners and should therefore be discarded. Take something genuinely German. The same line of reasoning would discard Der Neffe als Orikel, charming as the play is. We study German in order to put ourselves in the place of the Germans and see things as they see them. To do this work well requires a superior teacher who has not only the knowledge but also the tact to teach thoroughly and com- German. 57 petently the preparatory part of modern language study. When those in authority become as careful in selecting the teachers of modern languages as they now are in selecting those for Latin, Greek, Mathematics, and English the contempt which has so long existed for modern languages will soon disappear. A united effort will hasten that day. Remarks on the Third and Fourth Year's Work. These years should be devoted to syntax, reading and free repro- duction, of passages taken from some appropriate text. Here style and sentence-structure should be especially stressed and ad- vance should be slow. Let the teacher take some suitable passage and form several simple sentences from it and then teach the class how to enlarge those to compound and complex sentences, calling attention at the same time to word-order and style. Con- versation can then be based on these passages, at first in simple sentences and then in more complex, thus enlarging the pupil's knowledge of the German sentence from every point of view. In this way two objects will be accomplished ; viz., interest will be secured and the foundation of a thorough knowledge of the Ger- man sentence will be laid. On this foundation the teacher can build a fine superstructure for the grammar and for conversa- tion. The reading should be selections from the best prose writings of the nineteenth century, novels, dramas, and histories. The short story, or novelette is excellent for this purpose and enough material may be found in the publications already mentioned. More dif- ficult works should also be read. Historical prose like Schiller's Thirty Years' War, Wallenstein's Life, etc., is excellent. Dramas should be sparingly read and even then the light comedies of Ben- edix, Moser, Wilhelmi, etc., are best. Minna von Barnhelm will be the best of the great classics, but the others should be taken up later and at higher institutions of learping where the necessary equipment for their proper study is at hand. In conclusion stress must be laid on the fact that these years are assigned to elementary work and contain enough work in that line to occupy the whole time of the teacher and pupil. There- fore any digression into higher fields that may be more agreeable 58 Teaching in High Schools. to both teacher and pupil can only be at the expense of the pre- paratory part of the work. It does an injury to the pupil that can never be repaired. For he is in the first place too immature to pursue these higher studies profitably, as his mind can not yet grasp the great message of the authors read, and secondly he is not yet sufficiently well prepared and equipped to pursue them to advantage. The pupil should make haste slowly, and then he will advance surely, without having to retrace his steps and begin over again. Faust is an enigma to many mature minds, Wilhelm Tell, though easy to read, requires too extensive original research for sources, etc., to be read profitably at this stage. Iphigenie de- mands a knowledge of Greek, and is therefore unsuited for pre- paratory schools, Nathan der Weise is a religious controversy and presupposes a thorough knowledge of historical Christianity; in fact, all authors not belonging strictly to preparatory work require too advanced knowledge for this stage. More interest can be aroused, more real advance can be made, by using texts which are peculiarly adapted to elementary work. For the guidance of the teacher the following list of books is added : Text-books for the teacher: C. H. Grandgent, German and English Sounds (Ginn & Co.). Wilhelm Victor, German Pronunciation, (0. E. Eeisland, Leip- zig, Germany). Calvin Thomas, A Practical German Grammar (Holt). W. D. Whitney, A Compendious German Grammar (Holt). H. C. G. Brandt, A Grammar of the German Language (Allyn and Bacon). In German: T. C. A. Heyse, Lehrouch der deutschen Sprache (Hanover, Germany) . August Schleicher, Die Deutsche Sprache (Stuttgart, Germany). For pupils: Easy Beading: The selections are unlimited, the best choice being found in the Report of Committee on College Entrance Requirements, p. 109. W. D. Whitney, A Brief German Grammar (Holt). C. P. Otis, Elementary German Grammar (Holt). German. 59 (GlnTcot Gmded GermaU L6SS0nS > "** * W - C « dollar Joynes-Mdssner, German Grammar (D. C. Heath & Co.). Sylvester Primer, Associate Professor of Germanic Languages Lilia M. Casis, Adjunct Professor of Spanish. BOTANY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. The writer desires to take advantage of this opportunity to em- phasize the importance of placing the study of Botany in the cur- riculum of every high school in the State. It is his opinion, futher, that every school supported by the State should offer in- structions in Botany on the ground that, as the State's resources are largely measured by the products of plant growth — cotton, cereals, lumber, fruit, grasses, and garden products, — the study would be supposed to improve the quality and increase the quantity of these staple products and so add to the wealth and prosperity of the commonwealth. Even now, the State is committed to a policy of this kind in the purpose of having elementary agriculture taught in the public schools. It will be found that this course in elementary agriculture will consist in the main of botanical study in one phase or another, and incidentally it may be remarked that the botanical training in the high school will be utilized in large measure in carrying out the design. To give more emphasis to the fact that provision for the study of Botany in public schools is a good investment for the State, one need only point out what botanical investigations are doing at the present time in behalf of interests identified with the grow- ing of plants. The National Government alone employs several hundred men trained in various lines of Botany to carry on inves- tigations with plants with a view to improving quality, increasing yield, or otherwise making their cultivation more profitable, and more than three million dollars is spent in this work annually. As a result, varieties of cotton are being discovered which either have a better staple or more of it, or which mature earlier or are more immune against the attacks of cotton enemies. Similarly, varieties of wheat have been originated which are better suited to hot, dry climates, which resist the rust better, and whose grain is more valuable, by reason of its hardness, for special purposes. And so on with corn and other grains, with fruits and vegetables, with cattle ranges, forests, et cetera. These gains come about as a consequence of a clear insight into the phenomena of plant life toward which the study of Botany leads. Eeturning to the first statement about the importance of Bot- any in the high school, the utilitarian idea just exploited is to be placed second to the value of Botany as a means of education. Botany. 61 There is, of course, here involved a training of the powers of ob- servation and discernment, of dexterity in manipulation and of clearness and conciseness in expressing judgments, but of special importance is the field of knowledge with which the study ac- quaints one. It is the domain of biology. Here one inquires as to the origin and properties of living substance. He observes how it expresses itself in organized forms, and how from a simple beginning there has been an unfolding into countless forms of great diversity and complexity but all united by the tie of com- mon descent. One may not stop to specify further, but we may accept the oft-repeated statement that no other field of study in modern times has had so profound an influence upon the thought of the world as the study of biology. It would be poor economy that continued to neglect so powerful an educational agency. The argument here is of course for biology in general rather than for plant biology alone. That would no doubt be the better course which considered both the field of plant biology and of animal biology together, but since there are limitations as to the scope of the course and preferences as to the agreeableness and availability of materials for study, the case of Botany is here especially set forth. This leads to the presentation of a third reason for placing Botany in the course of study, namely, that the materials are abundant, conveniently at hand and agreeable to work with and that no large initial expense is necessary in providing for the work, though to be sure the possession of compound microscopes, for example, would be a great advantage. Briefly, then, the study of Botany is emphasized, first, because of its training value; second, because it furnishes a rational basis of knowledge upon which to develop the State's largest resources; third, because of the moderate expense in organizing and maintain- ing the course and of the abundance, availability, and agreeableness of the materials worked with. THE NATURE OF THE COURSE. In spite of the abundance of material to draw from, it has been no easy matter to decide what should be utilized in a high-school course or in what order to present it. The selection becomes still more difficult where the equipment does not include compound microscopes. This much seems certain, that the old system of analyzing flowers and laboriously struggling through a key to the Latin name, of amassing a vocabulary of meaningless names of 62 Teaching in High Schools. parts whose structure and function might be wholly unsuspected, is to be discarded as practically worthless for educational purposes. Not only have much time and energy been wasted along this line, but by assuming this procedure to represent botanical study the virility of the subject has been brought into question. If we keep in mind that this is a biological study, then we confine our choice of material to that which will give insight into biological phenomena; i. e. we shall study largely living plants themselves. Accordingly, physiology which deals with life processes, together with structure and adaptation of organs through which the func- tions are performed, will form the basis and largely the content of the course. It is maintained by some very superior teachers of Botany, that in the high-school course the student should begin with the lowest forms of plants and (assuming an equipment of compound micro- scopes) follow a series of types representing the various groups of plants from the lowest to the highest. This order is followed in the first year's work in Botany at The University of Texas. For high schools, however, where the students are somewhat less mature and where there may be no compound microscopes, it seems more advisable to begin with objects that are more or less familiar and easily seen and handled. Since in popular belief if not in fact the cycle of life in the highest plants begins with the seed, that familiar structure furnishes a good beginning point from which the cycle of life in the individual may be followed in its evolution from the relatively minute embryo through its germination period, its seedling stage, and so on to the mature plant which in turn produces seed like that from which itself sprang. Following this could be taken up the study of the plant kingdom in which, as in the preceding part, the most primitive plants are studied first and the more advanced successively in the order in which they seem to have evolved, until the highest — the higher seed plants — are reached. This part may be made brief as indeed it would need to be in case no compound microscopes were avail- able. A third part is further recommended which shall have in view the adaptation of plants to their environment. The first division will continue from the point reached in part two which ends with the study of the lily as a type of angiosperms. It will endeavor to trace the evolution of the flower through a series of progressive groups running from the most primitive to the most advanced. Botany. 