: : rOf'vV,iv : ; j \,/ J Glass T VVl \% 3 Book . -C ^ C ? COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT Practical Up-To-Date Plumbing BY GEORGE B. CLOW n OVER 180 ILLUSTRATIONS CHICAGO FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBLISHERS TV\6\£3 .C necessity. Heretofore many earnest, well-meaning persons, not appre- ciating the importance of correct drainage and plumbing, were inclined to sacrifice this vital fac- tor in their buildings, and even to-day the remark of some builder is often heard, to the effect that the balance of the house has cost so much more 7 8 HOUSE DRAINAGE than was originally intended, that no more money than is absolutely necessary can be expended for the plumbing. The knowledge and skill which is employed for the construction of the rest of the house, should be as carefully applied to the sewer, ventilation, bath and toilet rooms, and their fit- tings. Modern knowledge has taken the place of igno- rance and neglect, and the fixtures and systems, which were thought good enough ten years ago, are to-day branded as old, on account of their not being a proper safeguard against disease. Every builder should weigh these facts well, and make himself familiar with the dangers arising from putting in a poor system, as even the smallest leak will cause sickness and often death. The first subject to be taken up in the plumbing line, is the house drain, which are the pipes which carry from the house the liquid and soil refuse. The accumulated waste from food, clothing and bathing, tends to decay, and must be removed promptly and properly, or disease will result. The sewer which conveys the matter from the dwelling, must be absolutely perfect. In all cases, the sewer pipe within the foundation wall, should be extra heavy cast-iron pipe, coated inside and out with hot asphaltum, and should run through the foundation wall, and the connection should be made to the vitrified sewer at least ten feet out- side of the building wall. The connection be- HOUSE DKAINAGE tween the iron and vitrified soil pipe should be carefully made at X and cemented tight with a good grade of Portland cement. A good idea is to incase the connection at X in a block of concrete, which will prevent the breaking of the joint at this point. In the drawing Fig. 1 an installation is shown which is commonly used by a great many plumb- B Fig. 1. ers, but which has many disadvantages. The trap at A, which is' placed in the connecting sewer, to prevent the ingress of foul gases, from the main sewer, is in a poor location, on account of its inaccessibility. The vent opening to the fresh-air inlet at B ventilates the house system of drain pipes. This vent is often placed between the sidewalk and the curb, or in the front yard. The vent bonnet is very liable to become loose or 10 HOUSE DRAINAGE broken, which will permit of dirt, stones, and sticks falling into the opening so left, and choke the sewer, which necessitates digging down to the bottom to clean it out. Another objection to plac- ing a vent in a position such as shown, is that grass and other vegetation is liable to grow up around and into it, thereby destroying its effi- ciency. When a main disconnecting trap must be located outside of the building and under- ground, there should be built a brick manhole around it for easy access. The manhole for this purpose, should be two feet and five inches in diameter at the base, and closed on the top with a limestone cover, three inches in thickness, with an eighteen-inch diameter round casit-iron lid, which should have a one-inch bearing on the stone all around. The drainage system illustrated in Fig. 2 is a very excellent one for a residence. The fittings as shown are standard stock articles, and conse- quently reduce the cost to a minimum. In the ordinary residence, a four-inch pipe is sufficiently large enough to carry away all of the sewerage. A drainage pipe must not be so large, that the ordinary flow of water will fail to float and carry away the refuse which ordinarily accompanies water. The pipe should be laid to grade, or a fall of one foot in forty feet. Care should be ex- ercised to allow a large enough opening in the wall where the pipes pass through it, and espe- HOUSE DRAINAGE 11 Fig. 2. 12 HOUSE DRAINAGE daily over them, to allow for setting of the wall without touching the pipes. Extra heavy cast iron soil pipe, not less than four inches in diameter, coated inside and out with hot asphaltum, should be used in all cases for house drainage. At A is shown a double-vent opening running trap. By calking a four-inch brass ferrule, with a brass-trap screw ferrule, into the hub at C, an opening which gives free access to- the drainage system on the sewer end is obtained. Care should be taken in making this joint, and a good grade of spun oakum should be packed around the fer- rule, with an iron yarning tool. The hub should then be run full at one pouring with soft molten lead, and then thoroughly calked with a blunt calking iron, which will make an absolutely air- tight joint. The trap-screw cover should be screwed tightly into the ferrule with a good plia- ble gasket. It is very necessary that this joint be hermetically sealed, as the pipe X will constantly be loaded with sewer-gas from the main sewer, and any defective work at this joint will allow the gas to escape into the basement. The vent opening at B is to be treated in the same man- ner, giving an opening which permits easy access to the trap. The air vent pipe D is run at an angle of forty- five degrees, and the extension E, which is run to the surface in this particular instance, is run HOUSE DRAINAGE 13 close to the foundation wall, and the elbow calked on the top of the pipe, which prevents a possibil- ity of any sticks, stones or other debris getting into same and retarding a thorough circulation. In order to have this drainage system properly vented, the fresh-air inlet pipe should be the same size as the drain pipe. Where it is impractical or impossible to run this fresh-air vent up close to the foundation wall and turn it over as shown, it can be run as shown by F, and when placed in the yard the inlet pipe can be capped with a regu- lar air vent-cap fitting. Care should be taken in placing this fresh-air inlet, so that the chances of having it knocked off and broken will be as small as possible. The extension piece in all cases should be long enough to permit of the opening in the vent-cap being, at least, eight inches above the ground. In the drawing the sewer or drain pipe is shown above the floor. In cases of this kind rests or supports should be provided at an interval of five feet, or in other words at every joint, to prevent the same from sagging and probably breaking the joints. When placed underground the top of openings B and C should be on a level with the flooring. In case of a shallow sewer in the street, the piping can be suspended from the ceiling, with a good heavy hanger supported by a joist clamp or swivel joint, which will permit the 14 PRACTICAL PLUMBING hanger being shortened or lengthened after the pipe has been hung. Connection to Main Sewer. The method of making this connection is generally regulated by local conditions, and the rules and regulations established by ordinance of the town or city in which the work is to be done. The connection of the house sewer to the main or street sewer should, if possible, always be made with a Y, or if there is no Y connection on the main available, then the house sewer should be laid in such a manner that it will strike the main sewer at an angle to the direction of flow of sewage in the main sewer. This will greatly facilitate the flow of sewage from house sewer into main sewer. The house sewer pipe should have an upward incline of 14 i nc ^ P er foot as it extends from the street main toward the building, and it should terminate at a point not less than 5 feet from the outside of the foundation walls, where connection is to be made with the cast iron soil pipe extending into the building. HOUSE DRAINAGE 15 Size of House Sewers. The size of the sewer leading from the building to the street main is governed by the quantity of sewage to be disposed of. In large installations it often becomes neces- sary to use more than one. Care should be taken, however, not to install too large a sewer, nor to give the same too much pitch or incline toward the street. There are two reasons for this: (1) If the sewer is too large it will not be flushed as it should be, since the water passing through it will reach only part way up its sides, thus allow- ing the floating matter to adhere to the sides, the result of which will sooner or later be an accumulation that will cause a stoppage of flow. (2) If the sewer has too much pitch the water will rush through it so rapidly that the solid mat- ter will be left behind and very likely be de- posited on the bottom and sides of the pipe, thus forming an obstruction to the discharge of matter which follows. The basic principle controlling the successful disposal of sewage through pipes is flotation; that is, the velocity of flow of the water should be such that the solid matter will be floated along with the water. It has been found by experiment, and also by practice, that an average velocity of 276 feet per minute will carry all matter from the sewer. In estimating the required size of sewer from house to street main a good rule to follow is to have the sewer pipe one size larger than the soil pipe. 16 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Table 1 will facilitate calculations for fall re- quired of various sized sewers in order to give the velocity of flow required to remove all matter from the pipes. Size of Sewer Fall, oi- Pitch Requii ed Velocity of Flow 2 inch 1 foot in 20 feet 276 feet per minutv- 3 " 1 " " 30 " 276 " 4 4 " 1 " " 40 44 276 " 4 5 " 1 " " 50 44 276 " 4 6 " 1 " u 60 *• 276 " 4 7 " 1 " " 70 44 276 " 4 8 " 1 " " 80 44 276 " 4 9 " 1 " " 90 44 276 " " m 4 10 " 1 " 100 " 276 " TABLE 1. FALL PER FOOT FOR VARIOUS SIZED SEWERS AND HORI- ZONTAL SOIL PIPES. Rain Leaders. All down spouts, or rain water pipes leading to, and connected with the house sewer should be equipped with traps at their base. The required size for house drains for carrying away rain water is given in Table 2, the values given therein being based upon an average rain- fall. Size of Pipe 5 inch 6 " 7 " One-fourth Inch Fall Per Foot 3,700 sq. ft. of roof area 5.000 " " " " 6.900 " M 11.600 " " " " ^ 1 «nn *• " 44 '• " One-half Inch Fall Per Foot 5,500 sq. ft. of roof area 7,500 * 10,000 ' 15,600 ** ' 17.400 " " " " TABLE 2. SIZES OF HOUSE DRAINS TO CARRY RAIN WATER. HOUSE DRAINAGE 17 Capacity of Drain Pipe Under Different Amounts of Fall. Gallons per Minute. Size of Pipe. 1-2 inch fall per 100 feet. 3 inch fall per 100 feet. 6 inch fall per 100 feet. 9 inch fall per 100 feet. 3 In. 21 30 42 52 4 " 36 52 76 92 6 " 84 120 169 206 9 " 232 330 470 570 12 " 470 680 960 1160 15 " 830 1180 1680 2040 18 " 1300 1850 2630 3200 20 " 1760 2450 3450 4180 Size of Pipe. 12 inch fall per 100 feet. 18 inch fall per 100 feet. 24 inch fall per 100 feet. 36 inch fall per 100 feet. 3 In. 60 74 85 104 4 " 108 132 148 184 6 " 240 294 338 414 9 " 660 810 930 1140 12 " 1360 1670 1920 2350 15 " 2370 2920 3340 4100 18 " 3740 4600 5270 6470 20 " 4860 5980 6850 8410 TABLE 3 CELLAR OR EASEMENT DRAINS. Floor drains, when used in cellar or basement should be connected to the leader side of a rain leader trap wherever it is possible. Some sanitary engineers go so far as to say that floor drains should never be used, their objection to them be- ing that the floor is not washed often enough to furnish sufficient water to maintain a water seal at all times against sewer gas ingress, and their argument is well taken, but floor drains in a base- ment are very convenient, and should be part of a well- installed sanitary sewer system. In case of a seepage of water through the foun- dation walls, during a rainy period, it is well to be provided with some means to carry the water away quickly, without having to resort to the laborious practice of pumping. The evils of a floor drain are not so much due to their inefficiency, as they are to the care taken of them. The cemented floor basement of the modern home today is just as important to be kept clean as the bathroom, and the thorough housekeeper takes just as much pride in it, and realizes the necessity for having it so from a sani- tary standpoint. The old method of installing a floor drain or 18 CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 19 floor outlet which consisted of placing a running trap in the line of drain pipe to the catch-basin, and running a piece of pipe to the floor level and simply closing the opening with a bar strainer grate is wrong. The grate, even when cemented into the hub end of the pipe, will in time become loosened, and dirt and other rubbish will soon clog up the trap and render it useless. Fig. 3. As before said, the great objection to a base- ment floor drain in the ordinary house, is that there is seldom sufficient water used on the base- ment floor, to maintain a perfect water seal in the trap. To neglect to see that the floor drain trap is not always filled with water and to argue against its installation on that point is wrong. Floor drains should never be used without a back-water valve, which will prevent sewer water from backing up into the basement. A number 20 CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS of different styles of floor drains are shown, which are built on the proper lines. The one shown in Fig. 3 is a combination floor drain and back-water gate valve. This accessible cleanout cellar drain flushing cesspool and back-water gate trap valve combination has much to be commended. It has a hinged strainer, through which seeping and floor waste water finds a direct outlet to the trap and sewer. The trap has a deep water seal, which is always desirable, and is always provided with a brass back-water gate valve or flap-valve which will not rust and which will close and hold tight against a back flow from the sew r er. It also has a tapped opening to which a water supply pipe can be attached, and by means of a valve being placed on the pipe at some convenient point, the drain trap can be throroughly flushed and cleansed by simply opening the valve for a few minutes at a time. Another method oftentimes used to provide for a floor outlet to sewer is to run a piece of iron soil pipe from the trap on the sewer to the floor level, and to caulk into the hub of the pipe a brass fer- rule or thimble with a brass screwed cover, which is screwed down tight against a rubber gasket, as shown in Fig. 4. An outlet of this character is only opened when occasion demands, by unscrew- ing and removing the cover until its need is past. In Fig. 5 is shown an extra heavy cesspool suitable for barns, carriage room and places of CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS Fig. 4 Fig. 5 22 CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS like nature. The top is sixteen inches square, the body ten inches deep and has a four-inch out- let, suitable for caulking into the hub of a four- inch iron sewer pipe. The top cover or grating is heavy enough to permit of horses, wagons and carriages passing over it. The second grating or strainer is of finer mesh, which catches any ob- stacles which might clog up the sewer, it can be lifted out by the knob and easily cleaned at any time. The deep water seal in this trap is one of its good features, the bell or hood not only serves to maintain a water seal, but where used in stables is a shield over the outlet to prevent oats or grain of any description which might fall through the second strainer from getting into the sewer. Care should be taken to prevent the bottom of the cesspool from filling up with fine strainings. Fig. 6 is a combination floor strainer and back- water seal and is used in the hub of a sewer pipe which extends down to the trap placed in the sewer run. The rubber ball prevents the flooding of the basement from backing up of water, by be- ing floated to seat above. In Fig. 7 is shown a floor drain and trap, de- signed especially for hospital operating rooms and other places where it is desirable not only to cleanse thoroughly the floor, but also to remove all sediment from the trap itself for obvious sani- tary reasons. The trap is of cast iron, and is enamelled inside. This gives it an impervious CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 23 24 CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS and smooth surface and prevents the trap from becoming coated and slimy. This trap is provided with heavy brass cast flushing rim and has a brass removable strainer. In the sectional view is shown the method by which the water supply is connected to both the rim and trap, by means of which not only every portion of the body may be cleansed, but also all sediment removed from the jet inlet at the bottom. The trap is built especially to maintain a deep seal and is three inches in diameter. ROUGHING IN 25 The roughing in of a system of plumbing re- quires the most careful measurements possible on the part of the plumber, owing to the fact that when this portion of the job is completed, the soil pipe is, or should be, in its proper location, the soil stack connected with it and extending through the roof of the building; also all branch soil pipes leading from the main stack to their proper loca- tions, under, or near the various fixtures, so that when the floors are laid no changes will be re- quired, for be it remembered that all roughing in must be completed before the floors of the build- ing are put down. Fig. 8 shows a plan of the roughing in work to be done in the basement. The soil pipe is shown, with its various branches, -each having a certain function to per- form, and it is easily seen that good judgment, and accurate measurements are necessary in order to bring each branch to its correct location. Fig. 9 is a vertical section of a two-story and basement building, showing all parts of the plumb- ing system, including the main soil stack con- nected at its bottom end with the house drain pipe, while its top extends through the roof. A careful study of Figs. 8 and 9 will show that good work is required on the part of the plumber to locate each tee, and Y in its proper place. 26 PRACTICAL PLUMBING «>*Y<<^ Fig. 8 ROUGHING IN 27 In addition to the branch soil pipes which are to receive the discharge from the closets, there are vent pipes for the purpose of relieving the air pressure on the system, thus preventing siphon- age, and maintaining a circulation of air through- out the entire system at all times. These pipes are clearly shown in Fig. 9. Then there are the water pipes which are to supply water to the various fixtures ; and drain pipes for receiving the discharge from the different fixtures and passing the same on into the main soil stack. It is a good plan for the plumber to make a correct memoran- dum of all roughing in measurements, and pre- serve it for future reference. Cutting Soil Pipe. As before stated, the soil pipe should be extra heavy cast-iron pipe. When the proper measurements have been taken, and memoranda made of the same, it will be next in order to cut the soil pipe into lengths to corre- spond with the measurements. The best tools to use for this purpose are a diamond point cold chisel, and a machinist's ham- mer. Some workmen use a three wheel cutter for cutting this pipe, but there is always a liability of cracking the pipe with this tool, owing to the fact that the pipe is not of a uniform thickness. Hav- ing determined by measurement the point where the cut is to be made, mark it with a piece of chalk around the circumference of the pipe, then lay the pipe on the floor, placing a narrow piece of wood directly under the marked place, and proceed with the chisel and hammer. 28 PRACTICAL PLUMBING O ^Ef^\6Epy\^o^ Fig. 9 ROUGHING IN 29 Making Soil Pipe Joints. Joints that will not leak should be the motto of every good plumber, and this should apply, not only to joints that are visible, but also to those joints in the soil pipe which are in many eases entirely hidden from view, owing to their location. Special care should be exercised in making the joint which unites the cast-iron soil pipe with the vitrified sewer pipe just outside the walls of the building. There are several patented devices that may be used for making this joint, or it may be made by the same method as are the joints in the main sewer, that is by the use of cement. The joints in the soil pipe proper, within the walls of the building should be made with oakum and melted lead, by first caulking the oakum tightly in the space provided for the joint, leaving a space of 1 inch to 1% inches in which to pour the lead, which should also be caulked after it has cooled. In caulking the lead due care should be exercised not to use a heavy hammer, since great pressure is brought to bear upon the hub, and there is danger of cracking it. In the making of a joint in a horizontal soil pipe greater skill is required than on a vertical pipe, and it becomes necessary to use an asbestos joint runner in pour- ing the lead. 30 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Putty, or soft clay are sometimes used for hold- ing the lead, but not as good results are obtained as with the asbestos, which can be clamped around the pipe tightly, leaving an opening at the top for pouring in the lead. Always pour the joint full at one pouring. If by accident, or mistake the joint is not poured full, at the first pouring, it becomes necessary to pick out the lead, and repour it. The lead used in making these joints should be entirely free from solder, or other metals, and it should always be hot when poured. It is good practice to place some pulverized resin in the space before pouring the lead. This will prevent any trouble from possible dampness. Table 4 gives the weight of lead and oakum required for soil pipe joints in various sized pipes. Size of Pipf Lead per Joint Oakum per Joint 2 inch 3 " 4 " 5 " 6 " 1 V2 pounds 1 % :: 3% 4V 2 3 ounces 6 7 8 9 TABLE 4. LEAD AND OAKUM REQUIRED FOR SOIL PIPE JOINTS. Fig. 10 shows the plumbing for a two tenement house, also method of using test plugs. Fig. 11 shows the plumbing for a three tenement building. Fig. 12 shows a method of running a long line of soil pipe on the cellar wall. ROUGHING IN 31 Fig. 10 32 PRACTICAL PLUMBING ££& V\>n ^*»vo** !k Fig. 11 ROUGHING IN 33 Fig. 12 34 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Roof Construction. Reference to Figures 10 and 11 will show that the diameters of the main soil stacks are increased just under the roof, by means of an increaser, and the enlarged diameter continues through the roof. This is for the pur- pose of preventing the stack from becoming clogged with hoar frost in cold weather. Figures 13 and 14 show several different meth- ods of roof connections ; called by plumbers, ' ' roof flashings. " These are for the purpose of prevent- ing rain water from following down the outside of the pipe below the roof. Soil pipes should not be less than four inches in diameter, and both soil, and vent pipes should extend at least eight inches above the roof, and if, at this height the opening would be near the doors or windows of an adjoin- ing building, these pipes should be extended so as to bring the opening to a point not less than fif- teen feet from such doors or windows ; and these openings should be not less than six feet from any ventilator, or chimney opening of the building they are installed in, or any adjoining building. Otherwise they are liable to be declared a nui- sance. The increasers for enlarged diameter of these pipes should extend at least one foot below the roof, and the openings of these pipes must have no caps or cowles affixed to, or over their tops. In many cities the connection of soil, or vent pipes with a chimney flue is prohibited. ROUGHING IN 35 £ f\*Of 'two VteT^pps oy Fig. 13 36 PRACTICAL PLUMBING /- of\j\N»r\ OK^n HMV«0 JO \ (<*& W^t\^ « Two WV^VNOOS 0^ Fig-. 