6lass_i I]l03 Baok.ii2SS COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT Diiier' The Emperor Charlemagne. painting (15J0), showing the insignia of later Emperors. Contempo- rary portraits all show Charlemagne without a beard. / ESSENTIALS IN HISTORY ESSENTIALS (i>t(^ IN MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY (FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO THE PRESENT DAY) BY SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D PROFESSOK OF EUROPEAN HISTORY, INDIANA UNIVERSITY IN CONSULTATION WITH ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D. PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY NEW YORK .:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY .wi, copies ri«c««rt30 QCT 28 ?905 5 /267^7 ESSENTIALS IN HISTORY A SERIES PREPARED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D. PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY ESSENTIALS IN ANCIENT HISTORY By ARTHUR MAYER WOLFSON, Ph.D. ESSENTIALS IN MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY By SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D. ESSENTIALS IN ENGLISH HISTORY By ALBERT PEKRY WALKER, A.M. ESSENTIALS IN AMERICAN HISTORY By albert BUSHNELL HART, LL.D. Copyright, 1905, by SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. ESSEN. ..lED. .k MOD. HIST. GENERAL INTRODUCTION The advantage of a study of general European history is too obvi- ous for discussion. The Committee of Seven, in its programme, strongly recommends that a year be given to mediaeval and modern European history ; and a large number of schools have for years provided such a course. Nowadays, when the United States of Amer- ica has distinctly taken a place as one of the factors which are to shape the future of mankind, it is more than ever important that Americans should understand the development and meaning of Euro- pean history. Following the suggestion of the Committee of Seven, Professor Harding has begun his work with a survey of the world as it was in the year 800, thus closely relating the book to the last chapter of Wolf son's Essentials in Ancient History. In the first few chapters. Professor Harding attacks and surmounts what are for young people the three most difficult problems in mediaeval history, — the feudal state, the church, and the rivalry between the empire and the church. He addresses himself to the underlying ideas in the minds of medi- aeval man, especially to the need of combination and union which gave rise to the feudal system, and to the need of a religious center and of an organized and powerful church to protect it. As in the other volumes of this series, " the essentials " have been sought, leaving out details, however interesting and graphic in them- selves, which do not contribute to a knowledge of the great move- ments of the world's history, or do not significantly illustrate them. The effort is constantly to describe the events and characterize the persons that really made history. Professor Harding's plan has been to take Italy, France, Germany, and England in turn, as each becomes the central figure on the world's stage. Furthermore, he has seized upon the idea that the nations of the nineteenth century are not less important than those of the twelfth or the sixteenth ; and he discusses the greatness of England, and the unification of Italy and Germany, and the present organization of 5 G GENERAL INTRODUCTION Europe under control of the concert of powers, on the same plane as the Crusades, or the Thirty Years' War, or the age of Louis XIV. As in the preceding volume on the E>isentials in Ancient History and the two succeeding volumes on Essentials in English History and Essentials in American History, this book contains little pedagogic apparatus, and the teacher is left free to use the devices here sug- gested or any others that he may approve. A hrief appendix shows a list of books costing about twenty-five dollai\s which may well be on the teacher's desk and accessible to all pupils, besides a more comprehensive list suitable for a school or town library. The bibliographical references are thrown into convenient form at the end of each chapter, where will be found specific references of three kinds: first, to secondary authorities; second, to sources, espe- cially reprints and selections in English which can actually be used by schools ; third, to illustrative works, such as tales and stories con- nected with the period. These references, which have been carefully selected out of a large body of material, will be found convenient by teachers in making their own preparation and by pupils in collateral reading and in written woik. The work of the pupil outside of the class room and the study of the text are aided by two kinds of subjects for topics. The Sugges- tive Topics can be answered from ordinary histories and books of reference, such as cyclopedias, biographical dictionaries, and the like; and they are closely connected with the text of the preceding chapter. The Search Topics expect a wider range of material, including sources, for which the accompanying references will be available. They are adapted for written reports and library exercises. It is to be supposed that every teacher who uses this book will possess the three little handbooks, The Study of History in Schools, prepared by the Committee of Seven, and the Historical Sources in Schools and the History Syllahus for Secondary Schools, both prepared by special committees of the l^ew England History Teachers' Asso- ciation. All of these books are intended to enable the teacher to use the time of preparation to the best advantage. The maps and pictures, specially prepared or selected for this vol- ume, are intended to illustrate actual things, to make the text more clear and understandable, but in this respect, as in all others, the teacher is left free to apply the helps printed in the book according to his own knowledge and preference. ALBERT Bl SIINELL HART. THE AUTHOR TO THE TEACHER The problem of history is to understand the past, -of eac\i, event or institution we want to know, as Ranke says, "How that really was" (Wie es eigenllich geioesen); and the function of the teacher is to direct and assist the pupil to the gaining of this understand- ino- There is no royal road to its attainment; the means used must be throuoh preparation on the part of the teacher, a constant striving to find the pupil's point of view, unwearying patience, and ceaseless drill. The author ventures, however, to suggest a tew evi- dent aids from his own experience as a teacher. 1 Make sure, he would urge, that the pupil understands what he reads and recites, and lead him to penetrate back of the narrative to tlie thinos themselves, -to realize, visualize history. The snnplest words and expressions sometimes prove difficult; it is always desir- able to lead the pupil away from the language of the book to his own ''''^''Require the keeping of note-books for class notes and dictations, collateral reading, and analyses by the pupil of chapters m the text. 3 Use should be made of text- and wall-maps in the preparation and recitation of lessons; and from time to time the teacher should require the filling in of outline n>aps, for different epochs, showing physical features," towns, battles, boundaries, etc. Unlocalized knowl- edge in history is nebulous knowledge; and in map work the prin- ciple of "learning by doing" is indispensable. Excellent out me maps are published by the McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia; and the "Ivanhoe" note-books (Atkinson & ^lentzer, Chicago) may be found useful. . . i • ^ 4. The memorizing of a mass of unrelated dates is not advised, though a sufficient number of dates must be mastered to serve as landmarks: rather exercise pupils in grasping the sequence and other time relations of events, - drilling them, for example, iu estiniatmg the distance in time between events in the same aud m dilterent series. A useful device is the preparation by pupils of a chart (on paper strips about eight inches wide, or on the blackboard), divided • 7 8 THE AUTHOR TO THE TEACHER into centuries and decades, as below; it is improved by the use of different colored inks or crayons : — HOHEN- STAUFEN 5. Pictures of historical places, things, and persons greatly aid instruction. Collections of these may easily be made from old maga- zines and similar sources, and should be mounted on uniform sheets of cardboard and classified. Older pupils can usually assist in the making and keeping of such a collection. All this is presented merely as suggestion, not dogmatically. If the teacher is really a teacher, knows his subject and loves to teach it, like Sentimental Tommy he will surely "find a way." The only fair test, for teacher and book alike, is the test by results. In conclusion the author must acknowledge his indebtedness to his colleague, Pi'ofessor Amos S. Hershey, who read the greater part of the manuscript and offered many helpful suggestions; and to his former pupils, Mr. Frederic A. Ogg and Mr. Charles E. Payne, for assistance in preparing the references. SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING. CONTENTS I. Introduction : the World in the Year 800 PAGE 11 II. III. IV. V. VL VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. EMPIEE AND PAPACY The Empire of Charlemagne (768-814) .... The Later Carolingian Empire (814-911) and the Feudal System Successors of the Carolingians in Germany and France . The Church in the Middle Ages . ' . The Franconian Emperors, Hildebrand, and the Investi- ture Conflict (1024-1125) AGE OF THE CRUSADES The Christian and Mohammedan East, and the First Crusade (1096-1099) The Later Crusades (1099-1291) The Hohenstaufen Empire and the Italian Conmmnes (1125-1190) End of the Hohenstaufen Empire (1190-1268) Life in the Mediaeval Castle, Village, and Town . RISE OF NATIONAL STATES England in the Middle Ages (449-1377) .... The Rise of France (987-1337) The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) . . . ■ Development of Modern States (1254-1500) . RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION The Great Church Councils and the. Renaissance (1300- 1517) The Reformation in Germany (1517-1^55) The Reformation in Other Lands, and the Counter Refor- mation (1518-1610) The United Netherlands and the Thirty Years' War (1568-1648) THE OLD R:fcGIME The Age of Louis XIV. (1643-1715) . . ; Constitutional Monarchy in England (1603-1760) . Northern and Eastern Europe (1689-1748)^ . The Age of Frederick the Great (1748-1786) . 32 45 63 77 114 129 145 162 171 191 211 229 246 264 286 301 323 347 368 392 4U 10 CONTENTS XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVI I. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. REVOLUTION AND REACTION The French Revolution (1789-1795) .... The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte (1795-1804) . The Napoleonic Empire (1804-1815) .... Industrial Development, Political Reaction, and Revolu- tion (1815-1830) The Orleans Monarchy and the Upheaval of Europe (1830-1848) DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION Napoleon III. and the Unification of Italy and Germany (1851-1871) Great Britain in the Nineteenth Century .... National liivalries and the New Concert of the Powers (1871-1900) The Awakening of the East, and the Twentieth Century PAGE 434 460 474 495 513 529 553 577 599 BlBLIOGKAlMIY Index 1, ni xili REFERENCE MAPS Physical Map of Europe . 14, 15 Europe in the Time of Charle- magnt" (708-814) . 30, 31 Partition of N^erdun (843) . 47 Mohannneilaiis, Christians, and Pagans about GOO-814 and about 1100 . . .62 Holy Roman Empire in the 10th and 1 1th Centuries . 64 Mediaival Monasteries, Bishop- rics, and Archbishoprics . 82 Europe about the Time; of the Plrst Crusade (1097) 112, 113 Crusaders' States in Syria . 129 Saladin's Empire, and Results of the Fourth Crusade . 138 Lombard and Tuscan Leagues 154 Medi.eval Commerce and Tex- tile Industries . .184, 185 England in 878 . . . 192 English Possessions in France, 1180-1429 . . . 228 Growth of the Swiss Confed- eration .... 249 States of the Empire in 1477 252, 253 Europe in 1556 . . 284, 285 The Netherlands . . .324 Territorial Gains in the Peace of Westphalia . . . 339 France : Acquisitions of Louis XIV 350 Russia : Conquests of Peter the Great .... 393 Growth of Prussia . . 401, 426 Partitions of Poland . . 424 War Districts, 1740-1763 . 410 Europe in 1789 . . 432, 433 War Districts, 1788-1815 . 459 Europe in 1815 . . 488,489 Races of Austria-Hungary . 523 Growth of the Italian Kingdom 534 The Modern German Empire . 547 Products of the British Isles . 554 The British Empire . 566, 5(57 Europe in 1900 . . .576 Balkan States (1878-1881) . 578 Africa in 1900 . . .585 Asia in 1905 . . . 600, 601 ESSENTIALS IN MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION: THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 The division of history into periods is difficult, for two reasons: (1) Changes in history, like changes of the seasons, are gradual, each period merging into the next as imper- i. Periods ceptibly as winter into spring. (2) Progress does not of history take place with equal rapidity in all fields : now artistic activ- ity, now scientific thought, now industrial development, now political organization, forges ahead, while other activities lag behind ; now one nation leads, now another. It is difficult to find dates as division points which mark important changes in all these various fields, just as it is difficult to divide a man's life into periods of childhood, youth, manhood, and old age; yet the divisions are real and important. The term "Middle Ages" is often used to cover the whole period from the beginning of the barbarian invasions about 375 A.D., or the fall of the E-oman Empire in the West 2. Scope of in 476 A.D., to the discovery of America in 1492, or the *^is book beginning of the Protestant Reformation. In reality three distinct epochs are comprised in this period : (1) The period from about 375 to about 800 was an epoch of transition, to which the term " the Dark Age " may perhaps be applied ; it is the time when the invading Germans and the subjects of the Homan Empire were being fused into one people, and when the remains of classical civilization, the institutions of the Germanic barbarians, and Christianity were combining to form 11 12 INTRODUCTION the culture of mediaeval Europe. (2) The typical Middle Age begins with the revival of the Western Empire by Charle- magne (800) and lasts till about 1300 ; it is the age of feudal- ism, of the might of a church organization ruling every form of human activity, of great struggles between Popes and Em- peror3. (3) The third division is an epoch of transition, from about 1300 to about 1500 ; it is the time of the Kenaissance, or " rebirth," when men's minds were made more free, and when state, church, art, literature, industry, and society took on new forms. The lirst of these divisions (375-800) is included in the scope of the first volume of this series (see p. 5) ; the sec- ond and third, together with the whole period of Modern history, since 1500, are dealt with in this book. For us, history is the study of the achievements of European peoples and of their relations with other peoples. India, China, and Japan have civilizations and histories of their own, which bear little on European history. In the Middle Ages, America and Australia were unknown to Europe ; of Africa the Mediter- ranean regions alone were known ; and the more distant parts of Asia were revealed only through indirect trade, through westward raids of Asiatic hordes, and through vague reports brought back by a few adventurous missionaries and traders. It is only since the maritime discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and the accompanying expansion of trade and settlement, that Western civilization has passed beyond the limits of Europe and of ^lediterranean Africa and Asia. Europe is the smallest of the grand divisions of the earth save Australia, but historically it is the most important. It 3 Geogra- ^^^^^^^s from about 36° to 71° north latitude, or from about phyof the latitude of Cape Hatteras on the Atlantic coast of ^°^® the United States to that of northernmost Alaska; its climate is much milder than that of the eastern parts of North America and Asia in corresponding latitudes. Its coast line is much broken ; its surface is diversified by mountain and THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 13 plain ; its rainfall is generally plentiful, and there are no deserts except in the extreme southeast. The Mediterranean Sea, with its easily navigable waters, unites as well as sepa- rates it from neighboring lands. The position, configuration, and climate of Europe have admirably fitted it to receive, develop, and spread to other parts of the globe the ancient civilization which arose in Egypt and Mesopotamia. Geographically Europe is a peninsula of Asia; this has made it possible for great bodies of people at various times to pass from Asia into Europe. In prehistoric times there occurred the migrations of the Aryan peo2:)les, conquering and absorbing the pre-Arj-an races : in the south of Europe settled the Greeks and Latins ; in the west were established the Celts (Irish, Scots, Britons, Gauls) ; into the east came the Slavs (Russians, Poles, Bohemians, Servians, etc.) ; and between were located the Germans, with their near kin the Dutch and the Scandinavians. Whether the original seat of the Aryans was in central Asia or in northern Europe is disputed ; it should also be noted that the classification into Aryan and non-Aryan peoples is based upon language, and does not necessarily imply actual kinship of blood. Nevertheless the Aryan peoples constitute a real historic group, with many ideas, institutions, and customs in common, and must be m'arked off from the Semitic races (Jews, Arabs, Phoenicians), as well as from the so-called Turanian peoples who inhabit central and eastern Asia. Structurally " the characteristic of Europe is to be more full of peninsulas and islands and inland seas than the rest of the Old World." It consists of three distinct parts: (1) a Freeman, southern portion comprisinsj the great peninsulas of Historical Geography Greece, Italy, and Spain, and cut off from the central of Europe, mass by an almost unbroken mountain chain (the Pyre- ^- * nees, and the Alps with their eastern continuations); (2) a broad central land mass stretchinsr east and west across Eu- 16 INTRODUCTION rope; and (3) a northern peninsular portion, separated from the central portion by the Baltic Sea, wliich forms "a kind of secondary Mediterranean." The northern and central por- tions, especially toward the east, are relatively low, and con- sist principally of " naked plains and large lakes, exposed to the freezing influences of Asia and the Arctic Ocean.'^ The Lavame southern portion, on the other hand, "presents a series Physical, of very elevated lands, covered with natural obstacles, and^Milt' varied with cuttings and declivities, bristling with peaks, tary Geog- scalloped with gulfs, furrowed by numerous rivers, cut "^ ' "^ up into peninsulas, arresting the northern winds, opening up to the winds of Africa freshened by the Mediterranean. . . The natural accidents of the south, besides being favorable to agriculture and commerce, assure the independence and civili- zation of their inhabitants ; whilst the vast frozen plains of the north have only miserable and savage populations, brutal- ized under a single government." The central mountain system of Europe is the Alps, con- sisting of from 30 to 50 distinct masses, which may be grouped under the two heads of AYestern Alps and Eastern Alps. mountain (1) The Western Alps or Great Alps (the Alps proper) sys ems ^-^ ^^^ ^j^^ form of an arc of a circle stretching a distance of 348 miles from the Gulf of Genoa to Mt. St. Gothard ; they comprise three series of parallel ridges, with altitudes of from 3000 to 5000 in the western ridge, 9000 to 15,000 in the central, and 5000 to 8000 in the eastern ridge; the highest peak is Mont Blanc (15,781 feet), the highest mountain in Europe. They are more easily passable by an army coming from Erance into Italy than from Italy into Erance. The chief passes are the Simplon (6500 feet), over which Napoleon Bonaparte con- structed an admirable road at the beginning of the nineteenth century ; the Great St. Bernard (7900 feet), which in spite of its difficulties was used successively by Charlemagne, the Emperor Frederick I., and Napoleon ; the Little St. Bernard I THE WOKLI) IN THE YEAK 800 17 (7100 feet) ; and the Mont Cenis (6700 f eet).^ (2) The Eastern Alps stretch from Mt. St. Gothard to the Adriatic Sea and con- tinue (the Dinaric Alps) along its eastern coast ; their altitudes are lower than the Western Alps, and decline as they approach the Adriatic ; their chief pass is the Brenner, with an altitude of 4700 feet. In almost every direction radiate offshoots from this central mountain mass. To the south extend the Apennines, forming the Italian peninsula ; to the west are the Cevennes of south- ern France ; to the north appear the Jura, the Vosges, the Black Forest, and other mountains of upper Germany 5 to the north- east lie the mountains inclosing Bohemia — the Bohmerwald (Bohemian Forest), the Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains), and the Eiesengebirge (Giant Mountains) — and the sweeping arc, 700 miles long, of the Carpathians; and to the southeast are the wild and precipitous heights of the Balkans, and the mountains forming the Grecian peninsula. Only a few groups of mountains in Europe are disassociated from the central mass of the Alps : the Pyrenees, with an aver- age elevation of about 8000 feet, constituting a solid rampart between France and the Spanish peninsula, passable for armies at the eastern and western ends only ; and the Scandinavian Mountains, the Scottish Highlands, the Urals, and the lofty Caucasus' ridge, of little historical importance. Three important rivers rise in the neighborhood of Mt. St. Gothard, and flowing in different directions empty into differ- ent seas: (1) the Rhine, after receiving as tributaries 5. Therivex the Moselle from the west and the Main from the east, systems and traversing a course of 850 miles, empties into the North Sea (the Meuse, which flows into its delta, is practically a 1 In recent years railway tunnels have been driven through the Alps: the Mont Cenis, 7h miles long, completed in 1871; the St. Gothard, 91 miles, completed in 1881 ; the Arlberg,6| miles, completed in 1884; and the Simplon.. 12J miles, completed in 1905. 18 INTRODUCTION tributciry of the Ehine) ; (2) the Rhone, with the Saone as tributary, flows into the western Mediterranean ; (3) the Po, which drains the northern plain of Italy, empties into the Adriatic Sea. The Volga, with its length of 2100 miles, is geographically the most important river of Europe, but his- torically it counts for little because of its location in the vast plains of eastern Eussia. The Danube, Europe's second river in size, with a length of 1600 miles, ranks historically with the Rhine in importance, near whose source it rises, and with which it forms an almost continuous land and water route stretching clear across Europe from the Black Sea to the North Sea. Additional streams of importance are the Ga- ronne, Loire, and Seine, in France; and the Elbe, Oder, and Vistula, in Germany. The tendency of mountains is to separate, of rivers to unite, adjacent peoples. Physical geography would divide Europe 6. Geo- into the following sections: Spain; France (or Gaul) to units in^ the Cevennes Mountains; the British Isles; the Phone- Europe hind; the Phine-land; Italy; the Balkan-land; the Danube- land ; North Germany ; Bohemia ; Russia ; Scandinavia. Each of these twelve regions has had its separate history ; and modern political divisions follow this grouping with sufficient close- ness to show the abiding influence, in history, of geographical factors. All our knowledge of history is based at last upon (1) mate- rial reuiains, such as ruins, monuments, coins, old weapons, 7 Mate- 'i^'"it)r, household utensils, etc.; (2) official documents, rials for and contemporary descriptions (including pictorial repre- ^^ °^ sentations) by eye- and ear-witnesses ; and (3) oral (or written) traditions, which come to us from persons not in a position to kr^w the facts at first hand. No matter how im- portant an event may have been, if no trace of it has been left in one or another of these ways, we can have no knowledge of it. For the Middle Ages our source materials consist THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 19 cliiefly of ''annals" and "chronicles" in which men (usually monks) wrote down brief accounts of the events of their own times; "capitularies" (decrees of Charlemagne and his successors) and other collections of laws ; charters conveying grants of lands and privileges; a few letters of kings, popes, and other eminent men ; lives of saints and other persons ; and account books and other records of governments, mon- asteries, and individual landlords. For Modern history there is an ever increasing flood of parliamentary and congres- sional debates, statutes, memoirs and letters of statesmen and other persons, diaries, daily newspapers, etc. From these materials liistorians gather the facts of histor}^ by a slow and careful process of sifting and comparison, designed to separate the true from the false ; and it is not surprising that — as new materials are discovered and made available, and more careful study is given to the old — many views formerly held are shown to be unfounded, and new ones take their place. The historian must deal with many different systems of reckoning time, used by different peoples and in different ages. The Romans started from tlie founding of Rome; the „ „ , - '^ '8. Modes of Mohammedans count from tlie flight of Mohammed from reckoning Mecca (the " Hegira," in 622 a.d.) ; ' the Christians from *'°^® the birth of Christ (the year 1 a.d.), which by a miscalculation was placed four years too late ; in addition, the years of the reigns of kings, emperors, and popes have been used. The determination of the length of the year presents many difficulties. The " Julian " calendar, arranged by Julius Csesar, making every fourth year a leap year, was used until the end of the Middle Ages ; but this made the year eleven minutes fourteen seconds too long, and by the sixteenth century the 1 Also, the Mohammedan year is a lunar year, nearly eleven days shorter than ours ; so that 34 Mohammedan years are about equal to 33 years of our reckoning. 20 INTRODUCTION difference accumulated siuce the year of the Council of Nicaea (325 A.D.) amounted to nearly ten days. The reformed or "Gregorian" calendar was proclaimed by Pope Gregory XIII. in 1582 ; this not merely struck out ten days from the calendar of that year (the day after October 4 becoming October 15), but by directing the omission of three leap-year days in every four centuries thereafter, it provided for keeping the calendar year for the future in harmony with the solar year. England did not accept the reformed calendar until 1752; Russia has not yet accepted it, and is now thirteen days behind the other nations in its reckoning of dates. The two calendars are dis- tinguished as "old style" (0. S.) and "new style" (N.S.); and to avoid doubt, dates after 1582 are sometimes given in both systems : in this book such dates are all given according to the "new style." About the time that the Gregorian calen- dar was adopted in the various countries, the beginning of the year was definitely fixed at the first of January ; in other usages it began with the feast of the Annunciation (March 25) and with various other dates, — so that up to 1752 in England, for instance, there was confusion as to whether a given date be- tween January 1 and March 25 belonged to the expiring or the beginning year. Within the year, dates were frequently fixed with reference to great church festivals — such as Christmas and Easter — or by the days of the different saints, of which more than two thousand were thus used. For two hundred years after the overthrow of the Roman Republic by Julius Csesar and Augustus, the Roman Empire 9. Decay of prospered, giving unity of government, law, language, pire (180- " ^^^^ culture to the whole Mediterranean world. Then 375 A.D.) followed a period of civil war and decay, from the death of Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Diocletian (180-284 A.D.). This decline was temporarily checked by the reorganization of the empire carried out by Diocletian and by Constantine the Great (died 337), whereby the empire was THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 21 divided into an eastern and a western half (regularly after .')1)5), was made entirely despotic, and the capital was removed to Constantinople. With Constantine also came the end of the persecutions of the Christians, and the recognition of Christianity as the official religion of the state. But these changes could not long check the decay, whicli was due (1) to a great decrease in population, caused by famines, wars, and pestilence ; (2) to unwise laws about taxes, by which men became fixed in their stations and occupations, as in hereditary castes, and free peasa,nts became serfs, bound to the soil, while slaves rose in the social scale and blended with the depressed freemen ; (3) to widespread luxury and immorality ; and (4) to a lack of national feeling, resulting from despotism in the government and the general employ- ment in the army of Germanic barbarians, who also were settled by the government in large numbers on waste lands within the empire. At the end of the fourth century came a more rapid declinej due to the entrance into the Roman Empire of whole nations of German barbarians. The Visigoths, attacked in the 10. Inva- rear by Huns from Asia, crossed the Danube frontier, ^^**Qermans overthrew and slew the Emperor Valens at Adrianople (376-476) in 378, and under their young king Alaric ravaged Greece, overran Italy, and sacked Rome (410) ; under Alaric's suc- cessors they established a Germanic kingdom in Spain and southern Gaul, which lasted for three centuries (to 711). The example set by the Visigoths was speedily followed by other nations. The Vandals overran Gaul and Spain ; and upon the coming of the Visigoths to the latter land, they passed over into Africa (429), there to rule for a hundred and five years. The Franks, who were settled about the lower Rhine, gradu- ally occupied northern Gaul; the Burgundians, passing from the middle Rhine to the Rhone valley, established there a kingdom which lasted until 534 ; the Angles and Saxons, in- HARDING's M. & M. HIST. — 2 22 INTRODUCTION vjiiling Britain in their piratical vessels (about 449), estab- lished kingdoms which later consolidated into the kingdom of England. Jn 451 the savage Huns extended their raids into the heart of Gaul, but were turned back by the united efforts of Romans and Visigoths; and the death two years later of their leader Attila, "the Scourge of God," released Europe from the dread of Asiatic dominion. At Pvome the last of a line of weak and foolish Emperors of the West came to an end in the year 476, when Odoacer, the leader of the German mercenaries in the Roman army, deposed young Romulus Augustulus, himself assumed the title of "king," and sent ambassadors to lay at the feet of the East- ern Emperor at Constantinople the imperial crown and purple robe, professing that one Emperor was enough for both East and West. For some years Odoacer enjoyed his "kingdom" over the mercenaries in peace ; but in 49,3 he was defeated and mur- 11 Ostro- (^ered by the king of tlie Ostrogoths, Theodoric the goths and Great, who had come into Italy with his people, com- Komans missioned by the Eastern Em])eror to overthrow the (476-555) usurper. Theodoric (493-526) had been brought up as a youth at Constantinople, and entertained wise and beneficent plans for the union of his Ostrogoths with the Italian provin- cials into one nation; but in spite of his efforts the attempt failed, mainly through religious differences, the Ostrogoths (in common with most of the German barbarians) being Arian Christians (an heretical sect), while the orthodox Catholic religion prevailed in the Roman Empire. The reign of the Emperor Justinian (527-565) greatly strengthened the Eastern Empire, and also profoundly influ- enced the West. Justinian was a great builder and civilizer, and codified the Roman law into the Code, Digest, and Tnsti- tiiU^s, wliich preserved it to influence the world to the present day. He was also a great conqueror, and his generals Beli- THE WOULD IN THE YEAR 800 23 sarins and Narses overthrew not only the Vandal kingdom in Africa (533), but also the weakened Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy (553). For a few brief years the Roman Empire once more ruled Italy, northern Africa, the islands of the western Mediterranean, and even southern Spain ; never again was its power to touch so high a point. The beginning of the seventh century saw the rise of 12. Rise of a new religion Moham- ^ medanism and a new polit- (622-732) ical power, through the teachings of Mo- hammed (571-632), who united the Arabs, rescued them from the worship of sticks and stones, and taught them there was but one true God (Allah), of whom Mohammed was the Prophet. The teaching of Moham- med was embodied in the Koran ; it con- the 8th and mil centuries. ^^i^g Jewish, Chris- tian, and Persian elements, and along with many good and noble ideas are mixed baser elements tainted by the ignoi-ance, cruelty, and sensuality of seventh-century Arabs. By the year 631 all Arabia had accepted Mohammed's teaching, and fanatical zeal and lust of rule urged on a movement of foreign conquest such as the world had never seen. In eighty years Mohammedanism conquered more terri- Interior of Mosque of Cordova, Siaim. Present condition. Built by Mohammedans in 24 INTRODUCTION tory than Rome conquered in four centuries : Syria, Persia, Egypt, northern Africa, and Spain passed under the rule of the caliphs, successors of Mohammed; but in Gaul, in 732, the Mohammedans were checked by the Franks under Charles Conquests of the Mohammedans. Martel in the battle of Tours ; and this defeat, combined with internal dissensions, saved Europe from a further advance of their power in this direction. Within fifteen years after the overthrow of the Ostrogoths, a new Germanic people, the Lombards, appeared in Italy to 13. Loin- take their place. In a short time the Lombards con- the papacy ^^^ered the greater part of northern Italy, to which their (568-774) name (Lombardy) is still given ; and soon they possessed the greater part, but not all, of the peninsula : officers of the Eastern Emperors still ruled a considerable district about the mouth of the river Po (Exarchate of Ravenna), together with the district about Rome (Ducat us Romanus), and the southern points of the peninsula. The main result of the incomplete- ness of the Lombard conquest was the rise of a new temporal power vested in the Pope, who, as bishop of Rome, was head of the Christian church. The Lombards were among the most barbarous of the Ger- manic nations, and they were long viewed by the Romans with the fiercest hatred and loathing, even after they put aside their Arianism and accepted Catholic Christianity. Owing to the distance and weakness of the Eastern Emperors, power THF. WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 25 ill the city of Rome gradually passed into the hands of its bishops or Popes, among whom Leo 1. (440-461) and Gregory I. the Great (590-604) were most noteworthy ; and in 729 the Pope threw off his allegiance to the Emperor as a result of the Emperor's decree against the use of images in worship (the Iconoclastic Controversy). At about the same time the Lombards conquered the Exarchate of Kavenna (727) ; it then seemed as if the Pope would escape from the rule of the Emperor only to fall under that of the hated Lombards ; but from this danger the papacy was saved by an appeal to an- other Germanic people, the most notable of all — the Franks. Of all the Germanic peoples who pressed into the Continental provinces of Kome, only the Franks in Gaul established an enduring kingdom ; hence for centuries the history of ^^ j^-g^ ^^ the Prankish power makes the largest part of the history the Franks of Europe. Their king Clovis (481-511) laid its basis ^^^^-"^^^^ by his consolidation of the Franks under one rule, and his conquests of neighboring peoples. Within fifty years after his death, most of Gaul and the Ehine valley were under Prankish sway. Many of the descendants of Clovis proved weak rulers ; and the broils and feuds of the nobles, the tur- bulence and lawlessness of the freemen, produced great disorder. In spite of these evils, and in spite of frequent divisions of the territory among the sons of deceased kings, the power of the Franks as a people did not decline. Alongside of ,the " do- nothing" (faineant) Merovingian kings, descendants of Clovis, arose strong "mayors of the palace," who exercised the real power. In Austrasia (the kingdom of the East Franks) the mayors of the palace became especially strong, for the office was practically hereditary in the powerful family of the Pepins (Carolingians), who possessed wide estates and numerous fol- lowers. Under chiefs of this house the East and West Franks were reunited, with one king and one mayor of the palace, and the Mohammedans were beaten back. 26 INTRODUCTION ^^ Territory of the Franke 481 V^wX Conquests of Clevis 481-011 F^ " to 561 ^m " 714--G8 n7;a^ •' of Charlemagne 70& bl4 n^ States trihutarj to Charteniaane SCALE OF MILES 6 5'0 1IJ sowing, stubbing up trees, loading wagons and the ^^* like, not only from the church's servants, but from the rest of the people ; all which practices must, if you please, be put a stop to by us and by all the people, because in some places the people have been in these ways so grievously op- pressed that many, unable to bear their lot, have escaped by flight from their masters or patrons, and the lands are relaps- ing into wilderness." Such oppressions led the king to grant "immunities," by which lands and men, especially of bishops and abbots, were removed from the jurisdiction of the counts. These immunities formed one of the important bases of later feudalism. Twice a year, in early summer and in the fall or winter, 20. TheMay Charlemagne summoned .the principal men to consult ^^^^^ with him concerning the affairs of the empire. To the summer meeting, called the " Field of May," came all free men THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE (7G8-814) 37 capable of bearing arms, and often the meeting was at once followed by a military expedition. A general assembly in his reign is pictured by a modern writer as follows : "An immense multitude is gathered together in a plain, under tents ; it is divided into distinct groups. The chiefs of the groups assemble about the king, and deliberate with him: then Coulanges, each of these makes known to his own people what has * ^^^ been decided, consults them perhaps, at any rate obtains their assent with as little difficulty as the king has obtained his own, for these men are dependent on him just as he is dependent on the king. The general assembly is a composite of a thousand little assemblies which, through their chiefs alone, are united about the prince." The king's will decided everything, the nobles only advised. In these assemblies Charlemagne dealt with matters con- cerning church and state alike ; whenever he believed that priests or bishops were not performing their duties properly, he did not hesitate to correct them. Charlemagne's govern- ment was far from being as free and orderly as the governments under which most European nations live to-day; yet when we consider the difficulties of the time, and compare his govern- ment with that of his successors, we find him an able adminis- trator as well as a great warrior. The literatures of Greece and Bome had disappeared from use when Charlemagne came to the throne, and even the writings of the church scarcely survived. The only gi Educa- " books" were costly parchment rolls written by hand, tionandthe The two centuries from 600 to 800 produced only a few credulous lives of saints, and some barren "annals," or dry monastic histories. Charlemagne himself learned to speak and read Latin, in addition to his native German, and to under- stand Greek, though not to speak it. He never mastered the art of writing as then used, though he kept waxed tablets always by him to practice it. 38 EMPIRE AND PAPACY The Palace School — a kind of learned academy composed of the chief scholars and courtiers about the Emperor — played an important part in a revival of learning and literature. An Englishman named Alcuin was invited to the Empei-or's court from York, which was then the most learned center in western Europe, and he became the chief scholar of the new circle. Others came from Italy, Spain, and other lands; some were Royal Palace of Carolingian Times. From Viollet-le-Duc. gramnuirians, some j^oets, some theologians. Charlemagne dis- cussed with them astronomy, shipbuilding, history, the text of tlie Scriptures, theology, and moral philosophy. For the younger members of tlie royal family and court, there was more formal instruction, so that the Palace School may be regarded as a high school, as well as a literary and debating club. Charlemagne's care for education did not stop with his own court, since we read in the capitularies such commands as these : " Let schools be established in which boys may learn THE EMPIRP: of CHARLEMAGNE (7(i8-814) 39 /. 146 to read. Correct carefully the Psalms, the signs in writing, the songs, the calendar, the grammar, in each monastery ,» , . ^ ' Robinson, or bishopric, and the Catholic books; because often men lieadlnf/s, desire to pray to God properly, but they pray badly be- cause of the incorrect books. And do not permit mere boys to corrupt them in reading or writing. If there is need of writing the Gospel, Psalter, and Missal, let men of mature age do the writing with all diligence." Charlemagne was also a builder, plan- ning canals, building bridges, and restoring churches which were crumbling into ruin. But his work in this direction did little to check the artistic de- cay of the times. From the old resi- dence of the emperors at Ravenna, a hun- dred marble columns were taken for Charlemagne's palace at Aachen (Aix-la- Chapelle) ; thither also were transported pictures, mosaics, and precious sculptures. Charlemagne thus set a bad example to the ages which followed, and contributed to a robbery of the ancient monuments which, in the Middle Ages, caused more destruction among them than was caused by all the ravages of time and war. ^^^s HH ' ^M^ «1 ' I i m Cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle. The octagon at center of the picture was built by Charlemagne ; it is an example of the Byzantine style. 40 KMPIHE AND PAPACY The ten years following Charlemagne's coronation as Empe- ror were mainl}' spent at his capital Aachen. The only serious 22. Charle- danger of the time came from the Scandinavian "Vik- magne's old jj^gg '? (creek men"), whose piratical raids, beginninp^ in age and o \ /^ -i- . ^ -^ death (814) this reign, foreshadowed the greater troubles of a century later. Charlemagne's prestige abroad was at its height ; and to his court came envoys from the renowned Haroun-al-Rashid, caliph of Bagdad, whose present of an enormous elephant ex- cited the liveliest interest at the Prankish court. The last years of the great Emperor's life were clouded by family sorrows. He had been married five times and had many children. In arranging for the succession Charlemagne followed the old Teutonic practice of dividing the kingdom among his three sons, whom he established as sub-kings in his lifetime over portions of his realm. One of the chief differ- ences in the position of the monarch, as conceived by the Eoman emperors and by the barbarian kings, was that the Roman emperors in theory held their power as a trust in the name and interest of the state, — that is, of all, — while the barbarian kings regarded the royal power as private prop- erty, to which ordinary rides of inheritance could be applied. Charlemagne's arrangement, however, broke down, owing to the fact that his two older sons died before him ; then Charle- magne placed the imperial crown on the head of his third son, Louis, and recognized him as his successor. Four months later, in January, 814, the old Emperor died of a fever, being upward of seventy years of age. Few men have left a deeper impression on their times, and around few have clustered so many legends. His personality 23. Char- and habits are thus described by his secretary, Einhard : — Charle- " Charles was large and strong, and of lofty stature, magna though not disproportionately tall. The upper part ot his head was round, his eyes very large and animated, nose a little long, hair fair^ and face laughing and merry. Thus, THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE (768-814) 41 his appearance was always stately and dignified, whether he was standing or sitting. He took frequent exercise on horse- back and in the chase. He enjoyed natural warm i,.. ,, . •^ *^ JLinhard, springs, and often practiced swimming, in which he was Charle- such an adept that none could surpass him; and thence 'T2-24\con- it was that, he built his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle, and densed) lived there constantly during his latter years until his death. " He used to wear the national, that is to say, the Erank, dress,— next his skin a linen shirt and linen breeches, and above these a tunic fringed with silk ; while hose fastened by bands covered his legs, and shoes his feet, and he protected his shoulders and chest in winter by a close-fitting coat of otter or marten skins. Over all he flung a blue cloak, and he always had a sword girt about him. " Charlemagne was temperate in eating and particu- larly so in drinking, for he abominated drunkenness in anybody, much more in himself and those of his household ; but he could not easily abstain from food, and often complained that fast days injured his health. His meals ordinarily consisted of four courses, not counting the roast, which his huntsmen used to bring in on the spit ; he was more fond of this than of any other dish. While at table he listened to reading or music. The subjects of the readings were the stories and deeds of olden time ; he was fond, too, of St. Augustine's books, and especially of the one entitled The City of God. "While he was dressing and putting on his shoes, he not only gave audience to his friends, but if the Count of the Palace [the HARDIXG's M. & M. HIST. 3 Roasting on a Spit. From a MS. in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. 42 EMPIKE AND PAPACY chief judge of the Court] told him of any suit in which his judgment was necessary, he had the parties brought before him forthwith, took cognizance of tlie case, and gave his deci- sion, just as if he were sitting on the judgment-seat." Signature of Charlemagne (790). Charlemagne made only the central part of the monogram KAROLVS (= Charles) ; the scrlhe wrote the rest, together with the words to the left and to the right, which are Latin for " Signatnre of Charles, the most glorious King." Pepin the Short (751-768) deposed the last Merovingian " do-nothing '' king of the Franks, and became the first king of 24. Sum- the Carolingian line. His son, Charlemagne, began his °^^^y sole rule in 771 and reigned until 814. He was the cen- tral figure of his time, and was one of the most remarkable men produced by the Middle Ages. He greatly extended his kingdom through successful wars, ruled well in church and state, revived the Empire of the West in 800, and checked the decline of learning. With his coronation as Emperor a new age begins ; force alone no longer rules ; and great ideas, such as those which gave strength to the Papacy and the Empire, begin to play a part amid the strife of nations. TOPICS Suggestive (1) What did Clovis contribute to the development of the topics Frankish power ? What did Charles Martel contribute ? What did Pepin the Short contribute ? What did Charlemagne contribute ? (2) In what consisted the greatness of Charlemagne ? (3) AVhy was the papacy more friendly to the Franks than to the other THE EMriRE OF CHARLEMAGNE (708-814) 43 barbarians ? (4) Compare the German ideas of law witli modern ideas. (5) Was it better for the Saxons to receive civilization from the Franks by force, or to work out a civilization of their own ? (6) Compare the extent of territory ruled over by Charle- magne with that ruled by the Eastern Emperor. (7) Contemporary accounts of the coronation of Charlemagne. (8) Alcuin. (9) Make a list of the other scholars of Charle- magne's court, with the countries of their birth and the things for which they are remembered. (10) The home life of the Franks in the time of Charlemagne. (11) The wars against the Saxons. (12) The wars against the Lombards. (13) Charle- magne's visit to Rome in 774. (14) The massacre of the Saxons. (15) Einhard's Life of Charlemagne. Search topics Geography Secondary authorities REFERENCES Map, pp. 30, 31 ; Dow, Atlas, vii. ; Freeman, Historical Geog- rapluj, I. ch. v.; Gardiner, School Atlas of English History, msipG ■ Poole, Historical Atlas, map iv. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 137-160 ; B^mont and Monod, 3Iedieval Europe, 66-72, 167-210 ; Emerton, 3Iediaival Europe, 3-14 ; Bryce, Holy Boman Empire, chs. iv. v. ; Henderson, Short History of Germany, I. 22-38 ; Duruy, History of France, chs. xii. xiii. ; Emerton, Introduction to the 3Iiddle Ages, 151-235 ; Church, Beginning of the Middle Ages, 37-39, 88-98, 117-147; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, ch. v. ; Duruy, Middle Ages, 29-32, 61-66, 105-137 ; Stills, Studies in Medieval History, 58-97 ; Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, 49-81 ; Mombert, Charles the Great, 58-66, 86-153, 241-280, 354-368, 394-407 ; West, Alcuin, 40-64 ; Hodgkin, Charles the Great, chs. v. vi. xi.-xiii. ; Oman, History of the Art of War, 47-62, 76-85 ; Hodgkin, Baly and her Invaders, VIII. 122-164, 190-205, 287-302 ; Bury, Later Boman Empire, II. bk. vi. ch. xi. ; Kitchin, History of France, I. 67-149 ; Historians' History of the World, VII. 466- 556. Robinson, Beadings, I. ch. vii. ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Sources Book, nos. 7-14, 46-49 ; Einhard, Life of Charlemagne ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Beprints, vol. III. No. 2, pp. 2-4, vol. VI. No. 5 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, 189-201 ; Colby, Selections from the Sources of English Histoid, 16-19. G. Griffin, T7ie Invasion ; Longfellow, Wayside Inn (The Poet's Tale, and The Stutlent's Tale). Illustrative works 44 EMPIRE AND PAPACY THE DESCENDANTS OF CHARLEMAGNE (1) Charlemagne (768-814) (In Italy and the Middle Strip) I (3) LOTHAIR I. Pepin (d. 810) Bernard (d. 818) 1 (2) Louis I., the Piotts (814-840) (In Germany) (In France) Lotris THE German (843-876) I (5) Charles the Bald (843-877) (6) Charles THE Fat (9) Arnulf K. of Germany (887-899) Louis II. THE Stammeree (K. of Swabia, (877-879) 876-887, Pailer of all Carolingian lands, 884-SS7, deposed 887, d. 888) Louis III. (879-882) RIVAL LINE IN FRANCE OF THE "ROBERTIANS" Robert the Strong, Duke of the French (d. 866) Odo, Count of Paris (King, 888-898) Robert, Duke of the French (King, 922-923) Carloman Charles (879-884) the Simple (posthumous) (899-922) (d. 929) I Louis IV. (D'Outremer) (936-954) I Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine (d. 994) Hugh the Great, Duke of the French (d. 956) Hugh Capet (King, 987-996), founder of the Capetian line which ruled France for eight hundred years (to 1792) I Emma= Rudolph, Duke of Burgundy (King, 923-936) Explanation Names underscored thus are those of members of the Carolingian house who bore the title of Emperor. The seventh and eighth emperors, beginning to count with Charit-niagne, were obscure Italian princes, not of the Carolingian house. Indicates extinction of the male line. Indicates illegitimate descent. CHAPTER III. THE LATER CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE (814-911) AND THE FEUDAL SYSTEM The power which Charlemagne built up declined rapidly after his death. His son Louis was well-meaning and con- scientious, but without a spark of „c t • ' ^25. Louis the Pious (814-840) the genius of his father ; his care for religion, however, won for him the surname of "the Pious." The chief troubles of Louis's reign arose from his desire to set apart a portion of his king- dom for his youngest son Charles (after- wards called Charles the Bald), as he had done for the older sons; but the latter resented and three times resisted in arms the attempt to deprive them of territories for their young half- brother. The death of Louis the Pious, in 840, did not end the struggle; and two brothers, Charles the Bald and „_ ^ ^^, ' 26. Battle Louis the German, were soon ar- ofFontenay rayed against their elder brother, ^^^^^ Lothair. All parts of the empire were represented in the decisive battle, which occurred in 841, at Fontenay, in eastern France. Never had so terrible a struggle been seen since Charles M artel fought the Saracens at Tours. One of the officers of Lothair's army describes the battle in a 45 Carolingtan Warrior. From Musee d'Artillerie, Paris. 46 EMPIRE AND PAPACY rude Latin chant: "May that day be accursed!" he cries; "may it no more be counted in the return of the year, but , .,, , let it be effaced from all remembrance ! . . . Never Ava,, Angiloert, quoted in there worse slaughter ! Christians fell in seas ot blood ; France' I. • • • ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ vestments of the dead whitened all the 438 field like birds of autumn." The battle resulted in a complete victory for the two younger brothers, who then bound themselves by oaths at Strassburg to mutual aid. The language of these oaths shows the tongues used in the two armies. On the one side the oath began, " In Godes minna ind in thes christianes folches ind unser bedhero gealtnissi. ..." On the other it read, " Pro Deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament. ..." In English this clause would be, " For the love of God and for the common safety of the Christian people and ourselves. ..." The first can be recognized as in the language from which the German of to-day is derived ; the second is midway between Latin and modern French. After long negotiations a treaty was concluded by the three brothers at Verdun in 843. Louis received the eastern third 2„ p . of the empire, beyond the rivers Aar and Rhine ; Charles tion of Ver- the western third, lying west of the Rhone and Scheldt ; "^ ^ ^ and Lothair the strip between, with Italy and the im- perial title. This sweeping partition is the first step in the rise in western Europe of territories corresponding to na- tional states. We must not, however, press this point too r . far. "These three countries were not states, for a General state is an organized political entity ; there were no View 37 states, properly speaking (at least no great states), before the close of the Middle Ages. Nor were they nations ; a nation is a definitely formed, conscious, and responsible person." Territories, however, were marked out by this treaty in which national states were in time to arise. Charles's portion cor- responds roughly to modern France, and Louis's to Germany; THE LATER CA.KOLINGIAN EMPIRE (814-911) 47 NORTH SEA ^ R IT T A N ^-1 .■:;;. ■•::;N::E:.U,S'%r:iR I A \ T " !^^::^■^:■^■S^:•■V7>;•';;'■^■:■^:\^^■■•;:■.■.■S^■n- \',jV j, ^^' '" vv/^ n U RG U N_D I T A I N E ^:, O M B*A R D Y rX Ai Venice\^|.-/0.v ^ ,/ga;s;co:n Y^ T OF- MILES ^ \ " ^\^ loo 150 ?0t)\ ] " _ , CALIPHATE OF^ORD0VA^-J.!^rrt;I<;2a>^ L fcORSICA Alou^^ ', o ^ "' 3IED ITE ERANf: AN^._ SEA ^^C^^"'-f Partition of Verdun (843). the middle strip contained no elements of nationality, and its parts, together with Italy, were for ten centuries the object of conquests and the seat of European wars. The history of the later descendants of Charlemagne makes a confused and uninteresting story. The stock itself was enfeebled, and the quarrels and incompetence of rival rulers are not more noteworthy than the speed with later Caro- which all three lines became extinct. (1) In Italy, /843?887) Lothair died in 855, and his kingdom was divided among his three sons ; the eldest, though ruling only a small fraction of the territory of Charlemagne, was nevertheless styled Emperor. None of the sons of Lothair left male heirs, 48 EMPIRE AND PAPACY SO their territories passed upon their deaths to their cousins of France and Germany. (2) In Germany we see the same subdivision among three sons, followed by extinction of the male line, the last of the legitimate descendants of the eastern house being Charles the Fat. (3) In France, Charles the Bald upon his death in 877 left but one son, to whom descended the whole of his kingdom. This king ruled for but two years, and his two sons, who ruled jointly,^ died within five years thereafter. The nobles then chose as ruler Charles the Fat (884-887), the last of the three sons of Louis the German, in whose hands for a few brief years nearly the whole of Charlemagne's empire was reunited. The rule of Charles the Fat was as weak as it was short. Since the days of Charlemagne, the danger from the North- men had become more pressinsr. From their homes in 29. Raids of ^ the North- Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, these heathen sea- °^®^ rovers came each year, in fleets of from a hundred to three hundred vessels, to plunder and destroy. Their inva- sions may be looked upon as the last wave of the Germanic migrations. The scantiness of their harvests (due to the rigorous climate of the north), a lust for booty, the love of warfare and adventure, and political changes then taking place at home — all impelled these hardy seamen to set forth. England, Scotland, Ireland, and even Italy suffered from their attacks, as well as France and Germany. In their light ships they would ascend the rivers far into the heart of the land, and then seize horses to carry them swiftly to more distant scenes of plunder. In the latter part of the ninth century their invasions took on a new character, and became an emigration and colonization. In England half the kingdom passed into their hands, and was known as the Danelaw (878). In France monasteries and cities were 1 A third son, Charles the Simple, was born in 879, a few months after the death of his father. THE LATER CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE (814-911) 49 pillaged and burned, great stretches of country fell out of cultivation, and a large part ^- of the population perished through massacre and starvation. Twice Paris itself was sacked. In 885-886 it was again besieged ; and in spite of the heroic defense conducted by its count and bishop, the " cow- ardly, unwieldy, incompetent" king, Charles the Fat, bought off the besiegers by the payment of a large sum of money. The weakness of Charles the Fat led to his deposition in 887, and the division of the empire among many "little kings." In Italy two rival families struggled in vain 30. Last of to found an Italian kingdom. In Provence, or Lower ^^^ ^^^°' Burgundy, and in Upper Burgundy, kingdoms were (887-987) founded which soon united to form the kingdom of Bur- gundy, or Aries. In all these regions the rule passed from the hands of the Carolingians. Id Germany the power passed into the hands of an illegitimate branch of the Carolingian house. Arnulf, nephew of Charles the Fat, began the revolt that overthrew the latter, and for twelve years ruled there as king. In him something of the old Carolingian vigor and courage revived; but his son, Louis the Child, who succeeded him, died in 911, leaving no son, brother, or uncle; and the rule of the descendants of Charlemagne in Germany came permanently to an end. In France only there existed, after 888, a legitimate repre- sentative (Charles the Simple) of the great house founded by the heroic mayors of the palace, and here the Carolingian rule continued, with many vicissitudes, for another century. Count Odo — the count who so bravely conducted the defense of Paris — was chosen king in France in 888, though he was not of the Carolingian house ; but in Aquitaine the desire of the nobles for a separate government led them to support the Carolingian prince, Charles the Simple, and refuse to recognize Odo; and after Odo's death (in 898) Charles was 50 EMPIRE AND rAFACY received as king by the whole realm. But the downfall of the Carolingians here was only postponed. In the end (987), the family of Odo triumphed over the last representative of the house of Charlemagne, and in France as elsewhere rulers not of the Carolingian house sat on the throne. Chief of the forces which broke up the unity of the Caro- lingian empire was feudalism. In its nature this was both a 31. Rise of system of land tenure and a form of military, political, feudalism ^^^^^ social organization. In its origin it was a result of the persistent and growing state of anarchy which the Ger- manic invasions began, and which Charlemagne's rule only temporarily checked. The growing weakness of the gov- ernment obliged men everywhere to take upon themselves the burden of their own defense. Every lofty hilltop, every river-island and stronghold, became the site of a tower or castle, whose lord ruled the surrounding population. Later these castles were looked upon by the lower classes as centers of oppression, but at first they were often viewed with different sentiments: they were then "the sure places of deposit for their harvests and their goods ; in case of Coulanges, incursions they gave shelter to their wives, their ciiil- ' ^*^ dren, themselves ; each strong castle constituted the safety of a district." Three elements are found in the fully developed feudal sys- tem, each with a separate history. These are: (1) the personal element — vassalage; (2) the landed element — the benefice, or fief; (3) the political element — the rights of sovereignty exercised by the great seigneurs. (1) The' personal element is that of which the roots go deepest into the past. Under the Roman Empire, when 32. Vassal- oppressive government and barbarian raids made diffi- a&® cult the position of the poorer freemen, many became the dependents of rich men, and rendered services in return for maintenance and protection. Among the Germans of the THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 51 time of Tacitus, free-born warriors considered it an honor to enter the comitatna, or military following, of a successful chief. In the Frankish kingdom such relationships multiplied, and the Carolingian government sought to use the institution of personal dependence as a means to enforce military and other duties. A capitulary of Charles the Bald, in 847, went so far as to order " that each freeman in our kingdom choose the lord that he wishes." About the year 900, the system of independent freemen had practically disappeared in western Europe, and society had become ''a chain of vassals, in which subjection had its degrees, and mounted from man to man up to the king." The process by which a freeman became the vassal of another was called "commendation." Kneeling before the seigneur, or lord, the prospective vassal placed his hands in the hands of the other, and " commended himself " to him, promising to serve him honorably in such ways as a freeman should, so long as he should live. There were three purposes especially for which men went into vassalage : to escape the exactions of unrighteous lords ; to avoid the military and judi- cial services due the government; and to secure i3rotection against invading Saracens, Northmen, and Hungarians. The tie established by commendation was at first purely personal, without reference to landholding, and was not hereditary ; but in course of time vassalage united with, and became subordi- nate to, the second or landed element of feudalism. (2) The benefice, or fief, was an estate in land or other prop- erty, the use of which was granted in return for stipulated payments or services. Such "usufructuary" tenures 33 ^j^^ Avere known under the later Roman Empire, and after benefice, the Germanic conquest they were greatly multiplied. The church especially was instrumental in establishing them. Through gifts of pious individuals the clergy had come into possession of vast estates, the surplus produce of which could 52 EMPIRE AND PAPACY not be sold because of the almost total lack of roads and markets; it was an economic advantage, therefore, to grant away portions of this land in return for rents and services. The example set by the clergy was followed by great lay pro- prietors. Often, too, small "allodial" landowners (as those were called who owned their land in full proprietorship) sur- rendered their lands to the church, or to some powerful lay- man, and received them back again as a benefice. Thus the number of allodial estates constantly decreased, whereas that of benefices increased. The use made of the benefice by the government converted it from a mere economic device into a political one ; this change began in the time of Charles Martel, and was connected with a reorganization of the Frankish army. To meet the attacks of the Saracens a cavalry force was necessary, and the rule that each freeman should supply himself with weapons and serve at his own expense could no longer be applied, for the cost of providing a horse and heavy arms was too great, Charles Martel, therefore, granted land to his chief military fol- lowers on condition that they equip and maintain bands of cavalry for his service; and since the lands in his control were not sufficient, lands of the church were appropriated and used for this purpose. In these grants the personal and landed elements of feudalism were always united; for the lands granted by Martel and his successors were given only to those who already were, or were willing to become, the vassals of the grantor. These, in turn, exacted the same con- dition from those to whom they subgranted portions, and from this time the tendency was to unite vassalage and benefice holding. By the end of the ninth century the union became complete, and the benefice holder normally was a vassal, and the vassal normally was a benefice holder. Benefices thus ^Eslai^mr la ^®^^"^^ "^ sort of money with which the kings and the F^odaliu,98 magnates paid for the services of which they had need." THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 53 At first, benefices were granted for life only ; but gradually it became customary, upon the death of a tenant, for the lord to regrant the estate to the tenant's heir. Thus most benefices, in the eighth and ninth centuries, were in practice hereditary ; and the custom, without positive enactment, hardened into law. The earlier term " benefice " then gave place to the term " fief," which designates the fully hereditary estate held by a vassal on condition of mounted military service. (3) Political sovereignty, which formed the third element in feudalism, was not present in all fiefs, but was an integral part of the system. It consisted of the right possessed 34. Seigno- by the srreater lords to do in their territories most of the ^^^\ ^^S^^^ '^ ^ of sover- acts which ordinarily are performed by the state — to eignty hold courts and try causes, to raise money, levy troops, wage war, and even coin money. Different lords possessed these rights in different degrees, but all the greater lords, both lay and ecclesiastical, possessed some of them. Such rights were acquired either through a grant of " immu- nity" by the crown, or through usurpation without royal grant. In the preceding chapter (§ 19) it has been seen that, to check the oppressions of the counts, immunities were granted, particularly to the clergy, exempting the estates of the holders from the visitation and jurisdiction of royal officers. Thenceforth the count would have no control over such lands, and the functions which he formerly discharged there passed to the immunity holder, and were exercised, not as powers delegated by the state, but in his own right and for his own profit. In a similar manner, the counts made their offices and functions hereditary, along with the benefices which they held. Many lords who were neither royal officers nor pos- sessed of grants of immunity exercised similar rights by usur- pation. Thus in various ways sovereignty, which should have been possessed entire by the state, was split up into many bits, and each great seigneur seized such portions as he could. 54 EMPIRE AND PAPACY From the union of these three elements (vassalage, fief- holding, and the lord's rights of sovereignty), in the eighth and , ninth centuries, the feudal system arose. France was the 35. Spread "^ of the feu- land of its earliest and most complete development, but dal system ^^^ some form it was found in all countries of western Europe. In England after the Norman conquest, and in Palestine and the East at the time of the Crusades, the system was introduced from France, with some important modifica- tions : in England, in the direction of greater power for the crown ; in the East, in the way of more complete control by the feudal lords. In Spain, and in the Scandinavian countries, the system was of native growth, but never reached the com- pleteness which it gained in France and Germany. Until the end of the thirteenth century, the system flourished with such vigor that this epoch may be styled preeminently the Feudal Age. In the fourteenth century a transformation set in, lasting to the close of the Middle Ages, by which feudalism ceased to be a political force, and became a mere social and economic survival. The theory of the feudal system was comparatively simple, but its practice was infinitely complex and confused. The 36 C m li ^^^^^® ™^^^ often held fiefs from several different lords, cations of of different rank, and had vassals under him on each fief. Thus the count of Champagne in the thirteenth century held fiefs divided into twenty-six districts, each cen- tering in a castle ; his lords included the Emperor in Germany, the king of France, the duke of Burgundy, the archbishops of Eheims and Sens, the bishops of Autun, Auxerre, and Langres, and the abbot of St. Denis, to each of whom he did "hom- age " and owed " service " ; portions of his lands and rights he " subinfeudated," on varying terms, to more than two thousand vassal knights, some of whom were also vassals for other fiefs from his own overlords. Monasteries frequently appear, under feudal conditions, both as lords and as tenants THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 55 of fiefs ; and bishops owed feudal service for the Lands an- nexed to tlieir offices. The administration of justice usually went with the land; and since there were lordships above lordships, it might happen that in a given place the " high justice," or right to punish the most serious crimes (murder, robbery, arson, etc.) belonged to one lord, the "middle justice" to another, and the "low justice" to a third. The right to exercise jurisdiction was a profitable right, because of the fines and confiscations which it brought ; hence the right to administer one or another kind of justice was often made the subject of an express grant. Offices — even those of cook and miller — were granted as fiefs ; the right to half the bees found in a certain wood was granted in fief; in the thirteenth century money fiefs, or annual pensions in return for vassal service, became common. Behind all these grants lay a military reason — the desire of the lord to increase the number of his mounted and heavily armed follow- ers serving at their own expense. To the end of the Middle Ages there existed some allodial or non-feudal estates, scattered here and there amid feudalized lands; but the maxim, "No land without a lord, no lord 37. i^ord without land," expressed the rule. In the fully devel- and vassal oped feudal theory, God was the ultimate lord of all land. Family names derived from estates become common from the eleventh century. Military service, and the tenure of land on this condition, became the ground of a new nobility, descending from the king through the various grades of marquis, duke, count, viscount, to the lord of a single knight's fee. Each of these, save the last, had vassals and subvassals below him, created by the process of subinfeudation. Below them all were the peasants, styled " serfs " and " villeins," whose little plots of land were held of their lord on condition of manual services and regular payments, both of which were regarded as "ignoble." Possession of at least a few families 56 EMPIRE AND PAPACY Act of Homage. Seal of the 12th century. of villeins was almost a necessity to the feudal lord, for it was mainly from their labor that he was fed and clothed, and enabled to equip himself with his steeds and costly armor. The tie which bound the feudal hierarchy together was one of personal contract, based on the grant and receipt of land, and witnessed by the "homage" done and " fealty " sworn by each vassal to his " suzerain," or lord. By this contract the vassal was pledged to render " service " to his lord ; the latter was bound to " protect " his vassal. The service was preeminently military — forty days a year, on horseback, at the vassal's expense, being the custom- ary limit. The vassal had to attend his lord's court when sum- moned, to aid with counsel and advice; he was obliged also when accused to stand trial by his fellow-vassals in this court. In addition, the lord might require payment of "aids" in money, on certain exceptional occasions: (1) when the lord knighted his eldest son; (2) on the first marriage of his eldest daughter ; (3) to ransom his person from captivity ; and (4) to aid him in setting forth on a crusade. Primogeniture, or the succession of the eldest son, was the rule of feudal inheritance, as opposed to the equal division 38. Feudal among all the children recognized by the Roman and inheritance Teutonic law. Personal property might be disposed of by will, but feudal land could not; in default of a recognized heir it " escheated " to the lord of the fief. On entering upon his inheritance, the heir of full age paid a " relief " in money (consisting usually of one year's revenue of the fief), did homage and fealty, and was then put in possession of his estate. If he was a minor, the lord often had the custody of THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 57 his person and of the fief, with the right to take the profits, until the heir became of age. Finally, the vassal could not sell or otherwise alienate his fief without the lord's con- sent ; and over the marriage of the vassal's heir the lord possessed a measure of control. In case a vassal failed in the discharge of his obligations, he might be convicted of " felony," and his fief confiscated. In case the lord failed to protect, or otherwise wronged his 39. Feudal vassal, the latter might appeal to his lord's suzerain. warfare But ordinarily disputes were settled by force ; and the clash of Tournament of the Twelfth Century, From a 12th century MS. ill-defined interests, the hatred borne to neighbor and stranger, and the military habits of the time, made private warfare almost the normal condition of the Middle Ages. And since war was the chief occupation of the feudal class, mimic war- fare — the "joust" and "tournament" — was their favorite amusement. Down to the eleventh century, the armor consisted of a leather or cloth tunic covered with metal scales or rings, with an iron cap to protect the head. From the beginning of the twelfth century, the hauberk was usually worn ; this was a Harding's m. & m. hist. — 4 5s EMPIKK AND PAPACY coat of link ..r cliuin mail, often reacliiiiK to the feet, and pos- sessing a h<)...l to protect the neck and back of the head. IMate'arnioi- and tlie visored lielmet first appear in the fourteenth century. A shield or buckler of wood and leather, bound with iron'and emblazoned with the knight's coat of arms, was carried on the left arm. The weapons were chiefly til.' lance and the straight sword. The weight of the armor made necessary a strong, heavy horse (the dextmrius) to (.jin-y iIk' warrior in battle; when on a journey he rode a lighter horse (the " ])alf rey ''), while a squire or valet led the (h^xtrarhis, laden with his armor. No number of foot soldiers of the ancit'ut sort could stand before warriors mounted and thus e.piipped, and it is in this military preeminence that we find one of the chief reasons for the long continuance of the feudal power. From the close of the tenth century the church exerted it- self to check the incessant fighting; and two institutions thus ,^ „ . arose, called respectively " the Peace" and " the Truce 40. Restnc- i i j tiona of feu- of God." V>y the Peace, warfare upon the church and dal warfare ^ ^^^ ^yeak — including peasants, merchants, women, and l)ilgrims — was perpetually forbidden in those districts where the Peace was adopted. By the Truce of God, a cessation of warfare was established for all qlasses during the period from Thursday night to iMonday morning of each week, and in all holy seasons (Lent, Advent, Whitsuntide, etc.) ; thus the nundwr of days a year on which warfare could be carried on was greatly restricted. Violation of the Peace, or of the Truce, was punished with excommunication (§58): in some districts, sworn associations of the laity and clergy, with special courts, treasuries, and arnnes,*were instituted to punish violations ; but even thus the Peace ami Truce were but imperfectly observed. As governments grew stronger, dukes, kings, and emperors exert (m1 themselves to put down the abuse of private warfare, in Normandy, and in England after the Norman conquest, the THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 59 crown enforced peace with a strong hand. In France also, by the beginning of the fourteenth century, the crown became strong enough to make progress in this direction. • In Germany the Emperors early proclaimed the public peace (Landfrieden) ; but " robber barons " continued to exist, " fist-right " prevailed for long periods, and it was only at the very close of the fifteenth century that effectual steps were taken to enforce a permanent peace. In considering the feudal system as a whole, the following points should be borne in mind : (1) Practice often conflicted with theory, many vassals, for instance, becoming strong 41. General enough to throw off all dependence on their suzerains. character (2) Customs varied greatly in different regions and at ism different times. (3) The hereditary principle gradually grew stronger, so that in many fiefs female inheritance, and the succession of collateral heirs, in default of heirs of the direct line, came to be recognized. (4) The principle of monarchy (which implies "sovereignty" over subjects) was in its nature Opposed to feudalism (which gave only " suzerainty " over vassals), and monarchs, wherever strong enough, undermined feudalism both by direct limitations of feudal prerogatives, and by drawing to themselves, or " mediatizing," the vassals of their own tenants. (5) The rise of the cities as political organizations, from the eleventh century to the thirteenth, also weakened feudalism; for their interests were opposed to those of the feudal lords, and they were enabled to combat them by the wealth which they acquired through industry and trade. (6) With all its defects feudalism served a useful purpose : it supplied a possible form of government at a time when complete anarchy was threatened; it kept alive the theory of a king and the state, standing above all feudal mag- nates, and thus furnished a basis on which subsequent genera- tions could erect centralized and efficient governments. 60 EMriKE A^'D PAl'ACY The century which followed the death of Charlemagne saw the complete decline of the empire he had founded. Feudal- 42 Sum- ism, new barbarian invasions, civil wars, and division of mary the empire sapped the central authority. After a fleeting reunion of the parts under Charles the Fat (884-887), there came a linal separation of the Carolingian lands into a number of different kingdoms. In each of these the tendency was toward further separation and a further diminution of the powers of the crown. Society was in danger of being reduced to anarchy, and how to check this tendency was . one of the problems of the immediate future. The gradual rise of the feudal system furnished a rude yet elastic bond, in which personal service, landholding, and political allegiance were intertwined; the result was a new society, ruled by the heavily armed, mounted knight, intrenched in his almost impregnable castle. Suggestive topics Search topics TOPICS ( 1 ) Was Louis the Pious a good man ? Was he a good ruler ? (2) Compare the later Carolingian kings with the later Merovin- gians. (3) How did the weakness of Charlemagne's descendants aid the growth of feudalism ? (4) What other factors cooperated ? (o) Compare the ninth century Northmen with the fifth century Franks. (0) How does a feudal society differ from a modern state as regards taxation, coining money, administration of justice, main- tenance of an army, etc. ? (7) Why are such institutions as the Peace and Truce of God no longer necessary ? (8) Reformatory measures of Louis the Pious. (9) The treaty of Verdun and its significance. (10) Raids of the Northmen in the ninth century. (11) The lord's obligations. (12) The vas- sal's obligations. (1.3) Description of a battle in the Middle Ages. (14) Arms and armor of the knight. (15) Jousts and tournaments. (16) The Peace and Truce of God. (17) Forces hostile to feudalism. (18) The advantages and disadvantages of feudalism. (19) Non-European feudalism (Japan). Geogrraphy REFERENCES Maps. pp. 47, ;W, 31 ; Freeman, Hhtoriral Gfcjraphy, I. ch. vi. Poole, Ilistorical Atlas, map xxxiii. ; Dow, Atla^, vii. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM (31 Duruy, History of France, cli.xviii.; Adams, Civilization during Secondary the Middle Ages, chs. viii. ix. ; Bemont and Monod, Medieval a-uthorities Europe, chs. xiv.-xvi. ; Emerton, Mediceval Europe, 21-40 ; Hen- derson, Short History of Germany, 38-48 ; Church, Beginning of the Middle Ages, ch. viii.; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, chs. vi. xi.; Oman, Dark Ages, chs. xxiii.-xxv.; Duruy, Middle Ages, chs. x. xi.; Henderson, Germany in the 3Iiddle Ages, chs. vi. vii.; Stills, Studies in Medieval History, 130-145 ; Oman History of the Art of War, bk. iii. chs. ii. iii.; Kitchin, France, I. 150-159 ; Keary, Vikings in Western Christendom, chs. v. ix. xv. ; Boyesen, Norway, 1-44 ; Jewett, Normans, chs. i.-iv.; Emerton, Introduction to the Middle Ages, ch. xiv. ; Baldwin, Scutage and Knight Service in England, Introduction ; Seignobos, Feudal Begime; Munro and Sellery, Medieval Civilization, 18-33, 159- 211 ; Boutell, Arms and Armour, chs. vii.-ix. ; Historians'* History of the World, VII. 557-594, VIII. 481-501. Robinson, Readings, I. chs. viii.-ix.; Thatcher and McNeal, Sources Source Book, nos. 15-23, 180-230, 234-239; University of Penn- sylvania, Translations and Beprints, vol. IV. No. 3 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, bk. ii. no. v. ; Jones, Civilization in the Middle Ages, Nos. 4, 5. The Song of Boland ; Bulfinch, Charlemagne, or Bomance of the Middle Ages; Gautier, Chivalry. ICniholic Christian Church in time of Pope Gregory J. 590-004 'ic Chi Church, ^l±jM tustto Mohammedanism, &«d by 814 . I 1 Converted to Christianity ' ' by 814. CHAPTER IV. SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGIANS IN GERMANY AND FRANCE (911-1024) The dissolution of the Carolingian empire, the rise of feudal- ism, and new barbarian invasions made the end of the ninth century a time of confusion and disorder. The Viking 43. Begin- raids of the Northmen still continued. The Saracens ""'f^J^f ^^® tenth cen- held Sicily securely, again and again fastened themselves tury upon southern and central Italy, and long held a post on the coast of Provence. The Slavs beyond the lower Elbe, and in Bohemia and Moravia, proved troublesome. From out of far- distant Asia came the Magyars, or Hungarians, another of those terrible swarms which, like the Huns, the Avars, and later the Turks, threatened to destroy civilization ; settling in the rich plains of the middle Danube and the Theiss (896), they extended their raids into Italy, Germany, and Prance. Europe seemed relapsing into barbarism and chaos; disorder, weak- ness, and ignorance increased ; and not until the middle of the tenth century did improvement come. The worst part of the Hungarian attack fell upon Germany, where the weakness of the central power after the fall of the Carolingians threw the burden of defense on local counts ^^ Disinte- and dukes. These officers used the opportunity to build gration of up a number of powerful, semi-national duchies. Thence- forth, though nominally a monarchy, the German government took on the character of a confederation, governed by the hereditary princes who ruled the great duchies. There were four of these German duchies in the tenth and SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLlNGlANS (911-1024) 65 eleventh centuries, not counting Lotharingia (Lorraine), which was sometimes German and sometimes French. (1) In the valley of the Danube, and its tributary the Inn, lay the duchy of Bavaria, with Ratisbon (Regensburg) as its principal city. (2) To the west, embracing the head waters of the Rhine and Danube and taking in what is now eastern Switzerland, was the duchy of Swabia. (3) North of this, including the middle course of the Ehine, the valley of the Main, and the lower course of the river Neckar, was the duchy of Eranconia. (4) North of this again, in the low plains drained by the Ems, the Weser, and the lower Elbe, lay the duchy of Saxony. Thuringia was loosely connected with Saxony, as Friesland was with Lotharingia. Each of the duchies was subdivided into counties ; and over the border counties (styled inarTvS, or " marches ") the counts acquired such large powers that they became practically independent of their dukes. Thus the Ostmark (East March) of Bavaria, established as a defense against the Hungarians, developed into Oesterreich (Austria) ; and the North March of Saxony, into Brandenburg, a nucleus of the present kingdom of Prussia. On the death, of Louis the Child (§ 30), Conrad I., duke of Eranconia, was elected king (911-918). The Saxon duke, however, proved stronger than King Conrad; and on his 45. Early deathbed Conrad sent the insignia of royalty to Henry, of^ermany " the Fowler," head of the Saxon house, who was there- (919-973) upon elected king ; and for five successive reigns the crown remained in this family.^ During a nine-years' truce with the Hungarians Henry I. (919-936) gave a great impulse to town life in Saxony by building numerous fortified places, in which onfe out of every nine free peasants should dwell, to receive and store up a third of the harvests of the other eight ; he also transformed the Saxon infantry into cavalry, and was thus enabled to repulse the next Hungarian attack (933). 1 See table at foot of p. 98. Cfi EMPIRE AND TAPACY The K'i'<^atest of the Saxon kings was Henry's son, Otto I. (*KS<;-97;{). He ably warred against the Hungarians, and in- tiict.Ml upon tlieiii a decisive defeat (955) on the river Lech, nt-ar Au-sl.iirg; after tliis they gradually settled down to agri- cultural and pastoral life. Under their king, Saint Stephen (979-1 ()."»S), they were converted to Christianity; and in the year 1000 they were received into the family of European nations by the gift of a royal crown from the Pope. By their setthMneiit in Europe and acceptance of Roman (Hiristianity, thf houudary of Western Christendom was shifted far east- ward. ( )tt()'s reign saw the beginning of an important German ex- pausion northeastward, at the expense of the Slavs, which won for modern Germany some of its most important territory. The king of the Bohemians was forced to recognize Otto as his overlord, and his people were l)r()ught within the circle of German influence. Step by step with the exten- sion of Crerman rule, went the progress of Christianity: an archbishopric was established at Magdeburg (in 967), and a number of bishoprics dependent on it were erected; and from these centers civilization and Chris- tianity slowly radiated among the neighboring Slavs. The duke of \Uv Poles had accepted Christianity in 966, and his ee.ssor established a powerful but unstable kingdom. way, meanwhile, was prepared for the extension of (Jennan influence m Italy. Since the downfall of Charles the lldlhT '"''^ ^^^'^ ^^"^'' ^''"^ suffered many- ills. Saracen and papacy ' ' nngarian raids had devastated the land, and whole cities .887 950. ,vere ruined. Feudalism, which in other countries was a defense to th- people, here encountered strong opposition from the artisan and merchant elas,^ Ri.\<; Ska I. oi Oixo suee The lasses ; and municipal governments, SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGIANS (011-1024) 67 centering about the bishops of the towns, came into existence to combat the seigneurs. A series of shadowy kings and em- perors arose, seeking to lay the foundations of a national iiiooarchy ; but, as a writer of the time said, " The Italians always wish to have two masters, in order to keep the Lhitpmnd one in check by the other " ; thus no ruler won undis- ^^ Cremona puted recognition, and disunited Italy, for nine hundred years, endured the rule of strangers. Why was not the Pope the head and defender of Italy ? The reason was that the papacy was suffering from the same anarchy that attacked the empire. Deprived of the protection of a strong imperial power, it became a prey to corrupt and greedy local nobles; and violence, bloodshed, and scandal pre- vailed through the greater part of the first half of the tenth century. The disorders in Italy linally forced Otto I. to intervene in 951 ; and ten years later he led an army a second time into Italy. At Milan he now assumed the iron crown of 47. Revival Lombardy; and at Kome, on February 2, 962, he was ° ph-ebv crowned Emperor by the Pope. A few days later he Otto I. (962) confirmed all the grants that had been made to the Popes by Pepin and Charlemagne, and decreed that the papal elections should thereafter be conducted with the fullest liberty. The coronation of Otto revived the imperial title and refounded the empire of Charlemagne, to last (at least in name) for about eight centuries and a half longer. The new empire differed in some important respects from the former one. France no longer made part of it, and imperial inter- ests were confined almost entirely to Germany and Italy. The very title used, that of "the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation," indicates ,its Teutonic nature. The close connection between Germany and Italy, whicli the empire brought about, i)roved hurtful to both : to Italy it brought the ruin of all hopes of nationality and of a native government ; 08 EMFIKE AND FAFACY for (Jerinanv it meant the sacrifice of the substance of power at home for the shadow of dominion beyond the Alps. To the papacy ah>ne the connection was of immediate value, for the imperial power protected it against the greed and corrup- tion of local nobles. It was largely the personal qualities of Otto I. —his energy, (.cM,ra-e,and military skill -that made his reign so success- 48 The nil. His son, Otto II. (973-983), struggled with fair Ut«r Saxon ^^^.^.^.g^ against forces which fear of Otto I. had kept Emperors " . 01.1. 973 1002) in check; but his death at the early age ot twenty- I'iKht left the throne to his three-year-old son, Otto III. (98.'i-1001'). In the minority of Otto III., first his mother Thoophano Ca l^yzantine princess), and then his grandmother Adelaide, watched over the empire as regents. Again there were rebellions, and Slav and Danish invasions, and the royal authority declined. In 996 Otto was declared of age, visited Kome with an army, and was crowned Emperor. His char- acter was a stnin). The German nobles, meanwhile, multiplied their castles and independent jurisdictions, and ruined the laiKJ with violence and warfare. With the death of Otto HI. fhe male line of Otto the Great canie to ail end, and thciv was again opportunity for a free SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGIANS (911-1024) 69 election. The choice fell upon the duke of Bavaria (a great- grandson of Henry I. ; p. 98), who reigned as Henry II. (1002-1024). Abandoning the romantic dreams of Otto III., he concerned himself with defending and reorganizing Ger- many ; in Italy he seldom appeared. The name Henry " the Saint," given him by mediaeval historians, was merited by the conscientiousness with which he performed his religious duties, and the gifts and favors he showered upon the church ; but he ruled the clergy, not they him. From Germany and Italy we must turn to France. There the chief events of the tenth century were (1) the establish- ment of the Northmen on French soil, and (2) the final 49. Duchy overthrow of the Carolingian dynasty. ^^ founded The repulse of the Northmen from Paris, in 886, did (911) not prevent them from settling in increasing numbers in the lands about the lower Seine. In 911 their leader was Rolf (or RoUo), called " the Ganger " or " the Walker," because his gigantic size prevented his finding a horse to carry him. Under his leadership, says an old writer, " the pagans, William of like wolves of the night, fell upon the sheepfolds of Jumieges Christ ; the churches were burned, women dragged off captive, the people slain." Many times the invaders had been bought off with gifts of money ; it was now resolved to follow the example of England and buy them off with a gr^nt of land. At a meeting between the French king and Rolf, in 911, it was agreed that Rolf should have the lands about the lower Seine as the vassal of the king of France, that he should cease his attacks, and that he and his followers should become Christians. The name Normandy (Northmen's land) was soon given this region, and the Northmen ceased to trouble the kingdom. Rolf and the Norman dukes after him were men of ability, and the race itself was of the sturdiest Teutonic stock. With remarkable rapidity the Normans took on their neighbors' EMPIRE AND PAPACY reUgion, language, and customs. Nornmndy became a feudal ;nn..ipr:iity, differing from the other hefs ot northern France l„lv ill the ability with which it was governed, and the hardy ,,,i\,av.nturous character of its inhabitants. ''0 France," ox.'lain.s a historian of the eleventh century, " thou wast i:;;':;/rJ:; bow.d down, crushed to earth. . . . Behold, there comes yorm'itns ^^ ^^^^,Q fi'om Denmark a new race. . . . That race shall raise thy name and thy empire, even unto the heavens ! " In the Norman con(iuest of England and of southern Italy (here- aftvr to 1)0 related), in the leading part which the Normans playe.l in the Crusades, and in the hardy character of their seannMi to tlu' end of the Middle Ages, evidences of their superior vigor and daring were abundantly given. Tlic final overthrow of the Carolingian house in France was ofTect.'d by a nuMuber of the family of that Count Odo who 50 Rival won faiu.' in the defense of Paris in 886. The power of dynasties ^j^j^ family (called Robertians, after an ancestor, Robert m France (888 987) tin' Strong) rested (1) on the ability of its heads as war- riors and statesmen; (2) on the possession of great estates in* northern Kninct*, more extensive even than those possessed by the CaroUngian kings; and (3) on the office of "Duke of the French." which gave the holder the military supremacy in north- ern Krance. The hundred years following the siege of Paris was on«' long eontest for the throne between the Carolingians and tin' Kol)ertians. The successive kings of this period are sliown in tlu' table on p. 44. The reign of the Carolingian C'harles the Simple (§ 30) was followed by a period of Rober- tian rule (•>L"J-l>:;r>), and this in turn by the reigns of three ('anjjingian kings : Louis IV. (936-954), called Louis " D'Outre- mer" fnun Ids residence "beyond the sea" in England at the time of his ;ii-cession ; Lothair (954-986); and Louis V. (986- 9H7), wlin died of a fall from a horse, leaving no child. TIjese last Carolingians saw their power grow steadily less. The head of th<' KolH-itian house at the close of the period SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGlAKS (911-1024) 71 was Hugh Capet, so called from the cape or hood which he wore; of his power it was said by one of his chief SLip[)orters, " Lothair is king ill name only ; Hugh does not bear the title, but he is king in fact." When Lothair's son and successor died without children, the way was clear for Hugh to secure the throne. For the past hundred years the throne of France had really been elective, the great nobles choosing the king now from one family and now from the other. In the assembly called g^ q^^ in 987 to settle the succession, it was possible for the petian archbishop of Rheims, the leading clergyman of the established kingdom, to use this language : " We are not ignorant (98"^) that Charles of Lorraine [brother of Lothair] has partisans who pretend that the throne belongs to him by right of birth. But if the question is put in that fashion, we Richer hk. will say that the crown is not acquired by hereditary ^'^- ^^- ^^• right, and that he alone should be raised to the throne who is distinguished by elevation of character as well as by blood." His arguments won the day, and Hugh was chosen king " of the Gauls, Bretons, Normans, Aquitanians, Goths, Spaniards, and Basques," — that is, king of all France. The mention of these different peoples shows how far they were from being welded as yet into a single nation. The change of dynasty in France is to be looked upon as entirely the result of a combination of persons and circum- stances, due to no difference of principles. Yet it was an event of prime importance, for it gave to France a line of rulers (lasting to the end of the eighteenth century) who transformed the elective monarchy into an hereditary one^ and built up, on the foundations laid by the Carolingians, the first strong, centralized, modern state. The energy and daring which produced the Northmen's settle- ments in England and France manifested itself in 52. The other exploits. Viking bands from the mother lands southern of the north discovered and settled Iceland (801-875) Italy 2 KMl'IHE AND PAPACY ,a (;,venl.'UHl (0.^.">). and even visited '' Vinland" or America (about the year 1000). In Russia (about 862) Svi^edish Vikings es- tablished a dynasty which ruled that land for seven hundred years. The Normans, or descendants of the Northmen on French soil, were also to make further conquests : the circumstances which established their duke as king of England are related in another chapter (§ 158) ; sec- ond in importance only to this was their establishment in southern Italy. Since the days of Charlemagne, the East-Roman (Byzan- tine) or Greek Empire had preserved an un- certain foothold in southern Italy, threat- ened by the growth of feudal lordships, by the pretensions of Ger- man kings, and by SanuHM) invasions. Sicily since 878 had been almost wholly Saracen, and Sardinia, afti-r 900, was also in Mohammedan NoKSK Akt. Carv»-d .l.u.r from :iu old church in Iceland; now ill ("oiM'iih!i«»'ii .Museum. From I)u Chaillu's Thf Vikinif Ai/p. SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGIANS (911-1024) 73 hands. In the first half of the ninth century, Saracens had gained a footing in southern Italy, and though they were temporarily dislodged, no permanent relief could be hoped for while the neighboring lands were theirs. Early in the eleventh century (1017) a new factor entered when a revolted noble enlisted jSTorman adventurers against the Greek governor. Soon other Normans flocked thither, to take service under different princes and nobles, selling their swords to the highest bidders. Presently they began to establish a power of their own ; and in 1071 they took Bari, the last possession of the Greek governors in Italy. In these conquests five of the twelve sons of a poor Norman noble played principal parts. The eldest, AVilliam of the Iron Arm, began the work of expelling both the Greeks from Apulia and the Saracens from Sicily ; his brothers assisted and continued the task. The fourth brother, Robert Guiscard (which means "the cunning"), made the greatest name for himself. The daughter of the Greek Emperor describes him as he appeared to his enemies : " His high stature 'excelled that of the most mighty warriors. His complexion was ruddy, his hair fair, his shoulders broad, his eyes flashed fire. It is said that his voice was like the voice of a whole multitude, and could put to flight an army of sixty thousand men." Like all the Normans, he was a cruel conqueror, and to this day ruined cities bear witness to his ferocity. Before he died (in 1085) all southern Italy acknowledged him as lord, save only the lands about the Bay of Naples, and the papal duchy of Benevento. The conquests of Roger, the youngest of the family, were equally remarkable. On the invitation of discontented Chris- tians, he landed in Sicily in the year 1060, and after thirty years of untiring warfare he succeeded in conquering the last of that island from its Saracen rulers. In Italy and Sicily the Norman princes showed the same tolerance for the language, laws, customs, and beliefs of the -. EMPIKE Ax\D PAl'ACY t i oon.mero.! aiul the same adaptability to new conditions, that tliey disphiyed elsewhere. The result was that on the rums of (Ireek, Lombard, and Saracen power they erected a strong feudal state which, with some inevitable changes, lasted until the establislnuent of the present kiugdom of Italy in the nine- teentli rt'iitury. K.'vi.'wiu^j the developments of the tenth and eleventh centuries, we see that one of the problems presented by the 53 Sum- diss..hitiou of the Carolingian empire had been solved; mary the cMitrifut^al tendency had been brought under control, and political disintegration checked. Feudalism, with its origan izat ion of society on the basis of private contract devel- oping' into hereditary right, proved a uniting as well as a dis- integrating force; it served to bind together, however loosely, tlip fragments of society until other and stronger ties could operate. Monarchical government proved another political tie. (iermany under the Saxon kings seemed nearer to attaining national monarchical union than any other Carolingian land; but this result the tendencies of the next three centuries were to defeat. In France and England the foundations of strong nionarrhies were laid, in the one by the accession of Hugh Capet, in tlie other by the Norman Conquest. These countries, tljerefore, earlier than any others in the West, were to attain unity and strength. The revival of the Holy Eoman Empire l»y Otto the (Jreat (962) gave a iictitious unity to Western Christendom by its claims to theoretical subordination of all kingdoms to itself; but the imperial supremacy was seldom recognized in fact, and the persistence of the Empire was more important for its bearing on men's aspirations and ideals than for its influence on i»raetical policies. NNith the checking of political disintegration went on a widening of the area of AVestern civilization. Hungarians, Holiemians, and Poles were formed into Christian kingdoms, SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGIAMS (911-1024) 75 while other Slavonic tribes were absorbed into Germany. The Christian kingdoms of Scandinavia — Norway, Denmark, and Sweden — arose, and offshoots of the Northmen's race estab- lished themselves in France, Italy, and England. In Spain, Christian principalities slowly gained ground at the expense of the Mohammedans ; in Russia, civilization and Christianity made their way from Constantinople among the native Slavs and their Swedish rulers. The Eastern Empire held its own against the Bulgarians, Hungarians, and Servians (a Slavonic people) who beset it on the north, and against the Mohamme- dans who attacked it from the east. Christianity and civiliza- tion, in short, maintained themselves, and slowly spread from the Mediterranean countries towards the farthest confines of Europe. TOPICS (1) Compare the weakness of the Carolingian empire in the Suggestive ninth and tenth centuries with that of Rome in the fourth and °P*^^ fifth. (2) Was the decline due primarily to the increase of dan- gers from without or to decay within? (3) Why did Germany suffer most from the Hungarians ? (4) Why were the Northmen the chief enemies of France ? (5) Why should the border counts gain larger powers than the counts in other regions ? (6) How long had the Saxons been Christians when their duke became king ? (7) With what movements in our own history may the German expansion eastward be compared ? (8) Compare the empire of Otto I. with that of Charlemagne. (9) Show on an outline map the extent of the empire under the Saxon emperors, marking the German duchies. (10) Was the grant of Normandy to Rolf a wise or an unwise step on the part of the French king? (11) Did it benefit or injure France ? (12) How does the Norman conquest of southern Italy differ from the Northmen's settlement in France ? (13) The coming of the Hungarians. (14) Henry I.'s fortresses Search and army reorganization. (15) Victory over the Huns on the toP^cs Lech. (16) Character of Otto I. (17) His first expedition to Italy and marriage to Adelaide. (18) Gerbert as scholar and teacher. (19) Decline of the Carolingians in France. (20) Hugh Capet. (21) The Northmen in Russia. (22) The discovery and settlement of Iceland. (23) The Normans in Italy. (24) Robert Guiscard. EMPIKE AND PArACY REFERENCES Oeorr»phj 8«cOD(Ur7 authorities Sources Illustrative works Maps, pp. <)2, 04, 30, 31 ; P'reeman, Historical Geography, II. (Atlas), map 21 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xxxiv. liv.; Gar- diner, Si-hnol Atlas, map 8; Dow, Atlas, viii. Kiuerton, Mediaeval Europe, chs. iii.-v.; Bemont and Monod, Mi-ditttil Europe, ch. xvii. ; Bryce, Holy Roman Empire (revised ed.), elis, vii.-ix. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 12-51 ; Henderson, (ieruKinij in the Middle Ages, chs. viii.-x.; Church, Beginning of the Middle Ages, ch. x.; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age. ch. viii.; Mihnan, Histoi'y of Latin Christianity, III. bk. V. chs. xi.-xiii. ; Fisher, Medieval Empire, I. 94-102 ; Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Bury's ed.),.VI. chs. Iv. Ivi. ; Gn'«rorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, III. bk. vi. chs. v. vi.; Kitchin. France, I. bk. ii. cli, v.; Historians'' History of the World, VII. r/.».V(>45. Kobiiison. Readings, I. 194-196, 245-260; Thatcher and McNeal, Sunrre Book, nos. 24-29, 53-56 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, Appendix, 442. C. M. Voniie, The Little Dnke ; Scheffel, Ekkehard ; G. W. Dujjcni, 77tt' \'ikings of the Baltic. CHAPTER V. THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES The unbroken rule of the church over the lives and spirits of mankind, down to the time of the Reformation, is the most striking feature of mediaeval history. Through the organ- 54 t ^ ized church, the barbarians who had overwhelmed the ence of the Roman Empire were brought into the Christian fold ; ° ^" and it afterwards exerted a powerful force among the Western nations toward establishing political unity and promoting uni- formity of manners, of usages, of law, and of religion. Despite the ignorance, ambition, and corruption which crept into it, the church persistently held aloft a higher standard of morals than that of the laity, and championed the cause of the poor and oppressed in an age of violence and sensuality. Of Walker its head a Protestant historian says, " The papacy as a Reforma- whole showed more of enlightenment, moral purpose, and ' '^ political wisdom than any succession of kings or emperors that mediseval Europe knew." Very early there arose a legal setting off of the clergy from the laity. To the clergy alone were committed the conduct of worship, the administration of the sacraments, and the gg ^^ government and discipline of the Christian community. clergy as As time passed, the distinctions between the two classes became deeper, the one being likened to the soul, the other to the body. Gradually a hierarchy of orders aiul offices was formed among the clergy. Says the twelfth-century author of a popular text-book: "Seven are the ecclesiastical Peter Lorn- ^ ^ ^ hard, Sen- ranks, to wit: doorkeepers, readers, exorcists, acolytes, tentiss Harding's m. & m. hist. — 5 77 78 EMPIRE AND PAPACV subdeacous, deacons, priests; but all are called ' clerks ' " {i.e. clergy). Tlie ceremony of " tonsure " larked the entrance of the candidate into minor )iders: in the Eastern Church this meant the clip- ping of the hair over the whole bead; in the Roman or Latin Church, the top only was sliaved, leaving a narrow strip all around. The clergy wore gar- ments of peculiar cut, to distinguish tbem from the laity and one order from another. That they might serve God witb more single- ness of purpose, it was ordered in the West, from the fourth century on, that jH-iests and the higher clergy should be "celi- bate," that is, should not marry. In the Eastern or (ireek Church the practice of celibacy was generally confined to the monks, and even in the Latin Church several centuries j)assed before it bt'canie universal. To secure independence in administering religious rites, the clergy claimed "imiimnity " from tlie secular law and the secular courts, so that a clergyman might be tried only before ecclesiastical courts, and by church or "canon" law. This privilege, known a.s - iMMu-tit of clergy," crept sooner or later into the laws of ev.Mv nation of Europe ; and the evils in it were seen when I»ers(ms who had no intention of becoming priests became derics, or clerks, merely that they might secure protection in their misdeeds. m^^wiu i-i 1-1 1 '1 1-1 i-i'i.i'<.i:t! Thk Tonsurk. From a Hth century MS. ^^\. <-J ■^^\ r THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 79 The power of the clergy rested upon the position of the priest as mediator between God and man, and as the authoritative teacher in matters of faitli and morals. In the teaching gg .pj^^ of the church, the " sacraments " were recognized as the sacraments ordinary chaniiels of divine grace, and these (with the excep- tion of baptism and matrimony) the clergy only could validly administer. The sac- raments were seven in number: (1) In the sacrament of Bap- tism the child (or adult) was made a member of the Chris- tian community. (2) Confirmation ad- mitted him into full fellowship. (3) The Holy Eucharist (or Lord's Supper), ad- ministered in the Mass, was the central feature of mediseval worship, for in this rite the spirit of the par- ticipant was strength- ened by the reception of the body and blood of. the Savior. The term "transubstantia- tion" was introduced ill the thirteenth cen- tury to designate Three Sacraments : Ordination, Marriage, Extreme Unction. lu-ecisely that the sub- ^ , . .,.,.... "^ Part of a triptych painted m the 14th century; ytance of the bread Antwerp Museum. ^^) EMPIRE AND PAPACY HMd the substance of the wine were changed into the substance of tlie body and blood of Christ, only the appearances or -u-ci.lents" (such as color, taste, etc.) of bread and wine remaining. (4) Penance included confession to the priest at least once a year, the performance of various acts to test the reality of repentance, and absolution by the priest from tlie guilt of sin. (5) Extreme Unction was the anointing with oil of those about to die ; it strengthened the soul for its dark j(»urney and cleansed from the remainder of venial sins. (Gj (Jrdination was the rite whereby one was made a member of the various grades of the clergy. (7) Matrimony was the sacrament by which a Christian man and woman were joined in lawful wedlock. The theory underlying the whole system was that the sac- raments derived their force from the power which Christ gave the Apostles and which they transmitted to their successors. Any priest might administer most sacraments, but only bishops could ordain. To carry on the work of the church, officers of various ranks were necessary. At the bottom of the structure were the 57 Eccle- paiisli Priests. The first Christian churches were natu- hierarchv '"'dly in populous cities ; but subordinate churches were Priests soon erected, and offshoots arose in country districts. P>entually the whole of Western Christendom was divided into '' parishes," each with its parish church and parish priest. The priest was appointed by the bishop, but laymen who gave lands to found the churches usually reserved to themselves and their successors the right of "patronage," that is, of nominating to it some ordained clerk. The parishes, in turn, were grouped into " dioceses," each diocese under the Bishop of that " see " (bishopric). The word 58 Bishops "^^^'"*^°P" (^piscojms) means " overseer " and aptly charac- terized his functions. He watched over the work of the diocese, visiting and disciplining the clergy, consecrating THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 81 churches, and administering the sacraments of confirmation and ordination. The "tithe," or church due of one tenth of all the produce of the soil, was paid to his agents, and by him apportioned among the parishes. He presided in person (or through his '^archdeacon") over the ecclesiastical court of the diocese ; to this all the clergy, and also laymen in many kinds of cases, were amenable. In his " synods," or diocesan councils, ecclesiastical legislation was passed. He enforced his judgments and decrees by " excommunication," that is, by cutting off the culprit from Christian fellowship : the greater excommunication, or "anathema" (accomplished "by bell, book, and candle "), not only cut off the person from the rites of the church and thus endangered his soul, but also cut him off from his fellows so that none might buy, sell, eat, or transact business with him. The power of the bishops over both the clergy and the laity was very great; certain in- fluences, however, tended to lessen their authority. Among these were conflicts with the "chapter" of the "cathedral" (as the clergy were called who had charge of the worship in the bishop's church) ; for the fact that the members of the chapter (called " canons ") came to enjoy the right — at least in theory — of electing the bishop, greatly strengthened their position. The "archdeacon" also sought to make his authority inde- pendent of the bishop. The dioceses were grouped together into " provinces," over each of which was an Archbishop. In addition to his powers and duties as bishop of one of the dioceses, the arch- 59 Arch- bishop supervised the work of the church throughout bishops his province. His special mark of distinction was the "pal- lium," a narrow band of white wool worn loosely around the neck; this could be conferred only by the Pope. The arch- bishop's cathedral was usually in the most important city of the province, so he was spoken of as the " metropolitan." In each country there was a tendency for some one archbishop ■^/' _.y^- L^^^^. > i.'l ■■! 5v-^ k;^ jkc «*e «2 THE CHURCH IN THK MIDDLE AGES 83 to gain preeminence over the others, and be recognized as "primate"; thus the Archbishop of Canterbury was primate of all England, while the Archbishops of Rheims and Mainz claimed preeminence respectively in France and Germany. A few archbishops (especially those of Constantinople, Alexan- dria, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Rome) were styled " patriarchs," and held positions of exceptional power and dignity. Great estates — usually the gift of pious individuals or of repentant sinners — came to be attached to the episcopal and archiepiscopal " sees." Such estates were often held by feudal tenure; and thus the clergy tended to become feudalized equally with the laity, and the spiritually minded were scan- dalized by seeing bishops, clad in coats of mail, lead their vas- sals to battle. High political offices (especially in Germany and England) were conferred upon the clergy ; and this fact further complicated the relations of church and^ state. On the one side the higher clergy found their independence threat- ened by the temporal powers ; on the other their influence was subordinated to that of Rome. At the head of the whole system stood the Papacy. Many causes contributed to make the Bishop of Rome the " universal overseer," or head of the whole Western Church. The g^ p political importance of Rome, the wealth of the church and r»Q rHiTi sis there, the singular ability and moderation which its bish- ops showed in doctrinal disputes, the martyrdom and burial at Rome of Saint Peter and Saint Paul — all were factors in the Roman headship. Most important of all, that headship rested upon the belief that Peter had been made by Christ the chief of the Apostles and given "the power of the keys," i.e. the power to bind and to loose (Matthew, xvi. 18-19). Peter was re- garded as the founder of the bishopric of Rome, and the power given him by Christ he was held to have transmitted to his successors. To assist the Pope in his work, a clerical council was grad- 84 EMPIRE AND PAPACY uall y fc.nned, called the College of Cardinals. This was at first ,..,ini...sed of the higher clergy of Rome; later other Italians, iii.d gradiKilly some foreign clergymen, were admitted. The iiniM.itai.ce of the cardinals as an organized body dates from 1059, when the chief part in i)ai)al elections was confided to them. Besides })i()vin('ial ajid diocesan synods, 61 General A:\) was the most important monastic ordi- THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 87 Benedictine Monk. From a 13th cen- tury MS. nance. It breathed an essentially mild and practical spirit, as opposed to the wild extrava- gances of Eastern zealots, like Simeon Stylites, who dwelt for thirty years on the narrow top of a lofty column, Benedict's rule enjoined upon the brethren the three vows of Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience to their abbot, or head. They were to labor with their hands, especially at agriculture ; were to join in pub- lic worship once during the night (about two o'clock), and at seven stated " hours " during the day; and were encouraged to copy and read books. They ate together in a "refec- tory," at which time one of their number was appointed to read aloud ; and they slept to- gether in a common dormitory. Each monas- tery was a settlement complete in itself, sur- rounded by a wall ; and the monks were not al- lowed to wander forth at will. New monaster- ies were often located on waste ground, in swamps, and in dense forests ; and by reclaim- ing such lands and teaching better meth- ods of agriculture the monks rendered a great service to society. Schools also were main- MoNASTERY OF St. Gall. ^aiucd iu couuection From a plan made in 159G. with the monasteries. ^g EMPIRE AND PAPACY Tlio house of St. Gall in Switzerland is a type of the great monasteries of the Middle Ages. In the tenth century its estates amounted to one hundred and sixty thousand " plow- l;in(l.s"; and a populous community dwelt about its walls, made up <»f tlie laborers, shepherds, and workmen of various trades (.mi)loyed by the monastery, together with the serfs settled on tlic monastery estates, v>'ho were bound to work three days a week for the monastery. The convent itself numbered more than five hundred monks. The Benedictine monasteries were entirely independent of onv another. Theoretically, the bishop had the right of visita- 65. Monaa- tion and correction over the monasteries in his diocese; tic reform: ^^^^^ frequently the monks secured papal grants of ''im- Cluny 910 I munity " which freed them from episcopal control. The monasteries often became very wealthy through gifts of lands and goods. Then luxury and corruption crept in, and great nobles sought to secure control of monastic estates, often by the appointment of "lay" abbots who drew the monastery revfinies without taking monastic vows. Such periods of decay were followed by times of revival, and these in turn by new decline — and so on to the end of the Middle Ages. Tlie monastery of Cluny, in eastern France (founded 910), was the center of the reform movement in the tenth and elev- enth centuries ; and the reformed monasteries, unlike the Bene- dictine, were brought into permanent dependence on the abbot of tlie head monastery, their " priors " being appointed by him. I'lx' nam.' "congregation" was given to such a union of mon- asteries under a single head ; and the congregation of Cluny grew until in the twelfth century it numbered more than two thousaiHl monasteries. The strict self-denial of these monks, the sphMKh.r of the worship in their churches, their zeal for h-anung and education, and a succession of distinguished al)lH.t.s, account fur the great spread, throughout Europe, of tlie Chiniac luuvement. THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 89 Other monastic orders, zealous for reform, arose in the eleventh century. The ('arthusians, founded (in 1084) at Grande Chartreuse in the kingdom of Burgundy, intro- 66. Other duced something of hermit life into the monastery, each monastic ■^ ' orders monk being provided with a separate cell in which he (1084-) lived a life of meditation, study, and silence. The Cistercian order was founded at Citeaux, in eastern France (in 1098) ; its rule rejected all luxury and splendor, even in the appointments for worship, and required of its members a rigidly simple life, with an abundance of agricultural labor, in which sheep raising had the predominant part. Its most famous member was Saint Bernard (1091-1153), abbot of Clairvaux ; and within a hundred years after his death the order numbered eight hundred houses, scattered all over Europe. In the thirteenth century arose orders of a new sort, the mendicant or begging "friars," of which the chief were the Franciscans and the Dominicans (see § 181). It was not until the sixteenth century that the Jesuits arose. These various orders were distinguished by differences in the color and cut of their garments, as well as in their mode of life ; thus the Benedictines and Cluniacs wore black gowns, the Cistercians and Carthusians white. In addition to the organizations for men there were also many for women. The " nunneries," or houses of these organi- zations, were numerous, widespread, and crowded; they offered a safe refuge to defenseless women in an age of violence ; and nuns who possessed talent, high birth, or sanctity might rise as abbesses to positions of honor and influence. With the growth of the church in riches, external influence, and power, came increasing splendor of buildings and ceremo- nial. The East developed its type of church architec- gy church ture, called the Byzantine, in which the round or buildings polygonal form of building of Roman days was enlarged and enriched with side galleries, alcoves, and porches ; its most yO EMPIRE AND PAPACY famous example is the chinch of St. Sophia at Constantinople — now a Mohammedan mosque (p. 261 ; see another on p. 39). Ill the West, the Roman municipal basilica — an oblong build- ing with the interior divided longitudinally by parallel rows of pillars into two "aisles" and a central "nave" — was at first taken as the model. This developed into the Romanesque tyjie of architecture, characterized by the round arch and a general massiveness of effect. Stone super- .seded brick as the ijuilding material, and, to decrease the danger of tire, stone vaulting replaced the timbered roof. The b»*.st examples of this type were produced in the eleventh and early twelfth centu- ri»'s in France. The final form as- sumed by mediaeval 68. Gothic '^i-f^hitecturewas archit«c the so-called ture (1150 ) , , ^, . (rothic or point- ed style, which origi- nated in northern France about the mid- dle of the twelfth <*entury. In this the walls are less massive, the windows largo and numerous, and the vaulted roof raised to prodi- gious heights on slender, clustered columns. The secret of this construction consists in the strong external columns and arched <.r "flying" buttresses which take the concentrated Amiens Cathedral, Built in 13th century ; one of the greatest examples of Gothic architecture. THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 91 lateral thrusts of the vast pointed arches and relieve the interior columns of all stress except the vertical pressure from the roof. The ground plan of the Gothic cathedral was tlie Latin cross; the two arms constituted the "transepts," the "choir" corresponded to the short upright, and the "nave" and "aisles" to the lower main part of the cross. The window openings were filled with pictures in stained glass, whose rich and varied colors added indescribably to the splendor of the interior. Everywhere, within and without, the sculptor's art scattered figures of men, animals, and plants — all emblematical of the aspirations, the hopes, and the fears of mediaeval religion. Artists and sculptors vied with one another in representing the history of humanity and of Christianity ; along with scenes from the Bible, figures of the saints, and allegorical representations of the virtues and vices, were seen fantastic grinning beasts and demons, the retinue of the devil. Taken as a whole, such scenes " made up a kind of layman's Bible that appealed to the eye and was understood by all." With the growth of ecclesiastical organization, the worship of the church assumed definite form. Latin was the language of the West at the time that Christianity was introduced, 69. Church and it became the language of the Eoman Church : but in services * ° ' and wor- many regions portions of the service, as well as sermons, ship were given in the language of the people. The order of service included the reading of selected Scripture lessons, the sing- ing of Latin hymns, and the repetition of the creed. Music was improved by the introduction of harmony, and by a system of notation from which grew our modern musical notes and staffs; but church singing was by the choir only. The chief place in the service was given to the celebration of the mass, or Lord's Supper ; this was viewed as a perpetual sacrifice of Christ, the benefits of which were available not only for those on earth, but for departed souls undergoing purifica- ,J2 EMPIRE AND PAPACY tion for sins in I'mgatoiy. From the honors shown to martyrs arose the veneration of the saints, especially of the Vir-in Mary, whose intercession was asked both for the livin- and for the dead. Bones of martyrs, pieces of the cross on whicli <'lin«t was crucified, and similar relics were cher- ished and venerated, and made to work miracles of healing. Cliristnias, Kaster. and a host of other church festivals were celebrated with processions and a pomp and splendor of cere- monial which appealed powerfully to the imagination. Rude draniatizaticjns of the Incarnation and Redemption were pre- sented ; from these, and from "miracle plays" and "morali- ties" the modern drama was developed. Preaching played a less prominent part in mediaeval religion than it does to-day, thougli from time to time great preachers arose — like Pope Urban II., Bernard of Clairvaux, and others — to preach a Crusiule or a moral reformation. The parish priests, because of th»' great cost of hand-written books and the lack of schools, were usually poorly educated, and refrained from preaching. To educate the clergy there was need of better organized instruction, and to supply this need universities arose. At , Salerno, in Italv, there was early a school devoted to 70 Rise of -^ ^ •^ universities the study of medicine ; at Bologna arose famous teachers 1200 '' of civil and canon law; at Paris were schools famed for the teaching of }»hilosophy and theology; at other points also, alK)ut cathedrals and monasteries, schools were in e^tistence. Tlie tiiirteentli century saw a growth in definiteness of or- gani/ation in church, in state, and in city communities; and, toiu'lied l»y tlie same movement, these early schools were transformed into the universities of the Middle Ages, under papal or royal charter. Abelard (1079-1142), one of the most famous scholars of the early Middle Ages,'-shed a luster over the sclu)ols of Paris by his intellectual acuteness, rhetorical skill, and romantic history, which even his condemnation for heresy did not dim; and the preeminence of the University THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 93 .V O R T^H /^^i^'"^^^' Frankfort-.'