63 The evolution here meant is that along the line of adaptation to pollination by special agencies — especially insects. The second division of part two will consider the subject of adaptation to physical environment of which climate and soils are the two general groups of factors. It will show how the factors of light, temperature, moisture, soil texture, etc., influence the structure and distribution of plants and will in particular deal with the plant geography of Texas from which a great wealth of illustration may be drawn. Such is in brief the plan of the course of study recommended for the high schools. It is by no means prescribed in toto but it is believed advisable to embrace in the year's work as wide a range of subjects as is here given. Following is a synopsis of the three parts of the course: Part 1. The study of a series of typical seeds; general structure, relation of embryo to food supply, experiments to determine vital processes in germinating seed. The seedling and the establishment of its relation to soil, light and other factors of its environment — especially with reference to nutrition. The gross anatomy and so far as possible the minute anatomy of roots, leaves, and stems considered especially in connection with the functions of these organs; variations in form and structure in roots, leaves and stems as adaptations to special purposes. The flower considered briefly as a shoot with its leaf members especially adapted by correlation to promote the vital function of reproduction. Part II. The study of a series of types representing the large groups of the Plant Kingdom; the gross structure and, with compound microscopes, the minute structure is to be studied and in each case the life history, i. e., the complete cycle of the individual is to be learned. The types embrace; a green alga, preferably Spirogyra, with superficial examination of numerous others; a moss, preferably the common Funaria; a fern, the maiden hair fern or the bracken fern (Pteris) ; Equisetum, and by special arrangement for collection, a Selaginella; the pine — any one of the three native Eastern Texas species will answer; the lily — adder tongue, crow poison, Camassia, easter lily, etc., will answer. In the study of the lily at this point only the floral structures are to be considered and in this, the attempt will be to understand the lily flower in its relation to the reproductive organs of the immediately preceding groups of plants. Part III. From the study of the minute structure and function 64 Teaching in High Schools. of the lily flower pass to the study of a series of flower types designed to show the evolution of the flower in its relation to pollinating agencies — especially insects. From Monocotyledon? select, say, the following: the cat-tail flag, or the pond-weed, a grass (the oat flower), water plantain, or arrowhead, a lily, an Amaryllis, Iris and Canna. From the Dicotyledons: the willow, or pecan, hackberry, buttercup, or Anemone, or Magnolia, larkspur, or columbine, geranium, or Oxalis, and nasturtium, the cotton blossom, the violet, the blue bonnet, or the sweet pea, the pink, evening primrose, nightshade, or morning glory, Salvia, or horse- mint, honeysuckle, "dandelion" (Pyrrhopappus), "ragged robin" (Lygodesmia), thistle or Centaurea, sunflower, or "fire wheel" ( G aillardia pulchella ) . The second division of part III : The Plant Geography of Texas. There will first be a brief general consideration of the environ- mental factors which influence the structure and habits of plants — temperature, moisture, light, soil texture, soil chemistry, etc., and specific illustrations of the effect they produce singly and in co-operation. Next, these factors will be considered in their specific relation to the Texas region and the distribution of plants as determined by them, but more especially the association of plants together forming characteristic types of vegetation or vege- tation formations; e. g., forest, prairie, chaparral. From these formations prominent species are to be selected for a study of the special adaptations in form and structure to their particular habitat, e. g., prickly pear and other cacti, spanish-d agger, long feaf pine, shade plants, water plants, etc. For the subjects comprised in part I, II, and the first division of III such texts as Atkinson, Bergen, Leavitt, and Stevens are to be recommended. Some of these also introduce the subject of plant geography, but the particular presentation of the subject indicated here — based on Warming's Ecological Plant Geography — has not yet been made available for use in any text-book in this country. On this account, and because of the desire to extend the knowledge of and interest in the plant geography of Texas, the writer has in mind to publish a bulletin on the subject for distribu- tion among the schools of the State. AMOUNT OF WORK REQUIRED FOR AFFILIATION. In the scheme of elective entrance requirements to the Univer- sity, Botany, where offered, absolves what is designated one credit. Botany. 65 This presupposes one full year of botanical study with the equivalent of one daily exercise of forty-five minutes duration for a term of at least thirty weeks. It is further required that at least one half the course be devoted to laboratory work. For the remainder there will be regular class periods in which the teachei will present new subjects or summarize work by lectures, hear recitations from text-books, reports upon collateral reading, experi- ments, field work, and so on. It would be preferable to have laboratory periods of double the length of the recitation period. The arrangement recommended would be, two class exercises weekly of forty-five minutes each, and three ninety-minute labora- tory periods weekly. The minimum basis accepted would be two class exercises and two ninety-minute laboratory periods weekly. It is customary to require three hours of laboratory work as the equivalent of preparing and reciting one lesson. EQUIPMENT. It was intimated in the previous paragraph that the initial equirment for botanical study need involve no large outlay of funds. Let this not be a misleading statement. A liberal equip- ment is highly desirable in order to insure reasonably efficient work. But if high schools wait for equipment, the introduction of Botany will be too long delayed. Better begin with what can be had and gradually acquire the rest. There may be no room for a laboratory, no extra time for laboratory periods, no compound microscopes ; still, if there be a teacher who knows Botany and can teach it, who knows where to find material for study and how to utilize it, who has some skill in devising experiments, the course will succeed anyhow and the material equipment will inevitably follow. The sine qua non of equipment, then, is a good teacher well equipped to teach Botany. On the average, it is safe to say that when a live teacher of natural science demonstrates objectively the value of his work, the trustees come forward with equipment money. Let more good teachers get thoroughly prepared to carry on laboratory science courses in the high school and it will not be long until every high school in the state will have a laboratory reason- ably equipped for at least one of the natural sciences. In order to meet the need for specific information in regard to the nature and cost of equipment for laboratory work in the hio-h school, there are given here two estimates of which the first, 66 Teaching in High Schools. A, may be described as liberal, the second, B, as very moderate. Both estimates are based on accommodations for twenty students at one sitting. ESTIMATE A.— A liberal equipment. 1. Special laboratory room, well lighted, preferably with east and north exposure. Water and gas connections if possible. 2. Five laboratory tables, each accommodating four pupils; one drawer and locker for each student, made by local mill or carpenters, from special design ; estimated cost $ 60 00 3. Ten compound microscopes at $30 each 300 00 4. Twenty dissecting microscopes at $3 each 60 00 5. One wall case for instruments and supplies ; made by local workmen from special designs; estimated cost 15 00 6. Standard section of herbarium case made as in 5 ; estima- ted cost 10 00 7. Twelve to twenty feet of broad table shelving for aquarium jars, cultures, standing experiments, etc., estimated cost.... 10 00 8. Glassware, pots, germinating trays and other utensils for growing specimens and for experiments ; estimated cost 10 00 9. Standard chemicals, preserving fluids, etc. ; estimated cost.... 10 00 10. Plant press, drying and pressing paper, collecting box; es- timated cost...* 5 00 (Most of these items furnished also by the students as a part of their own equipment.) 11. Reference books; see *list below; estimated cost about 50 00 Total estimated cost $530 00 ESTIMATE B. — A very moderate equipment. 1. Regular recitation room and desks to be used for laboratory exercises. 2. Special case of drawers and shelves for supplies; estimated cost..$10 00 3. Twenty dissecting microscopes, home made ; students furnish their own lenses; estimated cost 5 00 4. Utensils for growing class material, experiments, etc; estima- ted cost 5 00 5. Jars for preserved specimens preserving fluid, etc., estima- ted cost 5 00. 6. Outfits for pressing plants furnished by students. 7. Books 3, 9, 18, 28, 29, 34, 35, 36, in list below; about 25 00 Total about $55 00 REFERENCE LIBRARY. The following list of books is recommended as a liberal equip- ment in collateral reading. Such a list offers opportunity for Botany. 67 students to properly organize and relate the knowledge they gain in class and in the laboratory. The books starred (*) in this list are recommended for estimate A. Specially selected ones for estimate B as shown above. For convenience, the publisher and list price are given with each : BOOK LIST. 1. Arthur, Barnes and Coulter, Handbook of Plant Dissection, superseded by Caldwell's Handbook of Plant Morphology. Holt, 1904 $1 00 2. Arthur and MacDougal, Living Plants and their Proper- ties, New York, Baker and Taylor 1 25 *3. Atkinson, College Botany, Holt, 1904 2 00 4. Atkinson, Lessons in Botany, Holt 1 12 5. Bailey, Lessons icith Plants, N. Y., McMillan and Co.... 1 10 *6. Bailey, An Elementary Text-Book, McMillan 1 10 7. Bailey, Plant Breeding, 3d Ed., McMillan 1 25 8. Barnes, Plant Life, Holt 1 12 *9. Bergen, Foundations in Botany, Southern Edition, Bos- ton, Ginn and Co 1 50 10. Bergen. Teacher's Manual, Ginn 30 11. Bergen, Elements of Botany, Revised, Ginn 1 00 12. Bessey, The Essentials of Botany, Holt 1 08 13. Britton, Manual of Botany of the North-Eastern United States, Holt 2 25 14. Caldwell, Laboratory and Field Manual of Botany, N. Y., Appleton and Co 90 See also 1, above. *15. Campbell, Lectures on the Evolution of Plants, MacMillan 1 25 *16. Campbell, A University Text-Book of Botany, MacMillan.. 4 00 17. Clements and Cutter, Laboratory Manual in High-School Botany, Lincoln, Neb., Univ. Pub. Co 75 *18. Coulter, Plant Relations and Plant Structures, Appleton 1 80 19. Coulter, Plant Studies, Appleton 1 25 *20. Coulter, Botany of Western Texas, Supt. of Documents, Washington, D. C 50 21. Curtis, Text-Book of General Botany, N. Y., Longmans, Green and Co 3 00 *22. Conn, Agricultural Bacteriology, N. Y., P. Blakiston and Sons 2 50 23. Darwin, Insectivorous Plants, N. Y., Appleton, 6th Ed.... 2 00 *24. Darwin, Fertilization of Orchids, N. Y., Appleton, 6th Ed. 2 00 *25. Ganong, The Teaching Botanist, Macmillan 1 10 *26. Ganong, Laboratory Course in Plant Physiology, Holt 1 00 *27. Green, Principles of American Forestry, N. Y., John Wiley and Sons 1 20 *28. Kerner, Translated by Oliver, Natural History of Plants, 2 Vols,. Holt 11 00 68 Teaching in High Schools. *29. Leavitt, Outlines of Botany with Flora, N. Y., American Book Co 2 25 *29a. Lloyd and Bigelow, The Teaching of Biology, Longmans, 1904 1 50 30. MacDougal, Practical Text-Book of Plant Physiology, N. Y., Longmans 3 00 31. Pammel, L. H., Ecology, Ames, Iowa.. 3 00 *32. Parker, Elementary Biology, 6th or later Ed., MacMillan 3 00 *33. Setchell, Laboratory Practice for Beginners, MacMillan... . 90 *34. Small, Dr. John K., Flora of the Southeastern United States (good westward to 100th Meridian), N. Y., Bo- tanical Garden, Bronx Park, N. Y 2 50 *35. Spalding, Guide to Study of Common Plants, Boston, D. C. Heath & Co 90 *36. Stevens, Introduction to Botany — Key and Flora, Heath.... 