14 ROUGHING IN 37 Pipe Supports. The foot of every vertical soil, rain, or waste pipe should be permanently ( supported by a solid brick, stone or concrete pier properly constructed, by using cement mortar, or cement concrete, or if such material is not avail- able, some other foundation equally as solid should be used. The weight of the vertical soil stack in most buildings is usually very heavy, and when not properly supported, there is danger of the pipe settling, the consequence of which would be the opening up of more or less of the joints, thereby causing leakage. In addition to supports at the bottom, these pipes should also be provided with floor rests at intervals of every second floor through which they pass. Soil pipes under the floor of the basement should be properly laid, rela- tive to grade, and should also be provided with adequate supports that will not settle. In case these pipes are above the basement floor they should be supported on solid piers, or they may be suspended from above as shown in Fig. 12. Where horizontal pipes are to be supported by suspension, strap iron stirrups, and not hooks are to be used. Fresh Air Inlets. Fig. 15 shows two methods for admitting fresh air to the basement soil pipe. Fig. 16 shows the roughing in plan for the base- ment of a store or office building; while Figures 17, 18 and 19 show the roughing in and plumbing of a Modern Engine House for the use of the Fire Department. 38 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Fig. 15 ROUGHING IN 39 k^ OTTNCE.'b Fig. 16 40 PRACTICAL PLUMBING V / ? - 1 -^ ^c\now-^ $T V r» 1 t>w*W;6i> ^ickuqu^c To ^f.vv.f\\v *\N\\b 9©\tV\ ^ TVrAfrfcTV* Fiff. 17 ROUGHING IN 41 l^L^ .wvfc CAST \*{m 5>tv* STuv. -vsxofcs Of j 0*\*&^ Fig. 18 42 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Fig. 19 ROUGHING IN 43 Figure 20 shows the plumbing for a modern stable, and is self-explanatory. Figures 21 to 28 show enlarged views of the connections to the various fixtures required in the plumbing of a two-story and basement residence as shown in Fig. 9. These illustrations are self-explanatory, and need no further comment. It will be noticed that the work starts in the basement on the con- nections for the wash trays, and servant's water- closet, Fig. 21. Next come the fixtures on the first floor, consisting of the refrigerator, kitchen sink, and lavatory. These are shown in Figs. 22, 23, and 24. The waste, or drip pipe from the refrig- erator, Fig. 24, should not be directly connected with any soil pipe, rain water lead, or any other waste pipe; but should discharge into an open, water supplied sink, or over a deep sealed trap, as shown in Fig. 24. It should be as short as possible, and should be disconnected from the re- frigerator, or ice box by at least four inches. In buildings - where refrigerators, or ice boxes are located on two or more floors, the waste and vent pipe should be .continuous, and should run through the roof, care being taken also, that it does not open within six feet of. an open soil, or vent pipe. The size of a waste pipe for refrigerators for two floors, or less should be at least one and one-half inches; two inches for three floors and over, and two and one-half inches for five floors and over. 44 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Fig. 20 FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 45 Fig. 21 46 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Fig. 22 FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 47 Piff. 23 48 PRACTICAL PLUMBING r^ i o ] 1 o 9 f Fig. 24 FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 49 (^ I 5**\T 4" \.EA(D fctHS^x* WxpfcO JO\M\ *6«\*$S n^W^ Fig. 25 50 PRACTICAL PLUMBING cor\mxT\ons ivxkp ) >T*A» S<^W ^*^QV)Q* f^QQ^ Wtpvfc Fig. 26 FIXTURE CONNECTIONS 51 Fig. 27 52 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Fig. 28 TRAPS. A trap is a device or fitting used to allow the free passage through it of liquids and solids, and still prevent the passage of air or gas in either direction. There are two kinds of traps used on plumbing fixtures known as syphon traps and anti-syphon traps. The simplest trap is; the sy- phon trap— a horizontal pipe bent as shown in Pig. 29. Fig. 29. This forms a pocket which will retain enough liquid to prevent air or gas from passing. The dip or loop is called the seal, and should never be less than one and one-half inches. This type of trap is what is known as a running-trap. This is not a good trap to use, and it is only capa- ble of withstanding a very low back pressure. 53 54 TRAPS The trap most generally used is what is known as the S trap, as shown in Fig 30, When this trap is subjected to a back-pressure, the water backs up into the vertical pipe, and naturally will with- stand a greater pressure than the running-trap type— about twice as much. The trap shown in Fig 31 is what is known as a P trap, and in Fig 32 as three-quarter S trap, and has the same resisting power as the S trap. A trap may lose its seal either by evaporation, self-syphonage or by suction. There is no danger TRAPS 55 of a trap losing its seal in an occupied house from evaporation, as it would take a number of week's time,. under ordinary conditions, to evapo- rate enough water to destroy the seal. 1 ui o f Fig. 32 , 56 TRAPS A trap can be syphoned when connected to an "imvented stack, and then only when the waste pipe from the trap to the stack extends below the dip, so as to form the long leg of the syphon as in Fig. 33. Fig 33. TEAPS 57 When two fixtures are installed one above the other, with unvented traps and empty into one stack, the lower trap can be syphoned by aspira- tion. The water emptying into the stack at the higher point in passing to the trap inlet of the lower fixture, creates a partial vacuum which sucks the water out of the trap at the lower point. To prevent this, what is known as ba,ck-venting is resorted to, back-venting not only protects the trap against syphonage, but relieves the seal from back-pressure, by equalizing the pressure on both sides of the seal. All revent pipes must be con- nected to vent pipes at such a point that the vent opening will be above the level of the water in the trap. In Fig. 34 two basins are shown connected to soil pipe with S traps and back— vented into the air-vent pipe, both connecting into the attic into an increaser, which projects through the roof. This drawing is given to illustrate the proper back-venting to prevent syphonage of basin traps, and when it is necessary to run separate stacks for wash basins, such as are sometimes installed in bedrooms, the main waste stack must be two inches in diameter and the vent pipe one and one- half inches, either cast iron or galvanized wrought iron. Non-syphon traps are those in which the seal cannot be broken under any reasonable condi- tions. Some water can be syphoned from the best 58 TRAPS of non-syphon traps made, but not enough to de stroy their seal. The commonest non-syphoning Fig. 34 TRAPS 59 trap is known as a drum trap, which is four inches in diameter and ten inches deep. Sufficient water always remains in this trap to maintain its seal, even when subjected to the severest of tests. Fig. 35 shows a trap, which is the type general- ly used to trap the bathtub. This trap is provided Pig. 35 with a brass trap-screw top for clean-out pur- poses, made gas and water tight against a rubber gasket. A trap of this kind would not be suitable for a lavatory, its principal fault being that owing to the enlarged body they are not self-cleaning, affording a lodging place for the depositing of sediment. 60 TRAPS The non-syphon trap to be used is one in which the action of the water is rotary, as it thoroughly scours the trap and keeps it clean, such as is shown in Fig. 36. This trap depends upon an inner partition to effect this rotary movement, and is so constructed that its seal cannot be brok- en by syphonic action and is permitted by health Fig. 36 Fig. 37 and sanitary departments, where it is, impossible to run a separate vent pipe to the roof. One of the oldest traps is the Cudell trap, as shown in Fig. 38. The rubber ball being of slight- ly greater specific gravity than water rests on the seat and forms a seal when the water is not flow- This ball prevents the seal ing through the trap. TRAPS 61 of the trap being forced by back-pressure, and acts as a check against back flow of sewerage should drain stop up, and provides a seal if water is evaporated. Fig. 37 shows the old Bower trap. The water seal is maintained by the inlet leg, extending Fig. 38 down into the body below the outlet. The bot- tom of this trap is glass, brass or lead, which- ever is desired, and can be unscrewed from trap and thoroughly cleaned. SOLDER. The composition and properties of solders are a matter of considerable interest to all metal workers, but the subject is of especial import- ance to plumbers, because on the quality and purity of solder depend in a large measure the reliability and good appearance of their work. Nothing is more annoying, nor is there anything so productive of bad work, waste of time, and consequent- irritability and bad temper, as the trying to do good work with bad material, par- ticularly if that material is wiping or plumbers * solder. Until recent years it was invariably the practice for plumbers to make their own solders, either from the pure lead and tin, or, old joints and solders were melted down, and tin added in proportion. Of late years it is becoming quite unusual for plumbers to know anything about solder-making. Plumbers consider it more eco- nomical to buy it, already made, from firms who make solder-making a branch of their manu- facturing trade. Another advantage is, that if supplied by a firm of good standing it can gen- erally be depended upon for purity and uniform quality. Good plumbers' solder should consist of two 62 SOLDER 63 parts of lead to one of tin, but the proportions, of course, vary according to the quality of the constituent parts. Tin, for instance, varies very much in quality, and no fluxing or a super- abundance of the tin will make good solder if this metal is of an inferior kind. It is, there- fore, far the most economical in the long run to use tin of the very best quality. As the exact proportions, as they are gener- ally given, depend to a very great extent upon the condition of the two metals, it follows that the mere mixing of certain quantities of tin and lead does not necessarily make a composition that will serve the purpose that it is intended for, but a plumber with an experienced eye can detect at a glance the inferiority and usefulness of such solders when required for the execution of good work. Although it is not absolutely necessary that a good solder-maker should be a plumber, it is important that he should have a considerable knowledge of the appearance of solder in proper condition. In the absence of a practical test, there are certain indications by which the solder may be judged, whether it is good or bad. The most common practice is to run out a strip of solder on a smooth level stone. * As soon as the strip is nearly cold, the quality of the solder or the proper proportion of tin and lead can be de- termined by the appearance of both surfaces. It 64 SOLDER is important, before running the solder out on the stone, that it should be at such a heat as to allow the solder to run freely. A tempera- ture just below red heat is the most suitable for this purpose, if the solder is not hot enough, it will have a dull white look, whether it is good or bad. If it is in good condition, it should have a clean, silvery appearance, bright spots should also form on the surface from an eighth to a quarter of an inch in diameter. As a rule, the larger the spots the finer is the solder, although some kinds of tin will not show large spots, however much is used. In such cases they should appear more numerous. If the strip has a dull, dirty appearance and a mottled surface, it is evident the solder is not as pure as it should be. It probably contains some mineral impurities, which can generally be removed by well heating the solder in the pot, and stirring into it a quantity of resin and tallow. These substances have but very little, if any, chemical effects, either upon the solder or the foreign matters it may contain, but the action that seems to take place is that they combine with the lighter mineral matters by what may be called adhesive attraction, and cause them to rise to the surface, where they can be skimmed off. There are some earthy impurities that get into the solder, the specific gravities of SOLDER 65 which are probably much lighter than the solder itself, but which will not rise to the surface un- til assisted by means of fluxes. It must be re- membered that although tin has a specific gravity of 7.3 and lead 11.445, it is therefore, necessary to well stir the solder while it is being poured into the moulds, as the tin will continually rise to the top, yet if it were not stirred at all after it was once mixed, the lower portion would not be wholly deprived of tin, showing that the greater specific gravity of the one does not wholly displace the other. The same is true of certain impurities, which are not removed until they are washed out, as it were, by means of fluxes such as resin and tallow. The greatest enemy to plumbers' solder is zinc. If the slightest trace of this metal gets into a pot of solder, it is almost a matter of impossibility to wipe joints with it, especially underhand joints. When zinc is present, the strip of solder has a dull, crystallized appearance on the surface. The tin spots are also very dull and rough, and not at all bright and clean. When solder of this kind is being used for wiping, the first thing noticed is that a thick, dirty dross forms on the surface directly after it is skimmed. It is im- possible to keep the surface clean for even a second. When it is poured on a joint, it sets almost instantly, and it matters not at what heat 66 SOLDER it is used. As soon as one attempts to move it with the cloth, it breaks to pieces, and falls off the joint. In the case of branch joints when an iron is used, the solder cools in hard lumps, and breaks away like portions of wet sand. There are two or three ways of extracting zinc from solder, one is to partly fuse it, and when it is nearly set to pulverize it until the particles are sep- arated as much as possible. The whole is then placed in a pot or earthenware vessel and sat- urated with hydrochloric acid, commonly called muriatic acid. The acid dissolves the zinc and produces chloride of zinc; the latter can be washed out with clean water and the solder re- turned to the pot in a comparatively pure state. This method cannot be recommended as a cer- tain cure, because of the difficulty there exists in dividing the particles to such an extent as to expose the whole of the zinc that may be con- tained in it, and considering the small amount of zinc that is sufficient to poison a pot of solder it is doubtful if the acid process is radical enough in its action to thoroughly eradicate the zinc without repeated applications. Sulphur is the best thing to use for this pur- pose. When a pot of solder has been found to be poisoned with zinc, it is heated to just below a red heat. Lump sulphur is broken up and gran- SOLDER 67 ulated, it is then screwed up tight in three or four thicknesses of paper, and in this form is thrown into the pot and held below the solder with a ladle. As the paper burns the sulphur rises through the solder, combines with the zinc, and floats on the surface. The solder is well stirred so as to thoroughly mix the sulphur with the whole of the contents of the pot, the dross which is formed by this process is then skimmed off with a ladle and thrown away as useless. In the case of the sulphur, although it is gen- erally called a flux, the action that takes place is altogether different to that of resin and tal- low. It may safely be inferred by reference to the results of chemical combinations that the zinc, having a great affinity for sulphur, as soon as it comes in contact, forms sulphide of zinc, this is really a substance similar to zinc blende, a common form of zinc ore. In this condition, the specific gravity being considerably reduced, it readily rises to the surface of the solder, where it can be skimmed off with a ladle. The question naturally arises— why is it the sulphur does not combine with the lead to which it also has an affinity, and thus form sulphide of lead? If lead is heated only just above its melt- ing point and then some sulphur is mixed with it, a substance would be formed similar to ga- lena, or sulphide of lead. But if the tempera- ture is raised several degrees higher the sulphide 68 SOLDER gives up the lead, and either floats to the top or passes off in the form of gaseous vapor, chem- ically termed sulphurous anhydride. There- fore, by heating the solder containing zinc to a temperature just below redness, it is hot enough to prevent the sulphur combining with the lead and tin, but not sufficiently heated to cause the sulphur to give up the zinc, which fuses at a temperature of 773 degrees Fahrenheit, whereas lead fuses at 612 degrees Fahrenheit, and in com- bination with tin as solder at 441 degrees Fah- renheit. The difference in the melting points is in all probability the principal cause of the sulphur attracting the zinc and leaving the lead and tin comparatively unaffected. Another method of extracting the zinc from solder is to raise the temperature to a very bright red heat, if this is continued long enough the zinc vaporizes and passes off in a gaseous state. The latter is a very wasteful process because it cannot be done without a large proportion of the tin becoming oxidized. The oxide gathers in the form of a powder on the surface, and is what is commonly known as putty powder. One of the most common means of spoiling solder is the last mentioned. The flowing of solder, especially that used with the copper-bit, depends to a large extent upon the fluxes that are used for tinning pur- SOLDER 69 poses. For soldering lead only a very simple flux is necessary, namely, a. little tallow and powdered resin. The same kind of flux is also very often used for tinning and soldering brass and copper, and there are many plumbers who use nothing else but a piece of common tallow candle, which seems to answer the purpose very well. For soldering iron, zinc, and tin goods, chlor- ide of zinc, or what is commonly called killed spirit of salt, is generally used, although it is not necessary to kill the hydrochloric acid when zinc has to be soldered. Soldering fluids and preparations have been invented which have, to a very large extent, superseded the common fluxes. The disadvantage of spirit of salt is ow- ing to the tendency it has to produce oxidation on iron, and chlorides on zinc, after the solder- ing is done. It would be interesting to try and find out the reason why a combination of metals fuses at such a low temperature when compared with the fusing points of the component parts of the alloys. It is necessary to bear in mind the fact that all metals, and indeed all matter, are com- posed of minute particles or molecules, and that there is nothing existing that is a strictly solid uniform mass. It is also acknowledged that the molecules of different substances always as- sume a distinctive shape, and when metallic matter is crystallized, as it is said to be when it 70 SOLDER becomes solid by the action of cold, these par- ticles are attracted to each other by a force of more or less power according to the nature of the metal, whether it is said to be hard or soft. Now the force by which these aggregations of minute particles are held together is what is called cohesive attraction, and the power of this force to hold the particles together depends to a very great extent upon the particular shape which these extremely small particles assume, and the amount of surface which they present to each other. It is very easy to conceive that if a number of bodies have mutual attraction for each other, the larger the surface that comes in contact the more force is there exerted one with the other. If, for instance, the particles take the form of spheres like a number of mar- bles, the surface in actual contact is compara- tively very small indeed, the same would be the case if they were very irregular in form. But if each particle took the form of a cube, or some other regular body, the attraction would be greatly increased, as each of the particles approached and fitted into its proper place. It is not contended that the molecules are actually attracted into absolutely close contact, because, as a matter of fact, they are not. In every sub- stance, however hard and solid it might appear to be, there are certain interstices between the particles which are called pores, the capacities SOLDER 71 of which vary according to peculiar conforma- tion of the particles, and the degree of affinity which one set of particles may have for others in the same mass. It follows then that as a rule the hardness or softness of any substance de- pends, according to the theory of cohesive at- traction, upon the close and compact nature of the molecules, and the large or small spaces or interstices between them, that is, so far as the action of heat is concerned. If it is required to make a hard substance soft and pliable, some power is necessary to exert a reactionary in- fluence upon the attractive force which causes the particles to cohere. Now the only powers that will effectually produce this result is heat, when heat is applied to nearly all metallic sub- stances, the first thing it does is to enlarge the bulk by the almost irresistible force of expan- sion. The effect that heat has on a solid is to cause the particles to be thrown farther apart from each other by a repulsive force, overcoming to a certain extent the force of cohesive attrac- tion. This repulsive action continues to increase as the temperature is raised, until the attractive force has to give way to the force of gravity. The result is the particles will no longer co- here in a mass, but fall away from each other and become in a state of fluid, and if they are not kept together in a vessel of some kind d*?