LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, CliaptL— . Copyright No. Shelf..L^:_?.. 1&98 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. FlG.1 YELLOW BLUE SECONDARY COLORS. ORANGE GREEN PURPLE I N orGQ> mrn^ See pages 147, 181, 182, 183. Calkins''s Nem Object Lessons. PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS, TRAINING THE SENSES AND DEVELOPING THE FACULTIES OF CHILDREN. A MANUAL OF ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION FOR PARENTS AND TEAOHERSo By N. a. calkins, AuTHoii OF '-PuoNio Charts," "School ani> Family Cj!aiit8," and "Manual of Objkot Teaouing." Present to children things before words, ideas before names. Train ihem to observe, *o do, and to tell." FORTIETH EDinON. — REVISED. NEW YORK •: CINCINNATI •: CHICAGO A M E R 1 C A N BOOK COMPANY TWO tmn »f«f rvPD A 2467 Copyright, 1881, by Harper & Buotuers, Copjriglit, 1898. by Ella Calkins Lyon Entered, according to Act of Congress, iu the year 18T0, by HARPKR & BROTHERS, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. All fights reserved. CALK. OBJ. LES. W. P. 2 I -TO PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. "Instruction must begin with actual inspection, not with verbal descripdons of things. From such inspection it is that certain knowl- edge comes. What is actually seen remains faster in the memory than description or enumeration a hundred times as often repeated." Thus wrote John Amos Comenius, an exiled teacher of Austria, about the middle of the seventeenth century. And to the introduc- tion of his works Germany is largely indebted for the gieat progress in her schools which commenced during that century. Said the great Swiss educator l*estalozzi at the close of the eight- eenth century, " Observation is the absolute basis of all knowledge. The first object, then, in education, must be to lead a child to observe with accuracy ; the second, to express with correctness the result of his ob- servations." On the philosophical piincij^les taught by those two great educators, and confii-med by the experiences of subsequent observers, is basea the system of mental development illustrated in the present work. In the application of these principles, however, there have been successive changes resulting in the various forms of the inductive methods of ed- ucation now practiced in this country and in Europe. Not to those noble educators belongs all the credit of the present system of teach- ing from objects, the unknown from the known ; they developed prin- ciples only ; the systems have grown out of the study and application of those principles by succeeding educators. ******** With an earnest desire to contribute something toward a general radical change in the system of primary education in this country — a change from the plan of exercising the memory chiefly to that of de- veloping the observing powers — a change from an artificial to a nata< IV PREFACE. ral plan — one in accordance with the philosophy of mind and its lawn of development — the author commenced the following pages. ******** In the preparation of a work upon a subject of such importance as yne claiming to be a guide in the early education of tlie young, he felt it his duty to avail himself of the best sources of information by which he cotdd add to his own the observation and experience of the most successful educators. He has accordingly exammed the various sys- tems of infant education of Europe, and especially those by Wilder- spin, Stow, and Currie, and that practiced by the "Home and Colo- nial School Society" of London, as presented by Elizabeth Mayo in her " Model Lessons" and " Manual of Elementary Instruction." ******** The work differs from others prepared for teachers in this important feature : it illustrates how the teacher should prcrceed at each success- ive step in developing the minds of children. In telling what ought to be done, it proceeds to show how to do it by illustrative exarnples. In preparing this work, the aim of the author has not been to pro- duce a faultless composition, but rather a book adapted to the wants of teachers in presenting a natural, simple, and philosophical system of primary education so clearly and minutely that no teacher can fail of gaining from it not only its principles, but a knowledge of how to