1 25 37. Strasburger, Noll, Schenck and Sehimper, Translated by • Porter, A Text-Book of Botany, MacMillan 4 00 38. Underwood, Our Native Ferns and their Allies, Holt 1 25 *39. Warming, English Translation, Plant Geography, Oxford, Clarendon Press (Ready in 1904; apply to Lemcke and Buechner, New York, N. Y.) (?) DEALERS IN LABORATORY SUPPLIES. The following firms are mentioned because of the writers per- sonal knowledge (through several years of business relation) of the standard quality of the goods furnished at usual market prices : Bausch and Lomb Optical Co., Bochester, New York. Cambridge Botanical Supply Company, Cambridge, Mass. Kny Scheerer Co. (Importers), New York. Spencer Lens Company, Buffalo, N. Y. Williams Brown and Earle, 918 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. STUDENT EQUIPMENT. In a laboratory course, certain items of equipment are cus- tomarily furnished by the student himself. Such equipment is rarely of so great expense as to seriously deter students from pursuing the course. 1. A text book. See 3 or 9, or 18 or 29 in Book List. Cost $1.10 to $2 00 2. A magnifying glass. Cost 50 cents to 75 3. Drawing paper and pencil, note paper and manila cover for notes and drawings 50 4. Home made dissecting needles 5. Sharp pocket knife or old razor 6. Home made plant press Total cost need not exceed $3 50 Botany. 69 Other desirable though not indispensable items — e. g. forceps, section razor, tin collecting box — may be added as means and inclination permit. THE IMPORTANCE OF LABORATORY WORK. Too much stress cannot be laid upon this method of pursuing a course in natural science. It is the means of direct contact with the objects of study and of training in methods of work, in habits of close observation, in verbal expression of accurate judgments, in dexterity of manipulation and in skillfulness in illustrative drawings. For the surer realization of the ends sought in pursuing labor- atory work certain fundamental requirements may be stated: 1. The time of the laboratory period is to be fully employed by every member of the class. This is largely a matter of skill on the instructor's part in providing suitable materials and in giving specific directions as to what is required. 2. Heedless and slovenly ways of working are not to be tolerated. Some of the best results to be expected in laboratory work are neatness,* deftness and right ways of doing things. 3. The student is required to keep a suitable record of his work in the form of a book of notes and drawings bound together under manila or pasteboard cover. The making of this book is of the greatest importance. In laboratory work the student may forget text and other authority and himself become an investigator in new fields, the results of which investigations he must embody in a book of which the one feature is that it represents the best he can do in discovering and recording facts that to him are new. The work is his own. On this account it is better that his originality should crop out in crude though fairly exact drawings than that these should be reduced to the common level of a copy of some diagrammatic crayon drawing or chart or text figure. 4. The content of laboratory work should embrace not only the study of form and structure, but also experiments demonstrat- ing vital processes — respiration, growth, starch formation, absorp- tion of nutriment, the effect of gravity and light on growing organs, etc., etc. Furthermore, the fixed hours and subjects of work in the laboratory are to be supplemented by field excursions under personal supervision and by the largest possible amount of individ- ual effort. Here, let us emphasize the special value of leading students to undertake larger tasks involving the cultivation of 70 Teaching in High Schools. plants on a relatively large scale for experimental purposes. Each separately, or several jointly may establish experiment "farms" upon which really valuable operations may be carried on. The following are illustrations of possible field demonstrations : a. To show the difference between plants grown in the open and under partial shade using lattice work or cheese cloth. b. To show the difference between plants of the same species grown in soils of different texture and chemical content. c. To show the difference between cotton plants grown from small inferior seed and those from large vigorous seed taken from a vigorous plant. d. To compare results between plats of cotton planting when little cultivated and when frequently cultivated. In short, those very problems which are of vital concern to the farmer and upon which a great deal of attention is being con- centrated, may be taken up by students in a botany class as a feature of laboratory work — not to supplant that done in the laboratory proper but to extend and supplement it. It is not suggested that these larger operations be attempted as the regular work of the class — certainly not to begin with lest they involve a very impracticable situation — but they indicate the direction in which the study of Botany may be made to take hold of 'practical matters at a specific point. Such operations might be extended to comprise the varied work of regularly established school gardens on the one hand or to include experiments in cultivating the various plants of field, garden, orchard, and landscape gardening. W. L. Bray, Associate Professor of Botany. CHEMISTRY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. The introduction of chemistry as one of the optional require- ments for admission makes it necessary to publish specific informa- tion concerning the character of work that must be done by candidates for admission who present this subject. Chemistry properly taught has as much educational value as any other subject ; badly taught, it is valueless, and, to avoid any misunderstanding on the part of candidates for entrance, and also in order to give the secondary schools due notice of what will be expected of them, the "Special Eeport of the Committee on Chemistry presented to the Committee on College Entrance Eequirements of the National Educational Association" (majority report) is published here in full. The University of Texas desires to see this report in force at once, because it means that chemistry will be rationally taught, — that dogmatism and text-book idolatry, insofar as chemistry is concerned, will be buried. A note book containing a complete record of the experiments he has performed, and certified by the teacher, must be presented at entrance by the candidate. The note book must bear evidence that the candidate has formed the habit of keeping an intelligible record of laboratory work extending through the entire series of experiments performed. The Special Eeport of the Committee on Chemistry, presented to the Committee on College Entrance Eequirements of the Na- tional Educational Association, is so valuable that it is reprinted here in its entirety : "SPECIAL EEPOET OF THE COMMITTEE ON CHEMISTEY. "presented to the committee, on college entrance require- ments OF THE national educational association in 1899. I. VALUE AND PLACE OF CHEMISTRY. "The study of chemistry is a valuable constituent of the high school course on account (1) of the training in observation in gen- eral and correct induction from observation which it affords, and 72 Teaching in High Schools. (2) of the first-hand information which it gives about well-known materials, the principles of their manufacture, and their properties, as the result of personal observation. "The college invites its study in preparatory schools on account of these two benefits. To be of subsequent use the method and con- tent of the courses in preparatory schools must be definite and uni- form. The selected matter must be thoroughly taught, so as to form a recognizable constituent of the preparation of those who present it. When these conditions are fulfilled, the college must give proper recognition to the work. All colleges must give admis- sion credit for the subject. In addition to this each college must provide definite means for advancing the entrant in chemistry to an extent corresponding to his previous knowledge of the subject. The precise method of doing this will depend upon the nature of the course the college itself offers. In any case no pupil who offers chemistry for entrance, and receives definite credit for it, should be placed in the same class with beginners who had no such credit. "Without laboratory work school chemistry is wholly valueless for the purposes just mentioned. It should be preceded by physics, since chemistry necessarily assumes a knowledge of the physical properties of matter and of the phenomena connected with heat and electricity. If, on account of limited teaching force, relatively little time can be given to the science, it is preferable to give a year each to one or two sciences than shorter periods to a larger number. It must be remembered that, for the efficient teaching of science, preparation of apparatus and experiments for -demonstrations and laboratory work are necessary, and the science teacher cannot, there- fore, carry more than half the number of recitations assigned to most other teachers. "outline of a one-year course. "The work outlined below will demand at least 200 hours' work ; about half the time, in two-hour periods, should be spent in the lab- oratory. "II. METHOD OF TEACHING. "Laboratory Work. — The experiments must be performed by each pupil individually. "Each pupil must record his observations and the interpretation of them in a note book. Hi? work should be continuously super- vised and his records frequently examined by the teacher. Chemistry. 73 "Most pupils will tend to fall into merely mechanical perform- ance of assigned work. To combat this is the most difficult task of the teacher of chemistry. Each experiment is a question put to nature, and forethought and care are necessary in putting the question, and study and reflection in interpreting the answer. Strenuous effort is required to make the pupil realize this. The questions incorporated in the laboratory outline, to which answers are expected as part of the notes; individual questioning in the laboratory; above all, frequent, thorough quizzing of the whole class, are the best means of forcing the significance of this practical work into the foreground. "Beginning at an early stage in the course, simple quantitative experiments should be given, in order to illustrate the laws of defi- nite and multiple proportion, the determination of combining and equivalent weights, the specific gravity of gases, etc. This will enable the pupil to appreciate the fact that, although the quantities used in the majority of laboratory exercises may not be measured, yet the proportions and the compositions by weight of substances involved in all chemical changes are definite and measureable. Without such measurements atomic weights will seem purely myth- ical. Not less than six such exercises should be given. One or two of these experiments must be introduced early, in order that formula? and equations, when the time for their employment comes, may be given as abbreviated expressions of the results of quanti- tative measurements. "Qualitative analysis is a branch of applied chemistry, and can- not be learned otherwise than mechanically without a long prepara- tion in general chemistry. There should be no pretense of teaching it in a secondary school as part (much less as the whole) of the first year's work. It gives a distorted view of the classifications of the elements and of the relative importance of their properties, and bears the same relation to the science of chemistry that the Lin- mean system -of classification in botany bears to the natural. "Yet exercises on the recognition of chemical substances will tend to fix their properties in the mind and give a useful review of many of the facts and principles of the science, provided that a proper method of conducting them be pursued. Analytical tables encour- age mechanical work in a remarkable degree, and cannot be permit- ted. An outline suggesting suitable dry- and wet-way experiments, which will throw the burden of thought and rigid proof on the 74 Teaching in High Schools. pupil, will be a sufficient guide. This part of the work may fitly occupy five or six weeks of the course. "Class-room — Many parts of the subject can best be introduced by means of carefully reasoned and fully illustrated demonstrations by the teacher. Sometimes also this method of teaching has to be used where the apparatus is complicated and cannot be supplied to each pupil, or where, in striving to make the experiment successful, the pupil will be in danger of wasting time. Thus on pedagogical or practical grounds some of the Hofmann experiments for illus- trating the application of Avogadro's