^- ,' ^^^^^ ■0.ier>^^X \_ POLAND Salamanca Alcali 124a • 1499 Chief Universities of the Middle Ages. of Paris lasted unimpaired to the end of the Middle Ages. Instruction everywhere was by lectures, owing to the scarcity of books. The course of study included the Trivium (Latin grammar, rhetoric, and logic), and the Quadrivmm (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music), after which came the higher studies of theology, law, philosophy, and medicine. The studenfs were a disorderly, turbulent class, many of them mere boys of ten or twelve years, who lodged where they could, lived largely on alms, and being "clerks" were punishable only by their university. Latin was the univer- sal language of learning: this made it easy to wander from country to country and to study in different universities. The student songs, in rhymed Latin, frequently breathed a most unclerical spirit. After the days of Abelard, learning was brought entirely 94 EMPIHE AND PAPACY int., thr service of the church, and "scholastic philosophy" pivvail.'d. This may be defined as an attempt to extract knowledge from consciousness, by formal reasoning, instead of by investigation, observation, and experiment. The great authority in pliih.sophy was Aristotle (384-322 b.c), whose works were known, not in the original Greek, but in Latin transhitions of imperfect Arabic versions obtained from Sjiain. Tliomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was the greatest of the niedicbval schoohuen, and his application of the Aristotelian h>gie to the i»r()blems of tlieology profoundly influenced all later teaching. In the medieval universities men were trained for the service of the cliurch, and their minds were sharpened to a liair-splitting keenness on theological subjects;^ but the physi- cal and historical sciences were little advanced. The reform movement which spread from Cluny as a center (lid not stop with the purification of the monasteries ; it ex- 71 Need of tended as well to the secular clergy, whose condition in the°'secular ^^^'' tenth and eleventh centuries was deplorable. The clergy three great evils complained of were simony, lay inves- titure, and clerical marriage. (1) Simony was the purchase in any way of ecclesiastical office, the w^ord being derived from Simon Magus, who sought to buy the gift of the Holy Ghost (see Acts, viii. 17-19). (2) Closely connected with this evil was the right exercised by Emperors and princes of "investing" newly elected bishops with the ring and staff, which were the symbols of their office, and requiring from them homage and fealty for the lands which they held. Accompanying the con- trol thus secured were encroachments upon the freedom of ' TIh- f..ll,)\viii^' (in.-stions were debated with great logical subtlety: •• Wlu-tla-r an :ing.-I ran be in more than one place at one and the same time; wli.'th.T in..r.' anju-ls than one can be in one and the same place at the same lim.-: whether angels have local motion; and whether, if they have, they pass through intermediate space." (Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologise, L, Min-st. :.•_', :u\.) K(.r examples of scholastic method, see University of Pennsyl- VHuia. Tranxlatiom and Reprints, vol. III., No. 6. THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 95 election, so that the higher clergy almost everywhere became the appointees of the temporal power. Says a Catholic writer, in speaking of this period : " Kings could dispose, absolutely and without control, of all ecclesiastical dignities. . . . Montalem- AU was venal, from the episcopate, and sometimes even ^l^[\ Monks the papacy, down to the smallest rural benefice." (3) The //. soy whole clergy, Avith the exception only of the monks and of some bishops and priests who were quoted as marvels, openly and freely entered into the marriage relation. To free the church from these evils, and reinvigorate it, became the special mission of the Cluniac order. While decentralizing forces prevailed in the state, the church grew steadily in unity and in strength. The papal headship was advanced as the imperial power declined. Recurrent 72. Sum- waves of monastic reform resulted in the formation of mary new orders of monks, and these produced new efforts to revive and spiritualize the church. Education began to spread among the clergy, though confined within the narrow limits of schol- asticism, and famous universities arose. Gothic architecture was developed, and impressive church services were devised. The chief problem of the church was how to secure the clergy from local and monarchical oppression. Before the eleventh century, men's minds were too much engrossed with the practi- cal problems presented by the invasions of the Northmen and Hungarians, and the decay of civil government, to permit of much speculation on the relations of the spiritual and temporal powers. The church also had too much need of the strong arm of temporal rulers (such as Otto I.) to rescue and protect it from danger, to permit it to quarrel with its champions. By the eleventh century these dangers were past, and men's minds began to turn to questions of principles and theory. It was inevitable that the two great powers, the temporal and the spiritual, should come into conflict in their representatives, the Harding's m. & m. hist. — 6 M EMPIRE AND PAPACY Kiiij.irp and tlie Papacy. It is this conflict which constitutes thr «lii<*l feature of the history of the next two centuries. Suggestive topics Search topics TOPICS (1) Why were there just seven clerical ranks, seven sacraments, ftc. ? (2) Would the Pope have acquired temporal power if Rome had continued to be the residence of an Emperor ? (3) Was mo- njwlicisni a good or a bad thing for religion ? For society ? For the state? Give your reasons. (4) Why are there not so many monks to-day as there were in the Middle Ages ? (5) Why does tlie church play a less prominent part in modern life than it did in niediaival times? (6) Contributions of Pope Leo I. (440-4(51) to the growth of the papacy. (7) Contributions of Gregory I. (590-604). (8) Con- tributions of Nicholas I. (858-867). (9) Life of Saint Benedict. (1(1) Tlie Benedictine rule. (11) The monastery of Cluny. (12) Montustic orders for women. (13) Romanesque architecture. (14) Gothic art. (15) Music in the Middle Ages. (16) The origin of the drama. (17) Church festivals and pageants. (18) I'arish priests of the Middle Ages. (19) Church councils to tlie close of 1215. (20) Rise of the universities. (21) The uni- versity of Paris. (22) Abelard. (23) Student life in the Middle Ages. Geography Secondary authorities REFERENCES Maps, pp. 62, 82 ; Freeman, Historical Geography, I. ch. vii. ; Poult', Ilistorirul Atlas, maps xix. xx. Ivii. Ixi. Ixix. Emerton. Medi(Bval Europe, 465-476, 541-592; Adams, Civili- sation (lurimj the Middle Ages, ch. vi.; Emerton, Introduction to the Middle Ages, chs. xiii. xvi. ; Church, Beginning of the Middle Ages, 13.3-1.39 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, chs. xii. xvi. xxii.; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 96-100, 198-220, 428-449; Munro and Sellery, Medieval Civilization, 129-158; Stille, Studies in Medieval History, ch. xiii.; Lea, Studies in Cfnnrh History, 40-5!), 112-123, 288-298 ; Jessopp, Coming of the Fi'inrs, chs. ni.-vi. ; McCabe, Abelard, chs. iii. iv. vi. vii. xiv. xv.; Compayr^, Abelard, pts. i. ii. iv. ; Cutts, Turning Points of (eneral Church History, ch. xxx. ; Trench, Medieval Church Ilistory, Ucinve viii.; Fisher, History of the Christian Church, •7.'- r ■/ ir";; '^.'""^ '^^- '''- '■' ^"•"^"' ^^^'^'^y of Latin thn.stunuty, II. bk. m. ch. vi.; Alzog, Manual of Church History. THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 97 I. §§82-87, 125-131, 133-142, II. §§ 161-165, 167-169, 192-199; Dollinger, Fables respecting the Popes in the Middle Ages, 104-182 ; Addis and Arnold, Catholic Dictionary ; Schaff-Herzog, Religious Encyclopedia^ 4 vols. ; Cutts, Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages, chs. ii. v.-vii.; Montalembert, Monks of the West, Introduc- tion, clis. ii. iv.; Cardinal Gibbons, The Faith of our Fathers] Desmond, 3Iooted Questions of History, chs. iii. iv. ; Smith, Archi- tecture, Gothic and Renaissance, clis. i. ii. ix. Robinson, Readings, I. chs. ii. iv. xvi, ; Thatcher and McNeal, Sources Source Book, nos. 33-42, 251-260 ; Jones, Civilization in the Middle Ages, No. 6 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, bk. iii. nos. i.-iv. ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Reprints, vol. II. Nos. 3, 4, 7, vol. III. No. 5, pp. 24-30, No. 4, pp. 1-10, vol. IV. Nos. 2, 4, pp. 23-32. Scott, Ahhot, — Monastery; Potter, Uncanonized ; W. W, New- illustrative ton. Priest and Man, or Ahelard and Helo'isa ; Reade, Cloister ^°^^^ and the Hearth. Lacroix, Religious and Military Institutions of the Middle Pictures Ages ; Cutts, Parish Priests and their People in the Middle Ages ; Parmentier, Album Historique, I. ; Perry pictures (Cathedrals). CHAPTER VI. THK I KANCONIAN ExMPERORS, HILDEBRAND, AND THE INVESTITURE CONFLICT (1024-1125) To rescue the church from the evil condition into which it liatl fallen, something more was needed than the zeal of Cluny; 73 Reform namely, the support of temporal and ecclesiastical rulers. Saxon ^^Em- ^^ beginning was made in this direction under the Saxon perors lOmperoFs, when Otto I., Otto II., and Otto III. protected tht' papacy against local Roman factions. Under Henry II. the Cluniac monks secured a hold on Germany, and the first energetic action against the married clergy was taken by a l*ope in the synod of Pavia (1022). It remained, however, for the Franconian or Salian Emperors,^ who succeeded the Saxons in loL'l, to witness the triumph of the principles of celibacy and no simony, and to see the storm clouds raised by the outcry against lay investiture gather about their own heads. »TIIE SAXON AND FRANCONIAN (OR SALIAN) KINGS OF GERMANY (1) Henry I., the SAXON (919-936) (2) Otto I the Gkkat (;)8t>-973) Henrv, Duke of Bavaria Hofoundtxl Holy Kotiian Empire, 962 I ■ 1 .lut-» IIknkv IV. (1(156-1106) (1002-1024) (9> IlKNUY V. 01^06-1125) Apnes = Frederick of Hohenstaufen (see table, p. 146) ^ THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS 99 Under Conrad II. (1024-1039), the first of the Franconian or Salian house, little progress was made with church reform, but a basis was laid for a closer connection with Cluny by 74. Conrad the incorporation into the empire (in 1032) of the king- ^^ ^^^ doni of Burgundy, where the reform movement was strong. (1024-1056) Under Conrad's son, Henry III. (1039-1056), the mediasval empire reached its highest point, and the work of reform was zealously taken up. When he first interfered in Roman affairs, in 1046, he found three rivals claiming to be Pope, and each in possession of a portion of the city. At a synod called near Rome, all three claim- ^ , ants were deposed for simony ; and /ai^-- "^ a German bishop of unblemished 1^/ V '' ' , life and piety was chosen — the first of a series of German Popes. Of those who had filled the papal chair in the three preceding centu- /' ries, only four had not been born C ^ in Rome or the papal states ; with «™™™-' these German Popes the papacy Seal of Henry m. took on a more international char- " Heinricus Dei Gratia Roman- orum Imperator Augustus." acter. The Popes now led in at- tacking clerical marriage and simony. Leo IX. (1048-1054) was the most vigorous of the series, traveling about from coun- try to country, holding synods in Italy, Germany, and France — everywhere condemning the married and simoniacal clergy. The greatest service which Leo rendered the reform move- ment was by bringing the monk Hildebrand to Rome as the adviser and chief officer of the papacy. Of lowly German 75, Rise of origin, but born in Tuscany, Hildebrand received his Hildebrand education and training in a Roman monastery of which his uncle was abbot. Gregory VI., one of the three papal contest- ants in 1046, made him his chaplain, and after Gregory's fall Hildebrand followed him into Germany. For a time Hilde- luo EMPIRE AND PAPACY liruiul was an inmate of the monastery at Cluny, where he was filled with reformatory zeal; and there Leo IX. found him and took him to Home. ITntil his own election to the papacy in 1073, as Gregory \'II.,lIildebrand was the real power behind the papal throne, under five different Popes, covering a period of nearly a (juarter of a century. I'hysicall}^ he was far from im])Osing: he was of small stature and ungaiidy figure, with a feeble voice ; but he possessed a mind of restless ac- tivity, uncommon penetration, and an inflexible will. The ])rinci})lesupon which Ilildebrand wished to Ifnulerson, -''''^^ ^^'^ ^'^^ policy are indi- cated in a mem- orandum found among his papers, containing tlie following pro}»osi- tions : (1) The Roman pontiff (Pope) alone Jjortintent 3(:t;-:tt!7 HiLDEBRAND (GREGORY VII.). From an old print. may rightly be called " universal." (2) He only can depose and nMu.state bi.shops. (8) He only can establish new laws for tl'" <'l"nvh, an.l unite or divide dioceses. (4) No council or syn(Hl, without his approval, can be called general. (5) No earthly ,,Prson may call the Pope to trial or pronounce judg- ment on him. (C) No one who appeals to the papacy may have sentence passed against hin. by any other tribunal HILDEBRAND 101 (7) The Roman Church has never erred, and never shall err. (8) The Roman Pontiff has the right to depose Emperors. (9) He may absolve the subjects of unjust princes from their allegiance. In these propositions the supremacy of the Pope over the church and over temporal princes is the underlying thought, and Hildebrand's whole conduct was but the development and application of these maxims. In carrying out his policy he avoided all appearance of revolution, and gave his acts the air of a return to ancient traditions, the evidence for which was found in the False Decretals. Hefele, a famous Catholic his- torian, sums up Hildebrand's policy in these words : " Seeing the world sunk in wickedness and threatened with impending ruin, and believing that the Pope alone could save it, G-regory conceived the vast design of forming a universal theoc- Alzog, racy, which should embrace every kingdom of Christen- History, II. dom, and of whose policy the Decalogue [Ten Command- ^'^^ ments] should be the fundamental principle. Over this commonwealth of nations the Pope was to preside. The • spiritual power was to stand related to the temporal as the sun to the moon, imparting light and strength, without, however, destroying it or depriving princes of their sovereignty." While Henry III. lived, Hildebrand did not dare shake off the Emperor's control ; but when Henry died, he left an infant of six years, Henry IV. (1056-1106), to rule under the 76. Papacy regency of his mother. " The princes," says a chronicler, pendence " chafed at being governed by a woman or a child ; they (1056-1073) demanded their ancient freedom; then they disputed among themselves the chief place ; at last they plotted the deposition of their lord and king." With little now to fear from beyond the Alps, Hildebrand set about organizing new safeguards for papal independence. Everywhere he could count upon the reform party as favorable to his plans. The Countess Matilda of Tuscany gave him protection and resources, and finally do- nated to the papacy her vast estates, stretching almost to the 102 EMPIRE AND PAPACY »C»Lt or MILES "^ Gulf of Genoa. New treaties, also, were concluded with the Nor- mans, by which Robert Guiscard, in return for a confirmation of his conquests, became the Pope's vassal, thus beginning a papal suzerainty over southern Italy which was to last for centuries. iinally, in 1059, the attempt was made to emancipate the papacy from imj)erial control, by a decree concerning papal elections. In the early church the Pope had been chosen, like any bishop, by " the clergy and jjeople " of his diocese ; ))ut under Charlemagne, the three Ottos, and their successors, the Emperor practically appointed to that office. The decree of 1059 changed the papal constitution, in effect, by providing that the real seltxition should be in the hands of the College of Cardinals — that is, the Pope's own clerical council. Direful penalties were invoked against all who disobeyed the decree, and tlip text was characteristic of the times. "Eternal anath- rin:i and excomnnuiication," it read, "be upon the foolhardy yrntthew.%, person who takes no account of our decree, and attempts in his j)resumption to disturb and trouble the Roman Cliurcli ! A[ay he endure in this life and in the next the wrath of the Feather, Son, and Holy Ghost, and that of the Al)ost]es I'eter and Paul, whose church he presumes to molest! Let liis liouse be desolate, and no one dwell in his tents! Let his cliildnMi be or]»hans, and his wife a widow ! Let him and his sous be outcasts and beg their bread, driven away from their liabitations ! May the usurer consume his goods, and the stranger reap the fruit of his labors ! May all the world war I KKiioiuKs OK THK Count- Kss Matilda. /documents, 34 HILDEBRAND 103 against him and all the elements be hostile, and the merits of all the saints, who sleep in the Lord, confound and inflict visi- ble vengeance in this life upon him ! " The time at last came when Hildebrand himself had to don the papal crown. The election was irregular and not according to the decree of 1059. The people, assembled in the church 77 Hilde- for the funeral services of the late Pope, raised the cry, brand as Pope Greg- "Let Hildebrand be our bishop ! " One of the cardinals ory VII turned to the crowd and recalled how much, since the (1073-1085) days of Leo TX., Hildebrand had done for the church and for Rome. On all sides the cry was then raised, "Saint Peter crowns Hildebrand as Pope ! " In spite of his resistance, Hildebrand was forthwith arrayed in the scarlet robe, crowned with the papal tiara, and seated in the chair of Saint Peter. As Pope he took the name Gregory A^IL, in memory of his early patron. GosLAR, Birthplace of Henry iV. Present condition. The claims of Gregory to treat the temporal power as sub- ordinate to the papacy made a struggle with the empire 78. Ger- . , , ^, . . , , , 1 • i • £ many under inevitable. The imperial power, at this time, was tar ^enry IV. from strong. The minority of Henry IV. was distracted (1056-1106) by quarrels for control, in which his mother Agnes and Ill EMPIRE AND PAPACY the archbishops of Bremen and Cologne played the chief parts. Altliough intelligent and high-spirited, Henry IV. was allowed t.. grow up with alternations of stern repression and careless i.ididg^'nc.. ; lie thus arrived at manhood without training to ruU% with an undisciplined temper, and with a heedlessness of in„nil restraint which led him into many excesses. Finally his rule was weakened by the disaffection of the Saxons, who had been the chief support of the throne under the Ottos. In 1073 tlie discontent ripened into revolt; and although Henry, after one humiliating defeat, put down the rebellion, there continued to exist in Germany a disaffected party with which Gregory formed alliance. In 1075 Gregory brought the question of investiture into a position of chief importance, declaring investiture by laymen, 79. Invest!- even by kings and Emperors, to be void, and causing ture conflict j,^,j.g^„j. giving it to be excommunicated. To a report (1075 1076) that Henry was summoned to appear at Rome to justify liis actions, the Emperor replied : "Henry, king not by usurpa- Matfhncs, t''*"' ^'^^^ ^^Y ^^^^ "^^^^^ ^^ God, oO Hildcbrand, no longer .\h-fiifrrai Vouv, but falsc mouk. . . . Thou hast attacked me, who Itftrnmnits, -tj (con- fvm consecrated king and who according to the tradition , by senteucc of excommunication. ''Blessed Peter, />uc«m^',Irv. '"''"''^^ ^'^ ^^^^ Apostles," he wrote, "be thou my witness v^ (ro/i. that the Holy iJomuii Church called me against my will to govern it 1 . . . As thy representative I have received troiii (;,„l tilt' jx.wtT to l)iiul and loose in heaven and upon earth. Full uf this conviction, for the honor and defense of THE INVESTITURE CONFLICT lorj thy church, ... I deny to King Henry, who with nnheard-of pride has risen against thy church, the government of Germany and of Italy. I absolve all Christians from the oaths of fidelity they have taken or may take to him ; and I forbid that any person shall serve him as king." The most powerful of the German princes were already op- posed to Henry, and declared that unless the excommunication were removed 80. Pope's by a certain day, ^^Carssa he should be (1077) treated as deposed and a new king elected. His only hope was to break the alliance be- tween the Pope and his enemies at home ; and to accomplish this he set off secretly across the Alps, in the dead of winter, accom- panied only by his wife, his young son, and one attendant. At Canossa he found the Pope, already on his way to Germany to arrange the govern- ment in consultation with the princes. The Pope at first refused to see him, and for three days Henry was obliged to stand as a suppliant — fasting and barefooted — without the castle gates. At last Gregory yielded to the entreaties of the Countess Matilda and admitted him to reconciliation. The excommunica- PoPE Gregory VII., Henry IV., and Count- ess Matilda at Canossa. From a 12th century MS. in the Vatican Library. \Qi; EMPIRE AND PAPACY tiou was raised, but only on condition that Henry should make his i^eace witli his German subjects before a day fixed by the I'ope, and on terms which he should lay down (January, 1077). Th«' liuiiiiliation of tlie Emperor at Canossa was the most brilliant victory that the papacy ever won over the temporal 81 Re- power; but it was merely an incident in a long struggle, newed con- Henry's German enemies were displeased that the Pope investiture h^id removed the excommunication, and persisted in 1077 1081) electing a new king. Civil war followed, and as Henry continued to grant lay investiture, the Pope renewed his excom- munication. A strong party now rallied to Henry's support, and he caused an assembly of German and Italian bishops to declare Gregory deposed and set up an anti-pope. In 1081 Henry mastered his German enemies sufficiently to come to Itily with an army. After three years' campaigning all Rome, save the strong fortress of St. Angelo, ^vas in his hands : his anti-]K)pe was enthroned, and Henry himself was crowned with the im[)erial crown. The dauntless Gregory meanwhile had sent for aid to the Xorman Robert Guiscard. Henry hastily quitted Rome, 82 Death which was taken and sacked by the :Nrormans ; but when of Gregory '^ ' VII 1085) these retired, the Pope was forced to accompany them Henry IV '"^^ southern Italy. There in May, 1085, Gregory YII. (1106) died ; in his last hours he said, " I have loved justice, and liate7;i-10S5). Witn Leo I. (440-461), Gregory I. (590-604), and Nicholas I. (858-867), he is to be reckoned one of the founders of the papal power. In place of control of the church by the temporal authorities, which had existed in the days of Constantine, of Charlemagne, and of Otto the (ireat, (iregory i)ut forward the claim of the spiritual power to control the temporal. A partial success was won at Ca- nossa, and a compromise was arranged in the Concordat of Worms; but the struggle was not ended. Among the results of CJregory's policy should be noted the seeds of that fear and liatied felt by the German people for the Eoman court down to the lleformation ; and the alienation of the Emperor from the church, and of the Eastern and Western churches from each other, at the most important moment of all — the beginning of the period of the Crusades. TOPICS Suggestive (1) ^V;l.s Ilildebrand more of a theologian or an ecclesiastical topics statesman? (2) To what extent did desire for power influence him ? (3) Was his policy a good one for the world? (4) Make a list of the forces supporting Gregory VII. and those supporting IltMiry IV. (.•)) Why did the Saxons revolt against Henry IV.? (<>) Was the interview at Canossa a victory for the Pope or for the Kniperor? (7) Why was the settlement agreed to by Paschal II. n-jrcU'd? (H) Why are conflicts between church and state less frc9) At tlie hegiiming of the eighth century, the Byzantine or Greek Empire seemed brought to the verge of ruin through attacks by Slavs, Bulgarians, and Arabs. When, however, tine Emph-e Italy, Egypt, and Africa were lost, the remainder proved r,ii 1096) ^,.^^\^^. t^, defend and to govern, so that under the Isaurian Emperors (717-801^) an improvement began, and under the Mace- donian line (807-1057) came a period of conquest and military gh)ry, lasting from the middle of the tenth to the first quarter of the eleventh century. Crete, Cyprus, northern Syria and Antiocli, and even Bulgaria, were for a time recovered. Fol- lowing the eljukian Turks occupied Bagdad, and became THE MOHAMMEDAN EAST 119 the champion of the orthodox caliph, with the title "Sultan of the East and West " ; in 1076 the Turks captured the holy city of Jerusalem. After 1058 the caliph was merely the reli- gious head of the Mohammedan state, and Turkish princes — of whom, at the end of the century, there were a number, rival and independent — were the veritable sovereigns. The military prowess of the Turks spread Mohammedanism over new areas ; but they cared little for Arabian civilization, and brought a new element into the strife of East and West. That strife was suddenly intensified by the breaking out of the great movement known as the Crusades, for which there were several causes. (1) Throuahout the Middle Aaes «, « ^ ^ "^ ^91. Causes the terror of the hereafter weighed with more awful of the Cru- foree upon mankind than it does to-day : in exceptional sades occurrences a supernatural agency was generally seen, and the writings of the times are full of encountei's with devils and demons. With this temper of mind went a belief in the power of penitential acts to avert ^^ '^^ divine wrath, and in the miracle-working vir- tue of relics of the saints, especially objects connected with the life and death of Christ; ^ ' hence, after the fourth century, pilgrimages to the holy places of Palestine were common. In the year 1064 seven thousand pilgrims, under the leadership of the Archbishop of JMainz, went in a single company. This out- burst of zeal for pilgrimages, it is to be noted, came just at a time when the tolerant rule J^^^^-^ of the Arabs in the East was replaced by the pilgrim bigotry and fierce contempt of the Turks; it From a l3th can- was a chief cause of the Crusades. *"''y ^^• (2) The time, too, had now come when the peoples of western Europe might look about for wider fields of adventure. The Hungarian and Viking raids were over. Europe was settling |0,) AGE OF THE CRUSADES down to comparative peace and quiet under its feudal govern- nients; the modern nations, witli their problems, had not yet arisen; commerce and city life were still in their infancy. Thus there was no sufficient outlet at home for the spirit of adventure, which in the Middle Ages always ran high. (3) The East was regarded as a land of fabulous riches, where not only fame but fortune might be won. The hope of gain —of winning lands and principalities — was a powerful factor in the minds of many, and must be reckoned among the catises of tlie Crusades. In this respect the movement may be h)()ked upon as merely a part of the movement of expansion which caused the Norman conquests of southern Italy and Kiighmd, and the German advance eastward beyond the Elbe. The chief object of the Crusades was the rescue of Jerusalem from the hands of the infidels; but the first call grew out of 92. Ad- tl»e danger which threatened the Eastern Empire. In TS?k8°^^^^ 1071, at Manzikert in Armenia, the Turks defeated the a071 1092' lorces of the Eastern Roman Empire, and the emperor (Komanus IV.) was taken prisoner. Almost the whole of Asia !Minor passed into Turkish hands ; and one of their cliieftains, establishing himself at Nicsea, almost within sight of Constantinople, took the title " Sultan of Eoum" — that is, of Rome. Several years passed before an Emperor, Alexius Comnenus, found himself free to give Asia his attention; then he sent an emljassy to the Pope, as the head of Latin Christen- dom, in an effort to enlist western knights for the Turkish war : the result was the call to the First Crusade. At Ch'niiont, in France, Pope Urban II. held a council in November, 1095, to consider investiture and to punish the 93 Council ^''''^'"^'^' ^^'^^'i Philip L, for divorcing his wife. When of Clermont this l)usiness was finished the Pope, with burning elo- (pience, addressed an open-air assembly of thousands of French prelates 'and nobles in their own tongue; and is re- ported to have spoken thus: "Christ himself will be your THE FIRST CRUSADE 121 leader when you fight for Jerusalem. Let not love of any earthly possession detain you. You dwell in a land narrow and unfertile. Your numbers overflow, and hence you Archer and devour one another in wars. Let these home discords Kingsford, Crusades, cease. Start upon the way to the Holy Sepulcher ; wrest 30-31 the land from the accursed race, and subdue it to yourselves. Thus shall you spoil your foes of their wealth, and return home victorious, or purpled with your own blood receive an everlasting reward." Hear- ing these words from the head of the church, the people cried : " God wills it ! God wills it ! " " When you go forth to meet the enemy," said Urban, "this shall in- deed be your watchword, ' God wills it ! ' " Many pledged themselves forth- with to undertake the work, and to these a cross of red cloth — the sign of pil- grim s to the Holy Land ' — was given, to be worn on the breast going and on the back returning. The crusader (from crux, a cross) was thus given the protection attaching to pilgrims; during his ab- sence no one might trouble him for debt, and who- ever took his goods was excommunicated. On their part the crusaders were considered to have taken a Crusader. From a 13th century MS. VOW to fight the infidels, and not to return until they had beheld the Holy Sepulcher. 122 AGE OF THE CRUSADES August 15, 1096, was fixed as the date for departure, but i.npatieut zeal was aroused during the winter by popular 94 The preachers, of whom the most noted was Peter the Her- crusadeof ,^it^ to whom for centuries was wrongly ascribed the a096°^^^ original idea of the crusade. In the spring, bands of peiusants and townsmen, for many of whom any change was a gain, lM>gan to assemble; they were without arms or provisions, and w«*re incumbered with women and children. At Cologne and elsewhere the Jews were massacred in a frenzy of reli- gious zeal. Under the leadership of a knight called Walter the Penniless, of Peter the Hermit, and others, several successive companies took the road down the valley of the Danube, which since tlie conversion of the Hungarians was the ordinary pil- grim route. Without adequate leadership or preparations, the misguided multitudes perished miserably on the way, or left their bones to whiten the plains of Asia Minor. Walter and most of his followers were slaughtered by the Sultan of Roum, but Peter escaped to await the coming of the main crusade. In tlie summer and fall of 1096 the lords and knights set out, armed with coats of mail, swords, and lances ; they were 95 The jirovided with sums of money, often obtained by the sale knights "f ^^"'^^ belongings at ruinous prices; and they were (1096 1097) ae('onii)anied by attendants on foot and by carts laden with provisiers()n ; he declined the perilous office, but commis- sioned a l)ishop as his legate. There was no general leader- shij) : each crusader went at his own cost, and obeyed only his own will. TIm' crusaders naturally grouped themselves about tin- b»'tter known nobles, such as Raymond, count of Toulouse; liohcmond, son of Robert Guiscard; Godfrey of Bouillon; and K(.bert of Normandy, brother of the English king William II. Tlie crusaders assembled at different places, and departed as they were ready, in four different companies. The Germans and tliosu from the north of Prance followed the valley of THE FIRST CRUSADE 123 the Danube ; others traversed Italy, crossed the Adriatic, and proceeded thence by land to Constantinople. " How qq crusa great a city it is ; how noble and comely ! " wrote on ders at Con- stantinople Archer and Kingsforcl, of their number, of that capital. " What wondrously wrought monasteries and palaces are therein ! What marvels everywhere in street and square! Tedious Crusades, 50 would it be to recite its wealth in all precious things, in gold and silver, in divers shaped cloaks, and saintly relics. For thither do ships bring at all times all things that man requires." The Emperor Alex- ius had expected a few thousand men in response to his call, where scores of thou- sands came. Mutual hatreds quickly sprang up, and the Capture of Nic^sa (1097). From a church window in the abbey of St. Denis, as pictured in a 12th century MS. Emperor was glad, m the spring of 1097, to speed the "Franks,"' as the crusaders were called, out of the city and across into Asia Minor. After several weeks' siege, Nicsea surrendered; but it passed, not to the crusaders, but to the Greeks. Suffer- ing from thirst and attacked by the Turks, the crusaders made their way through Asia Minor, with the loss of most of their horses. To add to the difficulties of their situation, quarrels arose between rival leaders. In front of Antioch, which they reached in October, 1097, they were checked for more than a year, by its strong walls and their lack of skill in the construction and operation of siege engines. J 24 AGE OF THE CKUSADES The events of this period, and the sentiments of the crusad- ers, are indicated in the following letter, which Stephen of 97 Letter j^jois, a powerful French noble, brother-in-law of the Bilg- ed "loX"^" lish king, wrote from before Antioch in March, 1098 : — " Count Stephen to Adele, his sweetest and most amiable wife, to his dear children, and to all his vassals of all ranks, — his greeting and blessing: ^ " You may be very sure, dearest, that the messenger whom I sent left me before Antioch safe and unharmed, and through G(xrs grace in the greatest prosperity. Already at that of pennttyi- time we had been continuously advancing for twenty- L"""'; .. three weeks toward the home of our Lord Jesus. You TratvtUxtionx, I.Sn.4{<:on- may know for certain, my beloved, that of gold, silver, and many other kinds of riches I now have twice as much as your love had assigned to me when I left you. " You liave certainly heard that, after the capture of the city of Nica'a, we fought a great battle with the perfidious Turks, and by (Jod's aid conquered them. Next we conquered for the Lord all Romania [i.e. the sultanate of Roum], and after- wards ( 'appadocia. Thence, continually following the wicked Turks, we drove them through Armenia, as far as the great riv.T ICiipli rates. Having left all their baggage and beasts of Imrd.'ii on the bank, they fled across the river into Arabia. •* Tlie bolder of the Turkish soldiers, indeed, entering Syria, liast.'ned by forced marches, night and day, in order to be able to tMiter the royal city of Antioch before our approach. The wlioh. army of God, learning this, gave due praise and thanks to the omnipotent Lord. Hastening with great joy to Antioch, we besieged it, and very often had many conflicts with the Turks; and seven times with the citizens of Antioch, and with tlio innun.erable troops coming to its aid, we fought with the fiercest courage, under the leadership of Christ. And in all these seven battles, by the aid of the Lord God, we conquered THE FIRST CRUSADE 125 and most assuredly killed an innumerable host of them. In those battles, indeed, and in very many attacks made upon the city, many of our brethren and followers were killed, and their souls were borne to the joys of Paradise. "In fighting against these enemies of God, and our own, we have by God's grace endured many sufferings and innumer- able evils up to the present time. Many have already ex- hausted all their resources in this very holy passion. Very many of our Franks, indeed, would have met a temporal death from starvation, if the clemency of God, and our money, had not succored them. Before the above mentioned city of Antioch, indeed, throughout the whole winter, we suffered for our Lord Christ from excessive cold and from enormous tor- rents of rain. What some say about the impossibility of bear- ing the heat of the sun throughout Syria is untrue, for the winter there is very similar to our winter in the West. " When the emir of Antioch — that is, prince and lord — per- ceived that he was hard pressed by us, he sent his son to the prince who holds Jerusalem, and to the prince of Damascus, and to three other princes. These five emirs, with twelve thousand picked Turkish horsemen, suddenly came to aid the inhabitants of Antioch. We, indeed, ignorant of all this, had sent many of our soldiers away to the cities and fortresses. For there are one hundred and sixty-five cities and fortresses throughout Syria which are in our power. But a little before they reached the city, we attacked them at three leagues' dis- tance with seven hundred soldiers. God fought for us, His faithful, against them. For on that day we conquered them and killed an innumerable multitude ; and we also carried back to the army more than two hundred of their heads, in order that the people might rejoice on that account. " These which I write you are only a few things, dearest, of the many which we have done. And because I am not able to tell you, dearest, what is in my mind, I charge you to do right, 98 Capture of Jerusa sultan lem (1099 j.j,; AGE OF THE CRUSADES to carefully watch over your laud, to do your duty as you ought to your children and your vassals. You will certainly see me just as soon as L can possibly return to you. Farewell." Autioch fell in June, lu98, betrayed to the crusaders by one of its inhabitants. Three days later an immense army sent bytheSeljukian arrived for its relief, and tiie crusaders them- selves were forced to stand siege. Through the aid of a vision thrii-e repeated, the lioly Lance, which pierced the side of ( 'iirist, was discovered i)uritMl in the soil: many disbelieved, but others were tired to l)rodigies of valor by liie sacred relic. The Turks were beaten off, and the crusaders jiroceeded southward along the coast. Owing to quarrels and delays on the road, it was June, 1099, l)ofore they came in sight of Jerusalem. A few months before, the calipli of Egypt had wrested the city from the Turks ; and lie n.)w offered free access to the Holy Sepulcher for unarmed pilgrims in small nuudjers. These terms were refused. After several weeks, the city was taken by assault (July 15, 1099). Then followed scenes which showed how little the teachings of Clirist had suuk into the crusaders' hearts. "When our Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Present condition. THE FIRST CRUSADE 127 men had taken the city, with its walls and towers," says an eyewitness, "there were things wondrous to be seen. Eor some of the enemy (and this is a small matter) were , , '^ ^ ^ Archer ana reft of their heads, while others, riddled through with Kings/ord, arrows, were forced to leap down from the towers; ''^'^aces, Si others, after long torture, were burned in the flames. In all the streets and squares there were to be seen piles of heads, and hands, and feet ; and along the public ways foot and horse alike made passage over the bodies of the dead." The vow of the crusaders was fulfilled : but at what a cost of lives, both Christian and Mohammedan ; of agonies of battle and sufferings on the way ; of women made widows, and children left fatherless ! At the beginning of the eleventh century, the Eastern Empire was prosperous and highly civilized. The Mohammedan world, under Arabian rule, was cultured and tolerant. The rise 99 g^^. of the Seljukian Turks (1058) changed political and reli- mary gious conditions, for Mohammedanism became intolerant and aggressive. The Eastern Empire soon lost most of its Asiatic possessions. To resist the Turks, Alexius Comnenus sought to enlist mercenary soldiers in the West, whicl\ was now in a con- dition to undertake distant enterprises. Religious zeal, the spirit of adventure, and greed for booty enabled Pope Urban II. to convert the aid sent to Alexius into the First Cru- sade. The impractical character of the times showed itself in the popular movement under Peter the Hermit and Wal- ter the Penniless (1096). The crusade of the knights was better managed, and resulted in the capture of Jerusalem (1099). But cruelty, jealousy, and self-seeking were as marked traits of the leaders as was devotion to religious ideals. In spite of flashes of lofty idealism, the crusader in Palestine was little different from the rude, superstitious, selfish baron at home. 128 AGE OF THE CRUSADES Surreitive topics 8«arch topics TOPICS (1) Which was the more exposed to barbarian attack, the East or the West? (2) What advantages were possessed in the Mid- dle Ages by a settled hereditary succession over a line of elec- tive rulers? Why are there not the same advantages to-day? (3) Compare the coming of the Turks into the East with that of the Germans into the West. (4) Were the causes of the Crusatles more in external events or in the prevalence of a par- ticular state of mind ? (5) AVhat motive besides the religious one led Stephen of Blois to the Crusade? (6) Why do men not go on crusades to-day ? (7) Why did the crusaders slay the Mohamme- dans at Jerusalem ? (8) Life ill Constantinople on the eve of the Crusades. (9) The debt of civilization to the Saracens. (10) The Mohammedan heretical sect of the Shiites. • (11) The First Crusade as seen by a participant. (12) Peter the Hermit in myth and in history, (i:}) Relations of the crusaders with the Eastern Emperor. (14) Bagdad in the Arabian Nights. (15) Works of art in Con- stantinople. (16) Arabian merchants in the Far East. Geography Secondary authorities SourccB Illustrative works REFERENCES Map, pp. 1 12, 113 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps Ixxi. Ixxii. Ixxvi. Ixxviii ; Dow, Atlas^ ix. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 258-268 ; Eraerton, M'diii'vul Europe, 858-366 ; B^mont and Monod, 3Iedieval Europe, 15})- 166, 331)-;355 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, ch. XV. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 151-184 ; Cornish, Chivalry, 10«>-124 ; Stills, Studies in Medieval History, 353-358 ; Munro and SeUery, Medieval Civilisation, 212-239; Archer and Kingsford, Crusades. 13-92 ; Mombert, S'hort History of the Crusades, chs. i.-iii.; Cutis, Scenes of the Middle Ages, ch. i. ; Cox, Crusades, chs. i.-iv. ; Munro, Essays on the Crusades; Gibbon, Decline and Fall nf the Human Empire (Bury's ed.), ch. Iviii. ; Milmau, His- tory uf Latin Christianity, bk. vii. ch. vi. ; Finlay, History of Greece, II. 198-226, III. 87-113; Historians' History of the World, VIII. ■?'2(u;{.)7. K.)bin8.>n. Headings, I. 312-329 ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source li'o'k. no.s. 274-283 ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Jieprmts. vol. I. Nos. 2 4. Scott, Count -Robert of Paris ; W. S. Davis, God Wills It. CHAPTER VIII. THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) X^^ / J >/ COUNTY OF ^ TRIPdLlV/^ EMIRATE ^ Sldoni!;^^ , o F Bamaacua A; A DAMASCUS ^ ^^ Km. of Jerusalem, 1229. SCALE OF MILES 25 50 75 100 After the successful termination of the First Crusade, the next task was to organize and safeguard the Christian con- quests. Jerusalem was made an independent kingdom, 100. Organ- 1 ,1 , ization of and the rest was organ- conquests ized into three auxiliary in Asia states — the principality of Antioch, and the counties of Edessa and Tripoli. God- frey of Bouillon was chosen to rule at Jerusalem ; and he took the title "Defender of the Holy Sepulcher" instead of king, being unwilling, it is Crusaders' States in Syria after THE First Crusade. said, " to wear a crown of gold where Christ had worn a crown of thorns." Most of the cru- saders departed as soon as their vows were fulfilled ; but others came to take their places, and gradually the power of the " Franks " was fixed in the regions about the four capital cities. The peasants — who were already, for the most part, Christians of vari- 129 l:'.() AGE OF THE CRUSADES ous Eastern faiths— kept their lands, paying tribute to their Latin masters, as they had formerly done to the Moham- mrdans. Above them were placed crusading lords, who held tli.'ir lands as fiefs, and whose castles helped to keep the land in (>bedi«*nce. Feudalism was transplanted full-grown into Palestine, and in the course of the twelfth century the feudal usap^s were drawn up into a code called the " Assizes of Jerusalem." Tlie lords were almost all French, and French Ix'canie the language of the Latin East ; but Italian merchants came in large numbers (from Venice, Genoa^ and Pisa espe- cially) to profit by the new facilities for trade. Besides the constant reenforcements from the West, the Friinks depended on three orders of knighthood which sprang lip t'si)e('ially to defend Holy Land: (1) the 101 The miliury tli( Knights Hospitaler of St. .John, formed oris:inallv to cart' for si(^k pilgrims; (2) the Knights Templar, so called from their heath luarters in the inclosure of the an- cient temjjle of Je- rusalem ; and (3) the Order of Teutonic Kniglits, which was ••oiu posed of Ger- mans, whereas the 'u.MuU'rs of the others were mostly French. The Hospitalers wore a white cross on a black mantle, the Templars a red one or. whitis and the Teutonic Knights a black cross on a white gro.uid. The members of these orders were monks, vowed to IK>verty, chastity, and obedience, and living under a rule ; but they were also knights, of noble birth, trained to arms, and Knight Templar. From a 13th century MS. THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 131 bound to perpetual warfare against the infidel. They consti- tuted a permanent force of military monks, resident in the Holy Land, with their own grand masters, fortresses, domains, and treasuries. In course of time they acquired immense possessions in Europe also. After the end of the crusading epoch, the Templars were forcibly dissolved and their goods confiscated ; the Teutonic Knights transferred themselves to the shores of the Baltic Sea, and there continued to wage war against the heathen ; and the Knights Hospitaler, taking refuge in Cyprus, in Rhodes, and finally in Malta, preserved an independent existence until the close of the eighteenth century. The Crusades continued throughout the twelfth and the greater part of the thirteenth century. It is customary to describe them as " First," " Second," and so on ; but this usage obscures the fact that the warfare was almost continu- ous, and that there was a constant movement of crusaders to and from the Holy Land. At times some exceptional occur- rence produced an increase of zeal, and it is to the exceptional expeditions that the conventional numbers apply, though other movements of almost equal importance must be passed by without notice. The so-called Second Crusade took place a half century after the first. It was caused by the consolidation of the petty Mohammedan states of Syria under one powerful ruler, 102. The the Atabek (viceroy) of Mosul. The Latin states were ^^^^'^'^ ^^^^ weakened by quarrels of the Templars with the Hospi- (1147-1149) talers, of the French with other nationalities, of the Genoese with the Pisans and Venetians, and. of newcomers from the West with the older settlers, whom they accused of too great favor toward the infidels. These divisions made it easy for the atabek, in 1144, to conquer Edessa and massacre its garri- son ; and news of this disaster caused Saint Bernard, abbot of the Cistercian monastery of Clairvaux, to make himself the preacher of another crusade. Bernard was a man of rare ability, Harding's m. & m. hist. — 8 l-jo AGE OF THE CRUSADES nluratiuii, aiul devotion, and was the most important figure ol tl..- twelfth century; iu some respects he is the most typical man of the Middle Ages. His influence induced two sovereigns, Louis VII. of France and Conrad 111. of Germany, U) take the cross and lead the crusading forces. Tlu- route of the Second Crusade was the old one, down the Diinube valley and across Bulgaria to Constantinople. Most of the CJermans, under Conrad III., perished in Asia Minor, through the attacks of the Turks and the hardships of the way. Of the army under Louis VIL, those without money to pay for their passage aboard ship continued by land- and were iibnost all destroyed. Only a few troops of the two great iinnies which set out from Europe reached Palestine. The whole cxitedition was a lamentable failure — a result ascribed by some to their^sins, by others to treachery of the Greeks, but really due to the miserable mismanagement of the leaders. The power of the atabeks of Mosul grew to yet greater heights. The emir of Damascus was conquered; then Egypt 103 Sala- "^^''^^ taken, and the caliphate there was suppressed (llTl) din and the {^y the famous Saladin (Salah-ed-Din), nephew of the fall of Jeru- *^ \ /' r saiem reigning atabek, who secured all of his nncle's domin- (1187) JQj^g^ j^j^j took the title of sultan. The Christians in Syria now found themselves exposed to attacks from one who was wise in counsel, brave in battle, and as chival- rous in conduct and sincere iu his faith as the best of his Christian foes. In July, 1187, Saladin won a great victory over the Franks, taking captive the king of Jerusalem and the iiniwrsiti/ gi"and master of the Templars. " So great is the niulti- ofPenmyl- tude of the Saraccus and Turks," wrote a Hospitaler, Tmn^latinm, ai.i>ealing to Europe for aid, "that from Tyre, which /. -Vo. •/ they are besieging, they cover the face of the earth as far as Jerusalem, like an innumerable army of ants." In Octo- ber .Icrusalcm itself fell, and the Latin states were reduced to a few strongly fortified towns near the coast. THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 133 The loss of Jerusalem caused another great outburst of crusading zeal in Europe. Public fasts and prayers were en- joined in the Western Church, and the fullest privileges 104. Third and spiritual benefits were promised those who should go Crusade ^ ^ » organized to the relief of the Holy Land. The three greatest kings (1189-1190) of western Europe — Richard I. the Lion-Hearted (Coeur de Lion), of England ; Philip 11. , surnamed Augustus, of France ; and Frederick I. of Germany, called Barbarossa (Redbeard) — took the cross, and assumed the lead of the Third Crusade. The Emperor Frederick, who had gone in his youth on the Second Crusade, was the first to start on the Third. Thorough organization and strict discipline enabled Frederick to lead his army by the Danube route without the customary losses ; but while crossing a mountain torrent in Asia Minor the old Emperor was drowned (June, 1190), and thereupon the Ger- man expedition went to pieces. The preparations of Richard and Philip were delayed by their mutual hostilities, and it was not until after the death of Frederick that they actually started, both expeditions going by water. The measures taken against lawlessness and violence are shown by the following regulations, drawn up by Richard for the English fleet : " Whoever on board ship shall slay another is himself to be cast into the sea lashed to the dead man ; if he have slain him ashore, he is to be buried in the same way. . . . Let a convicted thief be shorn like a Archer, prize fighter; after which let boiling pitch be poured £^^*"^^?^ on his head and a feather pillow be shaken over it so 9-10 as to make him a laughing stock. Then let him be put ashore at the first land where the ships touch." At Messina, in Sicily, the two expeditions met and spent the winter. For the combined armies these regulations were Archer, issued: "Let no one in the whole army play at any Richard I game for a stake — saving only knights and clerks, who, 37-39 however, are not to lose more tban twenty solidi [^solidus = a |..4 AGE OF THE CRUSADES silver coin] in the twenty-four hours. ... The kings, how- ever, may play at their good pleasure. ... If, after starting (Ml the journey, any pilgrim has borrowed from another man, he shall pay the debt; but so long as he is on the pilgrimage he shall not be liable for a debt contracted before starting. . . . No merchant of any kind may buy bread or flour in the army to sell it a^'ain. . . . Merchants, no matter of what calling, shall only make a profit of one penny in ten." In Sicily the two kings wrangled; and Richard, following lip ;i (luurrel with the Sicilian ruler, took Messina and sacked 105 Third it. Philip at last departed without Richard, and reached Crusade ^cre in Syria in April, 1191. The English, following carried out j ± ^ ^ 1191 1192) later, again turned aside — this time to conquer Cyprus, whose king had permitted the plunder of pilgrim vessels on his coast. i icK.sENT View of Acre. in .lune, iliehurd joined Philip before Acre, the siege of whirh had already dragged on for more than twenty months. 'Kh!l^rZ^ 'V^''"^' ^'""'''^ '' ""'^ '" ^^^ ^^™P'" ^^I'ote one of the be- ('n..nrirs, ' siegers before this date ; « there is none that doeth good. •^^•» The leaders strive with one another, while the lesser folk starv.. and have none to help. The Turks are persistent in THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 135 attack, while our knights skulk within their tents." The arrival of Richard infused new energy into the operations. He was an undutil'ul son, an oppressive king, and (in spite of his superficial chivalry and courtesy) a violent and cruel man ; but he was a warrior of splendid strength and skill, and one of the best military engineers of the Middle Ages. In July, Acre capitulated; when the ransom agreed upon was not forth- coming, Richard massacred 2000 hostages left in his hands. After the fall of Acre, Philip returned to France, taking an oath not to attack Eichard's territories in his absence — an oath which he straightway broke. In the subsequent opera- tions in Syria, motives of selfish interest were more prominent than in the First Crusade. In January, 1192, Richard advanced almost to within sight of Jerusalem, but was forced to retreat. Finally, news came from England that his brother John had rebelled against him, in alliance with Philip of France. Recalled by this news, Richard set out in October for home. He landed at the head of the Adriatic Sea, and sought to make his way in disguise through Germany ; but was recog- nized, and was thrown into prison by the duke of Austria, whom he had grievously offended on the crusade. He had made an enemy of the Emperor also by allying himself with German rebels ; so he obtained his liberty only after two years of captivity, and on the payment of a ruinous ransom. The remainder of his life (he died in 1199) was spent in warfare with Philip of France. Saladin, who had done so much to revive the Mohammedan power, died in 1193. The enthusiasm which produced the Crusades was slowly dying out, but the exhortations of the papacy could still call it forth to momentary activity. Innocent III., who became ,«„ _ •^ -^ . ' 106 Fourth Pope in 1198, appealed to the princes of Europe, as Crusade vassals of Christ, to reconquer for Him the Holy Land. ^ -1204) No king responded to this call, but a number of knights and nobles (mostly French) gathered at Venice for the Fourth M AGE OF THE CRUSADES Crusad*' in 1201. It was intended at livst to strike at the Mohaiui.ie.lan [nnvev in Egypt, as the likeliest way to secnre tlie permanent recovery of Palestine ; bnt circumstances led the crusaders to turn their arms against Constantinople, and waste tlieir strength in fighting Christian foes. Six years earlier the Greek emperor, Isaac Angelus, had been overthrown, blinded, and imprisoned through a revolution; and his son came to the West to beg for aid. The Veoetians, who had contracted to carry the crusaders to the East for a large sum of money, cared little for the cru- sade, but a great deal for their con- tract. When the crusaders found that they were not able to pay the full amount they had agreed upon, the Venetian " doge " (duke) Dan- dolo — a man ninety years of age and blind, but possessed of the highest courage and ambition for his city — induced their chiefs to turn their arms against Constanti- nople. Pope Innocent III. had already excommunicated the cru- saders for attacking a Christian town in Dalnuitia to aid the Venetians; but it was rightly believed that the prospect of extending the papal power over the Greek Church would cause him to forget his anger. After a short siege, Constantinople fell in July, 1203 — the first time it was ever taken by a foreign foe. Isaac Angelus 107 Sack ^""'^^ restored to his throne, but he and his son soon per- of Constan- ished in a rebellion of the fanatical poimlace, and the crusaders were forced to capture the city a second time. Terril)le punishment was now meted out to the van- DoOK OF V^KNICE. Costume before the 16th century, Fmiii Cesare Vecellio. tinople THE LATER CRUSADES (1009-1291) 137 quished. In three great fires the most populous parts of the city were destroyed. Violence and indignity were the lot of the survivors ; and Pope Innocent III. accused the crusaders of respecting neither age, nor sex, nor religious profession. The city was systematically pillaged; even the churches were profaned, and stripped of their rich hangings and of their gold and silver vessels. Precious works of art — St. Mark's Church, Venice. Facade remodeled in fifteenth century. the accumulation of a thousand years — were desti:oyed ; statues of brass and bronze were broken up and melted for the metal which they contained ; and the Venetians carried to Venice the four bronze horses which still adorn the front of their Church of St. Mark. The more pious gave themselves to the search for holy relics — a venerable and profitable booty. As a result of this sack, Constantinople lost forever that , unique splendor which had made it the wonder of the world. 138 AGE OF THE CRUSADES In the division of the conquered territory the Venetians got the lion's share, receiving practically a monopoly of the trade of the empire, together with the possession of most of 108 Latin i ? o n i tt. t t • Empire of the islands and coast lands of the i%gean and Ionian ConstanU- ^^ _^^ ,^,j^^ rcjnainder of the empire (so far as it was in a204-1261; the possession of the crusaders) was divided among their (•hi»'fs, :uid a feudal state was erected : of this '' Latin Empire " Saladin's Kmpiiie, and the Results of the Fourth Crusade. of Constantinople, Count Baldwin of Flanders was chosen em- peror, while a Venetian priest was set as Patriarch over the Greek (Jhurch. " No feudal state was ever strong, but no feudal state was Tout, ^^'^'' ^'^ ^^'^^'^^ '^^ t^^ ^^tin Empire in the East ; " this was Kmpire ami oliieHy due to the hostility of the Greeks to their new masters. In Asia ^Minor there was from the beginning a rival -ov.'iiiiiicnt whie-li afforded a rallying point for the (nvck nationality; and when Constantinople was recaptured by tlic (in-oks. in 12(^1, the Latin Empire was overthrown, after lialt a criitury of uncertain existence. In certain localities PtflKicff, :itu THE LATER CRUSADES (109U-12i)l) 139 » " Frank " leudatories were enabled to hold out longer, and the remams of their castles still dot the landscape of Greece. The Venetians kept much of their conquests for centuries, and long after the Middle Ages they retained something of the power in the eastern Mediterranean which Dandolo, their blind old doge, gained for them in the Fourth Crusade. Throughout the thirteenth century there was much talk of crusades, and Europe was systematically and regularly taxed for them, but with very little positive results. In 1218 109. Cru- an expedition composed mainly of Germans, who made ^.^^® the long voyage around by Gibraltar in three hundred Egypt ships, was directed against Egypt. The city of Damietta, (1218-1221) in the delta of the Nile, was taken, and the sultan offered in exchange the kingdom of Jerusalem. The offer was rejected ; then the crusaders were defeated, and were glad to give up Damietta in return merely for a free retreat (1221). In 1228-1229 occurred a crusade under the Emperor Frederick II. which resulted in restoring Jerusalem for a time to the Christians, although the crusade was hampered by hq (jru- Frederick's quarrel with the Pope, who excommunicated sade . byFred- him (§ 132) both before and after he sailed. Frederick, erick II. who was in advance of his age, treated with the sultan (1228-1229) instead of fighting him ; aud by skillful negotiation he secured a truce for ten years, and the restoration of Bethlehem, Nazareth, and Jerusalem to the Christians (map, p. 129). After Frederick's departure, the kingdom of Jerusalem was for fifteen years filled with the wars and brigandage of Chris- tians ; and the only thing that saved it thus long from recap- ture was the fact that the Mohammedan world also was torn by dissensions. In 1244 Jerusalem was finally lost to a new Turkish race (the Charisnuans) fresh from the interior of Asia. This calamity produced no great outburst of crusading zeal ; the Popes were engaged in the last desperate struggle with the Hohenstaufen Emperors (see ch. x.), and the peoples and j^,j AGE OF THE CRUSADES prinres of western Europe were beginning to be occupied with problems nearer home. However, in 1248, Louis IX. of France (later canonized as a saint ) s.-t o'ut for Egypt with a French army. He succeeded ,,uly in duplicating the failure of 1218 : again Damietta crusades ^ was taken ; then the army was defeated, King Louis and (1248 1291. jj^Qj.^ ^j- i^jg men were captured, and he was forced to ransom himself by the surrender of Damietta and the payment of a large sum of money. After his release the king remained for four years (until 1254) in Syria, strengthening the few Christian posts that were left. In 1270 Louis IX. again undertook a crusade, but was di- verted this time to Tunis. There he "died of the plague, and the army returned to France. Prince Edward of England had taken the cross at the same time, and spent two years in Syria, but returned in 1272 to take the English crown as Edward I. Acre, the last Christian stronghold in Syria, fell in 1291. Thereafter no armies went to Syria or Egypt to attempt the recovery of the holy places. Thenceforth the Latin power in the East was represented only by the islands of Cyprus and Rhodes. Soon Christendom had to tax its energies to defend I'urope itself against the Ottoman Turks, the latest and most formidable champions of Mohammedanism. The period of the Crusades was at an end. The tendency has been to exaggerate the influence of the Crusades and to minimize the importance of other factors 112 Re '" changing the institutions and customs of Europe. suits of the Ncvcitludess, the migration, year by year, of thousands Crusades n ot persons to and from the Mohammedan East, during a period of nearly two centuries, could not but have important results foi- ihe Christian West. (1) In respect to military usages, Europe owed to the Cru- sjwles the drum, trumpet, tents, quilted armor for the protection (»r the coiiinion soldier, the surcoat worn over the knightly coat THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 141 of mail, the whole system of armorial "bearings" (heraldic devices on shields, etc.) by which knights proclaimed their family and lineage, and many improvements in the art of build- ing and taking fortihed places : " the siege of great fenced Oman, His- cities like Nica^a, Antioch, or Jerusalem was almost an ^^''-^ Y ^'^!. ' Art of education in itself to the engineers of the West." Among War, 5^ social effects were the increased use of baths, the increased use of pepper and other spices in foods, and the wearing of the beard. (2) On the development of commerce, the Crusades exerted a great influence. Italian cities like Venice, Pisa, and Genoa State Barge of Venice. grew rich through the transportation of pilgrims and cru- saders and their supplies, and through the importation into Europe of the products of the East. In the north, such cities as Ratisbon, Nuremberg, and the market towns of northern France developed as distributing centers for the importations of Italy, and regular routes of inland commerce were estab- lished. Money became increasingly necessary ; banks were established, and means of exchange devised. " It was . . . not simply during the Crusades," says the German historian Prutz, " but as a result of them, and of the commerce which they had called into being, that money became a power — we might almost say a world power." 142 AGE OF THE CRUSADES (3) A multitude of new natural products and manufactures — such as sugar cane, buckwheat, rice, garlic, hemp; the orange, watermelon, lemon, lime, and apricot ; dyestuffs, cot- tons, muslins, damask, satin, and velvet — were introduced from the East in the Middle Ages ; but it is difficult to say which of these came as a result of the Crusades, and which from peaceful intercourse with Constantinople, Syria, northern Africa. ;ind S])ain. (4) The political and social organization of Europe was already undergoing profound modification, and the Crusades helped on the change. Crusaders often freed their serfs to get money, or for the good of their souls. The wealth gained by townsmen in commerce enabled them to buy or wrest important rights of self-government from their lords. The feudal nobles, especially of France, were greatly weakened by the enormous waste of their numbers and resources in the East ; and the lower classes and the crown were correspondingly strengthened. In Germany, where as a class the nobles would have nothing to do with the Crusades, they were neither im- poverished nor reduced in numbers, nor was their military and political importance diminished; for this reason, among others, Germany was later than France in entering upon the path of social progress, industrial development, and real national unity. (5) The most important influence of all was in the world of thought. The hundreds of thousands who made the jouniry to the Orient had their minds stimulated and their mental horizons broadened by beholding new lands, new peoples, and new customs. "They came from their castles Lavisse ami ^"'^ their villages," says a French writer, " having seen nll'!oire'^' nothing, more ignorant than our peasants ; they found Gdndraie, tliemselves suddenly in great cities, in the midst of new II.34fi countries, in the presence of unfamiliar usages." Thus the way was |)aved for the subtle change in intellectual atmos- THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 143 phere, beginning in the fourteenth century, which we style the Renaissance. Tliis we may reckon the greatest though the most indefinite result of the whole crusading movement ; but other factors, it must not be forgotten, were already working in the same direction. The conquests made by the crusaders in the Holy Land were organized as a feudal kingdom, of which the chief defense was the three crusading orders — the Knights jj, g^j^^ Hospitaler, the Knights Templar, and the Teutonic mary Knights. The Second Crusade (1147-1149), occasioned by the fall of Edessa, was undertaken by Conrad III. of Ger- many and Louis VII. of France, and ended in failure. The Third Crusade (1189-1192), caused by the capture of Jeru- salem by Saladin in 1187, was led by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, King Richard I. of England, and Philip Augustus of France; Acre was taken, but Jerusalem remained in the hands of the Mohammedans. The Fourth Crusade (1201- 1204) was turned by the Venetians against Constantinople, and resulted in the establishing of the Latin Empire of the East, which lasted from 1204 to 1261. The Emperor Frederick II. led a crusade (1228-1229), which regained Jeru- salem through treaty ; but it was lost again in 1244. In 1248 Louis IX. of France led an unsuccessful crusade against Egypt; and in 1270 he led a second crusade against Tunis, equally without result. After 1291 the crusading movement to the East was at an end. Although the Cru- sades failed to recover permanently the Holy Land, they profoundly influenced Europe, especially through the wider outlook and the stimulus to thought which they supplied. TOPICS (1) Why were the Latin states in the East organized on a fendai Suggestive model ? (2) To what forces was the defense of Palestine left in *°P^°^ lU AGE OF THE CRUSADES Search topics the intervals between the Crusades? (3) Why did the Second Crusade fail? (4) Compare the organization and leadership of the Third Crusade with that of the First. Why did it accomplish less ? (5) Was the Fourth Crusade more of a religious or a politi- cal war? (6) Why were the later crusades directed against Egypt? (7) Why did the crusading movement come to an end when it did ? (8) Did the Crusades on the whole do more good or more harm? (9) The life of a Knight Templar. (10) Saint Bernard as a preacher of the Second Crusade. (11) Relations of Christians and Mohammedans in Palestine. (12) Saladin. (13) The sect of the Assassins and the Old Man of the Mountain. (14) Richard the Lion-Hearted as a crusader. (15) The " Children's Crusade." (16) The Crusade of Frederick XL (17) The Crusade of Louis IX. to Egypt. (18) Effect of the Crusades on home realms and estates of crusaders. Geography Secondary authorities Sources Illustrative works REFERENCES Maps, pp. 112, 113, 129, 138 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps vi. Ixxvi. Ixxxix. ; Dow, Atlas, ix. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 268-278 ; B6mont and Monod, Medieval Europe, 355-374 ; Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, 367-397 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, ch, xv. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 185-197, 295-303, 336-357, 450-463; Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, ch. xxiii. ; Munro and Sellery, Medieval Civilization, 248-256 ; Archer and Kingsford, Crusades, chs. xiv. xvii.-xxii. xxiv. xxv. xxviii. ; Cornish, Chivalry, 125-153 ; Morabert, Short History of the Crusades, chs. v. vii. xiii. xiv. xvii. ; Cox, Crusades, chs. v.-xv. ; Oman, Histoid of the Art of War, 229-350; Lacroix, Military and BeUgious Life in the Middle Ages, 104-136 ; Finlay, History of Greece, IV. ch. iii. ; Historians' History of the World, VIII. 358-480. Robinson, Beadings, I. 330-345 ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, nos. 284-288 ; University of Pennsylvania, Translatious and Beprints, III. No. 1, II. Nos. 2, 4 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, bk. i. no. vi., bk. iii. nos. v. vii. ; JJhronicles of the Crusades (Bohn) ; Archer, Crusade of BicharifL Scott, Ivanhoc,— TJie Talisman; J. G. Edgar, 'T/ie Boy Cru- saders ; C. M. Yonge, The Prince and the Page ; V^^ion Crawford, Via Crucis ; L^on Cahun, The Blue Banner ;■ Maurice Hewlett, Bichard Yea-and-Nay. CHAPTER IX. THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE AND THE ITALIAN COM- MUNES (1125-1190) We must now turn to the history of Germany and Italy in the period of the Crusades. The death of Henry V. — the last of the Franconian Emperors — in 1125 without a son ^^ Pj.q_ gave opportunity for a free election for the lirst time in l^de to a century ; and Lothair II. of Saxony was chosen king fgn period of Germany. "It is with good right," says a writer of (1125-1138) that time, "that we call Lothair the father of his country, for he upheld it strenuously and was always ready to risk his life for justice's sake." " In his days," says another, "the service of God increased and there was plenty Tout Em- in all things." In 118.3 Lothair led an expedition into P^''^ «'"^ Papacy, Italy to settle a disputed election to the papacy, and 225 was crowned Emperor. A second expedition to Italy three years later was successfully directed against the Norman, Roger IL, who had united southern Italy to Sicily; but in the moment of victory the Pope and the Emperor quarreled over the suzerainty of the Norman territories. Lothair, who was upward of seventy years of age, died on his way back to Germany. Two years later, Roger made a peace with the papacy by which his assumption of the title King of Sicily was sanctioned, and he agreed to hold his kingdom as a papal fief. On the death of Lothair without a son, Conrad, nephew of Henry V,, was chosen king at an assembly in which the magnates of Franconia and Swabia alone were present. In 145 146 AGE OF THE CRUSADES his person, the Hoheii- staufen house, the most brilliant of all the imperial houses, mounted the throne, and for six reigns it guided the destinies of Germany and Italy (reigns 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, and 8 in table below).^ The candidate of the Saxons and Bava- , rians in 1138 115. Guelf ^1 , . n and Ghibel- was the head oi 1^^® the family of Welf, Henry the Proud, duke of Bava- ria and Saxony and son-in-law of Lothair ; he made himself the Ruins of Hohenstaufkn. (From an old print.) iTHE HOUSES OF WELF AND HOHENSTAUFEN IN GERMANY Frederick (1) Lothair IL, of Saxony Henry the Black, r.f (1125-1137) Duke of Bavaria, HOHENSTAUFEN =.\gnes, sister of the head of the house I Emperor Henry V. of WELF (see table, p. 98) Gertrude = Henry the Proud Henry the Lion (d. 1195) C6) Otto IV. (1198-1214) (d. 1218) Judith = Frederick the One-eyed, Duke of Swabia | (2) Conrad III. (llBS-1152) First Hoheiv- William, (3) Frederick I., Barbarossa staufen king (1152-1190) I ancestor of the Electors of Hanover and of the Hanoverian sovereig-ns of Great Britain (4) Henry VI. (1190-1197) (7) Frederick II. (1214-1250) (5) PlIlMH OF SWABlA (1198-1208) Henry (8) Conrad IV. (d. 1242) (1250-1254) Conradin (slain, 1268) 1 Manfred (illegit. ; d. 126G) THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 147 head of the North German opposition to the Hohenstaiifen, and for three quarters of a century the kingdom was torn by the quarrels of these powerful families. TJieir rival cries, "Hi Welfen!" and "Hi Waiblingen ! " (the latter from a little village of Swabia near the castle of Hohenstaufen), gave rise to new party names. Beginning as a struggle ' of rival families, the contest became a warfare of contending principles. In general, the Hohenstaufen party, or " Ghibel- lines" (corrupted from Waiblingen), stood for the principle of strong monarchical government and for imperial rule over Italy ; whereas the " Guelf " (or Welf) party represented feu- dal opposition to the monarchy, and the independence of the Italian towns. It w^as impossible for the papacy to avoid taking sides; in Germany its influence was usually, and in Italy almost always, on the side of the Guelfs. " Broadly Fisher, speaking, the Guelfs were papalists, the Ghibellines ini- Mediseval perialists ; the Ghibellines were the party who desired a 331 strong government, the Guelfs the party who preferred par- ticularism ; the Ghibellines would bring in the German, the* Guelfs would cry ' Italy for the Italians.' " But these larger issues were gradually lost sight of in the feuds of factions; and by the fifteenth century the names Guelf and Ghibelline lingered only in Italy, where they came to mean no more than party differences in the mode of building battlements, in wear- ing feathers in the cap, in cutting fruit at the table, in habits of yawning, passing in the street, throwing dice, gestures in speaking or swearing. A quarrel between Conrad III. and Henry the Proud began almost immediately through Conrad's attempt to deprive his Welf rival of his duchies. Dukedoms, like the office ni., first of count, though originally in the gift of the king, were Hohen- fast becoming hereditary ; this attack, therefore, produced Emperor civil war. In the midst of the struggle Henry the Proud (1138-1152) died, leaving as his heir a ten-year-old son, later known as Harding's m. & m. hist. — 9 248 AGE OF THE CKUSADES Henry the Lion; a compromise was then ai-ranged by whiclt the ducliy of Saxony was restored to the honse of Wcdf, but Bavaria was withheld. The great event of Conrad's reign was tlie German ex- pansion to the northeast, which in spite of anarchy and civil ^ war went steadily on. It owed its snccess to the efforts of local rulers ; especially was it indebted to a great religious leader, Norbert, Archbishop of Magdeburg, the founder of a new order of clergy (the Premonstratensian canons), who took the leading part in Christianizing and civilizing the Slavs beyond the Elbe. Modern historians maintain that it is impossible to establish the descent of the municipal governments of the JNliddle Ages 117. Italian fi'^ni those of Roman times. In Italy, as elsewhere, the communes Germanic invasions left the ancient cities dismantled and reduced in population. Those wdio continued to dwell on the ancient sites were mere serfs, like the peasants of the surround- ing country, and were governed by counts or (as in Lombardy) by bishops who held the powers of counts. Nevertheless many elements of urban life, though not of municipal institutions, were preserved ; these, with the privi- leges and immunities granted the count-bishops, and the ad- vantages afforded for commerce and industry, led to an earlier revival of city life there than elsewhere. Walls were restored or newly erected, and in time city governments followed. The union of merchants and artisans in " guilds," for the control of commerce and of different trades or crafts, became a prece- dent for that larger union of the inhabitants wdiich eventu- ally wrested freedom and self-government from their rulers. Thus, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries the count-bishops of the Lombard cities lost their sovereign rights, which passed to the citizens. At the same time war was made upon neigh- boring barons, whose castles threatened the newly won inde- pendence of the towns ; and the feudal nobility were forced to THE IIOIIENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 149 throw in their lot with the municipalities, taking up their resi- dence for part of every year within the city walls. Danger from without was thus reduced, but another danger followed: every city soon bristled with tall, battlemented towers, the strongholds of rival clans; and family, factional, and regional fights, the expression of hereditary hatreds, became alarmingly frequent. In the communes of Lombardy there were three chief organs of government. The executive power in war and peace was in the hands of a board of " consuls," varying in number from eight to twenty, chosen for short terms, and paid out of the city treasury. As advisers and assistants to the consuls there were secret councils, without whose consent no important action could be taken. Behind these stood the general as- sembly (the Parlamentum) of all the men belonging to the commune ; but this, in most cities, was convened only on extraordinary occasions. These communal governments were free in the sense that they were practically exempt from external control ; but their citizens were far from enjoying individual liberty. The mem- ber of a commune was bound to his town as closely as a serf to the soil ; he belonged all his life to a certain class, to a trade, to a guild, to a parish, to a ward ; and the details of his private life — such as the number of trees he might plant in his orchard, the number of priests and candles he might em- ploy at funerals — were ail precisely regulated. With the growth of city life, and the discussions aroused by the investiture conflict, came the revival of the study of Roman or civil law. Until the twelfth century, the written law ,,„ „. ., ■^' _ 118. Civil of Rome, though regarded with superstitious reverence, and canon was imperfectly understood; now men awoke to the con- ^^ sciousness that in its precepts were principles applicable to the new conditions produced by the rise of city life. At Bologna, the fame of Irnerius, who began to lecture on the Code and 150 AGE OF THE CRUSADES Institutes of Justinian about the year 1110, drew together a body of students which numbered ten thousand by the close of Pollock and the century. '' Of all the centuries," says a writer on the Maitland, j^igtory of law, " the twelfth is the most legal. In no age Taw' f. Ill since the classical days of Roman law has so large a part of the sum total of intellectual endeavor been devoted to juris- prudence. . . . From every corner of western Europe students flocked to Italy. It was as if a new gospel had been revealed. Before the end of the century complaints were loud that the- ology was neglected, that the liberal arts were despised, . . . that men would learn law and nothing but law." A powerful class of trained lawyers resulted from this study. One of the principles of Roman jurisprudence was that " the Institutes, '^^'ill of the prince has tlie force of law " ; the lawyers, /. a. 6 therefore, became valual)le allies of Emperors and kings in their warfare against feudal and clerical opponents, and greatly aided in transforming the feudal sovereignties of the Middle Ages into the absolute monarcliies of the seventeenth century. At the same time with the revival of the study of the civil law, the study of the church or canon law also received a powerful impetus, in part because of such contests as that over investiture, and in part from the preparation of a text-book on canon law called (from its author, a monk named Gratian) the Decretum Gratiani. The canon law was based on the teachings of Scripture and the Fathers, the decrees of church councils, and the decretals of Popes (not excepting the False Decretals, § 63). It became as elaborate and comprehensive a system as the civil law; and canon lawyers proved as zealous upholders of the papal claims as civil lawyers were of imperial prerogatives. When the princes of Germany met, in 1152, to select a successor to Conrad III., they passed by his infant son and chose his nephew Frederick, in whose veins ran Welf as well THE HOHENSTAtTFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 151 as Hoheiistaufeii blood (see genealogy on p. 14()). This elec- tion, taken with the two preceding ones, established it as " the cardinal principle of the law of the Roman Empire," to nse the language of a contemporary chronicler, " that the succession depends not upon hereditary right, but on the elec- tion of the princes." The Gern ■ kingship was becoming definitel^v • !ef ^^^^^%^^^k ive, while in France and Englauv ' ^^^^P^^^m crown was becoming definitely hei tary. This difference was due in large part to the fact that the German king, after his coronation by the Pope, was also Emperor, and the Popes never ad- mitted that the imperial dignity was hereditary, or that the coronation as Emperor was to be considered a mere form. Papal influence, therefore, com- bined with the interest of the princes to keep up the custom of election. Frederick L, surnamed Barbarossa (Redbeard), was in many respects the ideal Emperor of the Middle Ages. He combined the qualities of a skilled statesman and good general with the virtues of a crusader and hero of ro- mance. His greatest ambition, as he wrote the Pope soon after his accession, was to restore the grandeur of the Roman Empire in all its ancient vigor and excellence. But unlike Otto HI., Frederick was no dreamer; he sought to know his rights as Emperor, and he used practical means to enforce them : he has well been called an " imperialist Hildebrand." His 119. Acces- sion of Frederi''' Barb?: .; oa ,1152/ Frederick I. Twelfth centuiy sculp- ture on wall of a Bavarian monastery. 238 152 AGE OF THE CRUSADES first task was to settle affairs north of the Alps so tliat he might be free to carry out his imperial ambitions in Italy. Bavaria was restored to his cousin Henry the Lion, while its dispossessed holder was given a new duchy, that of Austria (Oesterreich), formed from the old Ostmark of Bavaria. Before these arrangements were completed, Frederick was called into Italy, where the ambition of the Norman king was 120 First (^ausing trouble, and the Roman populace had rebelled Italian ex- against the Pope and set up a commune. The leading sjurit Frederrckl. at Rome was a visionary reformer named Arnold of l)res- (1154-1155) gjj^ — ^ j-,-,j^^j^ Saint Bernard once wrote, "whose words are Mlhiian, as liouey, but whose doctrines are poison, whom Brescia tf((iiity,IV. cast forth, at whom Rome shuddered, whom France has banished, whom Germany will soon hold in abomination, whom Italy will not endure." From Lombardy also came com- plaints of the oppressions suffered by the smaller cities from their powerful neighbor Milan. Hastening over the Alps in 1154, Frederick taught the Italians, by the destruction of Tortona, one of Milan's allies, that the Emperor was still to be feared. At Pavia he assumed the iron crown of Italy, and soon after received the imperial crown at Rome from Pope Adrian IV., the only Englishman who ever filled the papal office. Rome was reduced to order, and Arnold of Brescia, who was handed over to the prefect of the city by Frederick, was hanged and his body burned. Soon after Frederick's return from Italy, a quarrel broke out, which shows the difficulty of long preserving harmonious relations between papacy and empire. A legate of Adrian IV. delivered a letter to Frederick in which mention was made of the "benefits" (benejicia) conferred upon the Emperor by the Pope. When objection was made to the letter on the ground that the language used might bear the sense of a feudal "benefice" granted by a lord to a vassal, the legate added fuel to the fire by asking, "Of whom, then, does he hohl the THE HOIIENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 153 empire but of our lord the Pope ? " In a written declaration Frederick replied that "the empire is held by us, through the election of the princes, from God alone. . . . Whoso- Matthews, ever says that we received the imperial crown from the Medixval Documents, lord Pope as a benefice, goes against the divine com- 83 mandment and the teaching of Peter, and is guilty of false- hood." Subsequently the Pope explained that the word hene- Jicia in his letter meant benefits and not fiefs ; but the distrust aroused could not be allayed. From 1158 to 1162 Frederick was again in Italy, called thither by the ambitions of the Milanese. After a brief resist- ance, tlieir city submitted. A great "diet," or meeting 121 Second of imperial vassals and communes, was held in the plain Italian ex- of Roneaglia ; and in order that the Emperor's preroga- Frederick I. tives might be known for the future, all holders of rights (1158-1162) of government and the like were required to show by what warrant they exercised them. With respect to the Lombard cities, it was announced that the Emperor's control was no longer to be merely nominal, but that their magistrates would be appointed by him with the assent of the people. Opposition to the execution of these decrees soon manifested itself. At Milan the attempt to set up a foreign magistrate in place of the elective consuls led to a new revolt, in which the citizens with heroic courage held out for three years. When at last famine forced them to yield, Frederick, "hardening his face like a rock," decreed the destruction of their city : the loudest complaints against Milan had come from its Italian enemies, and it was their hands which carried out the decree. The successes of the Emperor in Lombardy aroused appre- hensions at Rome. When Adrian IV. died, a majority 122. Pa- of tlie cardinals chose as Pope, under the name of Alex- pa-cy and Lombard ander III. (1159-1181), that legate whose bold language League had called forth Frederick's declaration concerning the (1159-1174) imperial office ; in ability and lofty ambition he proved a 154 AGE OF THE CRUSADES worthy successor of the great Hildebrand. The minority of the cardinals elected an anti-pope favorable to the imperial cause. To the demand that the disputed election should be referred to a council of the whole church, Alexander replied, "No one has the right to judge me, since I am the supreme The Lombard League (11(57) and the Tuscan League (1196). judge of all the world." Frederick supported his anti-pope, and in 1165 swore never to acknowledge Alexander III. or any Pope elected by his party ; but by France, England, and the rest of Western Christendom Alexander was recognized. After four years of exile in France, Alexander returned to Rome, in 1105, only to be driven forth two years later by a THE IIOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 155 force which Frederick led over the Alps. The Lombard com- munes then united in a league against the Emperor; and the very cities which had demanded the destruction of Milan now lent aid to rebuild and refortify it. Within a few months the chief towns of the plain of the Po, from Milan to Venice, from Bergamo to Bologna, were formed into a confederation pledged to mutual assistance. Alexander sent his blessing to the con- federates, and they in turn supported his cause ; and a new city, founded to guard the descent into Italy by the western passes, was named Alessandria in his honor. Out of hatred to Ger- many, Italy seemed about to arrive at a consciousness of national unity. For six years Italy enjoyed practical independence. In Germany, Frederick found increasing difficulty in keeping the clergy true to his 123. Defeat anti-pope; while .^»*j^«^*- the growing power nano (1176) of Henry the Lion in the north threatened trouble. Not until 1174 was the Emperor able to lead another expedition into Italy. In 1176 came the decisive battle, when the imperial army, number- ing six thousand, encoun- tered the eight thousand troops of the Lombard League at Legnano, not far from Milan. At first v:^^.: Mail-clad German Horseman. From a 12tli century MS. the mail-clad German horsemen carried all before them ; but the guard about the Milanese cai'roccio, a war chariot bearing an altar and the banners of the confederated towns, fought des- perately, and the Emperor himself was at length unjiorsed, 15G AGE OF THE CKUISADES The imperial forces fled, and it was only with difficulty and almost unattended that Frederick reached Pavia. "Glorious has been our triumph," wrote the Milanese to Bologna, "infi- nite the number of the killed among the enemy, the drowned, the prisoners. We have in our hands the shield, the banner, cross, and lance of the Emperor, and we found silver and gold in his coffers, and booty of inestimable value; but we do not consider these things ours, but the common property of the Tope and the Italians." Frederick was now forced to make peace with the Pope, with the communes, and with the Norman king, who had supported their cause. At Venice, in 1177, he acknowledged Alex- ies of ander as Pope, and prostrated himself at his feet* it was ^Ttt! and .1^^^^ ^^^^ hundred years since Henry IV. humbled him- Constance f^glf before Gregory VII. at Canossa. The final peace with ( 1 183 ) "^ the communes was not concluded until 1183, at Constance, wlien their rights to elect their own officers, to build fortifica- tions, to enter into leagues, to raise troops, and to coin money were clearly recognized. Thenceforth the cities of Lombardy were practically self-governing republics, the barest overlord- ship remaining to the Emperor. Under these new conditions their commerce flourished more and more ; but their political life, under the overstimulus of freedom, broke out incessantly into quarrels and riots. In many respects the mediaeval com- munes fell short of our ideas of orderly liberty and political justice ; but it was amid the busy, turbulent life within their walls that the Eenaissance spirit was developed. While Frederick was pursuing the shadow of power in Italy, Henry the Lion was seizing its substance in Germany. After 125 Fall of ^^^^ restoration to the duchies of Bavaria and Saxony, his the house of calculating leadership raised the power of his family to a Welf (1180) ^11., yeu liiglier point by conquering the Slavic lands between the Elbe and the Oder. Ltibeck, the first German town to arise on the Baltic Sea, and Munich, the present capital of THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 157 Bavaria, owe their existence largely to him. Tlie Emperor long pursued a conciliatory policy toward his formidable rival, and assisted him when his Saxon vassals rebelled; but the refusal of Henry to aid the Emperor in Italy caused Frederick to abandon his policy of conciliation. Henry was cited to appear at different diets to answer charges preferred by nobles and clergy under him ; and after his fourth citation and failure to appear, he was condemned by default, and sentenced to banish- ment and the forfeiture of his lands. The support given the Emperor by the lesser nobles made the execution of this sen- tence easy, and for some years Henry the Lion was forced to live in exile in ISTormandy and England. Ultimately he regained his allodial estates (§ 33), and these became the nucleus of the later duchy of Brunswick and electorate of Hanover, from which Great Britain in 1714 derived its present line of kings. The vacant Saxon duchy (shorn of its western half) was given to a member of the Ascanian house, and the name "Saxony" shifted somewhat to the south and east of its old location. Bavaria was bestowed on Otto of Wittelsbach, in whose house it still remains; but it, too, was weakened by the separation of important districts. These changes marked the end of the "stem-duchy" systein of territorial organization, and the beginning of that policy of division and subdivision which by the end of the Middle Ages made Germany a chaos of petty principalities and lordships. Actually the benefit of the downfall of Henry the Lion went to the local nobility who supplied the force by which it was carried out. Frederick's reign constitutes one of the most brilliant epochs in the history of mediaeval Germany. The rural districts ad- vanced in prosperity; forests were cleared, land increased 126. Ger- in value, and agriculture was improved. The condition ^^^ ^^!^^®^ andciviliza- of the peasants, both serfs and free tenants, was materi- tion ally bettered. The turbulent life of the nobles was somewhat softened and refined, as a result of the intimate connections 258 AGE OF THE CRUSADES with Italy and Burgundy, and of the Crusades. A courtly German literature was born in the chivalric lays of the '' Minnesingers," at the same time that the old heroic songs of the people were consolidated into the great German epic styled the Niebelungenlied. A stimulus was also given at this time to the growth of city life in Germany. At the beginning of the tenth century there was little German commerce ; but gradually fairs and markets were founded at favored places, trade arose, and centers of population sprang up, especially in the Rhine and Danube valleys. Thus localities formerly inhabited only by peasants were transformed into towns, with walls and ramparts, weekly markets, guilds and other associations, and some rights and privileges against their feudal lords. The continued struggle of lay and ecclesiastical powers, together with the Crusades, helped on their development. Strassburg, on the middle Rhine, whose original constitution is considered to be the earliest municipal code of Germany, may be taken as a type of the most important German towns of the twelfth century. The poiailation was probably less than ten thousand. The houses were of timber, with thatched roofs, and without chimneys, which were rare as yet even in castles. Here and there churches were interspersed, but no mighty cathedral domi- nated the landscape. The whole of this " water-bound plexus of walls, moats, houses, streets, gardens, and plowed fields " was under the feudal rule of the bishop, to whom the citizens owed many services and dues. Under Frederick Barbarossa the towns grew in population, wealth, privileges, and power; but the time was not yet come when they, like the cities of Italy, should be practically self-governing republics. The last years of Frederick's reign were taken up with new ^ears^r* ■'•^^^^^^ plans, with renewed quarrels with the papacy, and Frederick I. "^^'^^^^ t;he Third Crusade. Constance, the heiress of the (1184-1190) Norman kingdom of Sicily and Naples, was married to THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 159 Frederick's son and successor, Henry VI. This aroused the fierce hostility of the papacy, for the union of southern Italy with Germany threatened the independence of the Papal States. The final conflict to which this led was deferred till the reign of Frederick's grandson; but even at this time the relations of Pope and Emperor were strained almost to breaking. The fall of Jerusalem before the attacks of Saladin, in 1187, was the chief factor in preventing an open rupture. For the second time Fred- erick took the cross and departed for the East, where he died, as has already been related (§ 104). Later ages, looking back to the splendors of his reign, feigned to be- lieve that he was not dead, and applied to him the legend of another Frederick, now identified as a count of Thuringia: the vanished ruler, it was said, was sleeping through the ages in a rocky cavern of a German mountain ; when the ravens ceased to fly about its summit, he would awaken and would then return to chastise evil doers and bring back the golden age. Chateau of Frederick Barbarossa at Kaiserswerth. A restoration. Under Frederick Barbarossa, the second of the Hohenstau- fen line, the mediaeval empire attained its greatest glory. In 1(30 AGE OF THE CRUSADES Germany the monarchy triumphed over the house of Welf and divided its feudal territories among the lesser nobles. In Italy the imperial control was for a time successfully mary ^"^ asserted ; but the strength of the confederated Lombard towns, and the hostility of the Popes, at length obliged the Emperor to renounce his rights. A marriage with the heiress of Sicily and Naples sowed the seeds of a new quarrel between papacy and empire. Frederick's reign closed with the Third Crusade, in which the Emperor lost his life. Other features of the period are the development of the civil and canon law, the growth of Italian and German towns, the continued expansion of Germany to the northeast, and the progress of German civilization. TOPICS Suggestive topics Search topics (1) On what historical grounds miglit the Pope claim that the Emperor was his vassal for the imperial crown ? (2) Why should the Popes oppose the development of a strong kingdom in southern Italy ? (3) Was a Ghibelline or Guelf policy best for Germany ? For Italy ? (4) Which was of more importance, the imperial attempts to control Italy or the quiet expansion of Germany to the northeast? (5) Compare the Italian communes with the New England towns. What powers did the former exercise that the latter lack ? (6) How did the study of Koman law aid monarchi- cal growth? Was this to be desired? (7) Had Frederick I. or the Italian communes the more right in their struggle ? (8) The Italian communes. (9) Revival of the Roman law. (10) The canon law. (11) Arnold of Brescia. (12) Pope Alex- ander III. (13) Henry the Lion. (14) Rise of the German cities. (15) The Niehehuujenlied. (16) The Minnesingers. (17) Person- ality of Frederick Barbarossa. (18) Home of the Hohenstaufen in Germany. (19) Reasons for the greatness of Milan. Geography- Secondary authorities REFERENCES Maps, pp. 64, 154 ; Putzger, Atlas, map 17 ; Freeman, Historical Ceo(irapJuj, I. ch. viii. ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xxxv. Ixv. ; Dow^, Atlas, xiii. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 247-257 ; Belmont and Monod, 3Iedieval Europe, ch. xix. ; Henderson, Short History THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) IGl of Germany, I. 70-90 ; Bryce, Holy Boman Empire, ch. xi. ; Em- ertoii, Medi(£val Europe, ch. ix. ; Tout, Empire (otd Papacy, 217- 245 ; Stille, Studies in Medieval History, ;]14-o23 ; Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ayes, chs, xv.-xviii. ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, ch. xvii. ; Fisher, Medieval Europe., I. 325-3o2 ; Balzani, Popes and the Hohenstaufen, 1-111 ; May, Democracy in Europe, I. 288-315 ; Milrlian, HiHory of Latin Christianity, IV. 266-280, 427-447 ; Testa, The War of Frederick I. against the Communes of Italy ; Alzog, Church History, II. 547- 563; Historians' History of the World, XIV. 89-109. Robinson, Readings, I. 302-306 ; Thatcher and McNeal, Sotirce Book, nos. 98-110, 301-314 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, 211-219, 336-337, 410-418, 420-425. E. Cornelia Knight, Sir Guy de Lusignan ; C. T. Brady, Hohen- '.ollern. Sources Illustrative works A Mediaeval Fair. (Depicted by Parnientier.) CHAPTER X. END OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1190-1268) Henry VI., son of Frederick I., proved as ambitious and ener- getic as his father. He secured possession of his wife's Italian inheritance and united it to Germany. A rising of the 1 29 Henrv VI. (1190- Welf faction was overcome, largely through the fortunate ^^^"^^ accident which put into his power Richard I. of England, the ally of the Welfs (§ 105). He proposed to the German princes that they should declare the throne hereditary, in return for concessions to them, and almost gained their con- sent. Finally he planned a crusade which was expected to put the whole Latin East under his control, and make him overlord of the Greek Empire. Had he lived, he might for a time have established a world monarchy Avhich would have realized the dreams of the Middle Ages ; but he died of fever in 1197, on the eve of his departure for the East, leaving as heir a son (Frederick of Sicily) only three years of age. All Germany, after Henry's death, " was like a sea lashed by every wind." The partisans of the Hohenstaufen chose Henry's brother, Philip of Swabia, as king ; but the opposing party selected Otto IV. of Brunswick, a son of Henry the Lion. Ten years of civil warfare followed, in which the advantage rested now with one party, now with the other. During the division within the empire the papacy grew in power. Innocent HI. (1198-1216) was in many respects the 130. inno- ablest and most powerful Pope of the Middle Ages. He the emph-e"^ ^^'"^^3^ established the Papal States in Italy ; and had as (1198-1216) vassal kingdoms under him Sicily and Naples, Sweden, Denmark, Portugal, Aragon, and Poland. Even the king of 162 END OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1190-1268) 16S England (John) was forced to surrender his kingdom into the hands of the Pope's legate, and receive it back as a fief of the papacy (§ 166). The papal suzerainty over the empire, which Frederick Barbarossa so vigorously denied, was again asserted, and Innocent claimed the right to decide the dispute which had arisen over the last imperial election. His decision was that Philip was unworthy as ''an obstinate perse- Milman, cutor of the church, and the representative of a hostile f!^'^^!! C'Am- house " ; wliile Otto, though chosen by a minority, was 510-514 " himself devoted to the church, of a race devoted to the church . . . : him, therefore, we proclaim, acknowledge as king ; him then we summon to take on himself the imperial crown.'' Otto, in return, confirmed in their widest extent the posses- sions and privileges claimed by the Roman Church. After Philip's murder by a private enemy (1208), Otto was for a time universally recognized, and was crowned Emperor. Soon he laid claim to unwarranted rights in Italy, and defied the Pope's excommunication. In Germany a diet of princes declared him deposed; and at their invitation, and with the aid of Innocent III., Frederick of Sicily (son of Henry VI.), now seventeen years old, crossed the Alps to claim the German throne as Frederick II. About him gathered all the old parti- sans of the house of Hohenstaufen, and with them acted Philip Augustus of France, who had his own interests to further. Otto similarly was supported with men and money from his uncle, John of England. The decisive battle took place at Bouvines, in northern France, in July, 1214. The issue in- volved not merely the possession of the imperial crown, but the French occupation of Normandy and other English fiefs in France, and the cause of English liberty against the tyranny of King John (§ 166) ; thus the day of Bouvines has well been called "the greatest single day in the history of the Middle Ages." It ended in victory for France and the partisans of Frederick IL, to whom passed the German and imperial crowns. Harding's m. & m. hist. — 10 ;|(34 AGE OF THE CRUSADES Frederiok II. was already beginning to show the qualities which won for him the name "the wonder ol the w^orld." 131. Acces- From contact with his Greek and Saracen subjects in sionofFred- <^[Q[\y \^q gained a culture unknown in the North: but a2l4) he also developed a toleration, if not indifference, in religion, and a looseness of personal morality, which gave his enemies openings for attack. He was an impassioned i)oet, a profound lawgiver, and a subtle politician; the spirit which he displayed indeed was more modern than mediaeval. Frederick was reared as a ward of Innocent III., to whom he had been committed by his mother Constance ; but the intimate relations thus established did not prevent a desperate strug- gle between papacy and empire. Before his coronation by the Pope in 1220, he solemnly swore to abolish all laws i)rejudicial to the liberties of the church, to cede Sicily to his son Henry to be held as a lief of the Holy See and not of the empire, to restore to the papacy the inheritance of the Countess Matilda, and to undertake a new crusade. These promises wei-e broken almost as soon as made. For a time Frederick could urge the pressure of German and Italian affairs as excuse for delaying his crusade. In 132. Fred- 1-^'' 1^6 assembled an army and embarked, but turned ^^^d^J^ back because (as he alleged) of a pestilence which broke papacy out on shipboard. Pope Gregory IX. refused to listen to a225-1239) |-^jg excuses, and excommunicated him. In June of the next year, Frederick again set sail, without receiving the papal absolution, and reached the Holy Land; but there the Pope put every obstacle in his w^ay, on the ground that he was an excommunicated person. Taking advantage of a civil ^var which broke out among the successors of Saladin, Frederick negotiated a treaty which secured to the Christians a truce for ten years with the pos- session of Jerusalem. This politic move, though bitterly denounced by the partisans of the Pope, secured greater advan- END OF THE H0HEN8TAUFEN EMPIRE (111)0-1268) 105 tages tlian had been won by forty years of blind, unreasoning warfare. But when Frederick, still excommunicated, placed the crown of Jerusalem upon his head, the patriarch of Jerusalem issued an interdict forbidding all religious services in the holy places. After his return to Italy Frederick made peace with the Pope (1230) ; but in 1239 the struggle was renewed and was again extended to the Holy Land ; and the hostility between the papal party and Frederick's agents was partly responsible for the final loss of Jerusalem in 1244 (§ 110). The interval between 1230 and 1239 was used by Freder- ick II. to carry tlirough a remarkable series of reforms which made Sicily for a time the strongest and best governed 133. Policy kingdom m Europe. In judicial matters the king's °f-^®^' courts were put above the feudal and ecclesiastical tribu- (1230-1240) nals. The nobles and clergy, along with the townsmen, were subjected to taxation. Unauthorized castles, the right of private warfare, trials by ordeal, and serfdom on the royal domains were abolished. Education was fostered by establish- ing the University of Naples, and favor was shown to trade and industry. Of these measures an English historian Milman, says, "The world had seen no court so splendid, no Latin Chns- . . . tiamty, V. system of laws so majestically equitable ; a new order 308 of things appeared to be arising, an epoch to be commencing in human civilization." For some years the crusade and these reforms kept Frederick south of the Alps, while his eldest son Henry, who in 1220 had been elected "king of the Romans" (i.e. German king elect), ruled Germany in his father's name. In 1234 the young king rebelled against his father, and Frederick went to Germany, where the rising was easily put down; thenceforth Henry's younger brother Conrad takes his place in the succession. Frederick's attention throughout his reign was given more to his Italian possessions than to the North, and the policy which he pursued in Germany was directly opposed to that IQQ AGE OF THE CRUSADES embodied in his Sicilian reforms. In Germany, as a result of necessity, he "threw to the winds every national and monarchical tradition," and granted privileges to the nobles and great churchmen by which they became truly "lords" of their lands, possessed of all rights and jurisdictions. On the other hand, Frederick gave large privileges to the towns, seeking in them a support against the papacy and rebellious nobles. The net result of his policy was the enfeeblement of all central authority : Germany more and more ceased to be a state, such as England and France were becoming, and grew into a confederation of sovereign principalities. Frederick's Sicilian reforms made him, in the eyes of the Pope, an oppressor of the clergy; his immoral private life increased the friction with the church; the toleration 134. Ke- . ' . newed which he showed his Mohammedan subjects, and his ^*'?x^^K^^ use of them as troops in his wars, caused him to be with the , . papacy suspected as a heretic ; and his retention of Sicily and ^ Naples, along with Germany and northern Italy, enabled him to hem in the Papal States both on the north and on the south. These causes for conflict led in 1239 to an open rupture with the Pope; and there began the last stage of the fatal struggle of papacy and empire, which brought political ruin to both powers. Gregory IX. renewed his excommunication, and absolved Frederick's subjects from their allegiance. Both Pope and Emperor appealed to Europe in letters of impas- sioned denunciation. Gregory called a church council to be held at Rome, but Frederick prevented its assembling by capturing the fleet carrying most of its members. Gregory died in 1241, and two years later one of Frederick's friends (Innocent IV.) was elected Pope. On hearing the news the Emperor is said to have exclaimed, " I have lost a good friend, for no Pope can be a Ghibelline." Innocent vigorously con- tinued the policy of his predecessor. At this time came a horde of Mongols from Asia, who overran Poland and END OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1190-1268) 16? Hungary, threatened Germany, and established a power in Russia (1240) whicli lasted for two hundred and forty years. In 1244 came the final downfall of the kingdom of Jerusalem. In spite of these disasters to Christendom, the struggle be- tween papacy and empire continued as fiercely as ever. At a church council held at Lyons in 1245, Frederick was pro- nounced guilty of perjury, heresy, and sacrilege ; he was de- clared deposed, and war against the Hohenstaufen was turned into a crusade, with the same spiritual rewards as for warring against the Saracens. In Germany, Frederick's enemies stirred up a revolt, and elected an anti-king, but his son Conrad managed to hold many of the nobles and most of the cities true to their al- 135. Defeat legiance. In Italy, Frederick maintained himself with ^^^ death ^ "^ of Fred- success, though Guelfs and Ghibellines fought each erick II. other with furious hate on every hand. But after a time (1241-1250) misfortunes came upon him. His camp was captured ; then his favorite son Enzio was taken captive and imprisoned. Frederick's cause was even yet far from hopeless when, in December, 1250, he was attacked by a disease from which, after a short illness, he died. An English writer of that time called him " the greatest prince of the world" ; but his powers were lost on an age not ripe for them. After Frederick's death his reforms were overthrown, and his empire crumbled away in the hands of his successors. His son Conrad IV. (1250-1254) was obliged to abandon Ger- 136. Fall of many to secure his inheritance in Italy ; and for twenty * ttaufens years Germany was given up to the anarchy of the (1250-1268) Great Interregnum, during which robber barons ruled by ^' the law of the fist," and no king was universally recognized. In Italy, Conrad maintained himself until his death in 1254. A half-brother, Manfred, then continued the struggle until he fell in battle at Benevento in 1266. There still remained Con- radin (" Little Conrad"), the fifteen-year-old son of Conrad IV., 168 AGE OF thp: crusades about whom centered the last desperate resistance of the Hohenstaufen party. To secure aid in the struggle, the Pope offered the kingdom of Sicily to an Eng- lish prince; then, in 1265, he concluded a treaty by which Charles of Anjou, brother of the French king, was to have the Sicilian crown. In 1268, Charles met and defeated the lit- tle army which Con- radin brought into Italy ; and when the young king fell into the hands of his en- emy, he was cruelly beheaded. In his per- son perished the last member of the im- perial house of Ho- henstaufen. " From whatever point we may view it," says a French historian, "the death of Frederick II. and the fall of the Lavisse and house of Hohenstaufen mark the end of one epoch and Sot""'' *^^^ beginning of another. The Middle Age proper, in G^n^rale, the form which it had worn since the days of Charle- // 231 magne, was now at an end. This is as true in the history of thought and the arts as it is in political history. In the course of the long struggle between church and empire, a new society had been formed, with different features and a spirit that was wanting to the old. From Charlemagne to KAKOI^zsImIm^.:-. Charlks of Anjou invested with the ( 'kovvn OF THE Two Sicilies by a Bull given by THE Pope (Clement IV.). Fresco pictured in Viollet-le-Duc END OF THE HOHEN8TAUFEN EMPIRE (1190-1208) 169 Frederick II. the papacy and the empire occupy the first place in the history of the time ; but now the papacy had crushed the empire." The old ideal of two powers divinely commis- sioned to rule the world in conjunction — the ideal expressed in the figures of the "two swords," and of the "two lights," — the sun and the moon — was now abandoned. The papacy itself for a time sought to be the supreme head in temporal affairs as well as in spiritual, and this ideal conception was soon embodied in the person of a Pope (Boniface VIII.) who arrayed himself in the papal tiara and the imperial robe, ^ . z/ ; and exclaimed, " I am Csesar — I am Emperor ! " But, Roman Em- though the empire had fallen, the national monarchies ^^^^* ^^^ of Europe were just arising ; and with Philip IV. of France, the head of the most formidable of these, the papacy soon came into disastrous collision. The brilliancy of the Hohenstaufen Empire was continued in the short reign of Henry VI. (1190-1197); then followed a struggle for the crown, which ended in the triumph of 137, sus- his son Frederick II. (1214-1250). The first sixteen years ^ary of his reign saw a new contest with the papacy, which centered in Frederick's crusade. Following this came, in Sicily and Naples, a series of important reforms which strengthened the royal power, while in Germany concessions were made to the princes which materially increased their power and weakened the crown. The last ten years of the reign were occupied with a new struggle with the papacy. After Frederick's death the Pope refused to recognize any of the Hohenstaufen house, and the struggle was continued by Conrad IV., Manfred, and finally by Conradin. The aid of a French prince, Charles of Anjou, enabled the Pope to overthrow the last of the Hohen- staufen family. Charles of Anjou secured the kingdom of Sicily and Naples ; but Germany, during the Great Interreg- num (1254-1273), was practically without a king. The papacy 170 AGE OF THE CRUSADES was left victorious over the empire, which never recovered the importance it had possessed under the Hohenstaufen rule. Suggestive topics Search topics TOPICS (1) Compare the papal power under Innocent III. with that under Gregory VII. (2) Why should Frederick's treaty with the Mohammedans in the Holy Land of itself arouse opposition ? (3) How do his measures in Sicily show him to have been ahead of his time ? (4) Was the eufeeblement of the central authority in Germany good or bad for that land ? (5) Why was the opposi- tion of the Popes to Frederick II. greater than to Frederick I. ? (6) Was the continuance of the papal warfare against Frederick's descendants after his death warranted? (7) State in your own language the significance of the overthrow of the Hohenstaufen. (8) Treatment of Richard I. of England by Henry VI. (9) Character and aims of Innocent III. (10) Character of Frederick II. (11) Crusade of Frederick II. (12) Reforms of Frederick II. in Sicily. (13) Development of Germany in his reign. (14) Account of a battle in the time of Frederick II. (15) Frederick's use of Saracen mercenaries. Geography Secondary authorities Sources Illustrative works REFERENCES Maps, pp. 64, 112 ; Freeman, Historical Geography, I. ch. viii. ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xxxv. Ixvi. ; Dow, Atlas, xiii. Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, ch. x. ; Henderson, Short History of Germany, I. 90-101 ; B^mont and Monod, Medieval Europe, ch. XX. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 305-335, 358-393, 478-492 ; Duruy, History of the Middle Ages, 252-259 ; Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, chs. xix.-xxvi. ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, ch. xiii. ; Balzani, Pop)es and the Hohenstaufen, 113-256 ; Alzog, Church History, II. §§ 220-222 ; Freeman, His- torical Essays, First Series, 283-313 ; Milman, History of Latin Christianity, bk. ix. chs. i.-iii., bk. x. chs. i. iii.-v. ; Historians' History of the World, IX. 85-98, XIV. 110-131. Robinson, Readings, I. 307-309 ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, nos. 130-145 ; Henderson, Documents, 337-344 ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Beprints, IV. No. 4, III. No. 6. Robert Barr, The Countess Tekla, — The Strong Arm ; F. von Ilardenberg, Henry of Ofterdingen ; G. P. R. Adams, The Castle of Ehrenstein ■ E. L. Hamilton, The Lord of the Dark Me^ Star, CHAPTER XI. LIFE IN THE MEDIAEVAL CASTLE, VILLAGE, AND TOWN In the Middle Ages almost every defensible hilltop and river island was occupied by the frowning castle of some feudal lord. At first the castle was a mere inclosure defended ,.„ _, 138. The by ditch and palisade, with a sort of wooden blockhouse feudal on a natural or artificial mound at the center, reached by °^^* ® a wooden bridge over a second ditch or moat. The ease with which such defenses could be destroyed by fire led, in the eleventh century, to the building of castles of stone ; and the engineering skill of the Normans, together with the experience gained in the Crusades, made these structures intricate and complex. The chateau of Arques, built in Normandy, about 1040, by the uncle of William the Conqueror, is a type of the early stone castle. It was built upon a hilltop ; was defended by a palisade, ditch, and two drawbridges with outer works ; and was surrounded by a thick " bailey " wall, with battle- ments, strengthened by strong towers placed at intervals. Entrance was gained through a narrow vaulted gateway, placed between two towers and defended by doors and " portcullises," or iron gratings descending from above. The inclosure was divided into an " outer ward " and an " inner ward " ; it con- tained separate buildings for stables, kitchen, and the like, and was large enough to shelter the surrounding population in time of war. At the extremity of the inner ward stood the " don- jon," or "keep," the most important part of every castle. The donjon was often the residence of the feudal lord, though its gloom and cold usually led to the erection of a separate "hall " within the inclosure for residence in time of 17X IT AGE OF THE CRUSADES peace The doujon of Arques was a triumph of complicated defenses, consisting of enormous walls eight to ten feet thick, with winding passageways and stairs concealed in them, and cunningly devised pit- falls to trap the unwary. Here the last defense was made ; and in case of defeat the position of the keep at one end of the inclosure aided escape through a pos- tern gate directly op- posite the entrance. Of more elaborate type than the chateau of Arques was the Cha- teau Gaillard (Saucy Castle), erected on the borders of Normandy by Richard the L ion- Hearted as a defense against Philip Augus- tus of France. Hurling engines, movable towers, and battering rams were of little avail against such formidable castles, and until the introduction of gunpowder they were usually taken only by treachery, surprise, starvation, or undermining the walls. As the power of the kings in- creased, especially in France and England, the right of the nobles to erect castles was rigidly restricted ; luxury, too, came in, and gradually the castle lost its character of a fortress and became merely a lordly dwelling place. Chateau of Arques. Restoration of Viollet-le-Duc LIFE IN THE MEDI^.VAL CASTLE 178 The training of the feudal noble, like his habitation, was all for war ; but the church gave to it a religious consecration, and Chivalry, or the ideals and usages of knighthood, was 139, chiv- the result. In his earlier years the young noble was left ^'^^y to the care of his inother ; at about the age of seven he was sent to the castle of liis father's lord, or to that of some famous knight, and his training for knighthood began. With other lads he served his lord and mistress as page, waited at table, and attended them when they rode forth to the chase ; from them he learned lessons of honor and bravery, of love and courtesy ; above all he learned how to ride and handle a horse. When he was a well-grown lad of fourteen or fifteen, he became a squire. He now looked after the grooming and shoeing of his lord's horses, and saw that his lord's arms were kept bright and free from rust. In war the squire accompanied the lord, carried his shield and lance, assisted in arming him for the battle, and stayed watchfully at hand to aid him in case of need. When he reached the age of twenty or twenty-one, and had proved his courage and military skill, the squire was made a knight. The ceremony was often quite elaborate. First came a bath — the mark of purification. Then the candidate put on garments of red, white, and black — red for the blood he must shed in defense of the church, white to image the purity of his mind, and black as a reminder of death. All night before the altar of the church he watched his arms, with fasting and prayer ; with the morning came confession, the holy mass, a^nd a sermon on the proud duties of a knight. The actual knight- ing usually took place in the courtyard of the castle, in the presence of a numerous company of knights and ladies. The armor and sword were fastened on by friends and relatives ; and the lord gave the " accolade " with a blow of his fist up- on the young man's neck, or by touching him with the flat of his sword on the shoulder, saying: "In the name of God, and Saint Michael, and Saint George, I dub thee knight ! Be 174 AGE OF THE CRUSADES brave and loyal ! " Then followed exhibitions of skill by the new-made knight, feasting, and presents. The details of the ceremony varied in different times and places. It mnst also be said that, in practice, chivalry was too often only a "picturesque mimicry of high sentiment, of heroism, of love and courtesy, before which all depth and reality of nobleness dis- %7storyT appeared to make room for the coarsest profligacy, the spirit, and a brutal indifference to 'p^^lf narrowest caste ch. iv. § .7 human suffering. 140. Daily life of the nobles The thick walls and narrow windows of the feudal castle made its apartments cold and dark in winter and close in summer, and life was spent as muchasx30ssible in the open air. War, tournaments, and the chase were the chief outdoor amusements. Falconry — the flying of trained hawks at small game — became a complicated science, with many technical terms, and was prac- ticed with zest by ladies and lords alike ; but the chase, with hounds, of deer, wild boars, and bears, was Falconry. the more exciting From a German manuscript of the 13th century- sport. Within doors "^ ^^^^ Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. the chief amusements were chess, checkers, backgammon, and similar employments. The great hall, whether within the donjon or in a separate LIFE IN THE MEDIEVAL CASTLE 175 building, was the center of this life. About the great fire- place, master, mistress, children, and dependents gathered to play games, listen to tales of travel and adventure from chance visitors, and carry on household occupations. While the boys were trained to be knights, the girls learned to spin, sew, and embroider, to care for wounds, and to direct a household ; like their brothers, they were often sent away from home for a time, and as maids of honor to some noble lady received the finish- ing touches of their education. The furniture of the castles was substantial but scanty. Embroidered tapestries hung amid the weapons on the walls, and skins were placed underfoot for the sake of warmth. Chairs and benches, tables, chests, and wardrobes stood about the hall, and perhaps also the great corded bedstead of the master and mistress, with its canopy, curtains, and feather bed; but often these occupied a separate chamber. The men servants and attendants slept on the floor of the great hall. The meals were served in the hall, on easily removable trestle tables, and all except those actively engaged at the time took their places at the board accordins^ to rank. ... _, , ^ ^ 141. Food The viands were brought, in covered dishes, across the of the court from the kitchen, which was a separate building. ^° ®^ Jugs and vessels of curious shapes, often in imitation of animals, were scattered about the table. Before each person was placed a knife and spoon, and a drinking cup, often of wood or horn. Forks were unknown until the end of the thirteenth century, and food was eaten from a common dish with the fingers. Before and after each meal, pages brought basins of water with towels for washing the hands. There were no napkins ; and pieces of bread, or the tablecloth, were used for cleansing the fingers during the meal. Dinner, served at midday, was announced by the blowing of horns; it was a long and substantial repast, consisting often of as many as ten ^rj^^ AGE OF THE CRUSADES or r twelve courses, mostly meats and game. Dressed deer, pigs, and other animals were roasted whole on spits before an open fire. Roast swans, peacocks, and boars' heads are frequently mentioned in mediaeval writings; pasties of venison and other game were common; and on festal occasions live birds were sometimes placed in a pie to be released ^Mvhen the pie was opened," and hunted down with falcons in the hall at the close of the feast. Wine was drunk in great quantities. Pep- per, cloves, ginger, and other spices were used by the wealthy in both food and drink, even the wines being peppered and honeyed. Coffee, tea, and of course all the native products of America (tobacco, Indian corn, potatoes, etc.) were unknown. Costumes varied with time and place, as also did armor (see § 39). Long pointed shoes, called j9«V/'"'^^Sj were invented Cos ^y ^ *^^^"^* ^^ Anjou to hide the deformity of his feet, tumeofthe and within a short time the style spread over Europe. nobles ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ Carolingian pattern was used until the end of the eleventh century, when it was displaced by long garments imitated from those worn by the Byzantines ; these were abandoned in the thirteenth century for other fashions. The secrets of dyeing were long in the hands of the Jews ; but in the thirteenth century the Italians learned the art, and the dyers then formed one of the most important guilds in Florence and other cities. Many dyestuffs were introduced into the West at the time of the Crusades ; but cochineal, which gives a brilliant red, was not known until the discovery of Mex- ico, and the aniline dyes now largely used date from recent years. It is not too much to say that the most brilliantly tinted garments of the Middle Ages were poor and dull in hue compared with those now within reach of the poorest person. Writers of the Middle Ages said that God had created three 143. Life of classes — priests to pray, knights to defend society, and the peasants peasants whose duty it was to till the soil and support by their labor the other classes. The peasants were divided LIFE IN THE MEDIEVAL VILLAGE 177 into serfs and villeins. (1) The serfs were personally imfree, i.e. they were " bound to tlie soil," and owed many special obli- gations to their lord; bat, unlike slaves, they possessed plots of land which they tilled, and could not be sold off the estate. (2) The villeins were personally free, and were exempt from the most grievous burdens of the serf; but they too owed their lords many menial services and dues for their land, which took the form of money payments, and gifts of eggs, poultry, and the young of their flocks. The grinding of the peasants' meal, baking of their bread, pressing of their wine, oil, and cider, a.ll had to be done with the lord's mill, oven, and press ; and for the use of these, heavy fees were charged. The ser- vices consisted chiefly in cultivating the "demesne," or that part of the estate which was kept in the lord's own hand, and from which he drew the profits ; two or three days' work a week, with extra work at harvest and other times of need, was the usual amount exacted. In course of time the services were precisely fixed or commuted for money payments. The peasants dwelt in villages, often at the foot of the hill on which stood the lord's manor house or castle. Near by was the parish church, with an open space in front and a graveyard attached. The peasants' houses usually consisted of but one room, and were flimsy structures of wood, or of wattled sticks plastered with mud, and were thatched with straw. There were few windows, no floors, and no chimneys ; the door was often made in two parts so that the upper portion could be opened to permit the smoke to escape. The cattle were housed under the same roof with the family. The streets were unpaved, and were often impassable with filth. About each house was a small, ill-tended garden. The lands from which the villagers drew their living lay about the village in several great unfenced or " open " fields, normally three. Besides these, there were " common " lands to which each villager sent a certain number of cattle or sheep 178 AGE OF THE CRUSADES for pasturage; and the lord's woodland and waste, to which they went for fuel, and m which they might turn a limited number of pigs to feed on the mast (acorns and nuts). The rights of hunting and fishing belonged to the lord, and were jealously guarded. The time not taken up with labors on the lord's demesne was used by the peasant in till- 144. Medi- ^ / ^ n . ij- aeval agri- ing his own small holding, culture -^^ ^Yie open fields about the village. A full villein holding usually consisted of about thirty acres, scattered in long narrow strips in the different fields, in- termixed with the holdings of other tenants. The origin of this curious arrangement of in- termixed holdings in ope a fields has never been satisfactorily ex- plained ; but it existed over the greater part of western Europe, ^^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ Common Field and lasted far down into modern of Burton- Agnes, Yorkshire, Eng- Plan of a Village with Open Fields. times. The different strips were land, in Taylor's Doiitesday Studies. Tlie shaded strips, about one tenth separated from one another by of the whole, were the parson's " balks " of unplowed turf. The ^^^''^' '''' ^^^^^' plows were clumsy wooden affairs, which penetrated little below the surface. They were drawn by teams of from four to eight oxen ; but the cattle of the Middle Ages were smaller than those produced by scientific breeding to-day. A rude rotation of crops was practiced to avoid exhausting the soil. All the strips in a given field were planted with a winter grain (wheat) one year, the next year with a spring grain (oats), and the third year were plowed and lay fallow ; LIFE IN THP] MEDLEVAL VILLAGE 179 thus one third of the land was always resting. Under this primitive system of agriculture the yield was far less than now : in England, at the close of the thirteenth century, wheat yielded as low as six bushels an acre, and nine or ten bushels was probably a full average crop. Peasants and Plow. From a 13th century manuscript. Bee keeping was more usual than in modern times, not only for the honey, which was used instead of sugar for almost all purposes of sweetening, but also for the wax needed to make the tall candles in the churches and the seals used on official documents. Every great estate, or "manor" as it was called in England, was self-supporting to a surprising extent. Ale was home-brewed ; w^ool was spun and cloth w^oven in the household ; and the village tanner, blacksmith, and carpenter performed the services beyond the powers of the household circle. Eor salt, and the rare articles that the village did not itself produce, the people of the manor resorted to periodical markets and fairs in neighboring towns. The labor of the peasant was incessant, his food, clothing, and habitation of the rudest and poorest. He was ignorant and superstitious, and his oppression made him sullen. He was the butt for the wit of the noble classes and the courtly poets, and the name " villain " (villein) has been handed down by them to us as the synonym for all that is base. HARDING'S M. & M. HIST. 11 -j^gQ AGE OF THE CRUSADES The early history of the towns of Italy and Germany has already been traced (§§ 117, 126); those of France — wliieh 145 Towns ^^^^y be taken as typical of the life of the Middle Ages — in France arose in similar manner. There, as elsewhere, the barbarian invasions, together with the rise of feudalism, over- threw the old Roman municipalities and reduced the popula- tion to serfdom. In the eleventh century movements began which restored personal freedom to the populations of the towns, and gave them more or less of the rights of self-govern- ment; and in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries charters were purchased from the feudal lords, or extorted by successful war. The privileges set forth in these ranged from mere safeguards against oppression at the hands of the lord's officials, who still composed the only municipal government, to grants of adminis- trative and judicial independence with a government chosen by the citizens. For example, the charter granted the little town of Lorris,in central France, was of the former class. It provided (1) that no townsman should pay more than a small quitrent for his house and each acre of land, and should pay no toll on grain and wine of his own production, nor on his purchases at the Wednesday market ; (2) that he should not be obliged to go to war for his lord unless he could return the same day; (3) that he should not be forced to go outside the town for the trial of his lawsuits, and that various abuses connected with tlie courts should be reformed ; (4) that none should be re- quired to work for the lord of the town, except to bring Avood to his kitchen, and to take his wine twice a year to Orleans, and then only those who had horses and carts, and after due notice ; (5) that no charge should be made for the use of the oven, nor for watch-rate, nor for the public crier at marriages, and that the dead wood in the forest might be taken by the men of Lorris for their own use ; (6) that whoever wished might sell his property and freely depart, and that any LIFE IN THE MEDIEVAL TOWN 181 stranger who remained a year and a day without being claimed by his lord, should be free. This charter proved so popular that it was copied, in whole or in part, by eighty-three other towns ; it was profitable alike to the little towns that received it, and to the lords who granted it. Towns which secured the right to elect their officers and govern themselves are called "communes"; legally they were "artificial persons," or corporations, and entered into the feudal structure both as vassals and as suzerains. They mune gov- were ruled either by a mayor and echevins (aldermen), or ernments by a board of " consuls," like the Italian communes, without a mayor. The outward signs of a commune were the possession of a corporate seal ; of a belfry, which served as watch tower, depot of archives, and magazine of arms ; and of stocks and pillory for the punishment of offenders. Its charter was usually the culmination of a long series of disagreements, usurpations, and bloody insurrections ; and frequent payments to lord and overlord were necessary to preserve its hard-won liberties. From the twelfth century on, the towns grew in size and importance ; and many enlightened lords (including the king) founded " new towns " to enrich their domains, offering reason- able liberties to attract settlers. These hardy townsmen formed the chief part of the class called the Third Estate, or commons, which gradually took its place in the political affairs of the kingdom alongside the " estates " of the Clergy and the Nobles. In the rise of the Third Estate lay the seeds of a whole series of revolutions, which were destined to shake feudal society from top to bottom, and cause its final destruction. Medigeval towns were usually surrounded by walls defended by battlements and towers, while outside lay the settlements (called fanboargs) of the unprivileged inhabitants. In ^47 Life in the belfry, watch was kept day and night : its warning *^® towns bell announced the approach of enemies ; sounded the alarm 182 AGE OJF THE CRUSADES of fire, the summons to court and to council, and the hours for beginning and quitting work; and rang the "curfew" {couvre feu) at night, which was the signal to extinguish lights and cover fires. The streets were narrow and unpaved, and slops were emptied from second- story windows — sometimes even on the head of royalty passing by. Exten- sive gardens belong- ing to convents and hospitals caused the streets to twist and turn, and presented rare glimpses of green amid the wilderness of pointed roofs. In the thirteenth century the wealthier citizens began to erect comfortable houses ; but the ground-floor front was usually taken up by an arched window-opening in which the merchant displayed his wares, while in the rear were carried on the manufactures of the shop. The shopkeepers grouped themselves by trades : here was the street of tanners, there that of the goldsmiths, elsewhere the drapers, cement makers, parchment makers, and money changers. Churches, of which great numbers were built in the thirteenth century, rose above the shops and houses, which pressed up to their very walls; in towns which were the seats of bishops, giant cathedrals of Gothic architecture towered above everything else. The business quarters, with their open booths and stalls placed in the streets, resembled bazaars, through which pedestrians could with difficulty Belfry of Bruges. Built from 1291 to about 1390 ; 352 feet high. LIFE IN THE MEDIEVAL TOWN 183 thread their way; horses and carts were obliged to seek less crowded thoroughfares. At mealtime, business ceased, and booths were closed ; when curfew sounded, the streets became silent and deserted — save for the watch, making their ap- pointed rounds, and the adventurous few whom necessity or pleasure led to brave the dangers of the unlighted streets. Even in the twelfth century the chief occupation of the citizens was still agriculture ; but industry and commerce de- veloped rapidly under the protection afforded by town walls and charters, and the growing power of the king. try and Industries were carried on entirely by hand labor ; there ^^^ ^ were scarcely any machines other than the tools employed by workmen from times immemorial. Each trade was organized into a guild, which laid down rules for carrying it on, and had the power to inspect and to confiscate inferior products. The guildsmen were divided into three classes : apprentices, who served from three to thirteen years, and paid considerable sums for their instruction; workmen ("journeymen"), who had finished their apprenticeship and received wages ; and masters, who had risen in the trade and had become employers. Apprentices and workmen were lodged and fed with the master's family above the shop ; and it was easy for a frugal workman to save enough to set up as a master in his turn : under these conditions antagonism between capital and labor did not exist. The guilds had religious and benevolent fea- tures also ; each maintained a common fund, made up of fines assessed against members, which was used for feasting, for masses, for the relief of the sick and burial of dead members. Guilds formed of members pursuing a trade, such as weaving or dyeing, were called craft guilds ; older, richer, and more in- fluential in developing the liberties of the towns, were the merchant guilds, the members of which engaged in commerce. After the Germanic invasions, commerce had almost ceased ; there was little demand for foreign wares or costly articles of ]^gg AGE OF THE CRUSADES luxury, and the roads were too insecure to make the trans- portation of goods profitable. Under the early feudal regime, where downright robbery was not practiced, the lords »tai c^^' exacted ruinous tolls at every bridge, market, and high- merce ^^^„^ i^ -^as only after the Crusades had stimulated enterprise and created new tastes that commerce played an important part in mediaeval life. The Italian towns, from their central position in the Mediterranean, were the first to feel this quickening impulse; and Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, and Venice became important commercial centers. Venice, whose trade was originally confined to salt and fish, the products of its waters, developed a vast commerce in the spices, perfumes, sugar, silks, and other goods which came from the East by way of the Persian Gulf or Red Sea. In the fourteenth century it possessed a merchant marine of three thousand vessels, and each year sent large fleets through the Strait of Gibraltar to Flanders and the English Channel. Land routes led over the Brenner and Julier passes of the Alps to the upper Danube and the Rhine, there joining the Danube route from Constantinople and the Black Sea, and enriching with their trade Augsburg, Ratisbon, Ulm, Nuremberg, and a host of towns on the Rhine. From Genoa a much-traveled route led through France by way of the river Rhone. The great northern mar- ket for all this commerce was Bruges, where products of the south and east were exchanged for the furs, amber, fish, and woolen cloths of the north : merchants from seventeen king- doms had settled homes there, and strangers journeyed thither from all parts of the known world. In the fifteenth century Antwerp wrested from Bruges this preeminence, largely as a result of the untrammeled freedom to trade which it granted. Great fairs, held periodically in certain places, under the 150. Com- li^^^se of the king or of some great lord, who profited by merciai or- the fees paid him, were a necessity in a time when ganization -,. .„ *^ orclmary villages were entirely without shops, and mer- LIFE IN THE MEDIEVAL TOWN 187 chants, even in cities and towns, carried only a limited vari- ety and quantity of goods. Examples of such fairs were Smithfield (just outside of London) and Stourbridge in Eng- land ; Beaucaire and Troyes in France ; Frankfort-on-the-Main and Leipzig in Germany. Thither, during the times at which they were held, went merchants and traders from all over Europe ; and thither, too, resorted the people for miles around to lay in their yearly stock of necessaries or to sell the products of their industry. In the Middle Ages merchants traded, not as individuals, or as subjects of a state which protected their interests abroad, but as members (1) of the merchant guild of their town, which often secured special rights and exclusive privileges in other towns and countries ; or (2) of some commercial company, like that of the Bardi and later the Medici of Florence ; or (3) of some great confederacy of towns like the Hanseatic League of northern Germany. The Hanseatic League gradually arose from the union of German merchants abroad and German towns at home, and was completely formed by the thirteenth century; its objects 151. Han- were common defense, security of traffic by land and seatic _ *^ "J League sea, settlement of disputes between members, and the (1200-1450) acquisition and maintenance of trading privileges in foreign countries. The chief articles of commerce were herring and other salt fish, which were consumed in enormous quantities all over Europe, owing to the rules of the church, which forbade the eating of meat on Fridays and for the forty days during Lent ; other articles of trade were timber, pitch, furs, amber, and grain. At its greatest extent, the league included more than ninety cities of the Baltic and North Sea regions, both sea- ports and inland towns. Llibeck on the Baltic was the capital of the league, where its congresses were held and records kept. Hamburg, Bremen, Cologne, Danzig, and Wisby (on the island of Gothland) were important members; and warehouses and -jgg AGE OF THE CRUSADES trading stations, with extensive privileges, were maintained at Novgorod in Russia, Bergen in Norway, Bruges in J^anders, and London in England. In the fourteenth century the league Avas drawn into a series of wars with Denmark, and became a great political confedera- tion, with frequent assemblies, a federal tax, and a federal navy and military forces. After 1450 came a period of decay, due to the rise of foreign competition in trade, the revival of Denmark, the consolidation of the power of the German princes, and an unexplained shifting of the herring "schools" from the Baltic to more distant feeding grounds ; but its iinal downfall does not come until the Thirty Years' War, in tlie seventeenth century. It is difficult to overestimate the part played in northern Europe by this civic league in promoting trade, suppressing piracy and robbery, training the i)eople to orderly life and liberty, and spreading comforts and conven- iences in half-barbarous lands. Europe of the Middle Ages differed greatly from the Europe of to-day. In many regions there was nothing but forest, 152. Gen- swamp, and moor, where now are smiling fields and popu- acter of the ^<>^^s cities. The population on the whole was much less MiddleAges than now: England, which in 1901 had over 30,000,000 inliabitants, had in 1086 only about 2,150,000. The great growth of population, however, has been chiefly in towns and modern manufacturing districts, and not in the open country, which in many places was as thickly settled in the Middle Ages as in modern times. Local overpopulation was one cause of frequent famines, when weed3 and the bark of trees were gnawed for food, and depraved beings ate human flesh. There were no great accu- mulations of wealth ; heavy goods could be transported only short distances by land on account of the miserable roads; and when crops failed, the surplus of distant provinces could not be brought to relieve distress. LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 189 The standard of comfort on the whole, even after the intro- duction of some luxuries from the East, was surprisingly low. The manner of living, even among the higher classes, was filthy and unsanitary. Floors were covered with rushes, among which bones from the table and other refuse were dropped, to be covered with new layers of rushes ; and so on, until at length the whole decaying mass would be cleaned out. The death rate, especially among young children, was very high. In spite of all the glamour of chivalry and romance, the Middle Ages, on its material side, must have been a dreary time in which to live. Intellectually it was a time of ignorance and superstition. Comets were regarded as signs of coming disaster ; when one appeared " refulgent, with a hairy crown," it foretold the Roger of death of a king, while one with "long locks of hair [i.e. a Hoveden, . Chronicle, tail], Avhich as it scintillates it spreads abroad," fore- year lies told the ruin of a nation. " The invisible world . . . Lea, Inqni- with its mysterious attraction and horrible fascination Mid'dleAqes, was ever present and real to every one. Demons were al- I- ^o ways around him, to smite him with sickness, to ruin his pitiful little cornfield \_i.e. wheat field] or vineyard, or to lure his soul to perdition; while angels and saints were similarly ready to help him, to listen to his invocations, and to intercede for him at the throne of mercy, which he dared not address directly." It was an age of startling contrasts, when the sordidness of its daily life might be relieved with splendid exhibitions of lofty enthusiasm or darkened with hideous deeds of brutality. On the one hand it was, as Bishop Stubbs says, " the age of chiv- alry, of ideal heroism, of picturesque castles and glorious churches and pageants, camps, and tournaments, lovely charity and gallant self-sacrifice " ; on the other, it was clouded with dark shadows of " dynastic faction, bloody conquest, grievous misgovernance, local tyrannies, plagues and famines unhelped and unaverted, hollowness of pomp, disease, and desolation." 190 AGE OF THE CRUSADES Search topics Secondary- authorities TOPICS Suggestive (1) In the picture of the chateau of Arques, point out the topics drawbridges, moat, bailey wall, outer ward, inner ward, and donjon. (2) Was the life of a knight more or less desirable than that of a wealthy man of to-day ? (3) Compare the life of the farmer to-day witli that of the medi?eval peasant. (4) Compare the workingman to-day with the guild artisan. (5) Why did towns desire a charter? (6) The training of a knight. (7) The life of a boy or girl in a mediseval village. (8) The same in a mediaeval town. (9) Medi- geval system of agriculture. (10) Great fairs of the Middle Ages. (11) The struggles of some town in France, such as Laon, Cam- bray, or Beauvais, to secure self-government. (12) The craft guilds. (13) The merchant guild. (14) Commerce of Venice in the Middle Ages. (15) The Hanseatic League. (10) Mediseval hunting. REFERENCES Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ar/es, ch. xii. ; Emerton, Mediceval Europe, ch. xv. ; B^mont and Monod, Medieval Europe, 375-390, 483-485 ; Henderson, Short History of Germany, I. ch. v. ; Duruy, Middle Ages, ch. xxiii. ; Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, 415-426 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, chs. xvi. xxii. ; Lodge, Close of the Middle Ages, ch. xviii. ; Stills, Studies in Medieval History, chs. xiv. xv, ; Cutts, Scenes and Char- acters of the Middle Ages, chs. iv. vi. viii. ; Lacroix, Manners, Customs, and Dress during the Middle Ages, 56-104, 248-300, — Military and Beligious Life, 136-172 ; Gautier, Chivalry, chs. vi.-viii. xii. -xvi. ; Cornish, Chivalry, chs. ii.-v. ix. x. xii.-xiv. ; Rowbotham, Troubadours and Courts of Love, chs. i. vii. x. xi. xv. xvi. ; Gibbins, History of Commerce, bk. ii. ; Andrews, Old English ■ Manor, chs. v. vi. ; Jessopp, Coming of the Friars, ch. ii. Robinson, Headings, I. chs. xviii. xix. ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, nos. 289-293, 320-325 ; Jones, Civilization in the Middle Ages, Nos. 8, 9 ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Beprints, II. No. 1 ; Guizot, History of Civilization (Bohn), III. 312-315, 317-322, 392-474 ; Aucassin and Nicolete (Mosher's ed.) ; Mallory, 3Iorte d' Arthur. Pictures Parmentier, Alhum Historique, I. II. ; Stacke, Deutsche Geschichte (2 vols.) ; Lacroix, Arts in the Middle Ages, — Manners, Customs, and Dress during the Middle Ages, — Military and Beligious Life m the Middle Ages, — Science and Literature in the Middle Ages. Sources CHAPTER XII. ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) With the fall of the mediaeval empire, interest shifts to the national states, of which England was one of the first to arise. Britain, like all the West, formed part of the Roman ^^g ^^^ Empire, and was overrun by Germanic tribes (Angles, Heptarcfcy Saxons, and Jutes) after the year 449 : in the course ~ ^ of two centuries they completely conquered the eastern and southern parts of the island, to which was given the name England (Angle-land). The Celtic Britons were killed, en- slaved, or driven into the mountains, and the institutions of the German invaders were reproduced with scarcely any mixture of British or Roman elements. Even the Christian religion disappeared, along with the Latin tongue and the Roman-British civilization. Near the close of the sixth century, Christianity was re- introduced — in the south by missionaries sent direct from Rome (597), and in the north by Celtic (Irish) missionaries from the island of lona (off the western coast of Scotland). At the synod of Whitby (664), Roman Christianity, with its recognition of the papal headship, triumphed over the loosely organized and semi-independent Celtic Church ; and the eccle- siastic unity thus established helped to pave the way for the union of all England under one king. In the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries there were at least seven different kingdoms of the English; namely, those of the West Saxons, South Saxons, East Saxons, East Anglians (North Folk and South Folk), Mercians (or Middle 191 ENGLAND in 878 After the Treaty of Wedmore SCALE OF MILES ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 193 Angles), Northumbrians, and the men of Kent: the names of most of these peoples are still preserved in the county names of the regions where they ruled (Sussex, Essex, Nor- folk, etc.). In the seventh century the kings of Northumbria acquired a vague supremacy over the other kingdoms. In the eighth this passed to the kings of Mercia. At the beginning of the ninth century it was won by Egbert, king of Wessex (802-829), from whom in one line the present sovereign of England traces descent. In the year 787 " Danes," or Northmen, began to harry Eng- land. As on the Continent, they first came merely to plunder ; but soon after 850 they began to form settlements. ^^^ ^^^^^ The reign of Alfred the Great (871-901) is the most sions of the remarkable in this period of England's history. He came to the throne at a time when the Danes were overrun- ning all Wessex. " Nine general battles," says a chroni- Anglo- cler, " were fought this year (871) south of the Thames." chronicle After seven years of struggle Alfred defeated the Danes year 87i and forced them to accept the treaty of Wedmore, by which they were baptized as Christians, and received the land north of the Thames; the name "Danelaw" was given to this region because there the Danish, and not the Saxon, law was in force. Alfred then reorganized his kingdom, remodeled the army, and erected strong earth-walled fortresses. He was fond of learning, and took steps to provide for the education of his people. He hims6lf translated a number of works from the Latin into the Anglo-Saxon tongue, and gave orders for the compilation of the great Anglo-Saxon Chi'onicle. In the latter part of Alfred's reign the war with the Danes began anew. Under his son and his three grandsons, who ruled one after another, the Danelaw was reconquered and again joined with the rest of England ; but a large admixture of Danish blood continued in the north of England, leaving 194 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES its marks in the place names and in the rnde freedom of its inhabitants. The most prosperous reign of the Anglo-Saxon period was that of Edgar (959-975), who was ably assisted in the govern- ment by Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury, the lirst sfxon^''^^°' of a long line of ecclesiastical statesmen. Over the government ^, ^y^^^.q^v q^ counties, power was exercised by " ealdor- men," who corresponded to the counts of the Carolingian empire. There was the same tendency as on the Continent I King and Witan. From the Cotton MS. for the local rulers to acquire independent authority and force the free peasant into serfdom ; but the popular assemblies in the shires and "hundreds" (as the division next smaller than the shire was called) kept alive the practice of self- government, and acted as a check on the power of the "thegns," or lords. Over all was the "Witan," or council of wise men; these chose the king from the royal family, and assisted him iu the work of legislation and administration. The modes of trial in Anglo-Saxon England seem strange to ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1877) l95 us, but were common to all Germanic peoples. Compurgation was a usual form ; in this, the person accused swore to his innocence and produced a number of compurgators (" oath , helpers ''), who swore that they believed his oath to be " clean and without guile." In serious cases the ordeal w^as used; this was an appeal to the judgment of God. In the ordeal by hot iron the accused had to carry a piece of red-hot iron for a certain distance in his bare hand ; in the ordeal by hot water he had to thrust his hand into a kettle of boiling water. In either case the hand was then bandaged and sealed up for three days ; if the wound healed properly, the person w^as declared innocent. In the cold water ordeal the accused was thrown into a stream of water, with hands and feet tied to- gether ; if he floated, he was guilty ; but if he sank he w^as innocent and was to be rescued. Edgar's son Ethelred — called the "Eedeless," or "Unready" (which means 'Hacking counsel") — ruled from 979 to 1016. He was rash, short-sighted, and weak, and in his reign i^q Danish there was srreat disorder and suffering. The invasions conquest and English of the Danes were renewed, and Ethelred bought them decay off with money payments. At home the ISTorthmen now (977-1042) formed the three kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and Den- mark ; thenceforth the invaders came as armies for the purpose of conquest. The Danish residents in England sympathized with their brethren ; the great ealdormen, too, fell to treachery and quarreling among themselves. The result was that Sweyn (Swegen, or Svend), king of Denmark, conquered the whole of England, and Ethelred was obliged, in lOlo, to take refuge with his brother-in-law, the duke of Normandy. The next year Sweyn died suddenly, and Ethelred was restored, only to die in 1016. After a brief struggle, Canute (1016-1035), the son of Sweyn, was accepted as king by all the English people. Already he was king of Denmark, and in 1028 he made himself king of l^Q RISE OF NATIONAL STATES Norway. In England he ruled as an English king. The great ealdorraen, who from this time are known as "earls," were kept in order with a strong hand, and peace and prosperity' were enjoyed by English and Danes alike. While on a pil- grimage to Rome, Canute wrote to his English subjects : " 1 Florence of have vowed to God to lead a right life in all things, to Worcester's ^.^^^^ justly and piously my realms and my subjects, and year 1031 ' to administer just judgment to all. If heretofore I have done aught beyond what is just, through headiness or negli- gence of youth, I am ready with God's help to amend it utterly." Canute's sons, Harold and Hardicanute, ruled after him for seven years. Upon the extinction of the Danish line, the 157. Ed- Witan chose as king the son of Ethelred, who was called ward the Edward "the Confessor" (1042-1066), on account of his Confessor ^ (1042-1066) piety. He proved but a feeble ruler. He had been reared at the Norman court, where ways of life were less rude than in England ; and the favor which he showed to Normans and Frenchmen angered his English subjects. The chief events of his reign centered in the quarrels of the great earls, who openly rebelled. Godwin, earl of Wessex, was the most powerful of these ; after his death his office passed to his son Harold, who proved himself the most capable man of the kingdom. When Edward died without children, in 1066, Harold was chosen king by the Witan; but William, the duke of Kormandy, put forth a claim to the throne and pre- pared an invading army. William the Conqueror, as he is known in history, was the sixth duke of Xormandy in descent from Eolf. He was only 158. The seven years of age when his father died on a pilgrimage Norman 4--di.- -,,-, .. Conquest ^^ i^aiestme, and the minority of the young duke was (1066) one long struggle against his Norman barons. With the aid of the French king, William crushed his enemies (1047), and then built up a military power which made Nor- ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 197 mandy one of the strongest governments of Europe. Already Norman adventurers were winning by their swords a kingdom in Sicily and southern Italy (§ 52) ; and when Duke William looked abroad for a similar field of conquest, he found it in England. He secured a promise from Edward the Confessor (his father's cousin) that he should succeed to the throne of England ; and circumstances enabled him to obtain from Earl Death of Harold. From the Bayeux Tapestry. Harold is the second figure from the left. Harold an oath not to dispute his claim. When Harold was chosen king, William protested ; and bearing a banner conse- crated by the Pope, he landed on the south coast of England in September, 1066. Harold had been called to the north to repel an invasion by the king of Norway, and returned too late to prevent the landing. The earls of the northern counties treach- erously refused him aid, and Harold was forced to meet the Normans with only his own troops. The battle took place on the ridge later called Senlac, near the town of Hastings. The strength of the English consisted in their mailed foot- men armed with the battle-ax, while that of the Normans lay in their archers and mounted men-at-arms; two different 198 l^l«i^ ^^^^ NATIONAL STATES modes of warfare were thus contending, as well as two peoples and two civilizations. For a long time the issue was in doubt. To draw the English from their strong position, William or- dered a portion of his troops to pretend to flee; this ruse was partly successful, but still the " sjneld wall " of Harold's guard held hrm. At last an arrow struck Harold in the eye, piercing to the brain, and after this disaster the English were forced from the field (October, 1066). This battle decided the possession of the English crown, and gave England a line of rulers which has lasted to this day. 159. Nor- William was formally chosen king, and within a few manorgam- j^^Q^^^^i^g ^y^s in tranquil possession of the whole kingdom. (1066-1087) There were revolts of the native English and also of Nor- man barons (feudal lords), who rebelled against the iron rule of the Conqueror ; but these were put down with terrible cru- elty. In the main, the customs and laws of the English were respected, but the property of those who fought against Wil- liam at Hastings was treated as forfeited, and either granted to new holders or confirmed to the old' ones on the payment of a heavy fine. In either event the tenure established was a feudal one, con- ditioned on the performance of military service, with all the "feudal incidents" of relief, aids, wardship, and marriage rights. Feudalism as a system (§§ 31-41) was thus intro- duced fullgrown into England ; but William took pains to see | that in England it should not become the menace to the crown that it was in France. An oath of allegiance to the king, taking precedence of all ties to feudal lords, was demanded from all freemen (1086), and the old Anglo-Saxon national mihtia, as well as the old popular assemblies, were continued as a check on the power of the lords or barons. It also happened that the lands granted his Norman followers, how- ever extensive they might be, were widely scattered, and not ill compact blocks, as they were in France. Thus it was ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1877) 199 made niore difficult than in France for a vassal to gather men bo make war npon his king. In order that he might know the resources of the realm, William caused an inquest of the lands, their holders, and their value to be made throughout England, the results being set down in what is known as Domesday Book. " So very narrowly did lie cause the survey to be made," says the Anglo-Saxon Anglo- Ghronide, "that there was not a single hide nor a rood of ,„ '^".•^*^" ' ^ (Jhronicle, [and, nor — it is shameful to relate that which he thought year ]08r> tio shame to do — was there an ox, or a cow, or a pig passed by." The value to the historian of this minute record, which is still in existence, may easily be imagined. William was a stern and a just king, but he was little loved. When William died, in the year 1087, primogeniture, or the L-ight of the eldest son to succeed the father, was not an estab- lished custom. Eobert, his oldest son, secured Normandy, 160. Nor- but England passed to William Rufus, the second son. "^^^ ^^°s°ion rhis William II. proved a harsh, wicked man, and was (1087-1154) [rated by all. After thirteen years of rule his body was found in the New Forest (near Southampton), with an arrow piercing :;he heart ; whether he was slain by accident or by design no man can tell. William II. left no children, and Henry I. (1100-1135), the third son of the Conqueror, secured the throne. This was for- tunate for England, as he was a strong ruler who knew how to keep the turbulent barons in check. To conciliate his subjects, tie issued at his coronation a charter of liberties, which became the model for the Great Charter of King John (§ 167). The troubles stirred up by his brother, Eobert of Normandy, ended with Robert's defeat and capture (1106). Normandy was then annexed once more to the English crown, with which it re- mained united for nearly a hundred years. The title " Lion of Justice," given to Henry, marks his activity in the a.-S. Chron- punishment of crime. " He made peace," says the chroni- tele, 1135 200 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES cler, "for men and deer; whoso bare his burden of gold and silver, no man durst say to him aught but good." 4 The just government established by Henry I. died with him. His nephew, Stephen of Blois (son of the crusader, § 97), who secured the government after him, lacked firmness and good judgment, and the difficulties of his position were increased by the repeated efforts of Henry's daughter, Matilda, to win the crown. Civil war and anarchy followed, and lawless Anglo- castles filled the land. The nobles "greatly oppressed Saxo)i ^Yie wretched people by making them work at their i^/irotizciCf yearns? castles, and when the castles were finished they filled them with devils and evil men. Then they took those whom they suspected to have any goods, by night and by day, seizing both men and women, and they put them in prison for their gold and silver, and tortured them with pains unspeakable, for never were any martyrs tormented as these were. . . . This state of affairs lasted the nineteen years that Stephen was king, and ever grew worse and worse. . . . Tlien was corn [i.e. wheat] dear, and flesh, and cheese and butter, for there .was none in the land; — wretched men starved with hunger; some lived on alms who had been erewhile rich ; some fled the country. Never was there more misery, and never acted heathens worse than these." The struggle for the crown ended with a treaty by which Stephen recognized Matilda's son, Henry of Anjou, as his suc- 161. Reign ^^^^^^- The next year Stephen died, and Henry II., the f/i^rj'?in ^^"^* ^^ *^^® Angevin or Plantagenet kings, came to the (1104-1189) ,1 rrii 1 ■■ • throne. The early kings of this house were Henry II. (1154-1189), Eichard I. (1189-1199), John (1199-121G), Henry III. (1216-1272), Edward I. (1272-1307), Edward II. (1307- 1327), and Edward III. (1327-1377). In right of his father, Henry II. was count of Anjou (in France) ; in right of his mother, he received Norm.andy and England ; by marriage with Eleanor, heiress of Aquitaine, he 1 ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 201 Miter, Chasuble, and Stole of Thomas a Becket. Preserved in the Cathedral of Sens, France. added that broad land to his dominions (map, p. 228). He was a strong king, tireless in the transaction of business, with a genius for organization. The abuses of Stephen's reign were speedily remedied, and peace and good order restored. His attempt to bring the clergy under the jurisdiction of royal courts brought him into conflict with the archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas a Becket ; and hasty words let fall by the king led four of his ser- vants to murder the arch- bishop. By the people Becket was venerated as a martyr ; and to secure absolution from the Pope, Henry was obliged to forego some rights of juris- diction which he claimed over " criminous clerks." England's conquest of Ireland began in this reign. In metal i62. Hen- work, in sculpture, ^y ^ wa.Ts and in the illumination of manuscripts the Irish had attained a degree of cul- ture then unsurpassed ; but in political develop- Cross at Monasterbrice, Ireland. Erected in 9th or 10th centnry. Part of the carving represents scriptural scenes. Harding's m. & m. hist. — 12 202 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES ment they lagged behind. Ireland was still in the tribal stage, and tribe warred with tribe, chief with chief. In such (nrcnni- stances it was inevitable that the Norman barons of England should intervene. The complete subjugation of the island was not effected nntil long afterward; but from this reign the fortunes of Ireland were linked with those of its eastern' neighbor. Henry II.'s possessions in France led him into almost con- stant warfare with the French king. In 117"> the kings of France and Scotland assisted the barons and the king's oldest son (Henry) to rebel; but the rebellion was put down, and the king of the Scots taken prisoner. News of the fall of Jerusalem, in 1187, led Henry II. to take the cross ; but preparations for the crusade were interrupted by a new war with the French king, Philip Augustus, who aided the rebel- lion of Henry's son, Eichard — now through the death of his elder brother the heir to the throne. The English king was defeated and forced to make peace ; and at the head of the list of those allied against him, he read the name of his young- est son, John, whom he had supposed faithful. Already sick and worn out, Henry II. died three days later. He was a hard, stern man, with the fierce Angevin temper, and was little loved ; but the value of his work can not be overestimated. The most important feature of Henry II.'s reign was his judicial, military, and financial reforms. The Exchequer, or 1 163. Hen- financial department of the government, was definitely • rys reforms organized. The old English militia was revived by a law called the Assize of Arms, and every man was obliged to provide himself with arms according to his means. The practice was introduced of excusing feudal tenants from military service on payment of a sum called " scutage " : the money thus obtained was used to hire mercenary troops, who were better and more reliable soldiers ; at the same time the new plan reduced the military strength of the feudal nobles. I ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 20o The judicial reforms of Henry II. consisted chiefly in the establishment of itinerant justices and the introduction of trial and presentment juries. The justices itinerant went on circuit, bringing the king's justice into different parts of England; the settlement of many important cases was thus made easier, speedier, and more certain. A form of jury trial was introduced in civil causes to take the place of trial by compurgation and trial by battle. The latter was brought into England about the time of the Norman conquest ; in it the plaintiff and defendant fought with arms before the judges, and God w^as supposed to make manifest the just cause by enabling its champion to triumph. In trial by jury the decision was given in the name of the community by those who had the best knowledge of the facts, and the result no longer rested upon superstition, acci- i64. Trial lent, or superior force. Centuries passed, however, ^yj^ry before jury trial reached the developed form of to-day. Trial by ordeal was used a little longer in criminal cases, but after 1219 trial by jury was introduced here also. Henry II. also made an important improvement in the means provided for the accusation of criminals. It often happened that a man was too powerful for an individual to dare accuse him ; to remedy this, the jury of presencment, which 'later became the grand jury, was introduced to 'bring an accusation against suspected persons in the name of the community as a whole. The trial and presentment juries greatly improved the administration of justice; but more important than this was their indirect influence. By participating in the administra- tion of justice, Englishmen were trained in a knowledge of the law and in the exercise of the rights of self-government. Jurors acted not merely in judicial, but in administrative, mat- ters, as representatives of their communities ; and when once the principle of representation was fixed in local government, it became easy to introduce it into central affairs. Thus the 204 KISK OF NATIONAL STATES juries introduced by Henry II. became, under his successors, the taproot of parliamentary representation. Richard I., Coeur de Lion (the Lion-Hearted), was a good warrior, but a poor ruler. Most of his reign was devoted to the Third Crusade and to the defense of his Continental ardl. '^ ' possessions; for these purposes, and for his ransom (1189-1199) ^^^j^g^^ taken captive while returning from the Holy Land (§ 105), England was oppressively taxed. Only seven months of the ten years of his reign were passed in England ; but the administrative officers trained by Henry 11. kept the country orderly and peaceful. Richard died of an arrow wound v»'liile on a characteristic mission, warring to secure a treasure found by one of his vassals in Aquitaine. The Great Council of England chose Richard's brother John king after him, in preference to Arthur, the son of an elder 166. John brother Geoffrey. John had been an undutiful son and (1199-1216) brother; he now proved the worst king that England ever had. His misconduct in Aquitaine led his barons there to appeal to King Philip against him, and when he refused to appear, his French liefs were declared forfeited. Soon after, John secured possession of his young nephew, Arthur, and basely put him to death. This made it easier for Philip to enforce the sentence of forfeiture ; and by the close of 1206 all the English possessions in France were lost, except Aquitaine. John was next involved in a quarrel with Pope Innocent III., and for nearly five years England lay under an interdict, all ordi- nary church services being prohibited. To prevent his deposi- tion, John at last made his peace with the Pope, agreeing to hold his kingdom as a papal fief and pay an annual tribute. He then hastened to France with such forces as he could raise to regain his lost possessions ; but at Bouvines, in 1214, his ally, Otto IV. of Germany, was overwhelmingly defeated (§ loO), and John returned discredited to England. The loss of these Con- tinental possessions was on the whole fortunate for England ; it ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 205 practically completed the process, which had long been going on, whereby the barons ceased to be Normans and became English. All classes were aroused by John's misgovernment ; and during his absence a meeting was held at which it was agreed to take ui) arms unless he i^ranted a charter of liberties, ._„ _, ^ ^ «t ' 167. The similar to that of Henry I. John sought to evade the Great Char- demand ', but the whole nation — nobles, clergy, and ®^ ^ ' townsmen — united in it ; and finally, in June, 1215, '- in the meadow called Runnymede," on the river Tham.es, John put Portion of Magna Charta. his signature to the Great Charter (Magna Charta?). The demands of the barons were no selfish exaction of privileges for themselves; they secured the rights of all. Many of the provisions of the charter were of a temporary nature, remedy- ing immediate grievances, but others were permanent in their importance. Among the latter are the following : — " No free man shall be taken or imprisoned or dispossessed, or outlawed, or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will w^e go upon him, nor send upon him, except by the Charta, legal judgment of his peers or by the law of the land. ^^ ' " To no one will we sell, to no one will we deny, or delay, right or justice." When he signed the Great Charter, John had no intention of abiding by it, and within three months he was again at open 206 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES war with his barons. The latter planned to accept the son of the French king as sovereign; but in 1216 John died, leaving a son, Henry III., nine years of age. The Great Charter now received the first of many con tin nations, and peace was rapidly restored. Daring the first sixteen years of Henry III.'s reign, officers trained in the methods of Henry II. directed affairs, and good order and prosperity followed. For twenty-six years the III. (1216-^ king w^s then under the influence of personal favorites, I272j greedy foreigners for the most part, — or carried on the government without ministers. In either case, misrule was the result; heavy taxes were laid to enrich his favorites and carry on useless wars in France, and clergy and people groaned under the exactions of papal legates. In 1258 the barons rose in rebellion under Earl Simon de Montfort, and brought this state of affairs to an end. The government was then under their control for seven years, until in 1265 the king's eldest son Edward escaped from the captivity in which he was held and raised an army. At Evesham he met and defeated the forces of Earl Simon, the latter being among the slain. Although himself of foreign birth, Montfort was a con- sistent advocate of English liberty, and did much to favor the growth of Parliament. After 1265 Henry III. was freed from the control of the barons, but only to pass under that of his strong and able son, Edward, till the king's death in 1272. Edward I. is the first king since the Norman conquest of whom it can be said that he was "every inch an Englishman." 169. Ed- ^® ^^^ ^^s father's personal virtues without his vices as (1272^307 '^^'^^^®^' ^^ ^'^^ ^^^^ greatest of the Plantagenet kings. He sought to unite under one rule the whole of the British Isles, and to accomplish this he waged war against the Welsh, until in 1284 that country was annexed to England; soon after arose the usage by which the title " Prince of Wales " is usually borne by the heir to the English throne. Edward P:NGLANI) in the middle ages (440-1377) 207 also intervened in Scotland and secured the recognition of his overlordship ; disputes, however, followed, and Edward was several times forced to lead an army thither ; and after his death Scotland regained its independence (formally admitted in 1328). The chief result of Edward's aggressions was to throw the Scots into alliance with France, and postpone until the eighteenth century the constitutional union of the two British kingdoms. More important than Edward's military exploits were his constitutional measures. Parliament assumed under him the form which it was to bear into modern times. The roots j^q K,iseof of this institution la}'^ deep in the past : the idea of Parliament representation in local affairs was older than the Norman con- quest ; and under the Kormans, especially in the juries of Henry II.,* it received a wide extension. The first introduc- tion of representatives into the Great Council (the feudalized successor to the Anglo-Saxon Witan, § 155) was in 1213, when '• four discreet men " of each county were ordered to be chosen to meet with the barons. In 1265 Simon de Montfort added borough or town representatives. In 1295 Edward summoned the Model Parliament, which contained the barons, together with representatives of counties and towns on a larger scale than before. After this time, elected representatives of the people were regularly summoned, along with the nobles and higher clergy, and the Great Council becomes the English Parliament. In the next century the representatives of towns and counties united to form the House of Commons, while the l)arons, including the bishops and abbots, formed the House of Lords. Parliament was thus divided into two houses, and its external structure was complete; but the development of its powers was only beginning. Edward I. was also active in reforming and systematizing the English laws. The thirteenth century was above all things the age of the lawyer and legislator, and in this field Edward's 208 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES work may well challenge comparison with that of Frederick II. of Sicily, and Louis IX. and Philip IV. of France. Edward II. proved an unworthy son of his great father ; he was frivolous and unprincipled, and utterly incapable of carry- ing on the work begun by Edward I. He angered the great barons by the favor which he showed to unfit companions ; and after many disturbances he was forced to abdicate (1327), and was then murdered in prison. Edward III., son of Edward II., showed the energy and capacity of his grandfather. The beginning of the Hundred Years' War with France (ch. xiv.) is the most important 171. Ed- ward III. event of his reign ; but constitutional progress was not (1327-1377) ^^.^-egted. Since the days of Henry III., the English had resented the exactions of the papacy, and the fact that the Popes now resided at Avignon (§ 187), on what was i)ractically French soil, increased the ill feel- ing. Two great statutes were enacted against the papacy in this reign — the one forbidding papal appointments to ecclesi- astical positions in Eng- land(Statute of Provisors), and the other preventing appeals to the papal court (Statute of Praemunire). About this time John Wyclif, an Oxford pro- fessor, successfully at- tacked the Pope's claim to English tribute based on John's submission, condemned the temporal lordship exercised by the church, and assailed the I Wyclif' Pulpit in Lutterworth Church. ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 209 doctrine of transubstantiation ; with the assistance of others, he also translated the Bible into English, and formed a body of " poor priests " to preach among the people. In 1382 he was condemned for heresy ; but cirumstances did not permit of further steps being taken against him, and he died peacefully two years later. The importance of A¥yclif's teaching outlived his own time and the circumstances which called it forth ; he was the greatest of the " reformers before the Reformation," and the movement which he started, both in England and in Bohemia (whither it was transplanted), lasted in some sort down to the days of Luther. The conquest of Britain by the Angles and Saxons (449-600) ^ established there a Teutonic people who have retained their Teutonic language and institutions to the present time. 172. sum- The Danish invasions made more marked their Ten- mary tonic character; and the Norman conquest (1066), while profoundly affecting English institutions by feudalizing and centralizing them, left almost untouched the Anglo-Saxon system of local self-government, and did not seriously change the nature of the people. Under the Angevin kings (1154- 1399), Ireland and Wales were acquired and Normandy lost ; in the same period a series of legal, financial, and judicial re- forms improved the administration and strengthened the crown, while the rights of the nation were secured in the Great Charter, wrested from King John (1215). A repre- sentative Parliament arose (1213-1295) and became a regular part of the government ; and the growth of national conscious- ness gave rise to a movement to restrict papal taxation, ap- pointment, and jurisdiction in England. Long before the reign of Edward III. began, the Normans and English in. England had become one people, and when the Hundred Years' War with Erance came, they were ready to support their king with the enthusiasm of a national spirit. 210 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES Suggestive topics Search topics Geography Secondary authorities Sources Illustrative works TOPICS (1) What other lands suffered from the attacks of the Northmen or Danes at the same time with -England? (2) Was the Norman conquest a good or a bad thing for England ? (3) To what was due the anarchy under Stephen ? (4) Show on an outline map the lands ruled by Henry II. ; show also those lost by John. (5) AVhat ad- vantages had trial by jury over the older forms of trial ? (6) What issues were involved in the battle of Bouvines ? (7) Did Magna Charta grant new rights to Englishmen ? (8) How did local self- government prepare the way for Parliament ? (9) Character and work of Alfred. (10) William the Con- queror. (11) Reforms of Henry 11. (12) Events leading up to Magna Charta. (13) Simon de Montfort. (14) Edward I. (15) Life and teachings of John Wyclif. (16) The rise of Par- liament. REFERENCES Maps, pp. 192, 228; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 3-14; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xvi.-xviii. ; Dow, Atlas, x. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 339-350 ; Bdmont and Monod, Medieval Europe, ch. xxvii. ; Thatcher and Schwill. Europe in the 31iddle Age, chs. ix. xviii. ; Duruy, Middle Ages, 40-42, 159-164, 180-186, 341-357, 385-391 ; Stills, Studies in Medieval History, 189-235 ; Gardiner, Students'' History of Eng- land, 26-230; Terry, History of England, 18-349; Ransome, Ad- vanced History of England, 19-242 ; Green, History of the English People, I. bks. i.-iii., bk. iv. chs. i.-ii. ; Historians'' History of the World, XVIII. 30-445 ; Freeman, William the Conqueror ; Hughes, Alfred the Great. Robinson, Readings, I. ch. xi. ; Thatcher and McNeal, Soiirce Book, nos. 234-239 ; Henderson, Documents of the 3tiddle Ages, bk. i. ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Reprints, I. No. 6, II. No. 1, III. No. 5 ; Hutton, Simon de Montf>rt and his Cause ; Kendall, Source Book of English History ; Colby. Selec- tions from the Sources of English History ; Adams and Stephens, Select Documents of English Constitutional History, 1-99. Shakespeare, King John ; Scott, Ivanhoe ; G. A. Henty, The Dragon and the Raven, — Wulf the Saxon ; J. G. Edgar, Run- nymede and Lincoln Fair, — How I Won my Spurs; Martin Tupper, Stephen Langton ; Mrs. A. Payne, Glastonbury ; W. H. Herbert, The Wager of Battle ; Julia Corner, The King and the Troubadour. CHAPTER XIII. THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) When Hugh Capet came to the throne of France, in 987 (§ 51), feudal tendencies had overmastered the monarchy ; and what is now France was a bundle of feudal fragments, 173. Devel- steadily growing farther apart in language, in law, and opmentof in political feeling. It was the work of the Capetian power kings to reunite these fragments, to form a strong monarchy, and to impart national enthusiasm. As means with which to work they had extensive private estates in northern France, the support of the church and the towns, and the moral au- thority which attached to the office of king. The transforma- tion was largely effected through the extension of the royal domain, that is, of those lands wdiich were directly under the control of the crown. Under the first four Capetian kings little was accomplished ; but beginning with Louis VI. (1108-1137) rapid progress was made. By purchase, marriage, inheritance, and forfeiture, fief after fief was acquired, until at last the royal domain included almost the whole of France. To keep what was gained, the principle of hereditary succession to the crown was established against that of election (§ 51), partly through the practice of electing the son in the father's lifetime as his associate and successor, but more through the fortunate fact that, unlike the German imperial houses, the Capetians for eleven generations (until 1316) never lacked a son to receive the scepter of the father, and that only once was a long regency necessary. 211 212 KISE OF NATIONAL STATES Hugh Capet (987-996), the founder of the new dynasty, was regarded by the barons who made him king as little more than 174. The "first among equals/' and his reign was occupied almost first four ^vholly with the struggle to secure his right to the crown. t^eXuoS) His son Robert (996-1031) was more of a monk than a warrior or statesman, and left the royal power little stronger than at his accession. Under Henry I. (L031-1060) the do- main and the authority of the Capetians were reduced to the lowest point. His son Philip I. (1060-1108) showed active hostility to Normandy, as a result of the Norman conquest of England ; and thenceforth French kings sought to separate Normandy from England, and sowed dissensions in the Eng- lish royal family. In the latter part of Philip's reign he was hampered by a long quarrel with Pope Gregory VII. ; never- theless he began the increase of the royal domain, and pre- pared the way for greater extensions under his successors. Louis VI. (1108-1137) is styled " the Fat," but he was the embodiment of martial energy. His great task was to reduce 175. Royal to order the petty nobles of the royal domain, who were domain re- often little better than brisrands. The conditions which duced to . , ^ order (1108- prevailed in France at this time were similar to those 1137) which existed in England under Stephen: every lord of a castle robbed at will, and some tortured with fiendish cruelty those who fell into their hands. Twenty years of hard fighting was necessary before the last of these brigands was crushed; and "in order that such evils might not again occur, every fortress taken was destroyed or intrusted to faithful persons. By this policy Louis VI. greatly increased the power of the crown: for the first time, the king became master of the royal • domain, and could go from Paris to Orleans (p. 228) without risk of having his passage disputed by the lord of some petty castle. Louis VI. also taught the barons whose fiefs lay outside his domain that " kings have long arms," and at various times asserted his power in Flanders, Aquitaine, and elsewhere. THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 213 Louis VII. (1137-1180) finished the task of securing and consolidating the domain, but in other respects the growth of the royal power was retarded in his reign. This was j^g ^^^_ chiefly owing to two causes : (1) his participation in the fortunes Second Crusade (§ 102) ; and (2) the increase of the power yji (1137, of the counts of Anjou. 1180) The Second Crusade both directly and indirectly was the cause of much misfortune to France. The king's absence was untimely, because of discord in the kingdom ; but fortu- nately Louis left the government in the charge of Suger, abbot of the monastery of St. Denis near Paris, who was an able man, trained in administration under Louis VI. Suger, until his death in 1152, was the chief minister of the crown : as abbot, he reformed his monastery ; as scholar, he wrote the life of Louis VI. ; as statesman, in the language of one of his „ ,, , . correspondents, he " sustained alone the burden of affairs, VI. et Lotus maintained the churches in peace, reformed the clergy, ''^' protected the kingdom with arms, caused virtue to flourish, and the authority of the laws to rule." Before his accession, Louis VII. had married Eleanor, heiress of Aquitaine, thereby adding that vast territory to the lands of the crown ; but her misconduct on the crusade determined him to procure a divorce, which she also desired. A decree was obtained from a council of the French clergy, declaring the marriage void by reason of relationship within the degrees prohibited by the church. This was followed almost immedi- ately by Eleanor's marriage to young Henry of Anjou (§ 161), and the great Aquitanian inheritance passed into the control of that house which was the deadliest rival of the Capetian kings. From near the mouth of the river Somme to the Pyre- nees, the coast was now in the hands of the prince who two years later ascended the English throne as Henry 11. Thence- forth the Capetians had to fight the Plantagenets, or to give up all hope of further growth. 214 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES For more than twenty years Louis VII. struggled with Henry II., but the task of breaking the Angevin power was 177 Philip reserved for his son Philip II. (1180-1223). Unlike his Augustus antagonist Richard I. of England, Philip had little of the (1180-1223) ^^^•g|^^_gj.^.aj^|^ ii^ his character; he was patient and per- severing, a master of statecraft and of diplomacy ; he knew how to dissimulate, and was unscrupulous in his choice of r . , means. " He was stern," says a contemporary, '' toward Lavisse ana Rambaud, the uoblcs who disobeyed him ; it pleased him to stir up Sral, discord among them, and he loved to use in his service 11.365 men of lesser rank." The chronicler Rigord gave him the name Augustus, "because he enlarged the boundaries of the state." Philip's part in the Third (h^usade (§§ 104, 105) was a mere episode of his reign ; his heart was not in the work, and as soon as the sense of obligation would permit, he returned to France. The chief principle of his policy was to stir up dis- sensions in the English royal family and separate the Conti- nental possessions of that house from the island kingdom. During the first twenty years of his reign, the ability of Richard the Lion-Hearted, and a conflict with the papacy caused by Philip's attempt to divorce his first wife, prevented him from accomplishing much. The weakness and wickedness of King John, however, gave him his opi)ortunity. In 1202 the English fiefs were declared forfeited (§ 166), and castle after castle was taken, including the famous Chateau Gail- lard built by Richard to guard the Seine. All the Eng- lish fiefs except Aquitaine passed into Philip's hands, and the battle of Bouvines (1214) secured him in possession. A vast domain, with an extensive seaboard, thus came into the hands of the Frem^h king, lifting him far above the level of his greatest vassals. The development of the French towns, which was sketched in a preceding chapter (§ 145), went on at a rapid rate THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-i;i37) 215 towns under Philip Augustus. His father and grandfather, Louis Yll. and Louis VI., were half hostile to the rising power of the communes ; but l*hilip welcomed the towns as a use- ,»o t. ' ^ 178 Devel- ful ally against tlie feudal nobles. Communal independ- opment of ence, however, was not part of his plan ; if with one hand he granted charters of liberties, with the other he ex- tended the royal supremacy. Paris, as the chief place of the royal domain, received a special treatment. In the time of Julius Ctesar, Paris was a little cluster of huts on a marshy island of the river Seine ; dur- ing the five hundred years of Poman rule it grew to be a pro- vincial capital ; by making it his ordi- nary place of resi- dence, Philip Augus- tus caused it to become the first national capi- tal of a modern state. His fostering care increased its area, erected new walls, in- closing territory on both banks of the river, paved its streets to do away with their ill-smelling and unsanitary mudholes, and completed the erection of the cathedral of Notre-Dame, one of the noblest examples of G-othic architecture. In the reign of Philip Augustus was begun a movement to stamp out heresy in the south of Prance, which had im- 179. Hereti- portant results for civilization, for the church, and for cal sects the royal power. Many heretical sects had sprung up in the Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris. 216 RISK OF NATIONAL STATES eleventh and twelfth centuries. Some, like the Waldenses, founded by Peter Waldo of Lyons (about 1178), emphasized |. the need of a return to the simple life and worship off the Apostles. Others, like the Cathari (Manicheans), whose Christianity was tinged with Persian doctrines, believed in two coequal Gods, — one good, the other evil, — declared the mate- rial universe to be the creation of the evil deity, and rejected the existing order in church and state; the "perfect" mem- bers of the sect rejected marriage, and were frankly opposed to the whole social organization. The Cathari were most numer- ous in southern France, where they were known as Albigenses, from the little town of Albi, near Toulouse. Southern Prance, or Languedoc, at this time was so different from northern France in language, customs, and culture as almost to constitute a separate nation. There flourished the troubadours, the authors of the earliest poetical literature in the popular tongues ; there, too, were to be found culture, luxury, and toleration such as few other European lands could boast. The ardent nature of the people led many to adopt with zeal the teachings of the Albigenses, and soon all classes were infected. Their enemies charged them with immoral practices, but the charges seem largely unfounded. Pope Innocent III. declared the doctrines of the heretics to be ruinous to the church and subversive of society ; and after two peaceful missionary efforts had failed, and a papal gensian legate had been murdered by a knight of Raymond VL, ^fl^f^^® „„ count of Toulouse, the Pope issued a call for an armed cru- (1209-1229) • ' ^ sade. Philip Augustus, pleading his preoccupation with '^ two great and terrible lions," John of England and Otto IV. of Germany, refused to take part ; but a host of lesser lords from the north, among whom Simon de Montfort, father of the English earl (§ 168), was preeminent, gathered at the Pope's call. The chief direction of the crusade was given to the papal legate Arnold, abbot of Citeaux. THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 217 The war was waged with frightful cruelty ; " according to his own admission Arnold raged furiously, without sparing rank, sex, or age, with murder, pillage, and fire in 3foeiier,His- Christ's name." In part this cruelty is explained toryofthe Christian by the violent excesses of the Albigenses, who had Church, II. waylaid and slain priests, and driven bishops and ab- ^^^ bots from their benefices ; but fanaticism and lust of lands and booty helped on the movement. Twice the count of Toulouse made abject submission, and twice he again took up arms. In 1226, Louis VIII., who had ascended the throne three years before, led a great expedition against Toulouse; but on the way back he died of fever. All parties were now tired of the struggle; and in 1229 a treaty was arranged between the French king, Louis IX., and the new count of Toulouse, son of the original count. ' Heresy was to be put down, and the count was to do penance for his support of the heretics; part of his estates were to pass at once to the king, and the remainder to go at the death of the count to the king's brother Alphonse, who was to marry the count's daughter. As it turned out, Alphonse left no heirs, and in 1271 these estates also passed into the royal domain. By these wars the domain of the crown was much increased, and the royal power given a firmer footing in the south ; for southern France itself, the result was a decay of its peculiar civilization and the extinction of the troubadour poets. The complete rooting out of heresy in southern France took time and was accomplished largely by new agencies — the Mendicant Orders and the Inquisition. The older orders of monks sought to shut out the world, and gave them- mendicant selves up to prayer and meditation ; the new mendicant °^ ®^^ orders were to live and labor in the world, seeking preferably the poorest quarters of the towns. The Dominicans, or Preaching Friars (also called Black Friars), were founded by Saint Dominic (died 1221), a Spaniard of noble family; the Harding's M. & M. HIST. — 13 218 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES Franciscans, or Friars Minor (called Gray Friars), were founded by Saint Francis, an Italian of mystical temperament. Lea,Inqvi- " No human creature since Christ," says a modern Prot- dtion of the gg^ant writer, " has more fully incarnated the ideal of Ages,^l.260 Christianity than Francis. Amid the extravagance, amounting at times almost to insanity, of his asceticism, there shines forth the Christian love and humility with which he devoted himself to the wretched and neglected — the outcasts for whom, in that rude time, there were few indeed to care." Both orders, after some hesitation, were authorized by the papacy, and became its stanch supporters. The Dominicans applied themselves especially to preaching and teaching, while the Franciscans turned rather to care for the poor and sick. At first the friars were enthusiastically welcomed. " They went out two by two," says a contemporary ; " they took Jacques de neither wallet, nor money, nor bread, nor shoes, for they Vitry, in weve not permitted to possess anything. They had Zeller {Philippe neither monastery, nor church, nor lands, nor beasts. Auguste),80 xhey made use of neither fur nor linen, but wore only tunics of wool, terminating in a hood, without capes or mantles or any other garment. If they were invited to eat, they*ate what they found ; if they were given anything, they kept none of it for the morrow. Once or twice a year they gathered together for their general chapter, after w^hich their superior sent them, two together or more, into the different provinces. . . . They were so increased in a little time that there was no province in Christendom where they had not their brethren." When open resistance ceased on the part of the heretics, it became increasingly difficult to root them out ; the bishops' 182. Found- courts proved insufficient for the task, and gradually Inquisition ^^^o^^^^i' "leans was devised. This was the Inquisition, (about composed of persons especially commissioned to track down and punish heretics, and unhampered by other cares or by responsibility to any authority save Rome. From THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 219 1270) an early day this work was largely turned over to the Dominicans. The procedure of the Inquisition was of a kind to tempt those blinded by passion and self-seeking to bring accusations on slight pretexts; and so close was the connec- tion between its branches, and so complete its records, that neither time nor flight could insure immunity. Names of accusers and of witnesses were concealed, and torture (adopted from the secular courts) was freely used to elicit confessions. Tlie Inquisition stamped out the last embers of the Albigensian heresy, but it left a legacy of tyranny and oppression from which the world was long in escaping. Louis IX., son of Louis VIIL, grew up to be the possessor of virtues which won for him the title of " Saint," and of abili- ties which insured the steady growth of the royal power ; ^ go t • he had all the good qualities of his age and few of its IX. (1226- bad ones. Until he attained the age of twenty-one (in 1236) the government was carried on by his mother, Blanche of. Castile, a high-tninded, .^^■^■3^^^.r^^r^z--'%'i^/: ambitious, capable, and pious woman from whom Louis de- rived his best qualities. The nobles resented her rule be- cause she was a woman and a foreigner ; and they thought the occasion favorable to regain lost territories and privileges. Coalitions were formed and war begun, with the aid of England ; but the courage and ability of Blanche were more than a match for her enemies. It is not too much to say that she saved the monarchy ; and until her death, in 1262, she exercised a pow- erful influence on the French government. Coffer of the Time of Saint Louis, presented by his grandson to AN Abbey. Covered with painted designs of royal insignia and allegorical subjects. In the Louvre, Paris. 220 KISE OF NATIONAL STATES The history of Louis's personal reign deals principally with Iiis relations with England, his administrative reforms, and | his two crusades. His wars with England ended, in 1258, with " a treaty by which he restored some lands in return for a formal renunciation by Henry III. of all right to the territories confis- cated by Philip Augus- tus. The high estima- tion in which Louis was held, even by his enemies, is seen in the Saint Louis's Capture of Damietta, in Egypt (1249). From an old print, fact that six years later he was chosen arbitrator between Henry and his rebellious subjects. The administrative reforms and legislation of Saint Louis were very important. He reformed the judiciary and abolished the right of private warfare ; he also took steps which led to the separation of the central government into three branches : (1) the Council, for political affairs; (2) the Exchequer, for finance; and (3) the Parlement of Paris, for judicial business. The rise of FRANCE (987-1387) 221 While insisting fully upon his rights as king, he nevertheless showed respect for the just rights and privileges of the feudal nobles. Soon after the fall of Jerusalem in 1 244, Louis IX. " took the cross," and was absent from France in Egypt and Palestine for six years (§ 111)« So far as any practical end was con- cerned, his crusade was a failure ; but Louis won wide renown for his courage and devotion. In 1270 he led another crusade, which was directed to Tunis because Louis's brother, Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily (§ 136), had claims against the Mo- hammedan lord of that land. Soon after he landed, pestilence broke out in the camp, and to it King Louis himself fell a victim. Philip III., who succeeded his father, was a well-meaning king, without discernment; but he was ruled by councilors trained under Louis IX., and the work of uniting the 184. Philip realm and centralizing the government was not inter- ill. (1270- rupted. Charles of Anjou proved the evil genius of his 1285) nephew Philip, as he had of Louis IX. In 1282 Charles's misgovernment of his kingdom of Naples and Sicily caused a rising known as the " Sicilian Vespers " ; with the assistance of the king of Aragon, the rebels established their independ- ence, and for a century and a half Sicily was separated from Naples. War between France and Aragon followed, and Pope Martin IV. (a Frenchman) gave to it the character of a crusade. With a large army, Philip III. crossed the Pyrenees to avenge his uncle's injuries; he accomplished little, and on his return died of the plague at Toulouse. The turbulent career of Charles of Anjou came to an end a few months earlier. Under Philip the Fair, as contemporaries called -the son of Philip III., wars were waged with Aragon, England, and ^gg p^iiip Flanders, but with no great results. Flanders, though a IV. (1285- . 1314) fief of the French crown, was so prosperous through its rich agriculture, and the woolen manufactures and trade of 022 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES its cities, as to make its count a semi-independent prince. His alliance with the English led Philip IV. to attempt to annex Flanders, but in the battle of Courtrai (1302) the French knights were routed by the Flemish tradesmen. This was the |< first of a long series of battles which taught Europe that foot soldiers, if properly armed and handled, were more than a match for mounted men-at-arms. The only important additions which Philip IV. made to the royal domain were the city of Lyons, on the river Rhone, and the county of Champagne, east of Paris — both made by peaceable methods. Philip IV. kept the administration in the hands of men of humble origin, trained in the doctrines of the Roman law; and their zeal and loyalty were a constant support. In 1302 he called the first Estates-General of France — an assembly corresponding to the Parliament of England. Its history dif- fers from that of the English Parliament in that the three • " estates " (the clergy, the nobility, and the commons, or Third Estate) remained distinct ; class and local interests, therefore, controlled its action, and it never attained the regularity of session and the extensive powers which gave the English Par- liament its great strength. Of more importance than Philip's wars was his struggle with Pope Boniface VIII. The question really at issue was whether 186. Con- ^^^ papacy should rule over European states in temporal test with as well as in spiritual matters. Greo^ory VII., Innocent PopeBoni- -.tt -. & J ' face VIII. i^i-i^-, and now Boniface VIII. , advanced claims which (1296-1303) vvould have made kings and Emperors mere vassals and dependents of the papacy ; and the papal triumph over the house of Frederick II. (§ 136) seemed firmly to establish these . principles. . But in France, as also in England, a national sentiment was arising which enabled the king to maintain his independence. In both countries the quarrel arose over a bull issued by Boniface, called from its opening words CUricis Laicos, which forbade the payment of taxes by the clergy to THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 223 the laity. In England, Edward I. brought the clergy to terras by withdrawing from them the protection of the law, the admin- istration of which they refused to support. In France, Philip answered the Pope's bnll by cutting oft" contributions from the French church to the papacy. In the course of the struggle with Philip, Boniface issued the bull called Unam Sanctam, in which the papal claims to temporal power were stated in their most explicit form. " There are two swords," argued Boniface, quoting St. Luke (xx. 38), " the spiritual and the tem- Milman, poral ; our Lord said not of these two swords, 'it is too Latin Chris- . . . tianity, VI. much,' but ' it is enough.' Both are in the power of the 326 church : the one the spiritual, to be used by the church, the other the material, /or the church; the former that of priests, the latter that of kings and soldiers, to be wielded at the com- mand and by the sufferance of the priest. One sword must be under the other, the temporal under the spiritual. . . . The spiritual instituted the temporal power, and judges whether that power is well exercised. ... If the temporal power errs, it is judged by the spiritual. To deny this, is to assert, with the heretical Manicheans, two coequal principles. We there- fore assert, define, and pronounce that it is necessary to salva- tion to believe that every human being is subject to the Pontiff of Rome." After the issuing of this bull, preparations were made to excommunicate and depose Philip. To prevent this, agents of the French king, acting with the Pope's Italian enemies, j.„ seized him at Anagni in Italy, and subjected him to great Anagni and indignities. Boniface was now eighty-six years old, and vignon the shock was such that he died within a few weeks (1303). He was the last of the great mediaeval Popes. The affair at Anagni is the counterpart to the humiliation of Henry IV. at Canossa; the papacy triumphed over the empire, only to have its own power shattered by the resistance of the new national monarchies. For three quarters of a cen- 1 224 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES tury France now controlled the papacy as the Emperors had once done. On the ground that Rome was unsafe, the seat of the Pope was fixed at Avignon, on the borders of France (1305) ; thus began the period called the " Babylonian Captivity " of the church, which lasted until 1377. Iri'l.'!! .,-,r Papal Palace, Avignon. Built 1336-1364. One of the best specimens of mediaeval military architecture in existence. The death of Philip IV., in 1314, was followed by the reign, in rapid succession, of his three sons — Louis X. (1314-1316), 188. Sue- Philip V. (1316-1322), and Charles IV. (1322-1328). the throne "^^^ chief interest of these reigns lies in the question (1314-1328) of the succession to the throne. Louis X. was the first Capetian king to die without a son to succeed him, and the question arose for the first time whether a woman could reign in France. An assembly of the nobles and clergy decided against Louis's daughter and in favor of his brother }*hilip ; thus a new rule was established, in accordance with which no queen has ever held sway over France in her own right. THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 225 When Charles IV., the last of the Capetians in the direct line, died (in 1328) withont a son, this rule received a further extension. The councilors of young Edward III. of England claimed the throne for him as the nearest male heir, through his mother, who was a daughter of Philip IV. A French assembly decided, however, that not only was a woman herself debarred from the succession, but she could transmit no claim to her son. This is the principle to which the name " Salic law" was afterward given, on the supposition that it was based on a provision of the old law of the Salian Franks. In reality it was based on the unwillingness of the French nobles to receive a foreigner as king, and at the time nothing was said of the Salic law. The choice of the nobles fell upon Philip of Valois, the rep- resentative of the nearest male line of the Capetian house. Under the name of Philip VI. he was received by France, and in 1329, and again in 1331, Edward III. acknowledged him as his lord for the fief of Guienne, or Aquitaine. Other causes, however, soon led to war between England and France, and then the claim of Edward III. to the French throne became a factor in the contest which we call the Hundred Years' War. From Louis VI. to Philip IV. there was a steady progress in territorial unity and governmental efficiency. Philip IV. gave to the government the general form which it has ^39 g^^, continued to bear in spite of subsequent revolutions; inary France ceased to be a mere feudal monarchy and became a modei'n state, with power centering in the crown. A compari- son of the development of France with that of Germany and England is instructive. In Germany the disintegrating ten- dencies of feudalism prevailed, a minute territorial division ■ 'ilted, and the Emperor was despoiled of all power, without it to the people, i In England, the struggle between the lal nobles and thi crown produced a constitutional mon- 226 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES archy under which popular rights and liberties rapidly de- veloped. In France the powers of the crown grew at the expense of the feudal nobles, but without gain to the people save through greater security and better government. After the fall of the Hohenstaufen house, France becomes the most important country of Europe, the part which the Emperors formerly played in Italy being now taken by the French kings. The intellectual and artistic influence of France was also great. " Her intellect," says the eminent his- torian Lavisse, "gave expression to the whole civilization of that period — religious, feudal, and knightly. The French wrote heroic poems, built castles and cathedrals, and inter- preted the texts of Aristotle and the Scriptures. Their songs, buildings, and scholastic philosophy verged upon perfection. Already independent, already mobile and sprightly, the French mind freed itself from tradition and authority. It produced the aerial grace of Gothic art. . . Christian Europe copied French cathedrals, recited French heroic and humorous songs, and thus learned the French language. . . . Almost all the universities of Europe were like swarms of bees from the hive of Mount St. Genevieve [University of Paris]. A proverb said that the world was ruled by three powers, — the Papacy, the Empire, and Learning; the first residing in Rome, the second in Germany, the third in Paris." TOPICS Sr*'""^ (1) Why should the acquisition of England by the Norman dukes change their relations to the French kings? (2) What does the length of the struggle to reduce the domain to order show concerning the power of. the crown at this time ? (3) What his- torical influences would account for the higher civilization of southern France ? (4) Was the church responsible for the cruelty which accompanied the Albigensian crusade, or was it due to the character of the times ? (5) Were the persons who took part in that movement more animated by religion or by desire for gain ? (^Q) Why should the friars be more successful in combating heresy THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 227 than the parish priests ? than the monks ? (7) How had Charles of Anjou come into possession of the kingdom of Naples and Sicily? (8) What fundamental difference was there between the French Tarlement and the English Parliament ? (9) Why should the lawyers prove more loyal servants of the crown than counselors drawn from the nobles and clergy ? (10) What preliminary train- ing of the English helped make their Parliament more effective than the French Estates-General? (11) Distinguish priests, monks, and friars. (12) What was Aquitaine ? (13) What was Flanders ? (14) Character and work of Louis VI. (15) Philip Augustus Search and the Third Crusade. (16) Increase of the royal power under *°P^^^ Philip Augustus. (17) The Waldenses. (18) The Albigenses, (19) The troubadours. (20) Saint Dominic. (21) Saint Francis of Assisi. (22) Louis IX. (23) Contest of Philip IV. and Pope Boni- face VIII. (24) Popular feeling toward the friars. (25) Early descriptions of Paris. (26) Nature and authority of a papal bull. REFERENCES Secondary- authorities See maps, pp. 228, 112 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps liv.-lvi. ; Geography Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 10-12 ; Freeman, Historical Geog- raphy, II. (Atlas), maps 11, 12, 15; Dow, Atlas, xi. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 311-332; B^mont and Monod, Medieval Europe, chs. xxiv.-xxvi. ; Emerton, Medioeval Europe, 413-433 ; Duruy, France, chs. xvii.-xxiii., — Middle Ages, 174-180, 351-356, 359-384 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, chs. vii. xviii. ; Tout, Empire and Papacij, 70-92, 274-295, 393-428 ; Adams, Groivth of the French Nation, chs. vi.- viii. ; Hassall, French People, chs. vi. vii. ; Masson, Medieval France, i. iii.-viii. ; Kitchin, France, I. bk. iii. ; Hutton, Philip Augustus ; Historians'' Histoid of the World, XI. chs. ii.-iv. Robinson, Beadings, I. ch. x. ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Sources Book, nos. 269-272 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, bk. iii. no. viii. ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Beprints, III. No. 6, pp. 7, 14 ; Joinville, Life of St. Louis. L. Valentine, The Knight's Bansom ; H. Conscience, The Lion of Flanders ; G. P. R. James, Philip Augustus ; C. R. Maturin, The Albigenses; A. Dumas, The Knight of Maul eon; Blisset, The Most Famous Loba; Davis, Falaise of the Blessed Voice. Illustrative works 11 so Knglisit Poxni'saiona French Ii"V"' Domain Other French Territory -^ — 7" SCALE OF MILE^ 50 lOO 150 .1. 00 150 ...J ___ "_ " J_ 6 ^0 i6u 100 ENGLISH POSSESSIONS IN FRANCE, 1180-1439 Am R U")j t\m. \ND RETAINED O NLY CALA IS. AS ON P. 284 228 CHAPTEK XIY. THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) Many causes combined to produce the succession of conflicts 3etween England and France which we call the Hundred YesiYS^ War. The conquests of Philip Augustus left a 190. Origin lostility which lingered in spite of the treaty of 1258 ewar ^§ 183); and the rejection of the claims of Edward III. to the French throne increased the tension. There was also friction 3ver the English possession of Guienne ; and in Scotland the French aided the young king, David Bruce, while the English supported a rival claimant. The final breach resulted from troubles in Flanders, which was a French fief, but depended for the prosperity of its towns Dn the manufacture of cloth made from English wool. In L336 the French king, Philip VI. (1328-1350), recklessly caused bhe arrest of all Englishmen there ; and in retaliation Edward [II. seized Flemish merchants in his kingdom, and forbade the sxportation of English wool. The Flemish burghers there- upon rebelled and formed an alliance with England to secure fcheir accustomed supplies of wool ; and to satisfy their scru- ples against warring upon their king, Edward III. took the title of king of France — a title which his successors did not finally abandon until the time of George III. Previous wars between England and France had been feudal struggles be- tween their kings, the people taking little part : French in- terference with English interests in Flanders now aroused the English Parliament to enthusiastic support of the war, and 229 230 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES Edward's claim to the throne of France made it a life-and- death struggle for the French monarchy. The operations of the first few years were carried on by Edward III. in the neighborhood of Flanders, and were with- 191. Open- out appreciable results. In 1340, however, he was met ing of the Qff Sluys, while crossing the Channel, by a fleet of French (1337-1346) and Genoese vessels, which were chained together in Froissart, order to present a more solid front. Then began " a sore Chronicles, }Q2^ii\_e on both parts; archers and crossbows began to ch, 50 shoot, and men of arms approached and fought hand to hand; and the better to come together they had great hooks and grappers of iron to cast out of one ship into another, and so tied them fast together." The battle lasted from morning until noon, and ended in complete victory for the English. Thenceforth, for a generation, the English were masters of the seas, and could land their expeditions where they wished. In 1346 occurred the first pitched battle of the war. An expedition under the English king landed in Normandy and advanced up the valley of the Seine until the flames of the villages fired by the English could be seen from the walls of Paris. Without attempting to attack the capital, Edward turned northward to join his forces with those of the Flemings, while an enormous French army under Philip followed him. Edward crossed the river Somme by means of a ford at the river mouth revealed by a peasant, and took up a position near the village of Crecy, from which the subsequent battle takes its name. The English, who consisted chiefly of infantry armed with Genoese Crossbowman. Ij THE HUxNDKED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 231 the longbow, — the excellence of which had been demonstrated hi the wars of Edward I. against the Welsh and Scots, — were stationed in three divisions on the ^gg Battle slope of a little hill. The French of Crecy force outnumbered the English five to one, and consisted chiefly of mounted men-at-arms, with a body of hired Geno- ese crossbowmen. The latter were first sent forward to the attack. They were tired with a long day's march, and their crossbow strings were slacked with a wet- ting received in a passing thundershower. They were no match for the English long- bowmen ; and when the shafts of the English began to fall " so thick that it seemed as if it snowed," the Genoese broke and fled. At this Philip in passion called out, " Slay these rascals, for they trouble us without reason." "And English Longbowman. ever still. Froissart, says Froissart, "the Englishmen shot wher- Chronicles, ever they saw thickest press ; the sharp arrows ran into the men of arms and into their horses ; and many fell, horse and men, among the Genoese, and when they were down they could not arise again, the press was so thick that one over- threw another." A portion of the French finally managed to reach the English knights under the Black Prince, son of Edward III., who were on foot in the rear of the archers. In haste mes- sengers were sent to inform the king, who with the reserve coolly watched the battle from a windmill at the top of the hill. "Eeturn to them that sent you," said Edward, "and Froissart say to them that they send no more to me as long as my Chronicles, son is alive. And also say to them that they suffer him ^ ' ^^^ this day to win his spurs 5 for if God be pleased, I will that I 232 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES this day be his and the honor thereof." On the French side there fell the blind old king of Bohemia, who chivalrously caused his horse to be led into the fight that he " might strike one stroke " with his sword in the cause of his ally. At nightfall the English lines were still unbroken, while the French were in hopeless confusion. Philip fled wounded from the field, leaving behind him among the slain eleven ofCrecy princes of France and thousands of lesser rank. The (1346) English loss was inconsiderable. The victory was due chiefly to the English archers and the tactical skill of King Edward. Even if cannon of a small, crude sort were not (as some writers claim) used at Crecy, the battle nevertheless foretold, equally with that of Courtrai (§ 185), a new era in warfare. "It was a combat of infantry against cavalry, Lodge, Close »/ ^ ./ ' of the Mid- of missile weapons against heavy armor and lances, of e gas, 96 ^j,^jjjg^^ professional soldiers against a combination of foreign mercenaries with disorderly feudal levies. And the inevitable result was made the more decisive by the utter want of generalship on the part of the French king." After the battle, Edward continued his retreat unmolested, and laid siege to the city of Calais. In spite of a heroic re- sistance the town was at last obliged to surrender. Although Edward did not, as he at first threatened, put to death the leading townsmen, the whole population was expelled and their places taken by English settlers. For two hundred years, thenceforth, Calais was an English town, an outpost of Eng- land's power and trade ; and its possession, with that of Dover on the other side the Channel, went far to confirm the claim of the English king to be "lord of the narrow seas." After the fall of Calais, a truce was arranged which lasted 194. The ^^^ several years. In this interval the exhaustion caused a347-?35*l) ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ aggravated by a terrible pestilence, called the " Black Death," which resembled the bubonic plague of to-day. Arising in Asia, it reached Europe by way of THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 233 Egypt and Syria, appearing in Sicily, Tuscany, and Pro- vence in 1347. During the winter months its progress was checked ; but the next summer it resumed its march, spreading " from city to city, from village to village, from house to house, from man to man." Germany and England experienced its ravages in 1349 and 1350 ; Norway and Russia in 1351. Everywhere the mortality was frightful ; in some of the provinces of France, two thirds of the population perished ; dur- iug the four years that this plague lasted, at least a third of the inhabitants of Europe were carried off. The unsanitary arrange- ments of the Middle Ages — the complete lack of sewerage systems, the accumulations of iilth and decaying matter in streets and houses, and the pollution of water supplies — sufficiently explain the widespread and great mortality. Where conditions were better, as among the monks of Christ Church, Canterbury, the mortality was less. The Black Death was only the most terrible of many plagues which devastated Europe in the Middle Ages, the recurrence of which gradually ceased with advance in cleanliness and sanitary science. The direct and indirect effects of the Black Death were very great. In Germany an hysterical religious outbreak occurred, and companies of penitents called Flagellants journeyed „„„ from place to place, seeking to appease the wrath of God of the by mutual scourgings. In England the decline in the ^° ®^ number of laborers gradually produced an abandonment of the old manorial system of agriculture; more and more the lands were let out to tenant farmers paying money rent instead of services, or else they were put into pasture for sheep. Villenage declined, especially after a rising of the peasants in 1381, under Wat Tyler; and a system of free labor gradually took its place. To meet conditions produced by these changes, the government was obliged more and more to undertake, through parliamentary statutes, the regulation of trade and in- dustry; thus the functions of the state were enlarged, and 234 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES thereby the change from medieval to nioderu usages and ideas was hastened. In France the influence of the Black Death was complicated by the devastation wrought by war and misgovernment. The condition of the peo])le in the second half of the 196. Deso- lation of century became pitiable in the extreme. On the reduced France population the heavy taxes for the English war fell with redoubled force. The peasants had to contribute to pay ran- soms for the deliverance of their lords from captivity, and for the redemption of their own goods from destruction. They were forced by both sides to labor without pay in carrying supplies, and at siege operations. Often they were tortured to extort money and provisions, when they them- selves lacked bread for their families. To escape such evils, peasants fled in large numbers to the depths of the forests, only to die of famine and the attacks of wolves. Many parishes were completely depopulated. Through the joint operation of the plague and the war, the rude prosperity which character- ized the French people at the beginning of the century was brought to an end, and seeds of weakness were sown from which the land was slow to recover. Philip VI. died in 1350, before the renewal of the war. His son .John (1350-1364) was a good knight, but without capacity 197. Battle ^°^* government or generalship. In 1355 the war was of Poitiers renewed by an expedition of the Black Prince into southern France. The next year the prince started to march northward into Normandy ; but near Poitiers he was confronted by an army many times larger than his own. So hopeless seemed the odds, that he offered (but in vain) to sur- render his spoil and his prisoners, and to bind himself not to fight again for seven years, as the price of a free retreat. As at Crecy, the English force consisted principally of archers, while the French were mostly mounted and armored knights. The English were stationed on a little plateau pro- THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1837-1453) 235 tected by a hedge and by rough and marshy ground. King John was persuaded that the strength of the English at Crecy had been due, not to their archers, but to the fact that their men-at-arms were dismounted; accordingly, he ordered his knights to advance on foot, thus throwing away his chief ad- vantage. The first and second divisions of his army failed to come within striking distance of the enemy; and upon their retiring, the third division, commanded by the king himself, was left to bear the whole weight of the English counter- attack. " There was a sore fight," says Froissart, " and „ . many a great stroke given and received. . . . King John Chronicles, with his own hands did that day marvels in arms ; he had an ax in his hands wherewith he defended himself and fought in the breaking of the press." Refusing to flee, he and his youngest son were taken captives by the English. The whole number of prisoners was twice that of their English captors. " That day," says Froissart, " whosoever took any prisoner, he was clear his, and might quit „ .^ or ransom him at his pleasure. All such as were there Chronicles, with the prince were all made rich with honor and goods, ^ as well by ransoming of prisoners as by winning of gold, silver, plate, jewels, that were there found." After the battle the Black Prince entertained the captive king, waiting upon him in person at table. But for all this chivalrous display, the English shrewdly extracted full advantage from the victory ; and pending the acceptance of their terms, King John was car- ried prisoner to London, where for four years he was detained in honorable captivity. France meanwhile was in a deplorable condition. The gov- ernment was carried on by the king's eldest son, Charles jgg inter- — the first of the heirs-apparent of France to bear the nal disor- ders in title of Dauphin, derived from the Dauphine just east France of the river Rhone, which was annexed to France in (1356-1360) 1349. Charles was an untried youth, and demoralization per- HARDING's M. & M. HIST. — 14 236 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES vaded every branch of the government. The difficulties of his position made necessary the frequent assembling of the i Estates-General, and the death and captivity of so many of ' the nobles threw the preponderance in these sessions into the hands of the Third Estate, or representatives of the towns. Their leader was Stephen Marcel, provost of the merchant guild of Paris ; and their demands embraced a complete reform of the government, in- cluding a reduction of the privileges of the nobles and a commission of administration appointed by the Estates. When the Dauphin restored some dispossessed officials, Marcel gathered a mob and slew them in the Dauphin's presence. This was too much for moderate men ; a reaction followed, and when the Dauphin brought troops to reduce his rebellious capital, Paris stood almost alone. At this time (1358) there was added to the other miseries of France a great rising of the peasants, called the Jacquerie from their nickname of " Jacques Bonhomme." The peasants had suffered most from the war and the pestilence; and to their dull minds the disasters of Crecy and Poitiers were explainable only on the theory that the nobles had betrayed France. The movement was confined to a few provinces in northern France, but it was characterized by the utmost ferocity ; the peasants seemed turned by their sufferings into wild beasts, and the nobles retaliated in like manner. The revolt was soon put down, and the lot of the peasant, who was now dreaded as well as despised, became worse than before. Marcel's policy became steadily more narrowly selfish. He tried to ally Paris with the revolted peasants ; then he plotted French Noble, 14th Century. THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 237 to put the city into the hands of Charles the Bad of Navarre, who claimed the throne against both King John and P^dward III. While opening the gates to admit Charles, Marcel was assas- sinated (July, 1358), and the Dauphin's authority over the city was restored. In spite of his mistakes and failures, Marcel is memorable as " the leader of the most notable attempt, before 1789, to give to France a constitutional form of government." A treaty with England was at last concluded at Bretigny in 1360. King John agreed to pay a large money ransom, and Edward III. agreed to abandon his claims to the French ,„„ „ * .199. Treaty crown in return for the confirmation in fnll sovereignty of Bretigny of his possession of Calais, Ponthieu, and Aquitaine. All (1360) questions seemed settled and the war ended by this treaty. Four years later King John died at London, whither he had returned on a visit of mingled business and pleasure. The new king, Charles V. (1364-1380), had as Dauphin gained in experience ; as king he is known as Charles " the Wise," and was one of the ablest rulers of France in the 200. Charles Middle Ages. He was no knight-errant, but a shrewd, V^and Du '^ o 7 7 Guesclm practical statesman, who knew how to select good gen- (1364-1380) erals, and fought no useless battles. During the first five years of his reign, peace was kept with England, the abuses of government were remedied, and the country was rid of the "free companies" of mercenaries, who in spite of the peace preyed upon the inhabitants. After France had thus been strengthened, a pretext was found for reasserting suzerainty over Aquitaine, and in 1369 war with England began once more. Every advantage now was on the side of France. England was tired of the war, Edward III. was old and enfeebled (he died in 1377), and the Black Prince was burdened with a disease which carried him off the year before his father. The command of the sea was with the French, thanks to the fleet of the king of Castile, whom Charles aided against a rival supported by the English. 238 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES French Ship, 14th Century, Finally, the French now had a first-class general in Bertrand du Gnesclin, a low-born Breton who cast aside the old knightly traditions of warfare, used professional soldiers instead of the disorderly feudal levies, and carried on a cautious cam- paign of rapid maneuvers, strata- gems, and ambus- cades. As a result, place after place fell into French hands; and in 1375, when a truce was made, Calais in the north and Bor- deaux and Bayonne in the south were the only important places left to the English. This, however, proved the limit of Charles's success. In 1380 both he and his general, Du Gnesclin, died. His heir, 201 Lull in C^^i'^^s VI. (1380-1422), was a sickly boy, who became the war insane soon after attaining manhood. The regency during his minority was in the hands of his uncles, of whom the leading spirit was the Duke of Burgundy. The new nobles of the royal house proved as selfishly feudal and as opposed to the interest of the monarchy as were the old nobility ; France groaned under their oppressions, and ineffectual rebellions of the cities broke out. Fortunately for France, England also experienced the evils of a regency and internal dissensions under the son of the Black Prince, Richard II. (1377-1399) ; and the war languished, with long intervals of truce, until 1414. Civil war meanwhile broke out among the French princes, to lend a deeper shade of horror to events. The rivals for control during the insanity of the king were the king's cousin, THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 239 John of Burgundy (who from his mother inherited Flanders and Artois), and the king's younger brother, Louis, Duke of Orleans. In 1407 this contest reached a climax when 202 Bur- the taciturn and surly Burgundy caused the murder of his gundians opponent. For a time the adherents of Orleans accepted magnacs a reconciliation; but in 1411 all restraint was thrown (1407-1415) off, and civil war began. From the principal leader of their party the Orleanists were called Armagnacs, their opponents being Burgundians. In these struggles no quarter was given, and both parties devastated the country. The people were crushed with taxes, while the princes indulged in wild ex- travagance ; the result was a rising of the Parisian mob (called " Cabochiens," from one of its leaders), whose brutal excesses disgraced the sober reform movement which they accompanied. Both Armagnacs and Burgundians sought aid from England, where Richard II. had been deposed, and Henry IV. (1399-1413), of the Lancastrian house, had acquired the crown. Upon the death of Henry IV., his son, the Eng- lish national hero Henry V. (1413-1422) became king; and to quiet dynastic struggles he revived the claims of Edward III. to the French throne. In 1415 Henry V. led an army into Normandy, whence, after some successes, he marched northward toward Calais. At Agincourt, near Crecy, his way was blocked by a great French army composed mainly of Armagnacs, who at of Agin- that moment were in control of the government. The ^^^^ ^ ' French seem to have profited neither by the disasters of King John nor the successes of Charles V. and Du Guesclin. Again their forces were chiefly dismounted knights, weighted with their heavy armor, and packed so closely in the narrow defile that they scarcely had room to wield their swords; to make matters worse, the field was newly harrowed and ankle-deep with mud. Well might King Henry say, the night before the battle, that he " wished not for a single man more " to share 240 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES the glory ! A third English victory, equal to those won at Crecy and Poitiers, was the result. Instead of uniting French parties, the disaster of Agincourt served only to make the feuds of the princes more bitter. 