aj»i)ly them under the varying circumstances in which he may be placed. With the hoi)e that he has not failed in this respect, this volume is earnestly commended to the kind consideration of teachers, parents, and all friends of educatiou. N. A. CaliuINS. I\kw Yorky Juue^ 15C>i. PREFACE TO THE FIFTEENTH EDITION. ** Entirely rewritten, reillustrated, and enlarged," briefly descrihei the relation of this work to the foinier editions of my Primmy (Jlject Lessons. This is essentially a new work, although it treats chieflj ujjon the same subjects that were presented in the former editinus. While these lessons are nearly all new in form, they are intended tc maintain and illustrate more clearly the principles of true objective teaching, and the relation of this system of education to the common branches of school instruction. The lessons of this work embody, in the sul)jects treated, the results of an experience of nearly eight years as a Superintendent of the Pri- mary Schools in the city of New York ; also as Lecturer in the Satiu-- day Normal School on Principles and Methods of Teaching. Some idea of the nature and extent of this experience may be obtained tioni the fact that there are employed in these Primary Schools alone more than twelve hundred teachers, and that these teachers have under their instruction a hundred thousand children. Three subjects which were included in fuimer editions — "Weight,"' "Place," and "Physical Training "—have been omitted in this work, and^ye new subjects have been added to it — " Home Training of the Senses;" "Exercises for Training in Habits of Thinking am! Speak- ing promptly, and a correct Use of Language;" "Time;" "How tc Teach the Sounds of Language ;"' and "Lessons on Qualities." Be- sides, "Form," "Color," "Number,"and "Reading" have been much extended by a variety of illustrative exercises, and the lessons on the various subjects introduced have been arranged in graded steps, with a view to adajjt the work to the wants of teachers under all circum, stances. The difference between the lessons of this work and those of the former editions, in the subjects which are inchuled in both, consistE chiefly in the methods of giving them ; tlie principles of the system ov fl PREFACE TO THE FIFTEENTH EDITION. which they are founded remain unchanged. A principle of teaching is a law based upon conditions of the minds of those to he taught. A method of teaching is simply the form or manner of presenting the sub- jects of instruction. A true principle remains the same always ; while there may be many methods of presenting a subject, each in conform- ity to the same principle. Between a child from six to nine years of age, and a youth from twelve to fifteen, there is a greater difference in development than be- tween the youth and the man. There should be a corresponding dif- ference in the subjects and modes of instruction for these periods. During childhood, the attention must be largely occupied with the ac- cumulation of facts through the exercise of the several senses. By means of a proper training of its various faculties, the child attains the power of systematic effort in learning, and thus the youth is enabled to acquire a suitable knowledge for commencing the duties of the man. Unless the child attains this power, the youth can not procure the necessary knowledge. How to properly educate the child, and pre- pare it for the studies of youth, that it may gain the knowledge req- uisite for the duties of manhood, is the most difficult problem in edu- cation. Granting that such a knowledge of our language as will enable one to speak, read, and write it readily, and such an acquaintance with arithmetic as will prepare one to engage in the business affairs of life, are the indispensable subjects of school instruction for youth, yet the demands of education for the period of childhood can not be met by elementary instruction in these branches alone. Language itself can not be learned until the mind has been brought in contact, through its several senses, with the qualities and characteristics of things around us. It is only by attention to objects, animals, plants, occupations — in other words, by the observation of whatever may be the surround- ings of itself, that the child's mind undergoes that developing process