hypothesis (explosion of hydrogen and oxygen, electrolysis of hydrochloric acid, etc.) are best performed by the teacher. (No teacher should fail to read Hofmann's admirable Lectures on Modern Chemistry, 1865.) The line of thought to be developed in connection with the experiments performed by the teacher and by the pupil is well given (pp. 1-9) in the Harvard Requirements in Chemistry by Professor Eichards. "The theories and principles must be presented inductively. They should not be stated as dogmas, or as if they were part of the facts. They should be held in reserve until some accumulated facts demand explanation and correlation. Facts incapable of correla- tion should be avoided as far as possible. On the other hand, explanations by the handy affinity idea are worse than useless, as they are generally pure nonsense. When symbols and formulas are first introduced, special care must be taken to show how they are derived from quantitative measurements. The pupil's own observa- tions and other examples must be used to show how the formulas and finally the equations, are reached as expressions of quantitative relations. The whole process of determining the proportions by weight and constructing the formulae and equations must be done or described in connection with every chemical change, until the pupil is thoroughly familiar with the operation and the exact significance of the equation is perfectly clear (cf. Harvard pamphlet already mentioned (p. 24) on this point). Formula? must on no account be used before this can be done, as otherwise they will inevitably appear to be the source of information instead of the receptacle for it. All "exercises in writing equations" and rules for constructing them, as if they were mathematical expressions, must be rigidly excluded as fantastic and misleading. The misuse to which equations have been put has led to their omission or prolonged postponement by 6ome teachers. Their introduction at an early stage can do no pos- sible harm, provided the laboratory work contains exercises specifi- Chemistry. 75 cally intended to illustrate the way in which the facts recorded in the equations are ascertained and the manner in which the equations are constructed from these facts. The atomic theory should not be introduced until after this experimental foundation of the equation is thoroughly familiar. The equation has no necessary connection with this theory. The teacher will derive valuable hints in regard to method from Perkin and Lean's Introduction to Chemistry. "Library. — Interest in the study should be fostered by providing a small library. The use of this will counteract the idea which the pupil may possible receive that the text-book employed in the class is a "complete" treatise. It should contain some more advanced works, as well as some of a more popular nature. "in. subject-matter. "The following outline includes only the indispensable things which must be studied in the class-room and laboratory. The mate- rial is, for the most part, common to all elementary text-books and laboratory manuals. Each book makes its own selection of facts beyond this which may be necessary for the illustration of the prin- ciples of the science. The order of presentation will naturally be determined by each teacher for himself. "Outline. — The chief physical and chemical characteristics, the preparation and the recognition of the following elements and their chief compounds: oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine, fluorine, sulphur, phosphorus, silicon, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, copper, mercury, silver, alumin- ium, lead, tin, iron, manganese, chromium. "More detailed study should be confined to the italicized elements (as such) and to a restricted list of compounds, such as: water, hydrochloric acid, carbon-monoxide, carbon-dioxide, nitric acid, ammonia, sulphur-dioxide, sulphuric acid, hydrogen-sulphide, sodium-hydroxide. "Attention should be given to the atmosphere (constitution and relation to animal and vegetable life), flames, acids, bases, salts, oxidation and reduction, crystallization, manufacturing processes, familiar substances (illuminating gas, explosives, baking powder, mortar, glass, metallurgy, steel, common alloys, porcelain, soap). "Combining proportions by weight and volume; calculations founded on these and Boyle's and Charles's laws; symbols and nomenclature (with careful avoidance of special stress, since these are non-essential) ; atomic theory, atomic weights and valency in a 76 Teaching in High Schools. very elementary way; nascent state; natural grouping of the ele- ments; solution (solvents and solubility of gases, liquids, and solids, saturation); ionization; mass action and equilibrium; strength (^activity) of acids and bases; conservatism and dissipation of energy; chemical energy (very elementary) ; electrolysis. Chemical terms should be defined and explained, and the pupil should be able to illustrate and apply the ideas they embody. The theoretical topics are not intended to form separate subjects of study, but to be taught only so far as is necessary for the correlation and expla- nation of the experimental facts. "The facts should be given as examples from various classes, and not as isolated things. Thus to speak of a "standard method of preparing hydrogen," whereby the action of zinc on hydrochloric acid is meant, shows narrow and infertile teaching. It should be shown that all acids are acted upon by a certain class of metals to produce hydrogen. Examples of both classes of metals should be given and the general principles derived. The reason for using zinc and hydrochloric acid in the laboratory can then be stated. "IV. EQUIPMENT. "Chemistry cannot be taught satisfactorily without a proper lab- oratory and a sufficient supply of apparatus. The former should contain desks, with gas and water connections, bottle racks, and well-ventilated hoods. Each pupil should have his own set of apparatus. "In view of the prevailing idea that quantitative experiments require expensive apparatus, it may be mentioned that a balance with case (Becker No. 31) — costing, when imported duty-free, $15 — and weights ($1.25) will amply suffice, and some teachers secure good results by giving each pupil ordinary hand-scales, costing less than $1.50. There should be one balance to every six pupils work- ing at one time. In addition to this the following will be required : "Barometer; thermometers; burettes, two for four pupils at least; porcelain crucibles for each student; bottle for aspirator (one liter) for each student. "Most of the apparatus for demonstration can be made by the teacher by use of the blowpipe, some glass tubing of various sizes, and a few pieces of thin platinum wire. "It may not be out of place to add that a teacher competent to instruct a class after the fashion indicated here must have had con- siderable training; in the several branches of the sciences. His Chemistry. 77 minimum equipment will be: physics (one year), general chem- istry (one year), qualitative analysis (two terms; one term = twelve weeks), quantitative analysis (one term), theoretical chemistry (one term), organic chemistry (one term), some acquaintance with the history of the science, and familiarity with all the chief books suitable as works of reference in connection with such a course, and all the text-books for secondary-school chemistry." Of first importance is the qualifications of the teacher, next ade- quate laboratory equipment, and lastly a modern text-book, among which may be mentioned: Eemsen's An Introduction to the Study of Chemistry (Henry Holt & Co.) ; Newell's Descriptive Chemistry with Experiments (D. C. Heath & Co.) ; Hessler-Smith's Essentials of Chemistry (Benj. H. Sanborn & Co.). Under no circumstances should the teacher become enslaved to any one text-book. He should make it his business to be familiar with the literature of chemistry, especially as much thereof as may be serviceable in the work undertaken by him; and he should also feel it his duty to adopt a new text-book when in his opinion his work can be made more efficient by so doing. H. W. Harper, Professor of Chemistry. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. The Physical Geography offered to absolve an entrance require- ment of the University should be something more than the mem- orizing of a text — it should include a personal familiarity with maps and map-drawing and an ability to recognize and explain the more common phenomena with which we are brought in daily contact. There is no school so situated that geographic observa- tions are not within reach of the student. The action of water upon land surfaces can be studied, if only in the temporary rills formed by the falling rains; atmospheric currents — winds — and weather permit of constant observation, and, if instrumental, as with the vane, thermometer and barometer, so much the better. The study of clouds is a topic of never failing interest. In the more rugged portions of our country the decay of rocks may be noted and the physical agents that assist in or promote decay studied. On the other hand, the resistance of solid rocks or hard layers to stream- wear, with the formation of cascades and water-falls, affords a fruitful subject for investigation, even if exemplified in the way- side ditch. Then, too, much can be learned by a study of the changes wrought by storms — the effects of wind-action and of wave- action, especially when of a violent character, as seen in cloud- bursts, tornadoes, etc. There is no study more suggestive to the thoughtful mind than Physical Geography, the problems are so varied and interesting, changing with each locality: thus wave- action may be studied by those living on the coast or near ponds and lakes; cliff-disintegration by those living in mountain- ous regions; the relations of plant life to the underlying rocks by those inhabiting a region of varying geological formations. These hmits are thrown out that the teacher as well as the candi- date may understand that the ability to observe and reason for him- self is the goal sought rather than the ability to repeat that written by another in a text-book. Again, in order to understand physical geography well there must be a complete understanding of maps, not only of what they repre- sent, but of how they are made. For illustrative purposes, a few inexpensive materials will suffice — a compass, a measuring rod or tape, a ruler, and a sheet of paper for plotting. In making a refined map refined methods must be employed, but in laboratory Physical Geography. 79 instruction, of an elementary kind, principles are to be dwelt upon, not elaboration. Moreover, there must be developed in the student an ability to interpret the map so that it shall become something more than a mere plan upon paper, and especially ought this to be true of the modern contour map, which should become a picture with its topographic forms — its hills and valleys, its lakes and mountains — so brought out as to form a clear and distinct impres- sion. In these days of cheap photographs, correct representation of the relief of almost any region may be placed in the hands of a student at a trifling cost. As a further aid in study excellent con- tour maps may be obtained from the Director of the United States Geological Survey at a slight expense. In well-equipped schools additional facilities may be afforded by models showing different types of relief and by relief globes. From them various sketches and drawing may be made which will afford practice of substantial value. As will be inferred from that written above, much will depend upon the ingenuity of the teacher who should see to it that topics adapted to the local surroundings are assigned to the student, and that they are as carefully and as faithfully worked up as tasks assigned in mathematics, English, or any subject which requires thought. That there are subjects in Physical Geography which cannot as yet be well taught in the modern way — laboratory method — is admitted. While this defect may be partially overcome by the use of models it cannot be entirely remedied. But, though the text must be committed in siieh cases, abundant opportunities are still offered everywhere to illustrate most amply the value of study at first hand. The teacher should insist upon precision and neatness in the work. The notes .should be carefully taken and elaborated, and drawings and diagrams should be required wherever they are needed for the sake of clearness