204. Confu- 111 1-1^19 a conference took place between the Dauphin sion in Charles, now head of the Armagnac party, and John of (1415-1429) Burgundy, at which the latter was treacherously slain by the Orleanists. The new Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, put himself unreservedly on the English side. In 1420 a treaty was signed at Troyes by which the shameless French queen, Isabella, disinherited her son the Dauphin, and married her daughter Catherine to Henry V. of England, with provision that the latter should rule France and become its king after the death of her husband, Charles VI. Against this treaty the Dauphin protested. Southern France remained loyal to him, but the north, including the capital, passed into English hands. Henry's rule in France, however, was short, as he died in 1422 ; seven weeks later the pathetic life of Charles VI. also came to an end. The heir of both kingdoms, by the treaty of Troyes, was a babe less than a year old, Henry VI., son of Henry V. and Catherine. Such sentiment of nationality as existed in France supported the claims of the Dauphin, now called Charles VII. (1422-1461). But his resources were slender, and his court at Bourges was distracted by the quarrels and violence of his adherents; during the first seven years of his reign, therefore, little progress was made in driving the enemy from the realm. The English ^ cause also was weakened by quarrels : the young king's uncle, the Duke of Bedford, who acted as regent in France, was an able soldier and wise statesman ; but another uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, was a selfish politician, whose ambitious schemes seriously menaced the English alliance with Burgundy. In 1429 a new factor entered the struggle in the person of Joan of Arc. Joan was an uneducated peasant maid of north- THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 241 P SCALE OF MILES 6 'j.i 50 100 TSO Spanish States, 1266-1492. (1469-1516) The development of Spain in the fifteenth century was little short of marvelous. During the Middle Ages its history lies 218 Rise outside the general history of western Europe, its chief of Spain features being (1) the gradual decay of the Mohammedan power (§ 12), Avhich passed to the Moors (descendants of African Berbers mixed with other peoples), and (2) the rise of the Christian states of Castile and Leon, Aragon, Portugal, and Navarre : by 1266 the Moors were confined to the kingdom of Granada, where they remained in comparative peace forj more than two centuries. In 1469 the marriage of Ferdinand DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 257 of Aragon and Isabella of Castile laid the basis of the per- manent union of these countries under a single head ; then in 1492 Granada was taken, and the long crusade against the Mohammedans was brought to an end. Portugal, meanwhile, for more than half a century, had been taking the lead in Atlantic discovery, and in the search for an ocean route to India ; and the exertions of Prince Henry the Navigator (died 1460) led successively to the discovery of the Madeira Islands, the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Cape Verde. In 1486 the Portuguese navigator Bartholomew Diaz reached the Cape of Good Hope ; and in 1498 Vasco da Gama completed the work by reaching India. Seeking to anticipate this result, Queen Isabella of Castile, in 1492, consented to fit out the expedition with which Columbus unwittingly discov- ered the JSTew World. To both Spain and Portugal the result of these efforts was the acquisition of vast colonial depend- encies, and a flood of wealth. Sicily had been annexed to Aragon since 1409 ; and the fail- ure of the French kings to maintain their hold on Naples gave Spain that kingdom also (confirmed by treaty in 1504), thus making Spain the dominant power in Italy. At a later date, fortunate marriages joined to Spain's other possessions the Burgundian Netherlands, and the Hapsburg lands in Germany (§§ 215, 249). The church in Spain was purified and the monarchical power strengthened by a reform movement under Archbishop Ximenes (§ 233). This marvelous growth made Spain, in the sixteenth century, the wonder of Europe. Charles IV., the author of the Golden Bull, was succeeded (in 1378) both as king of Bohemia and as German Em- _ ' 219. The peror by his eldest son Wenzel, who proved drunken and empire incapable, and was declared deposed as Emperor by the , ^^der the ^ ^ 1 J Luxemburg electors in 1400. After a period of confusion, in which line several claimants were raised up to contest Wenzel's title (^3' ^-1^37) to the imperial crown, his younger brother Sigismund, who by 258 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES Imperial Arms after Sigismund's Reign. From iron work in the State iMuseimi at Frankfort. marriage was already king of Hungary, was recognized as ruler of Germany; and after Wenzel's death (in 1419), Sigismund succeeded him as king of Bohe- mia also : from his coronation as Emperor at Rome (in 14,*).')) dates the use of the double-lieaded eagle as the imperial ensign. Sigismund's rule in Bohemia was long interrupted by a na- tional uprising of the Czechs, due to his part in the burning for heresy of John Huss, the great- est religious teacher of Bohemia (§ 228). Under their blind leader Ziska and his successor Prokop (Procopius), the Bohemians not only successfully resisted crusade after crusade sent against them, but devastated large areas of Germany, until dissensions in their ranks permitted the triumph of their Catholic foes. I The death of the Emperor Sigismund, in 1437, brought to an ■ end the Luxemburg line ; and in the person of his son-in-law, 220. Haps- Albert II. (1438-1439), the Hapsburg line for a third restored^ time came to the throne, of which it retained possession (1438-1519) continuously for three centuries. Frederick III. (1440-1493), cousin of Albert, was the last Emperor to be crowned at Rome. The weakness of the im- perial power did not permit him to take an active part in the affairs of Europe ; and indeed for twenty-five years he remained secluded on his hereditary estates without visiting other parts of Germany ; but his long reign and patient per- sistence laid the foundations for the great growth of the Hapsburg power. For years the five vowels " A • E • I • • U " appeared inscribed on all his buildings and possessions : these are interpreted to mean, Austnoe est imperare orbi imiverso (in DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 259 German, AUes erdreich ist Oesterreich untertlian) — that is, " the whole world is subject to Austria." In the latter part of Frederick's reign and the earlier portion of that of his son, Maximilian I. (1493-1519), attempts were made by the electors to carry through an aristocratic reform of the constitution. The old Diet, or Reichstag, was to be developed into an effective assembly, meeting annually, in Town Hall of the Free Imperial City of Fisankfort. Present condition ; built 1405-1413. Here the imperial elections were held in the sixteenth century. three houses composed of the electors, princes, and representa- tives of the imperial cities ; and at the same time an efficient system of courts, and an administrative council which was not dependent on the Emperor, were to be instituted. These reforms would have done something to end the anarchy of Germany, but only by substituting an aristocratic federation of the princes for the nominal rule of the Emperor. The move- ment failed, and the absence of any coercive central authority 2(30 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES continued to be one of the features of German political organi- zation : this, together with the rivalry of Spain and France in Italy, proved of the utmost importance in allowing Protestant- ism the opportunity to grow and spread. While the Holy Eoman Empire of the West was becoming, in the language of Voltaire (an eighteenth-century Frenchman) 221. The "neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire," the Eastern Eastern Emnire came to an end altogether. The downfall of Empire ^ (1261-1439) the Latin power at Constantinople, in 12G1, restored the Greek Empire, with dominions in both Europe and Asia (see p. 138), but its vitality was enfeebled. On the north and west its territory was curtailed by the development of the Slavic states of Servia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria ; its capital was disquieted by the rivalry of Genoese and Venetian traders, and by never-ceasing palace intrigues and revolutions ; more menac- ing still was the advent of a new and more formidable branch of the Turks in Asia Minor. The newcomers were the Ottoman Turks, so called from their sultan, Othman, under whose father they first appear in western Asia in the latter part of the thirteenth century. The conquest of Nicsea, in 1330, brought them to the Bosphorus, and made them the dominant power in Asia Minor. A few years later they crossed the Hellespont and began a series of European conquests which culminated (1361) in the capture of Adrianople — thenceforth for nearly a century their capital. The strong walls of Constantinople long withstood them ; but the Eastern Emperors were forced to pay tribute. In another way also the. Christian populations contributed to their own subjugation: each year the Turks demanded a fixed number of children, who were educated by them in the Mohammedan faith, and trained to fight as their famous "new troops," or Janizaries. The overthrow of the Ottoman sultan, in 1402, by the great Tartar leader Timour (Tamerlane), only checked for a time the Turkish conquests. To gain assistance against them, the DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 261 Grreek Emperor and patriarch agreed to a submission of the Greek Church to the Latin, at a council held in Italy in 1438- 1439 ; but neither the submission nor the assistance was real. In 1453 Sultan Mohammed II. began the final siege of Constantinople with an overwhelming force. Mediaeval and modern appliances were used together, the Turkish 222. Fall cannon, constructed by foreign engineers, being of larger ^^ Constan- caliber than ever before used. The Greek Emperor, Con- (1453) stantine Palseologus, made an heroic defense; but his people held aloof in sullen bigotry because of new negotiations for union with the Latin West. After fifty- three days' siege, a final assault was or- dered, and the Jani- zaries forced the gates (May 29, 1453). The Greek Emperor was slain after a desper- ate resistance ; the city was given up to plunder, and thou- sands of the popula- tion were enslaved. Mosque of St. Sophia. From a photograph. The tall minarets are Mohammedan additions. The great Church of St. Sophia was robbed of its treasures, its frescoes and mosaics were whitewashed over by the puritanic zeal of the Turks, and it was converted into a Mohammedan mosque. The Eastern Empire, after surviving the Eoman Empire in the West for a thousand years, came to an end. Constantinople became the capital of the Turkish dominions ; but the Christian population was contemptuously tolerated, and before the end of the reign of Mohammed II. the city enjoyed more real prosperity than had been its lot for several centuries. 262 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES After the Great Interregnum (1254-1273), Germany became in reality a confederation of many states, and the strength of 223 Sum- the Emperor depended largely upon the extent of his mary family possessions ; with Frederick III. (1440-1493) the Hapsburgs of Austria secu' d almost hereditary possession of the imperial throne, and laid the foundations of their great family power. In France the Hundred Years' War was followed by a rapid recovery of the monarchy, which made Louis XI. (1461-1483) practically despotic; his sou, Charles VIII., by his attempt to conquer the kingdom of Naples (1494), began a series of wars which lasted for many years and had profound results. Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, planned to unite his dominions into a kingdom between France and Germany ; but he was defeated and slain by the Swiss confederates (1477), and his plan came to naught. Eng- land, in the fifteenth century, experienced the civil Wars of the Eoses (1455-1485). Spain rose rapidly in importance, through its union by the marriage of Isabella of Castiie and Ferdinand of Aragon (1469), the conquest of the Moorish kingdom of Granada (1492), the hold which it acquired upon southern Italy (1504), and its new-found empire in the Indies (America). In the East, Christian P^urope was curtailed by the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, and the final fall of the Eastern Empire (1453). The develo[)ment of modern states in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was of great importance ; but even more momentous was the history of the church and the intellectual changes of the period, which are treated in the next chapter. TOPICS Sr*'''^ ^^^ ^^ ^^'^^^ ^°^^^ connected with the papacy does the imperial electoral college correspond ? (2) What advantages had the S viss in their struggle for independence ? (3) What advantages had the Hapsburgs? (4) By what right did Louis XI. of France 'jlaini the duchy of Burgundy after 1477 ? (5) In what respects aid the DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 263 German constitution at the close of the Middle Ages resemble that of tihe United States under the old Articles of Confederation ? (6) What peoples kindred to the Ottomans had preceded them in European history? (7) Why did the West not come to the assistance of Constantinople in 1453? (8) How did an Englisli- man (Richard of Cornwall) come to claim the German throne? (9) Why were the English civil wars of the fifteenth century called the " Wars of the Roses" ? (10) The imperial electoral college. (11) Origin of the Swiss Search Confederation. (12) Battle of Morgarten. (13) John Ziska and *°P^^^ the Bohemian wars. (14) Character of Louis XI. of France. (15) Charles the Bold of Burgundy. (16) Expedition of Charles VIII. into Italy. (17) Conquest of Spain from the Moors. (18) Character of Maximilian I. of Germany. (19) Proposed reform of the German constitution in tlie time of Maximilian. (20) Ottoman Turks. (21) Incidents of the fall of Constantinople. (22) Compare the states of Europe in 1500 with those in 800. Secondary- authorities REFERENCES See maps, pp. 249, 252 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 18, 38 ; Freeman, Geography Historical Geograpluj, I. ch. ix. par. 1, ch. viii. par. 1, ch. xii. par. 1-2, — II. (Atlas), map 24; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps vii. xxxvi. ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 18, 19 ; Dow, Atlas, xiv. xv. Henderson, Short History of Germany, I. chs. vi. vii. ; Duruy, France, chs. xxxiv.-xxxvi., — Middle Ages, chs. xxviii.-xxxi. ; Lodge, History of 3Iodern Europe, ch. i. ; Bryce, Holy Boman Empire (revised ed.), chs. xiv. xvii. ; Seebohm, Era of the Prot- estant Bevolution, pt. i. ; Fisher, Outlines of Utiiversal History, Period IV. chs. i.-ii.; Thatcher and Scliwill, Europe in the 3Iiddle Age, chs. xviii. xx. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, ch. xx. ; Lodge, Close of the Middle Ages, chs. vi. vii. xvi. xxi. ; Mackinnon, Growth and Decline of French Monarchy, ch. iv. ; Hassall, French People, ch. ix. ; Willert, Reign of Louis XI. ; Freeman, Historical Essays, First Series, 314-372 ; Kitchin, France, II. bk. i. chs. i.-vi., bk. ii. ch. i. ; Hume, Spain, Its Greatness and Decay, 1-33, — Spanish People, chs. iv.-viii. ; Hale, Spain, ch. xx. Robinson, Beadings, I. 477-485 ; Henderson, Documents of the Sources Middle Ages, bk. ii. no. x, ; Memoirs of Philip de Commines (Bohn), bk. i. ch. x. and bk. vi. Victor Hugo, Notre Dame ; Scott, Quentin Durward ; W. H. G. Kingston, Bocking Stone ; W. Alexis, The Burgomaster of Berlin ; G. P. R. James, 3Iary of Burgundy, — Agnes Sorrel ; Anne Lucas, WenzeVs Inheritance, Illustrative works CHAPTER XVI. THE GREAT CHURCH COUNCILS AND THE RENAISSANCE (1300-1517) In the history of the church the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries saw successively (1) a seventy years' " Babylonian 224. The Captivity " of the papacy in France, (2) a schism which Popes at divided the nations of western Europe in their church Avignon • o ^ x. (1305-1377) allegiance for forty years, and (3) a series ot great church councils which sought to wrest power from the hands of the Pope and to remedy a number of church abuses. The " Babylonian Captivity " was the result of the triumph of Philip IV. of France over Pope Boniface VIII. (§ 187) ; it lasted from 1305 to 1377, during which time the Popes resided at Avignon on the river Rhone. The identification of the papacy with one of the monarchies of Europe inevitably in- jured it with the others. When England entered upon its long war with France, it treated the papacy as a French ally, re- fused the tribute which John had agreed to pay, and passed statutes forbidding papal appointments to English benefices and appeals to papal courts (§ 171). In Germany it was the feeling that the papacy was the organ of France that rallied the national sentiment about Louis of Bavaria, and led the Diet to put forth its declaration that the Pope had no right of confirmation or rejection over the imperial election (§ 210). Still more significant was the appearance of writings attack- ing the theoretical grounds of the papal power. In the De- fender of the Peace, by Marsiglio of Padua, a partisan of Louis, sovereignty is claimed for the people, the clergy are confined 264 THE GREAT CHURCH COUNCILS 265 to spiritual functions without power of excommunication or other coercive authority, and the rights of the state are P^^/e asserted against the papacy. In these principles we find Wydifeand 11 o ^ ^• • ^ it- ,,1 Movements "the whole essence oi the political and religious theory for Reform, which separates modern times from the Middle Ages." ^^ The threatened loss of the Papal States through municipal revolts and the encroachments of tyrants brought the papacy back to Rome in 1377. Pope Gregory XI. died the next 225. The year; and in the election which followed, the Roman Great •^ . Schism mob, dissatisfied with the series of French Popes re- (1378-1417) siding abroad, demanded "A Roman Pope, or at least an Italian ! " The majority of the cardinals were French, but their own dissensions and the fear of mob violence led them to choose a Neapolitan, Urban VI. Within a few months, Urban's rough violence and obstinacy led the cardinals to repent of their choice ; and on the ground of mob intimidation they then tried to set aside his election, and chose in his stead a Genevan, who took the name Clemeilt VII. and set up his papacy at Avignon. A schism in the church was thus produced which lasted for forty years. " All our West land," wrote the Englishman Wyclif, " is with that one Pope or that other, and he that Amoldy is with that one, hateth the other with all his. . . . .2^^!".^^?'^ ' ^ _ ^ Wychf, II. Some men say that here is the Pope in Avignon, for he 401-402 was well chosen ; and some sa}^ that he is yonder at Rome, for he was first chosen." France and the Spanish kingdoms supported the Avignon Popes, while Germany, England, and Scandinavia adhered to Urban VI. and his successors. Since French influence was largely responsible for the schism, it was fitting that France should take the lead in efforts to heal it. On the advice of the University of Paris, the French government tried to organize a movement to com- pel both Popes to abdicate by withdrawing from allegiance to either : but Charles VI. of France was subject to insanity, 266 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION and Wenzel of Germany was a confirmed drunkard ; and the attempt at coercion came to nothing. The scandal of the schism then forced the Popes themselves to take steps, and an agreement was made for a conference in 1407 at Savona, near Genoa, to bring about a joint abdication. Both Popes professed the greatest zeal for unity, and were probably sincere: but the Roman Pope, Gregory XIL, was old and vacillating, and his fears w^ere played upon by his ambitious nephews; while the Avignon Pope, Benedict XIII., was too tenacious of the rights of the papacy as represented by him- Creighton, self. The conference, therefore, never took place. " One 2i^f^^''' ' Pope," said a contemporary, " like a land animal, refused to approach the shore ; the other, like a water beast, refused to leave the sea." The failure of these attempts pro- duced a revival of the idea of action through a general council of the 226. Coun cil of Pisa (1409) ^||f|ffil^fffi^^ -vr.>i^ ? •- - ■- .r -- ,: - -r^-"^- ---^ v^:, -::>-- r ■ i^J^B'. Pisa: BAPXisxiiKY, Cathedral, and Leaning Tower. Erected 1063-1350. church, which was zealously urged by two members of the . University of Paris, Pierre d'Ailly and Jean Gerson. Accord- 1: nig to the canon law, only a Pope could summon a coun- cil; the cardinals of both Popes, however, abandoned them, and united in calling a council which met at Pisa in 1409, THE GREAT CHURCH COUNCILS 267 declared both Popes deposed, and elected a new one, who took the name Alexander V. Instead of ending the schism, this only added a third claim- ant for the papacy, for neither Gregory nor Benedict recog- nized the act of deposition. On the death of Alexander v., in 1410, the cardinals chose as his successor John cn^f con- XXIII., a man of infamous life, but who seemed to have stance (1414-1418) the needed political vigor to make good his position. In 1413 the capture of Rome by the king of Naples forced John to appeal for aid to the Emperor Sigismund; and Sigismund demanded, as the price of his assistance, the summoning on German soil of the Council of Constance, which lasted from November, 1414, to April, 1418. All the states of Europe recognized this assembly, and it was thus enabled to succeed where the Council of Pisa had failed. It asserted its authority in the most far-reaching terms, declaring that it had power ''immediately from Christ, . and all men, of every rank and dignity, even the Pope, Papacy, I. are bound to obey it in matters pertaining to (1) the faith, ^^^ (2) the extirpation of the present schism, and (3) the general reformation of the church of God in head and members." In carrying out this threefold programme, the council con- demned the heresies of Wyclif, and burned at the stake John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who headed a movement in ..^ „ £>Zo. Here- Bohemia similar to that of Wyclif in England. Huss had sies con- come voluntarily to Constance under a safe conduct from emne Sigismund, the violation of which was justified by the plea that faith should not be kept with those who are unfaithful to God. Both Huss and Jerome of Prague met their deaths with heroic constancy. This action of the council kindled a religious war, in which the Hussites not merely maintained themselves but carried devastation into the heart of Germany (§ 219). In healing the schism the council was more successful than in dealing with heresy. Gregory XII., who represented the 268 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION line of Urban YL, sent envoys from his refuge in northern Italy to offer his abdication ; and Benedict XIII., now a fugi- tive in Spain, was deposed and left without a following. 229. The j^^^ XXIII., who opened the council as president, was Schism appalled by the array of charges brought against his ^^^^^^ character and life, and after ineffectual efforts to avoid his fate, submitted to deposition as " unworthy, useless, and . harmful." Representatives from the five "nations" into which the council was divided were then added to the cardi- nals, and the united body chose as Pope a Roman cardinal who took the name Martin V. All Western Christendom recognized hini, and the schism came to an end (1417). Of the reform question at Constance, a Catholic historian says : " The great majority of the assembly were of one mind as to the need of reform. ' The whole world, the clergy, 230. The question of all Christian people, know that a reform of the church reform militant is both necessary and expedient,' exclaims a ^o^'^Z'the' theologian of the day. ... But . . . the members of Popes, I. the council were neither clear nor unanimous in their views as to the scope and nature of the reform." A strong party sought to defer the election of the new Pope until after a reform had been effected, but in this they failed. Pope Martin V., after his election, speedily showed " that little was to be expected from him " in this matter. " Neither the isolated measures afterward substituted for the universal reform so urgently required, nor the Concordats [separate agreements] made with Germany, the three Latin nations, and England, sufficed to meet the exigencies of the case, although they produced a certain amount of good." One of the decrees of the Council of Constance provided for 231. Coun- t^^^ I'egular summoning of councils in the future; and cil of Basel the continued demand for reform, together with the rout ^ of successive armies of crusaders sent against the hereti- cal Bohemians (§ 219), led to the assembling, in 1431, of the I THE GREAT CHURCH COUNCILS 269 Council of Basel. Pope Eugenius IV. soon issued a bull to dissolve the council ; " incorrect information and fear of the srrowins power of councils induced the Pope to take this ^ ^ . , . • Pastor, His- niomentous step, which was a grievous mistake." The tory of the council claimed superiority over the Pope, and refused ^^P^^'^-^^^ to recognize his decree ; and .after two years the Pope was forced to yield and revoke the decree of dissolution. This council proved far more radical than the one at Constance. The attendance of the higher clergy at Basel dwindled until business was carried on mainly by members of the lower clergy and ecclesiastical adventurers. A hearing was given to the envoys of the Bohemians, and a series of compacts was entered into by which some of their demands were granted, especially the administering to the laity the wine as well as the bread in the Lord's Supper. It was no small gain that heretics should be treated with instead of being repressed by the arm of authority. The compacts, however, failed to end the troubles in Bohemia, and they were annulled by the Pope in 1462. iSTo adequate results followed the discussion of reform ques- tions at Basel. " Instead of the reform of ecclesiastical abuses, which in many countries had reached a frightful pitch, the diminution of the papal authority and the destruc- tonj of the tion of the monarchical character of the church became ^^^'^' '^^^ the chief business of the synod." Among the ideas discussed and rejected was the abolition of the requirement of celibacy on the part of the clergy ; but certain reforms were agreed upon at Basel, and following these both France and Germany issued " Pragmatic Sanctions " limiting abuses of papal taxation and appointment, which were ultimately withdrawn. In 1437 hostilities again broke out between Pope and council, and Eugenius IV. issued a bull dissolving the council and call- ing another to meet in Italy. At Basel this step was met by decrees suspending, then deposing, Eugenius ; and on November 5, 1439, the schism was renewed by the election of an anti-pope, 270 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION who took the name Felix V. No important nation recognized Felix; and after ten years came the downfall of both the 41 Council of Basel and its anti-pope. For the next few j^ears the papacy was engaged — under Nicholas V., Calixtus III., and Pius II. — in remedying the 232. The damage done by the G];eat Schism, and in stamping papacy ^^^^^ ^|^g ]^q^ embers of the conciliar movement. The oftgr t/he councils schism liad doubled the financial burdens of the church, and reunion had not lessened them; and the demand for the removal of evils and abuses in the church grew stronger as time went on. In vain did Nicholas V. seek, by identifying the papacy with the literary and artistic revival of the fifteenth cen- tury, to recover its lost prestige. The effort also of Pius II. (1458-1464), to stir up a crusade against the Turks, only re- vealed more clearly that, as he himself had said, Europe looked " on Pope and Emperor alike as names in a story or heads in a picture." The mediaeval papacy was dead as a political world power equally with the mediaeval empire. In these circumstances the Popes confined themselves largely to looking after the interests of the Papal States. From 1464 to 1521 the sovereign pontiffs^ may be described as Italian princes, who united to their powers as head of the church the political craft and perfidy and the looseness of morals which characterized Italy in their day, and lost sight of the spiritual side of their office. A Catholic historian quotes approvingly this characterization of Alexander VI. (1492-1503), one of the Pastor His ^^^^'^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ number : " The reign of this Pope, which tonj of tlie lasted eleven years, was a serious disaster, on account ^jf^^'^''" of its worldliness, openly proclaimed with the most amazing effrontery, on account of its equally unconcealed nepotism [favoritism to relatives], lastly on account of his utter absence of all moral sense both in public and private 1 Paul II. (1464-1471); Sixtus IV. (1471-1484); Innocent VIII. (1484-1492); Alexander VI. (1492-1503) ; Julius II. (1503-1513) ; Leo X. (1513-1521). THE RENAISSANCE 271 life, which made every sort of accusation credible, and brought the papacy into utter discredit, while its authority seejned unimpaired." Thus the Middle Ages end with the papacy and higher clergy sunk in worldliness ; but among the people " the evi- dence is overwhelming," says a recent Protestant histo- 233 Soan- rian, "that the whole mediaeval period witnessed a ishawaken- gradual deepening of the hold of religion on life and thought. ... If the wider interests of religion are Reforma- had in view, the period just previous to the Reformation Hon, 6 witnessed not the lowest decline but the highest development of mediaeval Christianity — high enough to be dissatisfied with its state, to feel dimly the inadequacy of its institutions, and the need of their imj^rovement." In Spain, in the latter half of the fifteenth century, was seen a religious movement which particularly testifies to this. There a reform was car- ried out, on the initiative of Ferdinand and Isabella, and through the agency of Archbishop Ximenes, which purified the Spanish church, and produced a religious revival charac- terized by strict orthodoxy, limitation of the papal power, and a more rational theology. In Italy also a moral and religious revival was begun by the Dominican friar Savonarola (1452-1498) at Florence. His vivid eloquence and commanding personality aroused . „ the people from their frivolity and sensuality, and for a vonarola time he swayed the city at will. But unhappily he was ^ ~ ' led into politics; he took a prominent part in a revolution which temporarily cast out the ruling family of the Medici, and he turned Florence to alliance with the French when Charles VIII. made his raid into Italy (§ 216). This brought Savonarola into conflict with Pope Alexander VI., whose chief object was to provide a principality in Italy for his son, Caesar Borgia. This end was pursued by father and son with frank disregard of morality and religion; in- HARDING's M. & M. HIST. — 16 RENAISSA^^CE AND REFORMATION Savonarola. deed, the Italian writer Machiavelli (1469-1527), in his work entitled The Prince, took Caesar Borgia as a model of that unscrupulous craft which was thought necessary to rule a newly won state. The chief danger to the Pope's designs came from the interference of France in the pen- insula, and Florence was the chief supporter of that intervention. The persistence of Savonarola in adhering to the French alliance, his preaching after being excom- municated, and his attacks upon the Pope at length led to his downfall. Although his teachings were in general harmony with the doctrines of the church, Savonarola was condemned as a heretic, and burned at the stake in 1498. Unlike the Hussite movement in Bohemia, his influence died with him. The reform movements of Ximenes and Savonarola were orthodox efforts to effect an adjustment of the church to the modern spirit which was manifesting itself in the great )ecay igg. movement called the Kenaissance. The term means liter- ally "rebirth," and is applied especially to the intel- lectual and artistic revival which, beginning in Italy about the year 1300, went- steadily on throughout the fourteenth, fif- teenth, and sixteenth centuries. Fundamentally, it was an awakening of the human intellect to wider -fields of activity ; it was the recovery of the freedom of individual thought and action. In the Middle Ages the individual was nothing; the guild, the commune, the church, were everything. The world and the flesh were regarded as evil, and their influence was to be combated. Curiosity was to be repressed ; hence natural science, which is based on observation and investigation, made THE RENAISSANCE 273 little progress. The learning most worth having was the- ology, the basis of which was revelation ; and with it flourished philosophy (the handmaid of theology), and law — the impor- tance of which was due to the incessant conflicts of papacy and empire, of church and state. With the fourteenth century a new way of looking at things began in Italy to manifest itself. Human life and this world were viewed as things good in themselves, and not £36 Ee- merely as a means of preparation for the world to vival of come. Men began to give way to the stirrings of curi- osity in matters hitherto neglected. A new interest was taken in the monuments of antiquity. Throughout the Middle Ages, Vergil, Cicero, and others of the best Latin authors were read as models of style, however imperfectly they were followed; but their content- was feared as pagan. Now they began to be read for meaning as well as style ; and in them men found that spirit of individualism, of " humanism," of which they were beginning to be conscious in their own breasts. "The expression of the human mind in the Middle Ages had been scholasticism, that is to say, the interpretation of texts; the expression of the humanistic spirit was rea- Lavisse, son, that is to say, the affirmation of truth, evident or General demonstrated." A new and exaggerated reverence for ^^^w, 135 antiquity sprang up ; and because the classical authors were now understood, men profited by their style as never before. Better Latin began to be written ; and Greek, the knowledge of which had gradually died out in the West, was relearned from Constantinople. "' Greece has not fallen," said an creiahton Italian scholar after the fall of Constantinople ; " but Papacij, seems to have migrated to Italy." Under the impulse of the new love for learning, the libraries of the monasteries of Europe were ransacked, and many lost works were recovered. Critical scholarship was born in the task of identifying and 274 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION editing these treasures, and grammars and dictionaries were compiled for their interpretation. The chief representatives of the revival of learning, in the fourteenth century, were Petrarch and Boccaccio. Petrarch 237. Classic (1304-1374) was born near Florence, spent his boyhood study and ^^ Avignon, and in manhood passed from one Italian nterat^r court to another. He longed passionately for a revival of the glories of ancient Rome, and was the first who zealously collected Latin manuscripts, inscriptions, and coins. He tried ineffectually to learn Greek in order that he might read Homer; and in countless letters, each an essay in finished Latin style, he spread broadcast the cultured and inquiring humanist spirit. Boccaccio (1313-1375) also was a Florentine ; with much difficulty he gained some knowledge of Greek, and was the author of valuable dictionaries of classical mythology and geography. In the fifteenth century scores of humanists, of lesser genius but greater learning, carried on the work begun by these two. Along with the revival of learning went another move- ment, which also owed much to Petrarch and Boccaccio. The Italian, French, and English tongues, and later the German, were raised to the rank of literary languages, and vernacular litera- tures were created. The Florentine poet Dante (12G5-1321) represents "the glimmer of the dawn" of the Renaissance. Born amid the strife of Guelf and Ghibelline, he spent his later life in the wanderings of political exile. His epic poem, the Divine Comedy, was not merely the first important literary work in Italian, but was the first great piece of modern litera- ture, one of the masterpieces of all time. Petrarch's Sonnets showed that the Italian language was adapted to lyric poetry ; and Boccaccio, in a series of short stories called the Decameron, became the father of Italian prose. In England the poet Chaucer (1340-1400) used the language of the people for his Canterbury Tales; and Wyclif used the same tongue in- much THE RENAISSANCE 275 of his writing and preaching. In Germany the development of a literature in the people's tongue was aided by the work of Martin Luther in the sixteenth century. Architecture, sculpture, and painting also felt the new im- pulse, and flowered into masterpieces such as the world had not seen since the days of classical Greece. In archi- £38 The tecture the classical revival was felt early in the fifteenth fine arts in century, when men restored the style of ancient Kome, adapted to the requirements of modern ecclesiastical, civic, and domestic building. Bramante (1444-1514) was foremost St. Peter's, at Rome. (Present condition ; erected 150G-1026.) in this work, and to him Eome owes the original plan and part of the completed structure of the church of St. Peter's. Michael Angelo (Michelangelo, 1475-1564) illustrates the many-sidedness of the Italian Renaissance by the preeminence which he attained alike in architecture, sculpture, and paint- ing. He superintended the building of St. Peter's, and added the towering dome ; sculptured many figures, of which those 2T6 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION of David, Moses, and the figures for the Medici moniimeiit at Florence are perhaps most famous; and painted a series of biblical pictures for the Sistine Chapel at Rome, of which his fresco of the Last Judgment is probably the most famous single picture in the world ; in addition he Avas a poet of no mean note. In painting, the Italian Renaissance reached its height in the period 1470-1550, which saw the works of Leo'iiardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Raphael (1483-1520), and others, as well as those of Michael Angelo. In Venice the movement was of somewhat later origin than elsewhere in Italy; but a Venetian school, of which Titian (1477-1576) was foremost, gained fame for its brilliant and accurate col- oring The critical spirit which was developed in the study of the ancient authors passed into criticism of mediaeval philosophy, « „ . mediaeval science, and mediaeval religion. Scholastic phi- 239. Science • ' ^ ^ and criti- losophy lost its hold upon the world, and the writings of cism Plato were read along with those of Aristotle, whose works now became known in the original Greek. Medicine profited by the dissection of the human body ; but it was not until the middle of the seventeenth century that an English physician, Harvey, completely demonstrated the circulation of the blood. Chemistry made important strides, though to many investiga- tors it was only a means to find the mythical " philosopher's stone," with which to turn base metals to gold. Mathematics also experienced some advances. Above all, the study of the stars passed from the astrologer to the astronomer. For centuries the teaching of the Greek philosopher Ptolemy had prevailed, which made the earth the center of the universe, about which turned sun, moon, and stars. Copernicus (1473-1543) now taught that the sun is the center about which the earth revolves with the other planets, turning at the same time upon its axis. Galileo (1564-1642), with the aid of the telescope, which he so improved as to make THE RENAISSANCE 277 practically a new invention, explored the heavens and made discovery after discovery ; but because of the opposition of the theologians, he was obliged to withdraw as heretical the teaching, which he borrowed from Copernicus, that the earth moves around the sun. The same sort of critical investigation which led to these scientific discoveries enabled Lorenzo Valla (1405-1457) to prove that the alleged Donation of Constantine (§ 63),by which were defended some of the papal claims to temporal power, was a clumsy forgery. A development of the arts of war and of navigation also marked this period. The improvements in the arms and handling of foot soldiers, which made them superior to the mounted and armored knights (§§ 185, 193, 215), were of war and accompanied by the introduction of gunpowder, which ^^^^S robbed the feudal castle of its strength. From a very early date gunpowder was used in India and China for rockets and fireworks. Its introduction into Europe, and use in cannon, took place in the fourteenth century ; but it was not until the fifteenth that improvements in its composition and in appliances made it an effective instrument of war. The musket and pistol do not appear until the sixteenth century. The art of navigation also owed much to the Far East. About 1300 the mariner's compass was introduced into Europe from China, where it had long been known ; and the astrolabe and cross-staff, used to ascertain latitude, were adapted to purposes of navigation in the fifteenth century: these were among the few instruments possessed by Columbus and Vasco da Gama on their famous voyages. Longitude, however, could not be reckoned with any degree of accuracy until the inven- tion of the watch, in the eighteenth century, made compara- tively easy its calculation by differences of time. Geographical knowledge was greatly increased by the accept- ance of the view that the earth is a sphere (a fact known to I 278 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION the ancients, but vejected on theological grounds by the Middle Ages), and by a system of rational maps in place of fantastic and mythical representations of the world. In the sixteenth century the invention of Mercator's projection — a form of map in which all meridians and parallels are straight lines intersecbing at right angles — made possible sea charts for compass sailing on courses drawn as straight lines. Spread of Printing during the Fifty Years following its Introduction into Mainz. The boundaries are modern. The intellectual awakening came earliest in Italy, and gradu- ally spread to the lands beyond the Alps. The great church 241. inven- councils of the fifteenth century were an important help tion of in its spread by bringing the scholars of Italy into touch printing -.i i ^ o o j (about ^^'1*^1^ those of other lands. The greatest aid, however, ^450) ^vas afforded by the invention of printing. As late as 1350 practically all books in Europe were prepared entirely with the pen. Some time after that date the practice arose of THE RENAISSANCE 279 printing tracts and short books, for which there was a large sale, from engraved blocks of wood. Such crude "block books" were a step in advance ; but it was not until separate types were cast in metal, making possible their use in many combina- tions, that the art of printing was really born. The honor of this invention is usually given to Johann Gutenberg of Mainz, in Germany, who printed from movable types about the year 1450 ; but the date, place, and original discoverer of the art are all disputed. The invention cheapened books and spread broadcast the means of culture. By the end of the century, printers had established themselves in more than two hun- dred places in Europe, and books and pamphlets were multiplied at an unprecedented rate. Leaflets containing woodcut pic- tures, illustrating the questions of the day, made an equally powerful appeal to the illiterate. In Italy, in the latter part of the fifteenth century, scholars 'became almost pagan in their devotion to the learning of Greece and Kome ; and frank disregard of religion and 242. The morality spread among all classes. North of the Alps a Renais- , sance be- more serious tone characterized the movement; without yondthe neglecting the classical authors, scholars turned more to ^^P^ the study of early Christian writers. In England, John Colet, dean of St. Paul's cathedral at London, labored for an educa- tional and religious revival. In Germany, Reuchlin became the center of a bitter literary and theological quarrel, because of his Hebrew studies and his desire to save the books of the Jews from burning at the hands of bigoted scholastics ; and to defend him, a group of younger humanists, of whom the bi'illiant but dissolute Ulrich von Hutten was one, published a series of satirical letters entitled Epistolai Ohscurorum Virorinn, purporting to be written by Reuchlin's opponents, and designed to cast ridicule upon them as a stupid party. The best example of northern humanism is offered by Erasmus of Eotterdain (1467-1536). After passing a few 280 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION years in a Netherlands monastery, he studied at Paris, in Eng- land, and in Italy; his home thenceforth was wherever there | Avere literary friends, books, and a printing press. In * mus ^^^^ biting satire he attacked the evil lives of monks, the (1467-1536) arrogance of theologians, and superstition and ignorance everywhere. He devoted himself especially to editing and printing works of the early church fathers, and thus became the founder of a more learned and comprehensive theology. Scores of books were published by him : the most widely read, perhaps, was his satirical Praise of Folb/ ; the most important was his edition of the New Testament (1516), making ac- cessible, for the first time in a printed volume, the original Greek text. Owing to the knowledge of Latin possessed* by all educated men, his works were everywhere read. He de- sired a reformation in the church " without tumult," carried through by education and by api^eal to the reason. In his own day he possessed an influ- ence such as few scholars have had. Though his plan of orderly reform could not avert the uprising against the church, Beard, ^^^^ work profoundly affected that movement as well as Reforma. the church itself. "The Eeformation that has been," tion of the . Sixteenth says a writer of our own time, " is Luther's monument : Centunj, 73 perhaps the Eeformation that is to be will trace itself back to Erasmus." Erasmus From the painting by Holbein. In reviewing the history of the seven centuries between 800 and 1500, we see Europe in a constant state of transformation. THE henaissance 281 The prosperity of Charlemagne's reign was followed by the political and ecclesiastical disintegration of the ninth and tenth centuries. Through feudalism, military efficiency was recovered and the Continent saved from conquest mary of the threatened by Saracens, Hungarians, and Northmen. Midd eAges The refounding of the Holy Roman Empire by Otto I. (962) again gave Europe theoretical political unity, and led to the purification of the papacy and the church through the Cluniac reforms (tenth and eleventh centuries). The conflicting claims of papacy and empire then produced a series of struggles be- tween these world powers, lasting from 1075 to 1268: these include the Investiture Conflict (1075-1122) begun between Gregory VII. and Henry IV. ; the long struggle with Frederick Barbarossa ; and the contest which ended in the death of Frederick II. (1250) and the final downfall of the Hohen- staufens (1268). National states mean while, were arising; and with France, the first of these, the papacy came into disastrous conflict in 1296-1303. Then followed the "Babylonian Captivity" at Avignon, the Great Schism, and the church councils, which ended the papacy as a world power. The ijolitical supremacy of France which followed was checked by a long war with England (1337-1453) ; and again at the end of the period it was about to be eclipsed by the newly grown power of Spain. The Crusades (1096-1291) were almost exactly contempora- neous with the struggle of papacy and empire. In one view they were an expansion of Europe eastward ; similar move- ments were the conquests from the Slavs on the northeast of Germany, the Northman colonization of Iceland and Greenland, and the Spanish and Portuguese discoveries of the fifteenth century. The Middle Ages were also the period of the rise and vigor of the towns, of the universities, and of monastic organizations of various sorts. Chivalry, scholasticism, and Gothic art are manifestations of the earlier period, which 282 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION gradually change as the revival of learning grew in the four- teenth and fifteenth centuries. All in all, the Middle Ages were a period of transformation, when the old classical civiliza- tion, Christianity, the vigorous Teutonic races, and elements drawn from the Mohammedan East combined in bewildering variety. It was essentially the period when Europe became Europe, and made ready to found new Europes across the seas. Suggestive topics Search topics TOPICS (1) Was Urban VI. or Clement VII. the true Pope? Give your reasons. (2) Why should England and France take opposite sides in the Great Schism ? (3) Compare the powers claimed by the Council of Constance with Gregory VII. 's memorandum of the powers of the papacy. (4) Was the council's claim constitutional or revolutionary ? Was it necessary or unnecessary ? (5) Why did the councils fail to reform the abuses in the church ? (0) Compare the character and European position of the Popes after the councils with the character and European position of Pope Innocent III. (7) Contrast the mediaeval with the modern way of looking at the world. (8) Why was scholasticism insufficient as an intellectual training? (9) Why should the revival of learning come first in Italy? (10) How did printing help on the Renais-sance? (11) Why were the northern humanists more serious and religious-minded than the Italian ? (12) Effects of the Babylonian Captivity and the Great Schism on the papacy. (1.3) Incidents of the Council of Constance. (14) John Hnss. (1-5) The Emperor Sigismund. (IG) The papacy under Julius 11. (17) The reforms of Ximenes in Spain. (18) Savonarola. (19) Bante. (20) Petrarch. (21) Michael Angelo. (22) Raphael. (23) Leonardo da Vinci. (24) Invention of printing. (25) Reuchlin. (26) Erasmus. (27) Discoveries of ancient works of art. (28) Discoveries of ancient literary works. Geography Secondary authorities REFERENCES See maps, pp. 252, 284. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chs. xv. xvi. ; See- bohm. Era of the Protestant Bevolution, pt. i. chs. i.-iv., pt. ii., ch. i. ; Henderson, Short History of Germany, I. chs. ix. x. ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, chs. xxi. xxiii. ; Van Dyke, Age of Renascence, 1-34, G2-121 : Walker, Beforma- CHURCH COUNCILS AND RENAISSANCE 283 tion, chs. i. ii. ; Lodge, Close of the Middle Ages, ix.-xi. xxii. ; Wylie, Council of Constance, lectures v. vi. ; Maurice, Bohemia^ 176-220 ; Poole, WycUffe and Movements for Beform, chs. iii. ix.-xiii. ; Cutts, Turning Points of General Church History, chs. xxxviii. xxxix. ; Trench, 3Iedieval Church History, chs. xix.-xxii, ; Desmond, 3£ooted Questions of History, chs. vii.-ix. xxiii. ; Mil- man, //isior?/ of Latin Christianity, bk. xiii. ch. ix. ; Creighton, History of the Papacy, bk. ii. chs. iv. v. ; Pastor, History of the Popes, I. 194-207, V. 181-212, VL 3-54; Alzog, Church History, II. 853-896 ; Symonds, Short History of the Benaissance in Italy^ chs. i. iv. V. vii. xii. xiii.; Symonds, Bevival of Learning, 368-391, — Age of Despots, chs. iii. iv. ; Burckhardt, Benaissance in Italy, esp. 8-27, 62-87, 171-176, 187-209; Lilly, Benaissance Types, chs. i.-iv. ; Field, Introduction to the Study of the Benaissance, chs. i.-iv. ; Fiske, Discovery of America, I. chs. iii. v. ; Cambridge Modern History, I. ch. v. ; Eraerton, Erasmus, chs. i.-vi. ; See- bohm, Oxford Beformers, chs. iii. v. ix.-xi. xv. ; Gardner, Dante \ Mrs. Oliphant, Makers of Florence, 1-97, 238-331 ; Milman, Savonarola, Erasmus, etc. ; Villari, Life and Times of Savonarola (2 vols.) ; O'Neil, Jerome Savonarola; Van Dyke, Text-Book of the History of Painting, chs. vi.-x. ; Goodyear, Benaissance and Modern Art, chs. i. iii. vi. xiii. xiv. Robinson, Beadings, I. chs. xxi. xxii,, II. chs. xxiii. xxiv. ; Whitcomb, Literary Source Book of the Italian Benaissance, — Literary Source Book of the German Benaissance; Robinson and Rolfe, Petrarch, 53-55, 59-76, 117, 169-174, 178-190, 191-196, 210-214, 243, 261, 275-278, 298-325, 384 ; Emerton, Erasmus, 36- 38, 149-151, 188, 232-235, 298-307, 310-319, 347-349, 360, 373-374; Nicholas, Epistles of Erasmus ; Froude, Life and Letters of Eras- mus, 39, 95-96, 97-100, 121-123, 207-210, 221-225, 243-249, 253- 255, 259-272, 278-280, 284-286, 293-296, 300, 305, 317-318, 327-332, 340, 342-343, 356, 363-365 ; Benvenuto Cellini, Life (Symond's trans.), 380-392,416-427,443-457; Machiavelli, The Prince, esp. ch. xviii, ; Vassari, Lives (biographies of Raphael, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Leonardo da Vinci) ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Beprints, IV. No. 6, pp. 14-15, I. No. 1. p. 8, III. No. 6, pp. 9, 14, 26-32 ; Erasmus, Praise of Folly ; Commines, Memoirs (Bohn), II. 189-191, 284-287. Charles Reade, Cloister and the Hearth; "George Eliot," Bomola; G. P. R. James, Leonora dWrco ; Mrs. Beecher Stowe, Agnes of Sorrento ; C. Baker, The Gleaming Dawn, — The Cardi- naVs Page. Sources Illustrative works 285 »l CHAPTER XVII. THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) It was inevitable that the changes in the intellectual, politi- cal, and economic life of Europe, in the fourteenth and fifteenth 245. Causes centuries, should produce changes in religion as well, of the /j^x rji^g alledance of peoples to the See of Rome had Reforma- ^ ^ ° . , t i .• i^ ^i tt i tion been weakened by the practical dissolution ot the Holy Roman Empire, by the residence of the Popes at Avignon for seventy years, and by the Great Schism. (2) The spirit of inquiry due to the Renaissance was in the air ; and the Bible and the writings of the church fathers were now more accessible. (3) Reasons existed for calling in question many things in the existing order of the church, among which was a sense of dissatisfaction with the worldliness and corruption of the higher clergy — a feeling increased by the failure of the reform movement in the councils of Constance and Basel, and particularly marked in Germany, where bishoprics and canonries passed almost exclusively to younger sons of princely houses, who showed more of a political than an ecclesiastical spirit. (4) A national feeling also existed in Germany which mani- fested itself in the attempts at political reform under Maxi- milian (§ 220), and resented the devices by which money was drawn from Germany for the support of the Pope and Italian priests. (5) The economic condition of the German peasantry was bad, and their social discontent predisposed them to reli- gious revolt. (6) Finally the period immediately preceding the Reformation saw a quickening of spiritual life in Germany, which led many to turn from formalism and the veneration of relics and seek the more spiritual elements of religion. 286 THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 287 These more spiritual elements of religion many found in various organizations of mystics which flourished in the Rhine- land, typical of which were the mysterious " Friends of God," represented by the great Strassburg preacher, John Tauler (died loGl), and the more practical " Brethren of the Common Life," who gave themselves to the work of education : their most famous member was Thomas a Kempis (died 1471), whose Imitation of Christ is still a popular book of devotion witx. Catholics and Protestants alike. The mental attitude of mysti- cism is thus described: "It aims to soar into a region Beard above that in which ecclesiastical and theological diversi- Martin ties arise. Its method is the direct apprehension of God Luther, 43 by the soul — as form, color, sound, are apprehended by the senses. Mysticism does not argue ; it can not appeal to any external authority ; it broods, it meditates, it listens for the divine voice." From the various causes indicated above came the Protestant Heforma- tion — a movement which was at the same time a political, intellectual, so- cial, and spiritual reaction against the life and religion of the Middle Ages. This reaction manifested itself in- dependently in different countries and in different persons; but g^g ^^^ the dominant personality of the tin Luther whole movement was the Saxon Martin Luther. Born at Eisleben, in 1483, of peasant parents, Luther was educated at the University of Erfurt for the law, but entered instead an Augustinian monastery. He strove in vain to attain inward peace through a strict observance of monastic rules — through fasting, vigils, and Luther. From the painting by O. Brausewetter. 288 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION mortification of the flesh. From what may be classed as mys- tical teachers and writings, he at last got the assurance that justification (or salvation) comes as a result of faith in the atonement of Christ, and not as a result of good works. The peace which this assurance gave him, he sought to impart to others by his labors as preacher and theological teacher. From 1508 till his death he was a professor in the University of Wittenberg, newly founded by the Elector of Saxony. In 1517 Luther was disturbed by the advent in his neighbor- hood of Tetzel, a preacher of indulgences. In the later Middle 247. The Ages the practice had arisen of commuting the discipli- ninety-five ^^^^,^ penances (such as fastings and pilgrimages) imposed (1517) by the church upon penitent offenders for a money con- tribution to some worthy cause; and at this time the indul- gences were offered by Pope Leo X. for aid toward building the great church of St. Peter's at Rome. In the authoritative teaching of the church, indulgences did not do away with the necessity for repentance on the part of the sinner ; but some preachers perverted the authorized theory, and gave the im- pression that the indulgences wiped away the penalties of sin even without true repentance. Relatives were encouraged to purchase indulgences for the dead, so that souls being kept for a time in purgatory, as penalty for sins not wiped away on earth, might be released and go at once to heaven. Says a Janssen, Catholic historian: '' Grievous abuses there certainly i^TolnLi ^^^^'^ "^ *^® proceedings and the behavior of the indul- People, III. gence preachers, and the manner of offering and extolling ^^ the indulgence caused all sorts of scandal." In accordance with the practice of mediaeval scholars, Luther, in 1517, posted on the door of the church at Wittenberg a series of ninety-five theses (or propositions for discussion by scholars), setting forth his views concerning indulgences.^ He 1 See U liversity of Pennsylvania, Translations and Reprints, II. No. 6, pp. 5-12. "' THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 289 was far from wisliing to break with the ancient church : his theses merely denounced the abuses of the indulgence system, and emphasized the necessity of faith in order to attain salva- tion ; and (in spite of the corruption and indifference to religion which he had found at Rome when on a visit there in 1510) he declared that no one would be quicker to condemn the teachings of Tetzel than the Holy Father. Much to Luther's astonish- ment, his theses when printed spread rapidly throughout Ger- many. Leo X. was at first inclined to look upon the whole matter as a mere " squabble of monks " ; but to give up indulgences as then used meant a considerable loss to the papal revenue, and Luther's opinions, when carried to their logical conclusions, meant a wide breach with the theological and ecclesiastical system on which indulgences were founded. It was determined, therefore, to quiet Luther, and in 1519 he was prevailed upon to make a qualified submission. His views, however, were attacked by Dr. John Eck ; and in a dis- 248. Luther putation at Leipzig Luther went far beyond his earlier ^-^^ t°H position, and affirmed that many of the views for which (1520) the Hussites were condemned as heretics were nevertheless true. His opinions developed still further in the months which followed. In a series of writings in 1520, — the most important of which was his Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation,^ — he rejected the papal headship, the mediatorial power of the priest, the binding nature of monastic vows, the doctrine of transubstantiation, and all of the seven sacraments except baptism, penance, and the eucharist. The Pope now seemed to him " not the most holy, but the most sinful of men" ; and he seriously questioned whether the Pope was not the Antichrist foretold in the Bible. As the heat of controversy increased, his peasant blood betrayed him into coarseness of language and intemperate and unseemly abuse of opponents, which his friends in vain strove to check. 1 See translation in Wace and Buehheim, First Principles of the Reformation. 290 RENAISSANCE AND REF(3KMATI0N 111 the latter part of 1520 a papal bull of excommunication was published against Luther. Forty-one articles selected from his writings were condemned, his books were ordered to be burned, and he and his followers, unless they recanted, were threatened with the punishment of heretics. This bull, to- gether with books of canon law and seholnstic thoolop^y. Lutlior burned before the city gate of AVittenberg, amid great popular enthusiasm. "My meaning Alzog, '' Church His- is," he wrote, "that the tory, III. 36 p^^^^j ^j^^.^,^ .^g ^^|gg ^g^^j^_ ings and abominations, should be committed to the flames." His breach with the Catholic Church was complete : it was difficult to see what fate other than that of Huss could await him. The young Emperor Charles V.^ had inherited the sovereignty of 249. Em- the Netherlands, Spain, the Charles V ^"^^^^^^ realms of Naples and Luther and Sicily, and vast posses- ^ sions in the New World and the East (see map, p. 284) ; to these were added, upon the death of his grandfather 1 GENEALOGY OF CHARLES V. AND THE HAPSBUEG IMPEPJAL HOUSE (HAliLKS V. Painting in Windsor Castle, show- ing the famous " Hapshurg lip." (1521 (1) Maximilian I. (Emperor 1493-1519) Mary (d. 14S2) daug-hter of Ferdinanp Isabella (King- of Aragon (Queen of Castile Charles the Bold 1479-1516) 14T4-1504) of Burgundy 1 I'hilip =Juana Archduke of Austria (d. 1506) the Insane (d. 1555) Catherine m. Henry VI 11. of England (2) Charles V. = Isabella of Portugal (3) Fekdinanp I. = A nne of Bohemia (Emperor I (Emperor I and Hungary lr>19-1556; 1556-1564) d. 1.55S) I Philip II, (4) Maximilian II. (King of Spain (Emperor 1 5.^6-1. V.tS) 1564-1.576) I 1 Spanish Hapsburgs Austrian Hapsburgs THK REFORM ATION IN GERMANY (ir,17-]r,r)r)) 29l Maximilian, tiie Plapsburg inheritance in' Germany, and — after a spirited contest against the candidature of Francis I. of France — the imperial crown (1519). These possessions made Charles the greatest prince of his age ; and npon the course taken by him in Germany would depend in large measure the outcome of the Lutheran movement. In 1521 the young Emperor came into Germany for the first time, to hold an imperial Diet at Worms. To this meeting- Luther, as a special concession to his friends, was summoned inider the Emperor's safe-conduct. Charles was, by nature and education, a good Catholic ; but it would never do to condemn -the German heretic unheard — even the papal legate wrote: " Nine-tenths of Germany shouts for Luther. The other Creinhton tenth, if it does not crave for Luther's teacliing, at least P(tpacy, vi. 1(1 't cries, ^Down with the Eoman Court,' and raises the further demand for a council to be held in Germany." When Luther was warned of the danger that awaited him at the Diet, he replied, "Though there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roof, I will go there." j5(,,„.^;^ j^far. At the Diet he was called upon to recant the opinions ^''"' l^nther, 432-441 expressed in his books, and courageously replied : " Un- less I am convinced by witness of Scripture or plain reason (for I do not believe in the Pope or in councils alone, since it is agreed that they have often erred and contradicted them- selves), I am overcome by the Scriptures which I have adduced, and my conscience is caught in the word of God. I neither can nor will recant anything, for it is neither safe nor right to act against one's conscience." Then he added in German : " God help me ! Amen." From Pope and councils, Luther thus appealed to the Bible, interpreted by individual judgment. All efforts to procure any other answer from him proved vain. It is to the honor of Charles Y. that Luther was allowed to depart in safety, and that he did not, like Sigismund at Constance, break his pledge of safe-conduct. In May, 1521, Harding's m. & m. hist. — 17 292 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION Luther's Room in the Wartburg. (I'hotograph.) the Edict of , Worms was issued, adding the ban of the empire to that of the papacy : all persons were forbidden to shelter or assist Luther, his person was to be seized and delivered to the Emperor, and his books were to be burned. The preservation of Luther after the Edict of Worms was due chiefly to the stanch support given him by his prince, 250. Prog- Frederick the Wise of electoral Saxony.^ On the road to Reforml^^ Wittenberg he was secretly seized, by friendly arrange- tion ment, and carried off to the strong castle of the Wartburg, (1521-1525') where he lived for a time in seclusion, few even of his followers knowing Avhat had become of him. His leisure there was occupied by translating the Bible into the German tongue, the result being the version still used by German Protestants. 1 In 1485 Saxony was divided between two brothers (Albert and Ernest) into (1) electoral Saxony, with Wittenberg as its capital, and (2) ducal Saxony, with Leipzig and Dresden as its chief cities. THE KEFOUMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 293 Id 1522 he left his retreat and returned to Wittenberg, in order to quiet disturbances caused by more radical reformers in his absence. Under his guidance a conservative reform was then carried out. The mass service in Latin was replaced by a serv- ice in the German tongue, in which preaching and congrega- tional singing were given prominent places, Luther himself composing some of the finest hymns in the German language. Bishops and archbishops were replaced by officers called " super- intendents," whose functions were wholly ecclesiastical. The doctrines of the Lutheran Church were ably set forth by Lu- ther's friend and Wittenberg colleague, Philip Melanchthon.^ From Saxony the movement spread to most of the states of North Germany, and even South Germany was for a time pro- foundly affected. Wherever the Reformation was established, monasteries and nunneries were dissolved, and the church property, beyond what was needed for the support of the new faith, passed into the hands of secular rulers. In 1525 occurred a great revolt of the peasants in South Germany, due partly to religious agitation, and partly to long- standing economic grievances. In a series of Twelve o^i -d ' auI. x6317-1555) 29f) volted, and plundered Konie. The destruction wrought was enormous, and the agony of the event " marked the end of the gay, easy-going, artistic, pleasure-loving Home of the Renaissance.'*'' It also forced the Pope to abandon the Reforma- French alliance, and adopt a policy more favorable to ^'"^"' ^''^' Charles V. In a second peace (1529) Francis again renounced his claims in Italy, and paid a heavy indemnity. Each prince and city of Germany, meanwhile, dealt with the question of religion in his own way, some holding fast to the old faith, some adopting the new. As a result of 254 Diets Charles's successes, the representatives of the Catholic of Spires faith were able to take a more decided stand at a Diet laurg held at Spires in 1529, where a decree was passed calling (1529-1530) for the carrying out of the Edict of Worms. Against this decree the Lutheran princes and cities issued the protest that won for them the familiar name of '' Protestant." Fortunately for them, the Turks, who in 1526 had defeated and slain Louis, king of Bohemia and Hungary, at Mohacz, and taken Buda, now ad- vanced, in 1529, to the siege of Vienna. In the face of this danger, the attempt at suppression of the Protestants was again deferred. In 1530 Charles himself appeared at a Diet which met in Augsburg. The Protestants, in their attempt to justify their innovations, presented to him the -^np^shurg Confession — the first great Protestant creed. It was the work of Mel^anchthon. _ and was eminently conciliatory ; but it was found impossible to reconcile the differences between the two parties. The Catholics being in the majority, it was ordered that the Prot- estants must make their submission within live months. The long-expected religious war again seemed about to begin, and in anticipation of it the Protestants organized the 255. The League of Schmalkalden. But again Charles found his ^j-^ ^^^ hands tied by troubles with the Turks and renewed war (1546-1547) with France (1536-1544). A treaty which was concluded 296 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION with France in 1544 confirmed to Chavles the possession of Milan, and secretly pledged both Charles and, Francis to the extirpation of heresy. Then at last the Eini)eror was left free to deal with the Protestants in Germany," and preparations for war began. Four months before the struggle commenced, Luther passed peacefully away at Eisleben, the place of his birth (February, 1546). The Schmalkaldic war, as Charles's attack upon the Protestants was called, ended with the battle of Mlihlberg (April, 1547), in which their leaders, the Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse, were defeated and taken prison- ers. This was due in large part to the assistance given the Emperor by Maurice, the Protestant ruler of ducal Saxony ; as reward for this service, the electoral title and half of electoral Saxony were taken from the line of Frederick the Wise and given to the collateral line represented by Maurice. The col- lapse of Protestantism seemed complete. But again Charles's hand was stayed in dealing with Ger- man heresy. This time the check was administered by the 256 New ^^P® himself (Paul HI.), who was filled with alarm at difficulties the Emperor's too rapid victories, and adjourned the V. (1547- church council, which at Charles's request had been as- 1552) . sembled at Trent to hear the Protestant demands, to the papal city of Bologna, where it might be more fully under his own control (1547). After four years of diplomatic struggle, Charles secured the return of the council to Trent, but was then suddenly confronted by a dangerous political and reli- gious combination in Germany. The leader of this combina- tion was his former ally, Maurice, who after all was himself a Protestant ; besides the chief Protestant princes of Germany, the alliance included Henry II., the Catholic king of France, who promised financial aid to the rebels on condition that he be allowed to take possession of the great imperial border for- tresses, Metz, Toul, and Verdun. With an army raised osten- THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 297 sibly for the Emperor's service, Maurice suddenly marched southward against Charles, who was taken unprepared at Innsbruck, in the Tyrolese Alps, and saved himself only by a hasty flight (1552). Extent of the Protestant Movement in Germany, 1555. Wearied with a lifetime of struggle, Charles now gave up the contest, and a truce vs^as concluded, which in 1555 was con- verted into the religious peace of Augsburg. Catholics 257. The and Protestants alike longed for peace, and were ready ^ugg^urg to purchase it at the cost of some sort of toleration for (1555) the opposite party. The principle adopted was that expressed in the phrase cujns regio, ejus religio, which meant that the rulers of each principality and free city might establish at their option either the Catholic or the Lutheran worship, leav- ing to dissentients the right to emigrate. For more than half a century this treaty gave repose to Germany, but it contained 298 RENAISSANCE AND KEFOKxMATlUN two fatal defects which ultimately brought about the Thirty Years' War: (1) there was no protection promised to Protest- |j ants other tlmn Lutherans, although Calvinism was already be- f ginning to be of importance ; and (2) there was still room left, as time passed, for bitter disputes concerning the ownership of | church lands secularized by Protestants. ' In the negotiation of this peace Charles Y. took no personal part, and in 1555 and 1556 he abdicated his many crowns 1 258. Abdi- and retired to the monastery of Yuste in Spain, where Charres°V ^^® ^^^®^^ ^^ ■'^'^^' ^^ ^"^^^ ^^^^^' ^^^^^^^^^*"^S' far-sighted, (1556) patient; it was his fate to rule two diverse lands,,Spain and Germany, at the most difficult moment of European his- tory. His son Philip II. (1556-1598) succeeded him as king of Sixain and the Two Sicilies, and lord of Milan, the Nether- lands, and the Spanish colonies — but not (in spite of all Charles's efforts) as Emperor. The imperial office, by choice of the electors, passed to Charles's brother, Ferdinand I. (1556-1564), who united to the ai-chduchy of Austria the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, which he had acquired by election of the nobles on the death of the unfortunate king Louis at Mohacz (§ 254). From 1556 there are thus two Hapsburg houses, the one in Spain, lasting until the extinction of its male line in 1700, and the other in Ger- many, which continues in the Austrian rulers to the present time. The imperial dignity and the elective kingships of Bohemia and Hungary made the Austrian Hapsburg line one of the greatest of European powers, occupying by its peculiar position a place both in the system of western and in that of eastern Europe — the head of a growing multitude of states, diverse in race, language, and religion, and the chief bulwark of Europe against the Turks. The intellectual awakening which we call the ^ ■. ^ ^ -nee carried with it a reformation in religion and a lae ni ; THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1550) 291) this came independently and in different degrees in different countries ; but the German Reformation, of which Luther was the dominating spirit, was the most important. The pre- 259. Sum- occupation of Charles V. with affairs outside Germany, mary and the lack of a centralized constitution, gave the movement a chance to establish itself wherever it found the local authorities favorable. After more than twenty-live years of delay, the attempt at forcible repression was made, and failed. Territorial toleration was then established by the peace of Augsburg (1555) for Lutherans and Catholics, but not for other sects. The right of individual toleration was recognized neither by Catholics nor by Protestants for years to come. In many respects the Reformation age was "the most striking period in religious history since the days of the early church." Doubtless the causes of the Keformation are not entirely to be found in laudable instincts for higher spiritual life and the cultivation of the human intellect ; and its course does not show all zeal, holiness, and religion on one side, and tyranny, ignorance, and relic worship on the other. The immediate effects of the Reformation, too, were not altogether what .the reformers had expected, and Luther's later life was embittered by the radical excesses, moral decay, and theological bicker- ings which Protestant Germany experienced. Nevertheless, for Protestants the movement brought independence of reli- gious thought, individual responsibility, and a freer life; while for Catholics it developed more zeal and love for the old faith and hastened the adoption of the reformatory measures within the church, which we shall soon see enacted in the Council of Trent. TOPICS (1) Did the cause of the Reformation lie in Luther or in the Suggestive general state of things? (2) What caused tlie development of *0P^cs Luther's views from the position he held in the Ninetij-Jive Theses to that shown at the Diet of Worms? (3) Was the cause of the peasants in their revolt just or unjust ? (4) Is Luther to be blamed aoo RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION Search topics for opposing them ? (5) Why did Erasmus refuse to join Luther ? (6) How did Charles's foreign wars aid the Reformation ? (7) How did the Turks aid the cause of the Reformation ? (8) What is the place of Melanchthon in the history of the German Reforma- tion ? (9) How far was the Reformation directed against obser- vances and how far agahist doctrines ? (10) The German Mystics. (11) Luther's early life. (12) The Reformation, to the end of 1520. (13) Hutten. (14) Tetzel. (15) The Diet of Worms. (16) Elector Frederick the Wise. (17) The peasants' revolt. (18) Attitude of Charles V. toward the Reformation. (19) Melanchthon. (.20) The Augsburg Con- fession. (21) Luther's character and home life. (22) Maurice of Saxony. (23) The religious peace of Augsburg. Geography Secondary authorities Sources Illustrative works REFERENCES See map, pp. 284, 285 ; Putzger, Atlas, map 21 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps viii. xxxviii. xxxix. ; Dow, Atlas, xvii. xviii. Henderson, Short History of Germany, 1. chs, xi.-xv. ; Bryce, Holy Roman Empire (revised ed.), chs. xviii. xix. ; Seebohm, Era of the Protestant Revolution, pt. ii. chs. iii.-v., pt. iii. ch. i. ; Johnson, Etirope in the Sixteenth Century, chs. iii.-v. ; Walker, Reformation, chs. iii. v. ; Fisher, History of the Reformation^ 85-135, 156-168 ; Hausser, Period of the Reformation, chs. i.-ix. xiv.-xvii. ; Frey tag, Martin Luther ; Beard, Martin Luther and the Reformation, chs. iv.-vii. ix. ; Kostlin, Life of Luther; Jacobs, 3Iartin Luther ; Armstrong, Charles V. ; Robinson, Charles V. ; Janssen, History of the German People, bk. vi. ch. i. ; Alzog, Church History, III. ch. i. ; Schaff, History of the Church, VL 287-328, 422-434, 440-449 ; Creighton, History of the Papacy, bk. vi. chs. iii. v.; Ranke, History of the Reformation, bk. ii. chs. i. iii, iv.,bk.iii. ch. vi.; Ca^ibridge Modern History, II. chs. iv.-viii. ; Historians' History of the World, XIV. 248-288. Robinson, Readings, IF. chs. xxv. xxvi. ; Wace and Buchheim, First Principles of the Reformation; Luther, Table Talk; Univer- sity of Pennsylvania, Translations and Reprints, II. No. 6 ; Jacobs, Martin Luthor, appendix ; Augsburg Confession (Lutheran Publi- cation Soc, Phila., 10 cts. ; also in Schaff, Creeds of Christendom, III. 3) ; Crozer, Theological Seminary Leaflets, I. ; Earned, History for Ready Reference (article Luther). W. H. G. Kingston, Count Ulrich von Lindburg ; G. M. Thorn- bury, True as Steel ; Mrs. Charles, Chronicles of the Schonberg- Cotta Family; Ebers, Barbara Blomberg. CHAPTER XVIII. THE REFORMATION IN OTHER LANDS, AND THE COUNTER REFORMATION (1518-1610) In the Protestant Reformation it was mainly the Teutonic nations — Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, England, Scotland, and parts of Germany and the Netherlands — those ^^^ Extent nations which had most successfully withstood the power of the revolt of imperial Rome of old — that rejected the authority of ^°"^ °^^ the Pope. The Romance nations — France, Spain, and Italy, which were most affected in language and habits by the Roman Empire — remained true to the papal allegiance. The Slavic nations which had received Roman Christianity, such as Poland and Bohemia, accepted Protestantism for a time, but later were won back to the Catholic Church. Russia and southeast- ern Europe, which were Greek Christian or Mohammedan, were unaffected by the movement. We have considered tlie Reformation chiefly as an event in religious history, but it must not be forgotten that it was also a political change : it was a revolt of the new national 261. Its spirit against the control by Rome of ecclesiastical in^^iHerent persons, property, and trials. In countries where the countries Reformation was established, the civil power claimed those rights of taxation, jurisdiction, and the like which the papacy had before exercised : where the governing power was a mon- archy, the crown was strengthened; but in Switzerland, where the government of each canton was republican, it was the power of the people that was increased. The political condi- tion of the different countries also determined the course which 301 302 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION the Reformation took. In Germany and Switzerland, where there was practically no central authority, a period of division and civil wars was followed by the deliuite establishment of Protestantism in some districts, and its rejection in others. In England, Denmark, and Sweden, where the central power was strong enough to carry the nation with it, the revolt from Rome was completely established. In France, in spite of its strong monarchy, a series of disastrous religious wars followed,|j ending in a limited toleration for Protestants ; but a century ■ later this settlement was overturned, and Catholicism com- pletely triumphed. The Reformation in German Switzerland began, independ- ently of Luther, with the labors of Ulrich Zwingli, the son 262. Swiss of a prosperous peasant, who received a good education, Reforma- ^^^ cjrew into his reform views without either the ma- tion : Zwingli terial or the spiritual struggle which shaped Luther's character. He represents the humanistic culture derived from Erasmus more than does Luther, and had none of the mysticism which tinged Luther's views ; the reformation which he carried out was more logical, and also more radical, than that of the Saxon reformer. Luther, who became a reformer almost against his will, wished to preserve all that was not positively contrary to Scripture, as he interpreted it ; Zwingli, on the other hand, like Calvin a little later, rejected all not com- manded by the Bible. Zwingli, again anticipating Calvin, introduced a rigid discipline, in which playing games, swear- ing, and tavern frequenting were severely punished. Zwingli's work as a reformer began with an attack in 1518 upon indulgences and pilgrimages. His appointment, late in 263. Zwing- the same year, as preacher at the cathedral of Zurich, reformer enabled him to secure a wider hearing ; and in a series (1518-1529) of sermons in which "evangelical" views were set forth, he prepared the people for a breach with the old church. In 1523 the burgomaster and councils of the city ordered a public SWISS REFORMATION 303 debate to be held between Zwingli and his opponents. In preparation for this, Zwingli published a series of theses, in which he maintained the sole authority of the Bible, salvation by faith, and the rightfulness of clerical marriage ; and re- jected fastings, purgatory, and similar practices and beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church. Zwingli triumphed in the debate, and the magistrates gave their approval to his work. " Pictures, crucifixes, and images were removed from the city churches Walker . . . relics were burned, holy water was done away with, Reforma- organs silenced, and frescoed walls whitewashed, as an effective method of making a tabula rasa of the symbols of the older worship." Extensive changes were also made in the services and constitution of the church ; and from Zurich the reformation spread to the cities of Bern and Basel, and to others of the Swiss cantons. Zwingli was more of a statesman than Luther ; and his mind formed projects of a union of all the opponents of Charles V. Luther had no liking for such political alliances, and 264. His distrusted Zwingli's theological views, especially on the ^^^^^uther Lord's Supper. Both rejected transubstantiation (§ 56) : (1529) Luther, however, believed that the body of Christ was physi- cally present in the sacrament along ivith the bread and wine (consubstantiation) ; Zwingli, on the other hand, interpreted the words of Christ, " This is my body '' to mean " This signi- Jies my body," and taught that Christ was present only in a symbolical sense. In 1529 a conference was held at Marburg between the parties, with a view to bringing them into union with each other. Luther took his stand on the letter of the text, and with chalk wrote the words of Christ in Latin on the table before him, Hoc est corpus meum. From their literal mean- ing it proved impossible to move him, and he even refused to take Zwingli's hand in token of fellowshi}), saying that the Swiss reformers were "of another spirit." Their failure to 304 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION agree was unfortunate, for a union of all Protestants was imperatively needed to meet threatening dangers. A lack of political insight, a hasty temper, and some measure of intol- erance were weaknesses intertwined with Luther's strength. The wealthier and more populous Swiss cantons embraced the cause of the reformers; but the five forest cantons re- 265 The mained zealously Catholic. Besides religious differences, Swiss war, there were also political disputes: the city cantons o?ZwingU wished to change the constitution so that representa- (1531) tion in the Swiss federal Diet should be proportionate to population. In 1529 war was narrowly averted ; in 1531 it actually came. At Cappel the troops hastily levied by Zurich were totally defeated by a larger force from the forest can- tons, and among the slain was numbered Zwingli himself. A peace was then made whereby each canton was left free to do as it liked in religious matters. This was really a victory for the Catholic party, which soon secured a majority in the federal Diet. The work which Zwingli began at Zurich was continued by John Calvin at Geneva. As organizer and systematizer, Calvin 266 John ^^^^ ^^^ greatest of the reformers, and his influence was Calvin most widespread. Calvin was born at Noyon, in north- (1509-1564) T^ . ^f^f^r. 1 ^1 ern J^ ranee, ni 1509; he was thus a generation younger than Luther and Zwingli. He was prepared at French uni- versities for the profession of law, but determined to devote himself to a life of scholarship; then he fell under the in- fluence of French reformers, and in 1535 was forced to leave the kingdom. A year later (1536) Calvin happened to pass through the French-speaking city of Geneva, which had recently thrown 267. Calvin °^ *^^ control of its feudal lords and accepted the at Geneva Reformation ; and the urging of the Protestant leaders (1536-1564) -ITT. induced him to remain and take up the active duties of reformer in that turbulent little republic. With the exception SWISS REFORMATION 305 [)f two years of . exile, Geneva was thenceforth the scene of Calvin's labors nntil his death in 1564 ; and for a quarter of a 3entury he controlled completely its civil and ecclesiastical government. Two important features of his ecclesiastical system were: (1) the republican constitution of the church, by kvhicli control was vested in coun- nls called " synods " and " pres- 3yteries," instead of in bishops ind archbishops ; and (2) the rigid lu per vision exercised by the church )ver manners and morals, — the 'Puritan" ideas of worship and ife, indeed, come chiefly from Cal- rin and his predecessor, Zwingli. rhe greatest blot on Calvin's fame vas the burning, with his ap- John Calvin, )roval, of a brilliant but unbal- From an old print. meed writer named Servetus, on a charge of heresy and blas- )hemy. This act, though strongly condemned by modern >pinion, was in harmony with the views, both Catholic and i*rotestant, of that age. Under Calvin's leadership the Genevan Church became the Qodel for Protestant churches in many lands. His views 7ere embodied in a book called the Institutes of the Christian Religion, which became the leading theological work of the ,ge and profoundly influenced all subsequent Protestant hought. The reformation in France, the Netherlands, and Icotland was thoroughly Calvinistic, while in England and he English colonies in America, religious and even civil in- titutions were profoundly affected by his teachings. While Protestantism was becoming systematized under the Qfluence of Calvin, the Catholic Church began to reform he practical evils in its organization, and prepared to take BOG RENAISSANCE AND REFDRMATION the aggressive. The model for this reformation within the church was found in the reform movement carried out in Spain 268. The under Ferdinand and Isabella (§ 233). Under Pope Counter Adrian VI. (1522-1523) an attempt was made at finan- tion ' cial reforms in the Koman court, but this was defeated (1534-1563) |3y ii^Q shortness of Adrian's rule and the opposition of the officials whose interests were concerned. After the sack of Eome by the soldiers of Charles V., in 1527, the political activity of the papacy was diminished ; and under a series of reforming Popes — Paul III. (1534-1549), Paul IV. (1555- 1559), and their successors — a sincere effort was made to do away with the long accumulation of abuses. One of the chief agencies of this Counter Reformation was the Council of Trent, which first assembled in 1545, was adjourned for a time to Bologna (§ 256), and lasted (with an intermission of ten years) until 1563. It rejected private interpretation of the Scriptures, declaring that not the indi- vidual member of the faithful but the highest authorities in the church must determine the true meaning of the text ; affirmed the use and validity of ecclesiastical tradition in matters of belief, holding that all of the doctrines revealed b}^ Christ are not necessarily or explicitly set forth in the written word; and made the Vulgate (Latin) version of the Bible the standard in the church. In the matter of reform, the council increased the authority of the bishops over their clergy, and strengthened the whole ecclesiastical discipline; it emphasized the preaching function both of bishops and parish priests ; and it issued decrees requiring seminaries to be established in every diocese for the better education of candidates for the priesthood. The result of the council's labors was that the church could thenceforth appeal to a modern, clear, and authoritative presentation of its faith, -and was put in a position to present a united front to Protestantism. THE COUNTER UEFOllMATION 307 The most aggressive force in cliecking the revolt from Rome was the ( )rdei' of Jesus, poi)idai-ly called the " Jesuits/' founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491 ?-1556), a high-minded Spanish 11 11 r T^ 1 , 269. The nobleman, whose dreams oi military glory were cut short Jesuits by a wound which permanently lamed him, and who (1540) thenceforth turned his energy to the service of the church. His order was based on military as well as monastic models- the members were drilled and dis- ciplined in spiritual exercises, took the monastic vows of poverty and chastity, ' were bound to unques- tioning obedience to the Pope in missionary service, and renounced by vow all ecclesiastical dignities such as bishoprics. No special dress was prescribed, thus permit- ting disguise in hostile lands ; and room was found in the order for the exercise of the most varied talents. Its missionaries, chief of whom was Saint Francis Xavier, did heroic work in carrying Chris- tianity among the natives of America, and to the East Indies, Japan, and China. Preaching and educational work were also carried on in Europe ; and the centralized organization of the society, together with an elaborate system of reports to the general at its head, made its work extremely effective. " By the end of the century the tables had been completely turned. Zeal, devotion, learning, self-sacrifice, religious en- thusiasm, were now on the side of the church. Superior wukeman, in concentration, the church presented a united and Ascn>da»cy ' ^ of r r((itce,4,i effective front to her enemies, and was prepared when the opportunity should come to initiate a crusade by the help of the Jesuits against Protestantism in Europe, while a new Harding's m. & m. hist. — 18 Ignatitts Loyola. From a painting in Venice. 308 RENAISSANCE AND REFORM A lION world was being won for lier across the ocean bj their mis- sionary efforts." In France the reform movement began as an outgrowth of the Eenaissance, in the work of Jacques Lefevre, who taught 270 The independently some of the doctrines wdiich Luther Reforma- developed in Germany. It was affected little by the France teaching of Luther and much by that of Calvin. The (1515-1562) ]?rench king Francis I. (151o-1547) for a time showed toleration to the reformers, but in 1535 persecution began. Under Henry II. (1547-1559) ^ the French Protestants, or "Huguenots," drawn mainly from the middle and higher classes, are said to have numbered four hundred thousand persons, and possessed two thousand places of worship; unlike the lower classes in Germany, the lower classes in France remained intensely loyal to the Cathol»ic Church. Henry 11. for political reasons supported Maurice of Saxony and the German Protestants, in 1552, in their attack upon Charles V. (§ 256) ; his sympathies, however, were wholly with the Catholics. Peace with Spain, concluded in 1559, gave him the chance to turn his attention to rooting out the heretics ; but in the fgtes accompanying the Spanish treaty, he was accidentally killed while breaking a lance in a tournament in mediaeval fashion. The three weak sons of Henry II. then reigned one after another. A contest for the control of the government occurred, 1 Charles VIII. (§ 216) was succeeded, upon his death without children hv his father's second cousin, Louis XII. (1498-1515), the representative o nearest collateral line of the house of Valois. The death of Louis XII. i out children gave the throne to his cousin's son, Francis I., whose succe - were as follows : — (1) Francis I. (1515-1547) (2) Henry II. (1547-1559) m. Catherine de' Medici • \_ (3) Francis II. (4) Charles IX. (5) Henry III. Francis, Duke of A (1559-1560), (1560-1574) (1574-15S9) and Anion (d. 15 first husband of n^n/^-t^^^^ -vX/^^v%^^ Mary. Queen of Scots THE REFORMATION IN FRANCE 309 in which the jmrties were the upstart but able heads of the Catholic house of Guise, the queen mother Catherine cle' Medici, and the leading Protestant nobles, headed by Louis of Conde (a member of the Bourbon house) and Gaspard de Coligny. During the short reign of Francis 11. (1559-1560) the Guises were all-powerful, and Protestantism was rigor- ously repressed. An unsuccessful conspiracy to overthrow the Guises caused the Prince of Conde to be condemned to death ; but the sudden death of the young king saved him and brought the power of the Guises to an end. The new king, Charles IX. (1560-1574), was entirely ruled by his mother, Catherine de' Medici, who was jealous of the power of the Guises, and at first favored Conde and 271. First the Huguenots. In 1562 an edict was issued, allowing religious wars in the Protestants to assemble unarmed for worship, except France in walled towns. The Duke of Guise, however, soon (1562-1570) attacked a congregation of Huguenots peaceably assembled in a barn at Vassy, and this act of lawless violence inaugurated a period of religious warfare which lasted for thirty years, and was marked on both sides by treacheries and assassinations. Eight distinct wars are counted in this period, separated by formal treaties of peace — four in the reign of Charles IX., and four in the reign of Henry III. (1574-1589). In the first war, Duke Francis of Guise was murdered by a Protestant sympa- thizer, leaving his title and a burning desire for vengeance to his son Henry ; in the third, brave Conde fell. The exhaus- tion of both parties then led, in 1570, to the first real treaty of peace: the Protestants were assured of freedom of worship except at Paris, and were granted possession of four cities, including the strongly Protestant town of La Rochelle, as a pledge of the observance of the treaty. This was the begin- ning of a practice, later continued in the Edict of Nantes (§ 274), whereby the Huguenots became "a state within the state." 310 liENAlSSANCE AND KEFOKMATION After the close of the third war, Charles IX. threw off the inlliience of his mother, and came for a time under the as- 272. Massa- cendency of the high-minded Coligny, now the leader of BTrtho^lo ^^'^ irluguenot party. Catherine de' Medici plotted with mew (1572) the Guises for Coligny's murder, but the attempt failed, and in desperation she then played upon the fears and weak- ness of the king to procure the seizure and execution of Coligny and the other Huguenot leaders. Charles yielded at last, but demanded that not only the leaders but all Huguenots should be slain, in order that none might remain to reproach him witfi the deed. Large numbers of the Protestants had assembled to cele- brate the marriage of Conde's nephew, Henry of Navarre, with the sister of Charles IX. On the night of August 2o, 1572, (St. Bartholomew's eve), more than two thousand of them were slain, including Coligny himself; and the massacres in the provinces added at least twenty thousand more to tliis number. Personal enmities and opportunities for plunder Ranke, Civil were not forgotten by the fanatical mobs. "It was a Wars and combination of private vengeance and public condemna- Monarchy • „ ^ ^ • ^ ^ in France, tion," says the historian Kanke, " such as the world had ■■^''^ never seen since the days of Sulla's proscriptions." A renewal of the religious war followed immediately, and republican ideas begin to appear in Huguenot writings : against 273. More the monarchy which had wronged them they raised the war?°^^ idea of the sovereignty of the people. When Charles (1572-1589) IX. died, and was succeeded by his brother Henry III. (1 074-1589), a thoroughly evil man and one of the promoters of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, the Catholics themselves were divided. The extreme party, under the Duke of Guise, turned more and more to Philip II. of Spain, from whom came money, men, and leaders for the "Catholic League," which they formed; the more moderate party, called PoUtiqaes, wished to secure a permanent peace on the basis of toleration. THE REFORMATION IN FRANCE 311 The death of the king's sole remaining brother, in 1584, opened the succession to the Protestant Henry of Navarre head of the house of Bourbon, whose claims were stiongly opposed by the League, backed by Spain and the Pope. The eighth civil war (1585-1589) followed, called the " War of the Three Henrys " from its leaders, Henry of Guise, Henry III., and Henry of Navarre. In this struggle the Duke of Guise showed himself more king than Henry III. himself, and the latter caused him to be murdered, as he was entering the royal council chamber (1588). The Duke of Mayenne, Guise's younger brother, succeeded him as head of the League ; and Henry TIL, to escape a just vengeance, allied himself with Navarre. In August, 1589, while laying siege to rebellious Paris, Henry III. was himself assas- sinated by a fanatical monk. Henry of Navarre now be- came king of France ^ by the same hereditary right to which Henry IV. (From an old print.) His claim to the throne is shown by the following table : — Hugh Capet I (Seven generations) Louis IX. (Saint Louis, 1226-1270) Philip III. (1270-1285) Philip IV. (1285-1314), father of Louis X. (1314- 1316), Philip V. (1316- 1322), and Charles IV. (1822-1328), with whom the (1) direct Capetian line ends. Charles, Duke of Valois, ancestor of the (2) main Valois line, which beorins with Philip VI. (132S- 1350) and ends with Charles VIII. (1483- 1498); of (3) Louis XII. (1498-1515) ; and of the (4) line of Francis I. (see p. 308). Robert (married heiress of Bourbon), luici-stor of the (5) Bourbon line of kings, wliich ascciided the throne in Henry IV. (1589-1610) and continued to the French Revolution (1792). ai2 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION the Valois kings owed their succession, and against his bril- liant leadership the League struggled in vain. Spain, its ally, 274 Henry ^""'^^ crippled in 1588 by the defeat of its great Armada IV. ends gent against England (§ 282), and was able to lend little France assistance. By becoming a Catholic in 1593, Henry IV. (1589-1610) i-emoved the last obstacle to his acceptance by the French people. The religious question was settled for the time by the Edict of Nantes, issued in 1598, by which Huguenots were Beginning of the Edict of Nantes. given (1) equal political rights with Cath- olics, (2) a limited freedom of worship, (3) the possession of La Rochelle and other strong places as cities of refuge. The Edict of Nantes completed the pacifi- cation of France. With the aid of his min- ister the Duke of Sully, Henry IV. then restored the monarchical power, which had been seriously impaired in the religious wars, and carried out a series of reforms to improve the finances and promote prosperity. In foreign affairs he abandoned the policy which had made France a mere satellite of Spain, and directed his efforts toward weakening the overgrown power of the Hapsburg house. His rule was eminently wise, and he was the most popular king France ever had. Extreme Catho- lics, however, remained irreconcilable ; and in 1610, as his THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 313 carriage was passing through the streets of Paris, Henry was stabbed to death by a religious fanatic. A period of disorder followed, in which the Huguenots again took up arms ; but the struggle was now primarily political, and not religious. The English Reformation was largely the work of the Tudor dynasty, which ascended the throne at the close of the Wars of the Roses in 1485 (§ 217). Thirty years of intermit- tent civil war had greatly weakened the nobles, while the land under Commons desired nothing so much as peace and orderly Henry Vll. " and Henry government. Henry VII. (1485-1509), the first of the VIII. (1485- Tudor line, was thus enabled to make the crown almost ^^^'^^ despotic. His son, Henry VIII. (1509-1547), was educated in the atmosphere of the Renaissance, but turned his atten- tion as king to plans of foreign war. His alliance was eagerly sought by both Francis I. and Charles V., and his minister, Cardinal Wolsey, raised England to a position of importance among European nations. A book which Henry wrote against Luther led the Pope to give him the title (still borne by Eng- lish sovereigns) of " Defender of the Faith " ; but a few years later Henry embarked upon a course which ended by separa- ting England as a nation from the Roman Catholic Church. The English Reformation differs from that in Continental countries in two ways : (1) it was begun and its course con- trolled by the government, the people for the most part 276. Henry passively following ; (2) the church which resulted was "^^^^ ^^^ more of a compromise between the old and the new, its mation doctrine being Protestant, while its ritual and government (1529-1547) were largely Catholic. The ground for the Reformation in England had long been prepared. Resistance to the papacy was embodied in the Statutes of Provisors and Praemunire (§171), and the Labors of Wyclif a?nd the Renaissance movement combined to break the hold of the Catholic Church. The actual separation from Rome came from the desire of Henry VIII. to have his mar- 314 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION riage with Catherine of Aragon, with whom he had lived for eighteen years, declared void, in order that he might marry Anne Boleyn, with whom he was infatuated. When Pope Clement VII. refused to grant this, Henry procured the annul- ment from Cranmer, his Archbishop of Canterbury, and pro- claimed Anne queen, in defiance of the Pope. In November, 1534, the separation from Rome was made complete by an act of Parliament declaring the English king Adcmis and to be " the only supreme head in earth of the Church of Stephens, England " ; the authority which the Pope had exercised Documents, ^ ' ^, -.i.!,., no. 148 was divided between the king and the Archbishop of Canterbury. The monasteries were dissolved (looG and 1539), on the ground that they were hoi^elessly corrupt, and their property was given in large part to laymen. Two important results followed from this step: (1) the abbots were re- moved from the House of Lords, and the power of the ecclesiastical peers was reduced ; and (2) the nobles and gen- try who received grants of monastic land be- came zealous support- ers of the Reformation. While repudiating Armor of Henry VIII. the 277. Tyr- anny of Henry VI.II. nied In Tower of London. Belonjjjs to period of feudal decadence, when armor was largely for show, and tonrnaments were usually harmless spectacles. papal headship, Henry clung tena- ciously to Catho- lic doctrine, and put to death imi)artially those who de- his supremacy in the church and those who professed Protestant views. Sir Thomas More, one of the noblest char- THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 315 acters in English history, was sent to the block for refusing to acknowledge, in explicit terms, the king's supremacy. Henry was equally ready to punish other offenses against his arbitrary will. Cardinal Wolsey, who had been deprived of power be- cause of his inability to secure a papal annulment of the king's first marriage, escaped imprisonment in the Tower only by his timely death (1530). His successor, Thomas Cromwell, was beheaded for negotiating an unsatisfactory marriage for his royal master (1540). Henry was six times married, two of his queens being divorced, and two (including Anne Boleyn) exe- cuted for misconduct. He was a strong monarch, under whoin England prospered; but he was tyrannical and cruel, and it is estimated that seventy thousand persons — rebels, Protestants, and Roman Catholics — perished by his orders. Henry VIII. left one son and two daughters, each by a dif- ferent marriage (see genealogy, p. 317). His son, Edward VL, aged nine years, succeeded him. The government at ^^g ^^ first was carried on by the king's uncle, the Duke of ward VI. Somerset; but after a time he was overthrown and exe- cuted by his rival, the Duke of Northumberland. Somerset from conviction, and Northumberland from selfish motives, favored Protestantism ; and under Edward VI. the Reforma- tion was carried into the field of doctrine and ritual. Under the guidance of Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, a Book of Common Prayer in English was framed, the clergy were per- mitted to marry, and a Protestant creed was adopted ; to assist in this work, Protestant divines from the Continent were called into consultation. These changes went beyond the desires of the nation, and rebellions broke out, but were easily sui> pressed. The young king, from whose precocious intelligence much was expected, died at the age of fifteen. By hereditary right, and by a will left by Henry VIH., Edward's half-sister Mary, daughter of Catherine of Aragon, was next in succession. She was a Catholic, and Northumber- 316 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION land plotted to secure the succession for his son's wife, Lady Jane Grey, a Protestant girl of noble character, who was a granddaughter of Henry VIII.'s younger sister. The attempt failed, and Northumberland was executed; and ultimately the gentle Lady Jane and her young husband met the same fate. Queen Mary (1553-1558) came to the throne amid great rejoicing, but when she died five years later she was hated by 279. Catho- almost all her subjects. This was due not to the fact lie restora- that she restored the Catholic religion, — for the majority Queen Mary of the English people were willing to accept the old (1553-1658) worship, the old belief, and even the authority of the Pope, — but to her marriage with a foreigner, Philip II. of Spain, and to the rigid persecution of Protestants which she carried on. Her marriage proved unhappy, and her health was miserable ; her mind perhaps was affected from these causes : persecution appeared to her a sacred duty. Cranmer, Arch- bishop of Canterbury, was among the 277 Protestant martyrs. In foreign affairs Mary sided with Spain against France, and through delay in sending aid she allowed the French (in 1558) to take Calais — the last of the English possessions in France. A few months later her unhappy life ended, and her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn, came to the throne. The reign of Elizabeth (1558-1603), alike in its domestic legislation, its foreign policy, and its religious interest, was 280. Re- ^^^^ ^^ ^^® most important in English history. This was ligious set^ due in part to the ability of her councilors, especially tlement of -^ , ' j j Elizabeth Lord Burghley (or Burleigh) ; still more was it due to (1558-1603) i^er own character. She had her father's strength and imperious will, with her mother's vanity and fondness of dis- play ; but above all she was devoted to England's interest. Elizabeth was without strong religious feeling either way; she had conformed to the Catholic religion during Mary's reign, but when herself in power she repealed Mary's Cath- THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 317 Great Seal of Queen Elizabeth. • "Elizabeth by God's grace queen of England, France, and Ireland: Defender of the Faith." olic statutes, although she refused to restore unmodified her brother's legislation. The Book of Common Prayer and the Thirty-nine Articles issued by Elizabeth — both of which re- main still in force — were based on similar works of Ed- ward VI., but altered so as to give less offense to adherents of the old religion. She sought to include Catholics and Protestants in one national church, shaped by the royal will. In large measure her attempt was successful, though ex- tremists of both communions caused trouble. (1) Extreme Catholics claimed, on the ground of the nullity of Henry's mar- riage to Anne Boleyn, that the crown should go to Mary Queen of Scots,^ and plotted Elizabeth's overthrow. More than 175 iThe claims of Mary Queen of Scots, which she transmitted to the Stuart line, are shown in the following genealogy: — (1) Henry VII. (1485-1509) Margaret (m. James IV. of Scotland) James V. of Scotland i Mary Queen of Scots (4) Mar\ (6) James I. of England (1603-1625) (2) Henky VIII. (1509-1547) I Mary (grandmother of Lady Jane Grey) (3) Edward VI. (1547-1553) (son of Jane Seymour) 318 rp:naissance and reformation Catholic priests and laymen were put to death in her reign for refusing to conform to the new religion. (2) Protestant ex- tremists, called Puritans, were intensely h)yal, but were dissat- isfied that Elizabeth did not go further in religious change. Many of them had fled to the Continent during Mary's perse- cutions, and now returned filled with the ideas of Calvin and the Genevan Eeforination ; in spite of Elizabeth's attempts at repression, their number and importance increased greatly, until at the end of the reign they constituted a considerable party. In Scotland the Reformation was established, about 15G0, largely through the efforts of John Knox, a man of intense 231 Eliza- force and fearlessness and rigidly Calvinistic views. beth and Mary Queen of Scots, who succeeded to her father's Scotland throne (1542) when only a few days old, was educated (1560-1587) i^nider French influences, and became the bride of Francis II. She had no children in France, and upon her husband's death, in 1560, she returned to her native land. The Scots at this time were rude, ignorant, and backward in civilization ; while Mary was pleasure-loving, vivacious, and an ardent Catholic. Her second marriage, with her cousin Lord Darnley, proved unhappy, and within two years Darnley was murdered ; whether Mary was concerned in the deed ov not, she allowed herself in a few months to marry Bothwell, the chief author of the crime. A revolt followed, in which Mary was forced to abdicate, and her infant son by Darnley became King James VI. Less than a year later (in 1568) Mary escaped from captivity, fled to England, and threw herself upon the generosity of Elizabeth. The English queen could not forego the advantage which this step gave her against one who was a claimant of her throne, though she disliked to countenance rebellion. For nineteen years Mary was kept in honorable captivit}^ Plots were on foot with the purpose of dethroning Elizabeth through THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 319 the aid of a Spanish invasion, and setting Mary on the English throne; and the complicity of Mary in one of these, which English law made a capital offense, was at last proved. Eliza- beth reluctantly signed Mary's death warrant, and early in 1587 the Queen of Scots was beheaded. Bold sailors like Sir Francis Drake — the lirst of English- men to circumnavigate the globe — had long been preying upon Spanish commerce in the New World, when assist- £82 The ance sent the Dutch by Elizabeth in their revolt against Spanish Spain (§ 292) produced open war. The first expedition (1588) prepared by Philip II. to attack England was prevented from sailing by Drake's daring raid into Cadiz harbor, where he '^singed the king of Spain's beard" by destroying the ships and stores gathered there. The next year (1588) the Great Armada set sail ; it numbered nearly one hundred and fifty ships, about half of them large, while the English fleet, though greater in numbers, was composed of much smaller vessels. The fight occurred in the Channel and off the Netherlands, where the superior seamanship of the English, together with their greater daring, gave them the advantage ; and a tempest completed the work which they began. Out of Spain's vast Armada, only sixty-seven vessels returned home. This victory ended the danger of a Catholic restoration by Spanish arms. In many directions, Elizabeth's reign witnessed an outburst of English energy such as the world had never seen. In no line was this more true than in literature. The poet ^^^ Spenser, the philosopher Bacon, and the dramatists lish litera- Shakespeare, Marlowe, and Ben Jonson, with many others, made this the golden age of English letters. Such activity no doubt was the result of many causes, long in preparation; but one of these was certainly the freedom of thought and intellectual stimulus which came with the religious Reformation. 320 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION The Swiss Reformation, begun at Zurich by Zwingli (died 15.31), was continued at Geneva by Calvin (died 1564) ; it was 284. Sum- more radical than the German Reformation, producing °^^^y the Calvinistic theology, the Presbyterian mode of church government, and the Puritanic ideal of life ; and to Geneva, after Luther's death (1546), passed the Protestant headship which had belonged to Wittenberg. ^A Counter Reformation of the Catholic Church, meanwhile, was carried through by the Council of Trent (1545-1563) ; and resistance to Protestantism was organized in the Jesuit order, founded 'by Loyola in 1540. In Prance a reformation, affecting mainly the upper and middle classes, began with Lefevre about 1512. Political as well as religious causes produced the eight Huguenot wars (1560-1589), which ended with the accession of Henry IV., who renounced Protestantism (1593), and issued the Edict of Nantes (1598), granting to Huguenots political and religious equality with Catholics. In England Henry VIIL, to secure a divorce which the Pope refused, broke the ties which bound England to the papacy (1529-1534), but upheld Catholic doctrines. Edward VI. (1547-1553) introduced Protestant doctrines and worship; Mary (1553-1558) restored Catholicism ; and Elizabeth (1558- 1603) gave the English Church the modihed Protestant char- acter that it bears to-day. Scotland adopted Calvinistic Protestantism; and Mary, the Catholic Queen of Scots, de- posed and fleeing captivity at home, was put to death in England (1587) for plotting to obtain the English throne. The defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588) insured England against Catholic conquest. Of the other countries that had recognized the Pope, Scot- land, Denmark, and Sweden became Protestant; the Nether- lands and Germany were divided; Italy and Spain remained Catholic ; and Poland and Bohemia, after adopting Protestant- ism, were later won back to the Catholic Church. REFORMATION AND COUNTER REFORMATION 321 TOPICS (1) How did the fact that Germany was a confederation of Suggestive sovereign principalities, Switzerland a league of republican can- *^opics tons, and France and England centralized monarchies, affect the outcome of the Reformation in each ? (2) Why were the forest cantons of Switzerland more likely to remain Catholic ? (8) Who was to blame for the failure of the Swiss and German reformers to unite? (4) Compare Calvin's ideas of church government with those of Luther. (5) What Protestant churches of to-day are governed according to Calvin's plan ? (6) Why did the Council of Trent succeed in carrying through reform measures which had failed at Pisa, Constance, and Basel ? (7) Would the reforms of the Council of Trent have satisfied the reformers if enacted a cen- tury earlier ? (8) What advantages did the Jesuit order have over earlier religious orders? (9) How do you account for the number of assassinations in the religious wars of France ? (10) Was the English Church Catholic or Protestant at the death of Henry VIII. ? At the death of Edward VI. ? At the death of Mary ? At the death of Elizabeth ? (11) Mark on an outline map the extent of the territories which revolted from Rome. (12) Zwingli. (13) Calvin. (14) Servetus. (15) Council of Search Trent. (16) Loyola. (17) Coligny. (18) Henry of Navarre. ^^^^^^ (19) Henry VIII. of England. (20) Suppression of the English monasteries. (21) English Reformation under Edward VI. (22) Persecution under Queen Mary. (23) Elizabeth. (24) John Knox. (25) Mary Queen of Scots. (26) The Great Armada. authorities REFERENCES See maps, pp. 284, 285, 249 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 22, Geography 23; Freeman, Historical Geography, II. (Atlas), map 25; Poole, Historical Atlas, map viii. ; Dow, Atlas, xvii. xviii. Duruy, History of France, c^s. xliii.-xlvii. ; Besant, Gaspard de Secondary Coligny ; Seebohm, Era of the Protestant .BevohUion, pt. ii. ch. ii., pt. iii. chs. i. ii. iv. v. ; Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, chs. vi. ix. ; Wakeman, Ascendancy of France, chs. ii. iii. ; Walker, Beformation, chs. iv. vi. ix. ; Fisher, History of the Beformation, 136-156, 192-284, 316-384 ; Hausser, Period of the Beformation, chs. X. xiii. xviii. -xx. xxv.-xxix. xli. xlii. ; Historians' History of the World, XI. 351-427, XVI. 623-632, XIX. 54-468; Schaff, History of the Christian Church, VII. esp. 257-260, 489-523, and ch. xvi.; Hug and Stead, Switzerland, chs. xxii.-xxiv.; Jack- 822 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION Sources Illustrative works son, Zivingli ; Walker, Calvin ; Symoiids, Short History of the Benaissancc, ch. xiv. ; Ward, Counter Beformation^ chs. iii. iv. ; A\zo^,Church Historij, III. 37:^-885 ; Desmond, Mooted Questions of History, chs. xi.-xx. ; Ranke, History of the Popes, bk. ii. ; Hughes, Loyoin ; Baird, Bise of the Huguenots, I. 150-192, II. 420-500 ; Kitchin, France, bk. iii. pt. ii. chs. i.-vii., bk. iv. chs. i. ii. ; Ranke, Civil Wars and Monarchy in France, chs. vii. xii. xv. xxi.-xxiii. XXV. xxvi. XXX. ; Willert, Henry of Navarre ; Gardiner, Student's History of England, chs. xxiv.-xxx. ; Terry, History of England^ 528-(517 ; Ransome, Advanced History of England, 892-481 ; Green, History of the English People, II. bk. vi. ; Creighton, Age of Eliza- beth, — Queen Elizabeth ; Beesly, Queen Elizabeth. Robinson, Beadings, II. chs. xxvii. xxvili. ; Jackson, Selections from the Writings of Zwingli ; University of Pennsylvania, Trans- lations and Beprints, I. No. 1, III. No. 3 ; Sully, Memoirs (Bohn), bks. i. iii. iv. E. Breton. True Heart; Miss Manning, The Household of Sir Thomas More ; Scott, Kenilivorth ; Kingsley, Westward Ho ! ; G. P. R. James, Darnley, — The Huguenot; E. L. Floyer, Soldiers of the Cross; W. II. G. Kingston, Three Hundred Years Ago, — The Boyal Merchant; Major, When Knighthood Was in Flower; Prosper M^rim^e, A Chronicle of the Beign of Charles IX. ; Dumas, Marguerite ofValois; Stanley Weyman, The House of the Wolf, — A Gentleman of France^ — From the Memoirs of a Minister of France. ♦ CHAPTER XTX. THE UNITED NETHERLANDS AND THE THIRPV YEARS' WAR (10(38-1648) By the year 1568 the Eeformation had crystallized into permanent form. Luther and Melanchthon, Zwingli and Calvin, Charles V. and Loyola, had completed their ' ^ ^ *^ ^ 285. Char- work and passed away. Protestantism had developed acter of the its characteristic doctrines ; Catholicism had established period its Counter Reformation. A struggle for the mastery followed, of which the Huguenot wars of France were an important episode; but its chief centers were the Ketherlands and Ger- many. In the Netherlands, political and religious tyranny produced a revolt against Spanish rule, which was accom- panied in the northern provinces by a rejection of the Roman Catholic religion ; in Germany increased religious tension and schemes of political aggrandizement led to a war, lasting for nearly a generation, which involved practically all the nations of western Europe. The Netherlands, when they came into the hands of Charles V., were a group of seventeen distinct provinces loosely bound together. The northern were Dutch in 286. Condi- speech and race; the southern were Flemish and AVal- Nether- loon. The States-General, a federal legislature w^hich lands met from time to time, had little real power; everything rested with the separate provinces. The wealth and prosperity which had marked the Flemish cities in the Middle Ages now characterized the Netherlands as a whole. Their land was undisturbed by war ; their ports Harding's m, & m. hist. — 19 323 S24 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION SCALE OF MILES 10 40 50 Republic of the United Xetherlands, conimonlj called ilolland. Spanisl) Netlierlands (Austrian after 1714, with extent somewhat diminished.) The Hagrue/ ^ Brill t^^VT^g^ ■^J- The Netherlands, about 1650. were well situated for ocean commerce; capital accumulated rapidly. Far more than Spain itself, the Netherlands profited by the enormous influx of gold and silver from Mexico and Peru ; and from the Portuguese discovery of India they drew the greater share of commercial gains. Flemish and Dutch fleets were found on every sea. Antwerp, in the sixteenth THE UNITED NETHERLANDS 325 century, held the place that Bruges had held in the fourteenth, and often two hundred and fifty vessels lay at once at its docks ; its bankers succeeded to the financial leadership left vacant by the decline of the great banking houses of Florence and Augsburg. Every city of the Netherlands was noted for some branch of manufacture : as Lille for its woolen cloth, and Brussels for its tapestries and carpets. Well-watered meadows, protected by dikes from the encroaching sea, enabled the north- ern provinces to produce butter and cheese famous for their quality. Agriculture was improved by minute and patient cultivation ; and the fisheries flourished. Charles V. was himself Flemish born, and cherished the Netherlands more than any other part of his dominions; but he adopted measures of rigid repression when Protest- 287 Gov- antism crept in from Germany and France. In 1550 eminent of Charles V. he issued an edict threatening death "by pit, fire, or and Philip sword " to all heretics and their adherents. Many were ^^• ejfecuted, but there was no stirring of revolt ; for Protestantism as yet was not widespread, and there were no political griev- ances to swell the religious discontent. A change, however, came when Charles resigned the govern- ment to his son, Philip II. With Spanish obstinacy and bigotry, Philip throughout his reign (1556-1598) sought to put down heresy everywhere, — in France, in England, in Germany, as well as in his own dominions, — and to extend the Spanish power. He placed his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, over the Netherlands as regent ; and though her rule was wise and moderate compared with what came later, the edict of 1550 was put in force with greater severity, Spanish troops were kept in the land contrary to promise, and it was proposed, without consulting the States-General, to make an ecclesiastical reorganization which would increase the i)owcr of the crown and strengthen the Inquisition. Protestants and Catholics alike united in opposing this measure, and at 326 KENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION their head appeared one of the greatest statesmen produced by that age. William of Orange-Xassau was born a Lutheran and a Germau ; but upon succeeding at the age of eleven to the principality of Orange (in southern France) and the pos- liamof sessions of his family in the Netherlands, he was Orange educated as a Catholic. He won his surname, "the Silent," from the skill with which he masked his indignation when the French king (in 1559) began to speak to him, as to one fully informed, of an agree- ment made with Philip II. for rooting out heresy in the Netherlands. "From that hour,^' wrote William twenty years later, " I resolved with my whole soul to do my best to drive this Spanish vermin from the land." At first the opposition to Philip's measures was entirely constitutional. AVith William of Orange were associated Eg- mont, Horn, and other nobles. Philip was obliged to promise a redress of some grievances, but accompanied this with a secret protest before a notary that he should not feel bound by his promise. The opposition became more widespread, and the name "The Beggars" was adopted, from a slighting remark of one of Philip's ministers. Popular riots broke out in which hundreds of churches were stripped of their rich images and shrines, and irreparable damage was done to art treasures. These excesses were doubly unfortunate, for they checked the patriotic enthusiasm of the Catholics, and also offended the Lutherans, who threw the blame upon Puritanic Calvinists. In 1567 Philip sent to the Netherlands as governor the Duke William the Silent. From an old print. THE UNITED NETHERLANDS 327 of Alva, a stern, narrow-iniuded bigot. William of Orange withdrew for a time to Germany; bnt Egmont and Horn trusted to Philip's promises of amnesty, and remained. 