which gives it the power of subsequently acquiring any branch of knowledge. Since the period of childhood is most profitably spent in attending to those things which will train the mind in power and in facility of mental acquisition, the necessity for that varied character of school instruction which is afforded by means of Object Lessons must be ap- parent to all educators, and the importance of this system of education PREFACE TO THE FIFTEEXTH EDITION. Vll be acknowledged by every teacher who will give the subject a careful and candid consideration. It is Avell known that the majority of those who engage in school teaching commence its duties with little or no professional training. Their preparation for this work usually consists in learning the several branches which are generally taught in school, without attention to methods of instruction, or to exercises specially adapted to train the, mental powers of children ; consequently, these teachers enter upon their duties with but little knowledge of the philosophy or the prin- :;iples which should guide them in their work. In view of these facts, books giving practical suggestions relative to methods of elementary instruction in accordance with right principles of education become almost indispensable to those who engage in teaching. To meet this necessity in the department of primary education, and lead teachers to take proper steps toward success in their work, is the design of this book. I have deemed it best to devote this work jjlmost entirely to meth- ods of teaching, at the same time aiming, by means of the series of graded lessons in the subjects treated upon, to lead teachers to an understanding of the principles which underlie correct methods of instruction. In a portion of another work now in preparation — "A Manual of Object Teaching"— I shall endeavor to give enough of mental science, in its relations to education, to enable me to present more clearly the philosophy on which the principles of correct teaching are based. With grateful remembrances of the kind manner in which rhe for- mer editions of this work were received, and hoping that in its new form this may become still more useful in the cause of Primary In- struction, it is once more intrusted to the generous friends of ed ji ation. ■Nbw York, June, 18T0. PREFACE TO THE FORTIETH EDITION. Ten years ago I rewrote the Primary Object Lessons, and com- menced the manuscript for a Manual of Object Teaching. My du- ties as Superintendent in the Primary Schools of this city, and my weekly lectures at the Saturday Sessions of the Normal College com- bined, have delayed the completion of the Manual. But during this period experience has deepened and broadened my convictions that the principles and methods of true elementary instruction are repre- sented most completely in Object Teaching ; that its importance in the education of children has not been overestimated ; and that there is abundant confirmation of its practical utility under all the varied con- ditions of school instruction. While completing the manuscript for the Manual of Object Teach- ing, it appeared that additional facts and suggestions would add value to what had been previously given on several of the subjects embraced in the Primary Object Lessons ; that a few changes in some of the directions for teaching were desirable; also that references to the Man- ual for further information on the same or kindred subjects would in- crease the usefulness of this work. These considerations led me to make this revision, which will commemorate \i% fortieth edition. There have now been added new suggestions relative to methods of teaching several of the subjects; also references to additional facts for teachers. A portion of the article on "Methods of Teaching Elementary Reading" has been rewritten, also most of the one on "Drawing." And now I present to the public this work, thus re- vised, with the hope that it may be still more worthy of such kind re- ceptions as have been given to the former editions. New Yoek, September, 1880. CONTENTS. Principles on -which Object Teaching is founded.... 