-- ing their high temperature they will run in any 72 SOLDER direction by the influence of gravity like ordi- nary liquids. When a metal is in such a con- dition it is said to be melted or fused. There are some metals, zinc for instance, the particles of which are separated to a much greater ex- tent than is the case with fusion only. For if the heat is applied so that the temperature is raised above fusing point, evaporation takes place, and the molecules are driven off in the form of vapor. "When two distinct metals are mixed together, such as tin and lead, the cohesive attraction is modified to a large extent, because the molecules of one have a comparatively small affinity for the other. Of course tin has a certain amount of affinity for lead, in fact, if there were no affinity between the two, solders would be useless on lead, because tinning could not be effected if such were the case. But what seems certain is, when the two metals are alloyed, the molecules are not held together by the same attractive f ore# that is exerted when a metal is not alloyed, that is, the particles of one metal do not, by reason of their difference of construction or conformation, have the same affinity for each other as they do when they are not intermixed with other parti- cles of a different nature. Consequently, when such combinations of met- als are subjected to the action of heat, the par- ticles mutually assist each other to separate, and SOLDER 73 gravitate like liquids to a level surface, with a much lower degree of temperature than is re- quired to obtain the same effect when the metals are melted separately. Then with regard to wiping solder, it retains its fluid and plastic state for a much longer time than lead or tin would before they are mix- ed, showing that the particles, probably for the same reason, do not solidify so quickly as they would in a separate state. If they did, joint- wiping would, of course, be impossible, for on the peculiar power that solder has to retain its heat, or rather the effects of heat, depends the success of the most important parts of plumbing work. An alloy of lead and tin contracts consid- erably in cooling, the result of this can be seen when a solder pot is placed on the fire. Before the bulk of the solder melts, but as soon as that part which is near the hottest part of the fire begins to fuse> the molten metal forces its way up to the top, between the sides of the mass of solder and the sides of the pot, this often con- tinues until the top of the unmelted mass is covered with a melted layer which has forced its way there, showing that when the solder cooled it contracted into a smaller space than it occu- pied when it was in a fluid state. Consequently, when the lower part of the solder is melted first, the expansion that takes place forces it of neces- sity to the top, because there is not room for the 74 SOLDER increased bulk in the space it was reduced to during the process of cooling. But if antimony, the fusing point of which is 840 degrees Fahren- heit, is added to lead and tin, the result is just the reverse, for on cooling this alloy expands. The latter alloy is generally used for casting types for printing, the proportions of which are two of lead, one of antimony, and one of tin, although a more expansive alloy is made of nine of lead, two of antimony, and one of bis- muth. Then with regard to the hardness of metals, it is not always that the hardest metals require the highest temperature to fuse them. Tin, for instance, is much harder than lead, yet it fuses at a temperature nearly 200 degrees Fah- renheit lower than lead. SOLDER 75 Decimal Parts of an Inch. 1-64 .01563 11-32 .34375 43-64 .67188 1-32 .03125 23-64 .35938 11-16 .6875 3-64 .04688 3-8 .375 1-16 .0625 45-64 .70313 25-64 .39063 23-32 .71875 5-64 .07813 13-32 .40625 47-64 .73438 3-32 .09375 27-64 .42188 3-4 .75 7-64 .10938 7-16 .4375 1-8 .125 49-64 .76563 29-64 .45313 25-32 .78125 9-64 ,14063 15-32 .46875 51-64 .79688 5-32 .15625 31-64 .48438 13-16 .8125 11-64 .17188 1-2 .5 3-16 .1875 53-64 .82813 33-64 .51563 27-32 .84375 13-64 .20313 17-32 .53125 55-64 .85938 7-32 .21875 35-64 .54688 7-8 .875 15-64 .23438 9-16 .5625 1-4 .25 57-64 .89063 37-64 .57813 29-32 .90625 17-64 .26563 19-32 .59375 59-64 .92188 9-32 .28125 39-64 .60938 15-16 .9375 19-64 .29688 5-8 .625 5-16 .3125 61-64 .95313 41-64 .64063 31-32 .96875 21-64 .32813 21-32 .65625 63-64 .97438 Melting Points of Alloys of Tin r, Lead, and Bismuth. Tin. Lead. Bismuth. Melting Point in Degrees Fahren- heit. Tin. Lead. Bismuth. Melting Point in Degrees Fahren- heit, 2 3 5 199 4 1 372 1 1 4 201 5 1 381 3 2 5 212 2 1 385 4 1 5 246 3 1 392 1 1 286 1 1 466 2 1 334 1 3 552 3 1 367 TABLE 5 76 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Weight of Twelve Inches Square of Various Metals. ■ o a M o 2 O M ■ a o ■ a §3 •a GO CO u 0) Q. a o 6 a S *3 es 3 l 2.50 2.34 2.56 2.75 2.69 2.87 2.37 2.25 3.68 % 5.00 4.69 5.12 5.50 5.38 5.75 4.75 4.50 7.37 3 T^~ 7.50 7.03 7.68 8.25 8.07 8.62 7.12 6.75 11.05 X 10.00 9.38 10.25 11.00 10.75 11.50 9.50 9.00 14.75 5 TIT 12.50 11.72 12.81 13.75 13.45 14.37 11.87 11.25 18.42 % 15.00 14.06 15.36 16.50 16.14 17.24 14.24 13.50 22.10 7 17.50 16,41 17.93 19.25 18.82 20.12 16.17 15.75 25.80 % 20.90 18.75 20.50 22.00 21.50 23.00 19.00 18.00 29.50 9 22.50 21.10 23.06 24.75 24.20 25.87 21.37 20.25 33.17 % 25.00 23.44 25.62 27.50 26.90 28.74 23.74 22.50 36.84 1 1 TIP 27.50 25.79 28.18 30.25 29.58 31.62 26.12 24.75 40.54 % 30.00 28.12 30.72 33.00 32.28 34.48 28.48 27.00 44.20 1 3 Tlfi 32.50 30.48 33.28 35.75 34.95 37.37 30.87 29.25 47.92 % 35.00 32.82 35.86 38.50 37.64 40.24 32.34 31.50 51.60 1 5 TTT 37.50 35.16 38.43 41.25 40.32 43.12 35.61 33.75 55.36 1 40.00 37.50 41.00 44.00 43.00 46.00 38.00 36.00 59.00 Weight of Metals. To Find Weight in Pounds. Aluminium cubic inches X 0.094 Brass " " X 0.31 Copper " " X 0.32 Cast-Ii •on . " " X0.26 Wroug ht-Iron . " " X0.28 Lead " " X 0.41 Mercury " " X 0.49 Nickel " " X 0.31 Tin . " " X 0.26 Zinc . " " X0.26 T. VBLE 5 HOW TO MAKE SOLDER. Plumber's wiping solder, for use with the ladle and the soldering cloth, is made up by melting together pure lead and block tin in the proportion of 2 pounds of lead to 1 pound of tin. Plumber's fine solder is made of about equal parts of those two metals. Strip solder— used with the copper-bit— is made in the proportion of 2 pounds of tin to 3 pounds of lead. Gas- fitter's solder may be made in the proportion of S pounds of tin to 9 pounds of lead, tinsmith's copper-bit solder is 1 pound of lead to 1 pound of tin. The proportion of lead and tin may vary within certain limits without apparent effort on the solder. Plumber's wiping solder, when in a bar, should have a clean grey appearance, and not be dirty-looking. The ends of the bar should be bright, and show several tin spots mottled over their surfaces. In use, the solder should work smooth, and not granular. The tin should not separate from the lead on the lower part of the joints. One test for the quality of solder is to melt it and then pour on to a cold but dry stone about the size of a dollar, and take note of the color and size and also the number and sizes 77 78 HOW TO MAKE SOLDER of the spots that appear, but the only reliable test is to make a joint and note the ease with which it can be worked. For making joints on lead pipes copper-bit solder made in thin strips is generally used. This is the kind used also for soldering zinc. Some plumbers prefer sol- der finer, others coarser than the usual average which is given above. The usual method of making solder is as fol- lows: An iron pot is suspended over a coke fire, to which enough broken coke is added to bank up all round the pot. Sheet-lead cuttings and scraps of clean pipe are put into the pot until it is rather more than half full. Preference is given to pig-lead over sheet, and to new cuttings over pipe, because the lead rolled into sheets is generally purer than that used for pipe. Some pipe is made of old metals which contain lead, tin, antimony, arsenic, and zinc, it is inadvis- able to put such material in the solder-pot. The effect would be to raise the melting point of the solder, and in applying it to the joint to be soldered it would in all probability partially melt the lead. Moreover, the metals named do not alloy perfectly, but partake more of the nature of a mixture which partially separates when making a joint, some metals, especially zinc, show as small bright lumps on the surface. Joints made with such solder, which usually is called poisoned metal, are difficult to form, and HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 79 they usually leak when in water pipes. The ap- pearance of such joints is a dirty grey, instead of bright and clean as when pure solder is used. From this it is clear that in making solder great care must be taken to exclude zinc from the pot. Zinc, lead, and tin do not alloy well, lead will unite with only 1.6 per cent of zinc, and above that proportion the metals are only mixed when melted, and on cooling partially separate. Sufficient lead having been melted in the pot, about % pound of lump sulphur, broken into pieces about the size of hickory nuts, is added, and the whole well stirred with a ladle, the sul- phur unites with zinc and other impurities. The resultant sulphides are skimmed off in the form of a cake, more sulphur being added so long as sulphides continue to form. The bowl of the ladle, in the intervals of stirring, should be laid on the fire, to burn off any adherent sulphur. When sulphide ceases to be formed, a handful of resin is thrown into the pot, and the lead stirred. When the resin has burned, the lead is again skimmed, and a piece of tallow about the size of a hen's egg is put into the pot, the lead being again stirred and skimmed. In stirring the lead it is lifted up and poured back by the ladleful, a larger amount of lead being thus exposed to the action of the cleaning material. Best block tin is now added in the required proportion, and after the molten mass has been 80 HOW TO MAKE SOLDER well stirred a little of the mixture should be run on to a stone to test its fineness. If it appears too coarse more tin is added, if too fine, more sheet-lead. Finally, a little resin and tallow having been added, the solder is skimmed and is then ready for use or for pouring into moulds. When plumber's solder is heated in an open pot, the surface exposed to the air combines with oxygen, and on heating to redness, the combina- tion takes place more readily. The tin melts at a lower temperature than lead, and so its specific gravity is lighter, floats when melted, and so the solder becomes poorer when too highly heated, owing to the tin's oxidation. If the dross is melted with a flux, or with pow- dered charcoal, which will combine with the oxygen, the solder will again become fit for use, but it is sometimes necessary to add a little more tin. Burning the solder must be carefully avoided. A pot of solder after it has been red-hot has always a quantity of dross or dirt collected on the top. This is principally oxide of tin and oxide of lead, the tin and lead having united with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form ox- ides of these metals. Lead being roughly 50 per cent heavier than tin, the tendency is for the tin in the molten mixture to form the upper layer of the solder— the part most exposed to the action of the atmosphere. When the solder HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 81 becomes red-hot, there is therefore more tin burned than lead. Hence the solder becomes too coarse, and more tin must be added. Zinc is the greatest trouble to the solder pot. Great care has to be taken to exclude it, or to get it out. It may get into the solder from a piece of zinc, laving been put into the pot by mistake for lead, but more commonly brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, is the source of the zinc that poisons the pot, into which brass filings find their way whilst brass is being prepared for tinning. If the filing is done at the same bench as the wiping, splashes of metal may fall on the filings, which will adhere, and thus get into the pot. Solder that is poisoned by arsenic or antimony is beyond the plumber's skill to clean, but zinc can be extracted by stirring in powdered sulphur when the solder is in a semi- molten condition, and then melting the whole, when the combined sulphur and zinc will rise to the surface, and can be taken off in the form of a cake, the solder being left in good condition for use. SOLDERING FLUXES. The flux ordinarily used for plumber's wiping solder is tallow, generally in the form of a candle. No other fluxes answer this purpose so well, as they all spoil the wiping cloths, but dif- ferent kinds of fluxes are required for different kinds of work. For a wiped joint, a tallow candle is rubbed over the parts. This is often used in making copper-bit joints, though for this latter purpose many plumbers prefer to use black rosin. Muriatic acid is employed as a flux for use when soldering, the acid — which is a powerful poison— being used for zinc or galvan- ized iron, and the killed acid for other metals, such as brass, tinplate, copper, wrought-iron, etc. After tinning brass with fine solder, the cop- per-bit should be wiped quite clean, as the cop- per, uniting with some of the zinc in the brass, may affect the wiping solder. Some plumbers tin brass by holding it over the metal pot and pouring the solder on to it. This is bad prac- tice, as the surplus solder, and any zinc with which it may have combined, fall into the pot. In cleaning solder, the sulphur must be used 82 SOLDERING FLUXES 83 with more care than when cleaning lead, or the tin will be burnt out as well as the zinc. The method ordinarily adopted by plumbers for tinning iron is to file it bright and then coat the part with killed acid or chloride of zinc, or muriatic acid in which zinc has been dissolved, and then dip it into molten plumber's solder. Sometimes sal-ammoniac is used for the flux, or a mixture of sal-ammoniac and chloride of zinc. "When wrought-iron pipes have been thus tinned, and then soldered joints made, they have been found to come apart after a few years, the pipe ends, when pulled from the solder, being found to be rusty. Although more difficult to accom- plish, iron pipe ends filed and covered with resin, and then plunged into molten solder, from the surface of which all dross has been skimmed, and afterwards soldered together, have been known to last a considerable time. When tin- ning the pipes or making the joints, the solder must not be overheated, or failure will result. PREPARING WIPED JOINTS. One objection that is often raised to wiped joints is that they are too expensive, and re- quire a large quantity of solder. Another is that they take up too much time, and when they are made they are said to be ugly, and have been described as a "ball of solder round a pipe." It seems very unfortunate that plumbers' work should be judged by its worst specimens, but, probably, this course of action is justified by the principle that the strength of the chain is limited to its weakest link. There is no doubt that if joints are carefully prepared and prop- erly wiped the above objections would be groundless, and that for good substantial work there is no other kind of joint that is more suitable for the purpose. In the process of making wiped joints no part is no important as the preparation. A joint may be wiped as nicely and as regularly as pos- sible, but if the ends are not properly prepared and fitted, it will very often happen that the joint will leak by sweating, as it is called, the solder is generally supposed to be the cause, but more often it is the fault of the imperfect preparation of the ends of the pipe. We will 84 PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 85 suppose, for instance, an upright joint on an inch service pipe. Fig. 40 is a sketch showing the way a joint of this kind is usually prepared. Very often one end barely enters the other, no care is taken to see that the ends fit properly together, and any space that may be left be- tween the two ends is closed up with a hammer. As to shaving inside the socket end, this is thought quite unnecessary, if not a fault, for some think if the socket end is shaved inside, it will induce the solder to run through and partly fill up the pipe. There is no doubt it would do so if the ends do not fit; but that is just the thing that is most important, not only as regards the solder getting inside the pipe, but on it depends, to a very large extent, the sound- ness of the joint. The general idea is that if the two ends of a pipe are shaved and placed together, and a piece of solder stuck round them, tha* is all that is required to make a joint. If the solder is not so fine as it ought to be, it is the cause of most of the leaky joints, and very often the joints are found broken right across the center, more es- pecially in the case of joint on hot- water, service, and waste pipes. It has been remarked that the solder is generally blamed for all the failures. It is either too coarse or too cold, or else it must have got a piece of zinc in it. Other- wise, if the joint is made to brasswork, it is that 86 PREPARING WIPED JOINTS which has poisoned the solder. In short, every- thing gets blamed except the right cause. It must not be supposed that joint-wiping can be taught by books. This can only be accom- plished in the workshop or on a plumbing job. But as practice is very often greatly assisted by precept, probably a few hints on the matter of joint-wiping will be helpful to many who have not the opportunities to gain a very large or varied experience. In preparing a joint similar to the one mentioned, after the two ends are carefully straightened, the spigot, or what is generally called the male end, should be first rasped square, and then tapered with a fine rasp quite half an inch back from the end. A fine rasp is mentioned because the rasps that are used by many plumbers are far too coarse to properly rasp the ends of pipes. Generally the very coarse rasps are used, it is difficult to say why, except it is that they are cheaper than the fine rasps, but if the advantages of a fine rasp be taken into account, the extra cost would not be considered. When preparing the ends of the pipe, great care should be taken to avoid the raspings get- ting into the pipes, these cause no end of time and trouble when they get into valves and other fittings, after the pipes are filled with water. As a rule, it is the back stroke of the rasp that throws the raspings inside the pipe, espe- PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 87 cially when the pipe is being rasped horizontally, or with the end of the pipe pointing upwards. If possible, when the ends are being rasped, they should either be pointing in a downward direc- tion, or else the rasp should not be allowed to touch the pipe in its backward stroke. Some plumbers place a wad or stopper in the end of a pipe when it is being rasped; this is a very good precaution to take, providing it is not for- gotten and left in the pipe. After the spigot end has been rasped, it should be soiled about six inches long, but no farther towards the end than an inch from the rasped edge. Sometimes the soiling is taken right up to the end, but this is not a good plan, because, if it is soiled over the rasped edge, the shave-hook does not always take the soil out of the rasp marks, a point which is most important; and as it is quite un- necessary to soil farther than the line of shaving, the soil at the end is quite superfluous. Many plumbers soil the ends before they rasp them with the same object in view, but this is not a good plan, because very often in rasping the ends, the end of the rasp is likely to scratch the soiling, making it necessary to touch up the soil- ing again. If the soil is good it is an advantage to rub it, after it is dry, with a piece of carpet or a hard brush, a dry felt will do. This makes the sur- face of the soil smooth and more durable, and 88 PEEPAEING WIPED JOINTS not so likely to flake off when the joint is wiped. The best soil is made from vegetable black and diluted glue with a little sugar, and finely ground chalk added. The proportion of the in- gredients depends to a large extent on their quality. Lamp black and size are generally used, but if the black is not very good it is very diffi- cult to make soil fit for use, it will rub or peel off and become a nuisance. Good soil, and a properly made soil pot and tool, are indispensa- ble to a plumber who wishes to turn out a good quality of work. Any makeshift does for a soil pot with a great many plumbers. Some use an old milk-can or a saucepan. It is much better to have a good copper pot, with a handle. Most plumbers should be able to make a soil pot with a piece of sheet copper, otherwise a coppersmith would make one for a small sum. Before soiling the end of the pipe, it is always a good plan to chalk it well. This will counteract the effects of the grease that is nearly always found on the surface of new lead pipes. If the pipe is very greasy, it is still better to scour it well with a piece of card-wire before it is chalked and soiled. The scouring is not always necessary, but it is always best to carry a piece of card-wire in case of need. "When the end of the pipe has been properly soiled, it should be shaved the length required, that is, about half an inch longer than half the PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 89 length of the joint, thus allowing half an inch for socketing into the other end. Grease, or "touch," as it is called by plumbers, should immediately be rubbed over the shaved part to prevent oxidation. The socket end of the pipe should now be rasped square and opened with a long tapered turnpin— a short stumpy turnpin is not a proper tool for this purpose, although many of this kind are used. After rasping the edge of the pipe, the rasped part should be par- allel with .the side of the pipe, as shown at Fig. 39. It is not at all necessary for the edge of the socket end to project, nor to reduce the bore of the pipe in the joint; but if the ends are pre- pared, as shown at Figs. 40 and 41, it would be necessary to open the socket end an extra- ordinary width to get the same depth of socket, and then a much larger quantity of solder would be required to cover the edge, which would make the shape of the joint look ugly, and not make such a reliable joint either. When the socket end is properly fitted, it should be soiled and shaved half the length of the intended joint. The inside of the socket should also be shaved about half an inch down and touched. If the solder is used at a proper heat and splashed on quickly, so as to well sweat the sol- der in between the two surfaces where the ends are socketed, the joint is made, so far as the 90 PREPARING WIPED JOINTS soundness is concerned, independent of the wip- ing or the form and shape of the solder when it is finished. In fact, if a joint is prepared in a proper manner, it would be sound in most in- stances if the solder was wiped bare to the edge of the socket end. Of course, it would not 1 mi i Fig. 40. Pig. 41. be advisable to do this, but still, a joint should and could be quite independent of the very large quantity of solder that is frequently used. But when a large amount of solder is seen on a joint, it can generally be taken for granted that the plumber that