289. Alva's Both were immediately seized by Alva, and were exe- tyranny ciited on a charge of treason (1568). A tribunal popularly volt (1568) known as the " Council of Blood " was appointed to hunt down all persons suspected of heresy or participation in the late dis- orders: "From a judicial point of view the proceedings were a mere farce. Whole batches of the accused were condeinned together offhand; and from one end of the Netherlands Cambridge to the other the executioners were busy with stake Modem sword, and gibbet, until the whole land ran red with ill- '-'17 blood." Many emigrated, of whom sixty thousand sought ref- uge in England and more in Germany, to the profit of both lands from their industrial skill. The climax of tyranny was reached when Alva imposed a tax of ten per cent on all sales of goods — a measure which caused shops to close and trade to come to a standstill. Armed resistance began in 1568. In 1572 Brill, at the mouth of the river Meuse, was seized by a body of freebooters called " Beggars of the Sea " ; and with this event was 290. War laid the foundation of the Free Netherlands. Town after °^ ^^®[^*^- tow^n thereafter rose in revolt, the resistance centering (1568-1578; especially in the provinces of Holland and Zealand, where William of Orange was strongest. Among the novelties of the war was the use of skates in winter attacks and maneuvers. Places retaken by the Spaniards, such as Mechlin and Haar- lem, were treated with ferocious cruelty ; but this only nerved the Netherlanders to greater efforts. The complaints against Alva, and his failure to end the war, led to his recall in 1573. His successors carried on the war with greater moderation, but with no greater success. In 1574 the Spaniards laid siege to Leyden, situated on low ground, six miles from the sea : to raise the siege, the district was flooded 328 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION Amsterdam Gate, Haarlem. Built in medifBval times : restored in 1600. by cutting the dikes, a gale swelled the tide, and Dutch barges loaded with men and supplies relieved the town. In 1576 the Sjanish troops mutinied at Antwerp, because of the lack of pay, and sacked the city with savage cruelty : " Not Cambridge in all the cruel and bloodstained annals of the iNether- Moclern j^^^^^ troubles are any pacres to be found more filled with History, j i n III., 246 horrors than those which tell the story of the ' Spanish Fury ' at Antwerp." This outrage led the southern provinces, which had remained Catholic, to unite with the Calvinist provinces of the north, under an instrument called the Paci- fication of Ghent. By its terms the Spaniards were to be expelled and William of Orange accepted as " stadtholder " (or lieutenant governor) under the nominal sovereignty of Philip II. ; the religious difficulty was postponed. Under a new regent, Duke Alexander of Parma (1578-1592), 291. North- a policy of sowing distrust between the northern and the ern prov- . n ,, . i inces gain southern provinces was successfully carried on, and a mdepend- permanent division of the Netherlands on racial and ence (1578-1584) religious lines was the result. The ten southern prov- inces (now Belgium) were restored to Catholicism aud to THE UNITED NETHERLANDS 32D Spain; and the seven northern provinces then nnited in the Union of Utrecht (1579). Finally, on July 26, 1581, a formal declaration of independence was issued, and the United Neth- erlands (now Holland, or the Netherlands), under AVilliam of Orange, emerged as a separate nation. This is said to be " the first great example of a whole people officially renouncing allegiance to their hereditary and consecrated monarch"; it was by two generations in advance of the English Common- wealth (§ 348), and by two centuries in advance of the American and French republics. In 1580 Philip put a price on William's head ; and in 1584 an assassin, animated by religious fanaticism no less than by hope of reward for his family, shot and mortally wounded him. As the struggle with Spain developed, William had thrown off Catholicism and accepted Calvinism. "Through- out he acted as politician, not as theologian. He was a diplomatist, not a reformer ; a statesman, not a preacher ; Harrison a man of the world, not a saint. As he passed into William the middle life and the terrific struggle which absorbed and killed him, he grew to a deeper conscience and a more spiritual temper." His place, like that of Washington, is firmly fixed among the creators of nations. After William's death, Jan van Olden Barneveldt, as advocate-general of Holland, largely directed the policy of the United Netherlands. William's son, Maurice, was ^gg ^^^^^ appointed stadtholder, and displayed remarkable military of thestrug- capacity in the field; but he was unable to prevent the ^ Nether^ capture of Antwerp and other places by the Duke of lamis Parma. Henry III. of France and Elizabeth of England ^ ' ^ each refused the proffered sovereignty of the United Provinces, though Elizabeth, after long delay, sent troops to their assistance. The reconquest of the Netherlands was hindered by Philip's alliance with the League in France (§ 273), as well as by his war with England (§ 282). His successor, Philip HI. (1598-1021). 330 RENAISSANCE AND REFOliMATION carried on the war in the Netherlands until 1609, when a truce for twelve years was agreed to. Dissensions now arose be- tween Maurice, who aspired to hereditary sovereignty in Hol- land and sided with the Calvinists in religious quarrels, and Barneveldt, who was leader of the aristocratic republicans and championed what was known as the Arminian cause in religion (§ 339). A synod held at Dort condemned the Arminians, and unjustly and illegally sentenced Barneveldt to death — a sentence which his eneui}', INIaurice, at once carried out. In sj^ite of these political and religious quarrels, the Dutch finally triumphed; for before the truce of 1609 expired, the Thirty Years' War began in Germany, and they no longer stood alone. The independence of the seven United Provinces was formally recognized by Spain in 1648, just before the Peace of West- phalia. The causes of the great German civil war, which lasted thirty years, from 1618 to 1648, lay in (1) the increased strength 293. Causes of Catholicism due to the Counter Reformation, and (2) the Y ^^^^W*^ opi)ortunities for dispute left by the religious peace of (1618-1648) Augsburg (§ 257). Interpreting strictly the terms of the treaty, ecclesiastical princes banished Protestants from Bam- berg, from Paderborn, and from the three great Rhenish elec- torates — Mainz, Cologne, and Treves; and the example thus set was followed in the Hapsburg lands (Styria and Austria), and in Bavaria. The treaty, moreover, did not provide toleration for Calvinism, and at the beginning of the seventeenth century the Calvinists of the upper Rhineland found their worship in danger of forcible suppression. The Lutheran rulers of Xorth Germany, in turn, were threatened with a demand for the res- titution of Catholic church lands seized since 1552. In these circumstances the forcible extinction of Protestantism in a free city on the Danube (Donau worth) led to the organization, in 1608, of the Protestant Union under Frederick, Elector Pala- tine of the Rhine, a rash, ambitious Calvinist; and the next THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-1048) 331 year a Catholic League was formed, under Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria — one of the richest and ablest princes of Germany. For ten years the impending struggle was averted; when it finally came, it manifested itself in four successive phases, each of wJiich was practically a separate war: (1) the Bo- hemian-Palatinate phase (1618-1623) ; (2) the Danish phase (1625-1629); (3) the Swedish phase (1630-1635); (4) the Swedish-French phase (1635-1648). (I.) The first phase of the war began with a rebellion of Protestant nobles in Bohemia. The teachings of Huss (§ 228) had prepared , ^ ^ 294. Bo- the way for the hemian- Palatinate phase of the war (1618-1623) Reformation there, and nine tenths of the inhabitants became opponents of Rome; in 1609 the Emperor Rudolph II. (grand- son of Ferdinand I.) was forced to grant toleration by a royal charter. In 1617 Rudolph's successor, Matthias, surprised the Bohemian Diet into an agreement by which that kingdom, together with Austria and Hungary, was to pass to his cousin Ferdiuaiul of Styria, a rigid Catholic. Repentance followed swift upon ct)nsent ; and in May, 1618, a party of Protestant nobles at Prague flung Beginning of the Thirty Years' War. Throwing- the king's regents out of the windows at Prague. 332 RENAISSANCE AND KEFORMATION Ferdinand's regents from the lofty windows of the council chamber, both marvelously escaping with their lives. The authors of this rebellion showed little of the heroism which marked the Dutch in their struggle ; they were only a faction, fighting for license and for power under the sacred names of liberty, patriotism, and religion, and from the first they showed an unwillingness to tax themselves to pay the costs of war. In August, Ferdinand was declared by the Bohemians de- posed from their throne, and it was offered to Frederick, the Elector Palatine, with the hope that he would bring to the struggle not only the resources of the Palatinate, but also those of England, since he was son-in-law to King James I. (1603-1625). This expectation was disappointed, for James's assistance was confined to ineffectual negotiations. Ten days after Frederick's election his rival, through dissensions between Calvinist and Lutheran electors, was chosen Emperor as Ferdi- nand II. (1619-1637). With the assistance of Maximilian of Bavaria and the king of Spain, Ferdinand carried on a vigorous warfare against his 295. Fail- rival, while the German Lutherans remained neutral. In ure of November, 1620, Frederick was defeated near Prague by Bohemian revolution Maximilian's general, Tilly, and was driven from Bo- (1620) hemia; the prophecy of the Jesuits that he would prove only a "winter king" was thus fulfilled. The Palatinate, meanwhile, was overrun by the Spaniards. In Bohemia the leaders of the revolt were executed, their lands confiscated, and Protestantism relentlessly rooted out ; thus one more land was permanently added to those won back to Catholicism by the Counter Reformation. Maximilian of Bavaria was the person to whom the success achieved was chiefly due ; his army won the victories, his head directed the policy, his purse paid the soldiers : and in 1623 he received his reward in the transfer to him of Frederick's vote in the electoral college (§ 211), together with a part of THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1(518-1048) 33; Frederick's dominions. The first period of the war dosed with the Catholics completely triumphant. (II.) The tenacity with which Frederick clung to his chiims. and the jealousies aroused by the successes of Ferdinand and the League, led to the continuance of the war. Non- 296. Danish German Protestant powers now began to play a leadin^'- P^^aseofthe part. In 1625 Christian IV. of Denmark agreed, on the (1625-1629) promise of money aid from England, to take the field at the head of the Protestant forces, although the Lutheran Electors of Saxony and Brandenburg continued neutral. Ferdinand now accepted the offer of a Bohemian nobleman named Wallenstein (Waldstein), to raise a force of 20,000 men to be supported by a series of requisi- tions on the German states. Wallen- stein was not merely a great general, but a statesman as well ; he wished to shut out foreign interference, centralize power in the Emperor, and grant tol- eration to all creeds. Adventurers from all quarters flocked to Wallenstein's standard, and within a few months he had at his command, not 20,000 but 50,000 troops. The armies of the Thirty Years' War, like those of the Middle Ages, were without uniforms; to distinguish friends from foes, bands of white or red cloth were worn on the arm, hat, or cap. Soldiers often took their women and children with them on the march, and at times an army of 40,000 fighting men drew along with it a motley host of 140,000 camp followers. Troops and followers often appeared like hordes of beggars or fam.ishing vagrants; but after the sack of a city or a successful marauding expedition, Musketeer of Thirty Years' War. Showing gun rest in right hand, and hurning "match," with which to fire the charge, in left. 334 RENAISSANCE AND REEORMATION they adorned themselves with hne fabrics and golvl and silver ornaments. Against the armies of Tilly and Wallenstein the Danish king could do little, especially as Charles 1., the new king of England (1625-1649), found himself unable, owing to quarrels with his Parliament, to carry out his father's prom- ise. Northern Germany was overrun; but Stralsund, on the Baltic Sea, successfully withstood ^Vallenstein's attack. The war was then carried into Denmark itself, and in 1629 Christian IV. was glad to sign a treaty leaving to him his hereditary territories, on condition that he withdraw from the German contest. The withdrawal of Denmark was followed by two events which profoundly influenced the subsequent course of the war. (1) In March, 1629, Ferdinand issued an Edict of Resti- of Restitu- tution, enforcing the strict Catholic interpretation of the tion. and peace of Augsburg: all ecclesiastical property seized by Wallen- Protestants since 1552 was to be surrendered, and tolera- stein tion was limited to Lutherans. This edict menaced (1629-1630) rights enjoyed for from fifty to eighty years, and aroused to resistance even the lethargic John George of Saxony and the Elector of Brandenburg. (2) The Catholic princes had long been restive under Wallenstein's policy, and in July, 1630, they forced the Emperor to dismiss him. This step was taken at a time when King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, the greatest military genius of the age, had already landed on Ger- man shores to champion the Protestant cause. (III.) From 1397 until the time of the Reformation, Den- mark, !N'orway, and Sweden were united in the Union of Cal- 298. Swe- mar. Under the house of Vasa, Sweden revolted (1523), Gustavus established its independence, and adopted the Lutheran Adolphus Reformation. When Gustavus Adolphus became king (in 1611), he inherited three foreign wars: (1) with Denmark, which held the southern part of Sweden and controlled the THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1(318-1048) 385 entrance to the Baltic Sea ; (2) with Russia, which, under the newly arisen house of Romanoff, was beginning to threaten Swedish dominance in the Baltic; (3) with King Sigis- mund of Poland, who claimed the throne of Sweden. From all three wars Gustavus issued victorious and with substan- tial gains ; but when imperial forces were established near Stralsund, he found his Bal- tic supremacy threatened from a new source. Motives of political interest, therefore, Gustavus Adolphus. as well as a sincere desire to aid his fellow Protestants, im- pelled him to intervene in German affairs. Gustavus landed on the coast of Pomerania in July, 1630. Catholic France, under her great minister Richelieu, was eager to humble the Hapsburg power, and agreed to furnish 299. Swed- money to pay his troops. The vacillating Elector of ^^^^the^war Brandenburg was forced into alliance by the appearance (1630-1635) of the Swedish army before Berlin ; and John George of Sax- ony was forced from his neutrality by Ferdinand's senseless demand that he dismiss his troops or else oppose Gustavus in the field: when compelled to choose, he chose the Protestant side. The city of Magdeburg meantime fell into the hands of Tilly's soldiers and was sacked and burned : soldiers and citizens, men and women, old and young, were merci- lessly butchered; even in that time the deed caused a thrill of horror. At Breitenfeld, near Leipzig, Gusta- Battle of Breiten- , ^ ^._ • FELD. vus in September, 1631, won an ovei^ Ij • " "'■ \ _!^^^^v^^y^^« Seehauseni'" Breitenfeld V^:._ m^n^/I, . •; --' \ Mr ■"" 336 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION whelming victory over Tilly. With all North Germany at his feet, Gustavus then advanced to the relief of the Protestants of the center and south, his route (p. 339) lying along the " Priests' Lane," as the row of bishoprics of the Main and Rhine valleys was called. In the spring of 1632 he entered Bavaria, after a skirmish in which Tilly was mortally wounded ; and Munich, Maximilian's capital, was occupied. The Saxons, meanwhile, overran Bohemia. The one resource left to the Emperor, short of submission, was to recall Wallenstein, who made his own terms : the Edict of Restitution was to be with- drawn, and Wallenstein was to be practically the military and political dictator of Germany. Within a few months Wallenstein was again at the head of an army, and the Saxons were driven headlong out of l^ohemia. At Nuremberg Gustavus vainly endeavored to entice 300. Gus- tavus's l^ii^^ iiito battle, and at length the Swedish king retired ?fcoox northward. At Llitzen Gustavus succeeded in trapping (1632) Wallenstein into fighting. The battle was mainly a hand-to-hand conflict, in which the superior discipline of the Swedes won the day ; but the victory was at the cost of the life of their king, who fell, riddled with balls, while leading a charge of cavalry (November 16, 1632). Gustavus was the greatest general of his time; he was the first of modern commanders to supply his army from a fixed base, instead of subsisting upon the country ; and the strict discipline of his troops was in marked contrast to the lawless violence of the imperial forces. His death was an irreparable loss, not merely to his country, but to the Prot- estant cause ; for he was the one man who could unite Ger- man Protestants and successfully withstand the ambitions of France and the fanaticism of the Emperor Ferdinand. When he fell, "all moral and religious ideal died out of the Thirty Years' War." Wallenstein now sought to impose a peace upon Emperor, THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1018-1648) 387 Swedes, and Saxons alike. How far his designs extended, and whether he was actually guilty of treason, it is diffi- cult to say: at all events, the jealousy of Ferdinand was aroused, and a proclamation was issued deposing him sinationof from his command and setting a price upon his head. . -^n^ao^' Wallenstem counted upon the devotion of his army; but at Eger he was murdered by four of his own officers (February, 1634). In the same year the imperialists won a decisive victory at Nordlingen, which insured that southern Germany should remain Catholic. In the next year (May, 1635) the Elector of Saxony concluded with the Emperor the peace of Prague, which settled satisfactorily' the question of church lands, but failed to provide toleration for Calvinists; this failure, and the ambitious designs of France and Sweden, protracted the war for more than a decade longer. (IV.) In 1635 France declared war against Spain, and began a policy of more active intervention. Thenceforth the charac- ter of the struggle was profoundly changed ; religion 3Q2 swed- played less part, and politics more and more. The ish-French . „ • n ' phase of the struggle now consists of a series of separate wars, cen- ^j^r tering in the great contest between the Bourbon house (1635-1648) of France and the Hapsburg houses of Spain and Austria. The theater of the war was Germany, Italy, the Netherlands ; its objects, the humiliation of the Hapsburgs, and the exten- sion of France to the northeast. Under the guidance of her great ministers, E-ichelieu and (after his death in 1642) Mazarin, France more and more gained the ascendency, through her generals Turenne and Conde. The power of Spain was broken; Germany was rendered desolate. After five years of tedious negotiations, with interminable disputes about questions of etiquette, peace Avas signed 303. Peace at Mlinster, in Westphalia, in 1648. The peace of Augs- ° pj^^f-^ burg, with its principle cujus regio, ejus religio (§ 257), (1648) was confirmed, and extended so as to include Calvinists as well 388 RENAISSANCE AND HEF^ORiMATION as Lutherans; and Catholics and Protestants were to share alike in the administration of the empire. The church lands were to remain as they were in the year 1G24, thereby secur- ing to Protestantism the secularized lands of the north, while leaving to Catholicism the victories gained by the Counter Keformation in Austria, Bohemia, and Pavaria. More difficult of settlement were tlie political questions. Maximilian of Bavaria was allowed to retain his electorate and his annexations from the Palatinate; but the heir of the un- fortunate Frederick was given a new vote in the electoral college (the eighth), together with the remnant of his father's dominions. Sweden received as imperial fiefs extensive ter- ritories on the German coasts of the Baltic and North seas. France obtained Alsace, and was confirmed in practically sovereign possession of Metz, Toul, and Verdun (§ 256). Saxony, Brandenburg, and other German states received com- pensations. Finally, the United Netherlands (Holland) and the Swiss Confederation were recognized as completely inde- pendent of the empire. Pope Innocent X. refused to sanction the treaties, and pro- nounced null and void the concessions to Protestants ; but his protests went unheeded, and from this time papal influence in international politics of Europe practically ceases. The im- portance of the peace of Westphalia was very great, for it marked the close of one epoch and the opening of another. The long series of religious wars growing out of the Reforma- tion was now at an end ; there begins a new period of inter- national rivalry and war, marked by the ascendency of France. Seldom has warfare wrought more suffering and desolation than did the Thirty Years' War. From its effects Germany 304. Condi- did not recover for two centuries. The population, tion of Ger- ^j^-^j^ -^^ ^^^^ numbered between twentv and thirty many in c ^ 1648 millions, sank to about one half; Augsburg ' fell from 80,000 to 18,000, Berlin from 25,000 to 6000. Commerce and 339 340 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION industry were annihilated. The Hanseatic League, already declining, was broken up, and the , separate towns (except Liibeck, Hamburg, and Bremen) passed under the rule of neighboring princes. " How miserable are the cities," writes a contemporary ; " how wretched the smaller towns and Quellen- open country ! They lie, burned, ruined, destroyed, with buck, no. no j-^^-^j-^g^. ^.^^f^ rafters, doors, or windows to be seen. How has it fared with the churches ? They have been burned, or converted into stables for horses or booths for sutlers' stores ; their altars have been plundered and their bells carried off. God, how lamentable are the villages ! One may wander for ten miles and see not a huiuan beiug, not an ox, not a sparrow." The introduction about this time of the potato from America, as a chief article of food in Germany, did something to check the terrible decline of population. The political condition of the empire was equally discour- aging. In form there was still an Emperor, imperial Diet, and imperial court of justice; in fact, everything rested with the separate states, of which (including the free cities) there were several hundred. They made their own laws, coined money, maintained armies, sent representatives to other courts, and could form foreign alliances, except against the empire or Emperor. All sense of patriotism in Germany was stifled. France was now the center of fashion in literature, art, dress, and court etiquette ; and each petty German princeling aped the court of Versailles. By a separate treaty, in 1648, Spain acknowledged the independence of the United IS'etherlands (Holland) ; but she 305 The I'^fused to give her assent to other provisions of the decline of peace of Westphalia, and for eleven years longer the Franco-Spanish war dragged on, until ended by the peace of the Pyrenees in 1659. Spain's position in the middle of the seventeenth century was much lower than it had been at the beginning of the sixteenth. The German Hapsburg lands, THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1018-1G48) 341 with the imperial office, were now in the hands of the younger branch of the family (§ 258) ; the Dutch Netherlands had suc- cessfully revolted; and Portugal, which in 1581 had been made a Spanish province, regained its independence under the house of Braganza in 1640. These external losses were accompanied by internal decay, the result of inany causes. The constant wars in which the ambitious plans of Charles V. and Philip II. involved Spain weakened her resources in men and in money. The Inquisi- tion, which stamped out with relentless intolerance all oppo- sition to church or crown, undermined freedom of thought and of initiative. The expulsion of the Christian descend- ants of the Moors (called " Moriscoes "), in 1609, reduced the population by hundreds of thousands ; from twenty millions under Moorish rule, the population of Spain declined in the sixteenth century to six millions. The flood of gold and silver brought in from the new world proved as much of a curse as a blessing. With slavery, it bred a contempt for honest labor, and produced a false system of political economy — the " mer- cantile " system — under which the efforts of government were directed chiefly to increasing the stock of precious metals, instead of fostering trade and industry. The Spanish char- acter, with its intolerance, pride, and southern indolence, con- tributed to the decline. Finally, after the death of Philip IL, its kings were mere figureheads, and its ministers incompetent favorites. Under Charles V. Spain was the first state of Europe, and her might overshadowed the world; a hundred years later she had declined to a third-rate power. The period of Spain's political decline was nevertheless an epoch of great literary and artistic excellence. Cervantes (died 1616) wrote his inimitable satire on chivalry, Don Quixote; and Lope de Vega (died 1635) and Calderon (died 1681) founded the Spanish drama. In painting, Velasquez (died 1660) and Murillo (died 1682) created a Spanish school Harding's m. & m. hist. — 20 342 RENAISSANCE AND REEORMATION of art whose works rank in excellence with the best produc- tions of Italy and the Netherlands. The fall of Henry IV. of France by the assassin's dagger (§ 274) was followed by fifteen years of anarchy and disorder. 306. France Henry's son, Louis XIII. (1610-1643), was but nine years under Louis ^^d^ ^^^^ ^^le regency passed into the hands of the queen (1610-1643) mother, Marie de' Medici, a vain, weak, selfish woman. The policies of Henry IV. were abandoned ; his minister, Sully, retired to private life; the great nobles resumed their places in the government, and favorite succeeded favorite. In 1614 the Estates-General w^ere called together, for the last time, as it proved, until 1789 ; but selfishness pervaded their sessions, and no relief followed. To add to the disorder, the Hugue- nots rose in rebellion, with the hope of enlarging their political semi-independence. Only two persons seemed to place the interests of France above those of self and party : these were the slow, tenacious king, Louis XIII., and a young bishop called Richelieu — at first the protege of the queen mother, soon to become chief minister of France. Eichelieu was the youngest child of a good family of Poitou. He was educated for the army, but entered the clergy and 307. Riche- secured a bishopric, through the king's favor to his mlnis^ter^^ family, at the age of twenty-two. From the first he (1626) devoted himself to securing political advancement. He was a member of the Estates-General of 1614, and as speaker for the clergy attracted public attention. In the struggle of French parties, he attached himself to the queen mother ; and in 1622 her efforts secured for him from the Pope the title of cardinal. Four years later he was admitted to the council of state ; and within a few months, by the ascendency of his spirit, he acquired a control over the administration and over the king which was to last until his death in 1642. When Richelieu entered the royal service, as he once told Louis XIIL, " the Huguenots divided the state with you, the THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-1648) 343 KlCHKLIEU. nobles conducted themselves as though they were not subjects, and the most powerful governors of provinces as if they were sovereign in their charges. I may add that foreign alliances were disdained. I promised your Majesty to employ all my efforts and all the authority which it might please you to give me, (1) to ruin the Hugue- not party, (2) to lay low the pride of the nobility, and (3) to raise your renown among for- eign nations to the point at which it ought to be." What Eichelieu planned he achieved. In 1625 a new re- volt of the Huguenots broke out, and after three years' struggle La Eochelle, the chief of their towns, was taken. The practice of granting them fortified towns as places of refuge was then abandoned ; and although freedom of worship and civil liberty were left them, they were no longer to hold the position of a state within the state. The struggle with the turbulent nobility was of longer duration, but was no less successful, since he even put an end for a time to the practice of dueling, by which in eighteen ^^^ ^^^^^ years four thousand persons are said to have lost their lieu's , supremacy lives. Until 1638, Louis's brother Gaston was heir pre- ^^^j. ^^^ sumptive to the throne, and with the aid of the queen "^^^^^^ (Anne of Austria), the queen mother, some of the great nobles, and the Spaniards, he again and again rebelled and strove to overthrow Richelieu. Once (in 1630) Louis yielded for a moment to the outcry and dismissed Richelieu ; but after a few hours of this so-called ^'Day of Dupes," his good sense and patriotism reasserted themselves. " Continue to serve me 344 RENAISSANCE AND KEFOKMATION as you have done," said he, in restoring his minister, " and I will maintain you against all who have sworn your ruin." Thenceforth, to the day of his death, there was no time when Richelieu's power was seriously endangered. Revolt and intrigue did not cease, but they injured only their authors: five dukes, four counts, and a marshal of France perished from this cause on the scaffold. The subjection of the nobility to the crown — for the time, at any rate — was complete. The destruction of feudal fortresses not needed for national defense, and the introduction of royal officers called inteiidants as a check upon the governors of provinces, helped to make permanent the political abasement of the nobility. In internal affairs, Kichelieu's efforts were bent to two special objects — the establishment of a civil service directly under control of the crown, and the organization of the army on a professional basis. E-ichelieu's promise to raise the renown of France abroad was also fulfilled. The crowning principle of his foreign ««« ^. , policy was resistance to the Hai)sburg houses of Austria 309. Eiche- ^ ^ lieu's for- and Spain, in order that France might expand to the eign policy jjj^j^g ^^f ancient Gaul. To this end he concluded alli- ances with Protestant states (England, Sweden, and the Netherlands) as readil}^ as with Catholic Venice and Savoy. To cut off land communication between the Spanish Haps- burgs in northern Italy and their Austrian brethren, he used all his arts of diplomacy and war; and when the interests of France demanded it, he did not hesitate openly to take the Protestant side in the Thirty Years' War (§ 302). It is not too much to say that Richelieu gave to France national unity, "secured for her religious peace, strengthened the monarchy, and "raised it to the first position among the powers of Europe. The weakness of his policy was that he cared too much for the state, too little for the people ; hence gross abuses in the finances and internal administration were THE TIIIKTY YEARS' WAR (I(n8-l(i48) 845 allowed to remain unchecked, and beneath the glamour of a brilliant court and military glory was the misery of a suffer- ing nation. The hundred years from the middle of the sixteenth cen- tury to the middle of the seventeenth saw many important changes in Europe. Spain sank from the first place, 310. sum- and France" under Richelieu rose to that rank. The °^^^y Dutch Netherlands secured their religious and political free- dom, and formed a federal republic which offered precedents in government to England and America. The Thirty Years' War — the last and most lamentable of the religious wars — was begun in the Bohemian revolution (1618) and was ended by the peace of Westphalia (1648), which confirmed the principles of the peace of Augsburg (1555), and admitted Calvinists to an equal footing with Lutherans. The struggle for religious mastery comes to an end with the balance of gain on the side of the Catholics ; and religious toleration thence- forth slowly makes its way as the only practical solution of the difficulty. TOPICS (1) Was the revolt of the Netherlands more due to political or to Suggestive religious causes ? (2) To what were due the divisions which arose *°P^^^ between the northern and the southern provinces? (3) To what was due the final success of the United Netherlands? (4) Were the causes of the Thirty Years' War more religious or political ? (5) Why did not the Lutherans aid the Elector Palatine in the Bohemian-Palatinate phase of the war? (6) What finally led to union of the Protestants? (7) Which side was responsible for the continuance of the war after the downfall of the Elector Palatine ? (8) How did the armies in the Thirty Years' War differ from those of to-day ? (9) Was the Edict of Restitution wise or unwise ? Why? (10) Was Gustavus Adolphus animated more by religious or by political policy in entering the war? (11) What effect did the war have upon the position of the Protestants in Germany ? Upon the political constitution of the empire? (12) Was the Thirty Years' War a necessary or an unnecessary war? (13) To 346 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION Search topics what was due the rise in importance of France in this period? (14) How could Richelieu reconcile his policy of alliance with the German Protestants with his position as cardinal ? (15) Character of Philip II. (1(5) Causes of the revolt of the Netherlands. (17) William of Orange. (18) " Spanish Fury " of 1570. (19) Barneveldt. (20) Causes of the Thirty Years' War. (21) Wallenstein. (22) Gustavus Adolphus. (28) The sack of Magdeburg. (24) The armies of the Thirty Years' War. (25) France and the Thirty Years' War. (26) Peace of West- phalia, with the negotiations leading to it. (27) Richelieu's pri- vate life and character. REFERENCES Geography Secondary authorities Sources Illustrative works See maps, pp. 252, 284, 324, 339 ; Putzger, Atlas, map 22 ; Gardi- ner, School Atlas, maps 26, 28 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps ix. xl. xlii. ; Dow, Atlas, xviii. Duruy, France, ch. xlviii. ; Henderson, Short History of Ger- many, I. chs. xvii. xviii. ; Bryce, Holy Ttoman Empire, chs. xviii. xix. ; Wakeman, Ascendancy of France, 46-81, 87-104, 112-128, 132-152 ; Walker, Beformation, ch. x. ; Ilausser, Period of the Beformation, chs. xxi.-xxiv. xxxii.-xl. ; Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, ch. viii. ; Fisher, History of the Beformation, 285-315, 423-4.32 ; Griffis, Brave Little Holland; Rogers, Holland, chs. vii. -xviii. ; Hume, Philip 11. ; Harrison, William the Silent; Armstrong, Charles F., II. 332-348, 365-383; Motley, Bise of the Dutch Bepublic, pt. ii. chs. ii. vi., pt. Iv. chs. ii. v., pt. vi. ch. vii., — History of the United Netherlands, I. ch. v., II. ch. xix. ; Gardiner, Thirty Years^ War ; Gindeley, History of the Thirty Years'' War ; Trench, Gustavus Adolphus ; Fletcher, Gustavus Adolphus ; Kitchin, History of France, bk. iv. chs. iv. v. ; Perkins, France under Bichelieu and Mazarin ; Lodge, Bichelieu ; Perkins, Biche- lieu ; Historians' History of the World, XI. 432-486, XIII. 375- 589, XIV. 289-387. Stirling-Maxwell, Don John of Austria, II. appendix (letters written in the Netherlands by Don John) ; Old Sou^ Leaflets, No. 72 (The Dutch Declaration of Independence); Ruth Putnam, William the Silent (contains many letters and documents). Stanley Weyman, My Lady Botha, — Under the Bed Bohe ; G. A. Henty, The Lion of the North ; G. P. R. James, Heidelberg ; W. H. Harrison, Waldemar ; Enfield, The Blameless Knight ; Van der Velde, The Lichensteins ; L. C. Cornford, The Master Beggars ; H. Rider Haggard, Lysheth ; S. R. Crockett, Bed Axe ; Z. Topelius, The King's Bing. CHAPTER XX. THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) As Richelieu lay dying, in December, 1642, he recommended to the king as his successor Cardinal Mazarin, an Italian who early left the papal service for that of France. Five 31^ ^^^^ months later (May, 1643) Louis XIII. himself passed arin, chief away, leaving the throne to his son, Louis XIV., then less France than five years old. Anne of Austria, the queen mother, (1642-1661) was named regent; she confirmed Mazarin in office, and so long as he lived she supported him against the opposition of the Parlement of Paris (the chief judicial body of France), against the riots of the Parisian populace, and against the intrigues and rebellions of the French nobles. Mazarin lacked the creative genius of Richelieu, but was well qualified to carry on an established system of government; the device upon his arms was " Time and I." In his love of dissimulation, his avarice, the advancement of his relatives, and his art collections of rare books and sculpture, he was thoroughly Italian. As a foreigner and the minister of a foreign queen, and as the con tinner of a policy fatal to the nobility and oppressive to the people, he was violently hated. Nevertheless he is entitled to rank as a great minister by his triumphs in the closing scenes of the Thirty Years' War, by his victories over Spain, and by the success with which he maintained the authority of the crown. In 1648 the opposition broke out in the frivolous war known as the '' Fronde," a name derived from a game of Parisian ^^|j. J^e street boys. The movement was twofold. (1) The Par- (1648 1653) 347 348 THE OLD REGIME lement of Paris sought to secure a position similar to that which the English Parliament occupied (see ch. xxi.) ; this was impracticable owing to the fact that it was primarily a court of justice, not a legislature ; aild, instead of being representative, its seats were purchased and hereditary. The Parlement de- manded that it should be given control of taxation, and that limits (similar to the English habeas corpus principle) be put upon the right of arbitrary arrest; but these demands, right and proper in principle, lacked the necessary foundation in Erench history and experience. (2) The princely Fronde was animated by the purely selfish motive of restoring the old days of private anarchy and public plunder. Conde and Turenne, French generals in the Thirty Years' War (§ 302), fought in turn for the crown and against the crown, but always opposed to each other. Twice Mazarin was obliged to flee from France. In the end the court tri- umphed, the Parlement was forbidden to deal with affairs of state, and Mazarin returned to power. The whole movement was chiefly noteworthy as the last attempt to oppose the court by internal armed resistance; thenceforth, the nobility lost all political importance. In 1661 Mazarin died; and Louis XIV., who was then 313. Louis twenty years old, an- XIV. be- nounced that " he had comes his own minis- resolved to be his own ter (1661) minister, and that he was unwilling to have the least or- dinance or the least passport signed without receiving his orders." The young king pos- sessed considerable ability, was well trained, and worked with the greatest industry at what he called "his trade of king." Louis XIV. THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) 349 He had the external gifts of kingship in profusion, and dis- charged the ceremonial duties of his office with punctilious dignity, tact, and a refinement of behavior which made his court the model of Europe. Under the inspiration of their master, trained aiul able ministers organized the foreign office, the internal adminis- tration, and the war department on principles which were sub- sequently adopted by the leading countries of Europe. The military innovations included uniforms to distinguish the dif- ferent regiments; bayonets added to the muskets to take the place of pikes; marching in step; pontoon bridges; and the Hotel des Invalides, a home for disabled soldiers. A'auban, the creator of the engineer corps, made many improvements in the art of fortifying and taking cities : " A city besieged by Vauban," says a proverb of the time, " is a captured city ; a city defended by him, an impregnable one." For many years thereafter, the French army remained without an equal in Europe. The internal administration was placed in the hands of Colbert, one of the greatest finance ministers that France ever produced. When he took charge of the finances there was no system of accounts, no thought of economy, bert's and no check against dishonesty; hereditary offices were created for the sole purpose of selling them; taxes were " farmed out " on ruinous terms ; of the vast sums collected from the people less than half found its way into the treas- ury ; the revenues were spent two years before they were collected, and there were debts of large amounts drawing interest at exorbitant rates. Out of this financial chaos Colbert soon brought order. The number of those exempted from taxes was reduced ; the cost of collecting the revenues was cut down one lialf ; the phm- derers of the treasury were forced to disgorge ; fraudulent certificates of debt were repudiated; and a proper system of 350 THE OLD REGIME msterdamlLjjj^^jl rfi V SCALE OF MILES France: Acquisitions of Louis XIV. bookkeeping was introduced. Within a year after taking office, Colbert was able to show a surplus of forty-five mil- lion francs, without having perceptibly increased the burdens of taxation. In other ways, also, Colbert was active. Roads were improved and a system ^f canals constructed, of which the most impor- tant was one connecting the Atlantic with the Mediterranean. Manufactures were encouraged by a system of tariffs, boun- ties, and monopolies. Five great commercial companies were formed on the model of the Dutch and English East India companies. The navy and merchant marine were developed. The French colony of Canada ^ neglected by Richelieu — was fostered ; many islands of the Antilles were acquired ; and THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1G43-1715) Sf)! steps were taken to occupy the Mississippi valley, which had just been explored by La Salle. The way was open for France at this time to secure the commercial and colonial supremacy of the world, — for the day of Spain and l^ortugal was over, the Dutch could not long withstand their more powerful neighbors, and the empire of England, chiefly the result of successful wars, was scarcely begun. But Louis XIV. pre- ferred the traditional but disastrous path of military conquest. A passion for fame and the desire to increase French territory in Europe were the dominant motives of Louis XIV., and pro- duced the four wars of his reign. The first (1667-1668) 315. wars had for its object the conquest of the Spanish Nether- °^^°^3 lands, and ended with the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ; the 1713) second (1672-1678) was directed against the Dutch Hepublic, and closed with the peace of Nimwegen; the third (1689-1697) was waged against a coalition of the states whose interests were threatened by Louis's aggressive policy, and ended with the peace of Ryswick ; his fourth and greatest war (1701-1713) was over the succession to the Spanish throne, and was con- cluded by the peace of Utrecht. Louis's first war (1667-1668) is called the War of Devolution, from the claim on which it was based. An obscure custom of private inheritance in the Netherlands (styled the "right 316. The of devolution ") provided that children of a first marriage olution should inherit to the exclusion of those of a second ; and (1667-1668) when Philip IV. of Spain died (1665), Louis XIV. advanced, on this flimsy ground, his wife's claim to the Spanish Nether- lands (see genealogy, p. 358). The Dutch Netherlands, alarmed lest their turn should come next, concluded with England and Sweden a Triple Alliance (1668); and the prospect of their assistance to Spain induced Louis to sign the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which he received twelve fortified towns on the borders of the Netherlands, and surrendered the rest of his conquests. Against " their High Mightinesses the States- 352 THE OLD UEGIMK General of the United Provinces," who had taken the chief ])art in balking him of his prey, Louis XIV. thenceforth cherished a lively resentment. The prosperity of the Dutch Netherlands in the first half of the seventeenth century had continued undiminished : in 317. The America they colonized New York and New Jersey ; in Dutch Neth- ^^-^ ^^ley secured Ceylon and Java; in Africa they (1609-1667) founded Cape Colony. Said an old writer, "like bees tliey gathered honey from every land. Norway was their forest ; the banks of the Rhine, the Garonne, and the Dordogne Wicqueforf, their vineyards ; Germany, Spain, and Ireland their rtwc/"^^'*^ sheep pastures; Prussia and Poland their grain fields; Rambaud, India and Arabia their gardens." They became masters Histolre * -,■,-> ^ i p i Genende, of the seas, and had almost a monopoly ot the carrying VL 488 ^^^^^ of tl^e v^oyU. Jealousy of the house of Orange, however, led the oligarchical burghers in 1651 to declare the stadtholderate vacant ; and for twenty years (until his assassination in 1672) the affairs of the United Provinces were directed by Jan de Witt, the able head of the republican party. The contest of parties which underlay these events constituted a serious danger. A second source of danger was commercial rivalry and war with Eng- land. After much friction between the two countries, the English Parliament, in 1651, passed the first navigation act, under which foreign ships might import into England only the products of their own countries ; the act was especially designed to wrest from the Dutch the control of the carrying trade of the world. Two wars followed, the first lasting from 1651 to 1654, the second from 1665 to 1667, just before which • the Dutch colonies in North America were taken by the Eng- lish ; in the end the Dutch were obliged to accept a peace by which the navigation acts remained in force. The republic's greatest prosperity was thus already past when the envy and hatred of Louis XIV. brought on war in 1672. THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (lt)4;j-17ir,) 353 As a preliminary step Louis won Sweden and England from the Triple Alliance ; Charles II. of England even agreed to assist him, and secretly pledged himself to adopt the 318. Louis's Catholic religion whenever conditions seemed ripe for war with that step. The army which Louis gathered numbered (1672-1678,. more than one hundred and twenty thousand men, and regular depots of supplies were established to maintain it on its march. ' On the French side the war was character- ized by the brilliant strategy of Turenne, until his death in 1675. The Dutch re- sisted doggedly, cutting the dikes to save Amsterdam ; while on the sea their in- trepid admiral De Ruyter twice defeated the French and English fleets. After the assassination of De Witt, William III. of Orange — great-grandson of William the Silent, grandson of Charles I. of England, and later himself king of England as William III. — was elected stadtholder and captain-general. The re- mainder of his life, until his death in 1702, was one long struggle against the power of Louis XIV. In 1672 he formed a ^ . „„, Soldier of Louis XI V . coalition against France, which included the Emperor Leopold, Spain, Denmark, and the chief German states. In England the opposition of Parliament to the for- eign policy of Charles 11. forced him to make peace with the Dutch ; and this was cemented in 1677 by an important mar- riage between Mary, the oldest daughter of Charles's brother James, and her cousin William III. of Orange (see p. 388). In 1678 France agreed to a peace, signed at Nimwegen. The only substantial gains made in this war were at the expense of Spain, which ceded to Louis XIV. the Franche- Comte (on the eastern border of France), and a number of 354 THE OLD REGIME places in the Spanish Netherlands. Louis's attempt to conquer Holland had ignominiously failed. The treaty of Nimwegen was followed by ten years of peace (1678-1688), in which occurred a quarrel between Louis XIV. and the papacy. The French (or Galilean) Church had 319. Louis I r J ... XIV. and long been noted for its national spirit, and the idea of the'Pope ^YiQ supremacy of the state was as firmly fixed as in England. Even the suppression of the Huguenots was as much a political as a religious matter. In 1673 Louis claimed the right to receive the revenues of all bishoprics in France during their vacancy (right of regale) ; this right was denied by the Pope, and in the contest which followed an assembly of the French clergy passed (in 1682) four resolutions assert- ing the "Liberties of the Galilean Church." These taught: (1) that kings were not subject to the Pope in temporal mat- ters ; (2) that a general council, as declared by the Council of Constance (see § 227), was above the Pope, even in spiritual things ; (3) that the rules and usages of the French Church must be observed; and (4) that the decisions of the Pope in matters of faith are not final until accepted by the church. For twenty years the quarrel dragged on ; in the end the papacy admitted the right of regale, and Louis ceased to require the theological schools to teach the propositions of 1682. Nevertheless, the principles which they contained con- tinued to govern the French Church, and at various times received the sanction of the civil law. Although Louis XIV. asserted his independence of the papacy, he showed no favor to French Protestants : his sus- 320. Revo- picion that the Huguenots were still disloyal to the crown cation of the (§§ 271, 274, 307), his passion for uniformity, a desire to Nantes prove his orthodoxy, and religious bigotry alike urged (1685) ]^[ij^ ^Q measures of persecution. An impulse in the same direction came from the religious zeal of Madame de Maintenon, the estimable governess of his children, to whom he was THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) 355 secretly married in 1683. Pressure was gradually put upon the Huguenots, and many conversions were announced; and when milder measures failed, Huguenot households were put at the mercy of brutal soldiers (the dragounades). The Grand Trianon. Erected by Louis XIV. for Madame de Maintenou in l(j87-lt)88. Finally, in 1685, the Edict of Nantes was revoked and all protection of law was withdrawn from French Protestants; their worship was suppressed, their ministers ordered to leave France within fifteen days, and their adherents forbidden to follow them. Many pastors who braved the edict suffered the penalty of death ; and hundreds of their followers, taken in the attempt to flee, were sentenced to long years of service at the oar in French galleys. More than two hundred and fifty thousand Protestants succeeded in making their escape from France to carry to other countries French arts, the secrets of French manufactures, and hatred for Louis XIV. The indus- tries of England, Holland, and Brandenburg profited greatly from this cause, and America found in the Huguenots some of her most desirable colonists. France lost not merely many of her ablest artisans, but some of her choicest citizens, who carried with them treasures of heroism, of constancy, of disinterested- ness, which she could ill spare. A noble of the French court declared that the measures against the Huguenots were "with- out the slightest pretext or necessity," and that they " depopu- 356 THE OLD KEGIME lated a quarter of the realm, ruined its commerce, weakened it ^^ ^. in every direction, gave it up for a long time to the pub- Memoirs, lie and avowed pillage of the dragoons, . . . armed rehi- ///. 258-2i>o ^.^^^ against relatives . . . [and] hlled all the realm with perjury and sacrilege. . . . From torture to abjuration, and from that to the communion, there was often only twenty- four hours' distance. . . . The good and true Catholics and the true bishops groaned in spirit to see the orthodox act toward errors and heretics as heretical tyrants and heathens had acted toward the truth, the confessors, and the martyrs." Treaties made by France, beginning in 1648, had transferred to her a number of places, each "with its dependencies" ; in this phrase Louis XIV. saw the means of further extensions. 321. Annex- ^ ations on In 1679 he appointed courts, called " Chambers of Re- t e R ine m^ion," whose mission it was to give to the language of the treaties its widest interpretation. Titles were invoked running as far back as the Frankish kings before Charlemagne ; and more than twenty important border towns were thus seized. Strassburg, the chief place of Alsace, which had been with- held in the peace of Westphalia, was included in this num- ber; and the genius of Vauban soon made it one of the impregnable fortresses of France. The German Emperor was too much occupied with the Turks on the Danube to resist such high-handed proceedings, and other powers were loath to go to war ; however, in 1686, the Emperor, Spain, Sweden, the princes of North Germany, and the Dutch United Provinces joined in the Augsburg League to oppose the ambition of France. Two years later Louis XIV. committed the mistake of allowing William III. of Orange to succeed by revolution to the throne of his father- in-law, James II. of England (§ 355). Protestant England then ranged itself definitely against France, and there began a new hundred years' war between the two countries, involving the colonial and commercial supremacy of the world. I THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (U54;M71o) ;5o7 Against the coalition of European powers, France stood alone. It was not merely a duel of William 111. against Louis XIV. ; it was a contest of opposing principles. 322. Third Twenty times William barely escaped being crushed ; ^^^ °^ but he "represented the ideas of the future, — free (1689-16971 thought in religion, popular sovereignty in politics," — and these principles sustained and inspired him. The war on the Continent presents few features of interest. Louis had now lost the generals who in the earlier part of his reign guided his armies to victory; and on the opposing side also there were no commanders of first-rate ability. The real interest in the war centers in the struggles at sea between the fleets of England and France. In 1690 the French won a battle which for two years made them masters of the seas ; but the English brought this brief supremacy to an end by a victory off La Hogue — " the greatest naval victory won by the English between the defeat of the Armada and the battle of Trafalgar."- In America the chief event of "King William's War," as the English colonists called this struggle, was the conquest of Acadia by the Massachusetts men in 1690. The exhaustion of all parties led to the conclusion of peace at Ryswick in 1697. Recent conquests, including Acadia, were restored, and Louis surrendered the places "reunited" since 1678, except Strassburg; the Dutch were allowed to garrison the chief fortresses of the Spanish Netherlands as a "barrier" against France; and Louis XIV. recognized William III. as king of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and agreed not to aid the exiled James 11. The pride of the "grand monarch " was thus brought low ; but within four years the war was renewed on a larger and more disastrous scale than before. Charles II. of Spain, the last male representative of the Spanish Hapsburg line, was weak in body and mind, and ^^^ ^^^ without children. The inheritance which he would leave Spanish embraced "twenty-two crowns," including Spain, the Harding's m. & m. hist. — 21 358 THE OLD REGIME greater part of Italy, the Spanisli Netherlands, the Philip- pines, and a vast American empire. Three persons could make out plausible claims to the succession: (1) the Dau- phin, son of Louis XIV. of France and of Charles's eldest sister; (2) the electoral prince Joseph of Bavaria, grandson of Charles's younger sister; (3) the Emperor Leopold, who derived his right from Charles's aunt. ^ The claims of the first two were barred by renunciations; Louis XIV., however, could claim that his descendants were not bound by his wife's renunciation, because the dowry upon which it was conditioned had never been paid. The succession to such an empire was too important to be settled like the succession to a private estate; the principle called the " balance of power " was beginning to govern Euro- pean politics, and this rec^uired that no state should be allowed to grow so great as to threaten the others. Hence the powers concerned agreed to a treaty by which Spain and the bulk of the inheritance should go to the electoral prince Josei)li ; but unfortunately he died in 1698. By a second treaty of parti- 1 The following table shows the descent of the claimants to the Spanish throne : — Philip III. (159S-H)-21) son of Philip II., and fourth in descent from Ferdinand and Isabella LoTTi8XIII.= Anne of Austria of France (1610-1643) (right to succession renounced) r Lons XIV. = Maria Theresa ChaPvI.es II of France I (right (166.0-1700) (1648-1715) renounced) last of I Spanish Louis the Dauphin Hapsburgs (d. 1711) \ I I I Philip IV. (1621-1665) [twice married ; fig- ures below indicate children of first (1) and of second (2) wife.] (2) I (2 ) Margaret Theresa Ferdinand III. (Emperor 1687-1657) Emperor Leopold I. Louis, D. of Burgundy (d. 1712) LO018 XV. (1715-1774) Philip of Anjou, succeeds to Spanish throne as Philip V. (1701-1746) first of the Spanish Bourbons (1658-1705) I by a second Maria Antoinette marriage (right renounced) m. Elector of Bavaria I , Joseph, Electoral Prince of Bavaria (d. 1698) Joseph I. Archduke (Emperor Charles, 1705-1711) Emperor as Charles VI'. (1711-1740) THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) 359 tion, Leopold's second son, Charles, was to secure Spain, the Indies (the American colonies and the Philippines), and the Netherlands, and the Dauphin was to receive other territories. This was unsatisfactory to the national party among the Spaniards; and their influence induced Charles II. to make a will, three weeks before his death, leaving the whole inheritance to the Dauphin's second son, Philip (1700). Louis XIV. had solemnly pledged his honor to the partition treaties, but acceptance of the legacy offered greater prospect of gain. His decision was announced when he appeared 324. war of leaning upon the arm of his grandson, and presented *^® Spanish him to the court, saying, " Gentlemen, behold the king begun of Spain ! " The spirit which animated the court is (1701-1703) summed up in the saying, wrongly ascribed to Louis himself, " The Pyrenees no longer exist." For a time the accession of the young king, Philip V., was accepted even by those who liked it least. William III. wrote bitterly from England, " It grieves me to the soul that almost every one rejoices that Lecky, Eng- France has preferred the will to the treaty." But when ^"'"^xvULth Louis expelled the Dutch from the " barrier " fortresses Century, I.si of the Spanish Netherlands, and on the death of the exiled James II. recognized his son as king of England, a reaction came. Before the death of William III. in 1702, he had the satisfaction of seeing a new coalition, embracing England, the Emperor, and the Dutch, in arms to check the Bourbon power. The war was waged in Italy, the Netherlands, Germany, Spain, and North America; the question at issue was not merely the disposal of the Spanish Hapsburg possessions in Europe, but whether France should be allowed to join the control of Spain's vast colonial empire to her own North American colonies. At the head of the allied forces 325. Marl- were the imperialist general Eugene of Savoy, and tlu^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Englisli Duke of Marlborough. Both are ranked among the allies the greatest generals of history ; of Marlborough it was said 3G0 THE OLD KEGIME that he " never besieged a fortress which he did not take, never fought a battle which he did not win, never conducted a nego- tiation which he did not bring to a successful close." The two acted in perfect harmony, but each was hampered by political enemies at home. The Dutch showed themselves more con-, cerned with preserving their trade than with bringing the war| to a successful close. The French generals were not the equals of Eugene and Marlborough ; and they were hampered by the necessity of having precise orders from the king for all that they did. During the iirst three years of the struggle neither party gained any decisive advantage. In the second period of the war (1704-1710) the allies were brilliantly successful. In 1704 Eugene and Marlborough won the battle of Blenheim from the French and the Bava- 326. Battle of Blenheim rians, who were advancing upon Vienna by way of the (1704) Danube. This battle broke the spell of Louis's vic- tories, and preserved the coalition ; it enhanced the prestige of the English soldiery and vindicated the right of England to choose its own king; it was indeed "a glorious victory," and decisive of great issues. Other brilliant victories of the allies led the French king to negotiate for peace; but when they demanded, in addition to all reasonable concessions, that Louis XIV. should himself drive his grandson from Spain, he broke off negotiations, saying that he preferred making war upon his enemies to making it upon his children. In the last period of the war (1710-1713) the balance was more nearly even, for Marlboroygh was removed from command 327. Close '^^ ^ result of the political triumph of Tories over Whigs of the war at home. In 1711 the archduke Charles, for whose suc- (1710-1713) cession to the Spanish throne the English were fighting, became Emperor upon the death of his older brother. The English forthwith cooled in their zeal, for they had no wish to see the empire of Charles V. revived by the reunion of the Austrian and S[)anish possessions under Charles VI. THE AGE OF LOT IS XIV. (1G43-1715) 8(jl |;:;:;:;:;:| To Austria I '..U',.;,! To House of Bourbon BHJ ^0 Savoy dibraliar and Minorca to Irgland Territorial Gains of the War of the Spanish Succession. Less severe terms therefore were demanded of Louis XI Y. In 1713 England and France concluded a separate treaty at Utrecht; and by the close of 1714 treaties were also made ggg p^^^^ with the other members of the alliance. Philip Y. was of Utrecht recognized as king of Spain and the Indies, but with the provision that the crowns of France and Spain should never be united. The Austrians received Naples, Milan, Sar- dinia, and the former Spanish Netherlands, subject to the right of the Dutch to garrison the '• barrier" fortresses. Eng- land received Newfoundland, Acadia, and Hudson Bay terri- tory from Prance; while from Spain she secured Gibraltar (taken in 1704 and retained to the present day), the island of Minorca in the Mediterranean, and limited rights of trade with Spanish America. Finally, Louis withdrew his recogni- tion of the son of James 11. as claimant to the English throne. 3(32 THE OLD REGIME These treaties close the long struggle — dating from before the days of Richelieu — of France against the Austro-Spanish power. In spite of French defeats, a I)Ourbon replaced the Hapsbnrgs at Madrid, and France remained the leading state of Europe, though with lessened prestige; she owed her eminence not merely to the ambition of her king, but to the energy and ability of her people, the richness of her soil, and the advantages of her geographical position. The treaties mark also an important epoch in the development of Prussia, whose ruler now received the title of king; and in the devel- opment of the house of Savoy in Italy, which received from Spain as a kingdom the island of Sicily, soon exchanged (1720) for Sardinia. The Dutch were forced into a peace against their will, and sank to the rank of a third-rate power. Louis XIV. died September 1, 1715, at the age of seventy- seven, and after a reign of seventy-two years, the longest in ^^^op^^i^ history. His son the Dauphin and his eldest 3a9. AdsO- lutism of grandson both died before him, leaving as heir to the °^^^ ■ throne his great-grandson, Louis XV., a child of five years. The idea of government held by Louis XIV. is summed up in the words (which, however, he never uttered in precisely this form) " IJetat c^est moi (I am the state) " : it belonged to the head of the state alone to deliberate and form policies ; the functions of the other members of the body politic con- sisted only in executing the commands given. The obedience exacted was a passive, blind, machine-like submission, founded upon the theory of the divine right of kings to rule. Under Louis XIV. the government was absolute to the last degree. Estates-General were suppressed, the Parlement was confined to its judicial duties, and "intendants" were held to strict accountability. To secure favor the nobles had to reside in the palace of Versailles, follow the court everywhere, and approve of everything. To impress the people, the person THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) 363 of the king was hedged about by a rigid ceremonial, and " etiquette became the veritable constitution of the state." The moral tone of the court was extremely corrupt. Any one might be imprisoned or exiled, without trial or even formal charge, by means of a system of lettres de cachet: these were letters written by order of the king, countersigned 330. Lettres by a secretary of state, and signed with the seal {cachet) ^^ cachet of the king. The persons against whom the letters were issued usually deserved punishment ; but the system violated all safe- guards of personal liberty, such as are the pride of the English law with its rights of trial by jury and habeas corpus. Under Louis XIV.'s successors, the letters were sometimes issued in blank, leaving to the person obtaining them the right to fill in such names as he chose (p. 436). The most celebrated of Louis XIV.'s prisoners was the " Man in the Iron Mask " — really a mask of black velvet : many attempts have been made to solve the mystery of his identity, but without general acceptance of re'sults. While absolutism reigned at home and unscrupulous ambi- tion governed the foreign relations of France, the foundations of scientific international law were laid in the treatises ggj Inter- of Grotius (a German, 1583-1645) and Puffendorf (a national Dutchman, 1632-1694). Among the principles which they taught were these : war should be carried on only for a just cause, and for purpose of defense; do no more injury to the vanquished than is strictly necessary ; force alone ought not to regulate the relations of peoples, for there is justice be- tween states as well as between individuals ; to observe treaties is the wisest practice and the greatest strength of sovereigns. The reign of Louis XIV. was one long violation of these principles. In literature the age of Louis XIV. was one of the most brilliant in French history. By means of the French "Acad- emy " founded, by Richelieu, and a system of pensions for 364 THE OLD REGIME literary effort, great men were fostered and rewarded. Cor- neille (1606-1684) founded the classical school of French dramatists. His younger contemporary, Racine (1639- 332. Litera.- ture under 1699), is styled by a Erench critic "the most perfect Louis XIV. ^^ our' tragedians, and perhaps of our poets." Moliere (1622-1673), in a series of admirable comedies, held up to ridi- cule the vices and follies of the time. The names of many | others — poets, philosophers, orators, and moralists — might be I added to the list. Coming between the religious reformers of the sixteenth century and the political reformers of the eigh- teenth, these writers were occupied preeminently with matters of literary form, with ascertaining and establishing for litera- ture the laws of good taste. In painting, the academic art of France could show nothing to compare in strength and effec- tiveness with the work of the Dutch painter E-embrandt (died 1669). A system of street lighting for Paris was established in this reign, by which a lantern containing a lighted candle was 333. Social placed at the entrance or in the middle of each street, life and ^^.g^.^ night from November 1 to March 1. With better condition of -^ ^ the people paved streets, carriages could be used ; and cabs for hire, and even the " omnibus " following a fixed route, were intro- duced. For travel from city to city, heavy coaches were pro- vided which took fourteen days to go from Paris to Bordeaux. Tobacco began to be used under Louis XIII. ; coffee was first brought from the eastern Mediterranean under Louis XIV., the example of the Turkish ambassador making it the fashion- able drink ; chocolate was introduced from Central America, and tea from China. To the splendor and ceremonial of the court there was an- other side. Even the palace of Versailles lacked sanitary ap- pliances, and to cover the bad odors, perfumes were freely used. It was not until the middle of the eighteenth century that the habit of bathing all over was introduced into fashionable soci- THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV (164:^-1 7 lo) 8l]o 334. Influ- ence of France in Europe ety from England. The art of cookery, born in Italy, was developed in this period to the perfection for which France has since been renowned. The luxury of the court and the costly wars of the reign re- duced the peasantry to its lowest condition. An author of that time (Fenelon) dared to write to the king : " Your people are dying of hunger. The cultivation of the soil is almost aban- doned ; the towns and the country decrease in population." In time of famine peasants were reduced to living on grass, nettles, roots, and whatever else they might find. The sufferings of the lower classes, however, attracted little attention in the general advance of arts and culture. The nobility lost the rudeness which characterized them in the earlier periods, and took on the polished manners of the eigh- teenth century. " Men and castles had been divested of the habiliments of war; the chevalier [knight] had become Lavisse f^imj^aL,,. "■■ a cavalier, and the tournament a General '9'^Mtm^ carousal. The denizens of the cas- tles and communes, who in former times had been isolated from their fellow-men, acquired a taste for ' society ' and ' po- liteness.' Art — formerly the product of guilds, — philosophy, literature, and science — formerly the property of the church and the schools, — emerged from these privileged bodies, and were freely diffused throughout society." French civilization under Louis XIV. became the most brilliant in Europe, and the court of France the model to all others. The French tongue became the universal language of diplomacy, philosophy, and high society. " The taste of France." wrote Frederick the Great of Prussia some years later, '* rules our Costume of Nobleman IN THE Time of Louis XIV. 36(3 THE OLD REGIME cooking, our furniture, our clothes, and all those trifles over which the tyranny of fashion exercises its empire." The domi- nation over Europe which Louis XIV. was not able to conquer with the sword was peaceably won by French intelligence and taste. From the peace of Westphalia (1648) to that of Utrecht (1713) the struggles of European states have a political instead 335 Sum- of ^ religious basis : such were the wars of Louis XIV., mary and those of the English against the Dutch. Philoso- phers and scholars framed rules of international law to moder- ate warfare, but these were little regarded. The object of European dread was now not Hapsburg domination, but that of the Bourbons ; and against France European coalitions were formed. By his provocations Louis XIV. prepared the rise of Savoy in Italy, of Prussia in Germany, of England, and of Kussia ; and to these new powers the future largely belonged. In internal administration the absolute monarchy of France proved a failure : " French kings knew how to exact obedi- ence, but they did not know how to govern." At home the reign of Louis XIV. established political despotism, economic misery, and social inequality ; the logical- outgrowth of these was the French Revolution three quarters of a century later. TOPICS Suggestive (1) With what movement in France in the fifteenth century may the Fronde be compared? (2) AVas the prosperity of the early part of the reign of Louis XIV. due to the king or to his min- isters ? (3) What were the effects of Louis XIV^'s wars on France ? (4) Compare the objects of the Englisli wars with tlie Dutch with those of Louis XIV. against the same people. (5) What advan- tages did England reap from her Dutch wars ? (0) What h d to the cessation of wars between the English and the Dutch ? (7) Under what former king had France vindicated its rights against the papacy ? (8) Why was the revocation of the Edict of Nantes unwise? (0) Were the annexations by means of the topics THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1G43-1715) 367 Chambers of Reunion just or unjust? (10) Was Louis XIV. 's conduct with reference to the Spanish succession honorable or dishonorable ? Was it expedient or inexpedient for France ? (11) Why did William IIL make himself the head of the opposi- tion to Louis XIV.? (12) What was the prize at issue in the series of wars between England and France? (13) Why does sea power now begin to be important? (14) Did Louis XIV. do more good or harm to France ? (15) Mazarin. (16) Colbert. (17) Vauban. (18) The wars search between England and Holland. (19) Jan de Witt. (20) Kise *opics of William III. of Orange. (21) The liberties of the GalHcan Church. (22) Dispersion of the Huguenots. (28) Character and influence of Madame de Maintenon. (24) War of the Spanish Succession. (25) Marlborough. (26) Eugene of Savoy, (27) The peace of Utrecht. (28) French colonization under Louis XIV. (20) The Man in the Iron Mask. (30) French literature in the time of Louis XIV. (31) Dumas's pictures of French court life. Geography Secondary authorities REFERENCES See maps pp. 284, 350 ; Freeman, Historical Geography, II. (Atlas), maps 26, 33 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 40, 41 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, map Iviii. ; Dow, Atlas, xix. xxiii. Duruy, France, chs. xlix.-liv. ; Adams, Groicth of the French Na- tion, ch. xiii. ; Hassall, French People, chs. xii.-xiv. ; Wakeman, Ascendancy of France, 153-164, 184-264, 811-371 ; Guizot, Popular History of France, chs. xxxviii.-xlii. xlv.-xlvii. ; Airy, English Eestoration and Louis XIV. ; Perkins, Bichelieu; Lodge, Pdche- lieu; Hassall, 3Iazarin, — Louis XIV. ; Louise Creighton, Duke of Marlborough; Traill, William the Tliird; Martin, Age of Louis XIV., chs. V. vi. ; Dollinger, Studies in European History, ch. xi. ; Kitchin, France, bk. iv. chs. vi.-viii., bk. v. chs. i.-vii. ; Perkins, France under Bichelieu and Mazarin, I. ch. ix., II. chs. xi. xviii. xix., —France under the Regency, chs. ii.-ix. ; Mahan, Influence of Sea Poicer upon History, 1660-1783, chs. iii. iv. ; Historians' History of the World, XI. 487-652. Duke of St. Simon, Memoirs (trans, by Bayle St. John), I. 18, Sources 143, 167-176, 211, IL 60, 64-66, 76-77, 97, 126, 221, 247-248, 821, III. 226-228, 235-244, 258-260, 273, 292-294. Dumas, The Black Tulip, — The Vicomte de Bragelonne, — The Three Musketeers, — The War of Women ; A. Conan Doyle, The Refugees ; J. B. Burton, The Scourge of God, — In the Days of Adversity ; R. Macdonald, The Sword of the King ; A. Paterson, The King's Agent ; S. McManus, Lally of the Brigade. Illustrative works CHAPTER XXT. CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY IN ENGLAND (1()03-1760) While absolute govermneut was perfecting itself in France, 336. Acces- control by Parliament arose in England. This Avas no ac- f°^ °^, cident, but was rather the result to which all English his- James I. ' (1603) tory had been tending. AVhen Elizabeth died in 1603, the nearest heir to the throne was James VI. of Scotland, son of the unfortunate Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots (§ 281). Being a Protestant, he was quietly accepted, adding the English kingdom, in which he was known as James L, in personal union to his Scottish realm. He was one of the most learned rulers of Europe, but was so lacking in tact and prudence that the Duke of Sully styled him "the wisest fool in Christendom." The times, moreover, were changed since the English ac- quiesced in the despotism of the Tudors (§ 275) : there was no longer danger of baronial violence, foreign invasion, or religious war ; Puritanism was becoming more insistent in, its demands for further reform in the church ; and the middle classes, through the development of commerce and industry, were becoming important enough to claim an active voice in the government. Even Elizabeth, in the later years of her reign, saw the necessity of bowing to the will of Parliament. When, therefore, James I. and his descendants, influenced by the seventeenth-century doctrine of the divine right of kings, set themselves to rule as absolute monarchs, disregarding the wishes and prejudices of the nation, the " murmuring Par- liament of Queen Elizabeth" developed into "the mutinous ENGLAND (1608-1760) 3(39 Parliament of" James I. and the rebellious Parliament of Charles I.," and the end was the " glorious revolution" of 1688 which brought William III. to the throne. The first question which James I. had to face was the religious question, aggravated because some English Catholics, finding no relief from the oppressive laws directed against them, plotted with disappointed courtiers against religious the king. The Gunpowder Plot of 1604 was an attempt There followed eleven years of arbitrary goverinneiit witliuiil a Parliament. Laud, now Archbishop of Cauterburv, forced his ideas upon the English Church with conscientious 342. Arbi- obstinacy. The wars with France and Spain were trarygov- brought to an end for lack of means to continue them. (1629-1640) Obsolete rights of all sorts were raked up in the effort to raise a revenue without having recourse to Parliament. The Court of Star Chamber, the organization of which practically dates from Henry VII., and the Court of High Commission, origi- nally created to enforce the royal supremacy in the church, dealt relentlessly with those who opposed the royal will. Sir John Eliot, one of the leaders in the last Parliament, was imprisoned for his course there and died in the Tower three and a half years later, a martyr to constitutional liberty. Judges who were suspected of being unfriendly to the royal claims were dismissed. The attempt to levy an arbitrary tax called " ship money " was resisted in the courts by John Hampden (1637) ; and though the verdict was against him, the case helped to consolidate the opposition. In spite of the prosperity of those years, English discontent became more widespread than ever. Finally the attempt of Charles and Laud to force upon the kingdom of Scotland a new service book, led to a revolt of the Presbyterian Scots. An Eng- lish Parliament, when summoned early in 1640, showed itself entirely on the side of the rebels, and was dissolved within three weeks ; but new reverses forced Charles, in November, 1640, to convene another Parliament, of which he was not so easily rid. This body, known as the Long Parliament, showed itself almost unanimously opposed to his religious and civil policy. Charles could not dismiss it as he had his earlier Parlia- 343^ Qpen- ments, because a Scottish army was now on English soil ing of^t^e ready to march southward in case he failed to pay each parliament month the sums agreed to in a recent treaty, and for these (1640-1641. sums he was dependent upon Parliament. The principal leader Harding's m. & m. hist. — 22 374 THE OLD REGIME ' of the opposition was John Pym. Under his guidance the Long Parliament proceeded (1) to punish the authors of the late oppressions, (2) to compensate the sufferers, and (3) to provide securities for .the future. Strafford (1641) and Laud (1645) were beheaded, and others escaped a like fate only by flight. The victims of the Star Chamber and High Commission were freed from prison and received money compensation, and these two bodies were abolished. To secure the regular recurrence of Parliaments, a Triennial Act was passe'd, providing that not more than three years should pass without a session of Parliament; and another that the existing Parliament should not be prorogued or dissolved without its own consent. In assenting to this last act Charles made his greatest mis- take, for divisions soon after began to appear. The Puritans desired to cast out '• root and branch " the episcopal govern- ment of the church, while the Anglicans wished merely to restore the conditions which existed before Laud's innova- tions. If Charles had been free to dissolve this Parlia- ment, while frankly accepting the above acts, new elections would doubtless have returned a Parliament of more moderate composition. As it was, his determination to punish the opposition leaders, their wish to preserve what had been gained, and the agitation for more radical reforms in church and state gradually widened the breach. To the newly formed royalist party the name " Cavaliers " was given, while their opponents, from their puritanically cut hair, were called " Roundheads." A rebellion in Ireland, in 1641, made necessary an English army to quell it. Parliament rightly feared lest the king 344. Out- should use this army to undo their work ; while the king CivS^Var ^^^^^^^ *o part with his prerogative • of appointing the (1641-1643) officers. Over the question of the control of the militia, which involved the question whether king or Parliament should rule, the two parties in 1642 drifted into war. ENGLAND (1603-1760) 375 Geographically the north and west — the poorer and more backward parts of the country — were royalist, while the richer and more progres- sive south and east adhered to Parlia- ment. Socially, the middle classes, including the Lon- doners, were parlia- mentarians; while the gentry and the nobles — save a small number who continued attend- ance in the House of Lords — sup- ported the king. The navy, the ar- senals, and the ma- chinery of taxation were in the hands of Parliament. England in the Civil War (1642). Both sides sought allies. In 1643 the parliamentarians entered into a Solemn League and Covenant with the Scots, by which a reformation of religion in England and Gardiner, Ireland was pledged "according to the Word of God, and Docimienis « mi. • ^f ^'''^ Puri- the example of the best reformed churches." This was 't^n Revolu- understood to mean the establishment of Presbyterian- ^''o''.^^^-^^^^ ism ; only on that , understanding would the Scots furnish troops, whose expenses were to be borne by Parliament. The king in the same year came to terms with the Irish rebels, and sought to bring over armies from Ireland and the C-ontment. Hampden and Pym died early in the war. Oliver Cromwell, an earnest, God-fearing man, organized a body of cavalry, 376 THE OLD KEGIME like-minded with himself, styled the " Ironsides " ; and the efficiency of these troops and his own tactical genius brought 345. Victory him into increasing prominence. On the king's side, the of parlia- ost brilliant officer was Charles's nephew, Prince Ru- mentarians (1643-1645) pert, a son of the unfortunate Frederick of the Palatinate. The first great reverse sustained by Charles was at Marston Moor (July, 1644), when Cromw^ell's Ironsides and the Scots overthrew Rupert and the royal- ists ; this secured the north to Parliament. The feeling that the noble leaders of the parliamentary army were disinclined to follow up their victories against the king led (in 1645) to the passage of a " Self-denying Ordinance," by which officers who were members of Parliament laid down their commands ; Cromwell, however, was allowed to retain his, and the army w^as reorganized under him as lieutenant general. In 1645 the second decisive victory over the king was won at Naseby. The royalist forces were* there practically destroyed; and copies of Charles's private letters were captured, showing his intrigues and duplicity. In May, 1646, Charles gave himself up to the Scots, think- ing to obtain better terms from them than from his English subjects. The religious question in England meanwhile took a new turn. An assembly of clergy ai^d laity, called by Parliament, 346. Nego- ^^* ^^ Westminster (just west of London) from 1643 to tiations 1647, and framed the Westminster (Confession, in which Charles I. were embodied Presbyterian principles, including the (1646-1648) abolition of episcopacy and the disuse of the Prayer Book. In Parliament the Presbyterians were in control, and Oliver Cromwell. From the contemporary paiutinj hy Van der Faes. T:NGLAN1) (1003-17('.0) 377 sought to force their princii^les on tlie nation; but in the army the majority were Independents, or radical Puritans, who opposed an established church of any sort and favored religious toleration. When Charles surrendered, the Scots, Parliament, and the army all tried their hands at negotiation with him. The Scots at last, in disgust at his obstinacy, turned him over to Parlia- ment and marched home. Quarrels then broke out between Parliament and the army, owing to the intolerance of the Presbyterians and an attempt to disband the troops without pay ; and the army took the custody of Charles into its own hands (June, 1647). After five months Charles escaped to the Isle of Wight but at Royal Apartments, Carisbrooke Casti-k. Carisbrooke Castle he ^'•o^^ ^ photograph, was again taken into custody. In 1648 he succeeded in stir- ring up a second civil war, in which the Scots, now supporting the king, were routed by Cromwell at Preston. The army officers, convinced at length of the futility of further nego- tiations with Charles, joined in demanding that he be brouglit to trial. When Parliament, after passing measures directed against the Independents, voted to reopen negotiations witli the king, a body of troops under Colonel Pride took posses- sion of their hall, and exchided one hundred and forty-three Presbyterian members (1648). 378 THE OLD REGIME After " Pride's Purge," the " Rump " (as the remainder of Parliament was called) numbered less than sixty members, 347 Execu- ^"^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ "^ pretense of representing the country ; tion of nevertheless it appointed a High Court of Justice, which ?jan^^3^0^ tried the king and condemned him to death as " a tyrant, 1649) traitor, murderer and public enemy to the good people of Gardiner, this nation." Throughout the trial the strongest indi- ^PtliTpuri- cations were given that the' proceedings were not approved tan Revolu- gyg^ bv the maioritv of Londoners. Nevertheless, on tion, 282-290 -^ ^ .1 ^o , ,T 1 1 1 T 1 TT January 30, 1649, Charles was publicly beheaded. He bore himself with quiet dignity and religious resignation, and his death went far to remove the unfavorable impression created by his misgovernment and intrigues. His great error lay in trying to "substitute the personal will of Charles Stuart for the legal will of the king of England." The Commons claimed that " the people are under God the source of all just power"; and assuming to act in the name 348. The of the x^eople, they decreed the abolition of monarchy Common- ^^^^ ^^ ^^iQ House of Lords, and declared England to wealth ' ^ (1649-1653) be a Commonwealth, or free state, with an executive council of forty-one members. Besides an unsuccessful movement of radicals called " Lev- ellers," in England, the Commonwealth was threatened from Ireland and Scotland by the adherents of Charles's son, whom Garhjie, the Scots proclaimed as Charles II. In Ireland Crom- Letters^nos. ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ places by storm and put the garrisons 70, 71 to the sword, as a means " to prevent the effusion of blood for the future"; and in September, 1650, he inflicted a severe defeat upon the Scots at Dunbar. Next summer young Charles II. made a dash into England, where the royalists were expected to rise to his assistance : this ex- pectation was disappointed, and, just one year after Dunbar, the Scots were overwhelmingly defeated a second time at Worcester. Prince Charles escaped to France, after six weeks ENGLAND (1G03-17GO) ' 37 •) of thrilling adventures, and for the next nine years Scotland was forcibly united to England. New difficulties meanwhile arose between the army and Parliament. Cromwell and the army desired that elections be held for a new Parliament, but the members of the Rump in- sisted that they should sit in the new body, and have a veto on the election of the new members. In April, 1653, Cromwell ended the matter by forcibly turning out the Rump ; he then called together an assembly of persons nominated by the Inde- pendent ministers of the three kingdoms — popularly styled "Barebone's Parliament" from a London member named Praise-God Barebone. The failure of this body to deal satisfactorily with matters of government led to the adoption of a written constitution called the Instrument of Government. In this Cromwell was 349. The named Lord Protector for life of England, Scotland, and ^e°a65°3- Ireland ; and with a council of not more than twenty-one 1659) or less than thirteen, was constituted the executive. All legis- lative power was vested in a Parliament of a single chamber. Like the later American constitutions, the Instrument of Government was a rigid constitution, containing provisions which could not be changed by ordinary legislation. In foreign affairs Cromwell's government was eminently successful, and England was more respected abroad than she had been since Elizabeth's day. In internal affairs the Pro- ^ tectorate proved a failure because it was based upon the sup- port of the army, and not upon the free consent of the nation. When the first Parliament under the Protectorate met, in 1654, its members insisted on debating the advisability of "government by a single person," and otherwise called in question the constitution under which they were* assembled. Cromwell thereupon dismissed them at the earliest moment possible ; and royalist plots for a time led him to assume the powers of a dictator. 380 THE OLD REGIME 111 1656 Cromwell again called a Parliament, and after ex- cluding some ninety members from their seats, he got along . smoothly with the rest. They even offered the crown to Crom- |; well, and proposed a " second house " of Parliament ; he de- clined the crown, but organized the second chamber. Xew difficulties forced him, in February, 1658, to dissolve the new Parliament, like its predecessor. On September 3 of the same year, the anniversary of the battles of Dunbar and Worcester, Cromwell died. He had not sought power, neither had he shirked it, and while it was in his hands he administered the government honestly and ably ; in his wish to grant toleration to all Protestant Christians, whether Episcopalians, Presby- terians, or Independents, he was in advance of his time. His son, Richard Cromwell, succeeded him as Protector, but had neither the force of character nor the hold on the army 350. Kesto- possessed by his father ; and he soon permitted the gen- Stuarts ^ erals to restore the Rump, which speedily forced him to (1660) abdicate and retire to private life (1659). The Rump again quarreled with the army, was again expelled, and again restored. By this time England was heartily tired of Commonwealth and Protectorate alike, and was ready to welcome the restora- tion of the legitimate monarch. George Monk, a strong, silent general, who had taken no part in recent squabbles, marched to London with the northern troops, and forced the Rump to admit the members expelled by Pride in 1648 ; the reconsti- tuted assembly then ordered a new election and voted its own dissolution (March, 1660). Thus ended the Long Parliament, twenty years after its first assembling ; its republic had failed, but it had forever put barriers to the absolutism of the crown. Thenceforth Parliament could not be dispensed with, and its ascendency in the government steadily grew. The Convention Parliament, as the new assembly was styled, proceeded at once to call Charles II. to the throne, and restore ENGLAND (1603-1700) 381 the old constitution. The new monarch was a man of great natural sagacity, but indolent and grossly innnoral. He came back with the fixed determination "never to set out on his travels again," and did not hesi- tate to give way on any point when circumstances compelled him. Thirteen persons impli- cated in the execution of Charles I. were put to death. The puri- tanic mode of life forced upon the country in the preceding period was followed by a licen- tious reaction, of which the king's court was the center. In spite of the fact that to the Presbyterians belonged the credit for Charles's resto- 351. Perse- ration, the new or Cava- ^^^*^°f °^ ' Dissenters lier Parliament (1661-1679) showed itself violently in- (1660-1686) tolerant of everything which differed from the Church of Eng- land. Nearly two thousand ministers, many of them men of the highest character, were expelled from their livings by the requirement that they should accept the Book of Common Prayer in every particular, and declare that it was unlawful to bear arms against the sovereign on any pretense whatever. The Five-Mile Act, Conventicle Act, and Corporation Act ex- cluded the dispossessed ministers from the profession of teach- ing, forbade under heavy penalties the holding of dissenting religious assemblies, and shut out of municipal ofKce those who did not receive the sacrament of the Lord's Supper accord- ing to the Church of England. From this time there existed, along with the established church, a large body of Protestant dissenters — i^resbyterians, Baptists, Quakers, and the like. Their ranks contained the Woman's Dress in Court of Charles II. f 382 THE OLD REGIME noblest English writers of that time. John Milton (1608- 1674), the blind author of Paradise Lost, was for ten years secretary to the council of state under Cromwell, and chief! literary defender of the Puritan cause in politics ; in religion he embodied the loftiest and most tolerant form of Puritanism. John Bunyan (1628-1688) equally embodied the ideas of re- ligious dissent in his prose allegory entitled Pilgrim^ s Progress. In his foreign policy Charles II. showed himself subservient to Louis XIV. of France in return for money to spend upon 352. Rise of his pleasures; but two wars against the Dutch (1665- T^rifs ^""^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ 1672-1674) enforced Cromwell's policy of build- (1672-1685) ing up English shipping (§ 317). At heart Charles was a Catholic, so far as he was anything, and wished to secure toleration for his Catholic subjects. To test public opinion, his brother and heir, James, Duke of York, declared his adherence to the Roman Church. In 1672 Charles even issued a Declaration of Indulgence, suspending the acts which imposed disabilities on Catholic and Protestant dissent- ers; but this step was attacked as unconstitutional, and the obnoxious declaration was withdrawn. Parliament then (1673) passed a Test Act, excluding Catholics from administrative offices, and five years later (1678) the exclusion was extended to Catholic members of the House of Lords. As Catholics had been ineligible for the Commons since the days of Eliza- beth, the exclusion now extended to all public life. ^ In 1678 England went wild over rumors of a " Popish plot '^ for the forcible restoration of Catholicism. A persistent but unsuccessful attempt in Parliament to pass a bill excluding the Duke of York from the succession led to the rise of Eng- lish political parties in the form which they were to hold for more than a century. On the one side stood the Tories, who laid stress upon the ideas of hereditary succession and the duty of non-resistance, and were stanch supporters of the es- tablished church; on the other were the Whigs, who leaned ENGLAND (IG08-17G0) 388 to toleration of Protestant dissenters, and looked upon the king as an official, snbject to the law, and bound to act through ministers responsible to Parliament. The reign closed in 1685 with the Tories completely triumphant and Charles at the height of his power. Two great calamities of this reign deserve notice. In 1665 a terrible plague swept away one hundred thousand persons in London alone ; and, a year later, fire destroyed nearly 353. Lon- the whole city. Out of the ashes of ruined London rose ^°^ Plague "^ . and Fire a better built city, much of which still stands. (1665,1666) In spite of his Catholic faith, James II. was allowed quietly to succeed his brother, and a rebellion which aimed to set upon the throne the Protestant Duke of Monmouth, illegiti- 354. Tyran- mate son of Charles IL, met with practically no support. ^^Tx^'Ie?!^ Monmouth was put to death, and all who were in any 1688) way implicated were punished in the Bloody Assize held by a brutal and servile judge named Jeffreys. James possessed all of Charles I.'s narrow-mindedness and tenacity of opinion, without his ennobling traits; it has been said of him that, "by incredible and pertinacious folly, he irritated not only the classes which had fought against his father, but also those that had fought for his father." The opposition arose chiefly from Jameses persistent efforts to set aside the laws imposing disabilities upon Catholics, by excusing them, through an assumed " dispensing power," from the provisions of the Test Act. In 1687, and again in 1688, he issued Declarations of Indulgence, suspending the execu- tion of all penal laws for religious offenses, and forbidding the imposition of religious oaths or tests as qualification for office. James thought that Protestant dissenters would support his policy, but their fear of a Catholic restoration led them to join the opposition. The universities and clergy were also alien- ated by high-handed attempts to force Catholics into univer- sity offices. ^84 THE OLD REGIME For a time the nation bore patiently these oppressions, for James's two daughters (his only legitimate children) were both Protestant, and the elder, Mary, was married to William of Orange (§ 318). In 1688, however, the birth of a son by a second wife presented an heir who would be educated as a Catholic. A tyrannical prosecution of seven of the leading bishops for a petition which they presented to the crown C B ^ ^' N E z RoTTTK OF William III. brouglit matters to a head, and Tories and AVhigs alike united in an appeal to William III. of Orange to save England from a Catholic sovereign. Unfortunately for James, his patron Louis XIV. wished to teach him a lesson of submissiveness to France, and hence 355 The directed the French armies elsewhere, leaving William Kevolution free to invade England. Scarcely a blow was sti'uck in James's behalf, the army which he had built up prov- ing untrustworthy. Deserted by practically all his adherents, he lost courage and -fled to France. Xothing could have better served William's interests. A Parliament, called on the advice of leading peers, declared : (1) that James by his of 1688 ENGLAND ( 1603-1 7G0) 385 actions had abdicated the government, and that the throne was vacant ; (2) that it was " inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a Popish prince " — and the throne was thereupon offered to AVilliam and Mary as joint sovereigns. A declaration of the '- true, ancient, and indubitable rights of the people of this realm " was then made in the Bill of Rights (1689), which effectually settled Thk Flight ok James II. From an engraving by Romeyn de Hooghe. the constitutional questions in controversy : the dispensing power was declared illegal ; freedom of speech and debate in Parliament, together with the right of petition, was secured ; and the keeping up an army in time of peace, save with parlia- mentary consent, was forbidden. The Bill of Rights, follow- ing Magna Charta (1215) and the Petition of Right (1(528), completed the structure of the constitutional monarchy. The rulers of England, after 1688, owed their throne ultimately to a vote of Parliament, and this fact prevented the supremacy of Parliament ever afterward being called in question. In Ireland James II., relying on the loyalty of the Catholic r i 38(3 THE OLD REGIME population, sought to regain what he had lost in England, but after his defeat by \Yilliani at the battle of the Boyne (1690), Ireland was soon pacified. The Scots followed the ex- liam III. ample of the English in declaring James deposed and ac- (1688-1702) cepting William ; but some severe lighting was necessary before the Stuart sympathizers were forced into submission. The religious question in England was largely solved in 1689 by the passage of a Toleration Act, which allowed Prot- estant dissenters, under certain restrictions, to set up their worship alongside that of the established church. This mod- eration of religious opinion is connected with the growth of scientific knowledge: Sir Isaac Newton had just announced] his discovery of the laws of gravitation ; the composition o: the atmosphere was being studied; botany was becoming a science; and microscopic animal life had been discovered. Such increased knowledge of nature inevitably affected men's attitude in religion. A further evidence of progress of intelli- gence is seen in the fact that after 1712 no executions for witchcraft took place in England. William's long struggle with Louis XIV. (§§ 318, 322-324) forms the chief part of England's foreign relations in this reign. 357. Poll- In constitutional history the facts of chief interest are parties *^^® ways in which Parliament's ascendency was strength- (1689-1702) ened and used. The Triennial Act of the Long Parlia- ment sought to make sure that not more than three years should elapse ivithout a Parliament; a new Triennial Act (1694) prohibited the continuance of a Parliament for more than three years, the period later being extended to seven years, in which form the law is still in force. Unlike the legislative bodies of the United States, English Parliaments are not elected for a fixed term, but last until dissolved ; they must come to an end, however, before the seven-year period is up. Annual sessions were secured by the practice of voting taxes and the army bill for but one year at a time ; if the gov^ ENGLAND (1(503-1700) 3g7 ernment failed to call Parliament to renew these, it would be left without legal revenue and without legal means of control- ling the army. This practice effectually insures that the voice of Parliament shall be heeded. The development of the Whig and Tory parties, with deh- nite- political principles, made it easier to ascertain the voice of Parliament; but fully organized parliamentary gov- 358. Rise ernment required a center of influence, which was sup- °^ Cabinet plied by the Cabinet. In its present form the Cabinet is ^°ment practically a committee of members of the two houses of Parliament, who are intrusted with the administration of the government. They are chosen ostensibly by the sovereign, but really by a Prime Minister, out of members of the two houses who are in political accord with the majority of the House of Commons. The essential feature of the Cabinet is the union of executive and legislative functions (contrary to the American practice) in the same persons. The beginnings of this system may be traced in the reign of William and Mary, when in 1694 William formed the first truly constitu- tional government by choosing his ministers entirely from one political party — the Whigs. Mary died in 1694 and William in 1702; they left no children, and the throne passed to Anne, Mary's younger sister. The long War of the Spanish Succession (§§ 324- g^g Queen 328) was the chief feature of this reign in foreign affairs. Anne . (1702-1714) In domestic affairs an important event was the merging of the two kingdoms of Scotland and England into the single kingdom of Great Britain (1707) ; by the terms of the Act of Union the Scottish Parliament came to an end, and Scottish representatives were added to both houses of the English Parliament. Anne was a weak, good-natured woman, and struggles between Whigs and Tories for control of the gov- ernment fill the history of her reign. Although Anne had many children, they were weakly and died young. 888 TIIK OLD REGIME 111 1701 an Act of Settlement was passed vvliicli i)rovide(^ that after the deaths of William and of Anne the throne should go to the lineage of the Electress of Hanover, the nearest Protestant branch descended from the house of Stuart.^ As Anne's death drew near, the Tories, who were then in power, opposed the Hanoverian succession ; and it- was only the sudden termination of Anne's last illness, and the firmness of the AYhig leaders, that prevented a second Stuart restoration. George I. (1714-1727), the first Hanoverian king of Great Britain, was commonplace and a thorough German. His 360. First ignorance of English led to his absenting himself from v^r' n'^°' Cabinet meetings, thus establishing a precedent which (1714-1760) greatly increased the independence of the ministry. A " Jacobite '' rising in favor of the Old Pretender (James, son of James XL), in 1715, was easily put down; and a daring invasion by the Young Pretender (Charles, grandson of James II.), in 1745, which penetrated from Scotland to 1 Hanover (§ 125) was given a vote in the imperial electoral college (the ninth) in 1692; it became a kingdom in 1815. The following genealogy shows the relationship of the house of Hanover to the house of Stuart : — (1) James I. (1603-1625) First Stuart King of KiifrlaiKl (2) Charles I. (1625-1649) 1 Elizabeth ■■ Mary, m. William 11. of Oraiifj-e (5)WlLLIAM III.: (1688-1702) (3) Charles II. (1660-1685), Duke of Monmouth (4) James II. (1685-1 688) (d. noi) I I I = Mary (6) Anne James Edward (d. 1694) (1702-1714) the Old Pretender (d. 1766) I Charles Edward, the Young Pretender (d. 1788) Frederick V., Elector Palatine I 1 ^1 Rupert Sophia, (d. 16S2) Electress of Hanover I (7) George I. (1714-1727) (^) George II. (1727-1760) I Frederick, Prince of Wales (d. 1751) (9) George III. (1760-1820) (see p. 559). KX(iLANl) (l(;().'^,-i7(;o) o^S!) Derby (p. 410), and caused a panic at l.ondon, failed c(|ually l)ecause of a lack of English support. The government under both George I. and George TI. (1727-1760) was Ion-- in the hands of Sir Robert Walpole, the first real prime minister in English history (1721-1742). His policy was to strengtlien the Hanoverian succession, maintain peace, and allt)w free de- velopment to English industry and commerce; he was sup- ported by the Whig party, which was composed largely of dissenters and the middle classes, and was opposed by the Tory squires and clergymen, who long preserved a secret loyalty to the exiled Stuarts. The prosperity of agriculture and commerce, the Avide prevalence of political corruption, and a great religious revival under John and Charles Wesley (the " Methodists ") characterize this period. England's insular position protected her from foreign inter- ference while passing through the political crises of the sev- enteenth century, as it had while passing through the 35^ Sum- religious revolution of the sixteenth. Three passions "^^'^y animated her in this period : (1) the sentiment of loyalty, which long protected Charles L, recalled Charles II. from exile, and disturbed the security of the Hanoverians by Jacobite risings ; (2) hatred of Roman Catholicism, which put Charles I. to death, raised up Cromwell, and exiled James II. ; and (3) attachment to political liberty. "When the quarrel Lavisse, between the loyalists and the anti-papists had been yi^^^jX^ settled, and foreigners, first a Dutchman and then the J 11 Hanoverians, succeeded to the throne of England, the domi- nant passion became that of liberty." Under the system of government which followed. Parliament could do almost everything without the king, but he could do nothing with- out Parliament. "Against its own government the country defended itself by means of its rights and liberties. It had private rights, whereby the person of an Englishman, his Harding's m. & m. hist. — 23 390 THE OLD REGIME domicile, and his purse were rendered inviolable against all illegal acts ; and public rights, namely, the right of complaint and petition, the right of meeting, the right of association, the right to speak and to write. . . . England was free ; indeed, in the eighteenth century she was the only free nation in the world." TOPICS Suggestive topics Search topics (1) Why did absolute monarchy not succeed in England as it did in France ? (2) In the contest between James I. and his Par- liaments, which was seeking to introduce a change ? (3) What were the chief causes of the failure of Charles I. as king? (4) Was the execution of Strafford and Laud just or unjust ? (5) Would you have been a Cavalier or a Roundhead if you had been in Parliament in 1640 ? Wliy ? (G) Would you have fought for the king or for Parliament in the civil war? (7) Was tolera- tion in religion most likely to come from Charles I., the Long Par- liament, the Scots, or the army ? (8) Was the execution of Charles just or unjust ? Was it expedient or inexpedient ? (9) Was Cromwell an ambitious usurper or a sincere patriot ? (10) Was Charles IL a good or a bad king? (11) Why did all sects of English Protestants unite in refusing toleration to Roman Catholics in the seventeenth century ? (12) Why did Englishmen turn to William III. of Orange? (13) Did the Bill of Rights enact new principles ? (14) Review the steps in the growth of Parliament before the seventeenth century. (15) What were the chief developments in the seventeenth century with respect to Parliament ? (16) How did the Hanoverian succession help the growth of constitutional principles ? (17) The Gunpowder Plot. (18) Puritan emigration to North America under James I. and Charles I. (19) England and the Thirty Years' War. (20) Character of Charles I. (21) George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham. (22) Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford. (23) William Laud. (24) Sir John Eliot. (25) John Hampden. (26) John Pym. (27) Oliver Cromwell. (28) Trial and execution of Charles I. (29) Growth of English sea power in the seventeenth century. (30) Character of Charles IL (31) Rise of Whig and Tory parties. (32) Character of James II. (33) Revolution of 1688. (34) William III. of Orange as king of England. (35) Queen Anne. (36) Rise of the Cabinet. (37) Reasons for union of Scotland with England. (38) Sir Robert Walpole. ENGLANi:) (100a-17G0) 3yi REFERENCES Gardiner, Sr^hool Atlas, maps 29-46 ; Dow, Atlas, xxii. Geography Terry, History of England, 618-907 ; Gardiner, Student's History Secondary of England, chs. xxxi.-xlviii. ; Ransome, Advanced History of authorities England, 486-803 ; Gardiner, Puritan Revolution, 1-69, 71-82, 85-96, 108-185; Hale, Fall of the Stuarts, 76-79, 98-110, 119- 144 ; Airy, English Restoration and Louis XIV. ; Morris, Age of Anne, chs. vii. xxi. xxii., — Early Hanoverians; Harrison, Oliver Cromwell ; Gardiner, Oliver Cromwell ; Morley, Oliver Cromwell, bk. i. chs. ii -vii., bk. ii. ch. v., bk. iii. chs. vi. vli., bk. v. chs. vii. viii. ; Roosevelt, Oliver Cromwell, chs. i.-iii. ; Goldwin Smith, Three English Statesmen (Pym) ; Traill, William the Third, chs. iii.-v. ; Morley, Walpole, chs. vii. x. ; Montague, English Consti- tutional History, 113-173; Moran, English Government, ch. iv, ; Seeley, Expansion of England, pt. i. chs. ii. v.-viii. ; Macaulay, History of England, I. ch. iii. ; Historian's History of the World, XIX. 469-628. Hart, Source Book of American History, no. 14, — American Sources History told by Contemporaries, I. chs. vii. viii. xiv. xv. xxi. ; Hill, Liberty Documents, chs. vii.-ix. ; Henderson, Side Lights on Eng- lish History, 33-283 ; Kendall, Source Book, chs. xi.-xviii. ; Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, 326-489 ; Colby, Selections from the Sources, nos. 68-103 ; Gee and Hardy, Documents Illustrative of English Church History, nos. 88-124 ; Old South Leaflets, Nos. 6, 19, 23-28, 57, 60-63 ; Boyle, Characters and Episodes selected from Clarendon, 4-19, 63-78, 82-85, 88-94, 151-168, 174-177, 216-218, 223-229, 275-284. Scott, Woodstock, — Fortunes of Nigel ; G. P. E- James, The illustrative Cavalier ; Henty, Friends Tliough Divided, — Cornet of Horse ; ^°^^^ De Foe, Memoirs of a Cavalier ; Mrs. Marsh, Father Darcy ; F. W. Robinson, Old Noll ; Thackeray, Henry Esmond. f chaptp:r XXII. NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1689-1748) (A) Russia and Sweden ."EussTA is the last-born child of European civilization;" during the whole of the Middle Ages its history may be neg- lected, because it was the history of barbarism, not of 362. Russia beforePeter civilization — of Asia, not of Europe. In the ninth cen- the Great tury, Rurik the Northman established his sway over the Slavic tribes about Novgorod ; in the tenth century his descend- ants received Christianity from Constantinople. For nearly two hundred and forty years after 1241, the Golden Horde of Mongols exercised suzerainty over the land. Poland, seizing the western districts, placed herself between Germany and Russia, and seemed about to develop permanently into a power- ful Slavic kingdom. In 1480, however, the Grand Duke of Muscovy cast off the Mongolian yoke, and set about the creation of an independent Russian state. Now that Constantinople had fallen before the Turks, Moscow claimed to be its heir and its avenger. By the middle of the sixteenth century, Astrakhan was con- quered from the Mongols, and the Russian boundary was pushed to the Caspian Sea. In 1613 the Romanoffs, ancestors (in the female line) of the present ruling dynasty, ascended the throne. Under the early rulers of this house the beginning was made of that eastward expansion — paralleled in United States history by the '' winning of the West " — which gave Russia the vast domain of Siberia. Internally barbar- im still ruled, and externally Russia was cut off frojn European politics. 392 NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (lG8i)-174S) 3y;j ^ n C T r ^ Russia: Conquests of Peter the Great. In both these respects a revohition was effected by the hero of Russian history, Peter the Great, whose character was ggg ^^^^^ a strange admixture of nobility and cruelty, of culture reign of 1 1 -i. i. 1 1 • Peter the and savagery. When aroused to anger he decapitateci nis q^^^^ enemies with his own hands, and he presided at the tor- (1689-1698) 894 THE OLD kI^.GIME ture and death of his ekiest son when the latter threatened the stability of his work-; his drunken orgies sometimes lasted for days. Yet his nature was truthful, simple, and straight- forward, and no one could be a truer friend to those who de- served his friendship. His reign really began in 1689, when he was seventeen years old. While still a lad he had already begun to manifest that passion for western arts and for warfare which were his most prom- inent characteristics; he loved to slip away to the jjart of Moscow frequented by foreign merchants, there to pick up a knowledge of German and Dutch, and learn something of European science and inventions. In a shed by the river he discovered a forgotten sailboat, which fired him with a desire to learn navigation and shipbuilding; and this half-rotten boat became the " grandfather of the Russian fleet." Playing at war led to the formation of a company of soldiers equipped in European fashion and commanded by a German officer, and this proved the beginning of a new Russian army. In two expeditions (1695 and 1696), Azof on the Black Sea was captured, and the value of the young czar's "amusements" was made manifest. But the Russian nobility, the Russian priesthood, the old Russian army, were hostile to change. To obtain that first-hand knowledge of the West which was neces- sary to overcome Muscovite inertia, Peter, with a large suite, in 1697 and 1698, made a journey of instruction to Germany, Holland, and England. In Holland he worked for some days in the shipyards, disguised as a common sailor. Wherever he went he refused honors, in order to visit workshops and labora- Peter the Great. NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1680-1748) 395 tories. Anatomical and natural history collections were exam- ined, as well as sawmills, paper mills, flour mills, printing offices, and the like. His constant utterance was, "I must see." On his way to Venice, Peter was recalled home by a revolt of the old Russian army (Streltsi), which had long played a part similar to that of the prsetorian guard in Roman history; „^. ^ •^ ' 364. Peter 8 his native savagery burst out in fearful vengeance, and the reforms opportunity was used to do away entirely with such dan- (^^^^"^'^25^ gerouS troops. By refusing to appoint a successor to the last Patriarch of Moscow, who died in 1700, and by later commit- ting the direction of the Russian Greek Church to a Holy Synod, Peter broke the power of the priesthood, and weakened a second center of blind conservatism. The nobles were gradu- ally depressed, until, in 1711, the czar felt strong enough, by forbidding them for the future to hold their council, to end their political power. Thus army, church, and nobility alike were rendered powerless to oppose reform. A series of "ukases," or decrees, appeared meanwhile which little by little reconstituted Russia's institutions — central, pro- vincial, and municipal ; social, military, and educational. West- ern shipbuilders, engineers, physicians, and schoolmasters were invited in, under promise of security, rewards, and religious toleration. Shaved faces and the short-cut sleeves of the West replaced at the Russian court the long beards and flowing sleeves of the East. In spite of all efforts, '• Holy Moscow," the center of Russian conservatism, remained hostile to Peter's measures; he also desired a maritime capital. Since Archangel on the White Sea was closed by ice for more than half the year, and Azof on the Black Sea was cut off from the Mediterranean by the Turks at Constantinople, a port on the Baltic was a necessity ; but both shores of that sea were in the hands of Sweden. To gain the site for a Baltic port, far more than to win new prov- 396 THE OLD KECilMK inces, Peter the Great embarked upon a war against the Swed- ish king, Charles XII. For some decades after the Thirty Years' War, Sweden's possessions almost surrounded the Baltic Sea, and she was 365 Swe- ^^^^ ^1"^* power of the North ; but when the Swedes, then den after iu alliance with Louis XI Y., attacked Brandenburg, they Years'^Var experienced their first great defeat (1675) at Fehrbellin. (1648-1700) ^ period of ])eace followed, devoted to commerce, indus- try, and internal reforms. When Charles XII. (1697-1718) ascended the throne as a boy of fifteen, the occasion seemed favorable to despoil Sweden; and Peter the Great joined Poland and Denmark for that purpose. The allies miscalculated the character of the young king, for Charles XII. was a man of exceptional ability and power, with a genius for war : although of unblemished private life, he showed passion and obstinacy in his public relations ; while the czar, though governed by gross passion and whim in pri- vate affairs, was guided in political action by reason and reflec- tion. The French philosopher Yoltaire said of Charles that he "carried all the heroic virtues to such excess that they became as dangerous as the opposite vices." Without waiting for attack, Charles took the offensive and invaded Denmark ; and before her allies could come up, Den- 366. Begin- i^^^rk was forced to make peace (August, 1700). Then ning of the Charles turned to meet the czar, who was attacking the Northern War Swedish provinces on the Gulf of Finland. With eight (1700-1706) thousand disciplined men against the sixty thousand still half -trained troops of Peter, Charles won a brilliant victory at Xarva (November, 1700). Poland was next invaded, and there for five years the war continued. Charles XII. occupied the capital, Warsaw, and drove the king, Augustus II. of Saxony, into his German dominions. In 170.3 he procured the election of a rival king (Stanislas Leszczynski) from among tlie Polish nobles. 