1.5-23 Honie Training of the Senses 24-38 Exercises for I'raining the Sense of Sight, 2.") ; Hearing, 2G ; Taste, 27 ; Smell, 2i) ; Touch, 2d ; The Hand, 32 ; Home Training in Form, 33; In Color, 3.5 ; In Number, 37 ; Other Home Exercises, 38 ; Suggestions for Teachers, 38. Introductory School Lessons for cultivating Observation and the Tse of Language 39-46 Conversational Exercises about a Knife ; Cap , Ball ; Stove 42,43 Exercises for Training in Habits of Thinking and Speaking Promptly, and a correct Use of Language.... 47-50 What I can see ; hear ; taste : smell ; feel ; What I can do ; Where I can go ; How I can go ; What I would like to have; What I can wear 47 FORM 51-138 Apparatus for illustrating Form (Illustrations), 54-58 ; Les- sons on Form — When to teach them — which first, 59 ; Or- der of Lessons for City Schools, 59-61. Resemblance and Difference in Shape 62-64 First Step, 62 ; Second Step, 63 ; Suggestions for the Teach- er, 61. Shape of Lines 6.5-72 First Step — Straight, Crooked, and Curved Lines, 65; Sug- gestions for the Teacher, 67, 70. Second Step — Wave and Spiral Lines, 68. Third Stej) — Descriptions of Lines, and drawing Lines; straight; crooked; curved; wave, 70-72. Position of Lines 73-79 First Step — Slanting and Vertical Lines, 73. Second Step — Horizontal and Ohliciue Lines, 74. Third Step — Parallel and Perpendicular Lines, 76 ; Suggestions for Teachers, 79. Corners and Angles 80-88 First Step — Corners, 80. Second Step — Angles; Acute Angle ; Right Angle ; Drawing Angles, 82 ; Suggestions for the Teacher, 86. Third Step — Angles, 87. X CONTENTS. PAas Plane Forms 89-92 First Step, 89. Second Step— 8qua.re ; Oblong, 90. Third Step, 92. Triangles 93-96 Suggestions for the Teacher, 93. First Step — Triangles, 93. Second Step — Equilateral Triangle ; Right-angled Triangle, 94. Third Step — Isosceles Triangle ; Obtuse-angled Trian- gle ; vScalene Triangle, 95. Four-sided Forms .....97-101 First Step — Square ; Oblong ; Rhomb, t)7. Second Step — Rhomboid, 101. Third AS/e/j— Trapezium ; Trapezoid ; Quad- rilateral ; Parallelogram ; Suggestions for the Teacher, 101. Many-sided Forms 1 03-105 First Step — Pentagon; Hexagon, 10:5. Second Step — Hep- tagon ; Octagon ; Nonagon ; Decagon ; Polygons, 101 ; Sug- gestions for the Teacher, 105. Circular Forms 106-114 First Step — Circle; Centie; Semicircle; Ring, lOG. aScc- ondStep—Cre&CQwi; Ellipse; Oval, 109. Third Step— Cir- cumference ; Arc ; Diameter, 111. Fourth Stej) — Radius ; Quadrant ; Sector, 1 13. Surface and Faces 115-118 First Step — Plane and Curved Surfaces, 1 15. Second Step — Faces of Solids, 1 1 G. Third Step — Surfaces, Convex and Concave, 117. Solid Figures— Sphere, Hemisphere, Spheroids 119-122 First Step — Ball shape, 1 1 9. Second Step — Sphere , Hemi- sphere ; Solids, 1 19. Third Step — Spheroids and Ovoid, 1 22. Cylinder and Cone 123-126 First Step — Cylinder, 1 23. Second Step — Cylinder ; Cone ; Base; Apex, 124. Third Step— Conical; Conoid, 126. Cube and Cubical Forms 127, 128 First Step — Cube, 127. Second Step — Cubical forms, 127; Suggestions for Teachers, 128. Prisms 129-132 First Step — Prisms; Triangular Prism ; Square Prism, 129. Second Step — Prisms; Hexagonal Prisms, 130; Suggestions for the Teacher, 132. Pyramids 133-13}i First Stej> — Shapes of Pyramids, 133. Second Step — Tri- angular Pyramids ; Square Pyramids, 134 ; Suggestions for the Teacher, 1 35. Descriptions of Objects by their Forms 136-138 CONTENTS. Xl COLOR 139-190 Importance of Training the Eye 139 Color blindness, l-iO. Facts about Color for Teachers 144-156 Classification of Colors, 14") ; combinations of, 147 ; descrip- tions of, 147; Keds, 148; Yellows, 149; Blues, 149; Orange, 150; Greens, 150; Purples, 151 ; Browns, 152; Grays, 153; White, 153; Black, 153; Colors of Animals, 154; Order for Lessons on Color, 156. Resemblance and Difference in Color 157-161 First Step — Distinguishing Colors, 157. Second Stej) — Grouping Colors, 159. Third Step — Light and dark Col- ors, 160. Naming Colors 162-165 First Ste/t — Naming Colors at sight, 162. Second Step — Naming Objects by Colors, 163. Third Step — Grouping names of Objects by Colors, 165, Color and Form combined 166-168 Standard Colors , 169-174 I-'irst Step — Red ; Yellow ; Blue, 1(>9. Second Stej) — Or- ange ; Green ; Purple, 171. Third Stejt— White ; Black, 1 72. Shades and Tints of Color 175, 176 First Step — Shades, 1 75. Second Step — Tints of Colors, 1 70. Hues of Colors 177 Classes of Colors 