made it, when he prepared the PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 91 ends, took great pains to close up the edge of the socket end to the spigot end so that it fitted tight, so tight was this edge, that it prevented the slightest particle of solder getting in be- tween. The consequence very often is, that if the plumber is not quick at wiping the joint, and keeps the solder moving until it is nearly cold, or at least cold enough to set, the whole of the solder on the joint will be in a state of porous- ness, or, in other words, instead of the solder cooling into a compact mass, the contin- ual moving of it by the act of wiping causes the particles, as they become crystal- lized by cooling, to be disturbed and partially disintegrated. The result is, that under a mod- erate pressure the water will percolate through the joint and cause what is generally termed "sweating." Very often it is rather more than sweating, it can more correctly be compared to water running through a sieve. Under some con- ditions it is not a very easy matter to prevent this sweating, especially if the solder is very coarse, or is poisoned by zinc or other delete- rious matters. The great advantage of leaving the socket end open is, that if the solder is used at a good heat, as it always should be when it is splashed on, it runs into the socket at such a heat that, when it cools, it sets much firmer than that part of the solder which has been disturbed by the forming of the joint. JOINT-WIPING. Joint-wiping forms an important branch, in the art of plumbing. It is a part of the work which requires more care, skill and practice than any of the other branches, and on it depends the success or failure of some of the most particu- lar jobs in sanitary plumbing. Many serious cases of disease have been traced to bad joint- wiping. It is not expected that a joint can un- der all conditions, be as perfectly symmetrical and well proportioned as if it had been turned in a lathe. The best workmen have to leave joints that they would be ashamed of, as far as the appearance is concerned, if they were made on the bench or in some convenient place. There are too many who seem to think that sound work is good work, and therefore never try to make their work look as creditable as it should. The different styles of joint-wiping are so numerous, that one could go to any length describing the many eccentricities and peculiarities that are displayed in this particular branch of the trade. Of course every one has his own peculiar ideas in most matters, and no person does a thing ex- actly like another. After a helper has been at the trade for a 92 JOINT-WIPING 93 short time, his one great ambition is to wipe a joint. He seems to think that if he can only manage to get a small portion of solder to ad- here to a piece of pipe, and then so manipulate it as to induce it to take the form of an egg or a turnip, as the case may be, he has done some- thing to be proud of, and soon begins to think he ought to be a full-blown plumber. Another question with regard to joints is the proper lengths to make them. Some like long joints, others prefer short ones. The advocates of long joints say that short joints are ugly, and are not proportionate. They are often compared to tur- nips, and other things not quite so regular in shape. Those who are in favor of short joints say the long ones are not so sound, that they will not stand a great pressure, and are liable to sweat. It is ridiculous to make joints of enormous lengths, when a joint made more in proportion to the diameter of the pipe would not only be much stronger, but would look far neat- er, and generally require less solder. Then there is the question of wiping-cloths. A great many plumbers like a very thick cloth for wiping joints, but, on the other hand, as many more say they cannot wipe joints with thick cloths. Many plumbers who are used to thick cloths and can wipe joints as easily as possible, are quite beaten if they try to use thin cloths. The difference in the thickness of cloths is very great 94 JOINT-WIPING in some cases. Very thin cloths are not suitable for making joints a nice shape. When a plumb- er gets used to a reasonably thick cloth he can make joints far better and easier than if he used thin ones. Generally, plumbers who use thin cloths make joints very short and lumpy, and bare at the ends, so that the shaving is shown about an eighth to three-eights from the ends. But when thicker cloths are used it is much easier to make joints more like the proper shape. This is very important in all joint- wiping, be- cause wherever the shaving is left bare, the pipe is weaker here than any other part, whereas, if a joint is properly made, this part of it should be the strongest. In a large number of in- stances, when a pipe is subject to much expan- sion and contraction, it will break at this weak point very soon after it is fixed. It would be difficult to say generally what should be a proper thickness for cloths, excepting that they should be in proportion to the width and length. Cloths for large joints should be much thicker than those used for small ones, because the larger the cloth is, the more difficult it is to keep it in the shape required for wiping the joint. If a cloth used for making a four-inch joint were made of only about six thicknesses of moleskin, it would be no more, or at least but little more, use than one generally used for three-quarter or one- inch joints, because when a small amount of sol- JOINT-WIPING 95 der falls on it, the cloth would bend down and let the solder fall, so that the solder would not remain in the cloth except that caught in the middle, where the hand is under it. Conse- quently, there is much difficulty in getting up the great heat necessary to make a large joint. Then supposing it were possible to get up the heat sufficient to wipe the joint, it is useless to try to make the point as regular as would be the case if moderately thick cloth were used. The reason is, that when the cloth is hot it gives too much to the pressure of each finger, and there- fore presses unequally on the surface of the joint, making it either bare at the edges and showing the tinning, or causing the body of the joint to be irregular and bad in shape, more es- pecially at the bottom where it is nearly bare. A cloth should be just thick enough to prevent the impression of the fingers having any in- fluence on the body of the joint, but at the same time it should be thin enough to allow it to be bent the shape required without any great exer- tion. A cloth cannot be employed like a mould used by a plasterer to mould a cornice, if it could, it would not be so difficult, and require so much practice to make a joint as it does. Al- though there can be no doubt that suitable tools are indispensable to the workman, yet it must be remembered, by plumbers especially, that the cloth, however well made both in size and shape, 96 JOINT-WIPING will not make a joint without it is manipulated by an intelligent and experienced hand. Wiping Horizontal Joints. In the making of wiped joints one of the greatest mistakes that is generally made is that of using too thin cloths. It is very difficult, if not altogether impossible, to make a good shaped joint with a thin cloth. The joints shown at A and B in Fig. 42 are Pig. 42. the kind of joint generally made with a thin cloth. By thin cloths are meant about five thicknesses of moleskin or ticking. Ticking, JOINT- WIPING 97 however, is not nearly so suitable for the pur- pose as moleskin. Another objection to the use of thin cloths is their liability to get hot too quickly. Before the joint is finished it is al- most impossible to hold the cloth on account of the intense heat. A cloth suitable to make a good wiped joint should consist of about eight thicknesses of moleskin. The width of a good cloth should be about an inch longer than the joint, and the length about the same or perhaps a little longer. It will not be found a good plan to fold up the cloth out of one piece of material, as when the folds are at the sides, it is difficult to make the cloth bend as is required when in use. The bet- ter plan is to cut the cloth into pieces, of twice the length and exactly the same width as the cloth is required to be when finished. These should be folded once and then sewn together at the edge as shown in Fig. 43. To those who are in the habit of using thin cloths it will no doubt be found rather awkward at first to use thick ones, but a little practice will show that they are much more convenient to use and will turn out a better shaped joint as shown at C in Fig. 42. Thin cloths after they are hot get out of shape and give too much, with the result that the edges of th© joint are often wiped bare. Another and very important advantage of thick cloths is that the joints may be made much 98 JOINT-WIPING lighter, as it does not necessarily follow that be- cause a large amount of solder is used on a joint it is any more sound or stronger than a lighter one. When the solder on the joint is at such a heat as to make it difficult to keep it on the pipe, it should be patted round with the cloth, and the Fig. 43 . surplus solder on the edges wiped off. The cloth should now be taken in the right hand, as shown in Fig. 44, and the wiping commenced at the ba,ck of the joint. While drawing the cloth upwards, the forefinger should be used to clean the edge nearest to it, after which the little finger should be used to clean the other edge. As soon as the edges are clean, the body of the JOINT-WIPING 99 joint can be formed with the middle of the cloth. Then take the cloth in the left hand, and push- ing the surplus solder downwards, clean the out- side edges of the joint with the fore and little fingers. Now take the cloth in the middle of the right hand, pressing equally with each finger so that the cloth touches the whole length of the joint, wipe round as far as is convenient with the right hand, then change quickly to the Fig. 44 . left hand and continue the wiping under the joint to the other side. It may be sometimes necessary to wipe the joint round this way two or even three times before it is smooth and clean, but it is much the better way to avoid wiping the surface more than is necessary. The sooner a joint is left alone after it is formed, the better it will be, both for looks and reliabil- ity. Wiping Upright Joints. When wiping an up- 100 JOINT-WIPING right joint as shown in Fig. 45, it is better to proceed by stages than to try to wipe the joint all at once. The first stage is to pour on the metal and tin the joint, that is, cause a film of solder to alloy with the surface of the pipe. Fig. When the above described operation has been performed, the iron should be made hot, and the joint should be splashed by means of the splash-stick, until the pipe is hot enough and JOINT-WIPING 101 sufficient solder is on it to allow of the wiping cloth to be used. Great care should be used in melting the solder, if allowed to get red-hot the solder deteriorates. The soldering-iron should be heated to the right temperature and the bit filed clean and bright. The solder should first be splashed on the shaved portion of the pipe and then on about two inches of the soiled part at each end of the pipe. The cloth should al- ways be held under the place where the solder is being splashed on, to catch the surplus solder. As the solder runs down the sides of the pipe and is caught in the cloth, it is pressed up against the pipe to keep up the heat and also to tin the pipe. As soon as the pipe has been well tinned, the solder should be formed into the shape of a joint. Begin at the top of the joint, and with the hot iron in one hand and the cloth in the other, rub the iron over the solder on the joint and wipe round with the cloth quickly and lightly, working downwards until the joint is finished. When the joint has partially cooled, it may be cleansed and brightened by rubbing it over with tallow and wiping off with a clean soft rag. Wiping Branch Joints. Fig. 46 shows a badly shaped joint that is often made by the use of a thin cloth, while Fig. 46a shows a joint fliat may be much more readily made by the 102 JOINT-WIPING use of a thick cloth. When everything is ready and the solder is at a suitable heat, it should be splashed on very carefully while at the same time the pipe should be warmed for a few inches Fig. 46 each side of the joint with the solder. When the solder on the joint is at such a heat as to make it difficult to keep it on the pipe with con- tinually drawing it up, take a small clean iron JOINT-WIPING 103 at a dull red heat, and start wiping at one end of the joint. Carefully form the sides of the joint and wipe the solder as hot as possible by the continual application of the iron before each Fig. 46a part of the joint is wiped. Finish the joint at the same end as it was started by drawing the wipe-off to the outside edge of the joint. 104 JOINT-WIPING A lead pipe can be wiped to a cast iron pipe with a fair amount of ease, but the joint will not stand satisfactorily. The best way is to file clean the end of the cast-iron pipe and then coat it with pure tin, using sal-ammoniac as a flux. The pipe is then washed to remove the sal-ammoniac, and afterwards re-tinned, using resin and grease as a flux. A plumber's joint, 3% inches long for 4-inch pipes, is then wiped in the usual way. Great pains will have to be taken to make a good, sound, strong joint between the two metals. Nev- ertheless, in the course of time, it may be only a few years, the cast iron will come out of the solder. The first sign of decay will be a red ring of iron rust showing at the end of the joint. This rust will swell a little and cause the end of the soldering to curl slightly outwards. Eventually the rust will creep between the solder and the iron and destroy the adhesion of the one to the other. Only those metals that alloy together can be satisfactorily joined by soft soldering, and the solder should contain as great a proportion as possible of the metals that are to be united. The joint would, if out of doors, be subjected to tem- peratures ranging over 90° Fahrenheit, under such conditions the solder would expand .001251 inch, and the iron would expand .000549 inch, or less than half as much as the solder. The joint would therefore eventually become a loose ring on the iron pipe, but not on the lead pipe, as the JOINT-WIPING 105 expansion of lead and solder do not differ ma- terially. Numerous experiments have been tried for overcoming the difficulty of wiping joints on or- dinary tin-lined pipes, but the only method which has been found to approach success has been to insert a long nipple of tinned sheet iron, this method, however, has not been wholly successful with the ordinary make of tinned pipe. How- ever, on a new kind of tin-lined pipe, wiped joints can be made very easily, without the tin lining melting. It would often be a convenience if copper pipes could be united satisfactorily by wiping, but plumbers ' wiped joints are of no use with cop- per tube, for the expansion and contraction will not permit them to remain sound, as many hot- water engineers know to their cost, brazed joints would be satisfactory, though troublesome to make. If copper pipe is thick enough to be threaded, have the fittings threaded also, and screw them together the same as with iron pipe, except that with long runs there must be expan- sion joints or other provision made for expan- sion. Even when a wiped joint on copper pipes is strongly made by sweating on a sleeve and then wiping a joint over the whole, it is doubt- ful if it would be permanent. It is very prob- able that electrolysis would set in, if the pipe is in damp ground. However, should circumstances 106 JOINT-WIPING suggest that a wiped joint might answer, the work is done as described below. Wiped joints on copper pipes are longer than wiped joints on lead pipes. Copper pipes 2 inches or more in diameter have joints from 3% to 4 inches long, 4-inch pipes have joints about 5 inches long, but it must be remembered that whilst reasonable length and thickness of joint are necessary to enable the copper pipe to with- stand pressure and strain, the maximum time of service does not depend on the length or thick- ness of the joint as in lead pipe work. That which determines practically the life of the joint is the extent of pipe which is carefully tinned before making the wiped joint. If the interiors of the two pipe ends are tinned, say, for 6 to 8 inches, if the joint is cut open, in a few years' time, it is found that the tinning has diminished to 2 or 3 inches, a corroding action having taken place at the end of the tinning, for this reason it is advisable that the tinning be fairly thick, so as to retard the separation and ultimate fail- ure of the joint. In tinning copper, first thor- oughly clean it with dilute sulphuric acid or scour with sand and water, and then rinse it with chloride of zinc, known as killed spirits. Melt some pure tin, throw in sal-ammoniac as a flux, and dip the copper in the tin, or pour or rub the latter over the copper. In pipes forming a portion of a distillery plant it is especially im- JOINT- WIPING 107 portant that untinned spots are not left on the interiors of the pipe ends, as at such spots the destruction of the tinning commences at once. The pipe is strengthened by putting one pipe within the other, and the corrosion of the tinning is arrested when it reaches the lap. If sufficient lap is given, the pipe may be handled before the joint is wiped — a great convenience. The pipe ends are placed together, when practicable, over the iron pot containing the molten solder, which is then poured continuously over the joint until a heat is got up. This practice is not possible with lead or brass pipes, because in the one case the lead would melt, and in the other the molten zinc would leave the brass and ruin the solder. When the pipes cannot be moved, a shovel is placed beneath the joint and the solder poured on rapidly. When a thorough heat has been ob- tained, the joint can be wiped, with the aid of a cloth and of the mushy solder from the shovel, in much the same way as a joint on a lead pipe is wiped. AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING OR LEAD BURNING. The art of lead burning has for many years been kept quite distinct from plumbing gener- ally, it is nevertheless a branch of the trade, and one in which large numbers of plumbers are be- coming very proficient. There is not required a large amount of skill or ingenuity in the execu- tion of lead burning, because, as a matter of fact, when it is compared with first-class plumb- ing, it is not nearly so difficult to acquire. In most cases where lead burning was considered necessary, such for instance as lining large tanks in chemical factories especially for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, the lead was simply used in large sheets fixed with tacks to wooden framework and the edges burned to- gether. Of late years, however, this method of burning the edges of lead together has been adopted for numerous other purposes, such as the lining of sinks for chemical laboratories, and lining cisterns in cases where the water attacks the solder. The modern term for lead burning is "auto- genous soldering. " The word " autogenous" is rather an ugly one, and somewhat difficult to 108 AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 109 define, it pertains to the word " autogeneal, ' $ which means " self -begotten or generating it- self," neither of which is very appropriate to the process of lead burning. In fact the latter term is not strictly applicable, because the lead is not burnt, it is only fused. The most suitable term would be "fusing process." Instead of saying "the seams are burned," it would be better to say "the seams are fused," as this would correctly describe the action that takes place. The simplest kind of lead burning is that known as flat seams, and which as a rule is the only kind that plumbers are likely to make use of. Professional lead burners of course are re- quired to burn seams in many different ways, even horizontal seams overhead are sometimes necessary. When the seams of sinks and cisterns have to be burned, the joints should always be arranged about 6 inches from the angles. Be- cause if the seams are arranged in the angles the flame of the blow-pipe is likely to catch the surface of the lead at the side and burn them through before the seam is formed. It is best also to butt the edges of the lead and not to lap them. Then when each edge has been shav- ed about a quarter of an inch wide, take a strip of shaved lead about half an inch wide and di- rect the flame on the end until a drop is melted and falls on the seam, at the same time the flame 110 AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING should be directed towards the part of the seam to be burned, for the purpose of heating it. Then cause the flame to play upon the small drop of lead until that and the lead upon which it rests are fused, then draw up the flame quick- ly. This operation, owing to the intense heat of the airo-hydrogen flame, occupies much less time than it takes to describe it. So that the operator has to be quick in manipulating the blast if he wishes to avoid burning the lead over a much larger space than is desirable. It must not be supposed that a flowing seam like that produced by a copper-bit and fine solder can be formed by the burning process, this, under the circumstances, is not possible. Each wave has to be formed separately by a distinct applica- tion of the flame. The regularity of these waves will depend partly upon the skill of the opera- tor, partly upon the quality of the blast and on the purity of the lead upon which it is being used. But like most other mechanical operations pro- ficiency has to be attained by practice and ex- perience. When it is found necessary to burn seams on the vertical side of a cistern, the lap is generally arranged in a slanting direction for the purpose of forming a ledge for the drops of molten lead to rest upon until they are fused into the seam, which is formed of a series of drops, instead of waves. A similar appearance AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 111 is obtained when seams are burned on an up- right side of a cistern in a horizontal line. Another very convenient way to produce a good flame for lead burning is to use compressed oxygen and coal gas. The oxygen can be obtain- ed in steel bottles, this, being discharged under great pressure, is used for the blast instead of air, a bellows is therefore unnecessary. When it is stated that a small sized blow-pipe of this kind with a supply of oxygen at the rate of 7 cubic feet per hour, and a gas supply through a quarter-inch pipe, will fuse a quarter- inch wrought-iron rod easily, the intense heat of the flame can be somewhat realized. Probably the oxygen method of burning would be rather costly where only small jobs of lead burning are occasionally required, but where there is a con- siderable amount to do the compressed oxygen would be far more preferable to the cumber- some and often troublesome hydrogen machine. There is yet another method which has been adopted to a very large extent for lead burning, namely the use of a red-hot hatchet copper-bit. The seam is placed, in the case of a pipe, on an iron mandrel, or if a flat seam, on an iron plate, and the hot copper-bit is drawn through, slowly fusing the lead together as it goes. A core or bed of sand will also answer the pur- pose. It is, of course, a rough and ready way of 112 AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING doing the work, and it involves a large amount of time and labor in cleaning off the seams. But it is nevertheless effectual, and, where more skil- ful means are not at hand, it often serves the purpose in a rough way. It would not, however, do for general application, in fact, in numerous instances where lead burning is required, it would not be at all practicable. In conclusion, it may be well to point out that the idea of substituting the burning system for soldering generally in plumbers' work is not at all likely to be an accomplished fact. It is all very well for special purposes, but the art of soldering in the modern style is too* well estab- lished to be ever superseded by the compare tively inartistic methods of lead fusing. Not only is lead burning not so attractive or so sub- stantial in appearance as soldering, but it is not nearly so well adapted to general plumbers' work, and there does not at present seem any probability of it ever becoming a successful com- petitor. DRAINAGE FITTINGS. Soil and Waste Pipe Fittings. One-quarter and one-sixth, and one-eighth and one-sixteenth Fig. 47. Fig. 48. cast iron soil pipe bends or elbows are shown in Figs. 47 and 48 respectively, and long one- quarter and one-eighth bend in Figs. 49 and 50. 