1^'inally lie invaded Saxony itself, and in September, NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1(581)-1748) 397 1706, Augustus was forced to accept his deposition from the Polish throne and withdraw from the Russian alliance. Peter the Great, meanwhile, had conquered the Swedish l)rovinces about the Gulf of Fiuland, and in 1703 began to build there his new capital, St. Petersburg, amid the 367. Found- marshes and low-lying islands about the mouth of the i^gofst. _-.,,- ^ , , Petersburg river Neva. io deepen the channels and make ready (1703) the land for building purposes, an army of peasants was kept at work. The level of the islands was raised, and countless piles were driven into the swamps as supports for the heavy foundations of the buildings. Lack of provisions and shelter, with constant toil in the cold and wet, cost thousands of lives. Every cart entering the place, and every vessel sailing up the Neva, was forced to bring a specified quantity of building stones, while the construction of stone buildings in other parts of the empire was temporarily forbidden. To furnish inhabit- ants, thirty thousand peasants were transported thither at one stroke ; and the nobles w^ere required to maintain, in the new capital, houses proportionate to their means. To embellish the city, foreign workmen and artists were imported. Thus, against gigantic obstacles, Peter obtained his coveted " window toward the West," and freed his successors from the conserva- tive trammels of Moscow. The War of the Spanish Succession (§§ 324-327) was going on at the same time with the Northern War, and alliance with Charles XIT. was sought by both sides. Charles might 368. Charles have played the role of arbiter of Europe ; but reasous ^H. ^^^^^^^ of policy, as well as chimerical ambition, led liim to re- (1708) fuse the part. In the spring of 1708 he directed his arms against Russia, where he hoped to rival the exploits of Alex- ander the Great. Refusing battle (as iu 1812, against Na- l)oleon), the Russians retired upon Moscow, with the Swedes in pursuit. The winter, tlie most severe of the century, passed with Moscow still untaken. Spring found Charles in the ex- 398 THE OLi:) REGIME treme south, where, with reenforcements and supplies cut off, 1 he laid siege to Pultava. To the advice that he retreat while ■ there was yet time, he replied, "If an angel should descend from heaven and order me to depart from here, I would not go." When Peter arrived to relieve the city, the Swedes, out- numbered two to one, were defeated. Charles's army was almost entirely destroyed or captured, and he himself escaped with difficulty to Turkish soil. With unbending obstinacy Charles XII. stirred up the sultan to war against Russia. Peter's army was entrapped by the 369 Death Turks, but Peter purchased peace by the return of Azof of Charles to Turkey (1711). Charles XII., indignant at the peace, XII ri718) ' behaved like a madman. When, with but two companions, he reached his Baltic possessions he found his outlying terri- tories almost entirely lost and the Swedish power in ruins. Four years later, while attempting the conquest of Norway, his adventurous life was ended in the siege of Frederikshald. The death of Charles XII. made it easier to end the North- ern War, and the peace of Nystadt between Sweden and Russia, 370. End of in 1721, was the last of a series of treaties with that pur- the North- ^^^^^ Augustus of Saxony was restored to the Polish (1721) throne ; most of Sweden's possessions in Germany (p. 339) were given to Prussia and Hanover; and Russia secured the provinces about the Gulf of Finland, the lion's share of the booty. Sweden sank to the position of a third-rate state ; while Russia, rising to the position of foremost power of the North, began to make its voice heard in European councils. At the death of Peter the Great in 1725, Russia had taken on the form of a modern state. Bat the ancient despotism 371. Russia changed its form without changing its substance; Rus- th ^G ?^ sia remained at bottom an oriental state with a heritage (1725-1796) of manners and ideas borrowed mainly from Byzantine and Mongol civilizations : to Europe it seemed like a mon- ster and a disquieting enigma. NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1080-1748) 399 After Peter's death the government for seventy years (ex- cepting three ))rief intervals) was in tlie hands of women ; it was a time of paLace revolutions, of struggles between native Rus- sians and foreign favorites, between oligarchical and absolu- tist factions. The Empress Elizabeth (1741-1762), daughter of Peter the Great, adopted a reactionary policy at home, but acted vigorously in foreign affairs. The immoral but ener- The Present Winter Palace, St. Petersbur(;. Built 1754-1769 ; restored 1839. getic Catherine 11. (1762-1796) is accounted one of the chief founders of the Russian Empire; she took up the work of Peter the Great, and fostered western civilization, while the boundaries of the country were extended in every direction. Thenceforth Russia extended to the heart of Asia ; it was the only country of Europe that could increase indefinitely by absorbing barbarian lands. (B) Prussia The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw also the rise in power of another northern state — Prussia. Since ^^^ union 1415 Brandenburg had been a possession of the house of of Branden- ^ burg and Hohenzollern— the family of the present German em- Prussia peror; but until the seventeenth century there was noth- (1609-1618) 400 TIIK OLD uiXTLME ing to show that it was destined to leadership among (xerman states, though its territories slowly grew. The first half of the seventeenth century, however, brought three events of importance. (1) Some small territories upon the Hhiiie were acquired through the death of the Duke of Cleves and Jiilich (1609). A dispute arose over this inheritance, in which the principal powers of Europe took sides; but Cleves and other small provinces were united to Brandenburg, and gave her a footing in western Germany. (2) In 1618 a large part of Prussia was acquired. This land was conquered from the heathen Slavs in the thirteenth century by the Teutonic Knights (§ 101) ; but Poland had an- nexed its western half, and forced the Knights to hold East Prussia as a fief of the Polish crown by the treaty of Thorn (1466). At the time of the Keformation the (irand Master of the Knights, who was a member of the Hohenzollern family, dissolved the order on Luther's advice, and formed a secular duchy (1525). In 1618 his line became extinct, and the duchy fell, by previous arrangement, to the Prandenburg line of Hohenzollern, thereby almost doubling the territories of the Elector of Brandenburg and paving the way for future aggran- dizements. (3) The accession of the Great Elector, Frederick William, in 1640, did much to remove the ill effects of the Thirty 373 The Years' War. To natural gifts of a high order he added Great the advantages of education at a Dutch university. The Frederick tei'i'itories to which he succeeded lay in three widely sepa- William rated groups, — the Brandenburg territories, the Cleves (1640-1688) ^ i- ' o 7 territories, and the Prussian territories : the consolida- tion, increase, and development of these nicdei became his life work. By the treaty of Westphalia (1648) Frederick William secured eastern Pomerania, together Avith a group of secu- NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1G«U-1748) -lUl larizecl bishoprics on tlie west; the gaps separating Branden- burg from its sister territories were thus narrowed. By adroitly using the opportunities offered by wars between Swe- den and Poland, I'rederick AVilliam obtained, in 1660, his highest political triuuiph — a renunciation of Polish suzerainty over Prussia. His greatest military success was an overwhelm- ing victory over the Swedes won at Fehrbellin in 1675 (§ 365). W}W^ In 1640 ^3 I'' Brandenburg-Prussia under the Great Elector (1()40-1()88). While increasing his dominions, and enhancing his prestige abroad, Frederick William also busied himself with internal reform. Commerce, manufactures, and agriculture were all en- couraged; roads were built, and a waterway — the Frederick AVilliam Canal — joined the Oder to the Elbe, and secured a free outlet to the North Sea. French Huguenot emigrants to the number of twenty thousand were made welcome, their skill and industry proving a valuable acquisition. The army was brought to a high degree of perfection. The administra- tion of the three groups of territories was merged into one, and absolutism established : we may regret the lost liberties of the Estates, but the unity, strength, and good order of the realm were thereby increased. The work of Frederick Wil- liam is well summarized by his great-grandson, Frederick Tl. : ''With small means he did great things; was himself his own 402 THE OLD REGIME prime minister and general in chief, and rendered flourishing a state which he had found buried under its own ruins." His less capable son Frederick added to his electoral and ducal titles the higher one of king. " Great in small and 374. Prus- small in great things," his mind dwelt much upon mat- sia becomes ^g^g gf etiquette and ceremonial. At an interview with a kingdom ^ (1701) William III. the latter, as king of England, occupied an armchair, while Elector Frederick was given one without arms : thenceforth offended dignity joined with motives of policy to urge him to seek the title of king. The head of the Holy Roman Empire was the source from which such honor should come, and eventually the Emperor's need of military assistance forced from him a grant of the coveted dignity in January, 1701. The Emperor's pride was saved, while fuller independence was achieved for the new royalty, by making the title " Frederick I., King in Prussia," since Prussia lay outside the empire. Frederick's son. King Frederick William I. (1713-1740), resembled his grandfather, the Great Elector, in his diligence, 375. King economy, and careful attention to administration, and Frederick William I. ^^^ father in his tendency to eccentricities. Realizing (1713-1740) the weakness of Prussia's frontiers, his chief aims were to secure a strong army and a well-filled treasury. Economies were made in every department, the number of royal riding horses being eut down from one thousand to thirty, and a rigid supervision, the beginning of the Prussian bureaucracy, was introduced to prevent wastefulness and theft. Careful atten- tion was also given to increasing the revenues, in part through a better administration of the crown lands. Manufactures were encouraged, and foreign weavers were induced to settle in Prussia by the offer of a wife, loom, and supply of raw material. When the Catholic Archbishop of Salzburg (in 1731) drove out his Protestant subjects, fifteen thousand were received in Prussia, where they founded six new NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1080-1748) 403 tuwiis and many villages. The V russian nobles, who had th old feudal repugnance to taxes, were forced by Frederick Wil- liam to pay their full share; to a remonstrance that "the whole country would be ruined," the king bluntly replied, " I don't believe a word of it, but I do believe the political independence of the country nobles will be ruined." Under Frederick William's fostering care the Prussian army was doubled in numbers and greatly increased in efficiency. Tall soldiers were his hobby, and ^.^^ r^ •^' 376. The through the payment of large sums, king's tall kidnapping, and presents of giants from soldiers friendly powers, he obtained a palace guard that was the wonder of Europe. He watched I ){l.[^^0^ ^^^^' ^is "children in blue" like a father; 1pH,^^m^ but his ready cane chastised them for the slightest offense. ISTot merely soldiers, but servants, citizens, and even his children, suffered chastisement when they incurred the royal ire ; his eye and his stick were everywhere. His idea of kingship was patriarchal absolutism ; he was a ruder, simpler, more primitive Louis XIV. He would establish his sovereignty, he wrote, "like a rock of bronze." Even his famous "tobacco parliament," where officers, citizens, scholars, and foreign travelers smoked and drank with him, would on occasion be converted into an informal council of state, at which the weightiest measures were discussed. In his only war (1713) he acquired a part of Swedish (western) Pomerania and the convenient port of Stettin, at the mouth of the river Oder. The education which the king planned for his son and heir, the future Frederick the Great, was hard, practical, and 377. Youth matter-of-fact; but the prince's own inclinations, joined ^^^^f^^el^ to his mother's and teacher's secret efforts, supplemented (I7l2-l740j Giant Soldier OF Frederick William. 404 TlIK OLD 1JK(;IMR it with studies in literature, music, and art. Young Frederick showed himself as self-willed as his father, and an estrange- ment sprang up, which was widened by a public flogging. To make matters worse, the ])rince, who was an officer in the Prussian army, attempted to flee from the kingdom ; this was desertion punishable with death, and the beheading of his accom- plice before his eyes went far to cure the prince of his levity. Then followed the " second education '' of young Frederick. To discipline him and train him in the practical work of administration, his father set him to work in the War and ])omain Oflice as assistant clerk. This experience sobered and strengthened him, and prepared him for his duties as king; but his education also developed in him cynicism and hypocrisy. His appren- ticeship over, he was restored to favor, and soon was allowed to set up a little court of his own, where he surrounded himself with a brilliant cir- cle. He entered into corre- Fredekick the Great. spondence with the skeptical From a painting by J. Holier. French philosopher Voltaire, and wrote a refutation of the political treatise of Machiavelli (§ 234). To the superficial observer, he seemed likely to prove anything but the unscrupulous master of war and statecraft that his reign showed him to be. Frederick II. succeeded his father in 1740 at the age of 378. First twenty-eight. A few months later the Emperor Charles War^^^ VI. died, leaving no son ; but he had secured the assent (1740-1742) of Europe (including Prussia) to a document called the ;i ^^ JP^M § ^•«r* NORTHERN AND K ASTERN EmoPE (1080-1748; 405 l*ragmatic Sanction, by which his danghtci-, Mariii Theresa, was recognized as queen over all his dominions. This was Frederick's opportunity ; he desired above all else military glory, and he had at his back one of the finest armies of Europe and a well-tilled treasure chest. '• It is only a matter of carrying out plans," he wrote, '* which I have long had in my head." Without a declaration of war, in the dead of winter (1740), he threw his army into Silesia, to which he had some shadowy claims : it was sheer brigandage. Austria could at first offer no resistance ; and when her forces did appear, they were defeated (at Mollwitz, 1 741 ; map, p. 410). The efficiency of the Prussian army was established, and Europe recognized that a new power had arisen. At once Spain, France, Savoy, Bavaria, and Saxony all set up claims of various sorts to parts of the Hapsburg dominions; and there followed the general War of the Austrian Sue- lavisse ami cession (1740-1748) : " from the banks of the Oder the liambaud, Histoire war spread successively to the banks of the Danube, the G^n^rale, Elbe, the Po, then of the Scheldt and the Meuse, and ^^^^- ^''■' bej'Ond the seas." Under French leadership a league was formed which disregarded the traditions of three centuries and put a Wittelsbach — Charles VII., Elector of Bavaria — on the imperial throne. In this crisis Maria Theresa needed all her splendid courage and energy. Political concessions, joined to the pathetic situa- tion of the young queen, moved the Hungarians and her 379. Maria other snbjects to enthusiastic support; her chief hope, ^heroic however, lay in breaking up the alliance. Frederick II. defense was willing to abandon liis allies ; and after a second victory of the Prussians (at Chotusitz, in May, 1742), Maria Theresa signed the peace of Berlin (July, 1742), by whicli Frederick received practically the whole of Silesia, and ended what is known as the First Silesian War. Freed from one enemy, Maria Theresa turned energetically Harding's m, & s. hist. — 24 406 THE OLD REG I ME to meet the others. The I^'rencli and the Bavarians were beaten, but meanwhile the range of the struggle widened. Holland and Great Britain (whose king as Elector of Hanover w^as intimately con- cerned with German politics) took up arms on the side of Austria ; while the Bourbons of France and Spain entered into a " family compact " mutually to guarantee their possessions. The successes of Maria Theresa rightly caused Fred- 380. Second erick to feel apprehen- War'^"" sive for the safety of (1744-1745) his recent conquests; he resented, too, the Haps- burg occupation of Bavaria. He therefore entered into re- Maria Theresa. From a painting by J. Moller. newed allian(>p with France, and invaded Bohemia (1744), but was soon obliged to fall back discredited into Silesia. The French, upon whose assistance he counted, repaid his former desertion by neglecting the Silesian war. The Emperor Charles yiL, in whose interests Frederick pretended to light, died in 1745 ; and his son made peace and aided the election of Maria Theresa's husband, Francis I. (1745-1765) to the imperial throne. To render Frederick's situation more desperate. Sax- ony agreed with Austria to partition Prussia, and reduce his kingdom to the ancient limits of Brandenburg. Nevertheless, Frederick defeated the combined Austrians and Saxons ; and on Christmas Day, 1745, a second peace was signed at Dres- den, by which Frederick II. again laid down arms, on condi- tion of the renewed cession of Silesia. NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1689-1748) 4U7 The general war meanwhile took on a new significance. In America the English colonists captured Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island (1745). In India, also, and on the sea England fought France : " it was recognized in London and at Versailles that the questions at issue involved not merely lialauce of the preservation of the Pragmatic Sanction, but the su- ^'^«'«^ ^«» premacy of the sea, the superiority of the Latin or the Teu- tonic element in North America, and the growth of the influ- ence of France and England in India." For the settlement of questions so momentous as these, the time was not yet ripe. All parties grew tired of the war, and at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, a general peace was 381. Peace signed. Maria Theresa was recognized as ruler of the of Aix-la- . Chapelle Hapsburg lands, with the exception of Silesia, which was (1748) confirmed to Prussia; all other conquests were mutually re- stored. Frederick alone profited much from the war. It in- augurated, as Frederick predicted, "an entire change in the old political system "' of Europe; but the nature and results of the transformation became apparent only after the peace. The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw the decline of old powers in the north and east of Europe and the rise of new ones. Sweden, whose power was founded upon her army, 332. sum- sank in importance, while her neighbors, Prussia and ^^^y Russia, rose. Russia's greatness was founded ultimately upon her vast territories and the numbers of her people ; but for the European stamp fixed upon these she was indebted to Peter the Great (1689-1725). The Prussian-Brandenburg lands, being without defensible frontiers and surrounded by hostile neighbors, could rise to independent greatness only through military power, based upon industrial development and govern- mental absolutism. To the Cxreat Elector (1(U0-1688) and King Frederick William I. (1713-1740) belong the credit for starting Prussia upon this development, the fruition of which 408 THE OLD REGIME came with Frederick the Great (1740-1786). The two Silesii wars, which form parts of the War of the Austrian Succession' (1740-1748), mark Frederick's entrance into European politics. Into this same contest entered France and Great Britain, and thereby the war over the Austrian succession became one phase of that long rivalry for sea-power and dominion in America and India which in the eighteenth century characterized the relations of these two states. Suggestive topics Search topics TOPICS (1) Compare the condition of Russia at the accession of Peter the Great with that of the Frankish kingdom at the accession of Charlemagne. (2) What advantages had Peter over Charlemagne in the development of this state ? (3) Was Charles XII. or Peter the Great the better general ? (4) Which was the better states- man ? (5) What territorial advantages did Russia have over other European states ? What disadvantages ? (6) On what grounds could absolute government for Prussia be justified at that time? Do these reasons exist to-day? (7) Were the actions of Frederick the Great in harmony with his denunciation of the political principles of Machiavelli ? (8) Was Frederick's attack on Austria worse than that of Peter the Great on Sweden ? (9) Why did the War of the Austrian Succession spread to India and North America? (10) Why did the power of Sweden decline? (11) AVhy did Frederick I. wish to make Prussia a kingdom ? (12) Early history of Russia. (13) Training of Peter the Great. (14) His reforms. (15) Geographical causes of the expansion of Russia. (16) Russian conquest of Siberia. (17) Charles XII. of Sweden. (18) The Great Elector of Prussia. (19) King Frederick William I. (20) His love for tall soldiers. (21) The Salzburg Protestants. (22) Youth of Frederick the Great. (23) Maria Theresa of Hungary. (24) Frederick's claim on Silesia. (25) Frederick the Great and Voltaire. REFERENCES Geography See maps, pp. 284, 393, 401, 410 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 23, 24a, 25, 31 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, map 44 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps X. xli. xlii. xlix. li. ; Dow, Atlas, xix. xx. NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1(;89-174H) 409 Henderson, Short History of Germany, II. clis. i. iii. iv. ; Duruy, France, 490-496 ; Bryce, Holy Boman Empire, ch. xx. ; Motley, Peter the Great; Macaulay, Frederick the Great; Wakeman. Ascendancy of France, ch. xiii. ; Hassall, Balance of Power, chs. vi. vii. ; Morfill, Bussia, ch. vii. ; Tuttle, History of Prussia, I. chs. v.-xi., II. ; Rambaud, History of Bitssia, II. chs. i.-iv. ; Historians' History of the World, XIV. 422-435, XV. 155-187, XVII. 249-326 ; Lavisse, Youth of Frederick the Great ; Carlyle, Frederick the Great, bk. ix. ch. iii. ; Morley, Voltaire, ch. iv. ; Bright, 3Iaria Theresa ; Schuyler, Petet the Great ; Bain, Charles XII. Wilhelmina, Margravine of Baireuth, Memoirs; Duke of St. Simon, Memoirs (trans, by Bayle St. John), III. 377-382. F. Hoffman, The Iron Head ; Mtihlbach, Berlin and Sans-Souci ; H. J. Paulzow, The Citizen of Prague ; Miss Manning, Claude the Colporteur ; M. Imlay Taylor, On the Bed Staircase, — The Bebel- lion of the Princess ; F. Whishaw, Mazeppa ; Sheila E. Braine, The King's '■'■Blue Boys.'' Secondary authorities Sources Illustrative works CHAPTER XXIII. THE AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) Louis XV., the great-grandson and successor of Louis XIV. (§ 329), was a sickly child, and was not expected to live. His uncle, Philip V. of Spain, in spite of the treaty of Utrecht 333. Re- (§ 328), aspired to the regency and to the succession ; but ^^^^^ ^^ ^ . ' France the regency passed into other hands, and Louis XV. (1715-1723) lived to rival in the length of his reign Louis XIV. himself. The Duke of Orleans, nephew of Louis XIV., and regent, stood next in succession to the throne, if the exclusion of Philip V. held good; his energies, therefore, were chiefly directed to maintaining the treaty of Utrecht. Hence he permitted his minister, the clever and unscrapulous but far-sighted diplomat, Dubois, to ally France with Great Britain and Holland, her late enemies. In other ways also the regency marks a reac- tion : Orleans, although indolent and vicious in his private life, was able, tolerant, and open to the new scientific and philo- sophical impulses of the day; he curtailed the influence of the Jesuits in France, and even thought of recalling the Huguenots. In the financial administration, a Scotchman named John Law bore the chief part. He was a great believer in the power of credit, which, properly safeguarded, plays to-day 334 The so important a part in the world's financial operations. .'"^^r ^ i sissippi He sought to establish in France a huge national bank, Bubble" such as England had possessed since 1694; and also a (1718-1721) great commercial company, popularly known as the Mississippi Company, which was to secure the monopoly of French com- 411 412 THE OLD K:fcGIME inerce with Louisiana, Canada, Senegal, and the East Indies. For a time both enterprises prospered, and a mania for specu- lation sent the shares up to fabulous prices. "Everybody St. Simon, was mad upon Mississippi stock. Immense fortunes ^^noirs, ^^g^.g j^^^^g almost in a breath. . . . I^eople could not / y , 158 change their lands and their houses into paper fast enough." The inevitable result of overissue of stock and notes was that the "Mississippi Bubble" burst in 1720, and Law and his fol- lowers were overwhelmed in ruin. The English also, about the same time, were caught in a similar " South Sea Bubble." The young king, Louis XV., was declared of age in 1723. For a time he was restrained by the influence of Cardinal Fleurv, his chief minister: but after Fleury's death 385. Policy *^' • of Louis XV. (1743) he showed that (1723-1748) j^g ^^^.^^-^ f^^. j.^^g g^^,g his pleasures. As time went on, he fell under the sway of shameless mistresses, of whom the most noted were Madame de Pompadour and Madame du Barry. For the misfortunes and misgovern- ment of his reign Louis XV. felt no sense of respon- sibility ; if retribution came upon his successors, that was no concern of his. " Things will outlast our time," said he ; and Madame de Pompadour added recklessly, " After us, the deluge ! " At the age of fifteen (1725), Louis XV. married the daughter of Stanislas Leszczynski, the Polish nobleman whom Charles 386. War of XII. of Sweden placed for a time on the Polish throne Succ^essfon (^ ^^^)- ^^^^ ^^^ ^^"^^' against the better judgment of (1733-1735) Cardinal Fleury, to join with Spain and Sardinia in a war against Austria, Kussia, and Saxony, to recover for Stan- Chariot of Louis XV. In the Musee Cluny, Paris. AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) 413 islas the crown of Poland. The war was fought largely in Italy. The treaty of peace (1738) rejected the claim of Stan- islas to Poland, but compensated him with the grant of Lor- raine, which upon his death (1766) passed to the French crown, thus joining Alsace more closely to France, and rounding out the conquests of two centuries (map, p. 350). Austria was forced to cede Naples and Sicily to a Spanish Bourbon prince, the founder of a line of Neapolitan Bourbons who reigned (with an interval from 1806 to 1815) till 1861. The part which France took in the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) has already been described (§§ 378-381). The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, which closed that war in 387. Re- 1748 (§ 381), was far from a permanent adjustment. arrange- . . "^ mentofalh- Maria Theresa bitterly resented the provision which ance8(l756y left Silesia in the hands of Frederick the G-reat ; and France felt that her prestige was impaired by the rapid rise of Prus- sia, and that her interests in India and North America were threatened by the growth of English trade and colonization. Nevertheless, fenewal of war was postponed for eight years, during which time a change in alliances took place which amounted to a diplomatic revolution. " Austria and iiassall, France laid aside the enmity of two hundred years. Balance of •^ Foioer, 206 ceased to be rivals, and formed an alliance which con- tinued till the French Revolution ; . . . while England found an ally in Prussia." The Austrian minister Kaunitz, con- vinced that Austria's traditional alliance with England would never recover Silesia, took the first step toward the change ; and the outbreak of hostilities between the English and the F'renchin India and America — the prelude to a new European conflict — led Great Britain to take the second. George II. of Great Britain (§ 360) was concerned chiefly for the safety of his Hanoverian electorate; and he concluded a treaty with Prussia, which led Austria, in indignation at this act, to make a formal alliance with France (May, 1756). 414 THE OlA) REGIME In the war which followed, France, instead of concentrating her strength iij^on the struggle in India, America, and on the sea, wasted her energies on the European struggle. This " act of madness, of imbecile treason against herself," could only have taken place under a weak and slothful king such as Louis XY. It led to a decline of French influence in Europe, to the loss of her colonies in America, and to the transfer of the chief influence in India from France to England. In Europe the war began with a sudden invasion of Saxony by Frederick the Great in 175G (Third Silesian War) to an- 388 Open- ticipate an impending attack by Austria, Russia, and Saxony; he rightly judged that his best chance for safety first. In this war Frederick displayed ing of the Seven . , .. . Years' War 'ay in strikni the (1756) .ji i^jj, splendid powers of generalship. His army was best drilled and the best etpiipped in Europe, and was enthusiastically loyal ; he was served by able generals, ani- mated by his own spirit and trained under his own eye. Tlie French armies, on the other hand, had lost their effi- ciency. The controlling influ- ence at the French court was Madame de Pompadour, who caused ministers and generals to be appointed and dismissed at pleasure. Louis XY. further complicated matters by his prac- tice of corresponding secretly with his ambassadors, giving them instructions which were at times diametrically opposed to those officially received from the French foreign office. The forces of Maria Theresa, however, had learned of Frederick the art of war: and a series of administrative re- Woman's Dress ix Court OF Louis XV. AGE OF FUEDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) 415 forms, inspired by those of Prussia, enabled Austria more effectually to utilize her resources. Before the British alliance began to show its good effects, Frederick likened himself to a stag against which a " pack of kings and princes " had been loosed. In the course of the war his fortunes sank to their lowest ebb, but disaster only inspired him to renewed exertions. The war in Europe may be divided into three distinct periods : — (1) The campaign of 1756 opened with Prussian successes in Saxony, followed by reverses in Bohemia, Hanover, and East Prussia ; then came Frederick's brilliant victories at 389. Course Rossbach, in Saxony, and Leuthen, in Silesia (1757) : of °^ *^® "^^^ ' -^ in Europe the last-named battle Napoleon Bonaparte later said, "It (1756-1763) was a masterpiece in the way of evolutions, maneuvers, and determination, and would alone have sufficed to make Fred- erick immortal, and to rank him among the greatest generals." (2) From 1758 to 1760 Frederick again suffered dis- astrous reverses. The Rus- sians overran East Prussia and Brandenburg, and with the aid of the Austrians they overwhelmingly defeated Frederick at Kunersdorf, near Frankfort-on-the-Oder (1759). "The consequences of the battle," Frederick wrote, "will be worse than the battle itself. I have no more resources, and, not to hide the truth, I consider that all is lost." His enemies, however, disagreed, and failed to follow up their victory; and, in spite of the surprise and burning of Berlin (1760), Frederick succeeded once more, though with increased difficulty, in recovering tlio advanta^'e. Battle of Leuthen. 416 THE OLD REGIME (3) From 1761 to 1763 Prussia was almost exhausted. Year by year the war drained Frederick's resources, until it was only by the greatest efforts that his army could be kept in the field. To add to his difficulties, George III., who suc- ceeded to the British throne in 1760, broke off the Prussian alliance and stopped paying the money subsidies which had materially aided Frederick in carrying on the war. The great- est crisis in Frederick's affairs was at hand. At this juncture Peter III. came momentarily to the throne of Kussia ; he was an enthusiastic admirer of Frederick, and at once made peace, which his successor, Catherine II., ratified (1762). " Heaven still stands by us," wrote Frederick, " and everything will turn out well." The result justified his belief; but the remainder of the war on the Continent, in Carlyle's words, was "like a race between spent horses." Even Maria Theresa at last recognized the hopelessness of continuing the struggle. Of far more importance than the war in Europe was the apparently minor contest between Great Britain and France 390. French for the control of the seas and for dominance in North and English ^^-^erica. Spain and then Holland successivelv had held m America ^ (1689-1754) and lost the supremacy of the seas and colonial empire ; and the commercial and maritime instincts of the English had embroiled them in frequent wars with both countries. The marked commercial and colonial activity displayed by France in the middle of the eighteenth century aroused not merely the jealousy of the English at home, but the fears of English colonists in America. They had good reasons of their own for fighting the French, and after the accession of William III. every war between the two countries was extended to North America. King William's War (1689-1697) was fol- lowed by Queen Anne's War (1702-1713), and this by King George's War (1744-1748). To antipathies of race, government, and religion was added a conflict of material interests, especially AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) |17 in the Mississippi valley, where the French were tryinritish hands. Great Britain's maritime power was established beyond dispute ; France's colonial empire in America came practically to an end ; and the British colonies could freely develop their heri- tage of political and religious liberty. In the East Indies, from 1500 to 1600, the Portuguese, as a result of their maritime enterprise, culminating in Gama's 392. French famous voyage (§ 218), enjoyed a trade monopoly; but and English ^^ ^^^^ close of the sixteenth century they were losing m India -^ *^ (1600-1751) ground to the English, Dutch, and French. The English East India Company, which represented English interests in India, was chartered in 1600 ; and in the eighteenth century it possessed trading stations at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta. Friction with the Dutch in the East Indies, culminating (in 1623) in a massacre of English traders and seamen there, at Amboyna, led the English company to withdraw from the islands, and to confine its subsequent activity to the Asian mainland. The French also had several stations in India, of which the chief, Pondicherry, was not far from Madras. India, unlike America, was a tropical country, thickly popu- lated, ruled by established governments, and possessed of a civilization older and in some respects more advanced than that of Europe. Colonization such as had taken place on the American continent was thus out of the question ; and the European settlements were at first mere trading stations, not attempting political control. Dupleix, the French governor of Pondicherry (1742-1754), was the first to see the possibilities of conquest in India and AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-178(3) 411) devise the means by which to effect this. The natives, when proi^erly drilled and officered, made excellent soldiers (Sepoys), and their lack of all sentiment of nationality rendered pos- sible a conquest of India by natives for the benefit of Europe. The British, in self-defense, organized similar troops. In 1751, on the occasion of a dispute between two rival " nabobs " (rulers) of Arcot, the French and British took opposite sides, M^ Mansion of the East India Company, London. From an old print. India (1751- and thus began a struggle for the mastery in 1761), which merged into the Seven Years' War. On the British side the hero of the war was Robert (1725-1774), w^ho proved not only his genius for war, but also the loyalty and stanchness of his Sepoy troops. Dupleix, whose worth and work were little appreciate(l ^^.^^.^ in France, was recalled in disgrace in 1754. In 1750 (1751-1761 the nabob of Bengal quarreled with the British, and imprisoned Clive 393 Su- premacy in India won for Great 420 THE OLD REGIME over a hundred persons in a small, close dungeon (the " Black Hole-' of Calcutta), where five sixths died before morning. The horror of this deed forced upon the British the conquest of Bengal, which was accomplished by the battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757). The French, meanwhile, steadily lost ground through mismanagement, incompetence, and lack of support at home ; in 1760 came the defeat of the French at Wandiwash, and with it went the overthrow of French influence in India. After the close of the Seven Years' War, the English East India Company was practically without a rival. Its efforts were still devoted chiefly to trade, and it was only gradually that functions of government passed into its hands. Under Warren Hastings, the first governor general of India (1774- 1785), the full administration of Bengal was undertaken, and in various ways control was exercised over regions in which native princes continued to rule. The anomaly of a commer- cial company governing an empire led the British Parliament, in 1784, to establish a governmental Board of Control in Eng- land to supervise the political side of the company's action ; but it was not until 1858 that the company government came entirely to an end (§ 571). In 176o the Seven Years' War was brought to a close. The new king of Great Britain, George III. (1760-1820), resented 394. Close the rule of the aristocratic Whig families, and favored Years" War P^^^*^ ^^ the best means of ridding himself of that party. (1762-1763) Pitt was forced out of ofiice, but was rewarded with the title of Earl of Chatham ; and his successor, Lord Bute, then (1762) agreed with France to withdraw from the Continental war. The terms of the final peace of Paris, in 1763, though very advantageous, were by many Englishmen deemed insufficient. Canada was ceded to Great Britain, together with Grenada, St. Vincent, and others of the Frencli West Indies. Spain was forced to give up Florida, which remained British until 1783 ; ACxE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) 421 as recompense, France ceded to 8i)ain the city of New Orleans and its claims to the Louisiana territory lying west of the Mis- sissippi. Manila and the Philippines, captured by the P>ritish from Spain while the negotiations were in progress, were restored. In India, France was allowed to retain only a few unimportant trading posts. The treaty of Hubertsburg, signed a few days after that of Paris, made a peace between Prussia, Austria, and Saxony, by which Silesia remained with Prussia. Austria's only gain lay in Frederick's agreement that Maria Theresa's son, Joseph, should succeed his father, Francis I., as Emperor. The results of the Continental war were greatly inadequate to its cost. About 850,000 men perished in the struggle, of whom 180,000 fell in Prussia's service. " It is singular," says Bernis, a French minister of the time, " that all the suits of the courts have missed their goal in this war. The king of ^^^ Prussia has gained much glory in dominating the courts Laviase and of Europe, but he will leave to his heir a power lacking ^ inJtoire in solidity ; he has ruined his people, exhausted his G^n^rale, treasury, depopulated his states. The Empress [Maria Theresa] has increased her reputation for courage, power, and the efficiency of her troops, but she has not accomplished one of the objects she set before herself. Russia has shown to Europe the most invincible soldiery, but the worst led. The Swedes have played uselessly an obscure and subordinate role. Our own part has been extravagant and shameful." Only Great Britain had profited by the war, but her enormous gain was won not in Europe, but in America, in India, and on the seas : " the kingdom of Great Britain had become the British Empire." Sea power was both the object and the principal weapon of England in all her wars with France from 1688 to 1815; 396. Growth a,ccording to Captain Mahan, it rests upon " (1) pro- ^^^^,^ ^^^ duction, with the necessity of exchanging products; power 422 THE OLD HEGIMK (2) shipping, whereby the exchange is carried on ; and (IV) colo- nies, which facilitate and enlarge the oi)eration of shipping and „ tend to protect it by multiplying points of safety." J5y Mahan, Sea ^ "^ Poioer{io6o- natural conditions England was marked out for sea i)ower, i7S3),28 ^^^^ ivom the beginning of the seventeenth century popu- lar sentiment and governmental policy were directed to this end. Holland's maritime power was weakened by the English navigation act (1651), crippled by the English wars which fol- lowed, and ruined by the attacks of Louis XIV., which forced her into submissive alliance with England. France's sea power rested upon action by the government rather than by the people ; and when Louis XIV. began his Continental conquests, he sacrificed to his land wars France's colonies, shipping, and everything save actual fighting vessels. By 175G France had but forty -five ships of the line to Great Britain's one hundred and thirty, and her whole navy was demoralized. Her small naval squadrons were soon destroyed by the superior force of her antagonists, her mercantile ship- ping was swept from the seas, and her colonies fell into lU-itish hands. The damage once done could not be repaired ; the outcome of the struggle has influenced the whole course of subsequent history. With a land narrow in extent and rela- tively poor in natural resources, England has grown rich through the possession of sea power, has been enabled to grant large subsidies of money to her Continental allies, and at criti- cal times has played the foremost role in European politics. From the peace of Hubertsburg to the outbreak of the wars of the French Revolution, in 1792, there was no general Euro- 397. Europe P^^'^ conflict. But at no time has self-interest so fla- after 1763 grantW and unscrupulously been made the rule of action for European states as- in the attempts, in this period, to round out territories to symmetrical wholes by despoiling weaker neighbors, especially Sweden, Turkey, and Poland. Sweden, after the death of Charles XII. in 1718 (§ 369), was AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) 428 for a time given up to aristocratic anarchy, and it was not until 1789 that Gustavus III. restored the authority of the crown, established order, and thus saved Sweden from the fate to which Poland succumbed. Turkey was exposed to Russian and Austrian attacks, and its overthrow seemed a matter of a very few years. At the height of its power, about 1680, the Ottoman Empire 398. The stretched from the headwaters of the river Bug, which Eastern flows into the Black Sea, to Haab on the Danube (p. 285), (1683-1792) — in Asia to the Euphrates, and in Africa to the cataracts of the Nile. A decline of the Janizaries as a military force paved the way for reconquests by Christian powers, which began in 1683 with the repulse of the Turks from Vienna. Austria then gradually reconquered Hungary and Transyl- vania ; and a treaty in 1739 fixed the Austrian frontier at the Save and Danube rivers. Catherine II. of Russia carried to a successful conclusion two Turkish wars, which established a claim to intervene in behalf of the sultan's Christian, subjects, led to the annexation of the Crimea (1787), and pushed the Russian frontier forward to the Dniester (1792). Only the opposition of Great Britain and France prevented the realiza- tion of Austrian and Russian designs for the total expulsion of the Turk from Europe ; the result was the beginning of the Eastern Question as it confronts Europe to-day. Against Poland the unscrupulous schemes of Russia, Prussia, and Austria were entirely successful. In the eighteenth cen- tury Poland was a hotbed of anarchy, the result of its 399. Parti- elective kingship, the feuds of its nobles, the oppression ^°°^ ° ^^°^ of the lower classes, and the right of any member of the (1772-1795) Diet to block business by his liherum veto. Her powerful neighbors were thus enabled to carry out the " vast national crime" of her partition. (1) In 1772 the first division was made, Prussia taking the district separating East Prussia from Brandenburg, and Russia and Austria taking districts border- Harding's m. & m. hist. — 25 424 THE OLD REGIME ing upon their territories. (2) In 1793 Russia and Prussia took further portions. (3) An attempted revolution the next year, under the leadership of the patriot Kosciusko, was made the excuse for a third and final partition in 1795. A state possessing two hundred and eighty thousand square miles of territory, and twelve million inhabit-ants, was thus by force To Prussia [W^ ^IS^ To Austria Partitions of Poland. wiped off the map. Since that time a new sentiment of nationality has arisen among the Poles, a sentiment which lies at the root of recent troubles of Prussia, Russia, and Austria in their Polish dominions. The domestic history of Great Britain in the second half 400. Eng- of the eighteenth century deals largely with a series of George III ii^ mentions and changes in manufacturing which we call (1760-1820) the Industrial Revolution (§ 477) ; also of importance AGE OF EREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1786) 425 were the political struggles arising out of the attempt of George III. to impose his individual will on the nation, and the loss through revolt of the American colonies. To break down the rule of the great Whig families, George III. sought, through the use of bribes and crown patronage, to build up in Parliament a party subservient to himself, called "the king's friends." He was a good man and was attentive to business, but had very little understanding. "He inflicted more per- manent and enduring injuries upon his country," says the Eng- lish historian Lecky, "than any otlier modern English king. He spent a long life in obstinately resisting measures which are now almost universally admitted to have been good, and in supporting measures which are as universally admitted to have been bad." His support enabled the Tories to regain control of the government ; and for twelve years (1770-1782) the amiable Lord North was nominally prime minister, though he disapproved of many of the measures which his royal master insisted on carrying out: among these was the con- tinuance of the war in America after 1778. The aid given by France to Great Britain's revolted colonies perhaps had motives among the upper classes other than those of selfish policy ; but by French statesmen generally the 401. Europe war was regarded mainly as an op])ortunity for revenge ^ and the /H nf^ ' American against England. Spain entered into the war (1 1 79) ni war a vain attempt to secure Gibraltar ; Holland was forced (1775-1783) into it (1780) by questions of trade. Russia, Sweden, Den- mark, Prussia, and Austria formed (in 1780) the "Armed Neutrality of the North," which asserted the doctrine that " free ships make free goods," and sought in general to secure protection for neutral commerce. The disaster to the British arms at Yorktown (1781), and the menacing aspect of European affairs, finally forced George III. to concede the independence of the colonies, and a gen- eral peace was made at Paris in 1782-1783. Spain recovered 426 THE OLD REGIME Florida, and France received a few islands from Great Britain. Great Britain came out of the war with diminished pres- tige and curtailed empire, and it was generally believed that her decay had begun. To France the war brought financial bankruptcy, while the example of the American revolt aided the growth of revolutionary ideas : in many ways, therefore, the War of American Independence profoundly affected Europe. While unscrupulous spoliation was the keynote of inter- national relations, benevolent despotism was the European 402. The ideal in internal policy. Governments, it was recognized, "^^d^d^*- existed for the good of the people; but they were to be pots" administered by their rulers; outside of Great Britain the idea of the sovereignty of the people obtained practically no recognition. Among rulers who may be classed as " en- lightened despots" were Catherine II. of Eussia (1762-1796), Gustavus III. of Sweden (1771-1792), Charles III. of Spain (1759-1788), the Emperor Joseph II. (1765-1790), and Fred- erick the Great of Prussia (1740-1786). f^^W^ In mo NORTH S^A Prussia under Frederick the Great (1740-1786). Frederick the Great is the best example of the enlightened despot. " The people are not here for the sake of the rulers," wrote he, "but the rulers for the sake of the people." After AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-i78(;) 427 the Seven Years' War he set himself with all his energy to repair his country's ruin. Public funds were used to rebuild houses and to supply horses, carts, and seeds for agriculture, and the serfs on the royal domains were freed. Efforts were made to improve commerce and manufactures, justice and education. In everything Frederick not merely planned the whole, but oversaw the execution of the minutest details : his ministers were mere clerks. Hence, when his master hand was withdrawn by death, the Prussian administrative system fell into decay : in a despotically ruled state all depends upon the character of the head, and a succession of able and benevolent rulers can never be assured. The reforms of the Emperor Joseph II. are peculiarly illus- trative of the good and evil sides of enlightened despotism. His scheme of domestic policy for the motley Hapsburg 403. Em- states was " no less than to consolidate all his dominions jose^hTl^ into one homogeneous whole; to abolish all privileges (1765-1790) and exclusive rights ; to obliterate the boundaries of nations, and substitute for them a mere administrative division Merivale of his whole empire ; to merge all nationalities and HistoHcal establish a uniform code of justice; to raise the mass of the community to legal equality with their former masters; to constitute a uniform level of democratic simplicity under his own absolute sway." His edict for religious toleration (1781), and his attempt to abolish serfdom in Bohemia, Mora- via, and Hungary, are two out of many laudable but ill-planned measures. The weakness of his whole scheme of reform was that it took no account of religious, national, and class preju- dices, and that everything was attempted at once. Most of his reforms, therefore, were overturned in his own lifetime. The expulsion of the Jesuits from the leading Catholic countries was another important event of the last half of 404JcUp8e the eighteenth century. With prosperity and success ° ^^^gj. the order had deteriorated. In France a Catholic party (1759 1773) 428 THE OLD REGIME called Jansenists vigorously attacked the Jesuits, on the ground that they taught that "the end justifies the means." In many quarters the members engaged in commerce, and the order tended to become a vast trading concern with branch houses in many parts of the world. Portugal began the attack in 1759 by ordering the expulsion of Jesuits throughout Por- tuguese territory. France, Spain, and Austria adopted similar measures, and finally, in 1773, the Pope was obliged by this united opposition to order the dissolution of the society. Prussia and Russia, in neither of which was there danger from Jesuit influence, were among the few countries which re- ceived the exiled Jesuits. The suppression of the order lasted until 1814, when the bull dissolving it was revoked, and the Jesuits were once more restored to favor in Catholic countries. In England, Germany, and France the literature of the eighteenth century possessed certain features in common, in 405. Eigh- spite of local peculiarities. In the early part of the cen- teenth-cen- |^^py it was artificial and closely followed classical forms; tury litera- ., , , , , . ture in the latter part came a return to nature and the begin- ning of what is known as the Romantic movement. In Great Britain, the first half of the century saw the works of Addison and Steele, joint authors of the polished essays called the Spectator-, of Jonathan Swift, the satirist; of Defoe, best known by his Robinson Crusoe ; and of the poet Alexander Pope (1688-1744). The second half of the century saw the works of Fielding and Richardson, who developed the mod- ern English novel ; the essays and English dictionary of Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), whose life was entertainingly written by his friend Boswell ; the history of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon ; and Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, which laid the foundations of the new science of political economy. The reaction toward Ro- manticism is seen in the Scottish poet, Robert Burns (1759- 1796). AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) 429 In German literature the first great name is that of the critic and dramatist Lessing (1729-1781), whose Nathan the Wise enshrines "all that was noblest in the struggles and aspirations of his age, and connects the thought of the ei^^h- teenth with that of the nineteenth century." Goethe (1749- 1832), author of Faust and a universal genius, holds the same place in German literature that Shakespeare does in English and Dante in Italian literature. Schiller (1759-1805) is best known by his poetical drama, William Tell. Kant (1724-1804), author of the Critique of Pure Reason, made philosophy the absorbing subject of study at the German universities. In France the great names of the century were those of men who introduced new ideas and ideals, and paved the way for the French Revolution (§§ 411, 412). Chief of these were the dramatist, poet, and reformer Voltaire (1694-1778) ; the jurist Montesquieu (1689-1755) ; the encyclopedist Diderot (1713- 1784) ; and Housseau (1712-1778), a writer on education and social organization. More exclusively literary were Le Sage (1668-1747), author of the novel Gil Bias; the witty come- dian Beaumarchais (1732-1799) ; and Bernardin de St. Pierre (1731-1814), author of the charming romance Paul and Virginia. In the age of Frederick the Great, France declined in power, Russia steadily advanced, and Prussia, while gaining increased influence abroad, became the center about ^qq g^^^. which could crystallize the growing sense of German mary nationality. Great Britain gained one empire (Canada) in this period; lost another through the revolt of the thirteen Ameri- can colonies ; and in India laid the foundations of a rich and vast dominion through the fortunate enterprise of her traders. " The expansion of England in the New World and in Seeley, Ex- Asia is the formula which sums up for England the his- ^'^'^^gland, tory of the eighteenth century. ... In those three 28-31 430 THE OLD REGIME wars between 1740 and 1783 the struggle, as between Eng- land and France, is entirely for the New World. In the first of them the issue is fairly joined ; in the second France suffers her fatal fall ; in the third she takes her signal revenge." The eighteenth century witnessed, at the same time and from the same sources, the partitions of Poland and the reforms of the enlightened despots. The principles of the sovereignty of the people, of nationality as a necessary basis for the state, and of individual liberty were foreign to the policies of the time; but in the intellectual and moral life a new spirit appeared, preparing the way for the introduc- tion of those ideas into political action. The older order was about to be summoned to the bar, to give place to a new one; and it was France which "held, and was about to sound, the trumpet of judgment." Suggestive topics Search topics TOPICS (1) What does the rage to invest in Mississippi and South Sea stock show concerning the amount of capital at the time ? Why could such things not have happened in the Middle Ages ? (2) Was the change of alliances in 1756 wise or unwise for France? For Austria ? For Prussia ? For Great Britain ? (3) Was Frederick the Great justified in attacking Saxony in 1756? (4) To what was Frederick's final success in the Seven Years' War due? (5) What caused the war in America ? (6) What caused it in India ? (7) From the standpoint of general history which was more im- portant, the war in Europe or the war in America and India? (8) Why did Great Britain profit more than other countries by the war? (9) Where should the chief blame be placed for the partition of Poland ? (10) To what qualities in George III. were due the injuries which he inflicted upon Great Britain? (11) Was the participation of France in our Revolutionary War wise or unwise for her? (12) What do you consider the chief fact in the history of the eighteenth century before 1789? (13) The Mississippi Bubble. (14) The change of alliances in 1756. (15) Frederick the Great in the Seven Years' War. (16) The war between France and Great Britain at sea. (17) Loss of the French possessions in America. (18) The French in India. AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) 4:M (19) Robert Clive and the beginning of British rule in India. (20) Character and services of William Pitt the elder. (21 ) Treaty of Paris, 17(33. (22) Sweden in the eighteenth century. (23) Rea- sons for the decline of Turkey. (24) Partitions of Poland. (25) Re- lations of George III. to Parliament. (26) Attitude of France toward the American War of Independence. (27) Domestic policy of Frederick the Great. (28) Reforms of the Emperor Joseph II. (29) Goethe. (30) Schiller. (31) Court life of France under Louis XV. (32) Addison. (33) Lord Chesterfield. (34) Gold- smith. (35) Samuel Johnson. REFERENCES See maps, pp. 284, 410, 424, 432 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 24, 24 a, Geography 24 b, 31 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, map 44 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps X. xl. xlii. ; Dow, Atlas, xx. xxi. Duruy, History of France, 496-500 ; Henderson, Short History of Secondary Germayiy, II. chs. iv. v. ; Macaulay, Frederick the Great ; Lodge, authorities 3Iodern Europe, chs. xix. xx. ; Hassall, Balance' of Power, chs. viii.-xiii. ; Mackinnon, Growth and Decline of French Monarchy, chs. xix.-xxii. ; Grant, French Monarchy, 1483-1789, II. chs. xvii. xviii. ; Malleson, French in India ; Perkins, France under the Begency, chs. xiii.-xv., — France under Louis XV., I. chs. ix.-xi. ; II. chs. xii.-xv. ; Macaulay, Pitt, — Lord Clive; Green, William Pitt ; Harrison, Chatham ; Gardiner, Student's History of England, 745-808 ; Longman, Frederick the Great; Kugler, Fred- erick the Great, chs. xxi. xxii. xxxviii.-xliv. ; Carlyle, Frederick the Great, bk. xvi. ; Tuttle, History of Prussia, III. chs. iii.-v. ; Bright, Joseph II. ; Leger, Austro-Hungary, chs. xxi.-xxiii. ; Mahan, Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783., ch. viii. ; Historians'' History of the World, XIV. 441-445. Duke of St. Simon, Memoirs, III. 185, 188 seq., 202-203, 316- Sources 317, 334; IV. 158-193; Wilhelmina, Margravine of Baireuth, Memoirs ; American History Leaflets, No. 5 (extracts from the Treaty of Paris). Emerson Hough, The Mississippi Bubble ; Muhlbach, The Mer- lUustrative chant of Berlin, — Frederick the Great and his Family; G. P. R. ^°^^^ James, The Ancient Begime ; Lady Bulwer, The Peefs Daughter. CHAPTER XXIV. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) The eighteenth century closed with a popular upheaval which overturned the existing political system of Europe, -«« «,- acrain raised France from a position of weakness to 407. Char- ^ ^ acter of the Continental rule, and spread abroad ideas which have movemen shaped all subsequent history. The English Revolu- tion of 1688, and the American Revolution of 1775, both brought to logical completion institutions of long and steady growth ; the French Revolution, on the other hand, broke sharply with the past, and changed the direction of national development. In the greater part of Germany, in Poland, and in Russia, absolute serfdom prevailed, and the peasant was little better off than the negro slave in America; but in France serfdom was nearly extinct, and the peasants owned their lands, subject only to slight seignorial dues. Says a recent historian : " It was because the French peasant was more independent, more Stephens, wealthy, and better educated than the German serf that fMuarv Eu- ^^ resented the political and social privileges of his rope, 8 landlord and the payment of rent, more than the serf objected to his bondage. It was because France possessed an enlightened middle class that the peasants and workmen found leaders. It was because Frenchmen had been in the possession of a great measure of personal freedom that they were ready to strike a blow for political liberty, and eventually promul- gated the idea of social equality." There were in France, however, grievances of a real and 434 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 435 serious character. Society and government were founded upon a system of caste, in which the clergy, nobles, and commons were widely separated in privileges and bur- dens. The first two Estates (§ 185), constituting the old regime "privileged orders," numbered less than two per cent in a population of about twenty-five millions. The higher nobles who resided at the king's court, differed in manner of life and interests from the lesser ones, who resided on their estates ; in like manner the nobly born higher clergy had little in common with the hard-working and underpaid parish priests {ciirh), who sprang from the people. Class inequalities were increas- ing ; by 1789 four generations of noble descent were necessary to secure a commission in the army, and to enter the charmed circle of the court it was necessary to prove nobility on the father's side back to 1400. The offices of the church — bishop- rics, abbacies, priories — were regarded as a provision for the younger sons of noble families. In taxation the privileged orders had many exemptions. Pride of class led the nobles to refrain from all labor; and extravagance, gambling, and the decline of their estates made them greedy seekers after pensions and corrupt gains. Under Louis XV. and his successor Louis XVL (1774-1792), the government was more oppressive and less efficient than formerly : abroad, French prestige was seriously im- ^^^ ^^ paired ; at home, vexations increased. Letters passing government through the post were systematically opened, and each morning Louis XV. enjoyed the choice bits of scandal and family secrets surprised in this way. In England the censor- ship of the press came to an end in 1695; but France, in 1789, [still provided one hundred and sixty-eight censors to pass [upon publications. Instead of a single code of law for the whole country, there were in force nearly three hundred differ- ent sets of local "customs." Diversity and confusion existed in every field of government. Torture, mutilations, and an 436 REVOLUTION AND REACTION absence of safeguards to personal liberty (such as England possessed in trial by jury and the writ of habeas corpus) characterized the administration of justice. Under Louis XV. one hundred and fifty thousand lettres de cachet (§ 330) are £\. <^\-Ci^-l,cW^o ^vuavk'ek M«uv France. The executive government, meanwhile, was intrusted to a provisional ministry, of which Danton, an able and patri- otic leader of the people, was the heart and soul; and the greatest energy was displayed in organizing the defense. The continued advance of the Prussians produced a frenzy of rage and fear at Paris, and in September a band of assassins entered the prisons and systematically massacred hundreds of royalists who had been arrested after the king's suspension, A few days later the fruits of the new energy infused into the adminis- tration were seen in a French victory won at Valmy (Sep- tember 20, 1792 ; map, p. 459). Influenced partly by jealousy 448 REVOLUTION AND REACTION of Austria, the Prussians then retreated, and the National Convention was enabled without the menacing presence of a foreign army to deal with the question of the monarchy. The democratic leaders of the Legislative Assembly con- trolled the National Convention, and almost its first act was 424. Na- to decree that " royalty is abolished in France," and to *^°°?1^°^" pi'oclaim a republic. Violent disputes arose over further (1792-1795) proceedings. The Girondists feared the dictation of Parisian mobs, and wished to carry on the government as if in time of peace. On the other hand, the party of the Moun- tain, chief of whom were Robespierre, Danton, and Marat (later assassinated by Charlotte Corday, who regarded him as responsible for the excesses of the Revolution), saw the need of a strongly centralized government for the national defense ; they resigned themselves to the dictation of Paris so long as the crisis lasted, and were ready to employ violent means to keep the roj^alists in subjection. The majority of the members of the Convention — called the Center, Plain, or Marsh — adhered steadfastly to neither of these groups ; but at first the Girondists were in control. The battle of Valmy was followed by a tide of French suc- cesses. Savoy was occupied, the principalities of the middle 425. Revo- Rhine were overrun, and the Belgians were assisted in u lonary tj^eir efforts to expel their Austrian rulers. These suc- propa- ^ ganda cesses intoxicated the Convention, and the members believed their armies to be invincible. A decree of November 19, 1792, promised " fraternity and assistance to all peoples who desire their liberty." " All governments are our enemies," Lavisse and cried an orator of the Convention, " all peoples are our Rimbaud, friends ; we shall be destroyed, or they shall be free." G^n^rale, When democratic liberty of the French sort proved un- VIIL243,244 acceptable, it was forced upon the liberated populations, and Belgium (the Austrian Netherlands), Nice, and Savoy were declared annexed to France. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 449 To complete the destructive work of the Revolution, the Convention ordered that Louis XVI. should be brought to trial on a charge of intriguing with foreign courts fou 426. Execu- the invasion of France. By an almost unanimous vote *^°^of Louis the Convention declared "Louis Capet" guilty, and ])y 21,1793^ a small majority passed sentence of death. Some of the Girondists wished to submit the judgment to the vote of the people ; but the leaders of the Mountain, taunting their p ? ^ opponents with being concealed —^-r,- royalists, caused the motion to be rejected. The next day Louis XVI. was executed at Paris, by t the guillotine, an instrument for j beheading, named from a physi- ; -,| -7^ cian, Dr. Guillotin, whose recom- ': i ^^ / mendation brought it into use. /|\^^^, The kin^ met his fate with cour- ^^: * age ; but when he sought to ad- " dress a few words to the crowd, ^^-^xtS-^S" his voice was brutally drowned j,^^ Guillotine. by the roll of drums. English opinion, even among the Whigs, early showed signs of division over the events in France. Upon the fall of the Bastille Charles James Fox, the most liberal of English 427. Eng- 11 j_ 1. 1. -i. • laiid and leaders, wrote, " How much the greatest event it is ^^^ French that ever happened in the world! and how much the Revolution best ! " On the other hand, Edmund Burke, one of the great- est of British orators and political philosophers, in a widely read pamphlet (1790) characterized the Revolution as a surkr, " strange chaos of levity and ferocity, and of all sorts of Works, HI. crimes jumbled together with all sorts of fallacies " ; its probable end, he thought, would be a military despotism under some popular general. The British government was now 450 RP]VOLUTION AND REACTION carried on by William Pitt (a younger son of the Great Com- moner), who was prime minister continuously from 1783 to 1801, and again from 1804 until his death in 1806 ; he agreed with Burke rather than with Fox, but wished sincerely to maintain peace. Peace, however, was impossible in view of the annexation of Belgium, the threatened conquest of Hol- land (England's ally), and the horror excited by the execution of the king. The actual declaration of war came in 1793 from France, whose leaders misunderstood British politics, and expected a democratic rising in their aid. Holland, Spain, Austria, Prus- sia, and many smaller states, at about the same time took up arms against the Republic. Until the final downfall of Napoleon, Great Britain was thenceforth the head of the re- sistance to France, and the paymaster of the coalitions formed against her : the British fleet kept the seas, and British subsidies enabled Prussia, Austria, and other countries to maintain the war by land. The contest, in one aspect, was the last stage of the war between France and England for colonial and maritime empire ; in another it was the struggle of two systems of political liberty — the orderly, conservative, practi- cal system of England, against the revolutionary, tumultuous, theoretical system of Bevolutionary France. The tide of success which followed the battle of Valmy was of short duration ; by March, 1793, invasions of France began ^«« -r, 11 r from the north, south, and east. The shock of these 428. Fall of ' ' the Giron- events rudely awakened the enthusiasts of the Conven- dists (17 ) ^-^^^ ^ ^^Y[ for three hundred thousand troops, to be raised if necessary by conscription, led to the famous insurrec- tion of La Vendee in western France — at first directed against conscription, but later turned into a priestly and royalist reac- tion. In the Convention the quarrels between Girondists and the Mountain grew more bitter, while the populace of Paris, in patriotic frenzy at the military reverses, took the govern- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 451 ment of the city and the command of the civic troops entirely into their own hands. The crisis came at the beginning of June, 1793, when the Parisian mob and civic troops invaded the hall of the Con- vention and demanded the arrest of the Girondist leaders. The demand was complied with (June 2), and the Girondists as a political party ceased to exist : their fall was due to the conviction — not unfounded — that they were impractical visionaries, and that their ascendency in the Convention was the chief obstacle to governmental unity and efficiency. The Convention, now entirely under the control of the Mountain, drew up the republican constitution of 1793, which was submitted for ratification to the primary assemblies 429 com- of the people : although approved, it never came into mittee of force. Instead, an exceptional executive power was Safety lodged in a secret Committee of Public Safety, with (1793; entire control over the laws and resources of Prance. Robes- pierre was the Committee's most conspicuous member, be- cause of his reputation for incorruptibility and his popularity in the Convention and in the Jacobin Club ; but the real work of the Committee, in organizing and feeding the armies, super- intending military operations, and putting down disaffection, was performed by others : of these the most notable was Carnot, who gained the enviable name "Organizer of Victory." Prom July, 1793, to July, 1794, the Committee of Public Safety ruled Prance unchecked ; in this period fourteen armies were placed in the field, discipline was restored, and France was freed from foreign foes. Actuated by a desire to break completely with the religious and political past, the Convention at this time decreed the adoption of an entirely new calendar. The date of the establishment of the Republic (September 22, 1792) was taken as the beginning of the new era ; twelve months of thirty days each were instituted, with five or six supplementary days at 452 K EVOLUTION AND REACTION the end of the year ; and the months were divided into three " decades " each, instead of weeks.^ This calendar was used by France until January 1, 1806. Through the exertions of the Committee of Public Safety France was freed from foreign invasion, but at what a cost ! 430 Reiffn "^^^ " Terror " was the means used to attain unanimous of Terror and energetic action ; and the menace of the guillotine to July, ' ^3.8 over all who incurred the poi)ular wrath, or whom 1794) policy or ambition found in the way. Two laws, passed in September, 1793, constituted the basis of the system. (1) By the Law of the Suspects all persons might be accused who, ''by their conduct, by their relations, or by their con- versation or writings, have shown themselves partisans of tyranny or federalism [i.e. of the Girondists] and enemies of liberty"; for former nobles or royalists and their families the only safety lay in attachment to the Revolution. (2) The Law of the Maximum, in defiance of the precepts of political economy, fixed maximum prices in paper money at which provisions, clothing, firewood, tobacco, etc., might be sold. The possibility of prosecution under this law extended the Terror to the petty tradesmen. To judge persons accused under these acts, as well as those accused of other political offenses, a Revolutionary Tribunal was set up, whose almost invariable sentence was death. By the practice of sending deputies of the Convention, clothed with absolute power, '-'on mission" into the various departments and to the armies, the Terror was extended throughout French territory. In some places, as at Xantes, where prisoners were drowned wholesale, the deputies abused 1 For the old names of the months the following were substituted : Vende- miaire (Vintage month), Brumaire (Fog month), and Frimaire (Frost month) for autumn : Nivo> of new members added to the Cotnmittee of I'liblie Safety. The .rliih of the Jacobins was elosc^l, 433. The the Law (jf the Maxiimiin was n^pealcd, and iiiiprisoiied Terror 1 i • i 1 , , . ended (U'piities were restored to their sejits. ^riic four liviu^ (1794 1795) l)ersons chiefly n'Sj)onsibl). In May occurred a revolt in which th(; famished F'arisian mob broke into the Con- vention, cryinj^-, " lli-cad and the Coiistitiition of 179o!" Vic- tory over these ]-iot(;rs was followed by new cond(;mnations of Terrorists, and the Mountain as a ])arty was broken up. While order was r(^store(l at, home, the way was paved for ])eace with forcugn foes. The visionary attempt to establish democracies everywhere was definitely given up, and this 434. The broke the league of France's enemi(;s. In April and ^^Jormed July, 1795, Prussia and Spain made peace with her at (1796) Teasel, and recognized the Republic. Holland, conquered in 1794-1795, was organized as the Batavian Rejmblic, and brought into close alliance. With Great I>ritain and Austria alone the war still continued. The leaders of the Convention, convin(UMl of the necessity of a permancid, (executive i)OW(!r possessed of sufficient force and unity to cojx; with disorder, now prepared the "(Constitution of the Year III. ("1795)," which intrusted the (^xecutivc^ power to a Directory of five members, and i)rovid(;d for a legislature of two houses. The new ccjnstitution made constitutional tlie strengthening of the executive power attained by the Com- mittee of Public Safety, and for the universal suffrage of 179:"> it substituted the requirement of a fixed residence and pay- ment of taxes. To guard themselves against proscription and to check royalist intrigues, the Convention decreed that two 456 REVOLUTION AND REACTION thirds of the first members of the legislature must be elected from among their own ranks. This provision provoked what was practically the last of the revolutionary revolts of Paris — the rising of October 5, 1795 435. Rising (13th Vendemiaire). The defense of the Convention was of iSthVen- pig^^g^]^ \^ ^jie hands of a young officer named Napoleon (1795) Bonaparte, who had lately been recalled from a command in Italy. His cannon did terrible execution in the advancing columns of the mob, and taught Paris that the day of riot and revolt was past. This rising quelled, the Convention proceeded to establish the new legislature, and then quietly disbanded, its last act being an amnesty for political offenses committed since the beginning of the Republic. The new government was entirely in the hands of men of moderate opinions. The Directors chosen had all been members of the Convention and voted for the execution of the king, but only one of them (Carnot) had been a member of the Committee of Public Safety. It re- mained for the future to show whether the new government would be strong enough to maintain order at home and secure peace abroad ; or whether upon the ruins of its policies there should arise a new monarchy based on military power, success- ful intrigue, and the will of the people. Within seven years France had experienced almost every form of government. The absolutism of the old regime gave 486 Sum- ^^^y ^^ ^ weak constitutional monarchy (1789-1792) ; xnary this in turn was followed by a Republic in which prac- tically all power was vested in an unwieldy assembly (1792- 1793) ; and this by the executive despotism of the Committee of Public Safety, and the Reign of Terror (1793-1794). Leaders representing all shades of political liberty — Mira- beau, the Girondists, Danton, Robespierre — succeeded one another. The excess of freedom wrought its cure, and France THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 457 was now prepared (1795) to try a government which promised strength of executive, with reasonable liberty, fraternity, and equality. The mistakes and atrocities of the Revolution — the mob violence, the Terror, the revolutionary propaganda, the theatrical worships of Reason and the Supreme Being were in part due to the emotional, volatile temperament of the French ; in part also they were due to the lack of opportunity, under the old regime, to acquire experience in managing their own affairs. TOPICS (1) How do you explain the difference in spirit between the Suggestive French Revolution and the American Revolution ? (2) What was ^op^^s the theory on which the privileges of nobles and clergy originally rested (see § 143). (3) Did the facts correspond to this theory in eighteenth-century France ? (4) Could a strong king have averted the Revolution ? (5) Do you approve of the attack on the Bastille ? (6) How might a Girondist defend his policy ? (7) How might a Jacobin answer him ? (8) Who was to blame for the beginning of the wars of the Revolution with Europe ? (9) What was objection- able in the decree of November 19, 1792, offering aid to all peoples who revolted against their rulers? (10) Was the execution of Louis XVI. justifiable? (11) Was Fox or Burke nearer right in his estimate of the French Revolution ? (12) Why was the addi- tion of Great Britain to the ranks of the enemies of France of so much importance ? (13) What arguments might be used for and against the Reign of Terror ? (14) What is your opinion of Robes- pierre ? (15) What was the chief weakness of the executive power under the Constitution of the Year III. ? Why ? (16) Was the Revolution up to 1795 a success or a failure ? (17) Some abuses of the old regime. (18) Voltaire. (19) Rous- Search seau. (20) Diderot. (21) Turgot's attempts at reform. ^°^^^^ (22) Necker. (23) Marie Antoinette up to 1789. (24) The Estates-General to June 27, 1789. (25) Fall of the Bastille. (26) Influence of Marie Antoinette in the Revolution. (27) Mira- beau. (28) Lafayette's part in the French Revolution. (29) The Jacobin Club. (30) Robespierre. (31) Danton. (32) The Sep- tember massacres. (33) Flight of Louis XVI. (34) Trial and execution of Louis XVI. (35) Incidents of the Reign of Terror. (36) The Dauphin in prison. (37) Review of Burke's Beflections on the French Bevolution. 458 REVOLUTION AND REACTION REFERENCES Geography Secondary- authorities Sources Illustrative works See maps, pp. 432, 459 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, 40, 51-53 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, xi. xii. Iviii. ; Dow, Atlas, xxiii.-xxv. Duruy, France, chs. Ivii. lix.-lxi. ; Lodge, Modern Europe, 476-553 ; Bertha M. Gardiner, French devolution, 1789-1795, 1-13, 17-50, 58-220 ; Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Cen- tury, clis. i.-ii. ; Morris, French Bevolution and the First Empire, 19-125 ; Dabney, Causes of the French Bevolution ; Lowell, Eve of the French Bevolution ; Taine, Ancieyit Begime, chs. i. ii. ; Lecky, England in the Eighteenth Century, ch. xx. ; Mathews, French Revolution ; II. Morse Stephens, Bevolutionary Europe, Introduction and chs. ii.-iv. ; Mignet, History of the French Bevolution, Introduction and chs. i.-xi. ; Michelet, French Bevolution ; Rose, Bevolutionary and Napoleonic Era, chs. i.-v. ; Lebon, Modern France, chs. i.-ii. ; Fyffe, History of Modern Europe (popular ed.), chs. i.-ii. ; II. Morse Stephens, History of the French Bevolution, I. chs. ii. v. xi., II. chs. ix.-xi. ; Carlyle, French Bevolution, bk. iii. chs. ii. iii., bk. iv. chs. vi.-viii., bk, vii. ch. iv. ; Kitchin, France, bk. vi. ch. viii. ; Morley, Voltaire, — Bousseau ; Say, Turgot ; Beesly, Life of Danton ; Belloc, Dan- ton, — Bohespierre ; Cambridge Modern History, VIII. chs. v.-x. xii.-xv. ; Historians'' History of the World, XII. 111-417. University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Beprints, I. No. 5, IV. No. 5, V. No. 2, VI. No. 1 ; F. M. Anderson, Constitutions and Documents of the History of France, 1789-1900, nos. 2, 4, 5, 15, 29 e, 31, 41, 42, 44, 50 ; Arthur Young, Travels in France (Bohn ed.), especially 8, 18, 27, 123, 189, 197-198, 236, 273, 279, 318, and 322 (on the wretchedness and poverty of the people) ; 52, 70, 72, and 137 (on the poor cultivation of the land) ; 10, 58, 132 (on the expendi- ture of money for useless magnificence) ; 54, 67, 92, 103, 113 (on the wretched condition of highways, streets, and inns) ; 97, 153, 188, 214, 315 (on the signs of an impending revolution) ; 49, 60, 279 (on the defective administration of justice) ; 35, 39, 51, 84, 102, 229, 256 (on the customs of the people and court ignorance) ; C. D. Hazen, Contemporary American Opinion of the French Bevolution; Bire, Diary of a- Citizen of Paris during The Terror. Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities ; Victor Hugo, Ninety-three ; A. Trollope, La Vendee ; Miss Martineau, Peasant and Prince, — French Wines and Politics ; G. A. Henty, The Beign of Terror ; S. Weir Mitchell, Adventures of Franqois ; Dumas, Chevalier de Maison Bouge ; F^lix Gras, The Beds of the Midi ; Erckmann- Chatrian, The Story of a Peasant, — Madame Therese. 459 CHAPTEK XXV. THE RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) The time was approaching when, as Burke prophesied, the government of France was to pass into a military despotism 437. Early under a popular general — ]S"a})oleon Bonaparte. Born life of Bona- ^f ^ good Italian family, in Corsica, in 1769 (the year (1769-1795) following the annexation of that island to France), Bona- parte embodied " the typical Corsican temperament, moody and exacting, but withal keen, brave, and constant." At the age of nine he was admitted to the government military school of Brienne, in northeastern France ; at sixteen (1784) he began his service in the French army as junior lieutenant of artil- lery. His proud, imperious nature, his poverty, and his alien birth and speech cut him off from his fellows, and directed his early thoughts and ambitions chiefly toward schemes for the independence of Corsica. Only gradually did the French Eevolution "blur his insular sentiments." For a time he was much in the company of Jacobins ; but the sight of the Parisian mob invading the Tuileries and insulting 438. Bona- ^^^® royal family in 1791 called forth the significant excla- parte and mation, " Why don't they sweep off four or five hundred the Kevolu- ^ , , ^ "^ ^ tion of that rabble with cannon ; the rest would then run away (1789-1795) f^g|. enough ! " Trained officers were scarce, so in spite of repeated acts of insubordination his promotion was rapid. In 1793 at Toulon he first gave evidence of his energy and genius in directing the artillery. In 1795 he was back in Paris, deprived of his command, without money or friends, and sus- pected because of his Jacobin connections. His defense of the 460 RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 461 Convention against the mob of October, 1795, proved a turning point in his career. " From the first," says an eye-witness"^ "his activity was astonishing: he seemed to be every- where at once; he surprised people by his laconic, clear, ^mtlirls and prompt orders; everybody was struck by the vigor of his arrangements, and passed from admiration to confidence from confidence to enthu- siasm." In reward he was appointed by the Directory to his first important com- mand, that of the French army operating against the Austrians and their allies in Italy. Bonaparte was now but twenty-seven years old, be- low the middle height, 439. The excessively thin, and „^ Italian •^ ' campaign with a sickly pallor. (1796-1797) Some of the ablest generals of the Revolutionary army served under him ; but all yielded to the indomitable will re- vealed in his flashing eye, to the brilliancy of his plans, and to the clearness and decision of his orders. The rank and file were thrilled by the burning words of his first proclama- tion : " Soldiers, you are ill-fed and almost naked. The numy, His- government owes you much, but can do nothing for you. '^^'*« ^^^ Your patience and courage do you honor, but procure you 532 neither glory nor profit. I am about to lead you into the most fertile plains of the world: there you will find great cities and rich provinces ; there you will win honor, glory, and riches. Soldiers of the Army of Italy, will you lack courage ? " The Italian campaign which followed was one of the most brilliant in history, and well illustrates Bonaparte's military Harding's m. & >i. hist. —27 Napoleon Bonaparte in 1795. After the drawmg by J. Guerin. 462 REVOLUTION AND REACTION genius. His quickness of mind seized upon every geographi- cal detail which might impede or assist his operations; he was prompt to divine the plans of his enemies, and bewildered them by the rapidity and daring of his well-calculated maneu- vers. His favorite device was to meet the detachments of the enemy separately, rapidly concentrating upon each the whole of his effective force. In this manner he first separated the troops of the king of Sardinia-Piedmont from the Austrians, defeated the former five times in eleven days, menaced the capital (Turin), and forced the king to sign an armistice which was speedily converted into a treaty of peace. Tlien, skillfully turning the flank of the Austrian army, he compelled it to fall back, forced the passage of the bridge of Lodi in the face of a galling fire, — an exploit w^hich gained for him from his admiring soldiers his life-long nickname of " the Little Cor- poral," — and occupied Milan. Four times the Austrian gov- ernment poured its armies across the Alps to relieve Mantua, but in vain ; and in February, 1797, that last fortress fell. The results of the year of fighting were summed up by Bonaparte in a proclamation to the army, here somewhat shortened : — "The capture of Mantua has put an end to a campaign which has given you lasting claims to the gratitude of the 440. Napo- Fatherland. You have been victorious in fourteen leon's sum- pitched battles and seventy combats ; you have taken mary of results more than one hundred thousand prisoners, five hundred Correspon- field pieces, two thousand heavy cannon, and four pontoon NapoUon, trains. The contributions laid upon the lands you have II. 372-373 conquered have fed, maintained, and paid the army during all the campaign ; besides which you liave sent thirty million francs to the minister of finance for the relief of the public treasury. You have enriched the Museum of Paris with three hundred masterpieces of ancient and modern Italy, which it has required thirty centuries to produce. The kings of Sardinia and Naples, the Pope, and the Duke of Parma RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 463 have abandoned the coalition of our enemies and sought our friendship. You have expelled the English from Leghorn, Genoa, and Corsica. Of all the enemies who combined to stifle the Eepublic at its birth, only the Emperor remains before us. There is no hope for peace save in seeking it in the heart of the hereditary estates of the house of Austria." The invasion of Austria, announced, in this proclamation, presented few difficulties. By April, 1797, Bonaparte had advanced to Leoben, eighty miles from Vienna, where 441. Peace preliminaries of peace were signed, which in October were ° FornSo converted into a treaty at Campo Formio. The Emperor withAus- ceded Belgium (the Austrian ISTetherlands), and accepted (1797) the Rhine as the eastern frontier of France. In the interval between the preliminaries and the final treaty, Bonaparte found pretexts for the conquest of the once glorious republic of Venice, most of which was given to Austria. A portion of the Venetian territories, together with lands taken from the Pope, were joined to the territories of Milan to form the Cisalpine Republic, with a constitution modeled on that of the Directory in France. Similarly the oligarchic republic of Genoa was replaced by the democratic Ligurian Republic, under French tutelage. The Ionian Islands, formerly Venetian, were re- tained for France, apparently as a stepping stone to conquests in the East. In his diplomatic negotiations, as in his military operations, Bonaparte acted as though practically independent; but his services were too important to permit the Directors to take of- fense. With the people his popularity was increased as much by the treaties which he dictated as by his victories in the field, and upon his return to Paris he was given a triumphal reception such as was accorded to no other French general. Already the way was opening for him to seize political power. With England — called by one of the Directors the ''giant corsair that infests the seas "-the war still continued. 464 REVOLUTION AND REACTION In 1796 a French expedition to Ireland failed because of storms. The next year a combined French and Spanish fleet 442. War was defeated and practically destroyed in a battle off ^thiT*^ Cape St. Vincent (February, 1797) ; and the Dutch fleet, land which put to sea in obedience to orders of the Directors, was crushed in the battle of Camperdown (October, 1797). With the British in complete control of the Channel, an in- vasion of England and Ireland seemed hopeless. '^^^^ ^ ^^fc» fe-'-j^ .- . The Great Pyramids near Cairo. Bonaparte now urged an expedition to Egypt, partly to pre- pare the way to attack Great Britain's power in India, but 443. Expe- quite as much because of dreams of rivaling the con- dition to querors of other days. The Directors, who doubtless (1798) were not sorry to be rid for a time of their most ambitious general, gave their consent ; and in May, 1798, the expedition set out. It included the picked veterans of the army of Italy, Bonaparte's favorite generals, and a corps of scholars to study the monuments of the East. "The true conquests," said Bona- parte himself at one time, " the only conquests which cost no regrets, are those achieved over ignorance." RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 465 On the way to Egypt the French seized the island of Malta, which had been under the rule of the Knights of St. John (§ 101) since the sixteenth century, and their order was dis- solved. Escaping a British squadron cruising in the Mediter- ranean, l^onaparte landed safely in Egypt, which was nominally a province of the Turkish Empire. Near Cairo the French were forced to fight the "Battle of the Pyramids" (Jul}^, 1798), in which French infantry squares, defended by bayo- nets, muskets, and grapeshot, successfully resisted, with a loss of but forty men, the charges of the Mameluke cavalry. This battle practically completed the conquest of lower Egypt. A few days later Admiral Nelson, in command of the British squadron in the Mediterranean, at last came upon the French fleet in Aboukir Bay, and fought the battle of the Nile ... „ ., (August, 1798). The French, slightly outnumbering the in Egypt (1798-1799' British in guns and men, swung at anchor just outside ^ shoal water; but Nelson, thrusting part of the British fleet between the French and the shore, stationed the remainder on the other side, thus sub- jecting the leading ships of the French line to a deadly cross fire. The battle lasted far into the night; the French flag- ship took fire and ex- ploded ; nearly all the French ships were cap- tured or burned. Nel- son's victory removed a serious menace to the British power in India, cut off the French in Egypt from support and foredoomed the expedition to failure, and deprived France of communication with its best troops and ablest general. Encouraged by Nelson's victory, the sultan of Turkey, as Squadr?n.^^^^ British ships ....__/ I AGROUND /"^ .. ^ ,^ ABOUKIR I. ■:. / \ «^ /x ) \.^?.:v. Shallow ^ ^■»*'V Water '•■... ^^^1 ABOUKIR '\a"y Battlk of the Nile. 466 REVOLUTION AND REACTION suzerain of Egypt, prepared a vast army to attack the French. Bonaparte anticipated the attack by marching into Syria, where the Turks were defeated. His schemes of further conquest failed before the stubborn resistance of the city of Acre, and in the end Bonaparte was forced to retire to Egypt. In July, 1799, Bonaparte received from the British naval commander, under flag of truce, copies of European newspapers 445. Situa- that determined him to abandon the army in Egypt, to France brave the dangers of capture on the way, and to return (1798-1799) secretly, and with but a small following, to France. The government of the Directory was in great difficulty. The radical republicans regarded it as " only a disguised royalty, composed of live tyrants," while a reactionary party hoped for a restoration of the Bourbon monarchy. The Directors did not hesitate illegally to arrest their leading opponents, and to force out colleagues (including Carnot) who disapproved of these proceedings. To arbitrary rule at home the Directory added folly and unscrupulous dealing abroad. At Rome and at Naples republics of the French type were set up ; the Swiss Confederation was remodeled in the interests of France ; and even the United States, by the insulting demands of the French authorities for money through three agents called X, Y, and Z, was goaded for a brief period into a naval war (1798-1799). Resentment at these acts, and the prestige of Nelson's victory, enabled Great Britain, in 1799, to form the Second Coalition, in which Austria, Russia, Naples, Portugal, and Turkey joined her in arms against the French Republic. By the middle of 1799 Italy was lost, the French had suffered defeats on the Rhine, and France was full of divisions and despair. Such was the news which brought Bonaparte back to France. 446 Return Tjanding on the Mediterranean coast, he found the Re- of Bona- public already saved from invasion by its own exertions. Egypt ^^^ reception was enthusiastic in the highest degree. (1799) Even before the expedition to Egypt, Bonaparte's soar- RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 467 ing ambition was aroused. " Do you suppose," he is reported to have said, " that I have gained my victories in Italy in order to advance the lawyers of the Directory ? Do you think either that my object is to establish a republic ? What a notion ! University A republic of thirty millions of people, with our morals ofPennsyl- 1 • I TT 1 T 1 1 -r • ■■ . vania, and vices ! How could that ever be ? It is a chimera Translations, with which the French are infatuated, but which will pass /^- ^*^- ~ away in time like all the others. What they want is glory and the satisfaction of their vanity ; as for liberty, of that they have no conception. . . . The nation must have a head, a head which is rendered illustrious by glory." With these views, Bonaparte, on his return, joined Sieyes, a famous constitution maker, and Talleyrand, a clever but un- scrupulous diplomat, in a successful plot to overthrow 447. Con- tlie government. The people acquiesced in the change, formed and a new constitution was prepared — that of the Con- (1799) sulate (1799). Bonaparte's resolute ambition over-rode the bureaucratic plans of Sieyes and made the new government an almost unlimited dictatorship. The legislative power was made entirely subordinate ; and the executive, nominally con- fided to a board of three consuls chosen for ten years, really rested in Bonaparte alone, with the title of First Consul. This constitution, when submitted to the people, was accepted by a vote of 3,000,000 against 1500. After setting up the new government, Bonaparte's first care was to carry on the war against the Second Coalition. In 1800 he led an army, by the difficult route of the Little St. . -g p Bernard pass, over the Alps into Italy, where he crush- of Luneville ingly defeated the Austrians at Marengo. In Germany, Arniens also, the French were victorious. Accordingly, in Feb- (1801-1802) ruary, 1801, the Emperor Francis II. concluded a peace at Luneville, confirming the cessions made at Campo Formio: the extension of France to the Rhine was again recognized, and her power in Italy restored. 468 REVOLUTION AND REACTION Great Britain was left a second time to continue the war alone. In 1801 the troops which Bonaparte had left in Egypt surrendered. Inasmuch as Jacobin democracy was curbed and France had returned to ordinary political conditions, the British ministry negotiated the treaty of Amiens, concluded in March, 1802, by which all British conquests made since the beginning of the war (with the exception of Trinidad and Ceylon) were restored, and Malta, taken from the French in 1800, was to be given back to the Knights of St. John. In these negotiations, George III. gave up the title "King of France," which English sovereigns had borne since the Hun- dred Years' War. As First Consul, Bonaparte showed that he was a great administrator as well as a great general, mastering the details 449. Bona- ^^ business with almost superhuman energy and intelli- parte's re- gence. A sound currency was established, the Bank of construc- tion of France created, roads and canals improved, agriculture France ^^^^ industry fostered. His legislation and the return of order did wonders in restoring prosperity to France. Four of his measures deserve particular notice : — (1) Local government under the Revolution, as under the old regime, was despotically administered from Paris. Bonaparte simplified and strengthened the machinery for this purpose by a system (still in use) of departmental prefects and sub-prefects, appointed by the central authority. (2) Although personally without religious convictions, Bona- parte saw the advantage of an alliance with the i^apacy and a reestablishment of the Catholic Church. A Concordat was accordingly entered into in 1801, by which Bonaparte restored the Catholic religion, though he retained the nomination of bishops and archbishops; and the Pope abandoned all claims to the confiscated church estates, on condition that the clergy should be paid by the state. (3) All titles of nobility had been swept away in 1790 ; but RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 469 Bonaparte said of the French: "They are what the Gauls weve, fierce and fickle. They have one feeling — honor. We nust nourish that feeling; they must have distinctions." Hence, in 1802, he formed the Legion of Honor, to be composed of soldiers and civilians who by their arms or by civil distinction greatly served the state. (4) Most important of all were his measures for the reform of the law. The "inextricable labyrinth of • . ^. -^SO. Code laws and customs, mainly Ko- Napoleon man and Frankish in origin, (1804) hopelessly tangled by feudal Rose, Napo- , • • 1 • •^ leon, I. 265 customs, provincml privileges. ecclesiastical rights, and the later undergrowth of royal decrees," which formed the law of the old regime, had been swept away by the Revolu- tion ; and Bonaparte, with the aid )f a committee of learned jurists, completed the construc- ;ion of a system of rational law to take its place. " In wilson, The natters of inheritance, in the rules which govern the State, wi 'amily relations, and in the law of marriage, the Customs of France find their place. ... In the law of contract, the law )f property, the rules of judicial trial, and all questions of ;he legal burdens which may be placed upon land, Roman aw 1^-- ' V' 'ef place of influence." 804, this Code Napoleon was soon adopted by jtud iiuiiand. and exerted great influence in the legisla- i CU nvjt^v -Switzerland, Spain, and the South American 1 oes Bonaparte appear to better advantage iU t^e part h played in directing and shaping the pro- •-- ■ '' ■>- " niittee which formed this code. "My true Cross of the Legion op Honor. 470 REVOLUTION AND REACTION glory," said he at St. Helena, after his downfall, "is not that I have gained forty battles ; Waterloo will efface the memory of those victories. But that which nothing can efface, which will live forever, is my civil code." Bonaparte skillfully set about making his power permanent and hereditary. A plot against his life, in 1800, gave him 451. The the opportunity to crush the extreme republicans, and empire ^^ -|^gQ2 j^g ^^^ made consul for life: thenceforth he founded (1804) signed himself "Napoleon," using his first name only, like other sovereigns. In 1804, when war again broke out with Great Britain, a royalist plot was made the excuse for seizing, on neutral soil, by Napoleon's express orders, a young Bourbon prince, the Duke of Enghien, who was tried by court-mar- tial, without any evi- dence of guilt, and was shot. This deed, which excited the horror of moderate men, won the rem- nant of the Jaco- « bins to Napoleon, by making it impossi- ble for him ever to come to terms with the Bourbons. With the press Throne of Napoleon Throne room, Fontainebleau. gagged, the legislators corrupted, the generals bound to him by grants of honors and rewards, and the people inflamed against England, it was easy to obtain, in 1804, the title RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 471 of Emperor of the French, with hereditary succession — a change sanctioned by a popular vote of 3,500,000 to 2500. The coronation was carried out with imposing ceremonies, the Pope giving to it the sanction of religion by anointing the new Emperor with oil. Hitherto the imperial title, which since the fall of Constantinople had been limited to the Em- peror of the Holy Roman Empire, had possessed a peculiar significance : " there was and could be but one Emperor ; Bryce, Holy he was always mentioned with a certain reverence ; his ^ire^^^evised name called up a host of thoughts and associations which e^-)> 538 moderns do not comprehend or sympathize with." With Napo- leon's assumption of it came a cheapening of the title, until now it has little special signification beyond that of king. As general under the Directory, Napoleon Bonaparte won a series of brilliant victories in Italy, which forced Austria to make the peace of Campo Formio in 1797. In 1798 he 452. sum- conquered Egypt ; but his fleet was destroyed by Nelson mz.xj in the battle of the Nile, and his land advance into Syria was checked at Acre. The next year he returned almost alone to France, overthrew the inefficient Directory, and made himself head of the state as First Consul (1799). He broke the Second Coalition and forced Austria to sign peace again at Luneville in 1801 ; and Great Britain, in 1802, signed a hollow peace at Amiens : thus, for the first time since 1792, France's wars were at an end. At home Bonaparte reformed the local govern- ment, restored the Catholic worship as the established religion, founded the Legion of Honor, and issued the Code Napoleon. In 1802 his term as First Consul was prolonged for life ; and in 1804 he became Emperor of the French. With amazing rapidity Bonaparte had risen to one of the proudest positions in Europe. It remained to be seen whether this would satisfy him, or whether through rash ambition he would hazard all in an effort to secure universal dominion. 472 REVOLUTION AND REACTION TOPICS Suggestive topics Search topics (1) To what qualities did Bonaparte owe his advancement? (2) To what was due the success of his first Italian campaign ? (3) What exactions mentioned in his proclamation of 1797 should we regard as unjustifiable ? (4) Was Bonaparte's conduct toward Venice justifiable or not ? (5) Why did he set up the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics ? (6) Why were the British so successful at sea in the time of the French Revolution? (7) Was Bona- parte's expedition to Egypt wise or unwise ? (8) Was the over- throw of the Directors justifiable ? (9) Would the same reasons apply to the legislature? (10) Why did Napoleon assume the title of emperor? (11) Show on an outline map the annexations of territory to France made between 1789 and 1802. (12) What qualities made Bonaparte a great ruler in peace ? (13) Why were the Consulate and Empire accepted by such large popular majori- ties ? (14) Bonaparte at school. (15) Bonaparte at the bridge of Lodi. (16) Reasons for the expedition to Egypt. (17) Battle of St. Vincent. (18) Battle of the Nile. (19) The overthrow of the Directory. (20) Bonaparte's work as legislator and administrator. (21) Napoleon's friends. (22) Empress Josephine. (23) French discoveries in Egypt, REFERENCES Geography Secondary authorities Sources See maps, pp. 432, 459; Putzger, Atlas, map 26 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 55, 82-84 ; Freeman, Historical Geography, II. (Atlas), map 28 ; Dow, Atlas, xxv. Seeley, Short History of Napoleon the First, chs. i.-iii. ; Ropes, First Napoleon, 1-97 ; Johnston, Napoleon, a Short Biography, chs. i.-viii. ; Fournier. Napoleon the First, \-2^\\ Sloane, Life of Napoleon Bonaparte, I. chs. ix. x. xvi. xxi. xxix. XXX., II. chs. v.-vii. ix. x,-xii. xvi.-xxiii. ; Lanfrey, History of Napoleon the First, I. chs. ii. v. vii. x,, II. chs. ii. vi. ; Rose, Bevo- lutionary and Napoleonic Era, chs. vi. vii.; H. Morse Stephens, Bevolutionary Europe, chs. v.-vii.; Lebon, Modern France, chs. iii. iv. ; Mignet, History of the French Eevolution, chs. xii.-xiv. ;" Morris, French Eevolution and First Empire, 132-196 ; Fyffe, History of Modern Europe (Popular ed.), chs. iii.-v. ; Mahan, Influence of Sea Power upon the French Eevolution, I. 240-334, II. 1-106 ; Historians' History of the World, XII. 418-516. University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Eeprints, II. RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 473 No. 2, pp. 1-13; Tarbell, Napoleon's Addresses; Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleon^ I. 23 (Napoleon's arrest); I. 132-133, II. 33, III. 70, IV. 22 (his proclamations to his soldiers); I. 145, 317, II. 195, III. 147, IV. 62, 100 (his orders and dispatches) ; I. 277- 300, IV. 136 (his character), II. 225, 291, 335, 375, III. 137-144, 178, 309, IV. 71 (his conversations and narratives); Chateanbriand, 3Iemoirs (edition 1902), III. pt. ii. 252-293 ; Madame de R^musat, Memoirs, 372-390 (Napoleon's habits of work) ; 77, 153, 170 (his relations with his relatives) ; 81, 137, 143 (attitude toward popular opinion) ; 51, 103, 134, 403, 408 (attitude toward literature and authors) ; 117-137 (the Duke of Enghien affair); 77, 171, 210, 223, 493, 549 (behavior in court society); F. M. Anderson, Constitu- tions and Documents of the Histor-y of France, 1789-1901, nos. 58, 64, 67, 71. Dumas, The Whites and the Blues, — The Twin Captains ; X. B. Saintine, Picciola ; Conan Doyle, Uncle Bernac ; Erckmann- Chatrian, Citizen Bonaparte, — The Blockade; L. Kip, The Dead Marquis ; Mrs. Gore, The Tuileries. Sloane, Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. Illustrative works Pictures CHAPTER XXVI. THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) Peace with Great Britain lasted less than fourteen months ; its rupture was due to Napoleon's growing impatience of oppo- 453 Causes ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ great ambition. In the time that the of war peace lasted, he became president of the Italian (formerly Cisalpine) Republic ; intervened in Switzerland ; annexed Piedmont, Parma, and the isle of Elba to France ; projected the partition of Turkey ; and took steps looking toward a colonial empire, embracing America (where he had just acquired the province- of Louisiana from Spain), Egypt, India, and the new Rose, Napo- island continent of Australia. " Tlie safety of our East eo7i, I. 388 jjujia^i-^ possessions was actually at stake," says a recent English writer, " and yet Europe was asked to believe that the question was whether England would or would not evacuate Malta." In May, 1803, the British government began war by cap- turing two French merchant vessels. In angry retaliation 454. Re- Napoleon seized English travelers to the number of war^ ° twelve thousand, and held them as prisoners of war. (1803-1805) On both sides the contest was bitterly waged. The United States gained Louisiana through the renewal of hos- tilities ; for Napoleon, rightly judging that the defense of that province was impossible for France, sold the whole vast territory to the envoys of President Jefferson (April 30, 1803). To invade England Napoleon established a naval camp at Boulogne, and made ready to take advantage of any event which should give him even momentary control of the Channel. 474 THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 475 But the British power at sea could not be shaken; and the last possibility of invasion disappeared in October, 1805, with the destruction of Battle of Trafalgar. the combined French and Spanish fleets off Cape Trafalgar — Nelson's last and greatest victory, won at the cost of his life. The formation of the Third Coalition, in which Rus- 455. The sia, Austria, and Sweden joined Great Britain against Austerlitz France (1805), led Napoleon to break up the camp at (1805) Boulogne and march to the upper Danube, where, by rapid and skillful maneuvers, he took Ulm and an Austrian army of thirty thousand men (October, 1805). " Our emperor," said the French, " has found out a new way of making war ; he no longer makes it with our arms, but with our legs." The road was now open to Vienna, and for the first time in modern history the Austrian capital fell into the hands of a foreign foe. In the face of a superior force, in the midst of a hostile population, and with his line of communications threatened by the vacillating king of Prussia, Napoleon's position was for a time dangerous ; but in the battle of Aus- terlitz (December 2, 1805) the Austrians and Eussians were entrapped and completely defeated. In the treaty of Press- burg (December 26, 1805) Francis II. was for the third time forced to make a humiliating peace. Against Russia and Great Britain the war continued. Prussia, after the treaty of Basel (1795), had maintained 456. Con- an inglorious but profitable neutrality ; but in 1806 her Prussia weak king, Frederick William III., was forced to declare (1806-1807) war. The Prussian army was far inferior to that of the Seven 476 REV'OLL TlOiN AND REACTION Years' War, and it no longer had a Frederick the Great to command it. In the neighborhood of Jena a double battle was fought (October 14, 1806) ; the Prussians were crushed, Berlin was s^Deedily taken, and Frederick William was forced to flee northeastward. Napoleon followed after — amid snow and rain, frosts and thaws, over roads where men sank to their knees, horses to their bodies, and carriages beyond the axles. In February, 1807, the Russians tried to surprise the French in winter quarters, with the result that at Eylau there was fought the bloodiest and most desperate battle of a century. In June the Russians w^ere decisively defeated at Friedland. After this reverse the czar (Alexander I.) decided to make peace. The outlines of the treaty were sketched at an interview which took place between Alexander and Napoleon at Tilsit 457 P ('J^^^y ^' 1807) on a raft moored in the river Niemen, of Tilsit midway betw^een the tw^o armies. Alexander abandoned ^ ^ the British alliance, and by a secret article agreed to join France in war against Great Britain in case that country refused to make peace. More crushing terms w^ere exacted of Prussia : her recent annexations were taken from her, as well as her territories west of the Elbe ; and her Polish provinces (§ .')99) were formed into a duchy of Warsaw, under Napoleon's ally the king of Saxony. The peace of Tilsit recognized other changes which consti- tuted a reconstruction of Europe. For some time Napoleon 458. Recon- had been building up about France a circle of vassal struction of j^i^gjoms in the hands of his relatives and dependents. (1805-1807) Thus, in 1805, he exchanged his presidency of the Italian Republic — enlarged by the addition of Venice, taken from Austria — for the title of king of Italy, and conferred the viceroyalty on his stepson Eugene. In 1806 he overturned the Batavian Republic, and established his brother, Louis Bonaparte, as king of Holland. Later in the same year he THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 477 drove the Bourbon king of Naples from the peninsula and conferred the crown upon his older brother, Joseph Bona- parte. A new kingdom of Westphalia was formed east of the Rhine, and conferred upon his youngest brother, Jerome (1807). In addition to these kingdoms in his own family, Napoleon raised his dependents, the dukes of Bavaria and Wlirttemberg, to the rank of kings ; and in 1806 he formed, chiefly between the Rhine and the Elbe, a Confederation of the Rhine, of which he was the officially recognized protector. These sweeping changes extinguished the last sparks of vitality in the old German Empire. To meet the new situa- tion, Francis II. proclaimed himself hereditary emperor of Austria in 1804, under the name of Francis I., and then, in 1806, abdicated the throne of the Holy Roman Empire and declared the Empire dissolved. Great Britain, protected by the sea and her victorious navy, still defied Napoleon. To reach that country, Napoleon estab- lished the Continental System, the object of which was 459. The to close Europe to England's commerce, and thereby °^ system force that " nation of shopkeepers," as he contemptu- (1806) ously called it, to cry out for peace. The foundation of the Continental System was laid in the famous Berlin decree, issued from the Prussian capital soon after the battle of Jena: though Napoleon had scarcely a war vessel at sea, the whole of the British Isles was declared in a state of blockade ; commerce and correspondence with the British was forbidden ; and British subjects and British products, when found in lands under French influence, were to be seizedc The decree was nominally a retaliation for a British blockade of the Continental coast from Brest to the Elbe ; its effect was to call forth from the British yet more stringent measures. These, in turn, were answered by Napoleon's Milan decree of December, 1807, declaring that all neutral vessels which obeyed the British orders were liable to seizure as prizes. Harding's m. & m. hist. —28 478 REVOLUTION AND REACTION " The imperial soldiers were turned into coastguardsmen t( Mahan In- ^^^^ ^^^ Great Britain from her [the Continental] mar fluence of kets ; the British ships became revenue cutters to pro on French ^^^^^^ ^^^^ trade of France." Neutral commerce, ther Revolution, chiefly carried on in American vessels, suffered severely from this double system of unjust restrictions. The chief feature of Napoleon's policy now became the ex tension and maintenance of his Continental System. Prussia 460. Forci- ^^^s forced to close her ports to Great Britain ; and ble exten- Eussia adopted the system alons with the Frencli sionofthe ^ ^ ^ Continental alliance. To prevent the seizure of the neutral Danisli System ^^^^ j^^ Napoleon, the British bombarded Copenhagen and themselves seized the fleet (September, 1807) ; where- upon Denmark went over to France. Portugal was ordered b}' Napoleon, on penalty of war, to close her ports against ships of Great Britain ; but the demand was refused, and upon the approach of a French army the royal family fled on board ship, and sailed to the Portuguese province of Brazil (1807). The next step was the seizure of Spain, where Napoleon, taking advantage of a quarrel between the king and the crown prince, forced both to abdicate, and then transferred his brother Joseph from the Neapolitan to the Spanish throne — Naples being given to his sister's husband, Murat, his jnost daring cavalry general (1808). Tuscany was annexed to France ; and Kome was seized, and Pope Pius YII. imprisoned, because he refused to join the French alliance and exclude English mer- chandise (1809). Sweden, after being robbed of Finland by Eussia, for a time entered the Continental System, and in 1810 the Swedes chose as crown prince and heir to the throne one of Napoleon's greatest marshals, Bernadotte. At one time or another every state of Continental Europe, excepting Turkey, was forced into Napoleon's commercial system. Even thus Napoleon found it impossible to exclude Eng- lish goods from the Continent. The French government THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 479 itself set the example of violating the system : the coffee, sugar, and tea for the imperial table came from English sources ; and when fifty thousand overcoats were ordered 461. Eva- for the army in 1807, they could be obtained only from Qo^t^j^^g^^*^® the hated English. Smuggling was widespread, and the System commerce of Great Britain actually prospered in this period. The Continental System was foredoomed to failure ; and the tenacity with which Napoleon clung to it, and the tyranny with which he enforced it, eventually caused his downfall, The rising of Europe against Napoleon's domination began with Spain in 1808, when province after province rose in rebellion against Joseph Bonaparte, and the British gov- 462. The ernment sent troops to take an active part in this Benin- "^^^^^^^^^ sular War (1808-1814). Napoleon in person restored Spain his brother in Madrid; but a new war with Austria (18^8-181 ) (1809) called him away. The French were operating in a hostile country, and their generals in Napoleon's absence failed to support one another. "In war, men are nothing; it is a man who is everything," said Napoleon, in stinging rebuke of their ill success. The British were fortunate in having in command Sir Arthur Wellesley, later created Duke of Welling- ton, who in spite of a lack of Spanish cooperation was able to maintain himself, and gradually to advance. By 1811 the French were driven from Portugal; in 1812, the south of Spain was recovered ; in 1813-1814, the north was freed, the French invaders were driven across the Pyrenees, and the British followed them into France. These successes in Spain would have been impossible, save for troubles caused by the Continental System elsewhere. In 1809 Austria took heart from the difficulties in which 463. New Napoleon was involved in Spain to declare war again. Austria The contest, however, was brief and decisive: Vienna (1809) was again taken. Napoleon won the bloody battle of Wagram (July, 1809), and Austria for the fourth time made peace. 480 REVOLUTION AND REACTION The fervor of the czar's admiration for Napoleon after the interview at Tilsit gradually cooled. The Continental System 464. Alex- weighed heavily upon Russia, which depended mainly anderand ^pgn England for a market; and Napoleon's friendly (1807-1812) attitude toward the Poles caused anxiety to Alexander. Personal affronts, also, were not lacking: to secure a son to whom his crown might descend, Napoleon, in December, 1809, divorced his wife Josephine, and requested a bride from the Russian royal family; but before the answer (which was a refusal) was received, he arranged to marry Maria Louisa, the eighteen-year-old daughter of the Austrian emperor. m French Emjnre W!^A atatca dependent on Napoleon 1 j States allied with Napoleon 1 I Utatca independent of Napoleon 100 200 300 400 500 Europe at the Height of Napoleon's Power (1812). 