either in recording observations or in making explanations. Slovenly work ought not to be tolerated, and hasty work is usually defective. Care and patience, — this is the key to the situation — without them the best results cannot be attained. When a science, such as Physical Geography, is offered to fulfill an entrance requirement to the University it must have been scientifically taught and scientifically studied to the end that the phenomena experienced by the student in an objective way may 80 Teaching in High Schools. be accurately observed and explained by close and connected reason- ing. For a text one of the following books is recommended : Davis's Elementary Physical Geography (Boston, Ginn and Company), Gil- bert and Brigham's An Introduction to Physical Geography (New York, D. Appleton & Co.), and Tarr's New Physical Geography (New York, The Macmillan Company). Frederic W. Simonds, Professor of Geology. PHYSICS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. During the past twenty years the study of Physics has undergone a remarkable evolution in institutions of every grade. Following the marvelous development of scientific activities in their relation to the every day work of the world, which has characterized the present as the age of science, has come a widespread demand for the recog- nition of its prime factors in every modern system of education. In consequence of this demand and the resulting reorganization of educational curricula in accordance with new ideals, Physics has advanced from a wholly subordinate position to one of real promi- nence until today it stands on a par with all other subjects as a vital factor in every educational system. This advance, moreover, has not been confined to the colleges and universities, but, in fact, its greatest vigor has been manifested in the high schools. It is but a few years since, in recognition of a definite need of the time, the so- called "Committee of Ten," appointed by the National Educational Association, made its famous report advocating a rational method of teaching Physics and stating the general principles which should govern it. Nevertheless, in the brief time that has since elapsed, the spread of the ideas then advanced has been so rapid and the results secured have been so widely appreciated that in the older states, at least, there is scarcely to be found a high school in which Physics is not taught in accordance with what are now everywhere recognized as sound pedagogical principles. It is true that the study has been stimulated by its inclusion among the subjects recognized in college entrance requirements, but, on the other hand, it has come to occupy a place of its own by reason of its value to that large proportion of high school pupils who acquire no further scholastic training. Again, while it is true that, in their inception, the new methods of teaching this subject were conceived and promulgated by colleges and universities and their early development in the high schools guided and directed by them, it is a striking fact that the achievements of recent years in methods and practices have come through the efforts of a host of brilliant teachers who, in the high schools, have put all things to the test of actual experience and have clearly shown the way by which alone can success be attained. Not only, therefore, because of the fact that Physics may be 82 Teaching in High Schools. offered as fulfilling an entrance requirement to the University of Texas, but because of its marked value as a factor in the education of any and all high school pupils, it has seemed proper to set forth those methods of instruction which actual experience has shown should everywhere be followed. So, in considering the requirements for "affiliation" in Physics or for entrance to the University which are presented in the following pages, it should be borne in mind that the University is not seeking to inculcate any unusual or un- tried methods of teaching. Eather it is endeavoring to encourage the development of those which, from the standpoint of the interests of the high school and all the pupils taught therein, will lead to the best mental discipline and contribute, so far as lies within the province of any one subject, to that culture which was defined by Mathew Arnold as "knowing one's self and the world." CHARACTER OF THE COURSE. In the first place, then, a high school course in Physics should be continuous and thorough, occupying at least five school periods of forty-five minutes each, per week, throughout the year. The subject is too difficult and extensive to allow of any adequate presentation under any other conditions. From the earliest times, the most brilliant of scientists, trained by the severest mental dis- cipline, versed in higher mathematics and in full command of the vast accumulations of experimental facts and explanatory theories, have devoted themselves to the task of wresting from nature the laws and principles that govern natural phenomena and of reducing them to a system in which fact and theory blend into a harmonious whole. It is absurd, therefore, to believe that the beginner in the subject, with untrained powers of mind and without skill in obser- vation, can acquire in any brief time a substantial knowledge of even the elements of the subject. It is no less absurd than to consider it possible to cover the entire field of mathematics in a popularly presented course of a few weeks' duration. One great mistake made at present in every educational scheme is that we try to teach too many subjects, and the result is a dabbling in va- rious branches that is in no way calculated to fit boys and girls for any work in the world. Properly viewed, the aims of education are two-fold : in the first place, so to set forth the principles underlying any subject and to illustrate them by examples from actual expe- rience or practice, so to separate the important from the incidental, so to discriminate relations and facts, that the student may be ena- Physics. 83 bled to grasp the real meaning of the subject, note its possible and far-reaching applications, and learn how the material, moral, and spiritual forces in the universe have through means of it been made to work for the advancement of all mankind; in the second place, and most important, so to train the powers of acquisition and inquisition that one may be "able to clearly observe conditions and phenomena; to compare, contrast, and classify them; to dis- criminate relations and facts; to reason from the known to the unknown; to judge conclusions; to use the hands and senses with promptness and skill; to express facts and relations with clearness, conciseness and precision ;" and, finally, in attacking any problem in practical life to make use of that body of information which is contained in books and treatises and which alone is trustworthy. Considered from this standpoint, brief or so-called "popular" courses are an educational crime, since they give neither informa- tion nor mental discipline. To avoid the difficulties inherent in any subject results in misconceptions of the matter involved, to a loss of the power of concentration and to the stagnation of the beginnings of creative thought which are manifest in the mental operations of nearly every child. Much is to be gained from the struggle with that which is uncongenial, for the result is a strengthening of fibers and faculties that otherwise might become atrophied or useless. That various branches of knowledge, when rightly presented, are of value as ministering to the needs of diverse minds is true; but it is distinctly false that any hetero- geneous mixture of trivialities can afford the same training as a fully developed subject, the mastery of which requires continued and close application. When this fact is lost sight of, the drama of education all too frequently degenerates into a comedy, or even a tragedy, of errors. The foregoing may seem in a measure apart from the purpose of this article, nevertheless it has seemed proper to consider the general principles that should govern any grade of educational work since by reason of a failure to appreciate them, the study of Physics has been too often so placed in the school curriculum and taught in such a manner as to be a serious detriment to the pupil. METHODS OF TEACHING AND DISTRIBUTION OF TIME. Here the results of actual experience furnish the surest guide. There exists a consensus of opinion among all leading teachers in 84 Teaching in High Schools. the high schools, colleges, and universities that the purposes in view can best he subserved by a combination of class-room instruction and individual laboratory practice. There is an equal agreement with the opinion that, of the five periods a week devoted to the course, three" periods should be given to class-room instruction and two to laboratory exercises. Since the student need make no special preparation for these exercises, beyond reading over carefully the directions to be followed, it is strongly recommended that the time devoted to them be increased to two consecutive periods on two days of the week, thus giving four periods to laboratory work. This can be easily accomplished by such an arrangement of the schedule as will give a study period preceding the recitation period, the same to be added to the labor- atory period on the days when laboratory instruction is given. So much time is required for the adjustment of the apparatus and the recording of notes and observations on the experiments that it is difficult to accomplish any work of real value in a single period. Moreover, it is found that, far from proving a strain upon the student, the use of the two periods in laboratory practice cre- ates a greater interest in the work and prevents it from degenerat- ing into a sort of kindergarten exercise. CLASS-ROOM INSTRUCTION. General Character. The aim of the instruction should be not only the teaching of certain facts, but also the acquisition on the part of the student of the ability to connect the principles studied with the applications of plwsical laws that are met with in every day life. The state- ments of the text-book should be considered as the framework of the subject and not the entire sum and substance. Merely assign- ing a lesson one day and hearing the scholars blunder through it the next is not the kind of instruction that makes every student a thinker. However well a school book may be planned it is, after all, a book of texts that require continued application, ex- planation and illustration. Herein lies the real art of teaching and here the training, personality and enthusiasm of the teacher are the elements of success, forming a leaven that converts dry and apparently useless material into palatable and stimulating mental food. Physics. 