113 114 DRAINAGE FITTINGS Quarter bends with heel and side outlets are shown in Figs. 51 and 52. A long quarter turn or sanitary bend is shown in Fig. 53. , • Figures 54, 55 and 56 show a T-branch soil pipe with left-hand inlet, a sanitary T-branch Fig. 49. Fig. 50. with right-hand inlet and a Y-branch with right- hand inlet, respectively. A plain T-branch, a sanitary T-branch, a Y- branch and a half Y-branch are shown in Figs, 57, 58, 59 and 60. DRAINAGE FITTINGS 115 Fig. 51. Fig. 52. Fig. 53. Fig. 54. 116 DRAINAGE FITTINGS Fig. 55. Fig. 56. Fig. 57. Fig. 58. DRAINAGE FITTINGS 117 A plain T-branch, a sanitary T-branch, a cross and a sanitary cross all tapped for iron pipe are 61 and 62. shown in Figs Pig. 59. Fig. 60. Fig. 61. 118 DRAINAGE FITTINGS A plain cross, a sanitary cross, a double Y- branch and double balf Y-branch are shown in Figs. 63, 64, 65 and 66, Fig. 62. Fig. 63. Fig. 64. DRAINAGE FITTINGS 119 A ventilating cap and a Y-saddle hub are il- lustrated in Fig. 67, and half Y-saddle hub and a T-saddle hub in Fig;. 68. Fig. 65. Fig. A ventilating branch tapped for iron pipe, an inverted Y-branch and a plain ventilating branch pipe are shown in Figs. 69, 70 and 71. 120 DRAINAGE FITTINGS Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. Fig. 70. DRAINAGE FITTINGS 121 A T-branch, a sanitary T-branch and a Y- branch with trap-screw are shown in Figs 72 73 and 74. " ■ Fig. 71. Fig. 72. Fig. 73. Fig. 74. 122 DRAINAGE FITTINGS Traps. A running trap with hand-hole and cover, and one with two hub-vents are illus- trated in Figs. 75 and 76. Fig. 75. Fig. 76, DRAINAGE FITTINGS 123 A full S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a half S-trap, are illustrated in Figs. 77, 78 and 79. An S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a half Fig. 77. Pig. 78. Fig. 79. 124 DRAINAGE FITTINGS S-trap, all with hand-hole and cover, are shown in Figs. 80, 81 and 82. Fig. 80. Fig. 81. DEAINAGE FITTINGS 125 A full S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a half S-trap all with top vent are shown in Figs. 83, 84 and 85. Fig. 82. Fig. 83. 126 DRAINAGE FITTINGS A plain running trap and a running trap with hub-vent are illustrated in Figs. 86 and 87. Lead Traps. Traps with full S, three-quarter Fig. 84. Fig. 85. DEAINAGE FITTINGS 127 S, half S or P and running bends are shown in Fig. 88, both plain and vented. Fig. 86. Fig. 87. 128 DRAINAGE FITTINGS CO a u H DRAINAGE FITTINGS 129 4> i o a 1 S 130 DKAINAGE FITTINGS Extra long plain and vented S-traps are also shown in Fig. 89. Fig 92. Fig. 93. DRAINAGE FITTINGS 131 Hopper Traps. A high pattern S-trap for lead pipe connections is shown in Fig. 90, and a high pattern three-quarter and half S-trap for iron pipe connections in Figs. 91 and 92. Fig. 94. Fig. 95. Fig. 96. 132 DRAINAGE FITTINGS A plain three-quarter S high pattern hopper trap, a three-quarter S high pattern hopper trap with hub- vent and three-quarter S high pattern Pig. 97. Fig. 98. hopper trap with hand hole and cover, are shown in Figs. 93, 94 and 951 A high pattern plain S-trap, a high pattern S- DRAINAGE FITTINGS 133 trap with hub-vent and a high pattern S-trap with hand hole and cover, all for lead pipe con- nections, are shown in Figs, 96, 97 and 98. The same style of S-traps only for iron pipe connections are shown in Figs. 99, 100 and 101. Fig. 99. Fi& 100. 134 DRAINAGE FITTINGS Fig. 101. Fig. 102. DRAINAGE FITTINGS 135 A half S-trap plain, a half S-trap with hub- vent and a half S-trap with hand hole and cover are shown in Figs. 102, 103 and 104. Sewer gas and back water traps are shown in Fig. 105. They have hand holes and covers and Fig. 103. Fig. 104. 136 DRAINAGE FITTINGS swing check valves to prevent any back flow of water. Fig. 106. DRAINAGE FITTINGS 137 Brass trap caps with straight and bent coup- lings are shown in Figs. 106 and 107. Cleanouts. Cleanouts with hand-hole and swivel cover, with hand-hole and bolted cover Fig. 107. Fig. 108. 138 DEAINAGE FITTINGS and with brass trap-screw are shown in Figs. 108, 109 and 110. Fig. 109. Fig. 110. Fig. 111. DRAINAGE FITTINGS 139 Cesspools. A hydrant cesspool for use with cellar or outdoor hydrants is shown in Fig. 111. A stable cesspool with bell-trap and grating is Fig. 112. Pig. 113. 140 DRAINAGE FITTINGS illustrated in Fig. 112, while Fig. 113 shows a slop sink with bell-trap and strainer. A cellar cesspool with bell-trap and grating of rectangu- lar shape is shown in Fig. 114, while one of cir- cular shape is illustrated in Fig. 115. Fig. 114. Fig. 115. SANITARY PLUMBING. The Bathroom. There are good reasons why a bathroom should be finished in the best man- ner in preference to any other room in the house. As a rule, the bathroom is more used than any other room in the house except the kitchen. It requires the best material to stand such con- stant use, and it is always economy to have the best material for purposes where hard usage or work is to be performed. Without a good fin- ish, with the proper materials for this purpose, the bathroom cannot be kept in a sanitary con- dition. From the sanitary condition of the bath- room the sanitary condition of the entire house may be judged. Any person who pays atten- tion to the sanitary condition of a house, can also tell the nature of the people who occupy it. Where the bathroom is neglected, scarcely any other part of the house will be in a proper sani- tary condition. A bathroom should be well lighted with win- dows, so that the sunlight may come in. It should be heated to a much higher temperature than any other room in the house, and should be thoroughly ventilated. The walls, doors, and casings should be of such material that they will 141 142 SANITARY PLUMBING be proof against water and steam. The floors should never be covered with carpet, as it is a very unsanitary thing in any bathroom. Hard wood makes a good floor for a bathroom. The bathroom of the modern house is often the most expensive room in the house, as today people who have both taste and means are spend- ing large sums of money in securing the most sanitary fixtures for the bathroom and the high- est degree of art in everything pertaining to the bathroom. Fig. 116 shows a bathroom in which all the fixtures are open work, a roll- rimmed porcelain lined bathtub with carved brass feet, and also screen shower attachment, a sitz bath of the same material and finish as the bathtub, a syphon closet with low down flush tank, a washbowl with nickel-plated legs and brackets as supports, also nickel-plated supply and waste fixtures. Bathtubs. In Fig. 117 is shown a porcelain roll rim bathtub. This is a sanitary article in every manner, as it requires no woodwork about it, and as this bathtub is made entirely of one piece, there is no chance for dirt to lodge in any part of it. This bathtub will last a life-time; once properly set there will be no further ex- pense for repairs. The porcelain bathtub is not without some fault or disadvantage; it is very heavy to handle. It is no easy matter to carry a bathtub of this kind up one or two 143 FIG. 1 1 3. BATHROOM 142 SANITARY PLUMBING i t i t a. t t I. a r e i P P o P n v c SANITARY PLUMBING 143 144 SANITARY PLUMBING flights of stairs and land it safely to where it is to be set. It requires the greatest care in hand- ling. In using the porcelain bathtub it has an- other bad point in being very cold to the touch until it has become entirely warm from the hot water. What is styled a corner porcelain bathtub is illustrated in Fig. 118, the back and end of the tub are to be built into the wall, and the base sets into the floor. It is fitted with nickel-plated combination bell supply and waste fittings, which are connected directly to the bathtub itself. Three styles of porcelain enameled bathtubs are shown in Figs. 119, 120 and 121, the supply and waste are connected directly to the bathtubs shown in Figs. 119 and 120, while the bathtub shown in Fig. 121 has only the waste and over- flow connections on the tub. A solid porcelain roll rim sitz bath is illus- trated in Fig. 122. It is fitted with nickel-plated combination bell supply and waste fittings. A porcelain enameled footbath is shown in Fig. 123, it is also fitted with nickel-plated com- bination bell supply and waste fittings. Fig. 124 illustrates a combination spray and shower bath with rubber curtain and porcelain enameled roll rim receptor. The proper sanitary plumbing connections for a bathtub are shown in Fig. 125. The cast iron soil pipe is 4 inches in diameter, the main air SANITARY PLUMBING 145 146 SANITARY PLUMBING SANITAEY PLUMBING 147 148 SANITARY PLUMBING 17 s SANITARY PLUMBING 149 pipe 2 inches, and the air-vent pipe on the con- nection leading from the trap iy 2 inches; the waste and overflow from the tub are also 1% inches in diameter. Water Closets. The washout closet is, per- haps, the best sanitary water closet, and they Fig. 122. are made by nearly all manufacturers of sani- tary fixtures. This closet is made with the bowl and trap combined in one single piece. The washout closet would be almost perfect if it were set up and connected as intended to be, and with a good local vent connected. The local 150 SANITARY PLUMBING vent is the best possible thing that could be attached to a water closet, but, like all other arrangements, it must be made in such a way so that it will operate at all times and during every condition of the atmosphere. The local vent is Fig. 123. connected to the bowl of the closet for the purpose of taking away the air from the bowl of the closet in the room where it may be lo- cated, so that no foul odors while being used will pass from the closet to the room. SANITARY PLUMBING 151 Pig. 124. 152 SANITARY PLUMBING l m s-*~r+~m to E SANITARY PLUMBING 153 To make the local vent work satisfactorily at all times it will be necessary to arrange the pipes so that there would always be a suction in the pipe drawing from the point which is connected with the water closet bowl. This pipe can never be connected with the main ventilating shaft of the soil pipe, but must escape from the house by some other channel. In order to cause this local current of air to pass up and out of the house from the water closet bowl, it will be necessary to provide some artificial heat for this purpose. And where it is possible to connect to a chimney flue that is always warm when the house is occupied, the desired result may be had without any additional expense. The washout closet is far from being an ideal sanitary fixture. It is an improvement over the hopper style of closet, yet its principle is not correct because it does not wash out. The ob- jection to the washout closet is, that its bowl becomes filthy in a short time, and without hav- ing attached to it a local vent the bad odors from the bowl become unbearable. In the bowl of the washout closet there is too much dry sur- face, and the soil clings to it and cannot be washed off with the flow of water as it falls from the tank. The appearance of the inside of this closet is also very bad, especially the style of washout with the back outlet as shown in Fig. 126. 154 SANITARY PLUMBING Fig. 127 shows a washout closet with front outlet. A short oval flushing rim hopper water closet, with trap and air vent on the top of syphon is shown in Fig. 128. Two styles of seat operated water closets are shown in Figs. 129 and 130, one with long hop- Fig. 126. per without trap and the other with short hop- per and trap, The seat is normally kept open by the weight shown to the right, when de- pressed by the act of a person sitting upon the closet, the small arm or lever attached to the SANITARY PLUMBING Fig. 128. 156 SANITARY PLUMBING seat comes into contact with the plunger valve, causing the water to flow as long as the seat is down. A syphon jet water closet with low down tank Fig. 129. is shown in Fig. 131. It is necessary with this style of tank to increase the diameter of the flush pipe in order to induce syphonage in the closet. With this increased opening a large quan* SANITARY PLUMBING 157 tity of water is thrown into the closet, which is sufficient to make the syphon operate. A prison water closet with short hopper and trap to wall connection is shown in Fig. 132. A Fig. 130. self-closing faucet is connected to the flushing rim. A syphon jet closet set up complete with hard- 158 SANITARY PLUMBING Pig. 131. SANITARY PLUMBING 159 wood, copper-lined syphon tank and concealed water supply pipe is shown in Fig. 133. Water closet seats with legs and with or without lid are shown in Figs. 134 and 135. The proper sanitary plumbing connections for a washout water closet are shown in Fig. 136. Fig. 132. The cast iron soil pipe and the lead elbow which connects the trap of the closet with the soil pipe are both 4 inches inside diameter while the air-vent from the lead elbow and the main 160 SANITARY PLUMBING Pig. 133. SANITARY PLUMBING 161 Fig. 135. 162 SANITAEY PLUMBING air pipe are 2 inches inside diameter. The air- vent pipe is of lead and the main air pipe of cast iron. Urinals. A flat back porcelain urinal is illus- Fig. 136. SANITAEY PLUMBING 163 trated in Fig. 137, and corner porcelain urinals in Figs. 138 and 139. These are adapted for use in hotels and office buildings. Fig. 137. Fig. 138. 164 SANITARY PLUMBING Individual stall urinals are shown in Figs. 140 and 141. The one shown in Fig. 140 has» a plain stall with floor trough and spray pipe, while the one shown in Fig. 141 has urinal bowls or hop- pers attached to the back wall. A complete toilet room containing closets, urinals and wash- bowls is shown in Fig. 142. This represents the interior of a toilet room in a hotel or office build- ing. Fig. 139. Washbowls. A job which requires experience and good judgment is the setting of porcelain washbowls to marble slabs. Although it may look like an easy job, no one can do this work well unless having had considerable experience. In setting washbowls to marble slabs there are some things to be considered, and to accomplish these things in a satisfactory manner there must SANITARY PLUMBING 165 be some calculations made. To have a wash- bowl properly fitted to a marble slab it is neces- sary to grind the flange of the bowl so that it Fig. 140. will lay level on the slab. This has to be done by rubbing the upper surface of the flange of the 166 SANITARY PLUMBING bowl on the marble, using sand and water on the marble, until the top edge of the bowl is perfectly flat and level. This grinding action Fig. 141. also takes off the glazed surface and allows the plaster-of-Paris to take hold of the procelain SANITARY PLUMBING 167 £ 168 SANITARY PLUMBING and make a perfect joint. The bowl must be set perfectly even all around with the hole in the slab. The less plaster used in setting bowls the better. It is a poor job that has to be filled up with a large amount of plaster. To get the posi- tion of the holes for the bowl clamps, it will be necessary to mark on the back of the slab the exact position of the edge of the bowl, then Fig. 143. space off the distance and drill the slab for at least four clamps. In drilling the slab for the clamp holes the polished surface of the slab must rest on the floor, and in order not to scratch or injure it the slab should have under it a bed of some soft and clean material. The clamps should be well calked into the slab with melted lead, and made so that they will not shake nor pull out. Independent bowls for attaching to marble SANITARY PLUMBING 169 slabs are shown in Figs. 143 and 144. They are provided with brass plugs and coupling and rubber stopper for the waste. A roll-edge washbowl with removable strainer at the overflow, nickel-plated plug and coupling and rubber stopper, and bronzed brackets is shown in Fig. 145. A half-circle roll edge washbowl with high Fig. 144. back and apron, cast in one piece, is shown in Fig. 146. Fig. 147 shows a roll-edge oval washbowl with overflow with removable strainer, bronzed brack- ets, nickel-plated plug and coupling and rubber stopper. A roll-edge corner washbowl with oval bowl, removable nickeLplated strainer, nickel-plated plug and coupling and rubber stopper is shown in Fig. 148. 170 SANITAEY PLUMBING Fig. 145. Fig. 146. SANITARY PLUMBING 171 172 SANITARY PLUMBING A roll-edge slab and bowl with ideal waste is shown in Fig. 149. It has a round bowl and high back. A vertical cross section of the above bowl showing the ideal waste is given in Fig. 150. The proper sanitary plumbing connections Fig. 149. for a washbowl are shown in Fig. 151. The cast iron soil pipe is 4 inches in diameter. The waste pipe from the bowl and the air-vent pipe from the top of the syphon are V/2 inches and the main air pipe 2 inches in diameter. Drinking Fountains. A solid porcelain double SANITARY PLUMBING 173 roll edge drinking fountain with back and bowl in one piece is shown in Fig. 152. It has a self- closing faucet and nickel-plated drip-cup with strainer. A one-piece solid porcelain drinking fountain with roll-edge bowl is shown in Fig. Fig. 150. 153. It has a self-closing faucet and nickel- plated half S-trap. A marble drinking fountain is shown in Fig. 154, which has a counter sunk slab and high back, nickel-plated Fuller pantry cock, drip-cock with shield, nickel-plated supply pipe, and trap with vent and waste to wall. 174 SANITARY PLUMBING Fig. 151. SANITARY PLUMBING 175 Drinking fountains of the type shown in Fig- ures 152 and 153 are now prohibited by law in the public places of many cities; bubbling fountains being required instead. Sinks. The enameled iron sink is a great ad- vancement in sanitary improvements. When Fig. 152. made properly and used for light work it is all that could be desired, because it is coated with a material which wears well, and is also proof against the action of gases or acids. It has a smooth finish and is easily kept clean, but it is not suitable for heavy or rough work. In the 176 SANITARY PLUMBING larger sinks this enameled coating cracks off easily when heavy utensils are placed in it, which causes the sink to bend, and the enamel, Fig. 153. having very little elasticity, must naturally crack. It sometimes cracks by the uneven or sudden expansion and contraction of the iron. WATER SERVICE 177 The first step in the process of installing the water service system in a building is, to procure from the proper authorities a permit for the in- troduction or use of water in the building. The tapping of the street main is done by work- men in the employ of the water department of the city, or .town. A cock, called a corporation cock is screwed into the main, and to this cock a section of lead pipe, the length of which is governed by local rulings, is connected by means of a wiped joint. Lead pipe should in all cases be used for making this connection, for the reason that, owing to its pliability, there is much less danger of break- age caused by the settling of the main, or of the service pipe, than there would be were the con- nection made with wrought iron pipe which would be rigid. The size of the service leading to the building will depend, of course, upon the amount of water that will be required ; and if two or more distinct and separate buildings are to be supplied by means of branch, or sub-service pipes supplied by a single tap in the street main, each branch should be independently arranged with a stop cock and box on the curb line. These stop cocks are for the purpose of shutting off the water when required, and each service pipe must be equipped with one, located within the side- walk at, or near the curb line of the same. The service pipe leading from the street main into the building must be laid below the frost line. 178 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Stop Cock in Building. Each service pipe must also be provided with a stop-cock inside the building, placed beyond damage by frost, and so situated that the water can be conveniently shut off, and drained from the pipes, in order to pre- vent freezing in cold weather. Service Pipes in Building. The main riser, from which branch pipes are carried to the various fixtures, should start in the basement at or near the shutoff cock ; tee outlets being inserted at the proper locations under the ceilings of each room for connecting the branches to the fixtures on the floor above. These branches can also be con- nected, leaving their nipples extending through the floors at the proper locations for connection with the fixtures they are to serve. These nip- ples should then be capped over to prevent dirt or other foreign matter from getting into the pipe before a permanent connection is made to the fix- tures. The caps should be screwed on tightly and left there until the piping system has been thor- oughly tested. Testing. After the risers, and branch pipes of the water service have been installed, and all openings either capped over, or plugged, the sys- tem should be thoroughly tested before any con- nections to fixtures are made. If the testing is done at the proper time, that is before the floors are laid, or plastering done, the leaks, if there are any can be much more easily discovered, and re- paired than they could be if covered by floors or plastering. In fact the majority of large cities METHOD OF TESTING 179 and towns at the present day require by law that all plumbing in a new building shall remain ex- posed until after the job has been tested and passed upon by the inspector. Methods of Testing. The entire plumbing system when roughed in must be tested by the plumber in the presence of the inspector of plumb- ing if there be such an official, or if there is no local inspector, the plumber should test the work nevertheless for his own satisfaction. Water Test. This test should always be ap- plied to new work before the connections are made to the fixtures. The water test is to be applied to all the soil, waste and vent pipes, as well as to the water service pipes. In the case of the soil, waste and vent pipes, all openings except those above the roof are to be closed by soldering them shut on lead pipe, and by plugs, or caps on iron or steel pipe. The entire system of piping is then filled with water, the filling to be done slowly, and when filled, every joint should be carefully examined for leaks, and if any are found they should be repaired at once. A leak in a caulked joint may often be stopped by additional caulking, but if a split pipe, or fitting is found, it will be necessary to replace it. On some jobs the plasterers may be in a hurry to get along with their work, and in such cases the soil stacks can be tested in sections, by leaving out a length of pipe on each floor, and afterward in- serting the same for the final test, care being taken to always leave the length of pipe out at some point where it will be easily accessible to insert. 