465. Inva- On both sides the irritation grew, until it ended, in 1812, in open war. On the one side was Napoleon, master of sion of Rus- France and lord of seven vassal kingdoms and thirty de- sia (1812) pendent principalities ; on the other was the czar Alexan- der, allied with Sweden and Great Britain. To invade Russia, THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 481 Napoleon mustered an army of nearly half a million men, drawn from " twenty nations," the French constituting about one third of the whole. The passage across the river Niemen, with which the invasion began in June, 1812, took three days. The Rus- sians systematically refused battle and retreated, drawing the Napoleon's Russian Campaign. French farther and farther into the heart of an inhospitable country, where transportation and supply became increasingly difficult. At Smolensk (about two thirds of the way to Mos- cow) the Russians made a stand ; and after desperate fighting the French were successful, but they were unable to prevent the continuance of the Russian retreat. At Borodino, seventy- five miles from Moscow, the Russians again made a determined stand ; and though they were defeated, they were not crushed, and again were able to retreat in good order. One week later (September 14) the French entered Mos- cow, with its Kremlin and "forty times forty churches," only to find it practically deserted. The next day fire broke out, probably kindled by the Russians: for three days the flames raged, and were stayed only when nine tenths of the city was in ashes. The situation in which Napoleon found himself was grave in the extreme. To winter in the ruined city was impossible ; yet for five weeks he lingered, hoping that Alexander might yet come to terms and the campaign be saved from failure. But it was in vain. " I have learned 482 REVOLUTION AND REACTION to know him now," said the czar ; " Napoleon or I ; I or Napoleon: we can not reign side by side." Napoleon at last began his retreat from Moscow, October 19, 1812. A southerly route which he attempted was blocked, 466. Re- and his troops were obliged to retreat by the devastated Moscow°^ route of their advance. The Russian general, Kutusoff, (1812) wisely refraining from the hazard of a pitched battle, hung upon the rear and flanks of the retreating forces with his Cossacks, and cut off stragglers. Marshal Ney, who covered the retreat, here won his title " the bravest of the brave." Zero weather came on, and at every bivouac the morning showed stark and lifeless forms about the scanty campfires. Horses died by hundreds ; guns and wagons had to be aban- doned; provisions ran short, and discipline was almost de- stroyed. At a little river, the Beresina, the passage was blocked by a sudden thaw ; but heroic French engineers, plunged for hours in the icy waters, constructed at the cost of their own lives rude trestle bridges which saved the army from utter destruction. A few days later Napoleon left the troops and hurried on to Paris. In the middle of December the shattered remnant of the main army, less than 20,000 in number, staggered across the Russian frontier. Of the mighty force that had set out in June, 130,000 were left in Russian prisons, 50,000 had deserted, 250,000 had perished — of cold, hunger, disease, and the casualties of war. This overwhelming disaster, together with the steady prog- ress of the British in the Peninsular War, encouraged the 467. Revi- oppressed states of Germany to rise against Napoleon's sia a 807-^' ^y^'^^'^y? Prussia taking the lead. Able and patriotic men 1813) — Stein, Scharnhorst, Hardenberg, and others — had been laboring to adapt to Prussian needs the social reforms of the French Revolution and Napoleon's military system. Serf- dom was abolished, the privileges of the nobility were done away with, and a system of election to municipal offices was THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 483 introduced. Universal liability to military service took the place of hired service, so that within a few years a large proportion of the Prussian youth received military training. Prussia, in place of Austria, came to be regarded as the natu- ral head of Germany ; and poets like Arndt, and philosophers like Fichte, did valuable service in fanning the flame of Ger- man patriotism. The Prussian general York, on his own responsibility, aban- doned the French forces and made terms with the now in- vading Russians (1813). " The army wants war with -gg ^. . France," he wrote, " the people want it, and so does the of Germany king ; but the king has no free will : the army must ^ make his will free." Borne along by the tide of warlike enthusiasm, Frederick William III. declared war, and issued a stirring call to his people, saying: "It is the last decisive fight which we must make for our existence, our independ- ence, our well-being. There is no other issue except to an honorable peace or a glorious downfall." Napoleon meanwhile showed astonishing energy in raising and equipping a new army from exhausted France. By the end of April, 1813, he was back in Germany, and Saxony became the battlefield of the two contending forces. In of Leipzig the first half of the campaign of 1813 the French ^^^^^^ emperor displayed his usual superiority; but Austria joined the allies in August, and the tide turned. At Dresden (August 26-27) Napoleon again won a great victory, but within a fort- night his lieutenants in other parts of the field lost five battles. Amid autumn rains and fogs the struggle shifted to Leipzig, where in a great three days' battle the French — outnumbered, outgeneraled, and outfought — were overwhelmingly defeated (October 16, 18, 19, 1813). The battle of Leipzig marks the end of French domination in Germany. All central Europe, forgetful of the benefits of French administration, and mindful only of the humiliation of 484 KK\OLUTION AND REACTION foreign rule, rose in revolt. With the British and Spaniards about to cross the Pyrenees, and the Russians, Prussians, and Austrians massing their forces for the passage of the Rhine, it was no longer a question of Napoleon's advancing to world empire ; thenceforth it was a question of saving the Rhine frontier won by the Revolutionary wars, and even of maintain- ing Napoleon's hold on France itself. Even after the invasion of France had begun, the allies would gladly have signed a peace leaving to Napoleon the 470. Abdi- throne and the French frontiers of 1792, provided that he cation of renounce all claims to interfere in the affairs of Europe (1814) outside those limits. P)ut the spirit of the gambler was strong in Napoleon : he would have all or nothing, and these terms were refused. In the campaign of 1814 Napoleon in vain displayed his old genius and audacity. Slowly but surely the allies closed in upon Paris. The populace of the capital showed ominous signs of discontent with Napoleon's rule, and partisans of the exiled Bourbons raised their heads. On the last day of March, 1814, the allies entered the city. Napoleon wished still to continue the conflict, but his generals refused to obey. Baffled at every turn, he was forced (on April 11), at Fontainebleau, near Paris, to sign an unconditional abdication, renouncing for himself and his heirs the thrones of France and Italy. He was allowed to retain the imperial title, and was assigned in full sovereignty the little island of Elba, with an annual sub- sidy of two million francs. Under the influence of the wily French diplomat Talley- rand, the French Senate (the most important political body under the empire) and the allies were brought to favor the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne of France. The Dauphin Louis, son of Louis XVI., had died in prison in 1795, as the result of shocking ill treatment ; so Louis XVI. 's brother was proclaimed king as Louis XVIII. 'The Pope now THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 485 returned to Eome, and the dispossessed Bourbon king of Spain to his capital. To settle further territorial questions, particu- larly in Germany and Poland, a congress of European powers was summoned, to meet at Vienna, in the late fall of 1814. For Napoleon to remain quietly in Elba was impossi- ble. Eluding the guard 471. Napo- ships placed about the }^o^'y^- ^ ^ turn from island, he landed in Elba (1815) southern France on March 1, 1815, with a force of eleven hundred men. "I shall reach Paris," he predicted, " without firing a shot." Avoiding the Khone valley, where the roy- Talleyrand. From a painting in Versailles. alists were in control, he passed through the mountains of Dauphine to Lyons. The troops sent against him deserted to his standard ; and even Marshal Ney, who left Paris boasting that he would bring his former master back " in an iron cage," declared for Napoleon. The peasants and poorer classes hailed his arrival with joy ; but the wealthy townsmen of the capital dreaded a restoration which meant renewed war with Europe. Within three weeks after Napoleon's landing, Louis XVIII. was again an exile, the French emperor was restored to his capital, and there had begun the " Hundred Days " of his second reign. At Vienna the news of Napoleon's return ended the dissen- sions among the allies. Declaring him "an enemy and dis- turber of the peace of the world " and an " outlaw," they prepared their armies to take the field anew. Napoleon found himself far stronger than in 1814, by the return of prisoners of 486 REVOLUTION AND REACTION war and troops formerly on garrison duty in Germany. Fol- lowing his favorite practice, he resolved to strike before his enemies were ready, and on June 14 crossed the northern frontier. In Belgium there was a British army under Wellington and a Prussian army under Bliicher. Napoleon's rapid move- 472. Battle ments practically surprised these veteran commanders, of Waterloo ^^^^ ^^ defeating Bliicher at Ligny, on June 16, he broke (June 18 1815) their connection and rendered possible, as he hoped, the separate overthrow of Wellington. But Bliicher, instead of retreating eastward, turned northward, so as again to come in touch with the Brit- ish forces. Belying on ' Blticher's assistance, Wellington turned at bay on the ridge of Waterloo, where he was attacked by the French on the morning of June 18. For ten hours the battle raged, Napoleon repeatedly hurling his columns of cavalry against the bay- onet-wielding squares of the stubborn British in- fantry. Never did Wel- lington better deserve the name of "the Iron Duke" than while anxiously scanning the horizon for signs of the promised Prussian aid. The roads were soft and bad from the torrents of rain that had fallen the day before, and it was not until late in the afternoon that Bliicher arrived. The French, attacked on the right flank and in front, were then gradually overborne, and about nine in Movements leading to Waterloo THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 487 the evening their defeat became a rout. Seven times the flying forces of Napoleon halted for the night, but each time they were driven onward. An eyewitness reports that at Waterloo, the next morning, " the whole field, from right to left, was a mass of dead bodies." Napoleon's defeat was decisive ; it was due to his too great confidence, to the decline of his powers from ill health, to the slackness of some of his generals, and to the steadiness and courage with which the British and Prussians performed their allotted tasks. Had Napoleon shown the brilliancy of his ear- lier generalship, he might have won the battle ; but it would only have been to meet his downfall on some other field. After Waterloo, Paris fell a second time into the hands of the allies. Napoleon, failing to secure their permission to withdraw to America, voluntarily went on board a „„„ „ ' -^ 473. Fate British man-of-war and was carried to England. Had of Napoleon he fallen into the hands of the Prussians, it is possible ^ ~ ' that he might have been executed as an outlaw, under the Vienna proclamation. As it was, he was transported to the British isle of St. Helena, in the south Atlantic, where he fretted out the remainder of his life in quarrels with his Eng- lish jailers, dying of an hereditary disease in 1821. Napoleon was a man of titanic force, with a remarkable gen- ius for war and for government ; and the opportunity offered to his talents by the chaotic state of Europe, and the upheaval caused by the French Revolution, was unequaled in history. His personal character, as described by Madame de Remusat, a lady-in-waiting to Empress Josephine, was a mixture of attractive and repulsive traits. He could fascinate men and women when he chose ; but his real nature, especially in later life, was marked by monstrous selfishness, cynical unscru- pulousness, and blind trust in the infallibility of his powers. Europe meanwhile was reconstituted by the decrees of the Congress of Vienna. In general, the " legitimate " rulers were 490 REVOLUTION AND REACTION restored and barriers erected against democratic movements and liberal ideas; the wishes of the people and national as- 471. Treat- pirations were ignored. Prussia gave up some of her If.^ °^ Polish provinces to Russia, but was compensated by (1815) gains elsewhere in Germany. Austria was glad to give up her former possessions in the Netherlands in return for compensations in northern Italy. Catholic Belgium was joined in unstable union with Protestant Holland to form the king- dom of the Netherlands. Norway was torn from Denmark, with which it had been united for centuries, and joined to Sweden, to compensate that state for the loss of Finland, which was retained by Russia. Great Britain kept the Cape of Good Hope, and Malta, Ceylon, Trinidad, and other islands won in the course of the long war; but she restored more than she kept. Murat was at first allowed to remain on the throne of Naples, but after the Hundred Days he was expelled, and the Bourbon line restored; when Murat returned to Naples, he was seized and shot (October, 1815). The petty states of Germany, which formerly numbered over three hundred, had been reduced by Napoleon to less than forty ; and they were now joined with Austria and Prussia in a loose Confederation to take the place of the old Holy Roman Empire. France, which fared wonderfully w^ell, under the skillful management of Talleyrand, in the first arrangements for peace, was punished for its adhesion to Napoleon during the Hundred Days. In the treaty of Paris, concluded in November, 1815, Louis XVIII. was obliged to accept the frontiers as they had been in 1790, pay a war indemnity of seven hundred million francs, and return the priceless works of art of which Napoleon had despoiled conquered states. With France thus weakened, and the principles of legitimate monarchy reestablished throughout Europe, the allied sovereigns thought themselves free to return to the policies of the eighteenth century, secure against any renewal of popular revolts. THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 491 For Great Britain the struggle with Revolutionary France and the Napoleonic empire was "a mortal struggle, the most dangerous, the most doubtful, the most costly she had 475 cost ever waged." It was entered upon with reluctance, but °^ *^® "^^^ , ^ , to Great when it was once begun the English were the soul of Britain every coalition, "England has saved herself by her exer- tions," said the British prime minister Pitt, at one time, "and Bank of England in 1798. (From an old print.) will save Europe by her example." She contributed much more than an example : her command of the sea, firmly fixed by Nelson's victory in the battle of Trafalgar, was the chief menace to all French plans of conquest; and her financial subsidies, freely given to France's Continental enemies, gave the indispensable means for carrying on the war. Her triumph, however, was dearly bought, for her total ex- penditure was soon treble what it had been in time of peace. By 1797 the drain of gold from the country forced the Bank of England to cease redeeming its notes in specie, and specie 492 REVOLUTION AND REACTION payments were not resumed until 1821. The public debt in- creased by leaps and bounds : at the beginning of the Frenct war, in 1793, it was £239,000,000; at the close of the war, ir 1815, it had reached the enormous total of £861,000,000, witl: annual payments for interest amounting to £25,000,000. The amount of this debt has since been decreased, but at the be^ ginning cf the Boer War, in 1898, it was still £634,000,000. The costs of war and the depreciation of paper currency; raised prices until wheat sold, in 1801, at about $4.00 a bushel Wages on the contrary rose but little; and there followed s great increase of pauperism among the people — a resull partly due to a bad system of poor relief. A change was alsc wrought by the war in British politics : for a generation aftei 1792 the Whig party was discredited because of the sympathy of some of its leaders for the French Revolution, and thf Tories, who opposed every reform as likely to lead to revolu tion, were firmly seated in power. The Revolution in France embroiled the Republic in war: war led to the rise of a military dictatorship ; and the genius 476. Sum- and good fortune of Napoleon converted this dictatorship ^^^y into an empire covering half of Europe. To maintain and extend his power, he renewed the war with Great Britair (1803) ; he inaugurated the Continental System ; he seated hi^ brother Joseph on the Spanish throne ; and he undertook the invasion of Russia (1812). These policies brought him for the first time into conflict with an aroused national spirit in Spain, Russia, and Germany ; and he fell before the combined attacl^ of peoples and princes, joined to the relentless opposition ol Great Britain. Had Napoleon been content with the position he had attained by the treaty of Amiens, — had he not striven after universal empire, — France under his sway would have been one of the happiest of countries, and his fame that of one of the greatest of rulers. But his efforts were all for self, and THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 493 his towering egotism led him on to ruin, while the memory of his victories lingered to curse his country with dreams of idle glory. The noblest part of his genius is commemorated in the solid, substantial part of his work, which still lives — in his reorganization of France, in his manifold works of peace, in the Code Napoleon, in his maintenance of the principle of equality of all before the law. TOPICS (1) Was Great Britain or France chiefly responsible for the Suggestive renewal of war ? (2) Make a list of Napoleon's vassal kingdoms *°P^^^ and dependencies in 1812. (3) How miglit Napoleon expect his Continental System to bring England to terms ? (4) Why were his expectations disappointed ? (5) What part did the Peninsular War play in the downfall of Napoleon ? (6) How did his invasion of Russia contribute to his fall ? (7) Why was the military success of Prussia greater in 1813-1814 than in 1806-1807 ? (8) Were the terms granted to Napoleon in 1814 unduly harsh ? (9) Was the Congress of Vienna justified in proclaiming him an outlaw upon his return from Elba? (10) What enabled Napoleon so easily to recover possession of France ? (11) Why could not the allies treat his dethronement of Louis XVIII. as a matter which concerned France alone? (12) Which was the greater general, Napoleon or Wellington ? (13) Were the British justified in keeping Napoleon prisoner at St. Helena ? (14) Set down in one column the acts for which Napoleon deserves praise, and in another those for which he deserves censure. (15) Was Great Britain's victory over Napoleon worth to her what it cost ? (16) Incidents of the rupture of the peace of Amiens. (17) Na- Search poleon's colonial projects. (18) Battle of Trafalgar. (19) Battles *°^^^^ of Jena, Eylau, and Friedland. (20) Negotiation of the peace of Tilsit. (21) The Confederation of the Rhine. (22) Bernadotte. (23) Murat. (24) Ney. (25) The mihtary career of the Duke of Wellington. (26) Incidents of Napoleon's invasion of Russia. (27) Rebirth of Prussia, 1807-1813. (28) Battle of Leipzig. (29) Napoleon at Elba. (30) The return of Napoleon. (31) The Waterloo campaign. (32) Napoleon at St. Helena. (33) Na- poleon's private life and character. (34) Conflicts in the Con- gress of Vienna. (35) Social life at Vienna during the Congress. (36) Talleyrand at the Congress of Vienna. 494 REVOLUTION AND REACTION REFERENCES Geography Secondary authorities Sources Illustrative works Pictures See maps, pp. 432, 459, 488 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 27, 27 &, 28, 28 a ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 56-59, 86-87 ; Freeman, His- torical Geography, II. (Atlas), maps 29, 30 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, map lix. ; Bow, Atlas, xxvi. xxvii. Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century, chs. iii.-v. ; Bryce, Holy Boman Empire (Revised ed.), ch. xx.; Henderson, Short History of Germany, II. ch. vii.; Seeley, Short History of Napoleon the First, 114-322; H. Morse Stephens, Revolutionary Europe, chs. viii.-xi.; Rose, Hevolutionary and Napoleonic Era, chs. viii.- xi.; Mignet, French Revolution, ch. xv.; Fyffe, History of Modern Europe (Popular ed.), chs. vi.-xi. ; Lebon, Modern France, chs. v. vi. ; Ropes, First Napoleon, 97-307 ; Johnston, Napoleon, chs. viii.- xvii. ; Fournier, Napoleon the First, 242-432; Lord Rosebery, Napoleon : The Last Phase ; Rose, Life of Napoleon L, I. chs. xx. xxi., II. ; Sloane, Life of Napoleon Bonaparte, II. chs. xxviii. xxix. xxxii., III. chs. xi.-xiv. xix. xxi.-xxiii. xxviii. xxix., IV. chs. i. ii. xvi. xvii. xix, xxiii. xxiv. ; Lanfrey, History of Napoleon the First, III. chs. iii. V. ix. xii., IV. chs. vii. ix.; Mahan, Life of Nelson, I. ch. x., II. chs. xvi. xxiii.; Russell, Nelson, chs. xiv. xv. xix. xx.; Southey, Life of Nelson ; Mahan, Lifluence of Sea Power on- the French Revolution and Empire, II. chs. xv. xvi. xviii. ; Gardiner, StudenVs History of England, chs. liii. liv. ; Green, History of the English People, bk. ix. ch. v.; Historians'' History of the World, XII. 617-649. Madame de R^musat, Memoirs, 376 (Josephine); 580-610 (her divorce); 283, 363, 451, 489, 611 (Talleyrand, Fouch^, Louis Bona- parte); J. Q.Adams, Memoirs, III. ch. x.; Henderson, Side Lights on English History, 123-124 ; University of Pennsylvania, Trans- lations and Reprints, II. No. 2, pp. 13-30; Colby, Selections from the Sources, nos. 109-112 ; F. M. Anderson, Constitutions and Documents of the History of France, 1789-1901, nos. 77, 79, 87-90, 96, 99, 100 ; Lloyd, New Letters of Napoleon I., 22-347. Wolfe, Burial of Sir John Moore ; G. A. Henty, One of the 28th ; W. H. Maxwell, Stories of Waterloo ; Erckmann-Chatrian, The Conscript, — The Great Invasion, — Waterloo ; Victor Hugo, Les Miserahles ; C. M. Yonge, Kenneth, — The Little Drummer ; Elbridge S. Brooks, A Boy of the First Empire ; B. Pdrez Galdos, Trafalgar ; Tolstoy, War and Peace ; H. Seton Merriman, Barlasch of the Guard ; Conan Doyle, Exploits of Brigadier Gerard, — The Adventures of Gerard. Sloane, Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. CHAPTER XXVII. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT, POLITICAL REACTION, AND- REVOLUTION (1815-1830) The Vienna treaties kept peace between the five Great Powers (Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Eussia) for almost exactly forty years, and the peoples of Europe 477 indus- in this period increased rapidly in numbers, in wealth, trial Revo- -, . T . , . ^ , . .• . lutionofthe and in political importance. Other important factors in eighteenth their development were: (1) the use, in manufacture, of century improved machinery, driven by water or steam power; (2) im- provements in land transportation, especially the introduction of steam railways ; (3) improvements in water transportation, particularly the invention of the steamboat; and (4) improve- ments in postal facilities, and the growth of the press. The improvements in manufacturing processes began in Eng- land in the latter half of the eighteenth century, and have fitly been called the Industrial Revolution. For Great Britain the changes marked the beginning of an industrial and financial supremacy in the world which has lasted down to our own day. On the Continent their introduction took place after . 1815. In general, the result of these improvements, together with like changes in agriculture and in transportation, was a transformation of the material conditions of life more rapid and far-reaching than the world had ever before seen. The people were benefited in better food, better clothing, and larger op- portunities ; but as the immediate effect of the introduction of machinery was often the loss of employment by hand workers, it is not surprising that the classes which ultimately profited most met the new inventions with riots and machine breaking. 495 496 REVOLUTION AND REACTION industries Of all improvements in manufactures, the most notable were those in spinning and weaving. For thousands of years so 478. Textile little advance had been made that the distaff represented the monuments of ancient Egypt was still in general use almost to the eighteenth century: the hand spindle was used for drawing out the fibers of wool or cotton into yarn or thread, and the hand loom for weaving this into cloth. The spinning wdieel, operated by foot power, which was in common use early in the eighteenth century, marked the first advance over these primi- tive appliances. James Hargreaves then devised a machine called the " spin- ning jenny " (patented in 1770), by w^hich sixteen or more threads could be spun at one time ; at about the same time Rich- ard Arkwright invented what was known as the " spinning frame " ; and a few years later Sanmel Crompton combined the inventions of Hargreaves and Arkwright in a machine which was called the "spinning mule." With this improved machinery it became possible for one person to spin as many as one hundred and fifty threads at a time ; and when water or steam power was used, the capacity of a single operator was increased to as many as twelve thousand threads. Improve- ments were also made in weaving, the most important being the power loom, invented by an English clergyman named Edmund Cartwright, about 1785 ; but hand-loom weaving was nsual until about 1840. Both spinning and weaving were long carried on as house- hold employments by independent hand workers, who bought the raw material and themselves disposed of the finished Sptxning Jenny. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT (1770-1830) 497 producb ; this is called the " domestic system '' of manufacture. Toward the close of the eighteenth century the "factory sys- tem " arose in England, by which many workpeople were 479. Tiie brought together under the same roof, to work up raw factory materials supplied by the owner of the factory, who paid ^^^ ®°^ them wages, superintended the manufacture, and received the finished goods. Water power for a time was used to turn machinery ; but steam soon became the favorite power. For three quarters of a century rude steam engines had been em- ployed for pumping water out of coal mines ; then James Watt began, about 1769, a series of inventions by which the consumption of fuel was lessened, the power increased, and the engine adapted to all sorts of work. Improvements in the smelting of ore, about the same time, gave a larger and cheaper supply of iron to meet the new needs. The most important industrial development of the early nineteenth century was the invention of the locomotive engine and the construction of steam railways. Horse 'Hram- 430. steam ways " had been built in England as early as the latter . railways part of the seventeenth century to transport coal short dis- tances to the sea. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Richard Trevithick devised a steam loco- motive engine of a rude sort for this work 5 but the inven- tion of a really prac- ticable " traveling en- gine" was the work of George Stephen- son, the self-taught son of a poor English collier, who in 1814 produced his first locomotive, familiarly called " Puffing Billy." In 1825 a railway for passengers and freight was opened be- tween Stockton and Darlington, for which Stephenson con- HABDING'S M. & M. HIST, — 29 Puffing Billy. 498 REVOLUTION AND REACTION striicted an engine which drew ninety tons at the rate of ten to twelve miles an hour. In 18o() the Liverpool and Manchester railway was opened; for this, Stephenson submitted, in suc- cessful competition with three others, an engine called the " Rocket," which attained a speed of thirty -five miles an hour. With this event begins the modern railway era. Railways of Europe in liKX). In America, and in certain countries of Continental Europe, railway construction began almost immediately after this. By the middle of the nineteenth century the basis of the exist- ing network of roads had been laid, linking together distant parts of Europe, and leaving few of those centers of barbarism which survived in the Middle Ages in the heart of the most civilized countries. The chief economic result of the railway was a great cheapening in price of bulky commodities, thus permitting a higher standard of comfort for the poor. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT (1815-1830) 499 The application of steam to navigation preceded the loco- ^ motive. Several Englishmen and Americans shared the attempt to solve the problem of steam navigation. The most 431. The famous of these was the American, Robert Fulton, who steamboat in 1807 launched the Cley-mont, which ran successfully on the Hudson River from New York to Albany. But it was not until 1837 that vessels under steam power began to cross the Atlantic. Improved communication made possible a wider circulation for books, pamphlets, and newspapers ; and about 1814 the steam printing press ifiade printing quicker and cheaper. ^gg j,^^ But European governments, by stamp taxes and other re- press and strictions, long attempted (though in vain) to keep news- papers and political publications from reaching the multitude. As the people increased in numbers and wealth, and politi- cal agitation was carried to them by the press, the demand began to be heard that they should be admitted to a share in the government. Everything made for a growth of democracy in the new era ; but the rulers of the allied nations of Europe shut their eyes and ears to the signs of the times, aud sought to bring their peoples back tt) the bondage of the eighteenth century. As a result, the history of the quarter of a century following the downfall of the Napoleonic empire is largely made up of a conflict between the forces of progress and those of reaction. Napoleon's overthrow at Waterloo was the work of Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain, united in a Quadruple Alliance. In November, 1815, these four jjowers re- ^gg Q^ad- newed their alliance, with the object of watching over ruple Alli- -p ance and France and enforcing the treaties of Vienna. Its pur- jj^jy j^^ii- pose was to give Europe peace; but it developed into a 10?=^ (1814— lolS) . league for putting down liberalism all over the Con- tinent, and for a decade it succeeded in this design. Its chief statesman was Prince Metternich of Austria, a polished but 500 REVOLUTION AND REACTION cynical diplomatj who continued to be a powerful factor in European politics until the middle of the century. The Alli- ance occupied French ter- ritory with foreign troops until 1818, when it was de- cided, at a congress held at Aix-la-Chapelle, that France was sufficiently re- covered from revolutionary ideas, and the garrisons were withdrawn. The members of the Quadruple Alliance, except- ing Great Britain, were also the chief members of a Holy Alliance, formed in September, 1815, by the mystically religious czar Alexander I. Its object was to establish a compact of Christian brotherhood among European rulers, with which to oppose the revolution- ary fraternity of their peoples ; it pledged the signers to rule according to the teachings of Christianity and the precepts of justice, charity, and peace, and on all occasions and in all places to " lend each other aid and assistance." Practically all the powers of Europe signed the Holy Alliance except three : Great Britain publicly excused herself for vague constitutional reasons ; the Pope denounced it because of its supposed liberal and heretical tendencies ; the sultan of Turkey was deliberately excluded because of his religion. Though the Bourbon monarchy was reestablished in France, in 1815, the old regime was not restored. France kept the social system of the Kevolution and the governing machinery Metternich. From the painting by T. Lawrence. POLITICAL REACTION (1815-1830) 501 and code of Napoleon. Louis XVIII. began his reign with a charter setting up a constitutional monarchy of the English type, with a legislative assembly of two houses, a respon- 434 France sible ministry, irremovable judges, freedom of religion and "nder Louis of the press, and personal liberty ; even the imperial nobil- (1814-1824) ity and the Legion of Honor were preserved. Three questions, however, remained to be solved : What should be the relation between the king and the elected chamber of the Assembly ? How should the elections take place, and who should have the vote ? How should the liberty of the press be regulated ? Controversies over these questions at last brought the Bourbon monarchy to an end. The Hundred Days for a time suspended the charter of Louis XVIII. , and the second restoration, following the battle of Waterloo, brought a violent royalist reaction, ^gg French Marshal Ney, one of the chief " traitors " of the Hun- political dred Days, was condemned by the House of Peers, and shot. In the south of France royalist mobs rose and mas- sacred all who were suspected of Bonapartist sympathies ; but the north escaped this "White Terror." An "Ultra" party, "more royalist than the king," wished to overthrow the charter, destroy the religious Concordat of 1801, and restore the confiscated estates to the clergy and nobility; opposed to these were the Liberals, who took as their emblem the tricolor of the Kevolution, and began to view Napoleon no longer as a tyrant, but as a patriotic ruler of France, who was pursued by the allies because he loved France too Avell ; between these two extremes were the Constitutional Eoyalists, who declared that France wanted " the king, but not the king without conditions." The Ultra control of the Assembly was strengthened in 1820 by the reaction following the assassina- tion of the Duke of Berri, nephew and heir of Louis XVIII. The Liberals then gave up working by legal methods, and began secretly to incite revolution; but the monarchy rested r)02 iii:voLUTioN and reaction secure, with the Ultras in control, until the king's death in 1824. The national uprisings which caused the downfall of Napo- leon were directed against the rule of a foreign power, not 486. Spread against the liberal ideas of the French Revolution; and of constitu- ^yjjgj^ ^Yie allied powers ignored national sentiments tional prin- ^ ^ ciples and insisted upon absolute governments, they came into collision with the very force which had enabled them to tri- umph over the French Empire. In the ten years following the treaties of Vienna, liberal principles spread all over west- ern Europe, largely through the efforts of secret societies. The chief of these was the Carbonari (" charcoal-burners "), first organized in Italy to expel the French, but later working for the freedom of the land from Austrian rule, and for a united Italy with a constitutional government ; the number of mem- bers of the society, after 1816, was estimated at sixty thousand. Germany was by the treaties of Vienna organized into a loose confederation (Deutscher Bund, or German Confedera- 487. Ger- tion) with a federal Diet so weak and dilatory as to be tics^ ^° ^' *^^^ laughing-stock of Europe. Austria had a traditional (1816-1830) leadership in German affairs, but its ascendency was weakened by the growth of Prussia. The German govern- ments were of three types: (1) absolute governments like Austria and Prussia ; (2) monarchies tempered by traditional assemblies of estates, such as Hanover, and the majority of North German states ; and (3) states like Saxe-Weimar, Baden, and Bavaria (mainly in South Germany), in which the princes granted written constitutions in imitation of that of France, with elected assemblies. The king of Saxony held so high an idea of the royal office that he never went out on foot, or spoke to any one beneath the rank of colonel. The mass of the people were indifferent to political questions ; nevertheless small groups of men — enlightened journalists and university professors — conducted an agitation for a liberal and united POLITICAL REACTION (1815-1830) 503 Germany, in the press, in university lectures, and in the gymnastic and students' societies which sprang up all over Germany. In Spain the reaction was blindest, and it was there that revolution first broke out. When the Bourbon Spanish king, Ferdinand VII., was restored to his throne, in 1814, he refused to sanction a constitution, and arbitrarily im- rection and prisoned the leadinor liberals. He also revived the Inqui- interven- ^ ^ tion in sition, and restored the worst abuses of the old regime. Spain "Xothing I can say," wrote an Englishman from Spain (1820-1823) in 1818, "could convey to you an adequate idea of the Walpole, . . History of wretchedness, misery, want of credit, confidence and England trade which exist from one end of the country to the since wis, -^ III. 7 other." As a result the army officers conspired and pro- duced the military rebellion of 1820. For a time the move- ment succeeded, and the king was forced to take an oath to observe a constitution ; but he soon fell back on the sup- port of the clerical and absolutist parties, and for two years unhappy Spain was torn by civil war. These troubles, with similar movements in Portugal and Italy, led the allied powers to hold new congresses at Troppau and Laybach in 1821, and at Verona in 1822. At the first of these the principle was laid down that " useful or necessary changes in legislation and in the administration of states ought only to emanate from the free will and the intelligent and w^ell-weighed conviction of those whom God had rendered responsible for power." Accordingly F'rance was designated to intervene in Spain, and in 1823 a French army restored Ferdinand to absolute power. The treaties of Vienna left Italy (in Metternich's language) a " geographical expression," marked by the existence of ^-g j many small states with absolute governments, de|)endent rection and upon Austria. The example of Spain led to military ^ion in Italy rebellions in the kingdom of Naples in 1820, and in Sar- (1820-1821) 504 KEVOLUTION AND REACTION dinia-Piedmont in 1821. In Naples a constitution was issued and the king swore to support it ; then he repudiated his oath, procured an Austrian army, and put down both the liberal party and the constitution. In Piedmont the insurgents set up the Italian tricolor flag (green, white, and red) and pro- claimed as their object the establishment of a kingdom of Italy over the whole nation; but the time was not ripe for this, and the rebellion here also was put down with Austrian aid. The Spanish colonies in America, like the home nation, had refused to accept the rule of the Bonapartes, and in 1809 Af^r. T .. revolts broke out from the Rio Grande to the Plata. 490. Inter- vention and When Ferdinand VII. was restored by the allies in 1814, Do^ctrine^°^ the colonies sought for a continuance of their easy-going (1823) government; failing that, they put forth a series of declarations of independence, beginning with that of Buenos Ayres in 1816. The weakness of the government at home made it impossible for Spain to put down the revolts unas- sisted; and in America, also, the allied powers prepared to intervene in 1823. Two forces, however, prevented such action : Great Britain was hostile to it, and so was the United States. Canning, the British minister of foreign affairs, gave formal warning that France would not be allowed to bring any of Spain's colonies under her dominion ; and when invitations were issued for a conference at Paris to consider the question of intervention in the Spanish colonies, he refused to take part, and invited the United States to join Great Britain in a decla- ration against intervention. The United States recognized the independence of its South American sister republics as early as 1822. In December, 1823, President Monroe, in his message to Congress, declared that any European interposition in America for the purpose of oppressing or in any manner controlling the destiny of the POLITICAL REACTION (1815-1830) 505 new republics could not be viewed " in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition towards the United States." These words constituted one part of the now famous Monroe Doctrine. In the face of the hostility of Great Britain and the United States, intervention in the Spanish colonies had to be given up. " I resolved that if France had Spain," said Canning, " it should not be Spain with the Indies. I called the New World into existence in order to redress the balance of the Old." The attitude of Great Britain threatened the policy of the European alliance ; the alliance got its deathblow as a result of the Greek revolt from Turkish rule, which broke out in 491. Greek 1821. By Greeks and Turks alike the war was waged ^^H^l^"^'^ with great ferocity. The educated classes of England (1821-1829) and France strongly favored the Greeks, and many (like the poet Byron, who gave his life for the cause) aided them with money and arms ; but Metternich was opposed in principle to rebellion. The czar Nicholas, however, threatened to treat the troubles in Greece as "the domestic concerns of Russia," and to intervene on his own account. To prevent Eussian aggrandizement. Great Britain and France joined the czar in an effort to secure for the Greeks the status of a self-governing people paying tribute ; but Austria, under the influence of Metternich, encouraged the sultan to resist. At the Bay of Navarino, in the Peloponnesus, a Turkish and Egyptian fleet was destroyed (in 1827) by the allied French, British, and Russian squadrons ; then, in two hard- fought campaigns, a Russian land force, operating in the Danube provinces, forced the sultan to submit. The treaty- of Adrianople (1829) recognized the independence of Greece; and in 1882 its government was settled by the choice of Otho I., a prince of the royal house of Bavaria, as its first king. In France the reaction against liberalism, which began in the reign of Louis XVIII. , grew stronger under his brother, 506 KEVOLUTION AND REACTION Charles X. (1824-1830). He allowed the Ultra royalists, and the Ultramontane or strongly papal party among the clergy, to 492. France have full swing ; and the emigres of the devolution were rh*^T x compensated for the confiscation of their estates by a (1824-1830) vote from the Assembly of two hundred million francs. The exasperation of the middle classes against the government led to the election of an opposition majority to the lower chamber in 1827. After some vacillation, the king placed in office men whose choice could only mean a direct attack upon the parliamentary system. At the head of the new ministry was Polignac, a reactionary who long refused to swear obedience to the charter be- cause it granted religious free- dom to non-Catholics. " There is no such thing as political experience," wrote Welling- ton, in view of these events: "with the warning of James II. [of England] before him. Charles X. was setting up a government by priests, through priests, for priests." Charles X. relied upon his close alliance with the other absolutist powers, and also on an active foreign policy which 493. Alge- should turn his people's minds from domestic politics, ria annexed ^j^ opportunity for action abroad appeared in Algiers in (1830) 1830, when the half-piratical dey (ruler of Algeria), in a fit of passion, struck the French consul. A French expedi- tion sent thither met with speedy success : within two months Algiers opened its gates, and the dey gave up his city, his government, and his treasure. In spite of previous pledges tc Charles X. From a painting in Versailles. POLITICAL REACTION (1815-1880) 507 the contrary, the French then announced their intention to annex the country, and by 1847 the conquest was completed. The '^ glory " which the army was winning in Algeria failed to reconcile the people to the arbitrary course of (Jharles X., and the Assembly demanded the dismissal of the new ministers. A dissolution of the chamber was followed crisis of by gains of the opposition party at the polls. The czar ^^^^ and Metternich then advised Charles to make a virtue of necessity and to adopt a conciliatory course ; but the king replied that "concessions were the ruin of Louis XVI." Eelying upon a clause in the charter which gave the king power to make "such ordinances as are necessary for the execution of the laws and the safety of the state," the min- istry on July 26, 1830, published four ordinances which practically suspended the charter : they suppressed the liberty of the press, dissolved the newly elected chamber, remodeled the electoral law, and ordered a new election. The govern- ment had so little expectation of resistance that only four- teen thousand troops were at hand, and that day the king went shooting on one of his estates. Members of the chamber united with Parisian journalists in declaring the ordinances void, and the leading newspapers dis- regarded the laws concerning the press. Rioting and 495. Revo- street fighting began on July 27, when the police sought ^ ?^*^i° REVOLUTION AND REACTION Search topics Geography Secondary authorities Sources Illustrative works the intervention of the allies in Spain and in Italy justifiable ? (10) Why did Great Britain oppose intervention in Spanish America? (11) What interest had the United States in the question? (12) What effect did the Greek revolt have on Euro- pean politics ? (13) Compare the French revolution of 1830 with the English revolution of 1688. (14) Why did the Belgian revo- lution succeed ? (15) Why did the Polish revolt fail ? (16) Inventions in spinning and weaving. (17) The invention of the steam engine. (18) Invention of the locomotive engine. (19) Spread of railways over Europe. (20) Early European attempts at a steamboat. (21) Czar Alexander I. and the Holy Alliance. (22) Prince Metternich. (23) The Carbonari. (24) Re- action in Germany. (25) Spanish revolt of 1820. (26) Italian revolts of 1820-1821, (27) George Canning and the proposed inter- vention in Spanish America. (28) Greek revolution. (29) French conquest of Algeria. (30) Causes of the French revolution of 1830. REFERENCES See map, pp. 488, 489 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 28, 29 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, map xiii. ; Dow, Atlas, xxvii.-xxix. Duruy, France, Appendix, ch. i. ; Judson, Europe in the Nine- teenth Century, chs. xxviii. xxix. ; Henderson, Short History of Germany, II. 324-339 ; Fyffe, History of Modern Europe (Popular ed.), 419-429, 432-438, 446-466, 472-480, 486-488, 493-519, 548-557, 567-576, 585-596, 601-602, 604-6.30; Seignobos, Political History of Europe since 18 U, 115-130, 289-293, 326- 333, 374-389, 648-652 ; Muller, Political History of Becent Times, 1-42 ; Phillips, Modern Europe, chs. i. ii. viii. ix. ; Seeley, Life and Times of Stein, II. 317-478 ; Probyn, Italy, chs. i. ii. ; Thayer, Dawn of Italian Independence, bk. ii. chs. v. vi. ; Lebon, Modern France, ch. viii. ; Coubertin, France since 181^, chs. i.-iii. ; Gib- bins, Industrial History of England, 154-165 ; Cheney, Indus- trial and Social History of England, 199-223 ; Spencer Walpole, History of England since 1S15, I. 50-93 ; Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Commerce, bk. viii. chs. iv. ix. ; Toynbee, Industrial Bevolution, 85-93; Baines, History of the Cotton Manu- facture, ch. ix, ; Smiles, Life of George Stephenson, chs. viii. ix. xxii.; Historians' History of the World, IX. 578-587, XIII. 9-53. Univ. of Pa., Translations and Beprints, I, No. 3 ; Metternich, Memoirs, II. 553-559 ; F. M. Anderson. Constitutions and Docu- ments, nos. 101, 104, 105, Jane Porter, Thaddeus of Warsaw ; E. A, Milman, The Way- side Cross ; T. Moore, TJie Fudge Family in Paris. CHAPTER XXVIII. THE ORLEANS MONARCHY AND THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1830-1848) The monarchy of Louis Philippe began with a promise that the constitutional charter should thenceforth " be a reality " : he accepted the English parliamentary system, including ^qq jj^^^^ the choice of ministers from among members of Parlia- archy of ment, their responsibility to Parliament, and annual vot- "^"^^ nppe ing of supplies. But only the jmj^ ^^gal (large property (1830-1848) owners, numbering about two hundred thousand in a popu- lation of thirty millions) had the right to vote — a limitation of the representation which proved a source of danger to the ''July monarchy." The French government had to meet conspiracies of the Legitimists (supporters of the dethroned Bourbons), who, how- ever, had little popular support. More serious were the plots of the republicans, who had little money, but had young, resolute, and intrepid leaders, who fraternized with the people. They formed powerful secret societies (modeled on the Carbonari), such as the " Society of tbe Friends of the People," the " Society of the Seasons," and the " Society of the Rights of Man " ; the government in vain prosecuted these societies, for as fast as one was destroyed it was replaced by another. To the republican demand that France should aid Italy and Poland to gain their liberty, the government wisely re- 501. Re- , ' « , T r u- publican fused to listen ; but the demand for a broader franchise societies also was refused. " France has made a revolution," said and plots Harding's m. & m. hist. — 30 513 514 U EVOLUTION AND REACTION Giiizot, who was one of the iiiinisters ; " but she had no inten- tion of placing herself in a permanently revolutionary state." Nevertheless the growth of industry steadily enlarged the real influence of the people, while the press aroused them to a consciousness of their wrongs. The republicans constantly attacked the king with caricatures, one of the most famous of Caricature of Louis Philippe. which represented him with a stupid face shaped like a pear; in four years one paper was prosecuted more than a hundred times for political libel. Disputes between employers and workmen soon began to take on a political color, and strikes against long hours and low pay were transformed into risings against a government which was controlled by the capitalist class. In 1832 and again in 1834 insurrections broke out at Paris and at Lj^ons. There were six attempts to assassinate the king; in 1835 a Corsican discharged at him an infernal machine which killed or wounded at least sixty persons, though the king himself escaped. These disturbances led to severe repressive laws directed especially against the press ; and for a time the re- publican party was broken up. An attack on the monarchy then followed from a third 502. Bona- quarter. The son of the great Napoleon and Maria t^pts ^ Louisa, called the Duke of Reichstadt, was brought up at (1836-1840) his grandfather's court in Vienna ; and until his death, in 1832, there was nothing that could be called a Napoleonic THE ORLEANS MONARCHY (1830-1848) 515 party in France. In 1836 Louis Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon I., and now heir to his cause, made an adventurous attempt to win over the garrison at Strassburg to revolt, but was taken prisoner, and was allowed by Louis Philippe to withdraw to America without trial. Four years later he made a second attempt at Boulogne, with even less success, and was thereupon imprisoned at Ham until 1846, when he made his escape. The efforts of Louis Napoleon excited only ridicule at the time, but later bore fruit. The Napoleonic sentiment was not dead, as was shown by the enthusiasm aroused when the government, in 1840, brought back Emperor Napoleon's re- mains to France for honorable burial in the Hotel des Invalides in Paris. After frequent changes of ministry, two statesmen, each eminent for his historical writings, gradually came to dispute the leadership : Guizot upheld a system similar to that 503. Quizot maintained by the Tories in Great Britain, under which ^1^^°^® •^ ' minister the king, subject to the limitations of the constitution, (1840-1848^ should actually rule; Thiers summed up his views in the maxim, "The king reigns, but does not govern." In 1840 Guizot secured an ascendency over his rival which for seven years he preserved unshaken. A steady majority upheld his measures in the legislative chamber, but it was a majority secured (as were those of the British House of Commons be- fore 1832) by grants of offices and other favors to various members. The country prospered, and the monarchy of Louis Philippe seemed secure. As events proved, this security rested on no solid basis. The nation as a whole chafed at what was called spiritless yielding to England on questions of foreign policy ; the g^^ French Catholic party resented the control of the state over edu- "volution , , of 1848 cation; the moderate Liberals were angered by the refusal of any electoral reform; the working classes were exasperated by the leaning of the government to the capitalist 516 REVOLUTION AND REACTION classes. In this condition of general discontent, a slight con- flict between the people and the government sufficed to bring on the revolution of February, 1848. The trouble began with a government edict against the holding of a reform banquet at Paris on February 22 ; slight riots of students and workingmen followed, with singing of the Marseillaise and plundering of gun shops. The National Guard of Paris, composed chiefly of small shopkeepers, re- fused to march on the insurgents. The troubles then grew graver ; " the first day's outbreak was a riot by the reform party against Guizot; the second was a revolt of the repub- lican parties against the monarchy." Some twenty of the rioters were killed, and the bodies of the slain, including that of a young girl, were paraded through the streets and ex- hibited to the people with demands for vengeance. In the face of these events, Louis Philippe could not make up his mind whether to give way or to resist, until it was too late for either. He dismissed Guizot, and then abdicated in favor of his infant grandson — both in vain. Under pressure of the Parisian mob, excited by republican newspapers, a Republic was proclaimed on February 24 ; a provisional gov- ernment was established; and a National Assembly elected by universal suffrage was called to draw up a constitution. The revolution was accepted by the provinces without a mur- mur; and Louis Philippe retired ingloriously to England, where he died two years later. Thus the republicans profited by a movement started by the liberal monarchists, but they were far from constituting 505 Social- ^ majority of France or being united among themselves. ism and the Socialism was now making progress in France, and French divided the republicans into opposing camps. Its prin- Rapublic ciples are the outgrowth, in part, of the new social world produced by the Industrial Revolution and the growth of the factory system ; in part they are a development of the THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848) 517 ideas of the French Revolution, with its ideals of freedom, equality, and fraternity. Modern socialism began in Great Britain with the noted manu- facturer and philanthropist Robert Owen (1771-1858); and in France it was furthered by the writers St. Simon (1760- 1825) and Fourier (1772-1837). With the publication (in 1839) of Louis Blanc's book entitled The Organization of Labor, the movement became practical and political. The Socialists protested against the hard life of the workiiu'- classes, with its excessively long hours of labor, low wages, unhealthful lodgings, and unwholesome food; their remedy was to do away with the capitalist class. They demanded a democratic organization of the state as a preparation for a reorganization of society. The state when thus reformed was to form associations, which Louis Blanc called " social work- shops," in which cooperative production was to be carried on by the workmen, the government supplying the capital and directing the enterprises. After 1848, the Socialists for a brief time were in control ; and the provisional government issued a decree reducing the working day to ten hours, and another decree recognizing g^g j,^^_ the obligation of the state to provide work for its citizens, ure of the and undertaking to establish "national workshops" in workshops accordance with the socialists' demand. These, however, Enajclo- were really "a travesty of Louis Blanc's proposals, in- '^^^'^"^^fj^'' stituted expressly to discredit them " : instead of setting XXII. 209] the unemployed to work, each at his trade, all were ^1^^' JjJ'^^''^ emploved with pick and shovel at making fortifications. Socialism, Thousands of persons who had been thrown out of em- ployment by the revolution flocked to Paris from all directions, and the number employed in the "workshops" increased in two months from 6000 to 100,000. To meet the increased expenditure, new and unpopular taxes were imposed, while the work was cut down to two days a week. 518 REVOLUTION AND REACTION P'inally (in June) it was decided to close the ^' workshops" and send the workmen back to the provinces. The Socialists thereupon erected barricades, and bloody street battles fol- lowed ; and it was only after four days' lighting that the government under General Cavaignac was victorious. About 11,000 captured insurgents were shot or transported to the colonies, and as an organization the Socialist party came temporarily to an end. The result of these conflicts w^as a bitter legacy of hatred, existing to the present day, between the working class in France, who lean to socialism, and the bonryeoisie, or middle class, composed largely of shopkeepers and small capitalists, who are very conservative and bigoted. On November 4, 1848, the National Assembly proclaimed the new constitution. This provided for a president elected 507 Louis ^^^' ^^^^^' years by universal suffrage, and a single legisla- Napoleon tive chamber. Everything depended on the character of p1 PPt All president the president ; yet the Assembly did not take the simple (1848) precaution of declaring ineligible members of the families which had reigned over France. Louis Napoleon sat as a mem- ber of the Assembly, and he was the only presidential candidate known to thousands of those who were suddenly given the franchise. When the election was held (December 10, 1848), he received 5,500,000 votes ; while Cavaignac, his nearest competitor, received only 1,500,000. The election of Napoleon as president by so overwhelming a vote excited in sincere republicans fears which his course in office did not allay. "The name of Napoleon," he declared in October, 1849, " is of itself a programme signifying order, Modern authority, religion, and the prosperity of the people at France, 281 j-^^j^g^ ^^j^^ national dignity abroad. This is the policy — inaugnrated by my election — which I wish to see triumph." In the tours which the prince president took into the provinces, he was occasionally greeted with the cry, "Long live the Emperor I ^^ Meanwhile the Assembly lost popularity by so THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848) 519 regulating the suffrage in Paris that sixty-four per cent of the former voters were disfranchised. The decisive struggle between Napoleon and the republican Assembly came on a proposition to revise the constituticm so as to make the president eligible for a second term. The requisite three fourths majorityof the Assembly could leons^cTup not be obtained for the change, and the friends of the d'etat (1851) president began to talk of a coup d^etat. The command of the army at Paris was put in the hands of officers devoted to Napoleon ; and on the night preceding December 2, 1851, the leading republican and royalist deputies (members of the Assembly) were arrested in their beds. The people awoke to find decrees posted on the walls, which declared the Assembly dissolved and universal suffrage restored, and called upon the voters to ratify the action of the president. Those who resisted were shot down, transported, or exiled. By a vote of 7,400,000 to 647,000 the coup dieted was rati- fied by the people. Napoleon formed a new constitution, mod- eled on that of the Consulate of 1799, which provided for a ten years' term for the presi- dent, with practically all power in his hands. Exactly one year after the coup d^etat the last step was taken, and by a popular vote of 7,800,000 to 253,000, the prince presi- dent assumed the title "Napo- leon III., Emperor of the French" — the Duke of Reich- stadt being reckoned as Napoleon 11. Again the wheel of revolution had swung around, and once more a democratic and military despotism ruled over France. Elsewhere, also, the year 1848 saw many revolutionary move- Napoleon III. 520 REVOLUTION AND REACTION meiits, due largely to the advance of the people in material prosperity and to their progress in knowledge. For ten years after the failure of the risings of 1821 Italy lay crushed at Austria's feet; but in 1831 the revolutionary 509. Con- movement was revived by Giuseppe Mazzini, a Genoese Italy lawyer, long an exile in various lands, who founded a (1821-1848) revolutionary association called " Young Italy." In the next fifteen years many books spread the desire for national independence and for liberal institutions, especially among the professional and well-to-do classes. Differences arose, however, both as to the form of government and the sort of union desired — whether a limited monarchy or a democratic republic, whether a union of all Italy under one head or a federation of the existing states against foreign rule. In 1846 Pius IX., a liberal Pope, ascended the^pajml throne. Many hoped that the union of Italy would be accomplished under his leadership, and that there Avould begin a new era for Italy and the world ; and these expectations were encouraged by the release of a number of political prisoners, and some slight liberal measures of reform. In the same year Charles Albert, king of Sardinia-Piedmont, took steps of concession to his subjects, and of peaceful resistance to Austria. The revolutions of 1848 began, however, in Sicily and Naples, when the liberals rose in arms and forced the king 510. Revo- to issue a constitution (January, 1848). Their success Italy^^ ^^ aroused the patriots throughout the peninsula : Milan, (1848-1849) Venice, and other Austrian possessions in Italy revolted ; and Charles Albert of Sardinia-Piedmont, influenced by the Italian journalist and statesman, Cavour, declared war on Austria. Tuscany, "tTaples, and the Papal States sent troops to fight under the Italian tricolor raised by Piedmont; but soon jealousies and differences of opinion arose, and Naples and the Pope withdrew their forces. At Custozza (July 25, 1848 ; map, p. 534), the Piedmontese army was defeated by the THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848) 521 Austrians. A serious revolt in Hungary (§ 512) seemed to offer a favorable occasion for a renewal of the war ; but at Novara (March 23, 1(S49) the untrained Piedmontese were again defeated. Charles Albert then abdicated, and his son, Victor Emman- uel, secured peace by paying a heavy war indemnity. The Austrian rule in Lombardy and Venice was speedily restored. In Naples the king overthrew the constitution he had granted, and crushed the revolution. In the Papal States revolutionary violence forced Pius IX. to flee, and in February, 1849, he was declared deprived of all temporal power, and a Eoman Repub- lic under Mazzini was set up ; but in June a French army, sent by Louis Napoleon, defeated the Eoman republicans under Garibaldi, and the absolute power of the Pope was restored. Everywhere in Italy the revolution failed. Sardinia-Piedmont alone preserved a liberal constitution and the tricolor flag — both to become, in later days, the possessions of united Italy. In the Austrian Empire the revolutionary impulse from Paris was combined with (1) resistance of liberals to the iron rule of Metternich, and (2) movements of different peoples ^n Condi- of the empire for separate nationality. A glance at the tio^s in the map on page 523 will show how numerous were the Empire peoples — separated by differences of race, language, (1814-1848) religion, and culture — whom the accidents of history placed under the rule of 'the Hapsburgs. The Slavs were a ma- jority of the population, but through the presence of the Magyars in Hungary and the Germans in Austria they were geographically separated into two branches — the northern Slavs and the southern Slavs — each composed of several na- tional groups. The Germans were the ruling element of the empire, giving to it the capital (Vienna), the royal family, and the' official language. Society was still feudal and medieval : the nobles were free from the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts; the peasants were still in a state of serfdom. An absolute but inefficient government was kept in power by a 522 REVOLUTION AND REACTION system of press censorship, passports, and government spies. In Hungary, which had a separate administration, an active agitation had begun in 1830 for a liberal political constitu- tion and the official use of the Magyar tongue. The Slavic peoples also had set on foot national and liberal movements — the Bohemians for the revival of the Czech language, and the Croats for a union of the southern Slavs in opposition to the Magyars. The news of the French revolution of February, 1848, caused a riot of students and citizens at Vienna, with de- 512. Revo- i^^aiitls for freedom of education, of religion, of speech, lutions in and of the press, with representative government. This thp Aim- trian Em- slight uprising exposed the hollowness of the imperial pire (1848) government, and caused the downfall and flight, after many years' rule, of Prince Metternich (March 14). Hungary, under the lead of Louis Kossuth, a brilliant journalist and orator, now insisted on liberal reforms and a constitution which should make Hungary a sovereign state, independent of the rest of the empire. In Bohemia the Czechs fought the Germans in the streets of Prague. Among the Poles of Galicia, and the Croats and other South Slavs, similar national movements broke out. Everywhere appeared a frenzy of liberalism and local national sentiment. Yet the revolution in the Austrian Empire failed com- pletely — in large part because of class, religious, and race hat- reds among the different groups. The Magyars, while seeking national independence for themselves, tried to stifle such aspirations on the part of the South Slavs; and the Vien- nese wished to continue German rule over Slavic Bohemia. The result was an alliance between the government and the Slavs, against the Magyars and German democrats, for which the narrow views of Kossuth were partly to blame. In Bohemia the revolution was ended by June, 1848 ; and October saw Vienna reduced to submission. 4 nDnnnnnnDD rL o, S- tj >. 2; S) >-,'■/: ^ ._ ~ 524 REVOLUTION AND REACTION Hungary, which had gained a separate army and administra- tion, was not so easily dealt with. To permit of a new regime, 513. Hun- the emperor Ferdinand resigned in December, 1848, and gary a re- j^-^ ^^p^ig^^ Francis Joseph, ascended the throne. April (1849) 19, 1849, the Hungarians issued a formal declaration of independence from Hapsburg rule, and formed a republican government with Kossuth at its head. For a time they almost completely freed their land of Austrian troops ; and the rebellion was ended only by the intervention of the czar of Russia, who in June, 1849, sent an army of two hundred thousand men to aid his Austrian brother ruler. By the middle of August the revolution was crushed : Kossuth and other leaders escaped to Turkey, where the sultan, with British and French support, gave them refuge. Bloody punishments awaited those who fell into Austrian hands, and a rigid repression of all liberal and national aspirations followed. The one lasting reform brought about was the sweeping away of the remains of feudalism in the Austrian Empire. The German revolutionary movements in 1848 were directed not only to liberal and democratic reforms in the separate 514. Revo- German states, but also to uniting them in a national lutions in ^^nion. The Diet of the German Confederation was only Germany -^ (1848) a council of the federated princes, under Austrian iDflu- ence, and in no way represented the sentiments of the German people. Hence movements for reform centered in the universi- ties, for which Germany was famed. Prussia, moreover, and not Austria, was the state to which Germany looked more and more for leadership. The accident that Prussia ruled many scattered territories, with a thousand miles of frontiers, made a zollverein (customs tariff union of the German states) a matter of importance for her, and she succeeded before 1854 in includ- ing in it the whole of southern and central Germany; this proved a powerful factor in finally bringing about the political union of Germany under Prussian headship. THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848) German Zollverein (1834-1854). The news of the February revolution of Paris, and the fall of Metternich in Austria, caused great excitement in Germany. At once risings occurred in the great cities, particularly :Mu- nich and Berlin. At Berlin barricades were erected, and street fighting occurred which caused the death of several hundred citizens (March,. 1848). The kind-hearted but arbitrary and vacillating king, Frederick William IV., then ordered the soldiers to withdraw from the city ; and donning the revo- lutionary colors (the old imperial black, red, and gold), he summoned an assembly which drew up a conservative Prus- sian constitution. A meeting of liberals from different German states, mean- while, arranged for a "constituent parliament," chosen ^5^l^5^.^^^e by direct popular elections, to draw up a constitution parliament for a united Germany; and in May, 1848, the "parlia- a848-1849) ment," or national assembly, began its sessions m the city ot . 526 REVOLUTKJN AND REACTION Frankfort. Its members were chiefly university professors, law- yers, and journalists; and four precious months were wasted in endless debates over the ''fundamental rights of the German people." A Avar with Denmark, waged by Prussia and the par- liament to resist an attempt to make Danes out of the German inhabitants of Sleswick-Holstein, was stopped by the interven- tion of the Great Powers. This check caused the parliament to lose prestige, and in Frankfort a republican rising marked the dissatisfaction of the radicals with the course of events. The parliament was also distracted because the Austrian government refused to come into the new arrangement with- out their non-German provinces, which would enable them with their thirty-eight millions of population to overbalance the thirty -two millions of Germany proper: this would have meant an end to all hopes of real German unity. At last the parliament voted for the exclusion of Austria from the pro- posed German Empire, and offered the crown to Frederick William IV. of Prussia (March, 1849). Acceptance of the offer would have meant war with Austria ; Frederick William was willing to accept an imperial crown if offered to him by the united voice of the princes, but he rejected with scorn one " picked up out of the mud." This refusal wrecked the whole new constitution and caused the breaking up of the Frankfort parliament. The democratic 516 End of P^^'ty ^^^^ P^^ down, and German unity was postponed for the revolu- twenty years. To escape punishment, many of the radi- many ^'^^ leaders fled to foreign lands, and the United States (1849-1850) thus gained many valuable citizens. Austria, backed by Kussia, speedily regained her lost ascendency ; and at Olmtitz, in 1850, Prussia made a humiliating submission, by which Sleswick-Holstein was delivered to the Danes, and the old Confederation of 1815 was restored, with its Frankfort Diet completely under Austrian influence. THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848) 527 The Revolution of 1848 was a widespread movement which affected all the principal countries of western Europe. In France it established for a time the democratic system, 5^7 g^ with universal suffrage, liberty of the press, and freedom niary of political action. In Italy, in the Austrian Empire, and in Germany the revolution was partly democratic and partly nationalist. After a temporary triumph in these countries, there came a reaction, supported by the armies, which were still at their masters' service. The restoration began in Aus- tria, where the Slavs aided the imperial government against the Germans and Magyars ; it was continued by the king of Prussia, first in his own territories and then elsewhere in Ger- many ; it was completed in Italy by Austrian and French armies, in Hungary by Russian forces. In France the reaction brought Napoleon III. to the imperial power (1851), and restored a military and absolute government, which, however, preserved in name universal suffrage und the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people. " The govern- selffnohos, ments havinsr learned a lesson from revolution, organized Political ^ . . History oj an alliance of all conservative forces, including the hour- Europe since geoisie [capitalist class], which was disturbed by the isi4,p.84i socialist movement, and the Pope, who was alarmed by the Roman Republic. The repressive measures taken against the revolutionary parties and their instruments — the press and public meetings — deprived all the parties of political power, even the parliamentarians. The absolutist system then extended all over Europe, except Switzerland and the coun- tries which had remained ontside the Revolution of 1848, — England, Belgium, Holland, and Norway." TOPICS (1) Compare the government under Louis PhiUppe with tliat Suggestive under Charles X. (2) Compare Guizot with Polignac. (3) Was the justification for revolution in France in 1848 as great as ni 528 REVOLUTION AND REACTION Search topics 1830 ? (4) Why did the French provinces play so little part in the Revolution of 1848 ? (5) What ideas of the French socialists seem to you good ? (6) Did France really wish a republic in 1848? (7) Was the coup d'etat of 1851 justifiable? (8) How do you explain the wide spread of the revolutionary movements in 1848? (9) What special causes were there in Italy? (10) In Austria? (11) In Bohemia? (12) In Hungary? (13) In Ger- many? (14) Compare the movement in Italy with the revolts there in 1820-1821 and in 1830. (15) To what extent were causes for revolution in the Austrian Empire removed by the revolution'? (16) Why should Russia intervene to aid Austria in Hungary? (17) Why did the movement for German unity fail in 1848- 1850? (18) What gains did Germany make by the revolution? (19) Character of Louis Philippe. (20) Guizot as a statesman and as an historian. (21) Teachings of St. Simon and Fourier. (22) Life of Louis Napoleon to 1852. (23) Mazzini. (24) Piedmont in the Revolution of 1848. (25) Pius IX. and the revolution. (26) Revolution in Naples. (27) Revolution in Vienna. (28) Kos- suth. (29) The revolution in Hungary. (30) Revolution in Prussia. (31) Sleswick-Holstein question. (32) War of the Sonderbund in Switzerland. REFERENCES Geography- Secondary authorities Sources Illustrative works See maps, pp. 488, 523, 525 ; Piitzger, Atlas, maps 28 b, 29 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, map xiii. ; Dow, Atlas, xxviii. xxix. Duruy, France, Appendix, chs. ii. iii. ; Henderson, Short His- tory of Germany, II. 344-369; Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century, chs. vii.-xi. ; Fyffe, Modern Europe (Popular ed.), 674- 742, 746, 757-759, 764-768, 771-774, 790-795, 816-823 ; Phillips, Modern Europe, chs. xi.-xiii. ; Miiller, Political History of Becent Times, 159-169, 172-253 ; Seignobos, Europe since ISI4, 132-173, 389-396, 412-423, 718-746 ; Lebon, Modern France, chs. ix.-xi. ; Probyn, Italy, chs. vi.-viii. ; Bolton King, History of Italian Unity, I. chs. ix.-xvii. ; Latimer, Italy in the Nineteenth Century, 64-78, 80-91, 103-113 and ch. vii. ; Cesaresco, Liberation of Italy. Mazzini, Life and Writings, L 1-5, 15-38, 97-112, 182-183, IL 85-94, 113, 143 ; Delia Rocca, Autobiography of a Veteran ; F. M. Anderson, Constitutions and Documents, nos. 107, 110-112 ; Bis- marck, Beflections and Reminiscences, ch. ii. Erckmann, A Man of the People ; Spielhagen, Through Night to Light ; Miss Manning, The . Interrupted Wedding ; Wallace, Strife ; De Mille, The Babes in the Wood ; Miss Roberts, Made- moiselle Mori ; G. D. Ruffini, Dr. Antonio. CHAPTER XXIX. NAPOLEON III. AND THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (18ol-1871) Suez Canal. The Second Empire in France, which be- gan with the coup cVetat of December 2, IS;")!, lasted for almost nineteen years. The •^ 518. Policy new emperor, Napoleon. III., lacked of Napoleon the great Napoleon's genius, and the ^^^ French author, Victor Hugo, nicknamed him "Napoleon the Little.'.' Failing to secvire a bride from any of the princely houses of Europe, Napoleon in 1853 mar- ried a beautiful Spaniard of noble but not exalted birth, who as the Empress Eugenie gave a charm to the imperial court, but ex- ercised a harmful influence in politics. The whole administration was honeycombed with corruption, which in the final crisis greatly weakened the empire. The policy of the emperor, as well as the economic tendency of the time, combined to produce great material prosperity. F>e- fore 1850 little progress was made in rail- way building; in the next twenty years nearly ten thousand miles were built ni Manufactures increased rapidly; and foreign France alone commerce grew, largely because of liberal commercial treaties with Great Britain and other countries. 529 The Suez Canal, 5B0 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION completed in 1869 by De Lesseps, a French engineer, revo lutionized the commerce of the world. Joint stock com- panies were formed to use the savings of small investors in carrying on industrial enterprises, and these further increased wealth. The streets of Paris were widened and improved so that broad boulevards, spacious squares, and imposing build- ings took the place of wretched houses: thus the city was made more healthful and beautiful, the working classes had employment, and insurrection was made more difficult through the widening of the narrow streets in which barricades had so easily been erected. The industrial progress of the world at large was revealed at the first " universal exhibition," or world's fair, held at London in 1851 ; similar exhibitions, held at Paris in 1855 and 1867, gave France an opportunity to show her material growth and artistic excellence. Napoleon III. declared that "the Empire is peace " ; but the times and his own policies made his reign a period of European V "^^'^i'- After forty years of peace came five important pean wars wars : the Crimean War (1854-1856), the Franco- Austrian (1854-1871) ^y^^. -^ j^^jy (1859), the war of Austria and Prussia with Denmark (1864), the Austro-Prussian War (1866), and the Franco-German War (1870-1871). In the first, second, and fifth of these France played a leading part; in the other two her interests were vitally concerned. The Crimean War arose out of the Eastern Question — that is, the question of the political status and future of the lands 520. The included in the Turkish Empire. The czar Nicholas I. Eastern (1825-1855) believed that Turkey was "the Sick Man" Question ^ ^ '^ (1844-1853) of Europe, and that arrangements should be made by Great Britain and Russia, the two powers most interested, for the division of the inheritance ; but the British saw in this only a scheme of the czar to secure Constantinople, and refused cooperation. Ill feeling arose between Napoleon III. and the czar, because Nicholas addressed the French emperor in letters NAPOLEON III. (18.-,1-18.71) 5:>>1 as "My good friend," instead of "My brother" as was cus- tomary between sovereigns. There was also a quarrel con- cerning the custody of the " holy places " in Jerusalem between the French, as the official protectors of the Roman (, Catholic clergy, and the Eussians, as protectors of the Greek clergy. The dispute over the holy places was adjusted; but a further claim of Russia, to a protectorate over all Greek Christians living under the sultan's rule, could not be admitted by the Great Powers. In June, 1858, war began between Russia and Turkey on this issue. To gam strength at home the emperor Xapoleon (in 1854) took up arms in aid of Turkey ; and Great Britain did the same, because a Russian triumph would endanger her interests in Asia. Austria and Prussia remained practically neutral. With the hope of gaining prestige, Sardinia-Piedmont sent her troops (1855) to fight side by side with those of Great Britain and France. Thus Russia found arrayed against her not only the troops of Turkey, which defended the Danube lands, but also the fleets and armies of France, Great Britain, and Sardinia. The chief seat of the war proved to be the peninsula of the Crimea. There, in the strongly fortified harbor of Sebastopol, where enormous war 521. The ^^^^'~\c R 1 ivr' Landintj\ SebastopoL^liik> i;,,. ^^\ SEA OF ^\. AZOF B L A G "^ SCALE OF MILES 6 20 40 60 80 supplies were stored. Crimean *' War the Russian Black (1854-1856) Sea fleet took refuge ; and to reduce that fortress, France and Great Britain landed a force of sixty thousand men (September, 1854). For nearly a year The Crimea. Sebastopol held out, while cholera, famine, and the winter weather — " Generals January and February " — terribly thinned the besiegers' ranks. For HABDING's M, & M. HIST. — 31 532 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION the first time war correspondents kept the people at home informed of events, and profoundly moved the English by describing the sufferings of the army — many of which were charged to administrative mismanagement. Miss Florence Nightingale, an English gentlewoman, gained undying fame by the zeal and devotion she showed in organizing the nursing of the sick and wounded ; and her work led to the Geneva Con- vention of 1864, which provides for the protection of hospitals and ambulances under the red-cross flag in time of war. In a battle at Balaklava, in the neighborhood of Sebastopol (October 25, 1854), occurred the charge of the Light Brigade, celebrated by Tennyson, in which, owing to a misunderstand- ing of orders, six hundred and seventy -three men charged the Russian batteries with heroic courage. Czar Nicholas died of chagrin in 1855, and was succeeded by his son Alexander II. In September, 1855, after a long bombardment and many bloody engagements, Sebastopol was taken by assault. Peace was finally agreed to in a congress held at Paris in March, 1856. Turkey was left intact, and the sultan promised .«« « certain reforms in the treatment of his Christian subiects 522. Peace ... . . of Paris — promises which he did not keep. Russia's claim to a (1856) protectorate of the Christian populations of Turkey was disallowed. The Danube was declared open to navigation ; but the Black Sea was closed to the war vessels of all powers, and Russia agreed not to maintain arsenals on its shores. After peace was signed, the congress drew up four important rules of maritime law, by which privateering was declared abolished, blockades were required to be effective in order to be valid, and greater protection was given to private property on the high seas (other than contraband) in time of war. These rules were accepted by the European states and became part of interna- tional law; the United States, remembering the excellent service rendered by privateers in her wars, refused to agree, though in practice this country also has observed them. UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 58:3 Another interruption to European peace grew out of the condition of Italy. The failure of the Revolution of 1848 left that land divided and garrisoned by foreign troops— 523 ^al Austrians in the northeast, and French troops, supporting after 1848 the papal monarchy, at Rome. The kingdom of Sardinia- Pied- mont alone clung to liberal ideas, a constitution, and the tricolor flag — emblem of Italian unity; and it was to King Victor Emmanuel that Italian patriots thenceforth turned their eyes. Unfortunately his subjects numbered less than five mil- lions as against the thirty-seven millions of Austria ; and his kingdom was divided into four separate parts : (1) the malarial island of Sardinia, where there Avas no political life ; (2) tlie coast land about Genoa, a seat of republicanism and disaffec- tion to the dynasty ; (3) Savoy (the home land of the royal house), a district French in speech, and controlled by the nobles and clergy ; and (4) Piedmont, a land without industrial activity, and with only one large city, Turin, the residence of the court. Victor Emmanuel's subjects, however, had three important political advantages over all other peoples of Italy : (1) they had a patriotic and able king; (2) they had an army that could fight ; (3) above all, they had in Connt Cavour a minister — one of the greatest modern statesmen — whose life was devoted to the work of freeing and uniting Italy. For a time Cavour was the most unpopular man in Turin, hated by radicals for his moderation, and by reactionaries for his liberalism. Gradually, Mazzini, the. leader of the 524. Policy visionary republicans, lost ground, and the true great- of Cavour ness of Cavour was recognized. From 1850 until his death, in 1861, he was, with one short interval, prime minister and almost dictator of the kingdom. In addition to remodel- ing taxes, he reformed the clergy. The number of monasteries and of ecclesiastics was excessive : there were 604 monaster- ies, and a priest to every 214 inhabitants ; while P.elgium and Austria, two strongly Catholic countries, had respectively only ►34 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION Lakiof SWITZERLAND (\ [ .■.■..^..■..-i The Kingdom of Sardinia ■ P^-'''" ! Piedmont in April, 1859 Additions to the Kingdom by November, 1800 l>:-:::-:-::| Ceded to France In 1800 Scale of Miles • Growth of the Italian Kingdom. one in 500 and one in 610. After a bitter fight, Cavour carried through a moderate reform, abolishing the religious orders not engaged in public teaching, preaching, or nursing the sick. His farsighted statesmanship led the Sardinian troops to take part in the Crimean Wai', a step which was described as " a pistol shot in Austria's ear." Then, in the congress of Paris. Cavour was enabled to bring the cause of Italy before the diplomats of Europe and to pave the way for action later. NH'^irATlOX OV ITALY AXI) GERMANY (l8.-,|-ls7l) 5:;;, Great Britain was, in general, favorable to Italian hopes, but feared to see the peace of Europe again disturbed. Napoleon TIL, during his adventurous career as a young man, had 525. Atti- taken an active part in the plots of the Carbonari to free ^^^^ °^ Italy, and still favored that cause ; but the Catholic party "^^^^^^^ n France, which sui)ported him, violently opposed any action which might endanger the Pope's temporal power. While Napoleon hesitated, a fanatical Italian patriot hurled three bombs at his carriage in the streets of Paris (January, 1858), by which 256 persons were killed or seriously wounded. Al- though the emperor and empress escaped unharmed, this at- tempt convinced him that his life would not be safe unless he redeemed his early vows. In July, 1858, he secretly agreed with Cavour to attack Austria at a fitting moment with 200,000 men, while Piedmont was to furnish half as many. Austria was to be entirely expelled from Italy, and her pos- sessions there, together with some of the Papal States in the north, were to be annexed to Piedmont; in return, France Avas to be given Savoy, and possibly Nice, thus extending her terri- tory to the Alps, her " natural frontier " on the southeast. A plausible pretext for war with Austria was needed, and the months which followed were the most trying of Cavour's life. His skill, working on Austrian stupidity and pride, ggg ^^^ brought it to pass that Austria issued an ultimatum in north ,.,-....-,• Italy (1859) (April, 1859), demanding that Sardniia disarm, on pain of war. Cavour was radiant with joy : Austria was put clearly in the wrong ; Napoleon would now be obliged to help ; the other Great Powers would remain neutral. The war proved short and decisive, lasting less than three months. On April 29, 160,000 Austrians crossed the Ticino River, which separated Austrian Lombardy from Piedmont. But the French army had already begun to i)our over the Alps, and in May the French emperor arrived to take com- mand in person. The allies then drove the Austrians out of 536 DEMOCRACY AND f:XPANSlON Piedmont, and at Magenta (June 4, 1859) inflicted upon them a severe defeat. This was soon followed (June 24) by a second victory, after a flercely fought battle, at Solferino. The complete expulsion of Austria from Italy now seemed certain. But suddenly, in July, Napoleon III., alarmed at the attitude of Prussia, deserted his allies and entered into negotiations for peace at Villafranca. When Victor Emman- uel found that he was deserted by the French, he could only resign himself to join in " the infamous treaty," which was signed at Zurich in November, 1859. Lombardy w^as annexed to Piedmont, but Venetia was left to Austria ; the rest of Italy was to be restored to the condition in wiiich it was at the opening of the war, and a scheme of Italian confederation was proposed under the presidency of the Pope. The last provision could not be carried out. All central Italy had revolted from its rulers and sought union with Pied- 527. King- mont ; and after the peace, Napoleon, who had his eye fo^ded*^ ^ ^^^ Savoy and Nice, connived at the Piedmontese annexa- (1860-1864) tion of Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the northernmost of the Papal States. The annexation of the kingdom of Sicily and Naples fol- lowed soon after, as the result of a successful revolution carried out (with Cavour's secret assistance) by Garibaldi, an adventurous knight-errant of Italian liberty. With a thousand " red shirts " he landed in Sicily (May, 1860), and was received by the people with open arms. In August Garibaldi passed over to the mainland; by September Naples was in his hands, and he was planning to march upon Rome and overturn the temporal power of the Pope. The sound statesmanship of Cavour saw that Europe was not ripe for this step, and he sent Piedmontese troops to check his too zealous ally. In February, 1861, the struggle came to an end with the sur- render of Francis II., the last of the Bourbon kings of Naples. Already Sicily and Naples had declared, by overwhelming votes, UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 537 for union with Piedmont; and in March Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed king of Italy. Except Venetia and the Patrimony of St. Peter (as the dis- trict immediately about Rome was called), the whole of the peninsula was at last consoli- dated under one rule. Italy ceased to be a mere " geograph- ical expression," and . took its place as one of the nations of Europe. To this end many persons contributed, with he- roic courage, high endeavor, noble sacrifice; but the gen- ius which mastered all and brought the work to comple- tion was that of Cavour. Three months later, in June, 1861, he died, worn out before his time by his labors for Italy. Victor Emmanuel. At the end of 1859 the reputation of Napoleon III. was at its highest point, and the world for a time "learned to look to Paris, as it had once looked to Vienna, as to the 528. Decline political oracle which should pronounce its fate." This jjj s pres- proud position did not long continue, for a succession tige of causes contributed to Napoleon's decline. In 1863, the Poles again revolted against Russian absolutism and demanded a national government. Napoleon III., as the champion of the principle of nationality in Europe, sought to intervene in their behalf; but he only succeeded in mortally offending Russia, without in any way helping the Poles. An interference in the affairs of Mexico led to equally bad results. President Juarez had secured power there and 529. The ex- . , . _ p pedition to was pursuing a vigorous anti-clerical pouey. bntortu- Mexico nately for him. Great Britain, Spain, and France had (1861) 538 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION claims against his country ; and when the Mexican Congress voted to suspend all paynjents to foreign creditors for three years, these three powers (in 1861) joined in a coercive expe- dition. Napoleon went far beyond his allies in this matter ; and to please the Catholic party at home, he took up the cause of Juarez's clerical enemies, and joined in a plan to make the archduke Maximilian — brother of Francis Joseph of Austria — emperor of Mexico, Thereupon Great Britain and Spain Avithdrew; but French "troops for several years maintained Maximilian upon his throne. When the Civil War came to an end in the United States, a demand was made for the evac- uation of Mexico, and in 1867 the French troops were with- drawn. Maximilian was then overthrown and shot, and public opinion rightly held Napoleon III. responsible for his tragic fate. In France itself, meanwhile, important changes in the gov- ernment took place. After 1859 the Catholic party turned 530 The against Napoleon, and to please the liberals he began Liberal Em- a series of changes which revolutionized the constitution. pire in France The legislative chamber received the privilege (as was (1859-1870) ^\^Q practice in Great Britain) of drawing up an address in answer to the speech from the throne, thus giving the depy,- ties an annual opportunity to express their opinions af the policy of the government. Next was granted the right of discussion at any time. Publication of the debates in the chamber, formerly prohibited, was allowed soon after this ; and the gov- ernment also repealed the laws hampering the press, and those forbidding the organization of trades unions and the holding of political meetings. Finally (in 1869) it was de- creed that the ministers, who carried on the government in the emperor's name, should be responsible to the chamber. By these measures, from a practical absolutism there developed a parliamentary monarchy, sometimes called the "Liberal I'hnpire." UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 5^1) The decline of the French Empire was hastened and its fall finally brought about by the growing power of Prussia, which was largely the work of a single statesman of genius and 531. Poiky relentless will — Otto von Bismarck. " From the begin- °^ Prussia o 1,1 . -, ^ , under Bis- nmg of my career," he once said, " I have had but the marck one guiding star : By what means and in what way can I bring Germany to unity ? and in so far as this end has been attained: How can I strengthen this unity and increase it and give it such form that it shall be enduringly maintained with the free consent of all cooperating forces ? " Long service as the Prussian envoy at the Diet of the German Confederation at Frank- fort taught him that Aus- tria was the chief enemy to Prussian greatness and to German unity, and that ultimately Prussia would have to fight her. In 1862 Bismarck became the chief minister of Prus- sia, and from that time until his dismissal from office, in 1890, he played the 'largest part in shaping German destinies. Frederick William IV. died in 1861, leaving the throne to his brother, William I. : the new king heartily agreed with I^)is- marck's ends, but had scruples at times about the policy 532^A^^««^ of "blood and iron" with which his minister carried them -y^injam i. out. In order to secure a reorganization of the Prussian a86l. army, Bismarck for four years waged an unceasing conflict with the short-sighted liberal majorities of the Prussian Diet. Bismarck. 540 DEiMOCRACY AND EXPANSION In 1864 occurred the third war of this period, successfully waged by Prussia and Austria jointly against Denmark to pro- 533. The tect the Germans of Sleswick and Holstein, who were (1864) under Danish rule. The two duchies were taken tem- porarily under the joint rule of the victors; and from this situation the adroit and unscrupulous diplomacy of Bismarck, by steps too intricate to be here related, succeeded (in June, 1866) in bringing forth his long contemplated war with Austria. In this contest Austria was supported by all the South German states (including Saxony) and by Hanover and other 534. The states in North Germany. To Napoleon III. and to other ?T^^T ,TTr observers it seemed that Prussia must surely be crushed. Weeks' War -^ (1866) Italy, however, had secretly promised aid to Prussia in return for a promise of the Austrian province of Venetia. The Prussian army was armed with breech-loading "needle guns"; while the Austrians, in common with the rest of Europe, still used muzzle-loaders, in which no improvement had taken place since the beginning of the century, except the substitution of the percussion cap for the old flintlock. Above all, the Prussians had in Roon, the minister of war, who organized the army, and in Moltke, the general who directed operations in the field, men who in their spheres were as able as Bismarck was in diplomacy. The thorough preparations of the Prussians gave them from the beginning the advantage over their opponents. Within three days the Prussians occupied three hostile German states, and within seyen weeks the war was over. On the eve of the decisive battle, Moltke joined the army in Bohemia, together with the* king, Bismarck, and Roon. On July 3 the Austrians were overwhelmingly defeated in the battle of Koniggratz, or Sadowa. " Your majesty has won not only the battle," said Moltke to King William, •' but the campaign." With wise moderation Bismarck checked tlie demands of the military authorities, and offered Austria ;i liberal peace. UNIFICATION OF ITALY ANt) GERMANY (18r>l-iM7l) rA\ Venetia alone was taken from lier, to be given to Italy. Prus- sia made no territorial gains from Austi-ia, bnt did annex 81es- wick-Holstein, together with the North German states 535 Reor- which had sided against her — Hanover, Hesse-Cassel ganization Kassaii, and the free city of Frankfort (map, p. 547). ° ^^^^867^ Anstria was obliged to pay a large war indemnity, and to consent to a reorganization of Germany with Anstria left out. For a time this took the form of a. North German Confederation, Parliament Buildings of Hungary at Budapest. Erected in 1866. centering about Prussia, with permission to the four states of the south (Bavaria, Wtirttemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darm- stadt) to enter into alliances with the northern Confederation. The new Confederation was organized with a strong federal government, radically different from the old Diet. At last the objects of Bismarck's policy were recognized, and from being the most hated man in Germany he became the most popular. The paramount influence which for centuries Austria had exercised in German affairs was gone forever, and Prussia was becoming the heart and the head of a new and united German nation. Austria saved herself from impo- o42 DEMOCRAfV AND EXPANSIOX tence only by converting the Austrian Knipire into the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, with a separate Hungarian parliament and ministry (1867). Napoleon III. in this crisis had committed ^' every error which it was possible to commit." Counting on making his 536. Atti- own profit out of the war, he allowed Prussia to crush ^oleon III -Austria and unite Germany, only to find every attempt (1866-1867) at French ''compensation" foiled by Bismarck's diplo- macy. Napoleon's prestige thus suffered further decline. The French army took the victories of the Prussians as a personal affront, and demanded that they be allowed to "avenge Sa- dowa." French statesmen now saw in Prussia a rival for that ascendency in Europe which France had enjoyed for two hundred years. The imperial throne was shaken to its foundations. In 1866 the French army was too unprepared and too dis- organized by the Mexican expedition for Napoleon to go to war; hence his demand that France be allowed to seize terri- tories on the left bank of the Khine belonging to Bavaria was refused, and by publishing the jjroject Bismarck drew the South German states to Prussia. Then Napoleon proposed that France be allowed to conquer Belgium ; and Bismarck, after getting the French envoy to write out a draft of a treaty to that effect, broke off negotiations, and later pub- lished the treaty during the Franco-German War to win the sympathy of Europe. In 1867 Napoleon again sought " com- pensation " in the annexation of the duchy of Luxemburg, which belonged to the king of Holland, but was garrisoned by Prussia ; here, too, Bismarck interfered. Cajoled, thwarted, humiliated, France burned to avenge herself on the " upstart Prussians," and what seemed a fitting occasion was soon at hand. The final breach between France and Prussia grew out of events in Spain. There Ferdinand VII. (§ 488) had been sue- UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (18ol-187l) 543 ceecled in 1833 by his daughter, Isabella XL, against the pro- tests of her uncle Carlos, who claimed the throne; and her reign was filled with intrigues and civil war on the part of the Carlists, with factional fights among her own sup- tion oAhe porters, and with misgovernment, superstition, and into!- Spanish erance. In 1869 a liberal revolution under General Prim (1869-1870) brought the reign of the dissolute queen to an end, and it then became necessary to find a ruler to take her place. After repeated attempts. Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen, one of the petty princes of southern Germany, was induced (in July, 1870) to become a candidate, sub- ject to approval by King William as head of the Hohenzollern house. This choice caused a storm of in- dignation in Paris. Gra- mont, the French minister of foreign affairs, represented it in the French Chamber as a proposal which would "put in peril the interests and honor of France," and he added that the government " would know how to fulfill its duty without hesitation and without feebleness." This threat of war naturally inflamed the people of both Ger- many and France. The French government demanded that King William should induce Prince Leopold to withdraw his candidature. The king refused to force him ; but a few days later the prince publicly withdrew his name. Gramont next required a promise from the Prussian king, through the French ambassador, that he would never in the future permit the William I. 544 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION prince to renew his candidature. This request was presented to the king at Ems, and was politely but firmly refused. In all this there was no real cause for war. But Bismarck was anxious for war, believing that a struggle with France was 538. Out- certain, that the union of Germany depended upon it, break of ^i^^ that Prussia would never be better prepared. The Franco-Ger- man War telegram which stated the facts of the interview reached (July, 1870) Bismarck at Berlin, while he was at dinner with Moltke and Roon. Bismarck later said : — " As I read it to them, they were both actually terrified, and Moltke's whole being suddenly changed, lie seemed to be , „. (luite old and infirm. It looked as if our most gracious Busch, Bis- ^ '^ marck, I. majesty might knuckle under after all. I asked him 304, .1^4 i^iyiQitke] if, as things stood, we might hope to be victo- rious. On his replying in the affirmative, 1 said, ' Wait a minute ! ' and, seating myself at a small table, I boiled down those two hundred words to about twenty, but without other- wise altering or adding anything. It was the same telegram, yet something different — shorter, more determined, less dubi- ous. I then handed it over to them, and asked, ' Well, how does that do now ? ' ' Yes,' they said, ' it will do in that form.' And Moltke immediately became quite young and fresh again. He had got his war, his trade." The dispatch, thus altered, was interpreted in the Prussian l>ress to mean that the king had been insulted and had snubbed the French envoy, which was not the case. In both Berlin and Paris the war si)irit rose to fever heat. To Thiers and others who opposed war on the ground that France was not sufficiently prepared, the French government gave the assur- ance that the army was "ready to the last gaiter button." The declaration of war was delivered by France to Prussia on July 19, the French prime minister declaring that he accepted the responsibility " with a light heart." Never did a state rush more blindly to its own destruction. UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 545 France stood alone in the war, in spite of promises of aid from Austria and Italy; while Prussia was assisted by the South German as well as the North German states. The -,, . . , , ^, , 539. Supe- Frussian armies sJiowed the same thorough preparation riority of and energy which had brought success in 1866 ; but the Prussia French, when put to the test, were found greatly lacking. In arrangements for supplying and transporting troops, in gener- alship, and in the spirit which animated officers and men, the Germans were superior. In courage the French equaled them, and they had equally good breech-loading rifles (chassepots) and the first of machine guns (the mitrailleuse). These advan- tages could not make up for their other weak- nesses ; and it was France instead of Germany that was invaded, Paris instead of Berlin that was taken. Hostilities began August 2, 1870. On August 6 the French were defeated at Worth, after a bloody contest, and were forced to fall back from the ^^^ g^^^^^ frontier. A series of battles followed, ending campaign with a desperate struggle at Gravelotte (Au- ^ gust 18), with the result that the French armies under Bazaine and MacMahon were prevented from uniting, and Bazaine with one hundred and seventy thousand men took refuge in the strongly fortified Chassepot. city of Metz. Leaving a force to besiege him, the main German army turned westward after MacMahon, whom they found at Sedan. There, on September 1, was fought "one of the decisive battles of the world — a battle that re- sulted in the surrender of the largest army ever known to have been taken in the field, a battle that dethroned a dynasty and changed the form of government in France." MacMahon was defeated and surrounded by an overwhelming force ; and next day his army of one hundred thousand men, together with the 546 DEMOCHACV AND EXPANSION emperor Napoleon, surrendered. France was left without an army in the field. The news from Sedan caused an insurrection at Paris which overthrew the Second Empire (September 4, 1870). Under 541. Fall of ^^^^^ pressure a republic was proclaimed, and a Govern- the Second ment of National Defense was formed, of which the chief Empire members were Jules Favre and Leon Gambetta. Em- (1870) press Eugenie, who had acted as regent since the begin- ning of the war, fled to England, where she lived more than thirty years in lonely widowhood. Napoleon III. was de- tained in the German chateau of Wilhelmshohe until the end of the war; he died an exile in England in 1873. Their only son, the Prince Imperial, was slain in Africa in 1879, while fighting as a volunteer in one of Great Britain's petty wars with Zulu tribes. Leaving an army to continue the siege of Metz, the Germans advanced on Paris, and began the siege of that city Septem- 642 Sieffe ^^^^' ■^^' ^^^^- '^^^ French capital was one of the most of Paris strongly fortified cities in the world, and great efforts had been made to provision it. During the siege of five months, communication with the outside world was kept up by means of carrier pigeons and balloons, in one of which Gambetta escaped, reaching Tours, where he worked with fierce energy, but in vain, to organize new armies and to rescue Paris. Bazaine, who was incompetent and disloyal, surrendered Metz on October 27, thus setting free a large num- ber of German troops to use about Paris. On December 27, after long delays, the bombardment of the city's defenses began, and fort after fort was silenced. The sufferings of the Parisians during the siege were appalling. When the city was face to face with actual starvation, Paris surrendered (January 28, 1871). Before peace could be concluded, a recognized government w^as needed in France; to furnish this a National Assembly 548 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 1 was called at Bordeaux, and the aged Thiers was chosen as head of the executive government. At A^ersailles (February 26, 543. Peace 1871) the preliminaries of peace were signed. France °^ .7.®^' agreed to cede to Germany the greater part of the prov- sallies (Fib. 1871) inces of Alsace and Lorraine, including the fortified cities of Metz and Strassburg, and to pay a war indemnity of $1,000,000,000. On March 1 the Germans entered Paris in triumph. The result of the harsh terms of peace was a French hatred for Germany, which has scarcely yet lost its bitterness. The victory over France was the last step needed to complete the union of Germany. After much negotiation Bismarck's 544. Ger- skillful diplomacy overcame alike the disinclination of manEmpire ^^iq kings of Bavaria and Wiirttemberg to surrender their proclaimed ° ° (Jan. 1871) independence, and objections raised by his Prussian master to some details. January 18, 1871, in the hall of the old royal palace at Versailles, the result of the negotiations was made known by the proclamation of King William as hereditary " German Emperor." The constitution of the new empire was practically that of the North German Confedera- tion, with the addition of the four- South German states. At Paris revolutionary unrest, socialist agitation, fears of a monarchist reaction, and economic distress led a portion 545 Com ^^ ^^^^ National Guard to rebel against the government mune in which Thiers established at Versailles. The rebels set ^"^ ^ ^ up a municipal government called the Commune, and adopted the red flag of the socialists. The revolt broke out on March 18, 1871, and lasted until May 28, the government laying siege to the city, while the German troops remained neutral. On May 21 the government troops entered the city, and there followed a week of the fiercest civil warfare that history records. Insurgents taken with arms in their hands were shot down without ceremony. Materially and politically Paris suf- fered more injury from the Commune than from the Germans. UNIFICATTOX OF ITALY AND GKHMANY (1851-1H71) o4l> The Column Vendome, erected in 1814 to commenioi-ate the victories of Napoleon I., was wantonly destroyed, together with many public buildings. France was in no mood tc^show mercy; the Communards were hunted down relentlessly, and more than seven thousand were sent as convicts to New Cale- donia, in the South Pacific Ocean. The Franco-German War gave the opportunity for King Victor Emmanuel to complete the union of Ita.ly by seizing Rome, which for a thousand years had been ruled by the 546. Italian Popes; for the French troops which had supported ^^^^y com- ^^ 11 • , n rr pleted the papal rule were now withdrawn. September 20, (1870) 1870, the Italian troops, after a feeble resistance from the papal garrison, marched into Rome amid the cheers of the people; and not one of the (xreat Powers raised its voice in serious protest. Thence- forth Rome was the capital of the kingdom of Italy. An at- tempt was made to come to a friendly arrangement with the Pope, and a liberal annuity was offered him, together with the right to keep up in the Vatican the rank of a sover- eign prince. But Pius IX. could not consent to the loss of the temporal power of the papacy. Throughout the rest of his life he remained a voluntary "prisoner" in the Vati- can; and the policy he began was closely followed by his successor, the liberal and enlightened Leo XIII. (1878-1903). In spite of the loss of its temporal power, the position of the papacy has never been higher than it is to-day ; and to many minds this seems partly due to the fact that the Pope's posi- HARDING'S M. & M. HIST. — 32 1 u f ^1p \ \ M /k-/. \^H Lko XIII. 550 DEMOCHACY AND EXPANSION tion is no longer complicated by the local cares and ambitions of an Italian prince. The third quarter of the nineteenth century, which coincides roughly with the reign of Napoleon III. in France, was a 547 Sum- Period of great development alike in industry, science, ™ary and politics. The rapid spread of railroad and telegraph lines, the linking of continents by the submarine cable (after 1866), the increased use of steam navigation, the growth of manufactures and commerce, all increased material prosperity and changed the conditions of human life. In physical science the nature of light, heat, and electricity was more clearly ascertained, and the doctrine of the " conservation of energy " was developed ; in biology the publication of Dar- win's Origin of Species (1859) gave scientific standing to the doctrine of evolution, and greatly changed many lines of thought. In political history the period saw five wars, growing out of the ambitions of Russia and France, and the national hopes of Italy and Germany. Russian designs upon Turkey were checked in the Crimean War (1854-1856), and the rule of the Turk in Europe, with all its evils, was allowed to continue. The statesmanship of Cavour, aided by Xapoleon III., laid the foundation of the union of Italy under the king of Sardinia (1859), which was completed during the Austro-Prussian and Franco-German wars (1866 and 1870-1871). Germany, too, was united by the genius of Bismarck, through war with Aus- tria and with France ; and the new German Empire was created (1871). Before such statesmanship as these men displayed, the glory of Napoleon III. gradually paled ; prematurely old, infirm of body and of will, he let the direction of affairs slip from his hands, and foolish counsels hurried France into ruin- ous war. The empire fell, and on the ghastly ruins of the Commune was erected the present Third Republic. UNlFlCATlUxN OF ITALY AND GERMANY (18ol-l&71) 551 TOPICS (1) Was the domestic policy of Napoleon III. wise or unwise? Suggestive (2) Why could not Great Britain and France permit Russia to *°P^<=8 exercise a protectorate over the sultan's Christian subjects? (3) How did the progress of arts and science make the conditions of the Crimean War different from those of Napoleon I. ? (4) Did the Crimean War help in any way toward a settlement of the Eastern Question? (5) Why did Napoleon III. aid Sardinia- Piedmont against Austria in 1859? (6) Did he entirely keep his promise to Cavour? (7) Why did the United States demand the withdrawal of the French troops from Mexico ? (8) How was the Sleswick-Holstein question finally settled ? (9) Which side was responsible for the Austro- Prussian War? (10) To what was the Prussian success due ? (11) How did this success help the cause of German unity ? (12) Why was France angered by it ? (13) Which side was responsible for the Franco-German War ? (14) Was Bismarck's alteration of the Ems dispatch justi- fiable? (15) Where should the blame lie for the failure of the French in the war ? (16) How did the war enable Bismarck to com- plete the formation of the German Empire ? (17) Granting that those who set up the Commune at Paris were honest in their views, was their action patriotic ? (18) Why did Victor Emmanuel seek to win Rome for his capital ? (19) Why did the Pope resist ? (20) Personal character of Napoleon III. (21) The Empress Search Eugenie. (22) De Lesseps and the Suez Canal. (23) The first *°**^*^^ world's fair. (24) Facts concerning the charge of the Light Bri- gade (Kinglake's Invasion of the Crimea). (25) Florence Nightin- gale. (26) Cavour. (27) Napoleon III.'s reasons for aiding Italy. (28) Victor Emmanuel. (29) Maximilian in Mexico. (30) Bis- marck. (31) Moltke. (32) King William I. (33) Causes of the Franco-German War. (34) Reasons for the South German aid to Prussia. (35) The Sedan campaign. (36) Incidents of the siege of Paris. (37) Gambetta. (38) The Commune. (39) Rebuilding of Paris. (40) Proclamation of the German Emperor at Versailles. (41) Vatican Council of 1869-1870. (42) Loss of the Pope's tern- poral power. (43) Progress of science, 1850-1875. REFERENCES See maps, pp. 488, 534, 547, 576 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 29 6, 30, Geography 30 a ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 62, 69 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xliii. Ixx. 552 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION Secondary authorities Sources Illustrative works Bryce, Holy Boman Empire (Revised ed.), ch. xxiii. ; Duruy, France^ Appendix, cli. iv. ; Lodge, History of Modern Europe^ ch. xxvii. ; Henderson, Short History of Germany, II. chs. ix. x. ; Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century, chs. xii.-xiv. ; Phillips, Modern Europe, chs. xiv.-xviii. ; Fyfte, History of 31odern Europe (Popular ed.), 826-838, 844-862, 868-908, 914-920, 926-927, 936- 944, 952-965, 968-1019 ; MuUer, Political History of Becent Times, 253-292, 294-299, 306-308, 326-368, 409-471 ; Seignobos, Political History of Europe since ISU, 173-184, 346-372, 590-597, 81.3- 833; Murdock, Beconstruction of Europe, chs. iii.-viii. ; Lebon, Modern France, chs. xii.-xiv. ; Probyn, Italy, chs. ix.-xi. ; Stillman, Union of Italy ; Latimer, Italy in the Nineteenth Century, chs. ix.- xvi. ; Bolton King, History of Italian Unity, I. pt. ii. chs. xxiv.- xxxix. ; Thayer, Throne-Makers (Cavour, and Bismarck); Mazade, Cavour ; Countess Cesaresco, Cavour ; Headlam, Bismarck, — Foundations of the (ierman Empire, 18 15-1871. Whitman, Personal Beminiscences of Prince Bismarck ; Bis- marck's Table Talk (edited by Charles Lowe) ; Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman (edited by A. J. Butler) ; Busch, Bis- marck : Some Secret Pages of his History ; Von Moltke, Franco- German War; Cavour, Letters (Butler's trans.) ; Garibaldi. Auto- bio fjraphy. G. A. Henty. The Young Franc-Tire^irs, — Out vnth Garibaldi, H. Kingsley, Valentin ; Bulwer, The Parisians ; J. Cobb, Work- man and Soldier ; Tighe Hopkins, For Freedom ; M. J6kai, Manasseh ; Captain Brereton, A Gallant Grenadier ; G. Satnarow, For Sceptre and Crown ; J. Oxenham, John of Gerisau ; Dr. William Barry, The Dayspring ; Robert W. Chambers, The Bed Bepublic; Paul and Victor Margueritte, The Disaster. CHAPTER XXX. GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY Great Britain is "the only state in Europe which lias gone through the nineteenth century without a revolution '' ; yet though the framework of her constitution remained .. , , . . , 548. Intro- unaltered, its practical operation was profoundly changed. ductory At the beginning of the century the government was survey entirely in the hands of the aristocracy, composed of Eximpelinc^ large landowners and of members of the established isi4,p.9s church ; at its end, power was shared with the middle class, the industrial democracy, and the agricultural laborers, and all religious disabilities were abolished. Until the close of the gigantic struggle with Napoleon, all projects of reform were stopped by the fear lest Great Britain might, like France, be led into revolution; Avhen that contest was over. Great Britain soon resumed her natural development. Nowhere was the Industrial Revolution more marked. The north of England, where manufacturing centered because of its supplies of iron and coal, became the most populous, the wealthiest, and the most influential part of the kingdom. " A new England was added to the old," Boutmy, says a French writer; "it was as if a new land had comtiul been upheaved from the sea, and joined on to the shores Hon, jsr, of some old-world continent." The leaders of this industrial north, acting with the old Whig aristocrats, then began a series of political and humanitarian reforms, in the reigns of George IV. (1820-1830) and William IV. (1830-18.37), which were continued in the long and beneficent reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). 553 GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 555 Freedom of worship had been granted to dissenters {i.e. Prot^ estants not members of the established church) by the Toler;i- tion Act of 1689 ; but it was not until 1828 that the 549. Re. laws forbidding dissenters to take political office were °^o^al of re- repealed. Jews were not permitted to sit in Parliament ^'^abUities until 1858. The most severe of the anti-Catholic laws were repealed in the latter part of the eighteenth century; but Catholics were still shut out of office because of the scruples of George III., who insisted that his coronation oath to defend the English Church would not permit him to assent to any law admitting Catholics to Parliament. His successor, George IV., was a man of low moral character, and his scruples were disregarded. Daniel O'Connell, an eloquent Catholic lawyer, organized a widespread Catholic Association in Ireland, and was elected to the House of Commons with the purpose of testing the right of a Catholic to sit in that body. To avert imminent danger of revolution, the Duke of Wellington and Sir Eobert Peel, who were the Tory leaders of the government, gave way ; and in 1829, to the great disgust of their Tory followers, they secured the passage of a bill admitting Catholics to seats in Parliament and to nearly all offices in the state. For the union of the P)ritis]i Isles under one Parliament, the first step had been taken in the Act of Union with Scotland in 1707 (§ 359). The second was taken in 1800-1801, 550. Pariia- when, as the result of a recent rebellion in Ireland, the °^^unton Irish Parliament was cajoled and bribed into merging its (1707-1801) existence in that of the Parliament of the "United King- dom of Great Britain and Ireland," sitting at Westminster. Thenceforth (until the apportionment was changed by the Reform Acts) Ireland had 100 members in the House of Commons, to 45 for Scotland and 513 for England and Wales. The members of the House of Commons were of two sorts,— county (or shire) representatives aild borough representatives. 