85 The Text Bool: Since, however, the framework furnished by the text should be substantial and properly connected, the character of the book is all important. Here all that has been said concerning brief and easy courses applies with particular emphasis. It is a positive disgrace to the profession of teaching that, when there are text-books of great merit, written not by theorists but by practical high-school teachers, and taught today in hundreds even thousands of high schools, the books most widely used in the State of Texas are those that pro- fess to give in a few short weeks an adequate knowledge of the subject. It is true that, when the course covers, as it well may, two years, it is wise to begin with a good but elementary text adapted to the age and mental development of the pupils, and to follow this in the second year with a manual of recognized value. But, on the other hand, when in a course of one year's duration a trivial text is used, one is forced to consider it a confession of ignorance on the part of the teacher, both of the meaning of edu- cation and of the subject matter to be studied. The following text-books are strongly recommended as sound in theory and practice and all that is required for thorough instruc- tion: Carhart and Chute's High School Physics, Allyn & Bacon. Crew's Elements of Physics, The Macmillan Co. Andrews and Howland's Elements of Physics, The Macmillan Co. Avery's Elements of Natural Philosophy, Sheldon & Co. Recitations and Lectures. In the classroom, the advantages of both lectures and recitations should be combined, frequent illustrations being necessary in order to impart correct ideas. For this purpose, simple apparatus, large- ly home made, is desirable as best calculated to stimulate the in- terest which leads to independent thought and study. Highly fin- ished and expensive apparatus is not only unessential, but it often distracts the student's attention from the purposes of the illustra- tion and leads him to conclude that polished brass and mahogany are requisites to successful experimenting. Properly arranged ex- periments will illustrate the principles involved and also teach the scholar, in the study of physical phenomena, to secure compliance with the essential factors regardless of external appearances. For- tunately, such necessary apparatus as can not be easily constructed 86 Teaching in High Schools. by the teacher and scholars can be purchased at very reasonable prices from several makers, the equipment of high schools having created a demand for apparatus which, while simple, is accurate and satisfactory. Quizzes. In the conducting of the recitations, aside from necessary illus- trations and explanations, the method of cross-examination, or quiz, has distinct advantages. As stated by a prominent teacher in a recent article : "It compels the student to examine the grounds for his opinions and test the logical correctness of his thought pro- cesses so as to eliminate unwarranted assumptions, hasty induc- tions and false steps in deductions. The teacher should keep the minds moving rapidly, but not so fast that they can not hold the pace. When a student makes a hasty induction he should be com- pelled to check it by a further examination of the observed facts and previously established theory. When he makes careless deduc- tions he should be thrown back upon himself in order to make him prove his steps. In effect the quiz should be constructive not de- structive, positive not negative." Again, frequent quizzes or examinations are valuable to the teacher, as well as the scholar, as affording much information concerning the work of the class and the various questions which require further explanation and consideration. In fact the teacher, as well as the pupil, must be constantly a learner, if not in regard to the subject matter itself, at least concerning the method of its presentation, and, when properly considered, the written work of the student is a mine of information in this re- gard. Numerical Problems. Special emphasis should be placed upon the solution of numer- ical problems without which the training is sure to prove super- ficial and inaccurate. It is desirable to assign at least four prob- lems at each recitation, the solutions to be handed in at the next exercise, to be corrected and returned later. One of the problems should refer to some portion of the text studied at an earlier date, constant review work being essential. Much time will be saved in the correction of these exercises if the scholars be compelled to present the solutions neatly done on paper of uniform size. The corrected problems, if preserved, will prove of distinct advantage to the student in any further work in the subject. Physics. 8? Training in English. In every case, whether it be in the oral recitation or in the writ- ten work, the student should be required to use good English and to express himself clearly and accurately. It is a common and well founded criticism that scientific or technical students are lament- ably weak in the handling of their mother tongue. While it is true that the student of the classics or the modern languages has a distinct advantage in this respect through his constant study of linguistics and exercises in translation, and that we may rea- sonably expect of him a higher standard of literary expression, there is, on the other hand, no excuse for the use of bad grammar and poorly constructed sentences on the part of the student of science. Certainly any disparity in the degree of training in English afforded by the subject itself should be compensated for, as far as possible, by the placing of emphasis on this part of the instruction. LABORATORY PRACTICE. Its Character. Since a proper understanding of the subject can not be acquired without individual laboratory practice, especial attention should be given to the development of this portion of the course. In fact lab- oratory work is a sine qua non. No amount of careful class-room work can compensate for the lapk of it and where prevailing condi- tions will not allow of its introduction the entire subject had best be cut out of the curriculum. It is not sufficient for the teacher to perform the experiment be- fore the class and the student to copy the data furnished him and to deduce or verify the principle involved. The real value of lab- oratory work is only secured when the student performs the experi- ment himself, obtaining and classifying all data and with the least possible assistance. It may, indeed, be necessary, during the first few weeks or months of the course, for the teacher to first perform the experiment rapidly before the class, calling attention to its object, the reasons for the method used and any difficulties to be encountered but, as rapidly as possible, the student should be en- couraged to work independently. He should also be made to study the method and laboratory di- rections in advance and during the laboratory period to rely upon the text as little as possible. Unless care is taken, the scholars soon fall into the habit of blindly following the manual and recording 88 Teaching in High Schools. results, without making the effort necessary for the understanding of the sequence of the phenomena or the aim of the observations. Constant oversight and questioning of the individual is the only safeguard and is well worth, the effort. The Exercises. Laboratory exercises should be chosen with particular care, since upon their character largely depends the success or failure of the course. In general, each exercise should possess certain character- istics. "First, it should compel close observation and discrimina- tion and develop in the experimenter some skill and self-reliance. Second, it ought to contain the basis for the development of a gen- eralization or it should verify a principle already deduced. Third, the reasoning involved in reaching the conclusion must be simple and direct enough to be made by the student himself with very little assistance. Fourth, and most important, it must be distinctly quantitative in character and susceptible of a reasonable degree of accuracy." There is no reason for giving simple qualitative ex- periments which "merely illustrate, if they illustrate anything, principles with which the twelve year old boy has for some time been more or less familiar. It is undesirable to insult the intelli- gence of the boy even though he may not be able to return the compliment. The following is an example of the type referred to : Experiment : Carefully examine your pencil ; drop it on the floor ; pick it up. Has it suffered any change ?" This example may seem to be an isolated and exaggerated one, and yet an examination of the notebooks submitted to the University during the past two years shows the presence therein of some, at least, of this kind of trash, trash because it is wholly without educational value. Good qualitative experiments have a place, but it is in the class room and not the laboratory. Fortunately, there are at present several well known manuals, the exercises in which are thoroughly practical, of definite value and have stood the test of years of trial. While it is always well for the teacher to develop the ideas which come to him through ex- perience in the laboratory it is certainly wise for the beginner to confine himself to these experiments which are known to be sound in theory and practice. Among sUch manuals are the following and it is earnestly rec- ommended that one of these be chosen as the laboratory text-book. Stone's Experimental Physics, Ginn & Co. Physics. 89 Allen's Laboratory Physics, Henry Holt & Co. Crew & Tatnall's Laboratory Manual of Physics, The Maemillan Co. Cheston, Dean and Timmerman's Laboratory Manual of Physics, American Book Co. Chute's Physical Laboratory Manual, D. C. Heath & Co. In Exhibit A appended to this article will be found a list of sixty experiments of standard excellence, the thirty-five of these which are considered most valuable being marked with an asterisk. For the preparation of this list and that in Exhibit B following, the writer is indebted to Mr. J. M. Ivuehne, Instructor in Physics in the University. The Note-Bool. Special attention should be given to the notebook since it also is an important factor and of marked educational value to the stu- dent. "It compels him to put in writing the thoughts that are in his mind ; it aids him to a clearer expression of thought ; it trains him with increasing thoroughness in composition; it impresses more firmly upon his mind the facts he has learned in the develop- ment of the experiment; it enables him to acquire more systematic methods of doing things, and, as the notebook should never, save on race occasions, be taken from the laboratory, it teaches him to do things now and not to wait until tomorrow or some other convenient time." "To these ends it must be insisted that the notes should be neatly written, clear, concise and simple, containing only that which is necessary to make them complete and, finally, as nearly correct as the manual skill and mental caliber of the student will permit." More specifically, the notebook should contain a concise state- ment of : (a) The problem to be solved, with reference to page of manual used. (b) Apparatus used. (c) Necessary formulas and computations. (d) Observed results, together with such inferences as the pupil may be reasonably expected to draw. Apparatus. While, from the point of view of individual work, the ideal method is to provide for each experiment sufficient apparatus to supply the entire class working separately, considerations of ex- 90 Teaching in High Schools. pense preclude it in the majority of cases. Moreover, practically as good results can be gotten if the students work in pairs and two experiments are alternated. Vigilance, however, must be exer- cised to prevent the lazy student from depending upon a more efficient partner and thus failing to derive any benefit from the exercise. In Exhibit B is given a list of apparatus necessary to conduct a class of twelve students through the thirty-five experiments be- fore mentioned. This list can be purchased complete from any one of several concerns that make a specialty of school apparatus, at a cost of less than $85. Since, however, the experience of the "affiliated high schools" has shown that at least forty-five exercises can easily be completed the list of apparatus purchased should not be limited to this amount, but should be as extensive as possible. This estimate is given merely to show that it is possible at small expense to make a good beginning in the direction of thorough instruction. It is understood that in the foregoing estimate no provision has been made for apparatus for lecture demonstration which, of course, should be provided as rapidly and in as large amount as possible. The outlay necessary for this purpose will depend much upon the ingenuity of the teacher and his ability to make use of home made apparatus which, as before noted, is often far more valuable than any that can be purchased. Then, too, the estimate does not include the expense of fitting the laboratory with desks, tables, cases, shelves, etc., the cost of which will depend much upon the size of the rooms assigned for the pur- pose and to local conditions. Among the concerns supplying school apparatus may be men- tioned the following : L. E. Knott Apparatus Co., No. 16 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass. C. H. Stoelting Co., 31 W. Eandolph Street, Chicago, 111. Central Scientific Co., 14 Michigan Street, Chicago, 111. For several years the University has made large purchases from the first named and has found their apparatus of most excellent quality, their prices reasonable, and their methods of business hon- orable. In any case, it is suggested that the school intending to purchase apparatus should submit a list of the articles desired to several firms and request bids on the same with freight paid to des- tination. Physics. 