180 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Air Pressure Test. The air pressure test is applied by means of a force pump and a mercury column equal to ten inches of mercury. All open- ings in the system are to be closed with the excep- tion of the one to which the force pump is con- nected. The pump is then operated until the pressure of air in the system is sufficient to raise the mer- cury column to a height of ten inches. The pump is then stopped, and if the column of mercury re- mains permanently at that height the test is com- plete, but if the mercury column should gradually fall, it is an indication of a leak, and this should be investigated at once. Smoke Test. After the completion of the work, and when the fixtures are installed the smoke test can be applied, and this is done by clos- ing all openings, including those above the roof. A device in which a heavy smoke may be gen- erated by the burning of oily waste, or rags, is then connected to the system which is soon filled with the smoke, and if there are any leaks, they may easily be detected by the smoke which will escape through them. Peppermint Test. This test may be applied in place of the smoke test, if preferred, at the time the job is completed. It is usually applied in test- ing alterations, or repair work; in fact it is the only test permitted in some localities, after exten- sions, or repairs of old systems. The pepper- mint test is made by using about five fluid ounces of oil of peppermint for each line of pipe up to METHOD OF TESTING 181 five stories and basement in height, and for each additional five stories or fraction thereof one ad- ditional ounce is to be used. All openings except those above the roof are to be closed. The oil of peppermint is then poured into the roof opening, and immediately after this pour in about one-half gallon of hot water for each ounce of peppermint oil, after which close the roof opening tightly with a plug. The mixture of oil of peppermint and water will then flow to every portion of the sys- tem of piping, and if there are any leaks the fumes of the peppermint will penetrate through them, and they can be detected by the odor of the pep- permint present. Testing the Water Service. After the water piping system has been installed, water pressure from the street main can be easily applied to the entire system of water piping, or it may be tested in sections if necessary while being installed, and the leaks if there are any will soon make them- selves manifest. Too much care cannot be exercised in the matter of testing all parts of an installation of plumbing in a building, for the reason that the health, and lives of the occupants of the building are in a great measure dependent upon the character of the work, and the quality of the materials used. Wrought Iron Pipe. Table 7 gives the dimen- sions, thickness of metal, threads per inch, and other valuable details relative to wrought iron, or steel pipe in sizes running from one-eighth inch, up to fifteen inches inside diameter. 182 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Dimensions of Wrought-Iron Pipe. Nominal Inside Diameter. Actual Outside Diameter in Inches. Actual Inside Diameter in Inches. Thickness of Metal in Inches. Threads per Inch. Length of Full Thread in Inches. % .405 .270 .068 27 .19 % .540 .364 .085 18 .29 % .675 .493 .091 18 .30 % .840 .622 .109 14 .39 % 1.050 .824 .113 14 .40 1 1.315 1.048 .134 11% .51 IX 1.660 1.380 .140 11% .54 1% 1.900 1.610 .145 11% .55 2 2.375 2.067 .154 11% .58 2% 2.875 2.468 .204 8 .89 3 3.500 3.067 .217 8 .95 3% 4.000 3.548 .226 8 1.00 4 4.500 4.026 .237 8 1.05 4% 5.000 4.508 .246 8 1.10 5 5.563 5.045 .259 8 1.16 6 6.625 6.065 .280 8 1.26 7 7.625 7.023 .301 8 1.36 8 8.625 7.981 .322 8 1.46 9 9.625 8.937 .344 8 1.57 10 10.750 10.018 .366 8 1.68 11 11.75 11.000 .375 8 1,78 12 12.75 12.000 .375 8 1.88 13 14. 13.25 .375 8 2.09 14 15. 14.25 .375 8 2.10 15 16. 15.25 .375 8 2.20 TABLE 7 Taper of the thread is % inch to one foot. Pipe from % inch to 1 inch inclusive is butt welded and tested to 300 pounds per square inch. Pipe 1% inch and larger is lap welded and tested to 500 pounds per square inch. WROUGHT IRON PIPE 183 Table of Quantittty of Water Delivered by Seryice Pipes of Various Sizes Under Various Pressures. Proportion of Head of Water (H) to Length of Pipe (L). Gallons Per Minute. i-3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4) O rH o> oo i> co iO Tt< co 03 Q, II II II II II II II II ss w W w W w w w w 1/ /2 19.8 18.7 17.7 16.5 15.3 14.0 12.5 10.8 % 34.5 32.7 30.1 28.9 26.5 24.4 21.5 18.9 % 54.4 51.7 48.7 45.6 42.2 38.5 34.4 29.8 1 111.8 106.0 100.0 93.5 86.6 79.0 70.7 61.2 IX 195.2 185.2 174.6 163.3 151.2 138.0 123.4 106.9 IX 308.0 292.1 275.4 257.6 238.5 217.7 194.8 168.7 2 632.2 599.7 566.4 538.9 488.1 447.0 399.8 346.3 2X 1104.0 1048.0 987.8 924.0 855.4 780.9 698.5 604.9 3 1745.0 1651.0 1560.0 1460.0 1351.0 1234.01103.0 955.5 4 3581.0 3397.0 3203.0:2996.0 2774.0 2532.0 2265.0 1962.0 5 6247.0 5928.0 5588.0 5227.0 4839.0 4417.0 3951.0 3406.0 6 9855.0 9349.0 8814.0 8245.0:7633.0 6968.0 6233.0 5391.0 ft -3 "8 1 4 hh* rH 4 4 rH 4 4 4 4 S 0) C3 ft II II II II II II II II ss w w w w w ■w w H X 8.8 8.3 7.7 7.0 6.3 5.4 4.4 3.1 X 15.4 14.4 13.4 12.2 10.9 9.5 7.7 5.5 % 24.3 22.8 21.1 19.3 17.2 14.9 12.2 8.6 1 50.0 46.8 43.2 39.5 35.3 30.6 25.0 17.7 IX 87.3 81.6 75.6 69.0 61.7 53.5 43.7 30.9 IX 137.7 128.8 119.3 108.9 97.4 84.3 68.7 48.7 2 282.7 264.4 248.8 223.5 199.9 173.1 141.4 100.0 2X 493.9 482.0 427.7 390.4 349.2 302.4 246.9 174.6 3 780.2 728.8 674.8 615*9 555.5 477.1 390.1 275.8 4 1602.0 1496.0 1385.0 1264.0 1133.0 979.3 800.8 566.2 5 2791.0 2613.0 2420.0 2209.0 1976.0 1711.0 1394.0 987.7 6 4407.0 4122.0 3817.0 3484.0 3116.0 2693.0 2204.0|l558.0 TABLE 8 184 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Table Showing Pressure op Water at Different Elevations. Equals Pressure Feet Head. per Square Inch. 1 .43 5 2.16 10 4.33 15 6.49 20 8.66 25 10.82 30 12.99 35 15.16 40 17.32 45 19.49 50 21.65 55 23.82 60 25.99 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 28.15 30.32 32.48 34.65 36.82 38.98 41.15 43.31 45.48 47.64 49.81 51.98 54.15 Feet Head 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 205 210 215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250 Equals Pressure per Square Inch. 56.31 58.48 60.64 62.81 64.97 67.14 69.31 71.47 73.64 75.80 77.97 80.14 82.30 84.47 86.63 88.80 90.96 93.14 95.30 97.49 99.63 101.79 103.96 106.13 108.29 ^eet Head, 255 260 265 270 275 280 285 290 295 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Equals Pressure per Square Inch. 110.46 112.62 114.79 116.96 119.12 121.29 123.45 125.62 127.78 129.95 134.28 138.62 142.95 147.28 151.61 155.94 160.27 164.61 168.94 173.27 216.58 259.90 303.22 346.54 389.86 433.18 TABLE 9 WROUGHT IRON PIPE 185 Weight of Copper Pipes Per Foot. Thickness of Metal in Parts of an Inch. Bore in Inches. tV % 3 X 5 % pounds. pounds. pounds. pounds. pounds. pounds. X A 0.426 0.946 1.561 2.270 3.075 3.973 % 0.520 1.185 1.845 2.649 3.547 4.540 % 0.615 1.324 2.129 3.027 4.020 5.108 % 0.709 1.514 2.412 3.425 4.493 5.676 l 0.804 1.703 2.696 3.784 4.966 6.243 \% 0.993 2.081 3.263 4.540 5.712 7.378 IX 1.182 2.459 3,831 5.297 6.857 8.514 1% 1.372 2.838 4.388 6.055 7.805 9.646 2 1.560 3.217 4.967 6.808 8.748 10.783 2 X 4 1.750 3.591 5.531 7.566 9.694 11.918 2% 1.940 3.975 6.103 8.327 10.643 13.066 2% 2.128 4.352 6.668 9.081 11.590 14.190 3 2.316 4.729 7.238 9.737 12.534 15.325 Weight of Brass Pipes Pe.r Foot. Thickness in Parts of an Inch. Bore in Inches. l % 3 im- X 5 TS- % 7 "Im- pounds pounds pounds. pounds. pounds pounds pounds. X 0.22 0.53 0.94 1.43 2.01 2.68 3.44 X A 0.40 0.89 1.47 2.15 2.91 3.75 4.70 *A 0.58 1.25 2.01 2.86 3.80 4.83 5.95 l 0.76 1.61 2.55 3.58 4.70 5.92 7.25 lH 0.94 1.96 3.09 4.31 5.64 6.98 9.46 IX 1.12 2.34 3.67 5.01 6.49 8.05 9.71 i 3 A 1.33 2.66 4.14 5.70 7.36 9.11 10.94 2 1.48 3.04 4.69 6.44 8.27 10.20 12.21 2K 1.65 3.40 5.23 7.16 9.17 11.27 13.46 2% 1.83 3.75 5.77 ' 7.87 10.06 12.35 14.72 2%. 2.01 4.11 6.31 8.59 10.96 13.42 15.97 3 2.19 4.47 6.84 9.31 11.85 14.69 17.42 J TABLE 10 HOT WATER SUPPLY. Cylinder System. In the cylinder system the principal difference from the tank system lies in the fact that the cylinder or reservoir of hot water lies beneath the draw-off pipes and not above them, as with the tank system. This being the case it is impossible to empty the reservoir un- knowingly or accidentally, should the cold water supply be shut off. Referring to Fig. 155, the flow-pipe proceeds from the extreme top of the waterback, and does not project through inside the waterback in the least degree. If it cannot be taken from the top, it must be connected to the side or back of the waterback as close to the top as it can be got, but the top connection should always be used if in any way possible. From the waterback the flow-pipe proceeds to the boiler and terminates five-eighths of the way up from the bottom. The pipe can enter the side of the boiler at the correct point, or it can come through lower down and be ex- tended up inside with a bend and short piece of pipe together without making two holes. The return pipe leaves the side of the boiler as close to the bottom as possible, or it can come from the bottom if desired. It then proceeds to 186 HOT WATER SUPPLY 187 the waterback and enters either through the top or the side, terminating half-way down with a saddle boiler. Both of these pipes, the flow and the return, must have a rise from the waterback to the boiler of not less than 1 inch in 10 feet. p* — 3 A- \=J IF* Fig. 155. From the top of the boiler is carried the ex- pansion pipe. This also should rise 1 inch in 10 feet from the boiler to its highest point. The 188 HOT WATER SUPPLY highest point can be above the cold-water cistern or through the roof. The cold water supply to the system is a pipe direct from a cistern, as shown. This pipe must not be branched for any other purpose. It is of the highest importance that the cold water supply pipe should be of full size, and not choked or reduced in bore anywhere. The out- flow at the hot water faucet is exactly in ratio with the down-flow of water through this pipe, less friction, therefore everything possible must be done to give the water full and free passage and lessen the friction. This is done by having the pipe of good size, using bends and not elbows, or lead pipe, and seeing that the stop-cock, if there be one, has a straight full way through it. The stop-cock should be put near the boiler, so that the man who cleans the waterback, or effects re- pairs, does not have to traverse the house to shut the water off and afterwards to turn it on. A tee should be put on the cold water supply connec- tion, inside the boiler to spread the inflowing cold water over the bottom of the boiler. If this is not done the inflowing cold water will bore its way up through the hot water above, unless the pres- sure be quite low. An emptying cock should be put somewhere be- neath the boiler, but this cock' must be provided with a loose key, so that only an authorised per- son can withdraw the water from the boiler. HOT WATER SUPPLY 189 The draw-off pipes are all taken from the expansion pipe as shown. This pipe should there- fore be carried up by the best route to touch at the points where the faucets are, otherwise- long single branches must be run. The expansion pipe, being a single tube, has no active or useful circu- lation in it. It must never be forgotten that, on opening a faucet, on a secondary circulation, water will pro- ceed from both directions to reach that faucet. The circulatory movements all cease, and quite a new action takes place. Water will come up from the top of the boiler and this will be hot. There will also be water coming up the secondary re- turn, and the temperature of this will depend on whence it comes. If connected as shown in Fig. 156 then whatever water comes to the faucets will be hot, all there is of it, and when the temperature of the issuing water falls it may be known that the hottest has all been withdrawn. There have been several points at which the secondary re- turn has been connected with bad results, notably at the bottom of the boiler, into the primary re- turn (between the boiler and waterback), into the boiler, and even into the cold supply pipe just be- neath the boiler. These are wrong, and only one position is correct, as shown in Fig. 156. The point is from 3 inches to 6 inches from the top of the boiler according to its size. The latter would 190 HOT WATER SUPPLY be for a 100-gallon boiler. A 50-gallon size would have the connection 4 inches from the top. Tank System. The usual arrangement of this system of water heating apparatus is illustrated /"T'^m J 1=7 - J 3 — \fi 7 k Fig. 156. HOT WATER SUPPLY 191 in Fig. 157. The flow pipe should proceed from the extreme top or highest point of the water- back, preferably from the top plate, and not pro- ject through to the inside of the waterback in the least degree. If it is impossible to connect ex. U=r-i w 7 r r mm» I'llllllMII *ig. 157 the flow pipe in the top plate of the waterback it should be located in the side or back, but as close to the top as possible. From the waterback the flow pipe should proceed to the tank and ter- 192 HOT WATER SUPPLY minate in it about three-fourths of the way up, that is one-quarter of the height of the tank from the top. It may pa,ss through the bottom and reach up inside as a stand pipe as shown in Fig. 157, or it may enter the side at the required height. The return pipe should leave the bottom of the tank, being connected directly in the bottom or in the side of the tank near the bottom. It should never be more than an inch from the bottom. From the tank the return pipe should proceed directly to the waterback, and if entering the boiler through the top, should extend down- wards, three^fourths the height of the waterback. The draw-off pipes are taken from the flow pipe as shown. It therefore follows that the flow pipe should be carried in a direction which will bring it as near to all the faucets as possible. Instead of this, the most common practice appears to be to carry the circulating pipes by the most direct route from the waterback to the tank, and to con- sider the running of the branch pipes afterwards. There is no objection to the return pipe taking the shortest route, but the flow should be diverted to pass the work as near as possible. Failing this, there would have to be long single-pipe branches, and the fault of these is that so much cold water has to be drawn before the hot issues. This is not so much a fault at a bath, at which some cold water will probably be needed. At a lavatory HOT WATER SUPPLY 193 basin, however, the fault is very pronounced, the faucets being small and slow-running, and at no point is the quick arrival of warm water appre- ciated more than at this one. bo i % Fig. 158. Cylinder-Tank System. This is simply a com- bination of the two systems previously described. 194 HOT WATER SUPPLY The tank system and the cylinder system both have good features which are retained in the cyl- inder-tank system, and also certain bad features which are eliminated in the combination system Fig. 159. which may be here described briefly, the tank sys- tem ensures a good flow of water from the high faucets, while the cylinder system commonly has HOT WATER SUPPLY 195 a very unsatisfactory issue of water from any fau- cets that are near the top of the house. On the other hand, the cylinder system is safest where the cold water supply is at all uncertain, as the cylinder— the reservoir of the apparatus— cannot be emptied. The object of the cylinder-tank sys- tem is therefore to ensure a good outflow at all taps by having a store of hot water above them, and to have a store of water which cannot be exhausted unknowingly if the cold water supply fails. Fig. 158 illustrates this system of apparatus in outline, and the parts need no> general description more than that given already. As to the sizes of the tank and cylinder, the best practice for gen- eral requirements is to make them of equal capa- city, and the two together should be no larger than one would be if alone. Thus, if a 50-gallon boiler would be the suitable size for a job erected on the ordinary cylinder system, then with the combined apparatus the boiler should be 25 gal- lons and the tank 25. In the cylinder-tank sys- tem illustrated in Fig. 158, the cold water supply is delivered into the tank directly from the cis- tern, while in the system shown in Fig. 159, the cold water supply is carried down to the cylinder. 196 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Weight and Thickness of Sheet Lead. Weight in Lbs. per Sup. Foot. Thickness in Inches. Weight in Lbs. per Sup. Foot. Thickness in Inches. 1 0.017 7 0.118 2 0.034 8 0.135 3 0.051 9 0.152 4 0.068 10 0.169 5 0.085 11 0.186 6 0.101 12 0.203 TABLE 11 HOT WATER PLUMBING. As the drawings shown in the article on Hot Water Supply are merely diagramatic outlines of the different systems and are only intended to il- lustrate the principle of the circulation, which is involved in the heating of water for domestic use, further description and additional drawings are here given to illustrate the two systems of water heating in common use, viz. : the pressure-cylinder system and the gravity-supply tank and cylinder system. In Fig. 160 is shown one of the simplest ar- rangements of the pressure-cylinder system for the successful heating of water for household use. The boiler, water-back and pipe connections are all plainly shown. Tn the boiler is a pipe extend- ing down from the top and connected with the cold water supply, which it discharges in the boiler a short distance from the bottom. The dis- tance down in the boiler which this pipe should extend depends upon the height that the pipe from the upper part of the water-back enters the boiler. The cold water supply should always en- ter the boiler at a considerable distance below the point of entrance of the pipe conveying the hot water from the water-back to the boiler. 197 198 HOT WATEE PLUMBING The greater the distance that the hot and cold water pipes are apart in the boiler, the better will be the circulation and the less time it will take to heat a given amount of water. 3 Fig. 160 The piping in the arrangement shown in Fig, 160 is designed to deliver hot water on the floor above that on which the boiler is located. If hot HOT WATER PLUMBING 199 LfL 1 JLJL :& 1 «5 « i — ft 4 « Fig. 161 =^ & 200 HOT WATER PLUMBING water is desired on the same floor a connection can be made in the pipe leading from the top of the boiler to the faucet on the floor above. Fig. 161 shows an arrangement of fixtures and piping to supply hot water on three floors by the pressure-cylinder system. Hot water is supplied to the kitchen sink on the ground floor, to a bath tub and wash bowl on the second floor and to a wash bowl on the third floor. The cold water supply pipe to the boiler is shown and the cold water connection to the kitchen sink, while the cold water pipes to the bath tub and wash bowls on the upper floors are omitted for the sake of simplicity. Pig. 162 shows one of the simplest forms of the gravity-supply tank and cylinder systems, in which the boiler, water-back and hot water con- nections are all on the same floor. The cold water pipe goes to the floor above or to the attic as the case may be to the supply tank, where the supply of water is regulated by a ball float cock. An expansion pipe as shown should be provided in the hot water pipe leading from the boiler and ar- ranged to discharge into the supply tank. In Fig. 163 a gravity-supply tank and cylinder system is shown, which is arranged to deliver hot water to the kitchen sink and also to a bath tub and wash bowl on the floor above. The cold water pipe is shown running up to the supply tank and also to the kitchen sink. For the sake of clearness and HOT WATER PLUMBING 201 to avoid confusion the cold water pipes leading to the wash bowl and bath tub are omitted. It must be remembered that the kitchen boiler is not a heater, it is simply a reservoir to keep a Fig. 162 supply of hot water on hand so that it may be drawn when required. By this arrangement hot water may be had long after the fire has been ex- 202 HOT WATER PLUMBING tinguished in the stove, as it stores itself by the law of gravitation at the upper part of the boiler, and is forced out by cold water entering below and remaining there without mingling with or Pig. 163 HOT WATER PLUMBING 203 cooling the hot water in the upper part of the boiler. It should be understood that the natural course of hot water, when confined in a boiler and depending for its motion on the difference be- tween its temperature and the temperature of oth- er water in the same boiler, is in a perpendicular or vertical direction. And consequently when the heating apparatus or pipes which have to convey the hot water from the water back to a boiler in which the hot water is to be stored in any position other than in a vertical position, friction is added which retards the flow of hot water just in proportion to the degree of angle from the vertical of the hot water pipes. A noise in the pipes and water-back, and also a rumbling noise in the boiler indicates that there is something wrong, and which requires attention. These noises are produced by differ- ent causes, sometimes on account of the way the upper pipe from the water-back in the stove is connected to the boiler. This pipe should always have some elevation from the water-back to where it enters the boiler. The more elevation the better the water will cir- culate. But the slightest rise in this pipe will make a satisfactory job. It should be a continu- ous rise if possible, the entire length from the water-back to the boiler. Another cause of this noise comes from the water-back being filled, or nearly so, with scal^ 204 HOT WATER PLUMBING which partly stops the water from circulating. Nearly all the troubles of this kind come from a bad circulation of water between the stove and boiler. If the trouble is allowed to continue very long without doing anything to improve it, it will grow