178-180 Suggestions for the Teacher, 179 ; Grouping Colors in Classes, 1 79 ; Browns and Grays, 1 80. Primary and Secondary Colors ...181-187 First Stej) — Mixing Red and Yellow, 181 ; Suggestions for the Teacher, 182; Mixing Yellow and Blue, 182; Mixing Red and Blue, 184. Second Step— Frimnry Colors, 185; Secondary Colors, 1 Si). Colors of Animals 188-190 NUMBER 191-260 First Ideas of Number 104 199 First Step — Counting I to 9, 194 ; Value of Numbers, !97. Second Step— Connting 1 to 1 9, 1 98. Third Step— Count- ing 20 to 29, 198 ; Order of Numbers, 199. First Ideas of Figures 200-211 First Ste/> — Figures as Symbols, first Group, to 9, 200. Second Step — Second Group of Figures, 10 to 19, 204; Sug- Xll CONTENTS. gestioiis for the Teacher, 20.5. Third Stej)—Gxo\x^ of 20 to 21) ; 30 to 31), 20G. Fourth Step— (^\-on\) of Hundreds, 210. A.dding 212-218 First Step, 212. Second Step, 213. Third Step, 215; Sug- gestions for Teachers, 218. Subtracting 219-222 First Step, 219. Second Step, 22 1 . Third Step, 22 1 . Order of Numbers 223 Adding without Counting 224-237 Adding by Decades, 224 ; .Combinations that produce ; 1 ; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9,228. How a Class may drill itself. 235 Numeration and Notation 238-247 First Step — Numeration, 238; Ilhistrate Tens and Hun- dreds with bundles of Sticks, 239, 242. First Step — Nota- tion, 241. Second Step — Numeration and Notation, 241. Third Step, 244 ; Suggestions, 24G. Fourth Step, 247. Addition 248, 249 First Step, 248. Second Stejt, 248. Subtraction 250-252 First Step, 250. Second Step, 250. Third Step, 251. Multiplying Numbers 253-25 "> First Step, 253. Second Step — Multiplication Table, 253- 255 ; Division Tables, 256. Equal Parts, or Fractions 257-259 Halves and Fourths, 257 ; Thirds, 258 ; Suggestions, 259. SIZE 261-281 Size in General 261-203 Words used to signify Size, 263. Length and Measure 264-267 First »SVey>— Lengtii, 264. Second ^S^e/)— Measure of, 265. Width and Thickness 268, 2Ca Height and Depth 270, 271 Standard Measure 272-274 First Step — Length, 272. Second Step — Capacity, 273. Distance and Measured Distance 275-281 First Step — Relative Distance, 275. Second Step — Meas- ured Distance, 276. Third Step, 277. Fourth S^e/?— Tables of Length and Capacity, 278 ; Grouping Words representing kinds of Size. 281. CONTENTS. xill PAGE DRAWING 282 287 How^ Drawing may be commenced. 282 First Step, 283. Second Ste/>, 281. T/iircl, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Steps, 285. Seventh and Fighth Steps, 28G. Ninth and Tenth Steps, 287. TIME. Time and Measure of Time 288-21)0 First Step, 288. Second Step — Table, 289. SOUND 291-312 ImjDortance of Training tlie Ear 291 Exercises for distinguishing Sounds . . 293 Comparing and classifying Sounds 294-29G How to Teach the Sounds of Language 297-311 First Step, 297. Second Step, 299. Third Step, 299-307. Fourth Step — Analysis of Sounds, 307 ; How the Sounds are made, 309 ; Suggestions for Teachers, 312. PRIMARY READING.... 313 344 Some of the Methods used in teaching Reading described, 31 3 ; Facts to be Observed in teacliing Heading, 324 ; The Object Method, 32(). Steps in Reading by the Object Method 327-334 Whole Words ; Words by Letters ; Words by Sounds, 327, Spelling and Sounding Words ; Heading Words in Groups, 328. Suggestions for Teachers, 329-334. Reading from Books 335-344 First and Second Stages of teaching Reading, 335. Steps — llow to use Books; From the Blackl)oard to Books, 336. How to teach Lessons in Books, 337, 338. How to teach the Meaning of Words and Phrases, 339, 340. To Prepare Pupils for a New Lesson, 340. Errors in Methods of Teach- ing, 342, 343. Spelling, 343, 344. QUALITIES OF OBJECTS. 