91 The Laboratory. As in the college or university, in every case, when feasible, a separate room, and that as large as possible, should be set aside as a laboratory. Such a room will not only be convenient and well adapted to teaching purposes, but will prove a source of pride to the students and to the community and encourage a continual advance- ment in the direction of high grade instruction in all the natural sciences. DEVELOPMENT OF THE COURSE. While, as has been stated, it is possible to begin the teaching of Physics with but a small expenditure, it should be clearly recognized that it is merely a beginning and that continual progress is neces- sary. It was a wise man who said that "To be as good as our fath- ers we must be better. Imitation is not discipleship." The educa- tion of yesterday must not be that of today, or of today that of to- morrow. True of all subjects of value, it is especially true of nat- ural science instruction, in which we must continually take cog- nizance of new ideas and discoveries. Progress in the teaching of Physics demands a steady increase in the facilities for instruction and the early adoption of a plan for the development of the course, to be consistently followed year after year. Too much emphasis, therefore, cannot be placed upon the ne- cessity for yearly appropriations for the purchase of apparatus and equipment since only in this way can the instruction be brought to the proper standard and there maintained. These appropriations need not be large, but they should be as much a recognized part of the annual budget as the teacher's salary. This procedure will not only build up a course of instruction of increasing strength and value, but it will stimulate both teacher and pupil with fresh interest in the subject and prove in the end the most economical of money, time and energy. THE TEACHER. Such a course as that outlined in the foregoing pages requires ceaseless effort on the part of the teacher and the continual use of every faculty. To properly conduct recitations and illustrate them by means of carefully chosen experiments, to examine and grade numerous examination and problem papers, to conduct laboratory classes and prepare the experiments for the same, to care for the apparatus and construct new pieces, all this is not an easy task. 92 Teaching in High Schools. As President Dabney has said, "It is certainly true that to give good instruction in the sciences requires more work of the teacher than to give good instruction in mathematics, the languages, etc." The mere manual labor that is required is an item of no small con- sequence. It is, therefore, essential that in the arrangement of the school schedule these facts should be taken into consideration, for otherwise good work is absolutely impossible. One fact remains to be emphasized, namely, that, save in rare instances, it is not practicable for one to attempt to conduct a course thus outlined when the only instruction that the teacher has received is of the grade required for a permanent State teacher's certificate. This may appear to be a plea for the employment of University graduates but in reality it is not the case. The fact remains that the developments of physical science and the methods of teaching it have been and continue to be so rapid, involving so much detailed knowledge and experience, that it is not practi- cable or desirable to demand of every teacher specific training in these directions. It is, however, perfectly feasible for any teacher of ability to secure the proper training through Summer School courses in the Universities of Texas, Chicago and other institutions of equal rank and it is, I believe, the duty of every School Board to insist that the teacher of Physics shall have received this amount of preparation for his chosen work. AFFILIATION WITH THE UNIVERSITY. During the past few years a number of high schools have been affiliated with the University in Physics and many more are arrang- ing their courses with this in view. For the consideration, there- fore, of these schools a brief statement may be made of the condi- tions which should be met. In order to secure affiliation it is necessary for the high school to conduct a course of the character outlined in the foregoing. More specifically, the requirements are as follows : 1. Five school periods, of at least forty-five minutes each, a week, throughout the school year, shall be devoted to the subject. At least two periods shall be given to laboratory practice and three to class-room exercises. 2. A high grade text-book shall be used. 3. Numerical problems shall be assigned for solution outside the class room. Physics. 93 4. Individual laboratory practice shall be given and there shall be sufficient apparatus to allow of the students working in pairs. At least thirty-five laboratory exercises, taken from the list given in Exhibit A, shall be completed during the year. The students shall take careful notes on the experiments in a suitable note book. Should they desire to enter the University and secure credit in Physics they must present these note books when the application for credit is made and especial weight will be given to them in esti- mating the character of the work done by the school. W. T. Mather, Associate Professor of Physics. 94 Teaching in High Schools. EXHIBIT A. List of Experiments in Physics. j a! - 01 C to 6*- Si a gfe£ < a d OH *1 *2 •6 9 *10 11 *12 13 14 •15 ♦16 17 18 ♦19 •20 *21 *22 23 *24 •25 *26 •27 *28 29 *30 31 *32 33 *34 *35 *36 37 *38 •39 *40 41 42 *43 44 45 *46 *47 48 49 Mechanics and Hydrostatics. regular Measurement of the volume of body Volume of an irregular body by displace- ment Mass of unit volume (density) of a sub- stance Pressure due to weight of liquids Lifting effect of water on a solid entirely immersed in it (Archimedes principle) Specific gravity of a solid that will sink in water S. G. of wood by means of sinker S. G. of a liquid by the S. G. bottle S. G. of a liquid by its buoyant action S. G. of a liquid by balancing columns S. G. of air Boyle's Law Pressure of the atmosphere (Torricelli's Exp.) Laws of accellerated motion Law of the parallelogram of forces Parallel forces Coefficient of friction Action and reaction, elastic collision Law of the inclined plane Mechanical advantage of the pulley Laws of the pendulum Sound. Velocity of sound in air Number of vibrations of a tuning fork Wave length of sound by resonance tube. Laws of vibration of a stretched string Heat. Testing a mercurial thermometer Linear expansion of a solid Maximum density of water Expansion of. air at constant pressure Determination of melting points Determination of boiling point Determination of the dew point Laws of cooling Test of the "method of mixture" Specific heat of a solid Latent heat of melting ice Latent heat of vaporization of water Light. Law of intensity of illumination Laws of reflection from a plane mirror Images in a plane mirror Images in a convex cylindrical mirror Images in a concave cylindrical mirror Index of refraction of glass.^. Path of ray, and index of refraction, for glass prism Index of refraction of water Focal length of a converging lens... Conjugate foci of a converging lens Shape and size of real image formed by lens Virtual image formed by a lens 17 13 9 11 12 24, 25 26 28 21, 22 109 103-5 110 113 111 69-71 72 77 78 79-81 95 96 97 100 101-2 74 103 136 107 160 166 156 (177 169 174 203 201 117 138 146 125 126 124 128 188 195 119 119 12 21 15 26, 27 25 22 20 23, 24 37 43 51 40 46 48 .„.„.. "54" "44" 41 34 30 36 39 37 3. c , 58 63 fir, r, fi 67 61 70 73 74 115 117 119 127 126 130 128.. 134 134 Exhibit A. 95 EXHIBIT A— continued. List of experiments in Physics. • F o o S^ OH H 3 D, OH *50 *51 *52 53 •54 55 *56 57 58 59 60 Electricity and Magnetism. Lines of force about a magnet Lines of force surrounding a conductor through which a current is passing Action of a current on a magnet Lines of force surrounding a coil of wire carrying a current Study of a single-fluid cell Study of a two-fluid cell Resistance, by substitution Resistance, by Wheatstone Bridge Resistance of conductors in parallel Study of electric bell and telegraph Study of induced currents 29, 131 136 137 138 139-41 142 12 53, 54 57 NO 99 (84) 89 90 100, 101 NOTE. — The writer did not have at hand a copy of the excellent manual by Crew and Tatnall, hence the omission of the numbered references to the same. 96 Teaching in High Schools. EXHIBIT B. Laboratory Apparatus for Physics. Estimate' of laboratory apparatus required by a class of twelve students for performing the thirty-five experiments marked by an asterisk in Exhibit A, one-third of the class working at the same problem, and the students working in pairs. General apparatus and supplies. G> 12 25 26 30 32 34 Wood meter rods — brass ferrules 30 cm. wooden scales 15 or 30 cm. steel metric scale Paper m. m. scales Rubber tubing, medium weight, % inch Rubber tubing, medium weight, 3-16 inch Rubber tubing, pressure, y B inch Glass tubing, iy 2 inch „ Glass tubing, 3-8 inch Glass tubing, % inch Glass tubing, capillary, assorted Insulated copper wire, No. 16 Insulated copper wire, No. 20 Spring brass wire, No. 24 or 26 Wooden cylinders, about 4x6 cm Overflow cans Catch buckets, for catching water displaced Balances, trip scales, or better Weights, lg. to 500g Bottles, wide mouth, glass stopper Apparatus made of one piece small size glass, tubing closed at one end, and a larger size tubing open at both ends, each about 12 in. long, connected by about 30 in. rubber pressure tubing, forming a flexible U-shaped tube. A meter rod for measuring height or mercury in the tubes. Mercury Spring balances, about 2000g. capac Cord, fish line _ Meter rods, spring balances (See above). Iron weights, up to 2000g Straight, smooth boards for inclined plane (made by carpenter) Spring balances, about 250g. capacity Brass single pulleys Brass double pulleys _ Metal balls, about y 2 in. diam Silk thread, A, one spool Spy glass '. Tuning fork, middle C Tuning forks, small, A Large size glass tube, open, 10-15 in. long Hydrometer jar, to hold water for regulating length of air column in above glass tube Brass wire, spring balances, tuning forks (See above). Thermometers, centigrade scale Copper boilers ('Apparatus A.") Gasoline blast lamps, for laboratories not furnished with gas Linear expansion apparatus Small wide mouth bottles Rubber stoppers, two holes, to admit thermometer and small bore glass tubing Glass tubes, about 1 mm. bore, 8-10 in. long Glass beakers, about 8 oz Paraffine Small size nickled cans (See catch buckets above) Calorimeters, large size for outside Calorimeters, small size for inside _ Copper shot, lead shot, or pieces of brass or copper wire Calorimeters, same as above .,._ 6 3 2 1 doz y 2 lb. % lb. % lb, lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. spool 4 2 2 lb. 6 1 set 2 2 2 2 2-6 lb. lb. $0.30 .10 1.00 .15 doz. .80 .80 .80 .60 .45 .45 .75 .60 .75 .30 .25 .45 .20 6 to 10.00 1.80 .10 .80 .50 .25 1.75 .15 .60 .30 .40 .05 .10 2.50 1.25 .50 .90 1.00 2.25 2.50 .05 .05 .25 .40 .45 .45 .30 Exhibit B. 97 EXHIBIT B— continued. Laboratory Apparatus for Physics. General apparatus and supplies. fcS 38 Candles (tallow or parafflne) Screen of white paper, or ground glass. Lead pencil set in a cork to cast the shadow, meter rod Plane mirrors, plate glass Pins, one paper Smooth soft pine boards for drawing board (made by carpenter) _ Plate glass slab, polished edges Convex lenses Lens holders to fasten to meter rod Screen and pin holders Bar magnets - Iron filings , Compasses, very short needle Tumblers, for use as battery jars - Zinc and copper strips Sulphuric acid Daniell cells, large size or American primary battery Dry batteries, for open circuit work Resistance boxes Astatic or D'Arsonval galvanometers II). pr. gal. .'::< .15 .10 .10 .25 .10 .20 .30 .30 .15 .25 .20 .10 .75 2.00 2.50 .35 8.00 3 to 7.00 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. Mere book-work in Physiology will not absolve the requirement in this subject. The candidate must have pursued the study of Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene as outlined in Cotton's Physiol- ogy,, Experimental and Descriptive, or in Martin's The Human Body, Briefer Course, fifth edition, revised by G. W. Fitz, M. D., and in addition must have received instruction in the following subjects: Air, Water, Food, The Contagia, Communicable Dis- eases, Modes of Prevention, as outlined in L. C. Parkes' Practical Hygiene, latest edition. A notebook containing a complete record of the experiments he has performed, and certified by the teacher, must be presented at entrance by the candidate. The following examination questions will indicate the scope and nature of the work in Physiology and Hygiene : A. Physiology. 