worse, and perhaps stop up entirely. With the connections between the water-back in the stove and the boiler stopped up, what is to be expected? With a good fire in the stove un- der these conditions, an explosion of the water- back, which may blow the stove to pieces and, perhaps, kill some of the occupants of the house. There are two conditions of things that will cause the water-back in a stove to explode. First, to have water in the water-back with its outlets or pipe connections stopped up, then have a fire started in the stove. The fire will generate steam in the water-back, and, having no outlet through which the steam might escape, an explosion must take place. The second way through which the water-back could explode is to have no water in the kitchen boiler, with a good fire in the stove and the water-back red-hot, then allow the water to be turned on suddenly into the boiler and water-back. Under these conditions steam would be generated faster than it could escape through the small pipe connections, and would naturally result in an explosion. The different ways of connecting a water-back on any water heating device to an ordinary HOT WATER PLUMBING 205 kitchen boiler, are governed, to some extent, by the conditions in each individual case. Hot water s Outlet- Fig. 164 In connecting a gas-heated water device, the connections should be made as shown in Fig. 206 HOT WATER PLUMBING 164, which is known as a top connection, the particular reason being that it is possible, with a connection of this kind, to heat small quanti- ng. 165 HOT WATER PLUMBING 207 ties of water and to heat it quickly, and water can be drawn within five minutes after lighting the gas the great advantage being the economy of fuel and time. A gas-heated water device should always be connected to a flue. Fig. 166 When connecting a kitchen boiler to a water- tack in a range, the connection should be made as shown in Fig. 165. As the range fire will 208 HOT WATER PLUMBING probably be kept burning all day, the question of fuel economy is not to be considered — the ad- vantage of a connection of this kind is that it gives a large body of water from which to draw at all times. Fig. 167 Connections to vertical and horizontal boilers, when connected to independent water heaters are shown in Figs. 166 and 167. Another device recently put on the market and HOT WATER PLUMBING 209 Pig. 1«8 210 HOT WATER PLUMBING shown in Fig. 168, is a combination reservoir and heater. This heater is unique in construction of water compartments inasmuch as all surfaces are exposed very advantageously to the flame. The central water compartment being directly over the flame and the pipe which carries hot w^ater to the top of the tank enables it to supply hot water within a very short time. The gas supply is regulated by a thermostat, which auto- matically decreases the flow of gas when water is heated and automatically increases the flow of gas as soon as the hot water is drawn from the tank. Two clusters of blue flame gas burners, which are independent of each other, and can be used separately or both at the same time, fur- nish the heating medium. The advantage of this boiler, outside of the economy of fuel con- sumption, is that it requires little space for the installation and a great saving in the piping. Again the automatic gas regulating feature pre- vents the boiler from becoming over-heated and from its subsequent dangers, as the temperature of water is maintained at about 170 degrees Fah- renheit. In the sectional cut a steam coil is shown whereby the water can be heated with steam, in case it is installed, where steam is available. Plumber's Tools. The illustrations given in Figs. 169, 170 and 171, show a set of plumber's tools. The name of the tool is given with each HOT WATER PLUMBING 211 Blow Pipe Round Ironr Pot Hook -\ Copper Hatchet Bolt Copper Pointed Bolt- Ladle Solder Pot Torch Wiping Cloths Soil Cup. Tack Mould Tack Mould Tool Bags Fig. 169 212 HOT WATER PLUMBING Hammer Saws Cold Chisel Hack Saw. Floor Chisel Compass Saw Gouge Rasp File Calking Chisel Offset Calking Chisel Basin Wrench Yarning Chisel Fig. 170 HOT WATER PLUMBING 213 illustration, making further information unneces- sary. A larger number of tools than those shown Bossing Stick Dresser Side Edge Chipping Knives Shave Hook. Tap Borer Divider Washer Cutter Turn |Pin Bending Pin Drift Plug Fig. 171 Grease Box UBS will sometimes be necessary for special work, or work that has to be done under difficulties. Figs. 172 and 173 show two styles of plumber 's blow-torches, and Figs. 174 and 175, two solder 214 HOT WATEE PLUMBING pots. The air pressure is generated by means of rubber bulb in the solder pot shown in Fig. 174, and by means of a small hand pump in the one shown in Fig. 175. Fig. 172 A rubber force cup for cleaning bathtubs, washbowls and sinks is shown in Fig. 176. HOT WATER PLUMBING 215 Fig. 173 Pig. 174 Pig. 175 Pig. 176 216 HOT WATER PLUMBING A thawing steamer for thawing pipes that have been frozen during a cold spell is illus- trated in Fig. 177. Pig. 177 HOT WATER PLUMBING 217 Traps. A trap is a vessel which contains water, its purpose is to prevent the passage of sewer gas and other foul odors from the sewer into the house, or to prevent the entrance through the house fixtures of gas and noxious odors that may be formed between the main trap and the house fixtures. The water seal of a trap should not be less than iy 2 to 2 inches. The seal of a trap may be broken in different ways, viz : by syphonage, evaporation, back pres- surage and momentum or the action of the waste itself as it may pass off with considerable force. A good trap should have a good seal, it should be non-syphonable, self -cleaning and have as few corners or places where dirt or refuse may collect as possible. The S-trap and the drum or cylinder trap are two forms most used. The back pressure or gas from the sewer will saturate the water in a trap with sewer gas, therefore all traps should be back-vented from the sewer side of the syphon and at the highest point of the same. Traps should always be counter-vented, prin- cipally to prevent syphonage, to ventilate the plumbing system and to relieve back pressure. Counter-venting. A counter-vent is a pipe by means of which a trap is supplied with air, to prevent the partial or total syphonage of the trap and also ventilate the plumbing system of the house. 218 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Counter-vents from fixture traps should always be carried into the main air-pipe and higher than the top of the fixture or else directly through the roof. The counter-vent from a water closet should always be vented from the highest point of the syphon and never from a lower point where the flushing action of the closet would throw waste matter into the entrance of the counter-vent or at any point where the waste would be liable to settle in the vent-pipe. Caulking Joints. A ring of oakum is first forced into the joint, and then set with a caulking tool until hard. After the oakum is firmly caulked, an asbestos rope is placed around the top of the joint, leaving a small opening at the top for pour- ing the melted lead. The melted lead is then poured, and after cooling, firmly set down with the caulking tool, care being taken to thoroughly caulk the inner and outer edges of the lead circle. The lead in a 4-inch soil pipe should be about 1 inch deep. PROPERTIES OF WATER. A tasteless, transparent, inodorous, liquid, almost incompressible, its absolute diminution be- ing about one twenty-thousandth of its bulk, pos- sesses the liquid form only, at temperatures be- tween thirty-two degrees and two hundred and twelve Fahrenheit. Chemically considered, it is a compound substance of hydrogen and oxygen, two volumes of hydrogen to one volume of oxy- gen. Water is the most powerful and universal solvent known. The gallon is the unit of measure for water. The unit of water pressure is the pound per square inch, one gallon of water measures .134 cubic feet and contains 231 cubic inches and weighs about eight and one-third pounds, or sixty- two and one-third pounds per cubic foot The above is figured at sixty-two degrees Fahrenheit, which is taken as a standard temper- ature. The weight of a column of water of one inch area and twelve inches high, at sixty-two degrees Fahrenheit is .433 pounds, on .433X144=62.35 pounds per cubic foot. The pressure of still water, in pounds, per square inch, against the side of any pipe or ves- 219 220 PROPERTIES OF WATER sel, of any shape whatever, is equal in all direc- tions, downwards, upwards or sideways. To find the pressure in pounds, per square inch, of a col- umn of water, multiply the height of the column in feet, by .433, approximately one foot of eleva- tion, is equal to one half-pound pressure per square inch. The head is the vertical distance between the level surface of still water and the height in the pipe, unless caused by pressure such as by a pump, etc. Water pressure is measured in pounds per square inch, above atmospheric press- ure, by means of a pressure gauge. To ascertain the height water will rise, at any given pressure, divide the gauge pressure by .433; the result is the height in feet. Example: The pressure gauge on a, supply pipe in a basement shows 25 pounds pressure. To what height will water rise in the piping throughout the building? Answer: 25~-433=57y 2 feet. While water will rise to this height, sufficient head should be provided to furnish a surplus head of about ten feet above the highest point of de- livery, to insure a respectable velocity of dis- charge. It is frequently desired to know what number of pipes of a given size is equal in carrying ca- pacity to one pipe of a larger size. At the same PROPERTIES OF WATER 221 velocity of flow, the volume delivered by two pipes of a different size is proportionate to the square of their diameters, thus: A four-inch pipe will deliver the same volume as four two-inch pipes. Example: 2 inches X 2 inches= 4 square inches. 4 inches X 4 inches=16 square inches. 16 inches-^-4 inches= 4 2-inch pipes. With the same head, however, the velocity be- ing less in a two-inch pipe, the volume delivered varies about as the square root of the fifth power. Thus one four-inch pipe is actually equal to 5.7 two-inch pipes. Example: With the same head, how many two-inch pipes* will it take to equal one four-inch pipe? Solution: 2 5 = 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 = 32 and the i/32 = 5.7 nearly. In other words, the decrease in loss by friction in the four-inch pipe, in comparison with the two- inch pipes, is equal to 1.7 two-inch pipes over the actual square of their respective areas. Water boils or takes the form of vapor or steam at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, at a mean pressure of the sea level, or 14.696 pounds per square inch. Water freezes, or assumes a solid form, that of ice, at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, at the ordinary at- 222 PROPERTIES OF WATER mospheric pressure, and ice melts at the same temperature. The point of maximum density is reached at 39.2 Fahrenheit, that is, water at that temperature occupies its smallest possible volume. If cooled further, it expands until it solidifies, and if heated, it expands. Hardness of water is indicated by the easy man- ner with which it will form a lather with soap, the degree of hardness being based on the pres- ence and amount of lime and magnesia. The more lime and magnesia in a sample of water, the more soap a given volume of water will decompose. The standard soap measurement is the quantity required to precipitate or neutralize one grain of carbonate of lime. It is commonly recommended that one gallon of pure, distilled water takes one soap measure to produce a lather, and, therefore, one is deducted from the total amount of soap measurements found to be necessary to produce a lather in a gallon of water, and in reporting the number of soap measurements or degrees of hard- ness of the water sample. The impurities which occur in waters are of two kinds, mechanical and physical, dirt, leaves, in- sects, etc., are mechanical and can be removed by filtration. It is said that these impurities are held in suspension. Solutions of minerals, poisons and the like are physical and are designated as those held in solu- tion. PROPERTIES OF WATER 223 Freshening water to render it palatable is ac- complished by aeration, that is, by exposing water to the action of the air, by passing air through it or raising it to an elevation built for that purpose, protected from dust and other impurities of the air, if the water is to be used for drinking pur- poses, and allowing it to run down an incline, which is slatted or barred, so as to break it up into small particles, and allow it to become sat- urated with air. This process, however, is of no practical use for actual purification. USEFUL INFORMATION. One heaped bushel of anthracite coal weighs from 75 to 80 lbs. One heaped bushel of bituminous coal weighs from 70 to 75 lbs. One bushel of coke weighs 32 lbs. Water, gas and steam pipes are measured on the inside. One cubic inch of water evaporated at atmos- pheric pressure makes 1 cubic foot of steam. A heat unit known as a British Thermal Unit raises the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 de- gree Fahrenheit. For low pressure heating purposes, from 3 to 8 pounds of coal per hour is considered economical consumption, for each square foot of grate sur- face in a boiler, dependent upon conditions. A horse power is estimated equal to 75 to 100 square feet of direct radiation. A horse power is also estimated as 15 square feet of heating surface in a standard tubular boiler. Water boils, in a vacuum at 98 degrees Fahren- heit. A cubic foot of water weighs 62y 2 pounds, it contains 1,728 cubic inches or 7% gallons. Water expands in boiling about one-twentieth of its bulk, 224 USEFUL INFORMATION 225 In turning into steam water expands 1,700 its bulk, approximately 1 cubic inch of water will produce 1 cubic foot of steam,. One pound of air contains 13.82 cubic feet. It requires l 1 /^ British Thermal Units to raise one cubic foot of air from zero to 70 degrees Fah- renheit. At atmospheric pressure 966 heat units are re- quired to evaporate one pound of water into steam. A pound of anthracite coal contains 14,500 heat uits. One horsepower is equivalent to 42.75 heat units per minute. One horsepower is required to raise 33,000 pounds one foot high in one minute. To produce one horsepower requires the evapo- ration of 2.66 pounds of water. One ton of anthracite coal contains about 40 cubic feet. One bushel of anthracite coal weighs about 86 pounds. Heated air and water rise because their parti- cles are more expanded, and therefore lighter than the colder particles. A vacuum is a portion of space from which the air has been entirely exhausted. Evaporation is the slow passage of a liquid into the form of vapor. Increase of temperature, increased exposure of 226 USEFUL INFORMATION surface, and the passage o± air currents over the surface, cause increased evaporation. Condensation is the passage of a vapor into the liquid state, and is the reverse of evaporation. Pressure exerted upon a liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions, and acts with the same force on all surfaces, and at right angles to those surfaces. The pressure at each level of a liquid is propor- tional to its depth. With different liquids and the same depth, pres- sure is proportional to the density of the liquid. The pressure is the same at all points on any given level of a liquid. The pressure of the upper layers of a body of liquid on the lower layers causes the latter to ex- ert an equal reactive upward force. This force is called buoyancy. Friction does not depend in the least on the pressure of the liquid upon the surface over which it is flowing. Friction is proportional to the area of the sur- face. At a low velocity friction increases with the ve- locity of the liquid. Friction increases with the roughness of tho surface. Friction increases with the density of the liquid. Friction is greater comparatively, in small pipes, for a greater proportion of the water comes USEFUL INFORMATION 227 m contact with the sides of the pipe than in the case of the large pipe. For this reason mains on heating apparatus should be generous in size. Air is extremely compressible, while water is almost incompressible. Water is composed of two parts of hydrogen, and one part of oxygen. Water will absorb gases, and to the greatest ex- tent when the pressure of the gas upon the water is greatest, and when the temperature is the low- est, for the elastic force of gas is then less. Air is composed of about one^fifth oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen, with a small amount of car- bonic acid gas. To reduce Centigrade temperatures to Fahren- heit, multiply the Centigrade degrees by 9, divide the result by 5, and add 32. To reduce Fahrenheit temperature to Centi- grade, subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit degrees, multiply by 5 and divide by 9. To find the area of a required pipe, when the volume and velocity of the water are given, mul- tiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and divide this amount by the velocity in feet per minute. Water boils in an open vessel (atmospheric pressure at sea level) at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. Water expands in heating from 39 to 212 de- grees Fahrenheit, about 4 per cent. 228 USEFUL INFORMATION Water expands about one-tenth its bulk by freezing solid. Rule for finding the size of a pipe necessary to fill a number of smaller pipes. Suppose it is desired to fill from one pipe, a 2, 2%. and 4- inch pipe. Draw a right angle, one arm 2 inches in length, the other 2% inches in length. From the extreme ends of the two arms draw a line. The length of this line in inches will give the size of pipe necessary to fill the two smaller pipes— about 3*4 inches. From one end of this last line, draw another line at right angles to it, 4 inches in length. Now, from the end of the 2-inch line to the end of the last line draw an- other line. Its length will represent the size of pipe necessary to fill a 2-, 2%- and 4-inch pipe. This may be continued as long as desired. Discharge of water. The amount of water dis- charged through a given orifice during a given length of time and under different heads, is as the square roots of the corresponding heights of the water in the reservoir above the surface of the orifice. Water is at its greatest density and occupies the least space at 39 degrees Fahrenheit. Water is the best known absorbent of heat, con- sequently a good vehicle for conveying and trans- mitting heat. A U. S. gallon of water contains 231 cuLie inches and weighs 8 1/3 pounds. USEFUL INFORMATION 229 A column of water 27.67 inches high has a pres^ sure of 1 pound to the* square inch at the bottom. Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. A hot water boiler will consume from 3 to 8 pounds of coal per hour per square foot of grate, the difference depending upon conditions of draft, fuel, system and management. A cubic foot of anthracite coal averages 50 pounds. A cubic foot of bituminous coal weighs 40 pounds. "Weights. One cubic inch of water weighs . 036 pounds One U. S. gallon weighs ... 8 . 33 One Imperial gallon " ... 10.00 " One U. S. gallon equals 231.00 cubic inches One Imperial gallon " ... 277 . 274 " " One cubic foot of water equals 7.48 U. F. gallons Liquid Measure. 4 Gills make 1 Pint 4 Quarts make 1 Gallon 2 Pints make 1 Quart 31% Gals, make 1 Barrel To find the area, of a rectangle, multiply the length by the breadth. To find the area of triangle, multiply the base by one-half the perpendicular height. 230 USEFUL INFORMATION To find the circumference of a circle, multiply the diameter by 3.1416. To find the area of a circle-, multiply the diam- eter by itself, and the result by .7854. To find the diameter of a circle of a given area, divide the area by .7854, and find the square root of the result. To find the diameter of a circle which shall have the same area as a given square, multiply one side of the square by 1.128. To find the number of gallons in a cylindrical tank, multiply the diameter in inches by itself, this by the height in inches, and the result by .34. To find the number of gallons in a rectangular tank, multiply together the length, breadth and height in feet, and this result by 7.4. If the di- mensions are in inches, multiply the product by .004329. To find the pressure in pounds per square inch, of a column of water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. To find the head which will produce a given velocity of water through a pipe of a given di- ameter and length: Multiply the square of the velocity, expressed in feet per second, by the length of pipe multiplied by the quotient ob- tained by dividing 13.9 by the diameter of the pipe in inches, and divide the result obtained by 2,500. The final amount will give the head in feet. Example.— The horizontal length of pipe is USEFUL INFORMATION 231 1,200 feet, and the diameter is 4 inches. What head must be secured to produce a flow of 3 feet per second? 3X3=9; 13.9-^-4=3.475. 9X1,200X3.475=37,530. 37,530-^2,500=15 ft. To find the velocity of water flowing through a horizontal straight pipe of given length and diameter, the head of water above the center of the pipe being known: Multiply the head in feet by 2,500, and divide the result by the length of pipe in feet multiplied by 13.9, divided by the inner diameter of the pipe in inches. The square root of the quotient gives the velocity in feet per second. To find the head in feet, the pressure being known, multiply the pressure per square inch by 2.31. To find the contents of a barrel. To twice the square of the largest diameter, add the square of the smallest diameter and multiply this by the height, and the result by 2,618. This will give the cubic inches in the barrel, and this divided by 231 will give the number of gallons. To find the head in feet, the pressure being known, multiply the pressure per square inch by 2.31. To find the lateral pressure of water upon the side of a tank, multiply in inches, the area of the 232 USEFUL INFORMATION submerged side, by the pressure due to one-half the depth. Example— Suppose a tank to be 12 feet long and 12 feet deep. Find the pressure on the side of the tank. 144 x 144=20,736 square inches area of side. 12 x .43=5.16, pressure at bottom of tank. Pres- sure at the top of tank is 0. Average pressure will then be 2.6. Therefore 20,736 x 2.6=53,914 pounds pressure on side of tank. To find the number of gallons in a foot of pipe of any given diameter, multiply the square of di- ameter of the pipe in inches, by .0408. To find the diameter of pipe to discharge a giv- en volume of water per minute in cubic feet, mul- tiply the square of the quantity in cubic feet per minute by 96. This will give the diameter in inches. To find the weight of any length of lead pipe, when the diameter and thickness of the lead are known: Multiply the square of the outer diam- eter in inches, by the weight of 12 cylindrical inches, then multiply the square of the inner diameter in inches by the same amount, sub- tracting the product of the latter from that of the former. The remainder multiplied by the length gives the desired result. Example. Find the weight of 1,200 feet of lead pipe, the outer diameter being % inch, and the inner diameter 9-16 inch. USEFUL INFORMATION 233 The weight of 12 cylindrical inches, 1 foot long, 1 inch in diameter, is 3.8697 lbs. % x %=49-64=.765625. 