345-364 Importance of teaching Qualities, 345. Lessons on Qualities — To Distinguish and Name them. 346-364 Rough and Smooth, 346 ; Sticky, 347 ; Slippery, 347; Brit- tle, 348; Tough, 348; Porous, 349; Transparent, 350; Opaque, 352; Elasticity, 352 ; Flexible and Pliable, 356; Liquid and Fluid, 357; Solid, 359 ; Absorbent, 360; Com- bustible, 360; Fusible, 361; Soluble, 361 ; Pungent, 362; XIV CONTENTS. PAUE Astringent, 362 ; Fibrous, 363 ; Grouping Qualities by the Senses, 364. OBJECT LESSONS 365-406 Their Nature and Design, 365. Lessons on Objects — First Stage 369-384 Suggestions for the Teacher, 369, 384 ; A Chair, 369 ; Bells, 372 ; Pin, 375 ; Watch, 377 ; Hat, 379 ; Shoes, 380 ; Door, 381 ; A Letter, 382 ; Thimble, 383 ; Key, 384. Lessons on Objects — Second Stage 385-397 Suggestions for the Teacher, 385 •; Sponge, 385 ; Water, 389 ; Milk, 390; Glass, 391 ; Wool, 393; Gum Arabic, Cork, 396; Other Objects, 397. Lessons on Oh^ects— Third Stage 398-406 Suggestions for Teachers, 398 ; Leather, 398 ; Wind, 401; Wafers, 403; Lead, 404; Iron, Copper, Silver, Gold, 405; Other Lessons on Objects, 406. HUMAN BODY 407-437 Training Lessons on the Human Body 409-418 The Human Body as a Whole, Parts of the Body, 409 ; Breath- ing, 410; The Blood, 411 ; Head and its Parts, 413; Face and its Parts, Trunk and its Parts, 414; Arms and the Parts, 415 ; Hand and its Parts, 416 ; Leg and its Parts, Foot and its Parts, 417 ; Review, 418 ; Suggestions for Teachers, 418. About the Bones of the Human Body 419-421 Shape and Number of Bones, Bones of the Trunk, 419 ; of the Arm and Hand, 420 ; of the Leg and Foot, 421. Organs of the Senses 422-430 The Eyes, 422 ; Eyelids, Parts of the Eye, 423 ; The Tears, Eyelashes, 424 ; Eyebrows, 425 ; The Ears, 426 ; The Nose, 427 ; The Mouth, its Uses and Parts, The Teeth, 428 ; Eat- ing, 429 ; Suggestions for Teachers, 430. The Shape, Uses, and Growth of Bones 431-434 The Skull, Backbone, 431 ; Ribs, 432 ; Shoulder-blades, Col- lar-bones, Growth of Bones, 433. Lessons about the Skin 435-437 Qualities and Parts of the Skin, 435 ; Color of, 436. MORAL TRAINING 438-448 Ideas of God as a kind Father . . 441 Ideas of God as the Maker of all Things 443 Ideas of the Soul 446 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. PRINCIPLES ON WHICH OBJECT TEACHING IS FOUNDED. The first step toward a preparation for the educa* tional training of cliildren should be to ascertain the nature of the mind, its condition in childhood, its natu- ral modes of development, and the processes best adapt- ed to secure a proper discipline of their faculties. When this is understood, it will be an easy matter to adapt instruction to them. As an introduction to this step, a few important facts may be stated as a basis for this educational training. 1. Our knowledge of the material w^orld is derived through the senses. Objects, and the various phenom* ena of the external world, are the subjects upon which the faculties are first exercised. 2. Perception is the first stage of intelligence. Pri- mary education naturally begins with the culture of the perceptive faculties. This culture chiefly consists in affording occasions and stimulants for their develop- ment, and in fixing perceptions in the mind by means of the representations furnished by language. 3. The existence of knowledge in the mind begins when resemblances and differences in objects are per* ceived. Knowledge increases in proportion to the in- creased ability for distinguishing resemblances and dif 16 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. ferences, and tlie capacity to classify and associate oh jects, experiences, and facts that resemble each other. 4. All the faculties are developed and invigorated by proper exercise ; they may be enfeebled by being over tasked, or by being exercised on subiects which do not come within their proper sphere. 5. Some of the mental powders are as active and near- ly as vigorous in the child as they are in the man. Among these are sensation, perception, observation, comparison, simple memory, and imagination. Other powers of the mind do not attain their full development until the child has arrived at the period of maturity. Among these are reason, philosophical memory, and generalization. 6. The natural and most healthful incentive to atten- tion and the acquisition of knowledge, with children, is the association of pleasure with instruction. Curiosity, or the desire of knowledge, and the love of the wonder- ful, are great actuating principles of early childhood, and their gratification is always accompanied by pleas- urable emotions. Children possess a natural craving for knowledge as well as for occupation. Success af- fords them pleasure. Self-dependence is another pow- erful agent of culture. V. Instruction should give pleasure to children, and where it does not there is something wrong, either in the mode of presenting it or in the subject-matter se- lected for instruction. 