1. (a) What substances are poured out onto the skin that necessitate bathing? (b) Describe in full the organs that pro- duce them, (c) Why should soap be used? (d) Why is a bland soap to be preferred ? 2. (a) Show by diagram the anatomical relation of a hair follicle to the layers of the skin; the relation of the hair to the follicle. (Name the different parts of the diagram.) (b) The epidermis at any given place of the skin varies but slightly if at all in thickness. Why? 3. (a) What is a neuron or axis cylinder, a nerve- fiber, a nerve, a nerve-center? (b) What is the primary function of a nervous system? (c) What is the relative position of the white and gray substance of the spinal cord? (d) Of what does the white substance consist? The gray? (e) What are the func- tions of the spinal cord? 4. (a) Describe the different corpuscles in the blood and give the function of the red corpuscles, (b) Explain the course the blood takes in going from the left auricle back to the same place. 5. Mention where and explain how and in what form oxygen enters and leaves (a) arterial blood, (b) venous blood. 6. (a) What tissue of the human body consumes the largest Physiology and Hygiene. 99 amount of oxygen ? Give the evidence upon which your statement is based, (b) How is the heat of the body produced and the nor- mal temperature maintained? 7. Name the glands that secretes substances concerned in diges- tion, and give the names of the ferment or ferments of each secre- tion. 8. In what part of the alimentary canal and by what substances are the following foods digested: (a) rice (mainly starch), (b) meat : 1, the fat of the meat. 2, the muscle portion. 9. (a) What substances in eggs, peas, and milk make them excellent articles of diet? (b) What is the advantage in diges- tion of the cellulose of vegetables? 10. (a) What defects of vision may be remedied by special glasses? (b) What dangers may arise from neglecting to wear glasses when the imperfections of the eye demand it? B. Hygiene. 1. (a) Name the four most important gaseous constituents of the earth's atmosphere, (b) Give the cycle and functions of each of the mentioned constituents. 2. Name in the order of amount consumed (a) of oxygen, (b) of air vitiated, by the following when used in equal weights as fuel : coal, dry-wood, coke, paraffin; and the following substances when used in quantity sufficient to produce an equal amount of light: incandescent electric light, gas, paraffin oil, sperm candles, tallow candles. 3. If a room of 1000 cubic feet is occupied for four hours by ten persons, each giving off an average amount of carbon dioxide (C0 2 ), what will be the total amount of carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) per 1000 volumes at the end of the time, supposing 10,000 cubic feet of fresh air per hour have been supplied ? 4. (a) Is there any danger to the healthy in cold bathing while the body is perspiring freely? (b) What is the indication that one apparently drowned may still be restored to life? (c) Describe the method adopted by the United States life-saving ser- vice for restoring to life apparently drowned persons. 5. (a) What impurities may rain water contain? Why is it so valuable for domestic purposes ? What is the great objection to the use of it? (b) What methods may be used in the household 100 Teaching in High Schools. for the purification of water? (c) What is necessary that every house filter may be safe for use ? 6. (I) Explain the "Germ Theory of Disease." Give Koch's Dicta. (II) Define (a) Bacteria; (b) Saprophytes; (c) Para- sites; (d) Pathogenic micro-organisms. 7. (a) Why are meat-eaters' teeth less prone to decay than the teeth of persons who live upon a diet of starchy foods? (b) How does cleansing the tongue aid in the preservation of the teeth? (c) How may decay of the teeth be restrained? 8. Explain the difference between natural immunity and "spe- cific" immunization. 9. State the cause of the following diseases, and the precautions necessary to be taken to limit their spread: (a) Consumption; (b) Smallpox; (c) Typhoid fever (enteric fever) ; (d) Diphtheria; (e) Asiatic Cholera; (f) Bubonic plague. 10. (a) What is the exact meaning of the terms: Antiseptic, Disinfectants, Deodorants? (b) What is the essential difference between a disinfectant and a deodorant? (c) How should the bodies of those dead of infectious diseases be cared for? Thomas Harrison Montgomery, Jr., Professor of Zoology. ZOOLOGY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. Work in Zoology is not required for entrance to The University of Texas, though it is very desirable that it should be taught in the secondary schools of this state, because it gives those who do not intend to enter the University a most interesting and broaden- ing field of knowledge; and to those who do intend to enter, an excellent foundation for scientific work. Those who intend to go into medicine immediately after their school course will find it of considerable practical advantage as an introduction to the study of anatomy, physiology, and embryology. My predecessor. Professor Wheeler, quoted as his recommenda- tion the suggestion given by the Zoological Committee of the Com- mittee on College Entrance Eequirements of the National Educa- tional Association (July, 1899, pp. 176-179). These recommenda- tions are excellent, but not at all detailed, so that I would offer the following ideas : Zoology treats of normal animal life in all its aspects, growth, structure, relation to the environment, individual and racial evolu- tion, etc. Its method is essentially inductive, and aims to interpret the facts. The field it presents embraces more phenomena than in any other line of human thought. It is intimately connected with Botany and Ethnology and Geology, with certain sides of Medicine and History, and more remotely with Physics and Chemistry. It may be undertaken as an aid to understanding any of these named subjects; as a part of any general liberal education; for its practical use in Agriculture, etc. ; or as a vocation in itself now that museums and teaching institutions are annually offering more positions in Zoology. Just because its scope is so large there are obviously many meth- ods of teaching it, and no particular one of them need be the only right one; but the following suggestions are the result of the experience of a good many teachers : (1) The first duty of a high school to a scientific course is to make it interesting: once the student has become interested he needs comparatively little help and encouragement. This is a cardinal point in the teaching of any natural science, and many have become disgusted as the result of bad and turbid teaching. So from the start, and particularly at the start, the aim must be 102 Teaching in High Schools. first to present the most interesting side of the subject, and second, to combine with that what is scientifically most fundamental. The teacher has to determine what out of all the manifold ideas and facts are the most necessary, and then present the most interesting and most clear of these to his class. To do this the teacher must try to recollect his own mental attitude when he was at the age of his pupils. Get the student's interest by presenting the more striking of the great generalizations, then instill habits of accurate observation and good judgment in conclusions. There are many of these more important subjects ; and to be sedulously avoided is the teaching of many names, of zoological systems and of genealogical trees which have no significance to the beginner. Natural History can not be taught as a spelling lesson is, so much to be learned by heart. (2) The laboratory method is indispensable: Zoology can no more be taught by a book alone than can art or medicine. The text- books should be rather for the teacher than the students. It is perhaps best for the teacher to start the hour by a short quiz on the work of the preceding one; then to assign some short amount of text to be read after the accompanying laboratory period. The text-book should not be discarded, but be relegated to a second place. It is most desirable that there should be an equipment of a few compound microscopes. But these are not indispensable, and below I outline a course the greater part of which can be done without any microscopes, and the remainder by simple dissecting micro- scopes. The students need only a few instruments: a pair of fine dissecting scissors, of fine straight forceps, a scalpel or two (though a sharp penknife will do equally well) and ordinary needles mounted in wooden holders. Drawing should be rigidly required in the laboratory work, simple outline drawing, as the very best method of learning the fact, and for this purpose hard pencils and hard paper. Field work, both for collecting of material and for observation, should be frequently used to supplement the laboratory work. (3) Not less than five hours per week through half a year should be given to Zoology, one or two for classroom and the re- mainder for laboratory and field work. Or the course might run through an entire school year, with one hour class room and two or three hours laboratory work. (4) The following course is suggested for such schools as wish Zoology. 103 to give zoological study, but feel they can not undertake the ex- pense of equipment. This course dispenses entirely with the use of compound microscopes, and all the material to be used is easily and cheaply obtained. 1. Earth worm: external anatomy. 2. Idem: anatomy of body wall, intestine, nervous system. 3. Idem: anatomy of dissepiments, peritoneum, nephridia, blood vessels. 4. Idem: the functions of the main organs, and the correlation by the nervous system (laboratory work continuing the anatomy). 5. Cricket or Cockroach: external form, mode of producing the music. 6. Idem: anatomy of intestine and tracheae. 7. Idem: anatomy of reproductive organs and nervous system. 8. Metamorphosis of cricket (or grasshopper) and butterfly. 9. The bee: polymorphism of the individuals, the work of the various individuals (work on the differences of queens, drones and workers; structure of mouth parts and of honey basket). 10. Idem: the building and stocking of the hive (laboratory work on the architecture) . 11. Protective colors and structures of Insects (field study). 12. Mimicry (study on Insects). 13. The struggle for existence as a factor in mimicry and pro- tective coloration (field work for observation). 14. Plant-lice: the alternation of generations. 15. Eegeneration : experimental work on Planaria (the cut in- dividuals to be kept for several weeks and the changes drawn at regular intervals). 16. Hydra: general structure and appearance. 17. Idem: asexual generation. 18. The egg and sexual generation (eggs of frog). 19. Cleavage of the frog. 20. Formation of the tadpole and metamorphosis into the frog (surface views of several stages). 21. General processes of development: cell division of the egg, arrangement into tissues, folding of tissues, specialization of the parts (continued laboratory work on the development of the frog). 22. Birds, structural adaptations to the mode of life : modifica- tions in the bills (woodpecker, warbler, sparrow, hawk, owl, duck, snipe) . 104 Teaching in High Schools. 23. Idem: structural modifications of the feet and legs to the mode of life. 24. Migration of birds: migrants and non-migrants of the local fauna, routes and extent of migration (laboratory work in contin- uation of the preceding). 25. Idem: time of migration, some of its factors. 26. Birds: Architecture and care of the young (study of nests). 27. Feathers, their structure, arrangement and use. 28. Differences in domestic races of pigeons or fowls, due to human selection (comparison of such types). 29. The principle of natural selection. 30. Some general principles of evolution. (5) Eeference works for the teacher. Hertwig, Manual of Zoology (Henry Holt & Co., 1903). Bailey, Handbook of Birds of the Western United States (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1902). Newton, Dictionary of Birds (cheap edition, London, Adam Black). Lubbock, Ants, Bees and Wasps (International Scientific Series). Comstock, Insect Life (Appleton & Co., 1897). Packard, Ento- mology for Beginners (Henry Holt & Co., 1888). Darwin, Origin of Species, Animals and Plants under Domestication. Also special articles on the Bee, Prog, Birds, Regeneration, Evolution, etc., in the Encyclopedia Britannica. Thomas H. Montgomery, Jr., Professor of Zoology. 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