9-16 X 9~16=81-256=.316406. .765625 - .316406=449219 X 3.8697 X 1,200=2,086 lbs. Cleaning Rusted Iron. Place the articles to be cleaned in a saturated solution of chloride of tin and allow them to stand for a half day or more. "When removed, wash the articles in water, then in ammonia. Dry quickly, rubbing them hard. Removing Boiler Scale. Kerosene oil will ac- complish this purpose, often better than specially prepared compounds. Cleaning Brass. Mix in a stone jar one part of nitric acid, one-half part of sulphuric acid. Dip the brass work into this mixture, wash it off with water, and dry with sawdust. If greasy, dip the work into a strong mixture of potash, soda, and water, to remove the grease, and wash it off with water. Removing Grease Stains from Marble. Mix V/ 2 parts of soft soap, 3 parts of Fuller's earth and 1% parts of potash, with boiling water. Cover the grease spots with this mixture, and allow it to stand a few hours. Strong Cement. Melt over a slow fire, equal parts of rubber and pitch. When wishing to ap- ply the cement, melt and spread it on a strip of strong cotton cloth. 234 USEFUL INFORMATION Cementing Iron and Stone. Mix 10 parts of fine iron filings, 30 parts of plaster of Paris, and one- half parts of sal ammoniac, with weak vinegar. Work this mixture into a paste, and apply quick- Cement for Steam Boilers. Four parts of red or white lead mixed in oil, and 3 parts of iron bor- ings, make a good soft cement for this purpose. Cement for Leaky Boilers. Mix 1 part of pow- dered litharge, 1 part of fine sand, and one-half part of slacked lime with linseed oil, and apply quickly as possible. To keep plaster of Paris from setting too quickly. Sift the plaster into the water, allow- ing it to soak up the water without stirring, which would admit the air, and cause the plaster to set very quickly. If it is desired to keep the plaster soft for a much longer period, as is nec- essary for some kinds of work, add to every quart of water one-half teaspoonful of common cooking soda. This will gain all the time that is needed. To keep paste from spoiling. Add a few drops of oil of clove. To make a cement that will hold when all others fail. Melt over a slow fire equal parts of rubber and pitch. When wishing to use it, melt and spread it on a strip of strong cotton cloth. Bath for cleaning sheet copper that is to be USEFUL INFORMATION 235 tinned. Pour into water sulphuric acid, until the temperature rises to about blood heat, when it will be about right for pickling purposes. Making Tight Steam Joints. With white lead ground in oil mix as much manganese as possible, with a small amount of litharge-. Dust the board with red lead, and knead this mass by hand into a small roll, which is then laid on the plate, oiled with linseed oil. It can then be screwed into place. Substitute for Fire Clay. Mix common earth with weak salt water. Rust Joint Cement. Mix 5 pounds of iron fil- ings, 1 ounce of sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce of sul- phur, and thin the mixture with water. To tin sheet copper after it has been well cleaned. Take it from the bath. If there are any spots which the acid has failed to remove, scour with salt and sand. Then over a light charcoal fire heat it, touching it with tin or sol- der, and wipe from one end of the sheet to the other with a handful of flax, only going so fast as it is thoroughly tinned. If the tinning shows a yellowish color, it shows there is too much heat, which is the greatest danger, as tinning should be done with as little heat as is neces- sary to make the metal flow. When this is dene, rinse off in clean water and dry in sawdust. To give copper a red appearance as seen on bath boilers. After the copper has been cleaned, 236 USEFUL INFORMATION rub on red chalk and hammer it in with a plan- ishing hammer. To tin soldering copper with sal-ammoniac. It will be found very handy to have a stick of sal-ammoniac in the kit for tinning purposes. After filing the heated copper bright, touch the copper with the sal-ammoniac and afterward with a stick of solder. The solder will at once flow over the entire surface. In this there is but one danger, the too great heating of the copper, in which case the burned sal-ammoniac will form a hard crust over the surface. Tin with as little heat as possible. Sal-ammoniac will be found of great value in keeping the soldering copper in shape by frequently rubbing the tinned point with it. To Keep Soldering Coppers in Order While Soldering with Acid. In a pint of water dis- solve a piece of sal-ammoniac about the size of a walnut. Whenever the copper is taken from the fire, dip the point into the liquid, and the zinc taken from the acid will run to the point of the copper and can then be shaken off, leaving the copper bright. TESTS FOR PURE WATER. Color. Fill a long clean bottle of colorless glass with the water. Look through it at some blank object. It should look colorless and free USEFUL INFORMATION 237 tram suspended matter. A muddy or turbid appearance indicates soluble organic matter or solid matter in suspension. Odor. Fill the bottle half full, cork it and leave it in a warm place for a few hours. If, when uncorked, it has a smell the least repul- sive, it should be rejected for domestic use. Taste. If water at any time, even after heat- ing, has a repulsive or disagreeable taste, it should be rejected. A simple, semi-chemical test is to fill a clean pint bottle three-fourths full of water, add a half teaspoonful of clean granu- lated or crushed loaf sugar, stop the bottle with glass or a clean cork, and let it stand in the light, in a moderately warm room, for forty- eight hours. If the water becomes cloudy, or milky, it is unfit for domestic use. 238 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Diameters, Circumferences, . Ajreas, Squares, AND Cubes. Diameter in Inches. Circum- ference in Inches. Area in Square Inches. Area in Square Feet. Square, in Inches. Cube, in Inches. % .3927 .0122 .0156 .00195 Yi .7854 .0490 .0625 .01563 % 1.1781 .1104 .14Q6 .05273 X 1.5708 1963 .25 .125 % 1.9635 .3068 .3906 .24414 % 2.3562 .4417 .5625 .42138 % 2.7489 .6013 .7656 .66992 1 3.1416 .7854 1. 1. 1% 3.5343 • .9940 .0069 1.2656 1.42383 IX 3.9270 1.2271 .0084 1.5625 1.95313 1% 4.3197 1.4848 .0102 1.8906 2.59961 IX 4.7124 1.7671 .0122 2.25 3.375 1% 5.1051 2.0739 .0143 2.6406 4.291 \% 5.4978 2.4052 .0166 3.0265 5.3593 1% 5.8905 2.7611 .0191 3.5156 6.5918 2 6.2832 3.1416 .0225 4. 8. 2% 6.6759 3.5465 .0245 4^156 9.5957 2H 7.0686 3.9760 .0275 5.0625 11.3906 2% 7.4613 4.4302 .0307 5.6406 13.3965 2% 7.8540 4.9087 .0340 6.25 15.625 2% 8.2467 5.4119 .0375 6.8906 18.0879 2% 8.6394 5.9395 .0411 7.5625 20.7969 2% 9.0321 6.4918 .0450 8.2656 23.7637 3 9.4248 7.0686 .0490 9. 27. 3% 9.8175 7.6699 .0531 9.7656 30.5176 3X 10.210 8.2957 .0575 10.5625 34.3281 3% 10.602 8.9462 .0620 11.3906 38.4434 3% 10.995 9.6211 .0668 12.25 42.875 3% 11.388 10.320 .0730 13.1406 47.634 3% 11.781 11.044 .0767 14.0625 52.734 3% 12.173 11.793 .0818 15.0156 58.185 4 12.566 12.566 .0879 16. 64. TABLE 12 USEFUL INFORMATION 239 Diameters, Circumferences, Areas, Squares, AND Cubes. Diameter in Inches. Circum- ference in Inches. Area in Square Inches. Area in Square Feet. Square, in Inches. Cube, in Inches. 4% 12.959 13.364 .0935 17.0156 70.1895 &i 13.351 14.186 .0993 18.0625 76.7656 4% 13.744 15.033 .1052 19.1406 83.7402 4% 14.137 15.904 .1113 20.25 91.125 4% 14.529 16.800 .1176 21.3906 98.9316 4% 14.922 17.720 .1240 22.5625 107.1719 4% 15.315 18.665 .1306 23.7656 115.8574 5 15.708 19.635 .1374 25. 125. 5% 16.100 20.629 .1444 26.2656 134.6113 5X 16.493 21.647 .1515 27.5625 144.7031 5% 16.886 22.690 .1588 28.8906 155.2871 5X 17.278 23.758 .1663 30.25 166.375 5% 17.671 24.850 .1739 31.6406 177.9785 5% 18.064 25.967 .1817 33.0625 190.1094 5% 18.457 27.108 .1897 34.5186 202.7793 6. 18.849 28.274 .1979 36. 216. 6% 19.242 29.464 .2062 37.5156 229.7832 6% 19.635 30.679 .2147 39.0625 244.1406 6% 20.027 31.919 .2234 40.6406 259.084 6X 20.420 33.183 .2322 42.25 274.625 6% 20.813 34.471 .2412 43.8906 290.7754 6% 21.205 35.784 .2504 45.5625 307.5469 6,^ 21.598 37.122 .2598 47.2656 324.9512 7 21.991 38.484 .2693 49. 343. 7% 22.383 39.871 .2791 50.7656 361.7051 7 X A 22.776 41.282 .2889 52.5625 381.0781 7% 23.169 42.718 .2990 54.3906 401.1309 7^ 23.562 44.178 .3092 56.25 421.879 7% 23.954 45.663 .3196 58.1406 443.3223 7% 24.347 47.173 .3299 60.0625 465.4844 7% 24.740 48.707 .3409 62.0156 488.3730 8 25.132- 50.265 .3518 64. 512. TABLE 12— Continued 240 PRACTICAL PLUMBING Diameters, Circumferences, Areas, Squares, AND Cubes. Diameter in Inches. Circum- ference in Inches. Area in Square Inches. Area in Square Feet. Square, in Inches. Cube, in Inches. 8% 25.515 51.848 .3629 66.0156 536.3770 8% 25.918 53.456 .3741 68,0625 561.5156 8% 26.310 55.088 .3856 70.1406 587.4277 8% 26.703 56.745 .3972 72.25 614.125 8% 27.096 58.426 .4089 74.3906 641.6191 8% 27.489 60.132 .4209 76.5625 669.9219 8% 27.881 61.862 .4330 78.7656 699.0449 9 28.274 63.617 .4453 81. 729. 9% 28.667 65.396 .4577 83.2656 759.7988 9% 29.059 67.200 .4704 85.5625 791.4531 9% 29.452 69.029 .4832 87.8906 823.9746 9% 29.845 70.882 .4961 90.25 857.375 9% 30.237 72.759 .5093 92.6406 891.666 9% 30.630 74.662 .5226 95.0625 926.8594 9% 31.023 76.588 .5361 97.5156 962.0968 10 31.416 78.540 .5497 100. 1000. 10% 31.808 80.515 .5636 102.5156 1037.9707 10% 32.201 82.516 .5776 105.0625 1076.8906 10% 32.594 84.540 .5917 107.6406 1116.7715 10% 32.986 86.590 .6061 110.25 1157.625 ■ 10% 33.379 88.664 .6206 112.8906 1199.4629 10% 33.772 90.762 .6353 115.5625 1242.2969 10% 34.164 92.885 .6499 118.2656 1286.1387 11 34.557 95.033 .6652 121. 1331. 11% 34.950 97.205 .6804 123.7656 1376.8926 11% 35.343 99.402 .6958 126.5625 1423.8281 11% 35.735 101.623 .7143 129.3906 1471.8184 11% 36.128 103.869 .7270 132.25 1520.875 11% 36.521 106.139 .7429 135.1406 1571.0098 11% 36.913 108.434 .7590 138.0625 1622.234 11% 37.306 110.753 .7752 141.0155 1674.5605 12 37.699 113.097 .7916 144. 1728. TABLE 12 — Continued CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE The following extracts from the 1914 Plumbing Code of the City of Chicago, will, it is believed, be of material assistance to the student. Of course the rules and regulations controlling plumbing work in various cities differ more or less, accord- ing to conditions, but the bulk of the rules herein given will serve as a reliable guide to the plumber in his work, regardless of the locality in which the work is to be performed; and it is for this pur- pose that they are here inserted. PLUMBING. Permit for use of water.] All applications for permits for the introduction or use of water sup- plied by the city shall be made in writing upon printed forms furnished by the department of pub- lic works, the blanks to be specifically and prop- erly filled in and signed by the owner or duly au- thorized agent of the owner, and no work what- ever shall be done in the street, or outside a build- ing, by any plumber or other person for the pur- pose of making any connection to or with any city water main or pipe until after the issuance of such permit. This restriction shall not prevent any person from rendering assistance in case of acci- dent to water pipes occurring at night, or at any time requiring immediate action. In case of any 241 242 PRACTICAL PLUMBING such accident prompt report thereof shall be made to the department of public works by the person rendering such assistance. Tapping street main.] No person except the tappers employed by the department of public works shall be permitted under any circumstances to tap any street main or insert stop-cocks or fer- rules therein. All service cocks or ferrules must be inserted at or near the top of the street main, and not in any case nearer than six inches from the bell of the pipe. The size of the cock to be in- serted shall be that specified in the permit. Lead pipe— kind permitted— weight required.] No lead pipe shall be used in any work done under the authority of a license or permit issued by the city, except such as is known to the trade as "strong," and every lead pipe so used must weigh as follows: Half-inch internal diameter 1% pounds per lineal foot. Five-eighths inch internal diameter. . .2% " " " Three-fourths inch " " ...3 " " " One inch " " ... 4 " " " One and one-fourth in. internal diam..4% " " " One and one-half in. " " . . 6 " " " One and three-fourths in. " " ..6% " " " Two inches " " . . 8 " M No pipe shall be used for the purpose of street service of a different material or size from that herein specified, except by special permit, issued by the commissioner of public works. Service pipe— joints.] All service pipes lead- ing from street mains to the building line shall as far as practicable be laid in the ground to a depth of not less than five feet, and every such pipe shall be laid in such manner and be of such sur- CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 243 plus length as to prevent breakage or rupture by settlement, and all joints in such pipes shall be of the kind termed "plumber or wiped joints." The connections of pipe by the so-called "cup-joint" is prohibited. Stop-cocks.] Every service pipe shall be pro- vided with a stop-cock for each consumer, easily accessible, placed beyond damage by frost and so situated that the water can be conveniently shut off and drained from the pipes. Stop-cock— location— shutoff box.] Such stop- cocks, unless otherwise specially permitted, shall be connected to service pipes within the sidewalk at or near the curb line of the same, and be in- closed in and protected by a cast-iron box with a cover having the letter "W" of suitable size cast thereon; such iron box shall be of form and dimen- sions satisfactory to the commissioner of public works and shall extend from service pipe to sur- face of sidewalk, and be of proper size to admit a stop key for operating the stop-cock. Single tap for several buildings— independent cocks required.] Whenever two or more distinct buildings or premises are to be supplied by means of branch or sub-service pipes supplied by a single tap in the street main, each branch shall be inde- pendently arranged with stop-cock and box on the curb line in the manner above described. All cocks used at the sidewalks by plumbers shall be of the kind known as "round water way." Opening of streets— permit— deposit.] Before filling any trench the service cock in the street 244 PRACTICAL PLUMBING main shall be covered with a suitable cast-iron box furnished by the city; the earth shall be well rammed under the main to a level with the top thereof; from thence the trench shall be filled in layers of not more than twelve inches in depth, and each layer thoroughly rammed or puddled to prevent settlement. This work together with the replacing of sidewalks, ballast and paving shall be done in all cases by the city. A sufficient sum of money shall be deposited with the city before the issuance of the permit for opening the street, to cover this expense. No permit shall be granted for the opening of any paved street for the tapping of mains or lay- ing of service pipes, when the ground is frozen to a depth of twelve inches or more, except when in the opinion of the commissioner of public works there is a sufficient emergency to justify it. High pressure steam boiler— supply tank re- quired.] All persons are prohibited from connect- ing pipes whereby high pressure steam boilers may be supplied with water direct from city water mains. All such boilers shall be provided with a tank or other receptacle of sufficient capacity to hold at least six hours' supply of water, which may be used in case of a pipe district being shut off for the repair of water mains or for the making of connections or extensions. In such cases the city will not be responsible for a lack of water for steam boilers, or for any purpose. New plumbing— repairs— pipes and traps to be exposed till after tests.] In all buildings here- CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 245 after erected in the city, both public and private, and in all buildings already built or erected where- in any plumbing is installed or wherein any sewer- connected pipe shall be repaired or changed, ex- cept for minor repairs, on the sewer side of the trap, the drain, soil, rainwater, when rainwater pipes are within building, waste pipes, or any other pipe- or pipes connected directly or indirect- ly to any drain, soil or waste pipe, and all traps, shall be placed within buildings and exposed to view for ready inspection and test, and shall re- main so exposed until approved by the commis- sioner of health. In no case shall a trap be inac- cessible at any time. Metal connections — requirements — tests — tile sewers above ground prohibited.] All soil or waste pipes shall be connected to the tile sewer, if a tile sewer is laid within the building, and if the connection is made above the ground or floor, by a suitable metal connection, which shall make an air-tight and water-tight joint, without the use of cement, mortar, putty or other like material, and which can and shall be tested with water when in place, such metal connections shall be in view at the time of final inspection. The entire fitting or piece which is used to con- nect the iron soil or waste pipe to the tile sewer shall be regarded as the metal connection. Metal connections which can be removed from the sewer and soil or waste pipes, after once in place with- out removing a portion of the iron soil or waste pipe, are prohibited. No such metal connection 246 PRACTICAL PLUMBING shall be used which has not been submitted to and tested and approved by the chief sanitary inspec- tor and the commissioner of health. No tile sewer shall be used above the ground or cement floor or where a cement joint is exposed to the air. One of each such approved types of metal connections shall be kept in the sanitary bureau of the depart- ment of health. Connections outside buildings and under ground.] Outside of the building and under ground the connection between the soil or waste pipe and the vitrified tile sewer shall be thorough- ly made with live Portland cement mortar, made with one part cement and two parts clean, sharp sand. An arched or other proper opening shall be pro- vided in the wall for the house drain to prevent damage by settlement. The opening around the house drain may be filled with pure refined as- phaltum. Drains connected with sewers— sizes— connec- tions must be made by plumber.] It shall be the duty of every person or corporation connecting or causing to be connected any drain, soil pipe or passage with any sewer from any building, struc- ture or premises, to cause such drain, soil pipe, passage or connection to be at all times adequate for its purpose and of such size and dimensions as to convey and allow freely to pass, whatever may properly enter the same. All connections between metal pipes and be- tween metal pipe and tile sewers shall be made by CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 247 a licensed plumber and in such manner as the commissioner of health shall direct. Separate drainage for every building— excep- tion.] Every building shall be separately and in- dependently connected with a public or private sewer, when there is any such sewer in the street adjoining such building. The entire plumbing and drainage system of every building shall be entirely separate and in- dependent from that of any other building, ex- cept where there are two buildings on one lot, one in the rear of the other. If there is no sewer in the alley to which the rear building can connect, the sewer of the first building may be extended to serve such rear building. Drainage of kitchen slops, etc.— water supply.] All connections with sewers or drains used for the purpose of carrying off animal refuse from water-closets or otherwise, and slop of kitchens, shall have fixtures for a sufficiency of water to be so applied as to properly carry off such matters. Soil pipe— size— increaser.] Every water closet located within any building shall waste into a pipe not less than four inches in diameter. Such pipe shall be increased below the roof line as herein- after provided and shall be carried through and above the roof. Definition of terms.] In this article the term "main soil pipe" is applied to any pipe receiving the discharge of one or more water closets, with or without other fixtures, and extending through the roof. 248 PRACTICAL PLUMBING The term "branch soil pipe" is applied to any pipe receiving the discharge from one or more water closets and with or without other fixtures and leading towards and connecting with the main soil pipe, but not necessarily extending through the roof. The term "waste pipe" is applied to any pipe receiving the discharge from any fixture or fix- tures other than water closets. The term "house drain" is applied to the pipe within any building which receives the total dis- charge from any fixture or sets of fixtures, and may or may not include rain water, and which conducts or carries the same to the house sewer. The house drain, when rain water is allowed to discharge into it, shall be not less than six inches internal diameter. The term "house sewer" is applied to the tile sewer, which shall be not less than six inches in- ternal diameter, and which begins outside of the wall of a building and connects the house drain with the public sewer in the street. The term "main vent" is applied to the ver- tical line of air pipe running through two or more floors to which the vent or revent pipes from the various floors are connected. The term "vent pipe" is applied to any pipe provided to ventilate a system of piping, and to which the revents are connected. The term "revent pipe" is applied to any pipe used to prevent trap siphonage and back pressure. CHICAGO PLUMBING CODE 249 Tlie term . " soil vent" or " waste vent" is ap- plied to that part of the main soil pipe or waste pipe which is above the highest installed fixture waste connection and extends through the roof. When sizes of pipes are specified the internal diameters of the pipes are meant. Iron pipes— quality— weights.] All soil, waste and vent pipes, except as hereinafter specified for lead branches and brass pipes, shall be either ex- tra heavy cast-iron pipe coated with tar or as- phaltum, or standard galvanized wrought iron pipe; provided, that wrought iron pipe coated with tar or asphaltum may be used for soil and waste pipes, but not for soil or waste vent nor for vent or revent pipes. All pipes shall be sound and free from holes, cracks, or defects of any kind. The following weights per lineal foot will be accepted as complying with this chapter as to weight of extra heavy cast-iron pipe: Diameter 2 inches 5y 2 pounds per lineal foot 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 9V2 13 17 20 27 331/2 45 54 Mi >- Ml 3 & (P 0- or o p cr> £ •i r * Ui p V w 0- - -> Q J Id t -" (J 9 CHICAGO, U. S. A.