556 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION Almost every county, large or small, had two members; and the right to vote was restricted to '' freehold" tenants holding 551 Parlia- lands worth at least forty shillings per annum rental, mentary The Scottish county of Bute, with a population of four- tion before ^een thousand, had only twenty-one electors ; and it is ^832 related that at one time only one elector appeared, who forthwith took the chair, moved and seconded his own nomi- nation, cast his vote, and declared himself unanimously elected. The boroughs were represented usually by two members each (a few had only one), and there had been practically no change in the list of boroughs since the days of Charles II. Many populous manufacturing towns,, like Birmingham, Man- chester, and Leeds, were without representation. (Jn the other hand, many places which had lost their former con- sequence, or even (like Old Sarura) were without any inhabit- ants at all, continued to return members to Parliament. The seats of such " rotten " or " pocket " boroughs were often pub- licly sold by the landlord, or in some boroughs by the voters themselves. The qualifications for the franchise varied greatly in different boroughs, in some only the small governing body — a close corporation — having the right to vote. Not merely were large parts of the kingdom unrepresented (according to American ideas of representation), and the majority of the adult male population without votes ; but in a House of Com- mons of six hundred and fifty-eight members, not more than one third were the free choice even of the limited bodies of electors that had the franchise. After many attempts at partial reform, Lord John Russell carried a general Reform Bill through the House of Commons 552 Th R "^ ^^"^^ ■ ^^^^^ strong Tory majority in the House of Lords, form Acts of after once rejecting the bill, yielded to the threat of the 1832-1884 ministers to require the. king's consent to the creation of enough new peers to overcome the opposition (June, 1832). The GKEAT BRITAIN IN THE NINEIEENTU CEXTUKY 557 act took away one hundred and forty-three seats from small bor- oughs, and used these to increase the representation of the more populous counties and to give representation to the unrepre- sented manufacturing towns of the north. The purpose of the bill may be described in language which Russell used of one of his earlier measures : " My proposal took away Russell, representation from the dead bones of a former state of '^^^^^^««"'"^ . Dispatches, England, and gave it to the living energy and industry /• ^o of the England of the nineteenth century, with its steam engines and factories, its cotton and woolen cloths, its cutlery and its coal mines, its wealth and its intelligence." The franchise for both county and borough electors was at the same time made more liberal, and uniformity of qualification was introduced among the boroughs. The reform of 1832 substituted the rule of the uiiddle classes — of the small farmers and shopkeepers — for the rule of the aristocracy. The further step of making the government democratic was accomplished by the Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884, The first of these was passed by the Conservatives (as the Tories were now called) while Disraeli was leader of the House of Commons; it about doubled the number of voters by giving workingmen the franchise. The second was passed while Gladstone, the Whig or Liberal leader, was prime minister, and added about two million persons, mostly rural laborers, to the voting body. Since the passage of the latter act, the franchise has remained almost as widely distributed in Great Britain as it is in the United States. A reform of the criminal law began even before the passage of the first parliamentary Reform Act. At the begiimiug of the century, two hundred and twenty-three offenses were ^^g ^^ punishable with death : these included such slight crimes manitarian reforms as hunting in the king's forests, injuring Westminster bridge, and shoplifting to the value of five shillings. With the efforts of Sir Samuel Romilly there began a reform of the 558 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION criminal laws, which did not stop until murder and treason were left the sole capital crimes. In 1772 the courts declared that a slave brought to England became free. Clarkson, Wilberforce, and others then carried on agitation which led Parliament, in 1807, to abolish entirely the slave trade by British ships or to British colonies. Finally, in 1833, Parliament passed an act abolishing slavery itself in the colonies and appropriating £ 20,000,000 to compensate the masters. Steps were also taken to improve the lot of free laborers. In manufacturing establishments men, and even women and children, at times worked as many as eighteen hours a. day. The first general Factory Act, passed in 1833, prohibited the employment of children under nine years, and limited the hours of labor for those between nine years and thirteen years to nine hours a day, and for " young persons " between thirteen and eighteen to twelve hours. Subsequent acts further limited the employment of children, provided for better sanitary surround- ings and education, and prohibited the employment of women in mines. A reform of the Poor Laws was one of the acts of the re- formed Parliament. Daring the distress caused by the war 654. Re- with Pevolutionary France, the local authorities had be- form of the ^^^^ ^^le practice of giving " out-door relief " to able-bodied (1834) poor, i.e. without making them inmates of workhouses. Employers took advantage of this support to cut down wages ; laborers were pauperized by the knowledge that they would be maintained whether they worked or not ; and local taxes rose to ruinous rates. In 1834 the demoralizing practice was stopped by a new Poor Law, which abolished out-door relief for the able-bodied, made a willingness to go to the workhouse a test of the need of aid, and established a de})artment of the central government to supervise the system. Queen Victoria succeeded her uncle, William IV., while she GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH rENTFRY Tm!! was still a girl of eighteen.^ She had been prudently trained by her mother, the widowed Duchess of Kent, and from the beginning of her reign ^„ . , , . ^ „. ■ 555. Acces- showed intelligence and sion of Vic- goodness of heart. The ^^"^ '^^^"'^ crown of Hanover, which had been joined in personal union with that of Great l^ritain since 1714, passed to her uncle, the Duke of Cumber- land, as the nearest male heir ; but throughout her life Vic- toria took a keen interest in German affairs. In part this Victoria in 1897. was due to her mother's Ger- man birth, to her own happy marriage, in 1840, to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and to the marriage of her eldest 1 The followinor table shows the family of George III. and of Queen Victoria : — (1) George III. (1760-1820) I (2) George IV. Frederick, (.3) William IV. Edward, (1820-1830) Duke of York (1830-1837) Duke of Kent ^'^ ■'^ (d. 1827) — — (d.l820) 1 Ernest, Duke of Cumberland, (K. of Hanover 1837-1851) Victoria, m. Freder- ick, Crown Prince of Prussia, later German Emperor (4) Victoria (1837-1901), m. Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (d. 1861) I r Alice, (5) Edward VII (1901- ), m. ni. Alexandra Prince of Denmark of Hesse Alfred, Duke of Edin- burgh, and later Duke of Saxe- Coburg Helena, Louise, Arthur, m. ra. Duke Marquis ofCon- of naught Lome, later Duke of Argyle Prince of Augus- tenburg Leopold, Duke of Albany Beatrice, in. Prince of Batten - berg George Frederick, Prince of Wales, Louise, Victoria ^Mnfnpnmflrk m. Victoria Mary of Teck m. Duke of Fife m. Pmiee Karl of Denmark Edward Albert Albert Frederick Henry William George Edward 500 DKMOCKACV AND EXPANSION (laughter to the crown prince of Prussia, later himself Ger- man emperor and father of the emperor William II. At first the Tories felt doubtful of influencing the young queen. " 1 have no small talk," said the Duke of Wellington, in explaining why the Tories could not compete with the Whigs, " and Peel has no manners."' But the queen loyally played the part of a constitutional sovereign, calling to the head of the administration the leaders of the Whigs (or Liberals) at one time, and the Tories (or Conservatives) at another, according as the one party or the other had a majority in the House of Commons. Early in the queen's reign (1839), a measure was carried by which the high rates of postage on letters were reduced to the 556. Penny uniform rate of one penny for all places in the United postage Kingdom, and adhesive stamps were introduced with which to prepay postage. This reform enormously increased the amount of mail carried, and greatly helped social progress ; and it was soon adopted by all civilized countries. Another important measure was the abolition of the import duties on "corn," i.e. grain, which was carried through Par- 557. Kepeal liament while Sir Robert Peel, the Tory leader, was Corn Laws pi'i™^ minister. The Corn Laws imposed duties calcu- (1846) lated to keep the price of wheat uniformly high, for the benefit of the landlords. Manufacturers protested, because such laws made living dear and compelled the payment of higher wages. An Anti-Corn-Law League was organized (in 1838) under Richard Cobden and John Bright, to procure the repeal of these duties ; and in 1845, as ( 'obden said, " Famine itself, against which we had warred, joined us." In Ireland a disease attacked the potato, which was the chief article of food of the peasantry ; two million persons are said to have died of starva- tion and want, and within four years another million emi- grated to America. The Whig leader, Russell, took up the cry for the repeal of the corn laws, on the ground that they had GREAT BUITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTUKY 5^1 ''been proved to be the blight of commerce, the bane of agri- cnlture, the source of bitter divisions among classes, the cause of penury, fever, mortality, and crime among the Lir^^of'^!!^ people." In January, 1846, Peel, with the assistance of '"'^^'^ ^■■''^^ the Whigs, carried through both houses of Parliament the re- peal of the obnoxious laws. This uieasure completed a series of changes in the customs laws which committed Great Britain to the policy of free trade. To Peel it brought political down- fall, for the Tory protectionists, hating and repudiatiug their former leader, soon joined the Whigs in overthrowing his government. In the thirty-hve years following the Reform Act of 1832, the Conservatives were in office less than seven years al- together ; in the next thirty-five years (1868-1903) thev rtj 1 658. Gla.d- were m ottice twenty-three years, principally because stone and (1) they adopted a liberal policy with respect to domestic I>israeli reforms, and (2) they gave more prominence than Liberals to foreign and colonial affairs. The Conservative leader who did most to educate his party on these lines was Disraeli, later made Earl of Beaconslield. In 1868 for the first time he became prime minister ; and Russell surrendered the leader- ship of the Liberal party, then in opposition, to Gladstone : from that day until Beaconsfield's death, in 1881, there was a prolonged political duel between these two great statesmen. Gladstone entered Parliament in 1833 as an extreme Tory, became a Peelite, then an out-and-out Liberal, and after more than sixty years of active political life ended his parliamentary career in 1894 as a Radical. In December, 1868, Disraeli was supplanted by Gladstone as prime minister on the question of the continuance of the established Protestant Episcopal Church in Ireland, to 559. Irish which at the time of the Reformation had been assigned gsJ^aWighed the former position and property of the Roman Catholic ^ M E I SCALE OF MILES ^:\ MINOR 50 100 150 ^^ l^^^\^ ( =2 ^ - r7 Ji 0> (Q/RHODES Bo^mdary of Bulgaria according \S^~n^ ^ iV '^ S E -^ ^o <;ie and its extension in practice to cover the con- cerns of interest to civilized powers in all parts of the world. The only wars which actually broke out in Europe in the period here dealt with, were in the uneasy lands of the Bal- kan peninsula. In spite of promises of reform often made by the sultan, Turkey continued to be a plague spot in Europe. In 1870 NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 579 Russia seized the opportunity offered by the Franco-German War to declare that she would no longer be bound by the clauses of the treaty of Paris (§ 522) which limited her 576. The action in the Black Sea. This step aroused a fanatical Eastern movement in Turkey, the aim of which was to throw {18?0-mT) off the control of the Powers and oppose to Christendom the united force of Islam (Mohammedanism). As a result, in 1875, the Christians of Bulgaria and Herzegovina, with the aid of Montenegro and Servia, began to rise against Turkish rule. To suppress the rising in Bulgaria, bloody " Bulgarian atroci- ties" were perpetrated by the Turks, until the victims were numbered by tens of thousands. The sultan Abdul- Aziz was deposed; then in 1876 his nephew, Abdul-Hamid IL, was firmly seated on the throne. When the Turks forced the Montenegrins back into their mountain fastnesses, and com- pelled the Servians to sue for peace, the Christian Powers felt it necessary to interfere. After long negotiations with the other Powers, Russia declared war alone against Turkey (April, 1877). With a force of 200,000 men the Russians crossed the Dan- 577. Kusso- ube, and the war soon centered about ^^j. Plevna, a place of (1877-1878) great strategic importance, where Osmau Pasha had in- trenched himself with 40,000 Turk- ish troops. After five months' heroic resistance Osman Pasha capitulated (De- cember 10, 1877). Through the snow and ice of the Balkan Mountains the Russians then pressed southward, and soon their out- posts were within a hundred miles of Con- stantinople. The hostile attitude of Cxreat Britain then prevented further advance; TURKISH^OLDIKR, ^^^^ .^ ^^^^^^ ^g^g^ .j^^^^kcy sigUCd thc 580 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION treaty of San Stefano (San Stephano), which, if it had been allowed to stand, would have amounted to the formal dissolu- tion of the Turkish power in Europe. Great Britain and Austria regarded the treaty as too favor- able to Russia, and to prevent a general European war an inter- 578. Con- national congress was called at Berlin, in 1878, under the Berlin* presidency of Bismarck. The result was a triumph for (1878) British diplomacy and a defeat for Russia; new arrange- ments were made more favorable to Turkey, but less satisfac- tory to the Christian communities of the Balkan peninsula, than in the treaty of San Stefano. The Russian frontier was ex- tended to the mouth of the Danube ; Herzegovina and Bosnia were handed over to Austria to occupy and rule; and Cyprus, by a secret treaty, was " leased " by Turkey to Great Britain as a reward for her friendship. The independent state of Montenegro received an Adriatic seaport. Servia, virtually independent since 1829, was made completely so, with enlarged boundaries. Complete independence was given to Roumania, a country formed in 1861 by the voluntary union of the semi- independent Danube principalities Wallachia and Moldavia. Bulgaria was erected by the congress into a new Christian state, self-governing but tributary to Turkey; its extent was to be less than half that provided in the treaty of San Stefano, but it was increased in 1886 by the annexation of Eastern Roumelia as the result of a successful revolution. Greece, as a result of the congress and subsequent negotiations, secured Thessaly and part of Epirus : a rash war undertaken by her, in 1897, to wrest Crete from Turkey, ended in Turkish victory, and the intervention of the Bowers then made Crete an inde- pendent Christian principality. The general result of these arrangements was to leave to Turkey in Europe only the administrative districts of Con- stantinople, Adrianople, Albania, and Epirus, and the Christian province of Macedonia. The rule of the Turk in Europe was NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 581 prolonged, and the Christian populations were left to the oppres- sion of Mohammedan officials and soldiers. That the Eastern Question was not solved was shown by the Armenian massacres under direction of the sultan's officials in 1894-1896, and by more recent unsuccessful attempts at revolution in Macedonia. After the Russo-Turkish War an ''armed peace" charac- terized the relations of the European Powers. France, pas- sionately desiring a " war of revenge " to recover Alsace and Lorraine, increased her army, navy, and defenses, edp 579. "Arm- peace only to see them outrun by Germany, whose population ^^ Europe and wealth were greater. The other Powers were obliged to follow similar courses, until the close of the century saw France with a war strength of 2,500,000 men, Germany and Italy with 3,000,000 each, and Russia with 3,500,000, in addi- tion to powerful navies. Rapid-fire guns, smokeless powder, powerful explosive shells, and repeating rifles of long range increased the power of standing armies ; but at the same time the influence of the people, on whom the burden of war falls, became greater in government, and was exerted on the whole in favor of peace. Bismarck's policy was to maintain cordial relations, so far as possible, with both Austria and Russia as a check on France ; thus in 1872 he formed the League of the Three Em- sgo. Triple perors (Russia, Austria, and Germany) for the main- and Dual tenance of peace on the basis of existing territorial (1883-1900) arrangements. After 1878 a new grouping of the Powers took place, Russia turning toward France, and Germany drawing closer to Austria. The establishment of a French protectorate over Tunis (in 1881) brought France and Italy to the verge of war ; and the latter, in 1883, entered with Austria and Ger- many into a Triple Alliance, which has been several times renewed. England's traditional policy was to avoid Conti- nental entanglements ; but friction with Russia over the fron- tiers of India and with France over Egypt led her to look 58*2 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION with a friendly eye upon the Triple Alliance. A Franco- Russian Dual Alliance existed at least after 1891, but appar- ently only for mutual defense against European attacks. The development of European rivalries abroad after 1878, especially in Africa and the far East, presented new compli- 681. Egypt cations fraught with new dangers — first of all in Egypt, (1801-1882) lY^Q nominal tributary of Turkey. All effective power of the sultan of Turkey over that land had ceased some time be- fore the Russo-Turkish War. After the French gave up Egypt (§§ 443, 448) the governorship soon fell into the hands of Me- hemet Ali (1811-1848), an able and energetic ruler who in two wars with the sultan secured practical independence and an hereditary transmission of his power. His grandson, Ismail (1863-1879), extended Egyptian rule to the upper Nile, aided the building of the Suez Canal, and procured from the sultan the title " Khedive," with more independent powers ; but his extravagance plunged Egypt into bankruptcy. The sale of his shares in the Suez Canal to the British government (1875) gave to it a controlling interest in that important waterway. To protect the financial interests of their subjects. Great Britain and France finally intervened to depose Ismail and place on the throne his son, Tewfik (1879-1892), the adminis- tration of the finances being intrusted to two comptrollers- general of their own appointment. In 1882 a revolt against foreign influence broke out under a military agitator named Arabi, and a massacre of Euro- 582. British peans took place at Alexandria. European interven- of *Eevpt°^ tion again became necessary ; and when France (to her (1882) subsequent regret) refused cooperation, Great Britain acted alone. Alexandria was bombarded by her fleet, and a British army under Wolseley defeated Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir (40 miles north of Cairo). Egypt has since been under British occupation, though the khedive reigns, and the administration is mainly in native hands. The country has greatly prospered: NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 583 immense irrigation works have been completed to store and distribute the Nile floods ; justice has been bettered, and the condition of the peasants improved. The Egyptian province of the Sudan, on the upper Nile, was lost (1881-1885) through a revolt headed by a Mohammedan fanatic styled the "Mahdi/' or Prophet; the last Egyptian stronghold there fell in 1885, when Khartum was taken, and the Anglo-Egyptian general, Gordon, was murdered. This disaster forced the British government to action; and after ten years spent in preliminary organization, the Anglo-Egyp- tian troops under Kitchener began their advance. To reach the seat of trouble a railroad was built, in one place for two hundred and thirty miles across the desert ; and in 1898 the Mahdists were crushed at Omdurman (near Khartum), and the upper Nile was reoccupied. The railroad was afterwards com- pleted to Khartum, a distance of twelve hundred miles from Cairo, and order and security were restored. Following the British occupation of Egypt came the parti- tion of other parts of Africa among European powers. Until about 1860, Africa remained "the Dark Continent." In ggg p^^ the first half of the nineteenth century began the labors tition of of the scientific and missionary explorers of the interior, of whom the greatest were the Englishman Dr. David Living- stone, who died in Africa in 1873, and the Anglo-American Henry M. Stanley, whose explorations in 1877 revealed to the Avorld the vast waterway of the Kongo, leading into the heart of Africa. The Belgian king, Leopold XL, founded an Inter- national Association in 1876 to explore Africa and put an end to the horrors perpetrated by the bands of Arab slave catchers in the interior ; and he was the first to see the value of Stan- ley's discovery. Under King Leopold's patronage, Stanley in 1879 led an expedition from the west coast up the Kongo River, ^^^ ^^^^^ which for the first time opened up vast expanses of state (1883) 584 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION the interior, and laid in the heart of equatorial Africa the foundations of the Kongo Free State, organized in 1883. In 1884 Germany suddenly seized Togoland and Kamerun, which lie upon the west coast, and this precipitated a wild scramble for African territory. To settle conflicts and lay down principles on which future annexations should be valid, a conference was held at Berlin in the winter of 1884-1885. The chief result was the recognition of the Kongo Free State as a sovereign state, under the headship of King Leo- pold; but it has practically been transformed into a Belgian colony. A railroad was built around the rapids in the lower course of the river; and above them steam navigation was established for a thousand miles, without counting the num- erous tributaries of the Kongo. The slave trade, as formerly carried on, was abolished ; and an enormous commerce in rub- ber, founded on forced labor (often exacted with great cruelty), was built up. The extensive plantations, however, are mostly the personal property of King Leopold. The British possessions in Africa (including Egypt and the former Boer republics) are most extensive and valuable. The 585. Euro- development of South Africa was largely due to Cecil pean pos- Khodes, whose dream it was to establish a " Cape to sessions in _^, . ,, .. . ^ . . _ Africa Cairo railway, intended to unite the greater part of east- (1900) Qj.^ Africa in one territorial mass under English rule; the road will doubtless be completed, but it must pass in part through German East Africa. The French possessions, start- ing from Algeria, stretch out over a vast extent of the Sahara and the Sudan, and include a considerable territory on the right bank of the Kongo River. Tunis (since 1881) and the island of Madagascar (since 1889) are French protectorates. The Portuguese retain considerable possessions on both the east and west coasts, but bad government makes them of little profit. The Spanish possessions are few and small. Italy, emulating the other states, established colonies on the Africa about 1900. Morocco, Liberia, and Abyssinia were independent states. The rest of Africa was divided into possessions and protectorates of other powers, as follows : (1) Great Britain — all the areas colored red on the map, including Cajie of Good Hope, Rhodesia, etc; (2) France — all the areas colored purple, in- cluding Algeria, Tunis, etc. ; (3) Germany— all the African areas colored yellow; (4) Portugal — Portuguese Guinea, Angola, and Portuguese East Africa; (5) Italy — Eritrea and Italian Somaliland; (6) Belgium (^584) — Kongo State; (7) Spain -Rio de Oro; (8) Turkey -Tripoli. Egypt was claimed as a tributary state by Turkey, but it was practically under the control of Great Britain. 585 586 DEMOCRACY AND EXrANSION Red Sea and the Indian Ocean ; but these lands are barren, and her experience has been disastrous. Tripoli remains nomi- nally under Turkish rule ; Abyssinia continues independent ; Morocco is self-governing, but threatened by France's claim to a ''paramount" influence, to which Germany opposes a demand for joint control by all the Powers. Throughout Africa rail- ways, telegraph lines, and European commerce are making rapid progress. Dating from the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, we may note a revival of the Concert of the Powers (§ 575), i.e. the 586 c practice of the Great Powers (Germany, Great Britain, cert of the France, Russia, Austria, Italy, and lately the United thrHa^ffue^ States) acting together in all important international Conference concerns. Their action is not usually registered in ^ ~ ^ public treaties; none the less, through their joint under- standings, embodied in diplomatic notes and other communica- tions, they have in recent years largely ruled Europe, and regulated European interests in Africa and Asia. In 1899 a further stej^ was taken when the czar of Russia issued a call for a conference at the Hague to consider '' the terrible and increasing burden of European armaments," and the possibility of settling international disputes by arbitration instead of by war. Besides the delegates of the European Powers there were present representatives from the United States, Mexico, China, Japan, Persia, and even Siam. The proposal for a general disarmament was found impracticable ; but a permanent international court of arbitration was formed, of which the principles and procedure were laid down. The new court was made a living reality by the submission to it, in the first few years of its existence, of two troublesome cases concerning Spanish America. Should it, by substituting the appeal to reason for the appeal to force, remove only a frac- tion of the occasions for war which arise, its creation will stand as a marked event in recent history. NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 587 (B) Internal History of the Chief Continental Statks The interiral history of the several European states must now be briefly sketched, beginning with that of France. The government under Thiers, which made peace with Ger- .o. ^ _, ,,„M 1 . . , 687. Estab many in 1871, was only provisional, and for five years the lishing the future form of the French constitution was not fixed A ^^®^^^^^®- public majority of voters wished to maintain the Republic ; but (1871-1874; the National Assembly was monarchist, had been elected with- out limit of term, and there was no legal method of compelling it to lay down its power. Thiers was a constitutional monar- chist, but loyally upheld the Republic as "the system that divides us least." Under his rule, France recovered rapidly from her disasters ; the war indemnity was paid ; and in Sep- tember, 1873, the last German soldiers withdrew. In May, 1873, Thiers was forced to resign and was succeeded by Marshal MacMahon, who was elected president with the express purpose of restoring monarchy. Of the three monar- chical parties (Imperialists, Legitimists, and Orleanists), the Imperialists were so weak that they could be neglected; the two others came to an agreement by which the National Assem- bly was to recognize as king the head of the " legitimate,'" or elder branch of the Bourbons (the Count of Chambord, known as " Henry V. "), while the Count of Paris as head of the Orleans branch was recognized as his successor. At the last moment the restoration failed, because the Count of Cham- bord declared that he would restore the white flag of the Bourbons, while the Orleanists insisted on the tricolor with which so many patriotic memories were intertwined. The Assembly, in 1875, then passed a group of "organic laws,"-which are the basis of the present French consti- ggg. French tution. The legislature consists of a Chambei- of Depu- constitution '^ , of 18/5 ties elected by universal suffrage every four years, and a Senate elected by secondary electoral bodies for nine years. 588 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION The two chambers voting together elect the president of the republic, whose term is seven years. The president's position is similar to that of a constitutional king : he can perform no executive act except through responsible ministers ; but he has the power (with the cooperation of the Senate) of dissolving the Chamber of Deputies and appealing to the country in a new election. In practice the Chamber of Deputies, like the British House of Commons, is the more powerful body of the Facade of the Chamber of Deputies, Paris. Erected 1804-1807. two, making and unmaking ministries by its votes, and even compelling the president to resign. The social organization created by the first Revolution was preserved, together with the administrative system of the first Napoleon ; and to these was now added a political constitution based on the sovereignty of the people, universal suffrage, and liberty of the press. For a score of years after 1875 the monarchists looked upon 589. Party the republic as provisional, and worked for its over- struggles in France throw. MacMahon resigned in 1879, and was succeeded (after 1875) by Jules Grevy, a radical republican, who served till 1887. NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 589 He was succeeded by Sadi Carnot, who was assassinated by an anarchist in 1894. Next came Casimir Perier, who resigned the next year ; he was followed by Felix Faure, who died in office in 1899; and Faure was succeeded by :^mile Loubet, seventh in the list. A portion of the Catholic party (which had agitated for a res- toration of monarchy in France and of the Pope's sovereignty at Rome) through the influence of Pope Leo XIII., "rallied" to the support of the Republic in 1892 ; but to offset this gain, the Socialist party became a political factor again after those who had taken part in the Commune were pardoned (in 1879). By the close of the century, however, policies were controlled by the more conservative sections of each party. The last fourteen years of the nineteenth century saw three important political "affairs" in France. (1) In 1887-1889 Boulanger, a popular general, attempted unsuccessfully to alter the constitution in the direction of a dictatorship. (2) The "Panama scandal" of 1892-1893, growing out of the bank- ruptcy of a French company organized to construct a Panama canal, revealed much corruption among journalists and high French officials, and discredited the chiefs of the Republican party. (3) In 1897-1899 political interest centered in the attempts made, especially by the novelist Zola, to show that the condemnation of the Jewish army officer Dreyfus, on the charge of revealing military secrets to Germany, was the result of an anti-Semite army plot : on a retrial of the case much of the evidence was shown to be forged ; nevertheless Dreyfus was again condemned, but received a pardon from the president. Under the constitution of the German Empire, completed in April, 1871, the direction of military and political 590. oer- affairs is placed in the king of Prussia as hereditary ^^"^J^^^^^JJ^ German Emperor. The legislative power is in the Bun- of the Em- desrath (Federal Council) and Reichstag (Imperial Diet). P'"*'^ ^ The Bundesrath represents the individual states of the em- HARDING'S M. & M. HIST. 34 590 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION pire, but (unlike our Senate) unequally : Prussia, which contains three fifths of the population of Germany, has 17 votes out of a total of 58 ; Bavaria has 6, Saxony and Wtirt- temberg 4 each, and the other states less (p. 547). The mem- bers of the Bundesrath are appointed by and are responsible to their respective governments. In the Reichstag, Prussia has 23(3 members out of a total of 397 ; the members are elected by manhood suffrage for a term of five years, but with the consent of the Bundesrath the emperor may Reichstag (Parliament) Building, Berlin. dissolve the Reichstag and order new elections. Unlike the ministers of true parliamentary governments, the German ministers, headed by the imperial chancellor, are regarded as the servants, not of the legislative chamber elected by the people, but of the emperor, who may appoint and remove them at pleasure. From 1871 until 1890 the post of imperial chancellor and 591. The chief Prussian minister was held by Bismarck. In the kampf ^^^^ ^^^-^ ^^ ^^^^ period occurred the "Kulturkampf," a (1871-1890) conflict between the Roman Catholic Church and the NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 591 Prussian government over the control of education and eccle- siastical appointments. Similar conflicts occurred in Bavaria Austria, Switzerland, France, and Belgium; they were occa- sioned in part by the action of the church Council of the Vati- can, in 1870, which proclaimed as a dogma of the church the infallibility of the Pope in the definition of doctrines concern- ing the faith and morals. Bismarck expressed his confidence of victory in the sentence, ''We shall not go to Canossa;" and laws were passed to expel the Jesuits and other orders, and to transform the bishops and priests into state officials. A power- ful " Center," or Catholic party, was formed to combat these measures in the Reichstag ; Bismarck at length wearied of the contest, and after the accession of Pope Leo XIII. (1878-1903) the obnoxious laws were gradually repealed. Other important features of Bismarck's administration were the passage of laws directed against the Socialists, who were beginning to show marked strength in Germany ; and the enactment of a series of measures (designed to draw ing-class off the working classes from socialism) which provided ®^^ ^ ^°^ for pensions under government control to laborers disabled by accident, sickness, or old age. The laws against the Social- ists failed of their object; the measures to aid the working classes have had much success. In March, 1888, the emperor William I. died, at the age of ninety -one, and was succeeded by his son Frederick : the latter, however, was suffering from a mortal disease, and 593. Acces- lived only until June, 1888, when his son, William II., ^iniam^n ascended the throne. William II. soon showed great (1888) energy and self-confidence, a high sense of the imperial office, and a capacity for astonishing the world by feats of brilliancy. He wished to take a larger personal part in the administration than his predecessors, while Bismarck insisted on the observ- ance of the practice under which ministers of departments communicated with the emperor only through the chancellor. 592 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION Bismarck was unexpectedly dismissed in 1890, and passed into restless retirement on his country estates, where he died in 1899. Under William II. a vigorous foreign policy was pursued, with many royal journeys and visits to neigh- boring monarchs; the army was fostered and a powerful navy founded ; and measures were promoted for the im- provement of the working (^lasses. But the greatest fea- ture of his reign was the rapid industrial progress of Germany, due to the patient aj^plication and thorough sci- entific training which charac- terize the German people. The Social Democratic party, in spite of the emperor's opposi- tion to it, grew steadily, till in 1903 its members cast thirty-two per cent of the total vote in the German Empire. Spain in the last third of the nineteenth century was long weakened by party struggles. After the withdrawal of the 594. Spain Hohenzollern candidate (§ 537), a younger son of Victor after 1870 Emmanuel of Italy accepted the crown as Amadeus I. (January, 1871) ; but at the end of two years he resigned the throne in disgust, and a republic was proclaimed. Wars with the Carlists, and with those who wished a federative instead of a consolidated republic, so distracted and weakened the country that in 1875 the monarchy was restored in the person of Alfonso XII., son of the exiled Queen Isabella (§ 537)= A constitution with representative government and a legislature of two houses was adopted in 1876, and in 1890 William II. IfATlONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 593 manhood suffrage was added. Alfonso XII., who was an intel- ligent and active prince, died in December, 1885, at the age of twenty-eight. His posthumous son, Alfonso XIII. (born early in 1886), succeeded him, but the actual government was in the hands of his mother as regent until 1902. The power of the monarchy rested mainly on the army, which was over-officered, inefficient, and a great drain on Spanish finances. Railways and industry made rapid strides, but mainly through foreign enterprise. The mass of the population, though sound and honest, remained ignorant, idle, and religiously intolerant : in 1889, sixty-eight per cent could neither read nor write, and fifty-three per cent were without occupation. The remnants of Spain's once mighty colonial empire were a source of weakness rather than of strength to her, and the cruelty with which an insurrection was being put down 595. span in Cuba in 1898 led, through American intervention, to ^^^--^^6/1 . . . ' can War war with the United States. Admiral Dewey at Manila, (1898) and Admirals Sampson and Schley at Santiago, crushed the Spanish fleets; and Spain was forced to sue for peace. The terms agreed upon at Paris, in 1898, included the relinquish- ment of Cuba (which shortly became an independent republic) and the cession of Porto Kico and the whole archipelago of the Philippines to the United States. The acquisition of the latter, whatever may be its final destiny, brought the United States more directly into far Eastern questions, and enhanced her im- portance in "world politics" — an importance increased by the successful "American invasion" of many European fields of industry. For ten years after the complete unification of Italy (§ 546), resulting questions of debt and institutional development occu- pied the government. Then came fifteen years (1881- 596. italy 1896) in which fall the ministries of Crispi, devoted to (1871-1900) the development of railroads and public works, and to attempts to secure external prestige through increase of army and navy, 594 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION colonial ventures, and the Triple Alliance. Since 1896 the crushing burden of public debt has led to soberer policies. The problem of " making Italians " out of citizens of the former states was hampered by widespread political indifference and ignorance. The percentage of adult male illiterates decreased in twenty years (following 1861) from sixty-five per cent to fifty-three per cent, and has since continued to decline. King Humbert I. (1878-1900) was assassinated by an anarchist, and his son, Victor Emmanuel II., then came to the throne. The dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, after its creation in 1867 (§ 535), remained politically in "unstable equilibrium." 597. Aus- Austria and Hungary had each a separate constitution, tria-Hun- parliament, and administration: but had the same sov- gary . (1867-1900) ereign, the same ministers for war, finance, and foreign affairs, and sent the same number of persons (sixty) to a joint council for the whole realm (the " Delegations "). In Austria, German was the official language ; in Hungary, Magyar ; but in each kingdom there were a number of other peoples with sepa- rate national tongues and national aspirations, and the "lan- guage question " threatened each with disruption ; in Austria, the oath of office at the opening of the Reichsrath (Parliament) was administered in eight different tongues. Except a few outlying districts, Austria had lost her Italian possessions, and looked for territorial gains to the Balkan peninsula. The czar Alexander II. (1855-1881) converted Russia into a modern state by emancipating (against the passive resistance 598 In- ^^ *^^ nobles) its 23,000,000 serfs; but the scanty lands ternalhis- which they received were charged with heavy annual Eussia payments to indemnify their former masters. Disap- (1855-1900) pointed at the failure to obtain a political constitu- tion from Alexander II., an opposition arose, principally among young university students, which gradually became revolutionary. To a policy of arbitrary arrests, imprisonment in foul dungeons, and transportation to Siberia, the secret NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 595 on societies C* Nihilists ") replied by a policy of terror based assassination. In March, 1881, the czar himself was assassi- nated by the hurling of a nitroglycerine bomb against his car- riage. That very day he had signed a " ukase," or decree, which would have laid the foundations of constitutional gov- ernment by establishing a consultative assembly. His son Alexander III. (1881-1894), revoked this decree; and during the whole of his reign, and the first ten years of that of his son Nicholas II., a reactionary policy prevailed in which exile to Siberia was freely used to check liberal opinions. The chief episode, however, of the history of Russia in the latter part of the nineteenth century was its systematic advance in Asia. Seven great wars, from the time of 599 r^s- Peter the Great to the Congress of Berlin (1711-1878), sian expan brought in Europe only meager results : a frontage on the Asia Baltic and Black seas was acquired, but the outlets of <1554-1895) these waters remained under the control of other powers. Russia then turned from European projects to Asia, where her policy was twofold: (1) an advance to the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean, causing numerous wars and treaties with Persia, Afghanistan, and Great Britain ; and (2) an advance to the Pa- cific, through Siberian colonization, the Trans-Siberian railway, and intervention in China and Korea (see map, pp. 600, 601). Russia's southward expansion in Asia began as early as 1554, when a foothold was gained on the Caspian Sea about the lower Volga River. By 1803 Georgia (in the Caucasus Mountains) was annexed, and the way along the west side of the Caspian secured. By 1828 the beginning was made of an ascendency in Persia, which has since been strengthened by diplomacy, financial loans, and railway building. In the middle of the nineteenth century the vast plains of Turkestan were reached, and a design of conquering India was resumed. Khiva finally submitted in 1873; Bokhara was forced to recognize a Russian protectorate in 1868; Merv 596 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION (against an express promise made by Russia to the British gov- ernment three years before) was acquired in 1884 ; and half of the Pamir plateau — the " roof of the world," which commands the ramparts of India — was secured in 1893. The threat to British India is serious, for the Russian frontier and railway terminal at Kushk are but seventy-five miles from Herat, long regarded as "the key of the Indies." The Russian colonization of Siberia, like the settlement of the western parts of the United States, has been really a natu- 600 Siberia ^^^ expansion. " To become a colonist, there is no ocean and the to cross, no steamboat fare to pay. The poorest peasant, (1584-1902) ^ staff in his hand, an ax at his belt, his boots slung Rambaud, from a cord over his shoulder, can pass from one halting in Interna^ place to another, until he reaches the ends of the em- Monthly,ll. pire." To the early brigands, and later gold hunters, trappers, fur traders, and fugitive serfs, were added trans- ported criminals (political and others). A treaty with China in 1689 fixed the boundaries of the two lands till 1858, when Russia extorted the cession of northern Manchuria and the whole left bank of the Amur River; maritime Manchuria (in- cluding Vladivostok) was acquired in 1860. In 1895-1902 the Russian government constructed the Trans-Siberian railway, nearly 5000 miles long. Wholly apart from its military value, it is estimated that in the commerce of the world this Rambaud , . ^. ^ . ^. (as above), road " Will work as important a revolution as did the dis- p. 361 covery of the Cape of Good Hope in the fifteenth cen- tury, or the construction of the Suez Canal in the nineteenth." In spite of the Russo-Turkish war (1877-1878) and minor conflicts in the Balkan lands, Europe as a whole experienced 601. Sum- ^^^ uneasy sort of a peace after 1871, partly due to the mary Triple and Dual alliances. Out of the dangers of national rivalries came a new Concert of the Powers, most strikingly shown in the establishing of the Hague international court of NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 597 arbitration. The scope of international politics was widened by the growth of colonies, by the partition of Africa, by the expansion of Europe in Asia and of the United States in the Pacific. The rule of the Turkish sultan in Europe was saved from overthrow by the jealousies of the Powers. Internally the states of Europe progressed: France, after prolonged struggles, firmly established a parliamentary republic; Germany organ- ized a federal empire dominated by the Prussian king ; Italy partly solved the problems connected with her unification; Austria and Hungary maintained their unstable connection ; Spain, deprived of its colonies, began to revive. Especially did science, invention, industry, and commerce progress in this period with unparalleled rapidity. TOPICS (1) Why did Russia go to war with Turkey in 1877 ? (2) Suggestive Which was better for the peace of Europe, the treaty of San *°P^^^ Stefano or the arrangements made by the Congress of Berlin ? (3) What territorial changes have since been made in the Balkan lands ? (4) What effects do the great armaments of European states have upon their populations ? (5) Which state has derived the greatest advantage from the Triple Alliance ? From the Dual Alliance ? (6) Was Great Britain justified in intervening alone in Egypt ? (7) Why did not France act with her in 1882 ? (8) Are the British justified in remaining indefinitely in occupation of Egypt? (9) Why did the partition of Africa come when it did ? (10) Of what value to European powers are their African possessions ? (11) Of what value to Africa is European coloniza- tion ? (12) Why did not the European powers agree to dis- armament at the Hague Conference ? (13) Why was the Third French Republic so insecure during its early years ? (14) What enabled it to outlive this insecurity ? (15) What incidents illus- trate the saying that the Bourbons "learn nothing and forget nothing"? (16) Compare the government of the French Re- public with that of the United States. (17) Compare the govern- ment of Germany with that of the United States. (18) What arguments can be advanced for the German laws favoring the work- ing classes ? (19) What arguments can be advanced against them ? (20) Was the emperor William II. justified in dismissing Bismarck 598 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION Search topics from office ? (21) Was Crispi's policy for Italy wise or unwise ? (22) Why is Austria less important in the world's history now than formerly ? (23) Did Russia make better or worse provision for her emancipated serfs than the United States for our emanci- pated slaves ? (24) Why are the Russians better fitted to rule the interior of Asia than other powers ? (25) What event in United States history parallels the building of the Trans-Siberian railway ? (26) Incidents of the Russo-Turkish War, (27) The Congress of Berlin. (28) The war between Servia and Bulgaria in 1885. (29) Insurrection and intervention of the Powers in Crete, 1896. (30) The Triple Alliance. (31) The Greco-Turkish War of 1897. (32) The British in Egypt. (33) Dr. Livingstone. (34) Stanley's explorations. (35) Partition of Africa. (36) Kongo Free State. (37) The Hague Peace Conference of 1899. (38) Organization and workings of the Hague tribunal. (39) The French "Panama Scandal." (40) The '• Dreyfus Affair." (41) The " Kulturkampf " in Germany. (42) Dismissal of Bismarck. (43) Character of Emperor William II. (44) Spain since 1871. (45) Crispi. (46) Political parties in Austria-Hungary. (47) Emancipation of the serfs. (48) The Trans-Siberian railway. Geography Secondary- authorities Sources Pictures REFERENCES See maps, pp. 576, 578, 585, 600 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xiv. Ixxxix. xc. ; Gardiner, School Atlas', maps 63, 65, 66 ; Putzger, Atlas, map 38 ; Dow, Atlas, xxix. xxx. xxxii. Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century, chs. xvi. xvli. xxv. xxx. ; Phillips, Modern Europe, chs. xix.-xx. ; Miiller, Political History of Recent Times, 468-476, 493-576, 61 1-652 ; Fyffe, History of Modern Europe (Popular ed.), ch, xxv. ; Seignobos, Political History of Europe since I8I4, chs. vii. xvi. xxviii. ; Lebon, Modern France, chs. xiv.-xv, ; Spencer Walpole, The History of Twenty-five Years ; Wilson, The State ; Lowell, Governments and Parties of Modern Europe ; Johnston, Colonization of Africa, chs. xi. xii. ; Stanley (and others), Africa: Its Partition and its Future ; Villari, The Balkan Question ; Reinsch, World Politics ; Wallace, The Progress of the Century. Consult also the maga- zines, using Poole's Index to Periodical Literature, and Supple- ment, under the different topics. Anderson, Constitutions and Documents, nos. 130-137 ; The Annual Register; Appleton^s Annual Ctjclopcedia ; annual alma- nacs published by the Nevj York World, Neio York Tribune, etc. Ha7'per\s Weekly ; Frank Leslie^s Illustrated Weekly ; London Illustrated News; London Graphic, etc. CHAPTER XXXII. THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST, AND THE TWENTIETH CENTURY The far East is now, and is likely for some time to remain, the chief storm center of world politics, taking the place occu- pied in the nineteenth century by Turkey and the nearer 602. Mon- East. Until about 1840, the history of this part of the ^°^^ ^""^ . ^ J i. Chinese world ran m a separate channel from that of Europe. (1 200-1 840j Hordes of Asiatics — Huns in the fifth century, Bulgarians in the seventh, Magyars in the tenth, and Turks later — invaded Europe ; and Jenghiz Khan (died 1227) and his successors established a Mongol empire which stretched from Poland to the Pacific Ocean, and held Russia in subjection from 1241 to 1480. Now, however, the tide of invasion is turned the other way, and Europe is transforming Asia. China is one of the most ancient and highly civilized countries of the world ; its great religious teacher, Confucius, flourished five hundred years before Christ. The Mongol rule, established by Jenghiz Khan, lasted until 1368; *--hen for three hundred years China was ruled by emperors of the Ming dynasty. In 1644 the Manchu Tartars overthrew the Ming dynasty and seized the throne ; the Taiping Rebellion (1850- 1865) was an unsuccessful movement for the restoration of native rule. After the accession of the Ming dynasty, China shut her doors to other nations ; and although in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries some commerce was established with Europeans, it remained on an uncertain basis. The first effective breach in the barrier with which China 599 602 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION surrounded herself was made by the unjust "Opium War*' waged by Great Britain, in 1840-1842, to compel the admis- 603. Open- sion of opium from India. By the treaty which ended ing up of ^Yis^,t war, Canton, Shanghai, and some other ports were GlllI13< (1840-1884) opened to British trade, and the island of Hongkong was ceded to Great Britain. Commercial treaties with the United States and France followed in 1844. In 1857-1860 the British in alliance with the French waged a second war upon China, and Peking was taken ; this secured the toleration of Christianity and the admission of resident ambassadors to the Chinese capital. New troubles for China developed in the south, where the French established themselves. In 1862, to avenge the murder of French missionaries, they seized Saigon, in the kingdom of Anam (over which China claimed suzerainty), and set up the French colony of Cochin China. In 1884 France annexed Tonkin, and forced China to sign a treaty opening up the three neighboring provinces to European trade. Equally important with the opening up of China was the awakening of Japan. The emperor of Japan (sometimes called 604 ci • ^likado) had gradually lost much of his power to the of Japan Shogun (hereditary commander of the army), and a sort ^ ' of feudal system had arisen in which local authority was vested in lords called daimios, who were practically vas- sals of the Shogun ; while the emperor was reduced to a part similar to that of the faineant (" do-nothing ") kings of France in the time of the mayors of the palace (§ 14). Christianity was introduced in the sixteenth century, but its followers were suspected of political aims, and in 1637 it was prohibited ; at the same time natives were forbidden to leave the country under penalty of death, and for two centuries thereafter Japan, like China and Korea, was practically a "hermit nation." The credit of opening Japan to Western commerce and ideas belongs to Commodore Perry, of the United States navy, who THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST cm in 1854 induced the Shogun to conclude a treaty opening up Yokohama and two other ports to trade. Great Britain, Russia, and France quickly followed with similar treat- 605. Awak- ies. For a time there was trouble, growing out of Jap- ®^^^& °^ anese conservatism and hatred of foreigners, but this (1854-1*89^; speedily died down. In 1867 the progressive emperor Mutsu- hito came to the throne, and soon after the Shogun was over- thrown, and the feudal system entirely suppressed. Swarms of Japanese students were sent to Europe and America for education, and showed a remarkable power to assimilate Western culture in all its branches. Under their influence Japan was revolutionized in its government, its industry, and its educational and military systems. A constitution was pro- claimed in 1889 by which the administration was placed in a cabinet of ministers responsible to the emperor, and the legis- flative power was vested in an Imperial Diet of two houses. ^^__^ The hrst test of Japan's new military insti- ftutions came in 1894, when war broke out with China through rival pretensions over the qqq -^^r kingdom of Korea. The Japanese navy, between '^ Japan and built in the best shipyards of Europe, china speedily sank the Chinese fleet; and the (1894-1896) Japanese army, drilled and equipped in Euro- ... ,™, pean fashion, was completely victorious over the j antiquated forces of China. All Korea was oc- cupied ; Port Arthur and Weihaiwei, on oppo- site sides of the entrance to the Gulf of Pechili, Japanese were captured ; and Peking itself was threatened. Soldier. ^^.^^ ^^^^ ^^^^..^^ ^g^^^^ through Li Hung Chang, the great viceroy and diplomat, made peace, renounc- ing its claims over Korea, paying an indemnity, opening new treaty ports, and ceding to Japan Port Arthur and the island of Formosa. 604 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION This treaty was too favorable to Japan to suit the European Powers which had their own designs upon Chinese posses- 607. Euro- sions. Russia, France, and Germany joined in forcing P®^^?°^®^^ Japan to give up her conquests on the mainland, and (1895-1900) to content herself with Formosa and an increased in- demnity. Then Germany, to obtain " satisfaction " for the murder of German missionaries, seized the port of Kiauchau, in 1897, and forced its lease from China as a coaling and naval station for ninety-nine years, with the grant to German subjects of a first right to construct railroads, open mines, etc., in the adjoining province of Shantung. Early in 1898 Russia similarly secured Port Arthur by lease for twenty-five years, thus obtaining a port on the Pacific which was free from ice the year round ; she also received a concession to build a rail- road from Port Arthur to join the Trans-Siberian railway, thus giving her a pretext to treat Chinese Manchuria as practically Russian territory. To restore a l)alance of power in the Gulf of Pechili, Great Britain leased Weihaiwei ; she also secured a grant of about two hundred square miles on the mainland oppo- site Hongkong. France seized a port (Kwang-ehau-wan), in 1898, and extorted concessions for the development of the southern provinces. One result of the war between China and Japan was the awakening of the Chinese from their sleep of centuries, and the adoption of many of the material improvements of the West. Concessions to foreigners multiplied rapidly after that war. A railroad from Peking to Tientsin was built by the gov- ernment, and arrangements were made for the construction with foreign capital of other lines thousands of miles in length. Telegraph lines were extended ; electric roads, electric lights, and telephones were introduced in the chief cities; and the principal rivers and canals were opened to Western commerce. The young emperor (Tsait'ien) seemed to favor the intro- duction of Western ways. His aunt, the empress dowager, THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST 605 opposed this, and in 1898, by a coiq) d'Mat, she resumed the power she had exercised during the emperor's minority. In 1900 occurred a widespread rising against foreigners, headed by the "Boxers," one of the many Chinese Warm secret societies. Christian missionaries and their con- ^^"^^<1900; verts were massacred, and the foreign embassies in Peking were besieged. To rescue them, a joint army was formed by the Great Powers of Europe, together with Japan and the United States, which fought its way to Peking and released the legations. The empress dowager was forced to make peace, with abject apologies, and to pay large money indemnities. .^ -y W/ll^k ^mmi* Japanese Battery at the Battle of Liao-Yang. At the time of the Boxer troubles, Russia took possession of Chinese Manchuria, under pretext of safeguarding her rail- road and other interests there, promising to evacuate it 609.Jub8o- w^hen peace should be restored. Failure so to do led to ^^^ y^^^^ long negotiations ; then came a solemn agreement (1902) (1904) to evacuate, which was broken in 1903. Instead, the Russian hold was strengthened, and a disposition was shown also to 606 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION bring Korea under Russian control. Such an extension of Russian power menaced Japanese prosperity and independ- ence; and after the failure of long diplomatic negotiations Japan resorted to war. On February 8, 1904, the Japanese surprised the Russian fleet at Port Arthur, torpedoing two battleships and two cruis- 610. Fall ®^s; and the blockade of Port Arthur "bottled up"' the rest of Port ii^ t;hat harbor. These exploits gave the Japanese the com- (Jan. 1, mand of the sea — an advantage which they thenceforth 1905) retained. Korea was occupied, and the Russians driven from the Yalu River. By May 28 the Japanese lines had been drawn across the Liao-tong peninsula, cutting off Port Arthur on the land side ; and there follow^ed a seven months' siege of that fortress, terminated on January 1, 1905, by its capitulation. Meanwhile Kuropatkin, the Russian commander, was disas- trously defeated at Liao-Yang in September, and forced to fall 611 The ^^^^ upon Mukden; and a great Russian attack in Octo- Mukden ber was repulsed. The winter was passed by both armies ^ intrenched amid snow and ice, amid conditions of great suffering, especially for the Russians, for whose supply the single-track line of the Trans-Siberian railway proved inade- quate. The arrival in the Japanese camp of the Port Arthur army, with its heavy siege guns, enabled the Japanese general, Oyama, after fifteen days' severe fighting, to drive Kuropatkin from Mukden (March 10, 1905), the Russian losses in killed, wounded, and captured numbering more than one hundred thousand. Their broken and disorganized army was then forced back toward Harbin, the junction point with the main line of the Trans-Siberian railway. The land campaign of 1905 was thus lost almost before it was begun. A second and a third Russian fleet, meanwhile, under the 612. Battle chief command of Rojestvensky, made the long voyage of Japan from the Baltic ; but the vessels were ill equipped through (May, 1905) corrupt administration, and the crews were mutinous, THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST GOT demoralized, and ill led. The fleets were annihilated (May 27-29) by the Japanese under Admiral Togo in the battle of the Sea of Japan, one of the greatest naval battles in history : without serious damage to a single Japanese ship, some nineteen vessels of the enemy were sunk or captured! Russia's naval power was thereby destroyed, and her cause was rendered hopeless. Soon after, the Japanese reoccupied the island of Sakhalin, from which Russia had driven them in 1875, and began to close in upon Vladivostok. The efforts of President Roosevelt brought about a meet- ing of representatives of the two powers at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in August, 1905, to discuss terms of peace. g^g ^^ Russia agreed to surrender Chinese Manchuria and the suits of Port Arthur railway to China, to cede its leases of the ^^® ^^' Liao-tong peninsula to Japan, to recognize the preponderance of Japan in Korea, and to grant to Japanese citizens special fishery rights on the Siberian coast. The further demands of Japan for the cession of Sakhalin Island and for the payment of an indemnity to reimburse her for the cost of the war threatened to break up the conference; but the energetic ap- peals of President Roosevelt to the two powers finally brought about a compromise on these points. Japan abandoned the claim for indemnity, but gained half of Sakhalin and all the points for which she had undertaken the war. The Russo-Japanese War was an event of very great impor- tance not only for tlie powers immediately concerned, but for China, America, and the whole world : it involved the future fate of China and the control of the Pacific, questions of vital importance to America and Australia, as well as Asia and Europe. The unexpected ability displayed by the Japanese insures for the "yellow peoples" of Asia the prospect of an independent future, parallel with that of the white races. It may prove that the recent development of China and Ja])an is Qf more importance in the world's history than any events 608 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION 614. Russia in revolu- tion (1905) months of 1905, wide- which have occurred since Greece saved Europe from Persian conquest, more than two thousand years ago. The war revealed glaringly the corruption and incompe- tence of the autocratic rule in Russia, and caused a marked revival of revolutionary movements. In the early spread industrial and politi- out, involving even stolid peas- cal assassinations and to bloody soldiers, especially at St. Peters- many towns of Poland. The new troops led to frequent out- army in the far East was reported to be full of disaffection. A serious blow came when the crew of the warship Kniaz Potemkine, the most powerful vessel of the Black Sea fleet, mutinied, slew cal disturbances broke ants, and leading to politi- repression by Cossack burg, Odessa, and in forced mobilization of breaks, and the Cossack. their officers, and for twelve days terrorized Odessa and other ports, while the crews of other war vessels re- fused to fire a shot against their comrades. Under promise of pro- tection, the mutineers (July 8) surrendered their vessel to the Roumanian government, which turned it over to Russia. The widespread disaffection and the outspoken demand of the educated classes forced the government to adopt a policy of conciliation. The separate constitution of the grand duchy of Finland, which had been practically annulled since 1899, was restored ; and the long attempt (since 1863) to force Rus- sian speech upo:j the Poles was given up. Even the demand of a constitution for Russia received attention, and on March 3^ THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 009 1905, the czar issued a rescript promising '^to convene the worthiest men possessing the confidence of the people and elected by them, to participate in the elaboration and consid- eration of legislative measures." On August 19, 1905, the long- expected decree appeared, establishing an assembly (downa) to meet for the first time in January, 1906, to be composed of representatives elected by the propertied classes, and to have the right of consultation and advice, but without independent authority in the government. Extreme liberals were disap- pointed at the slight powers conferred ; but as the czar's min- ister of finance said, "To jump from the sixteenth century to the twentieth is not easy, especially with twenty-eight unas- similated and illiterate nationalities within the empire." It is evident that the absolutism of the czars is neariug its end; but the exact nature of the government which will take its place remains undetermined. France, Russia's ally, was deterred from actively aiding Russia in the war by an alliance of England with Japan, which would become effective in case Japan were attacked by 615. France more than one power ; also troubles with Germany over ^^^et^Ten- Morocco (§ 585) tied her hands. In the twentieth cen- tury tury France occupies a place of less political importance than formerly, because of the more rapid development of the rest of Europe. Under Louis XIV. her population was forty per cent of that of the Great Powers of Europe ; in 1789 it had fallen to twenty-seven per cent ; in 1900 it was barely ten per cent. The practically stationary population of France, due to a low birth rate, is the great cause of her relative weakness. The most important event in her recent history is the end- ing of the religious concordat (§ 449) and the separation of church and state. In 1901-1904 "association laws" were passed which closed the greater number of the 16,468 religious (Catholic) establishments, and caused the -pulsion of the teaching and preaching orders of clergy. This step was fol- HARDING's M. & M. HIST. — 35 610 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION lowed in 1905 by the passage of a bill providing that after the death of the clergy now receiving pay from the state, all such state aid shall cease ; the churches and cathedrals are to belong to the state, but will be leased to the different congre- gations. Thus the separation of church and state will not be so complete as in the United States, but will be greater than ever before in French history. A recent political change of some importance is the separa- tion of Norway from Sweden. In 1814 the two countries were 616. Sepa- ^^nited under the same king (§ 474) ; but the peoples are ration of dissimilar in many ways, and dissensions shortly sprang Sweden ^ip over Norwegian demands tor a place oi equal impor- (1905) tance with Sweden on the seal of state, for a separate flag, and for a Norwegian governor over Norway. These demands, after long resistance, were granted. Then came a demand that the Norwegians be allowed to conduct their own foreign affairs. Finally, in 1905, the Norwegian Storthing (parliament) unanimously passed a bill for a separate consular service ; and when King Oscar II. vetoed it, the Storthing declared the union between the two countries dissolved — a step ratified by 368,200 votes against 184 in a plebiscite taken on August 13, 1905. King Oscar, though deeply hurt by the action of his Norwegian subjects, was disposed to let them go in peace, though a more belligerent spirit was shown by some Swedish statesmen. It seems unlikely, however, that the two nations will actually come to blows. In Europe, in the twentieth century, Russia took the first steps toward constitutional government ; France adopted radical 617. Sum- nieasures in the attempt to solve the relations of church mary and state ; Norway seceded from union with Sweden. China and Japan, after centuries of hermit seclusion, were opened to Europeans in the middle of the nineteenth century. Japan overthrew her feudalism, established a constitutional THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 611 monarchy, and rapidly assimilated western civilization, while China remained impotently hostile to the ways of "foreicru devils." War between the two nations (1894-1895) showed immeasurable superiority on the part of the Japanese, but Russia, Germany, and France intervened to rob them of the fruits of victory. A seizure of Chinese pouts by European powers then threatened the dissolution of the Chinese Empire, and contributed to the Boxer outbreak against Europeans in 1900; but the firm stand of Great Britain and the United States for the policy of the " open door," and the brilliant suc- cess of Japan in her great war with Russia (1904-1905), averted the danger. This war seriously impaired Russia's prestige, it established Japan as the dominant power of the far East, and it insured to the "yellow peoples" a position of continued independence of Europe. The events narrated in this chapter mark a great change in the center of world history. Says the French historian Rambaud, "The importance that in ancient times the Mediterranean had for mankind, and which the Atlantic possessed from the fifteenth to the nineteenth cen- tury, seems to-day to be shifting to the Pacific Ocean " TOPICS (1) What proofs are there that China possessed from ancient Suggestive days a highly developed civilization ? (2) To what class do the Chinese seen in this country usually belong ? (3) Were the West- ern powers justified in forcing China to open her ports to foreign- ers ? (4) Compare the Chinese with the Japanese. (5) How do the Japanese look upon Commodore Perry ? (6) How do you account for the rapid development of Japan since 1854 ? (7) Has the introduction of Western civilization been wholly a blessing for Japan ? (8) Did Russia, Germany, and France treat Japan justly after her war with China ? (9) Compare the Boxer rising with anti- Chinese movements in this country. (10) Was Japan in the right in going to war with Russia when and in the manner she did ? (11) Of what advantage was it to the Japanese to shut up the Rus- sian fleet at Port Arthur ? (12) Compare the siege of Port Arthur topics 612 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION Search topics with that of Sebastopol in the Crimean War. (13) What reasons can you give for the success of the Japanese ? (14) Compare the number of men engaged in Manchuria on each side with the num- bers in Napoleon's campaigns, and in our Civil War. (15) Com- pare the internal conditions in Russia at the close of the war with those in France just before the French Revolution. (1(3) What motives led to the dissolution of the religious orders in France ? (17) Was the secession of Norway from Sweden politically justifiable ? Was it expedient ? (18) Chinese contributions to civilization. (19) Teachings of Confucius. (20) Chinese " treaty ports." (21) Japanese feudal- ism. (22) Position of the Shogun. (23) Perry's expedition to Japan. (24) The constitution of Japan. (25) The war between China and Japan. (20) Russian occupation of Port Arthur. (27) Causes of the Russo-Japanese War. (28) The siege of Port Arthur. (29) Incidents of the Mukden campaign. (30) The battle of the Sea of Japan. (31) The negotiations for peace. (32) Effect of the war on Russia. (33) Separation of church and State in France. (34) Secession of Norway from Sweden. REFERENCES Year-books Periodicals Special works See the annual almanacs issued by the New York World, the New York Tribune, and other metropolitan newspapers, to be obtained for twenty-five or fifty cents. The following are more elaborate: The International Year-Book, The Annual liegister-, The Politician'' s Handbook, The Statesman''s Year-Book. Consult especially The Review of Eeviews, The Outlook, Public Opinion, etc. See Annual Literary Index, and similar publications, for guide to special articles on various topics in the general magazines. P. L, Beaulieu, The Awakening of the East : Siberia, Japan, China ; Colquhoun, Awakening of China ; Wrale, Manchu and Muscovite ; Hearn, An Interpretation of Modern Japan ; Okakura- Kakuyo', The Awakening of Japan ; A. M. Knapp, Feudal and Modern Japan ; Schierbrand, Russia, her Strength and her Weak- ness; 'RamhaAid, The Expansion of Russia ; Shoemaker, The Great Siberian Railway ; S. W. Perris, Russia in Revolution ; Asakawa, The Russo-Japanese Conflict ; T. Cowen, The Russo-Japanese War ; Seaman, From Tokio through Manchuria ; Frederic Villiers, Port Arthur, Three Months with the Besiegers, APPENDIX A BRIEF LIST OF BOOKS (These books, costing about $25.00 if purchased on a single order, form a good basis for a school library in Mediaeval and Modern History.) I. Works covering the Whole Period James Bryce, The Holy Boman Empire. Enlarged and revised edition. Macmillan. N.Y. $1.50. Victor Duruy, History of France. Translated by Mrs. M. Carey, with an introduction and a continuation to 1889 by J. F. Jamison. Crowell, N.Y. 82.00. E. F. Henderson, A Short History of Germany. 2 vols. Macmillan. $4.00. Carl Ploetz, Epitome of Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern History. Translated by W. H. Tillinghast. Houghton, Bost. ^3.00. J. H. Robinson, Headings in European History. 2 vols. Ginn, Bost. $3.00. II. Works on the Mediaeval Period G. B. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages. Scribners, N.Y. $2.50. Charles B^mont and G. Monod, Medieval Europe, 395-1270. Holt, N.Y. $1.60. Eginhard (Einhard), Charlemagne. American Book Co. $0.30. Ephraim Emerton, Mediceval Europe, 814-1300. Ginn. $1.50. ChaTles Seignobos, The Feudal Begime. Translated by E. W. Dow. Holt. $0.50. J. A. Symonds, A Short History of the Benaissance in Italy. Edited by Alfred Pearson. Holt. $1.75. III. Works on the Modern Period Walter Besant, Gaspard de Coligny. American Book Co. $0.30. August Fournier, Life of Napoleon the First. Translated under editor- ship of E. G. Bourne. Holt. $2.50. Gustav Freytag, Martin Luther. Open Court Co., Chic. $0.25. APPENDIX A Bertha M. Gardiner, The French Revolution, 1798-1795. (" Epochs.") Longmans. $1.00. Or, W. O'Connor Morris, The French Revohition and First Empire. ("Epochs.") Scribners. .$1.00. S. P.. Gardiner, The Thirty Tears' War. ("Epochs.") Longmans. $1.00. H. P. Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century. Scribners. $1.25. Richard Lodge, History of Modern Europe, 1453-1878. American Book Co. $1.50. F. W. Longman, Frederick the Great and the Seven Years'' War. (" Epochs.") Longmans. Sil.OO. T. B. Macaulay, Frederick the Great. Maynard, Merrill & Co., N.Y. $0.25. J. L. Motley, Peter the Great. Maynard, Merrill & Co. $0.25. Alison Phillips, Modern Europe, 1815-1899. ("Periods.") Mac- millan. $1.40. Frederic Seebohm, Tlie Era of the Protestant Revolution. ("Epochs.") Longmans. $1.00. OUTLINE MAPS Excellent outline maps of Europe and of France may be obtained of the Superintendent of Publications of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., at the rate of 3 for 5 cents. Series of outline maps are also pub- lished by the following firms : — American Book Company (Eclectic Map Blanks). N.Y. Atkin.son, Mentzer «fe Grover (Ivanhoe Historical Note Books). Chicago. D. C. Heath & Co. Boston. Rand, McNally & Co. Chicago. The McKinley Publishing Company. Philadelphia. APPENDIX B GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY (Titles marked with an asterisk (*) denote books especially desirable for a school library, besides those mentioned in the Brief List.) * Adams, G. B., Growth of the French Nation. N.Y. Adams, G. B., and Stephens, H. Morse, Select Documents of English Constitutional History, N.Y. Addis, W. E., and Arnold, Thomas, A Catholic Dictionary, containing Some Account of the Doctrine, Discipline, Bites, Ceremonies, Coun- cils, and Beligious Orders of the Catholic Church. Lond. * Airy, Osmond, Tlie English Bestoration and Louis XIV. ('* Epochs 'M N.Y. ^ Alzog, John, Manual of Universal Church History. 3 vols, Cincinnati. * Anderson, F. M., Constitutions and Other Documents illustrative of the History of France, 1789-1900. Minneapolis. Andrews, C. M., Historical Development of Modern Europe. N.Y. Annual Begister, The. (Issued annually since 1758.) Lond. Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia. (Issued annually, 1861-1884.) N.Y. Archer, T. A., The Crusade of Bichard I. ("English History from Contemporary Writers.") N.Y. * Archer, T. A., and Kingsford, C. L., The Crusades. ("Nations.") N.Y, Armstrong, Edward, The Emperor Charles V. 2 vols. N.Y. Asakawa, K., The Busso- Japanese Conflict. Bost. Ashley, W. J., Edward lU. and his Wars. ("English History from Contemporary Writers.") N.Y. * Aucassin and JVicolette. (A twelfth-century tale.) Portland, Me. Bain, R. N., Charles XII. (" Heroes.") N.Y. Bain, R. N., Scandinavia. ("Cambridge Historical Series.") N.Y. Haird, H. M., Bise of the Huguenots of France. 2 vols. N.Y. * Balzani, Ue:o, Tfie Popes and the Hohenstaufen. ("Epochs of Church History.") N.Y. * Beard, Charles, Martin Luther and the Beformation in Germany until the Close of the Diet of Worms. Lond. Beaulieu, P. L., The Awakening of the East: Siberia, Japan, China. N.Y. Beesly, E. S., Q7ieen Elizabeth. (" English Statesmen.") N."!. Beesly, A. H,, Life of Danton. N.Y. Belloc, H., Danton. N.Y. Belloc, H., Bobespierre. N.Y. Bismarck, Otto von, Beflections and Beminiscences. 2 vols. N.Y. Bismarck's Table Talk. Edited by Charles Lowe. N.Y. iii iv APPENDIX B Bourrienne, A. F. de, Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte. 4 vols. N.Y. * Boutell, Charles, Arms and Armour in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Translated from the P>ench of M. P. Lacombe. Lond. * Boyesen, H. H., Norway. ("Nations.") N.Y. Boyle, G. D., Characters and Episodes of the Great Bebellion, selected from the History and Autobiography of Edward, Earl of Clarendon. Oxf. Bright, J. F., History of England. 5 vols. N.Y. * Bright, J. F., Maria Tlieresa. ("Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y. * Bright, J. F., Joseph II. (" Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y. Bulfinch, Thomas, Charlemagne, or Romance of the Middle Ages. Edited by A. R. Marsh. Bost. Burckhardt, Jacob, The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy. N.Y. Busch, Moritz, Bismarck : Some Secret Pages of his History. 2 vols. N.Y. Butler, A. J., Bismarck, the Man and the Statesman. * Butler, Isabel (translator). The Song of Roland. Translated into p]nglish prose. (" Riverside Literature Series.") Bost. Cambridge Modern History. (Planned by Lord Acton, and written by associated scholars.) 8 vols. N.Y. Carlyle, Thomas, The French Revolution. Edited by J. H. Rose. 3 vols. N.Y. Carlyle, Thomas, History of Friedrich II. of Prussia, called Frederick the Great. 6 vols. Lond. Cellini, Benvenuto, Life of [autobiography]. (Translated by J. A. Sy- monds.) N.Y. * Cesaresco, Countess E. M., The Liberation of Italy, 1815-1870. N.Y. Cesaresco, Countess E. M., Cavour. (" Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y. * Cheyney, Edward P., Industrial and Social History of England. N.Y. * Chronicles of the Crusades. (" Bohn.") N.Y. Church, A. J., The Beginning of the Middle Ages. ("Epochs.") N.Y. Colby, C. W., Selections from the Sources of English History. N.Y. Commines, Philip de. Memoirs, containing the Histories of Louis XI. and Charles VIII., Kings of France, and Charles the Bold, Duke of Bur- gundy. ("Bohn.") 2 vols. N.Y. Compayre, Gabriel, Abelard. N.Y. * Cornish, F. AV., Chivalry. N.Y. Coubertin, Pierre de, France since 1814. N.Y. Coubertin, Pierre de. Evolution of France under the Third Republic. N.Y. Cowen, T., The Russo-Japanese War. Lond. *Cox,G.W., The Crusades. ("Epochs.") N.Y. Creighton, Mandell (Bishop), History of the Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome. 6 vols. N.Y. Creighton, Mandell, Elizabeth. N.Y. ^ Cr&\ghton, M?i\\Oie\\. The Age of Elizabeth. ("Epochs.") N.Y. Creighton, Louise, The Duke of Marlborough. N.Y. Cunningham, William, Growth of English Industry and Commerce. 2 vols. N.Y. * Cutts, E. L., Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages. Lond. Cutts, E. L., Turning Points of General Church History. Lond. * Dabney, R. H., The Causes of the French Revolution. N.Y. Dollinger, J. J. I., Studies in European History. Lond. Dollinger, J. J, I., Fables respecting the Popes of the Middle Ages. N.Y. *Dow, E. W., Atlas of European History. N.Y. GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY y ^"""^i^^^-^if^.^'i^^^ ^''^''^' ^■^^^^^^'^^'^^^^"^ Original Sources, * Duruy, Victor, History of the Middle Ages. N.Y *Duruy, Victor, History of Modern Times. N.Y. * Einerton, Ephraim, Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages. *Emerton, Ephraim, Desiderius Erasmus. ("Heroes of the Reforma- Field, Lillian G. H. An Introduction to the Study of the Renaissance Loud. " Finlay, George, A History of Greece from its Conquest by the Romans to the PresentTime, B.C. 146 to A.D. 1846. 7 vols. Oxf. * Fisher, G. P., History of the Christian Church. N.Y. * Fisher, G. P., History of the Reformation. N.Y. Fisher, G.P., Outlines of Universal History. N.Y. Fisher, Herbert, The Mediceval Emjnre. 2 vols. N.Y. Fletcher, C. R. L., Gustavus Adolphus. ("Heroes.") N.Y. Fraze'r, N. L., English History, illustrated from the Original Sources, 1307-1399. Lond. Freeman, E. A., Historical Essays. 3 vols. N.Y. Freeman, E. A., History and Conquests of the Saracens. N.Y. * Froissart, Chronicles. (G. C. Macaulay's edition of Berner'.s transla- tion.) N.Y. * Froissart, The Boy'' s Froissart. Edited by Sidney Lanier. N.Y. Froude, J. A., Life and Letters of Erasmus. N.Y. Froude, J. A., Lord Beaconsjield. ("Prime Ministers.") Lond. * Fyffe, C. A., History of Modern Europe. (Popnlar edition.) N.Y. * Gardiner, S. R., School Atlas of English History. N.Y. * Gardiner, S, R., StudenVs History of Erigland. N.Y. G?ivdih\QV,^.B.., Puritan Revolution. ("Epochs.") N.Y. Gardiner, S. R., Oliver Cromwell. N.Y. Gardner, E. G., Z>«w«e. ("Temple Primers.") N.Y. Garibaldi, Giuseppi, Autobiograjjhy. 3 vols. Lond. Gasquet, G. A., The Great Pestilence. Lond. *Gautier, L^on, Chivalry. Lond. George, H. B., Battles of English History. Lond. * Gibbins, H. de B., History of Commerce in Europe. N.Y. Gibbon, Edward, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Edited by J. B. Biiry. 7 vols. Lond. Gilman, Arthnr, 37ie >Sarace us. ("Nations.") N.Y. Gindely, Anton, History of the Thirty Years' War. 2 vols. N.Y. Goodyear, W. H., Renaissance and Modern Arf^. N.Y. * Grant, Sir A., The French 3Ionarchy, 1483-1789. ("Cambridge Historical Series.") 2 vols. N.Y. Green, J. R., Short History of the English People. N.\ . Green, J. R. , History of the English People. 4 vols. N. \ . Green, W. D., William Pitt, Earl of Chatham. (" Heroes. ) N.Y. *(^rms,W.¥.., Brave Little Holland. Bost. * Guizot, F. P. G., Popular History of France. 8 vols Lond. Guizot, F. P. G., History of Civilization. 4 vols. ('' Bolm ) N.Y. Hale, E. E., and Hale, Susar., 7%e>S'«or?/o/.9pa^n. (''Nations. ) N.Y. Hale, Edward, The Fall of the Stuarts. ("Epochs. ) ^.Y^^ „ * Harrison, Frederic. William the Silent. (- Foreign Statesmen > N.Y. Harrison, Frederic, Oliver Cromwell. (" English Statesmen. ) N.X. vi APPENDIX B * HaasaW, Anhm\ The French People. (" Great Peoples.") N.Y. H assail, Arthur, JIazarin. (•• Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y. *Hassall, Arthur, Zoias AVr. ("Heroes.") N.Y. Haiisser, Ludwig, The Period of the Reformation, 1517-1648. N.Y. Headlam, J. W.^ 5Lsm«rc^. ("Heroes.") N.Y. * Headlam, J. \V., Foundation of the German Empire, 1815-1871. ("Cambridge Historical Series.") N.Y. * Henderson, E. F., Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages. N.Y. Henderson, E. F., History of Germany in the Middle Ages. N.Y. Historians' History of the World. 25 vols. N.Y. * Hodgkin, Thomas, Charles the Great. ("Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y. Hug, Lena, and Stead, Richard, Switzerland. ("Nations.") N.Y. Hughes, Thomas, Loyola and the Educational System of the Jesuits. N.Y. *Huine, M. A. S., The Simiii.^h People. ("Great Peoples.") N.Y. Hume, M. A. S., Spain, Its Greatness and Decay. ("Cambridge His- to7'ir*?il S>PTip^ "^ ^J^ i^ Bnme, M. A. S., Philip n. (" Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y. * Hutton, W. H., Philip Augustus. (" Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y. International Yearbo'ok, The. (Issued annually since 1898.) N.Y. Jackson, S. M., Iluldreich Zwingli. ("Heroes of the Reformation.") N.Y. Jacobs, H E., Martin Luther. (" Heroes of the Reformation.") N.Y. Janssen, J., History of the German People at the Close of the Middle Ages. 7 vols. St. Louis. Jenks, Edward, History of the Australasian Colonies. ("Cambridge Historical Series.") N.Y. Jessopp, Augustus, The Coming of the Friars, and Other Historic Essy%ys. N.Y. * Johnson, A. H., Europe in the Sixteenth Century^ 1494-1598. ("Pe- riods.") N.Y. Johnston, H. H., A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races. ("Cambridge Historical Series.") N.Y. * Johnston, R. M., Xapoleon, A Short Biography. N.Y. Joinville, Jean, Sieur de, Memoir of Louis IX. In Chronicles of the Crusades. ("Bohn.") N.Y. * Jones, Guernsey, Studies in European History : Civilization in the Middle Ages. Chic. Keary, C. F., The Vikings in Western Christendom. N.Y. Kin"-, Bolton, History of Italian Unity. 2 vols. N.Y. Kirk. J. F., Charles the Bold. 3 vols. Phila. Kitch'm, G. W., History of France. 3 vols. Oxf. Knapp, Arthur M., Feudal and Modern Japan. Bost. * Kostlin, Julius. Life of Luther. N.Y. Kugler, Francis, Frederick the Great. Lond. Lacroix, Paul, Manners, Customs, and Dress during the 3Iiddle Ages. Lond. Lacroix, Paul, Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages. Lond. Lane-Poole, Stanley, . Addison, Joseph, 428. AMolf of Nassau, 246. AMrian IV., Pope, 152. Adrian VI., Pope, 306. Ad-ri-an-o'ple, conquered by Turks, 260. treaty of (1829), 505. Af-gAan-is-tiin', 118, 595. Africa, partition of, 583-586. Agincourt (a-zhax-koor'), battle of, 239. Agrarian crimes in Ireland. 563. Agriculture, mediaeval, 178, 179. Black Death affects, 233. Crusades influence, 142. Mohammedan, 117. monks influence, 87, 89, Aids, feudal, 56. Aix-la-Cha-pel^«', and Charlemagne, 39-41 . Congress of (1818), 500. peace of (1668). 351. peace of (1748), 407, 418. Al'aric, 21. Alba'nia, 580. Albert I. (of Austria), Emperor, 247. Albert II., Emperor, 258. Albigen'se§, 216,217,219. Al'cuin (-kwTn),38. Alexander I. of Russia, 476, 480, 481, 500. Alexander II. of Russia, 532, 594. Alexander III. of Russia, 595. Alexander III., Pope, 15.3, 154, 165. Alexander V., Pope, 267. Alexander VI., Pope, 270, 271. Alexandria, bombarded, 582. Alex'ius Comne'nus, 114, 120, 123. Alfonso X., of Castile, 246. Alfonso XII., of Spain, 592, 598. Alfonso XIII., of Spain. 593. A^red the Great; of England. 193. Alge'ria, annexed to France, 506, 507. Al-gier§', taken by France, 506. Allodial estates, 52, 55. Alps, 16, 17, 14. A Usage', 388, 548. Al'va, Duke of, 327. Am-a-de'us I. of Spain. 592. A-marfi, early commerce of, 186. Ambov'na, massacre at. 418. American colonies, 869, 4U--418, 420. 421 , 425. American Independence, War of, 426. Amiens (a-me-ax'), cathedral, 9(t. treaty of, 468. Am'sterdam, attacked by Louis XIV., 858. A-mur' River, 596. Anagni (a-nJin'ye), Pope seized at, 228. A -nam', acquired by France, 602. Anath'ema, 81. An'gevin kings of England, 200. Angles, 21, 191. Anglicans, 874. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 198. Anjou (aN-zhoo'), Charles of, 1 Annals, 19, 87. Anne of Austria, queen of France, 848, 34i Anne of Beaiijean (France). 255. Anne of England. 887, 388. An'ti-0€A, in Crusades, 128-126, 129. Ant'werp, commerce of. 1S6, 824. Spaniards in, 828, 329. Ap'en-nlnf§, 17. 169, 221. XI Xll INDEX Aqui'nas, Thomas, 94. Aquitaine', 49, 200, 204, 218, 237, 242. Aquita'nians, 32, 71. A-rii'bi, 5S2. Ai-'abs, 23, 116, 117, 118. Av'agon, 162, 221, 256. Are^-an 'gel, 395. Archbishops, 81-83, 86. Archdeacon, 81. Architecture. 89-91, 275. Arcot', siege of, 419. A'rian Christians, 22, 84. Ar 'is to tie, 94, 118, 276. Arkwright, Richard, 496. Aries, 49 ; see Burgundy. Arma'da, Spanish, 319. Armagnacs (ar-inan-yak'), 239, 240. Armed Neutrality of the North, 425. Armed peace, 581. Arme'nia, massacres in, 581. Armin'ians, 330, 371. Arms and armor, 57, 58, 117, 197, 280, 231, 277, 314, 333, 349, 540, 545, 581. influence of Crusades on, 140. Army, feudal, 58. Franks', 52. in Thirty Years' War, 338, 336. under Louis XI Y., 349. Arn(?t, Ernst Moritz, 483. Arnold, abbot of Citeaux, 216, 217. Arnold of Brescia, 152. Ar'nulf, 49. Arques (ark), chateau of, 171, 172. Art, 91, 275, 276, 341, 364. Artois (ar-twii'), 239. Aryan peoples, 13. Asca'nian house, 157. Assembly, in French Revolution, 441-448. later, 501, 516-519, 587. Assembly of Notables, 440. Assignats (a-se-n}'^'), 444. Astrakhan', 392. " As'trolabe, introduction of, 277. Astronomy, 276. At'abek, 131. At'tila, 22. Augs'burg, commerce of, 186. Confession, 295. League, 356. peace of, 296. population in Thirty Years' "War, 888. Augus'tus II. of Saxony, 396-398. Aus'terUtz, battle of. 475. Australia, 568, 569, 575. Austria, beginnings of, 65, 152, 246, 259. Bohemia and, 298, 522. France and (1756), 413; (1792-1801), 446, 450, 455, 462, 463, 466, 467 ; (1805-1814), 475, 476, 479, 483, 484. Hapsburgs acquire, 246. Austria, Hungary and, 298, 522, 524, 542, 594. Italy and, 361, 362, 413, 490; (1820-1867), 504, 510, 520, 521, 533-536, 541. Napoleon and, 462, 463, 467, 475, 476, 479, 483, 484. Poland and, 412, 413, 423, 424. Prussia and (1740-1763), 405-407, 418-416, 421 ; (1866), 540, 541. Quadruple Alliance, 499. races in, 521-523, 594. revolution of 1848 in, 521-524. Seven Years' War, 413-416, 421. since 1867, 580, 581, 586, 594. Turkey and, 423, 580. Austria-Hungary, 542, 580, 581, 586, 594. Austrian Empire (1804-1867), 477, 490, 526, 542. Austrian Succession, War of, 405-407. Autun (o-tuN*), 54. Auxerre (6-sar'), 54. A'vars, 32, 63. Avignon (a-ven-yoN'), 208, 224, 264,265, 294. A'zof, 394, 398. A-zor(.'§', discovery of, 257. Babylonian Captivity, 224, 264. Bfi'den, 502, 541. Big-dad', 116, 118. Balaklii'va, battle of, 582. Balance of power, 358. Baldwin of Flanders, 188. Bal'four, Arthur J., 571. Bal-kiin' states, 578-581. Bank of England, 491. Baptism, 79. Bar'di', commercial company, 187. Barebone's Parliament, 879. Ba'ri, captured by Normans, 78. Bar'ne-velf7t, Jan van Olden, 829, 880. Barons, in England, 198, 205, 206. Barry (ba-nV), Madame dii, 412. Ba'sel, CouncU of, 269, 270. peace of (1795), 455. , -* Basques (bisks), 71. Bas-til^e', destruction of, 442, 448. Bata'vian Republic, 455, 476. Bava'ria, and Charlemagne, 82, 85. Austrian Succession War, 405, 406. early history, 65, 148, 152, 157. Napoleon and, 477. since 1815, 502, 541, 547. Spanish Succession War, .360. Thirty Years' War, 332, 336, 838. Ba-y6n«e', English possession, 288. Bii-zaine', General, 545. Bea'consfield, Earl of (Disraeli), 557, 561. Beaucaire (bo-kar'), fairs at, 187. Beaumarchais (bo-mar-sha'), 429. Beauvais (bo-va'), bishop of, 242. Becket, Thomas a, 201. INDEX Xlll Bedford, Duke of, 240, 242. " Beggars" of Netherlands, 326, 327. Belfry, 181, 182. Belgium, and France, 448, 463. since 1815, 490, 509, 584. See aim Netherlands. Belisa'rius, 22. Ben 'edict, Saint, 86. Benedict XIII., Avignon Pope, 266-268, 294. Ben-e-dic'tine monks, 87, 88, 89. Ben'e-fife, 51-53. Benefit of clergy, 78. Beneven'to, battle of, 167. Bengal', 419, 420. Ber-e-§"i'na River, Napoleon at, 482. Ber'ganio, in Lombard League, 155. Ber'gen, Hanseatic station in, 188. Berlin, burning of, 415. conference (1884-1885), 584. Congress (1878), 5S0. decree, 477. Napoleon takes, 476. peace of (1742), 405. population in Thirty Years' War, 838. lievolution of 1848, 525. Bern, joins Swiss Confederation, 249. Her-na-d«)t^e', 478. Jiernard, Saint, 89, 92, 131. Ber-nis', quoted, 421. Ber-ri', Charles of, 251. Berri, Duke of, 501. Bill of Eights, 385. Bir'ming-7tam, 556. Bishops, 80-83, 86, 94, 95, 306. investiture question, 104-108. Bis'marck, Otto von, 538-544, 548, 580, 581, 590-592. Black Death, 232-234. Black Prince, 231, 234, 235, 237. Black Sea, closed, 532, 579, BlaNC, Louis, 517. Blanche of Castile, 219. Blen'/icim, battle of, 360. Bloody Aspize, 383. Blii'cher (-Ker), Marshal, 486. Boc-ca'ccio (-cho), 274. Rper Wars, 570, 571. Bohemia, and Austria, 298, 522. early history, 63, 66, 247, 248. electorate, 248. Hussite revolt in, 258, 268, 269. Preformation in, 301, 831, 332. revolution of 1848, 522. Thirty Years' War, 831, 332, 336. Bo'he-mond, 122. Bohmerwald (be'mer-valt), 17. Bo-KAJi'ra, 595. Bol'^yn, Anne, 314, 315. Bologna (bo-lon ya), 92, 149, 155. Bom-bay', 418. Bo 'na- parte, Jerome, 477. Bonaparte, Joseph, 477, 478, 479. Bonaparte, Louis, 476. Bonaparte, Napoleon, see Napoleon Bon'i-face VIII., Pope, 169, 222. Bor-deaux' (-do), 238, 242. Bor'g/a, C*sar, 271, 272. Borodi'no, battle of, 4S1. Boroughs, in England, 556. Bog'nia, 260, 580. Bo§'well, James, 428. Bog' worth, battle of, 256. Bothwell, Earl of, 818. B(m-laN-ger' (-zhfi'), 589. Bg-w-lo^^nc', Napoleon at, 474. Bo?^r'bon, house of, 311, 484, 485, 490. Neapolitan, 413, 536. Spanish, 358, 859, 413. Bourgeois (boor-zhwa'). Bourgeoisie (boor- zhwii-zG'), 508, 518, 527. Bourges (boorzh), French court at, 240. Boti- vines', battle of, 163, 204, 214. Boycott, 563. Boyne, battle of the, 386. Bragan'za, house of, 341. Bramiin'te, 275. Bran 'den-burg, 65, 248, 400, 401. in Thirty Years' War, 334, 835, 338. See Prussia. BreT'ten-feld (-felt), battle of, 835 Brem'en, 187, 547. Brenner pass, 17, 186. Brescia (bra'shfi-ji), Arnold of, 152. Bretigny (bre-ten-yi'), treaty of, 237. Bretons (brit'unz), 32, 71. Bri-en«e', Napoleon at, 460. Bright, John, 560. Brill, capture of, 327. British, aee Great Britain. Britons, Celtic, destruction of, 191. Brittany, relations to France, 254. Browning, Robert, 572. Bruce, David, 229. Bru'geg, 182, 186, 188. Brung'wick, duchy of, 157, 547. Brussels, 325, 509. Buck'ing-Aam, Duke of, 370-372. Bu'da, taken by Turks, 295. Buenos Ayres (bo'nus a'riz), 504. Bul-ga'ri-a, 27, 114, 260, 579, 580. Bun'des-riitA of German Empire, 5S9, 590. Bunyan, John, 382. BurfirA'ley, Lord, 316. Burgun'dian party, in France, 239, 240, 242. Burgundians, 21, 35. Bur'gundy, Charles of, 251-254, 262. Burgundy, duchy seized by king, 254. dukes of, 238-242, 251-254. kingdom of, 49, 99. Burke, Edmund, 449. XIV INDEX Burns, Robert, 428, 572. Byron, Lord, 505, 572. By-zan'tine architecture, 89. Byzantine Empire, see Eastern Empire. Cabinet government in England, 3S7, 388. Cabochiens (ka-bo-shi-aN'), 239. Ca'diz, Drake at, 319. Crti'ro, 116, 117. Ca-lais', 232, 237, 242, 316. Oalcut'ta, 418, 420. Cal'der-on, 341. Calendar, 19, 20. French revolutionary, 451, 452. Ca'liphs, 24. Calix'tus III., Pope, 270. Cal'mar, Union of, 334. Cal'vin, John, 304, 305, 302. Cal'vinism, 305. Cam'perdown, battle of, 464. Cam'po For'mi-o, treaty of, 463. Canada, 350, 420, 568, 569. Canning, George, 504, 505. Cannon, 232, 242, 277. Canon law, 78, 150. Cahons (clergy), 81. Canos'sa, Henry IV. at, 105, 106. Canterbury, 8^3. Canton', opened to British trade, 602. Ca-nute', 195, 196. Cape Colony (Cape of Good Hope), 490, 565, 570. Ca'pet, Hugh, 71, 211, 212. Ca-pe'tian (-shan) kings, 211, 311. Capit'ularies, 19, 35, 36, 38, 51. Cap 'pel, battle of, 304. Carbona'ri, 502, 513, 535, 543. Cardinals, 84, 102. Car'is-brooke Castle, 377. Carlists, in Spain, 592. Carnoi', Lazare, 451, 466. Carnot, Sa-di', 589. Carolin'gian Empire, 32-50. Carolingians, 25, 82-50, 42, 44, 70, 71. Car-ro'ccio (-cho), 155. Carthu'sian (zhan) monks, 89. Cartwright, Edmund, 496. Castile' and Leon, 256, 237. Castles, 171, 172, 174, 175, 50, 200, 365. Cath'a-ri, 216. Cathedrals, 81, 182. Catherine of Aragon, 314. Catherine of France, 240. Catherine de' Mg'di-ci (-che), 309, 310. Catherine H. of Russia, 399, 416, 423, 426. Catholic Association in Ireland, 555. Catholic League in France, 310-312. Catholic League of Germany, 331. Catholics, see Reformation, Church. Pope. in England, 314-318, 369, 382, 383, 555. Cavaignac (ka-van-y&k'). General, 518. Cav-a-l*or' Parliament, 881. Cavaliers, 874. Ca-vfwr', Count, 520, 534-537. Celibacy of the clergy, 78, 98, 99, 269. Celtic Church, 191. Celts, 13. Cervan'teg, 341. Ce-ven»es', 17. Cei/-16n', 468, 490. Chamber of Deputies, French, 587, 588. Cham'bei'-lrtin, Joseph, 563, 571. Chambers of Reunion, 356. Chambord (shiiN-bor'), Count of, 587. Qham-pa^n*'', Count of, 54. Champ (shiix) de Mars, 445. Chapter, cathedral, 81. "Charis'mians, 139. (^har'le-mfi^'ne, 32-42. - descendants of, 44. Charles IV., Emperor (Charles of Bohemia), 248, 257. Charles V., Emperor, 290-292, 294-299, 325. Charles VI., Emperor (Charles of Austria), 359, 360, 404. Charles VII., Emperor, 405, 406. Charles of Anjou, 16S. 169, 221. Charles I. of England, 37('-37S, 334. Charles II. of England. 8TS, 380-383, 353. Charles IV. of France, 224. Charles V. of France, 237, 238. as I)au[)hin, 235-287. Charles VI. of France, 238, 240. Charles VII. of France, 240-243, 251. Charles VIII. of France, 254, 255. Charles IX. of France, 809, 310. Charles X. of France. 506-508. Charles I. of Spain (Charles V., Emperor), 290-292, 294-299, 325. Charles II. of Spain, 357-359. Charles III. of Spain, 426. Charles XII. of Sweden, 89^-398. Charles Albert of Sardinia, 520, 521. Charles Martel', 24, 26, 52. Charles the Bald, of France, 45, 46. Charles the Bold, of Burgundy, 251-254, 262. Charles the Fat. Emperor, 48, 49. Charles the Simple, of France, 48, 49. Charter, Great, 205, 206. Charter of Henry I. of England, 199. Charters, town, 180, 181. Chassepots (shas-po'), 545. Chateau Gaillard (sha-to ga-yar'), 172, 214. ChatVtam, Earl of, 417, 420. Chaucer, Geoffrey, 274. China, 599-605, 118, 596. ghivalry, 178, 174. Cho-tu'gitz (K0-), battle of. 405. Christian IV. of Denmark, 333, 834. Christianity in 800, 27, 28. INDEX XV Christianity, spread of, 62, 75. Hee Church, etc. Chronicles, 19. Church, mediseval, 77-96. buildings, S9-91, 182, 215, 275. councils, 84, 264-270. Eastern and Western, 109, 78, 84, 261. feudalism and, 51, 58. reform in, 9S-10S, 268, 269, 271, 306, 307; see Reformation. services and worship, 91, 92. See Pope, Keformation, etc. Church, modern Cathohc, 306, 545, 591. France and, 354, 453, 468, 609. Germany and, 590, 591. See Pope. Cisal'pine Republic, 463, 474. Cister'cian (-shan) monks, 89. Citeaux (se-to'), 89. Cities or towns, mediaeval, life in, 180-189. in France, 180-1 S3, 214, 215. inGerman}^ 158, 186-188. in Italy, 149, 158-156, 186. Civil law, 149, 150. Civil War, in England, 374-378. Clair-vaux' (-vo'), monastery, 89. Clarksonj^homas, 558. Clement VII., Avignon Pope, 265, 294. Clement VII., Pope, 294, 314. Clergy, 77-88, 86, 92, 94, 95, 306. celibacy of, 78, 98, 99, 269. feudalism and, 52-55. investiture of bishops, 104-108. Ole'ri-cU Ld'i-cos, I'i'i. Clerks (clergy), 78. Cler'mont, council of, 120. Clermont, steamboat, 499. Cleve§, acquired by Prussia, 400. Climate of Europe, 12, 13, 16. Clive, Robert, 419, 568. Clo'vis, 25. Cluny (klu-ne'), order of, 88, 89, 94, 95. Cobden, Richard, 560. N^o'chin China, 602. aode Najioleon (na-po-la-dN*), 469. Col-ber/,', 349, 350. Col'et, John, 279. Coligny (ko-len-ye'), Gas-part?' de, 809, 810. Co-l6£^ne', 187, 248. Colonies, of Belgium, 584. of England, 369 ; see Great Britain. of France, 414, 41C-422, 565, 584, 602, 604. of Germany, 584, 604. of Great Britain, 414, 416-421, 425, 426, 565- 571, 584, 602, 604. of Italy, 584. of Portugal, 584. of Spain, 420, 421, 504, 584, 598. Columbus, Christopher, and Spain, 257. Comets in Middle Ages, 189. Commendation, 51. Commerce, and colonies, 422. Crusades influence, 141. early routes of, 184-186. • East Indian, 418. nu'diieval, 183-188. Mohammedan, 117. Napoleon and, 477-479. Netherlands, 324, 3.52. Committee of Public Safety, 451-45.'). Commons, House of, 207, .'i64. contest with king, 368-380. represi ntation in, 55.5-5.57. Commonwealth, English, 378, 379. Commune of Paris, .548, 549, Communes, of France, 181. Communes, of Italy, 148, 149, 1.53-156. Compass, mnriner's, introduction of, '^"7. Compurgation, 195, 208. Concert of the Powers, 577, 57s, 586. Concor'dat, Napoleon's, 468, 609. of Worms, 108. Concordats of 1418, 268. CoN-de', Louis I. of, 309. Conde, Louis II. of, 337, 348. Confederation of the Rhine, 477. Confu'cius (she-us), .599. Conrad I. of Germany, 65. Conrad II., 99. Conrad III., 132, 145-148. Conrad IV., 167. Con'ra-din, 167, 168. Conservatives, in Great Britain, 557, 56(Vo6.5, 571, 572. Con'stance, Council of, 267, 268. treaty of (1183), 156. Constance of Sicily, 158, 164. Con' Stan-tine the Great, 20, 21, 86. Constantine Pa-laB-ol'o-gus, 261. Constantinople, 116, 136, 137, 139, 261. Consubstantiation, 303. Consulate, French, 467. Continental System, Napoleon's, 477-479, Conven'ticle Act, of England, 3S1. Convention, National, of France, 447-466. Convention Parliament, of England, 380. Cook, Captain James, .568. Copenha'gen, bombardment of, 478. Coper'nicus, 276. Cor-day', Charlotte. 448. Cor'dova, 116, 117, 23. CoT-n^iUe', 364. Corn Laws, British, 560, 561. Cornwall, Richard, Duke of, 246. Corporation Act, of England, 381. Cor'sica, annexed to France, 460. Cor-vse.v', 437, 440. Cos 'sacks, 608. Costume, see Dress. Council of Blood, in Netherlands, 827. XVI INDEX Councils of the Church, 84, 264-270. Count, 36, 53, 55, 65. Count Pal'atine, elector, 248, 332, 388. Counter Reformation, 306, 307, 332. Countess Matilda of Tuscany, 105. Coup d'g-ta^', of Napoleon III., 519. Cowr-trai', battle of, 222. Cranmer, Thomas, Archbishop, 314, 815, 316. Crecy (cra-se'), battle of, 280-232. Crete, independence of, 580. Cri-me'a, acquired by Russia, 423. Cri-me'an War, 530-532. Criminal law in Great Britain, 557. Oris 'pi, 593. Cro'ats in Austrian Empire, 522, 523. Crompton, Samuel, 496. Cromwell, Oliver, 875-880. Cromwell, Richard, 880. Cromwell, Thomas, 315. Crossbowmen, 230. Crown colonies of Great Britain, 569. Crusades, 119-143. causes of, 119, 120. First Crusade, 120-127. Second Crusade, 131, 182. Third Crusade, 183-135. Fourth Crusade, 185-139. later crusades, 189, 140. results of, 140-143. Albigensian crusade, 216, 217. Cuba, American intervention in, 598. Cum'berland, Ernest, Duke of, 559. Cures (ku-ra'), 485. Curfew, 182. Custozza (koos-tod'za), battle of, 520. Cy'prus, and crusaders, 131, 134, 140. Great Britain acquires, 580. Czechs (cheks), rebellions of, 258, 522. D'Ailly (da-yc'), Pierre, 266. Dai'mi-os, 602. Damas'cus, 116, 117, 132. Dam-i-et'ta, and crusaders, 139, 140, 220. Dam'p^er, William, 568. Diin'do-lo, 186, 189. Dane'law, 198, 48. Danes (Northmen), 193, 195 ; see Northmen. Dan'te, 274. Dan 'ton, 447,448,458. Dan'iibe, open to navigation, 532. Danzig- (dan'tsiK), 187. Dark Age, 11. Darnley, Lord, 318. Darwin, Charles Robert, 550. Dau'phin, 285. Dauphine (do-fe-na'), 285. Declaration of the Rights of Man, French, 444. Declarations of Indulgence, English, 382, 383. De-cre'tum Gra-ti-a'ni, 150. De-foe', Daniel, 428. Delegations, in Austria-Hungary, 594. De-mesne', 177. Denmark, early history, 28, 75, 162, 188, Napoleonic war, 478. Prussia and, 526, 540. Reformation in, 802. Sweden and, 884, 896. Thirty Years' War, 833. De Rwy'ter, 353, De-si-de'ri-us, Lombard king, 33, Deutscher Bund (doich'er boont), 502. Devolution, War of, 351. De Witt (vit), Jan, 352, 353. Dextra'rius, 58. Diaz (de'as), Bartholomew, 257. Di-dero^', Denis, 429, 439. Diet, of Roncaglia, 158. Di-nar'ic Alps, 17. Di'o-ce-ses, 80-82. Di-o-cle'tlan (-shan), 20. Diplomacy, Byzantine, 115. Directory, French, 455, 456, 461, 468-467. Dispensing power, in England, 888, 885. Dig-rae'Ii, Benjamin, 557, 561. Dissenters, in England, 883, 386, 555. Z>nies'ter River, 423. Doge of Venice, 136. Domeg'day Book, 199. Dom'inic, Saint, 217. Domin'icans, 217-219. Donation of Constantine, 85, 86, 277. Don'jon, 171, 172. Dordo{/ne' River, 852. Dort, synod at, 330. Dra-gon-nad€«', 355. Drake, Sir Francis, 319. Drama, origin of, 92. Dreg'den, battle of, 483. peace of, 406. Dress, 41, 176, 365, 881, 414. Drey-fus' Affau-, 589. Dual Alliance, 582. Dubois (di\-bwa'). Abbe, 411. DuGuesclin (ga-klaN'), Ber-traN(«', 238. Duke, 55, 65, 147. Dunbar', battle of, 878. Dun'stan, 194. Dii-pleJa;', in India, 418, 419. Du-quesne' (-kan'). Fort, 418. Dutch, see Holland. Dyeing, in Middle Ages, 176. Ertl'dormen, 194. Earls, 196. East India Company, English, 418-420, I 570. Eastern Church, 109, 78, 94, 261. Eastern Empire, 22-25, 27, 75, 114-116. crusaders and, 120, 128, 136-189, fall of, 260. 261. INDEX XVll Eastern Question, 423, 530, 579-581. Eastern Eoi/-ine'Ii-a, 580. ^chevins (ush-vaN'), 181. Eck, Dr. John, 289. Ecumen'ical councils, 84, 264-270. E-des'sa, 129, 131. Edgar of England, 194. Edward I. of England, 206, 207, 223, 140. Edward II., 208. Edward III., 208, 225, 229-232, 237. Edward IV., 255. Edward VI., 315. Edward VII., 572. Edward the Confessor, 196, 197. Egbert, king of Wessex, 193. Eg'mont, Count of, 326, 327. Egypt, 132, 139, 140. Napoleon's campaign in, 464-466, 468. since 1799, 582, 58:3. Einhard (In 'hart), or Eginhard, 34, 40. ^is'le-ben, 287. Elba, 474, 484, 485. Elbe River, 18. Eleanor of Aquitaine, 213. Electors of Empire, 248, 259, 332, 338, 388. El'i-ot, Sir John, 378. Elizabeth of England, 316-320, 329, 368. Elizabeth of Russia, 399. E-mi-gre'«', 444-446, 506. Emperor, election of, 151, 247, 248, 259, 332, 338, 388. Napoleon cheapens title, 471. Pope and, see Pope. weakness of, 258, 259. See Holy Roman Empire, and names of emperors. Encyclop&die (ax-se-kld-pa-de'), 489. Enghein (aN-gyaN), Duke of, 470. England (449-1509), 191-209, 229-244, 255, 256 ; (1509-1707), 313-320, 368-387 ; (since 1707). see Great Britain. Black Death in, 233. Civil War in, 374-378. colonies of, 369 ; see Great Britain. constitutional monarchy in, 868-390. feudalism in, 198, 54, 59, 225. France and, 229-244, 351, 353, 356-361. government of, 194, 203, 385, 564. Hundred Years' War, 229-244. literature of, 274, 319, 382, 428, 572. Louis XIV. and, 351, 353, 856-361. Netherlands and, 351-353. population of, 188. Reformation in, 302, 318-320. sea power of, 422, 491. Spain's wars with, 319, 370, 371, 373. Spanish Succession War, 359-361, union with Scotland, 368, 387. Wars of the Roses, 242. See also Great Britain. Enlightened despots, 426. Epi'rus, 580. E-ra§'mu8, 279, 280, 294, Er'fHrt, 287, Erz'g§-bir-gg (erts'-), 17, Estates, in France, 181, 222. Estates-General, 222, 236, 342 440 441 Eth'elred, 195. -e'u'c/ta-n.st (or Lord's Supper), 79, 91, 109, Eugene of Savoy, 359, 360. Eugene, stepson of Napoleon, 47ti. Eugenie (e-zha-ne') of France, 529, 546. ^ii-ge'ni-us IV., Pope, 2G9. Europe, geography of, 12-ls. Ev^'g'ham, battle of, 206. Ex-ar'eAate of Ravenna, 24, 25, 26. Ex-cheq'wer, English, 202. Exchequer, French, 220. Excommunication, 81. Extreme unction, sacrament of, 80, 79. Eylau (I'lou), battle of, 476. Factory Act in Great Britain, 558, Factory system, 497, Fai-ne-aN^' kings, in France, 25. Fairs, of Middle Ages, 186, 187, 161. World's, 530. FaZ'conry, 174. False Decretals, 85, 86. Family compact of Spain and France, 40S. Faubourgs (fo-boor'), 181. Faure (for), Felix (fa-lGs'), 589. Fa'vre, Jules (zhul), 546. Fawkes, Guy, 369. Fe'alty, 56. Fe/tr-bel-lin', battle of, 396, 401. Felix v., anti-pope, 270. Fe-ne-loN', 365. Ferdinand I., Emperor, 298. Ferdinand II., Emperor (Ferdinand of Styria), 331-337. Ferdinand of Aragon, 255, 256. Ferdinand VII. of Spain, 503, 504, 542, Feudal government, 53-60, 250. Feudal life, 171-189. Feudal system, 50-60, 74, Crusades influence, 142. in England, 19S, 225. in France, 226, 443. in Germany, 225, 246. in Japan, 602, 603. in Palestine, 130. Feudal warfare, 57-59. Feudatories, see Lords (feudal). Fichte (fiK'te), 483. Fief, 51-53. " Field of May, 36, 37. Fielding, Henry, 428. Fil-i-o'que, in Nicene creed, 109. XVlll INDEX Finns, Finland, 27, 478, 490, 608. Fist-right, in Germany, 59. Five-mile Act, in England, 881. Flag'ellants, 233. Flanders, and France, 221, 229, 254. See Netherlands. Fleury (tle-re'), Cardinal, 412. Florence, 176, 271, 272. Florida, 420, 426. FoN-taine-bleau' (-bio'), 484. FoNte-nay', battle of, 45, 46. Food, in Middle Ages, 175, 176, 187, 188. Formo'sa, acquired by Japan, 603. Fourier (foo-rya'), 517. Fox, Charles James, 449. France, 46, 48, 49 ; (886-987), 69-71 ; (987- 1453), 211-244; (1453-1610), 251-255, .308- 313; (1610-1715), 342-366; (1715-181.^). 411-414, 418-420, 426, 434-490; (ISl.o- 1871), 500-509, 513-519, 529-531, 535-539. 542-.550; (since 1871), 581, 586-689, 609. American war, 425, 426, 440. art of, 364. Austrian Succession War, 405-407. Black Death in, 234. Chinese War, 602. church in, 354, 453, 468, 609. cities in, 180-183, 214, 215. colonies of, 350, 351, 414, 416-422, 565, 584, 602, 604. Crusades influence, 142. departments of, 444. Directory, 455-467. feudalism in, 54, 59, 226, 443. German war (1870), 54'.'-548. government of, 349, 435, 468, 587, 588. Hundred Years' War, 229-244. Italy and, 255. 256, 294. .535, 536. literature of. 36:3, 364, 429. manufactures of, 350, 355, 436. Napoleon's reign, 467-487. Orleans monarchy, 513-516. Reformation in, 302, 308-313. Revolution in, 434-457. revolution of 1830, 507-509. revolution of 1848, 516-518. Russian Alliance, 581. sea power of, 422. Seven Years' War, 413-422. Thirty Years' War, 335, 337, 838. FraNfhe-Comte (kox-ta'), 353, Franchise in Great Britain, 556, 557. Francis I., Emperor, 406. Francis II., Emperor, 467, 475, 477. Francis I. of Austria, 477. Francis I. of France, 291, 294-296, 308. Francis II. of France, 309. Francis II. of Naples, 536. Francis, Saint, of Assisi, 218. Francis Joseph of Austria, 524. Francis Xav'i-er (zav'-). Saint, 307. Francis'cans, 218. Franco' nia, duchy of, 65. Franconian Emperors, 98, 99, 101, 103-108. Frankfort (on the Main), 187, 247, 259, 541. parliament, 525, 526. Franks, 21, 25-27, 32-42, 52. "Franks," crusaders, 123; see Crusades. Frederick V., Elector Palatine, 330, 332, 333, 338. Frederick I., Barbaros'sa, Emperor, 150-159, 133. Frederick II., Emperor, 163-167, 139. Frederick III., Emperor, 258, 259. Frederick 1. of Prussia, 402. Frederick II., the Great, of Prussia, 403^08, 414-416, 421, 426, 427. Frederick the Wise, 292, 296. Frederick WilUam, Great Elector, 400, 401. Frederick William I., king of Prussia, 402, 403. Frederick William III., 475. 476, 483. Frederick William IV., 525, 526, 539. Fre-der-iks-haUr, siege of, 398. Free companies, in France, 237. French Academy, 363. French Revolution, 434-457. Friars, 89, 217-219. Friedland (fret'liint), battle of, 476. Frteg'land, 65. Fronde, 847, 348. Ful'ton, Robert, 499. Ga-haUe', 487. Galicia (ga-lish'i-a), in 1648, 522. Gal-i-le'o, 276. Gal'lican Church, 354. Gii'ma, Vas'co da, 257. Gambet'ta, Leon, 546. Ga-rj-bal'di, Giuseppe, 521, 536. Ga-r6n?ie' River, 18. Gas-toN*, French prince, 348. Gaul, 18, 21. General councils, 84, 264-270. Ge-ne'va, Convention of 1864, 582. Reformation in, .304, 305. Gen'o a, commerce of, 180, 131, 141, 186. Napoleon and. 463. Geography of Europe, 12-18. George I. of Great Britain, 388, 389. George II., 389, 413, 417. George III., 416, 420, 425, 468, 555. . George IV., 553, 555. Georgia (in the Caucasus), 595. Ger'bert, Pope Sylvester II., 68. German Confederation (of 1815), 490, 502, 524, 526. German Empire (of 1871), 548, 581, 586, 589- 592. colonies of, 584, 604. INDEX XIX Germanic migrations, 21, 22, 48, 191. Germans in Austrian Empire, 521-523. Germany (843-1024), 46, 48, 49, 63-69 ; (1024- 1268), 98-110, 145-170; (1254-1500), 246-249, 251-253, 257-200; (1500-1648), 286-299, 330-340 ; (after 1648), see Aus- tria, Prussia, Bavaria, etc., and German Empire. cities in, 158, 186-188. Crusades intiuence, 142. feudalism in, 54, 59, 225, 246. government, see Emperor; (1815-1830). 502 ; (after 1871), 589, 590. literature of, 158, 275, 429. Louis XIV. and, 356, 359. mediaeval king of, election, 151. Napoleon and, 477, 482-484, 490. peasant revolt in (1525), 293. Reformation in, 286-299, 330-340. revolution of 1848, 524-526. subdivision of, 157, 166, 252, 340. Thirty Years' War in, 830-340. unification of, 539-548. Gerson (zhar-sox'), Jean (zhaN), 266. G/ient, pacification of, 328. G/iib'el-lincg, 147. Gib'bon, Edward, 428. Gi-bral'tar, acquired by England, 362. Gil Bias (zh^l bias), 429. Giron'dists, 446, 448-451, 453. Glad'ston^, William E., 557, 561-564, 568, 570, 571. Gloifces'ter, Humphrey, Duke of, 240. Godfrey of Bouillon (boo-ycm'), 122, 129. Godwin, earl of Wessex, 196. Goe't^e, Johann Wolfgang von, 429. Golden" Bull, 248, Gordon, General, 583. Gothic architecture, 90, 91. Goths, 35, 71 ; see Ostrogoths and Visigoths, GramoN^', Duke of, 543. Gra-nii'da, kingdom of, 256, 257. GriiNde ghar-trej<§«', 89. GrJiNcJ Triil-noN', 355. GraN-soN', battle of, 251. Grii'tian (-shi-an), canonist, 150. Grave-lot^e', battle of, 545. Great Britain (before 1707), see England; (1707-1789), 387-389, 413-426; (since 1789), 553-573, 580-586. Austrian Succession War, 406, 407. Chinese War, 602. colonies of, 565-571, 414, 416-421, 425, 426, 490, 584, 602, 604. Crimean War, 530-532. Egypt and, 582, 583. France and, 449, 450, 455, 464-466, 468, 474- 480, 484, 486-493. government of, 564. industrial revolution in, 495-499. Great Britain, manufactures of, 49.V497, 5.%3 Napoleonic wars. 474-480, 484, 486-493. pauperism in, 492, 558. public debt of, 492. sea power of, 422, 491. Seven Years' War, 413-422. Great Charter, of England, 205-206. Great Commoner, 417. Great Council of England, 207. Great Elector, Frederick William, 400, 401. Great Interregnum, 167, 246. Great Powers, 495, 586. Great Schism, 265-268, Greece, 505, 580. Greek Church and Empire, see Eastern. Greek fire, 115. Greenland, settlement of, 72. Grego'rian calendar, 20. Greg'ory I., Pope, 25, 110. Gregory VI , 99. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), 99-106, 110. Gregory IX., 164, 166. Gregory XII., 266-268. Gren-a'da, 418, 420. Grevy (gra-ve'), Jules (zhul). 588. Grey, Lady Jane, 316. Gro'tius (shi-us), 363. Guelfs (gwelfs), 147. Gm-ii'na, British, 565. Gui-mne\ 225, 229. Gwilds, 148, 183, 486. Guillotin (ge-yo-taN'), Dr., 449. Guil'lo-tine., 449. Gii-i§6', house of, 309-311. Gtii-zbt', Frangois P. G., 514-516. Gunpowder, introduction of, 277. Gunpowder Plot, in England, 369. Gusta'vus Adolphus. 834-336. Gustavus III. of Sweden, 423, 426. Gu'ten-berG, Johann, 279. Hartr'lem, 327, 328. HagJ/e Conference, 586. Ham (aN), Louis Napoleon at, 515. Hamburg, 187, 547. Hampden, John, 373, 375. Han 'over, 157, 388, 398, 502, 540, 541. Hanove'rian kings, of Great Britain, 388. Han-se-at'ic League, 187, 188, 184, 185, 340. Hapsburg Castle, 250. Hapsburg house, rise of, 246. 247, 258, 269, 298. Spanish and Austrian, 290, 298, 357, 358. Har'den-b^ro, 482. Har-di-ca-nute', king of England. 196. Har'gr^avt'j, James, 496. Harold of England, 196-198. IIa-ro?ench party), 446, 448-451, 453, 455. MiiM'berG, battle of, 296. Mii/d'dorf, battle of, 247. Muk-den', battle of, 606. Mii'nieh, 156, 336. Mun'ster, peace of, 837-839. Mu-ra^', Joachim, 478, 490. Muril'lo, 341. Mut'su-hi'to, 603. Mysticism, 287. Nabobs, in India, 419. Nafels (na'fels), battle of. 250. XXIV INDEX Nan'cy, battle of, 254. Nantes, Edict of, 312, 355. Reign of Terror in, 452. Naples, Austria acquires, 361. Bourbons rule, 413, 490, 536. Charles of Anjou rules, 169, 221. France and, 255, 466, 477, 478. Frederick II. rules, 165, 166. Napoleon and, 477, 478. Piedmont acquires, 536. Pope and, 162, 169. rebellion in (1820), 503, 504. revolution of 1848, 520, 521. Spain (and Aragon) and, 255, 257, 290. Napoleon Bonaparte, 456, 460-487, 515. death and burial, 487, 515. early life of, 460, 461, 456. Egyptian expedition of, 464-466. Emperor of the French, 471, 474-487. First Consul, 467-470. governmental reforms of, 468, 469. Italian campaign of, 461-463. personal character of, 487. Eussian campaign of, 481. 482. Waterloo campaign of, 486, 487. "Napoleon II." (Duke of Reichstadt), 514, 519. Napoleon III. (Louis Napoleon), 515, 518, 519, 529-531, 535-538, 540, 542, 546. Nar se§, 23. Nar'va, battle of, 396. Na§e'by, battle of, 376. Nas'sau, acquired by Prussia, 541. Nassau, Adolf of, 246. Natal', 570. National Assembly of France, 441-445, 516. 518, 519, 546, 587. National Convention of France, 447-456. National Guard of France, 442, 445, 508, 516, 548. National Land League of Ireland, 563. National workshops, in France, 517, 518. Na-va-ri'no, battle of, 505. Na-varre', 256. Navarre, Henry of (Henry IV.), 310-313. Nave, in architecture, 90, 91. Navigation, 277, 499. Navigation Acts of England, 352. Necker, Jacques, 440. Nelson, Admiral, 465. Ne'potism, 270. Netherlands, 823-325. Reformation in, 323, 325-330. under Spain, 257, 290, 323-330. See also below. Netherlands, Austrian, 361, 448, 463, 490. Netherlands, Dutch, nee Holland. Netherlands, Spanish, 328. Austria acquires, 361. Louis XIV. and, 351, 354, 357, 359. New Zealand, 568. Newfoundland, 361, 362, 568. Newton, Sir Isaac, 386. Ney, Marshal, 482, 485, 501. Nibelungenlied (ne'be-loong-§n-led), 158. Nl-fie'a, Council of, 84. taken by crusaders, 123. taken by Turks, 120, 260. Nife, annexed to France, 448, 534-536. Nicholas I. of Russia, 505, 530, 532. Nicholas II. of Russia, 595. Nicholas I., Pope, 109, 110. Nicholas V., Pope, 270. Ni'e'men River, 476, 481. Nightingale, Florence, 532. Ni'hilists, 595. Nile, battle of the, 465. Niin'we-gen, peace of, 353. Nobles, see Lords (feudal). Nor'bert, Saint, 148. Nord'ling-en (nert'-), battle of, 337. Normandy, 69, 70, 196, 199, 212, 242. Normans, 69-72. in England, 196-199, 205, 209. in southern Italy, 72-74, 106. North, Lord, 425. North German Confederation, 541. Northern War, 396-398. Northmen, 48, 63, 69, 71-74, 193, 195. Northum'berland, John Dudley, Duke of, 815, 316. Northumbria, kings of, 193. Norway, 28, 75, 884. union with Sweden, 490, 610. Ndt're-Diime Cathedral, 215. No-vii'ra, battle of, 521. N6v'go-r6d (-rot), Hanseatic station In, 188. Noyon (nwa-yoN'), 304. Nunneries, 89. Nu'rem-berg, 141, 186. Nystadt (nii'stad), peace of, 398. Oath of the Tennis Court, 441, 442. O'Connell, Daniel, 555, O'der River, 18. Odes'sa, 608. 0-do-a'cer, 22. Old Sa'rum, 556. Ol'miitz, conference at, 526. Omdur'man, battle of, 583. Opium War, 602. Orange Free State, 570. Ordeal, 195, 203. Or'leanists (15th century), 239, 240. Orleanists (19th century), 587; see Orleans monarchy. Or'le-ans, siege of, 241. Orleans, Duke of (Louis), 239. Orleans, Duke of, nephew of Louis XIV,, 411. INDEX XXV Orleans, Duke of (Louis Philippe), 508. 509, 513-516. Orleans monarchy, 508, 509, 513-516. Oscar II. of Sweden, 610. Os-man' Pa-sha', 579. Os'trogoths, 22, 23. Oth-miin', 260. , O'tho I. of Greece, 505. Otto I., Emperor, 66-68. Otto II., Emperor, 68. Otto III,, Emperor, 68. Otto IV., Emperor, 162, 163. Otto of Wittelsbach, 157. Ot toman Empire, 423 ; see Turkey. Ottoman Turks, 260, 261, 295 ; see Turkey. O'icen, Robert, 517. 0-ya-ma', General, 606. Palace School, 38. Pa-lat'i-nate, in Thirty Years' War, 332, 338. Pal'a-tine Count, 248, 332, 338. Pal'es-tine, see Crusades. Palfrey, 58. Pa-mir' plateau, 596. Panamii' scandal, 589. Papacy, 77, 83 ; see Pope. Papal States, 162, 510, 520, 521, 536, 537; see Pope (temporal power of). Paris, 215, 364, 580. captured (by Northmen), 49 ; (by French), 242 ; (by Allies), 484, 487 ; (by Prussians), 546. Commune in (1871), 548, 549. Congress of (1856), 532. peace of (1763), 420; (1782-83), 425, 426; (1856), 532. rebellion of (1358), 236, 237; (1589), 311; (1834), 514. revolutions (1789-95), 442-451, 453, 455, 456 ; (1830), 507, 508 ; (1848), 516-519. treaty of (1815), 490. University of, 92. Parishes, 80. Parlamen'tum of Italian towns, 149. Par-lg-ment' (-maN*) of Paris, 220, 347, 348, 440. Parliament, English, 207, 564, 565. contest with king, 368-380. reform of, 555-557. supremacy established, 385-387. union, 555. Parma, 474, 510, 536. Parma, Alexander of, 328. Parma, Margaret of, 825. Par'nell, Charles Stewart, 568, 564. Pas'ehal II., Pope, 108. Patriarchs, ecclesiastical, S3. Patrimony of St. Peter, 537. Paul III., Pope, 296, 306. Paul IV., 306. Pa-vT'a, battle of, 294. Pays (pa'e) le-gal', 518. " Peace," the, 58. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of Paris, etc., see Aix-la-Chapelie, Paris, etc. Peasant revolt in France (1858), 286. Peasant revolt in Germany (1525), 298. Ps-clu-ii', Gulfof, 608. Peel, Sir Robert. 555, 560, 561. Pe-king', 602, 605. Penance, 80, 288. Peninsular War, 479. Pep'in the Short, 26, 32. Perier (pa-rya'), Cii-gi-mir', 589. Perry, Commodore, 602. Persia, and Russia, 595. Peter I,, the Great, of Russia, 893-398. Peter III., 416. Peter, Saint, and Rome, 83. Peter the Hermit, 122. Petition of Right, 372. Pe'trareh, 274. Philip I. of France, 120, 212. Philip II., Augustus, 214-216, 133-135, 202, 204. Philip III. of France, 221. Philip IV., the Fair, 221-224. Philip V. of France, 224. Philip VI. of France, 225, 229-232, 234. PhiHp II. of Spain, 298, 310, 816, 819, 325-329. PhilipIII. of Spain, 329. Philip V. of Spain, 359, 861, 411. Philip of Swabia, German king, 162, 163. Philip the Good, of Burgundy, 240, 242. Phil'ip-pines, 421. 598. P^ed'mont, annexed by Napoleon, 474. character of (1850), 533. grows into kingdom of Italy, 533-537. rebeUion in (1821), 504. war with Austria (1848), 520, 521. Pignaces (pen-yas'), 176. Pilgrims, medieval, 119. Pi'ga, 180, 181, 141, 186. Council of, 266. Pitt, William (the elder), 417, 420. Pitt, William (the younger), 450, 491. Pius II., Pope, 270. Pius VII., 478. Pius IX., 520, 521, 549. Plan-tag'e-net kings of England, 200. Plas'sey, battle of, 420, 568. Plev'na, siege of, 579. Pocket boroughs, English, 556. Pointed style of architecture, 90. Poitiers (pwa-tya'), battle of, 234, 285. Poles and Poland, 66, 162, 166, 301, 392, 896, 412, 413, 423, 424. Austrian, 42:3, 424, 522, 523. duchy of Warsaw, 476. partitions of, 423, 424. XXVI INDEX Poles and Poland, Prussian, 400, 401, 423, 424, 490. Reformation in, 301. Russian, 423, 424, 490, 510, 537, 608. Polish Succession, War of, 412, 413. Polignac (po-len-yak'). Prince, 500. P6-li-tiques' (-tgli'), French party, 310. Pum-e-ra'ni-a, acquired by Prussia, 400, 403. Pom-pa-doirt II.. of France, 212. .Tt of Normandy, 122, 199. ort Guis-c&rd', 78, 102, 106. •irtians, 44, 70. es-pierre, 448, 451, 453, 454. i heUe', 309, 812, 343. tured by Napoleon, 475, 479. Congress of, 485, 487-490. revolution of 1848, 522. treaties of, 490. Vik'ings, 40, 63, 71, 72. Vil-la-friin'ca, peace of, 536. Vil'ldns, 55, 56, 177-179; see Serfs. Vil'lenage, effects of Black Death on, 233. Vinci (vin'che), Leonar'do da, 276. Vinland, Northmen in, 72. Vig'igoths, 21, 22. Vladivostok (vla-de-vas-tok'), 607. Vol-taire', 429, 438. Vosges (vozh) Mts., 17. "Wagram (va'gram), battle of, 479. Walden'se§, 216. Wales, annexed to England, 206. Wal-la €hi-a, 580. Wal'len-st6Tn, 333, 334, 836, 337. Wal'pole, Sir Eobert, 389. Walter the Penniless, 122. Wiin-di-wash', battle of, 420. Warsaw, 396, 510. duchy of, 476. Wartburg (viirt'boorK), castle of, 292. Washington, George, 417. Wa-ter-loo', battle of, 486, 487. Watt, James, 497. Weaving machinery, 496. Wed' more, treaty of, 193. Wg'i-hal-we'i, 603, 604. Welf, house of, 146, 147, 156, 157, 162. Welleg'ley, Sir Arthur, see Wellington. Wel'lington, Duke of, 479, 486, 555, 560. Wentworth, Sir Thomas (Strafford), 372, 374. Wenzel (vent'sel). Emperor, 257, 258. Weser (va'zer) River, 65. Wes'ley, 389. Wessex, kingdom of, 193. Western Empire, 22, 33-37, 40, 44-50; see Holy Eoman Empire. West'minster Confession, 376. Westpha'lia, kingdom of, 477. peace of, 337-389. Whigs, 382, 387-389, 492, 557, 560, 561, 572. Whit'by, synod of, 191. Wil'berforce, William, 55S. Wilhelmshohe (vil'helms-hr-e), .Mf,. William I., conqueror of Knghind i*trt-199 William II., liufus, of England 199 William in. of England, 8.^);i, 856. 8.')7, 359, William IV. of England, 558. William I. of Orange, 326-829. WiUiam III. of Orange, 358, 856, 357 359 384-387. William I. of Prussia and the German Em- pire, 539, 543, 548, .591. William II. of Prussia and the Gorman Em- pire, 591, 592. William of tlie Iron Arm, 78. Wisby (vis'bii), and Hanseatic League, 1S7. Wit'an, 194. Wittelsbach (vit'tels-baK), house of, 157 405. Wittenberg (vit'ten-b6rK), 288, 292, 293. Wolge'ley, General, 582. Wol'gey, Cardinal, 813, 315. Worc^s'ter, battle of, 378. Wordsworth, William, 572. World's Fair, the first, 530. Worms (vorms), Concordat of, 108. Diet at, 291. Edict of, 292. Worth (vert), battle of, 545. Wurt'tem-berG (viirt'-), 477, 541. Wyc'lif, John, 208, 209, 267, 274. X, T, Z affair, 466. Xavier (zav'i-er), vFrancis, 307. Xi-me'ne§ (zi-), Archbishop, 257, 271. Ya'lu' River, 606. Yo'ko-ha'ma, opened to trade, 603. 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