8. Habits of attention are permanent mainsprings of education. Habits are formed by the repetition of the same act. The great secret of securing the attention of children consists in arousing their curiosity^ and grat- ifying their love of activity ; in mingling delightful as- PRINCIPLES. 17 ^•ociations with learning, and never overtaxing their powers by keeping them too long directed upon the same object. 9. The natural process of education is from the sim- ple to the complex; from the known to the kindred unknown ; from facts to causes — thmgs before names : ideas before words ; principles before rules. A brief glance at the order and processes by which the mind gains knowledge, and at the steps to be taken in training the mental powers, may aid in making this subject of primary education more clearly understood. But I shall only attempt to present some of the leading mental powers which are employed by children in gain- ing knowledge, and to indicate the order in which these act. The senses furnish to the mind its means of contact with the external world. Through sensatio7is the mind gdiiw^ perceptions from the objects around it. Percep- tions lead to conceptions, or ideas, which are retained or recalled by memory. Imagination takes up the ideas formed through the perceptions, combines and presents them in new forms. Reason proceeds to investigate these ideas by more definite modes, Viwdi judgmeyit is the result. Again, seyisations give perceptions / attention to per- ceptions leads to observation. By means of observation, comparison, and classification of experiences and facts, knowledge is attained. It follows, then, that the first aim of the teacher, and of the parent, in primary instruction, should be to culti- vate in the child habits of accurate observation, and grouping together of like things. Such habits — clear perceptions, fixed attention, and careful observation and 2 18 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. ready classification — become a guaranty for the acqui sition of linowledge in after years. Nature suggests the true plan for accomplishing this desirable end in the course which the child itself pur- sues in the examination of the various objects which surround it. The instructor should fall in with the child's desire to know, and allow it to exercise its senses upon each new object presented to it, by seeing, feeling, "hearing, tasting, or smelling it, as the case may be. This is Nature's method of teaching, and man never has been able to improve it. By the use of its perceptive faculties on the objects around it, the child acquires a large stock of ideas before it goes to school. The teacher should begin instruction at the point at which the child has arrived when school-life begins, and lead the mind gradually forward from one degree of khowredge to another. She should begin with things that are familiar to the child, and lead it to use the knowledge already acquired in obtaining new ideas. Words and their uses will naturally succeed a knowl- edge of things, because language will be needed to ex- press the ideas derived from them. Here Nature's method may be perceived to be things before words. If, then, we would improve the language of a child, we miist first give it ideas, then words to enable it to ex- press those ideas. Sometimes children employ original terms to express their thoughts; these should be accepted, and, if faulty, let errors be pointed out and right words substituted. Whenever a new word or term is to be taught, the thing or idea of which the term is a sign should be ■taught first, and be understood by the pupil before the w^rd is presented. In all cases let the teacher present PRINCIPLES. 19 first a clear mental picture or idea of the object to her pupils, then its name will have a meaning which it would not otherwise possess, and, when used, it will call up a distinct conception before the mind. The opposite method — that of giving first the sign of the idea, and, as in many instances, only the sign or word — is opposed lo the first principles of education, and its results may be witnessed every day in the mere word knowledge of many schools. All our ideas are primarily derived from nature ; books merely represent the knowledge thus obtained ; therefore it must be evident that books instruct us only so far as we are able to connect the words contained in them with the ideas which those words represent. Since ideas are not derived primarily from words, but from things, it follows that our teaching should begin with things and ideas, and lead to principles. No man becomes a good farmer, or carpenter, or painter, or engineer, or surgeon from books alone; he must have ohservation and practice — in other words, ex- perience^ to make what he reads in books a living reality, so that words shall be to him as pictures representing those realities. If habits of accurate observation are ever attained, the foundation must be laid in childhood. Since chil- dren delight in natural knowledge — a knowledge of things — and since a constant impulse to know seems to urge them to acquire ideas of the objects about them, a little encouragement will lead them to employ this use- ful and divinely -implanted desire so that observation 9hall become a most valuable habit. Thousands of evi- dences exist around us proving that this noble impulse, if neglected or checked in childhood, becomes greatly JO PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. diminished in activity, even so far as almost to cease tc take notice of the beauty and wonders of the world. From the lack of habits of observing the properties of common things, and deriving therefrom those lessons to which such observation leads, the most lamentable errors are committed. Without this habit nature is a ?ealed book ; the varieties of animal and vegetable life appear but a mass of confusion ; the stars tell no won- ders, mark no seasons. To remedy this, habits of obser- vation must be commence 1 in infancy, carried forward in youth, and confirmed in manhood. If we would take for our guide in education those laws which God has prescribed for the development of mind, and follow them, we must begin with things^ and go from them to coords, teaching words as representa- tive symbols, or signs, of the things themselves. This course would render the path of the learner pleasant, as God intended the acquisition of knowledge should be. The most important period in education is that spent in the primary school Hence those who undertake the charge of training children during this period should be especially qualified for it; they should understand the cultivation of the senses, and know how to teach re«^ things, reed forms, real colors, real sounds, and words to represent them, and how to lead the mind to correct conceptions. Before teaching the word cid)e as the name of an object, they should see that the child is fa- miliar v>ith and can readily distinguish the form of a eube. Before teaching the word greeii as the name of a color, they should know that the child has a distinct idea of the color itself Instead of teaching first the words rough and smooth, and then their definitions, the mind should be made acquainted with the sensations of PKINCIPLES. 21 rough and smooth, and the words taught to enable it to express those sensations. ^ If teachers will learn to carry out this idea in all their j^rimary instructions, words and books will come to have a significance to the young which they seldom or never attain under other methods of ed- ucation. Observation teaches that the full use of our senses k to be acquired by suitable training. Their cultivation is one of the important duties of both the parent and the primary teacher. On this subject Miss Edgeworth justly remarks : "Rousseau has judiciously advised that the senses of children should be cultivated with the utmost care. In proportion to the distinctness of their perceptions will be the accuracy of their memory, and probably, also, the precision of their judgment. A child who sees im- perfectly can not reason justly about the objects of sight, because it has not sufficient data. A child who does not hear distinctly can not judge well of sound ; and if we could suppose the sense of touch to be twice as accurate in one child as in another, we might con- clude that the judgment of these children must differ in a similar proportion. "The defects in organization are not within the power of the instructor. We may observe that inattention and want of exercise are frequently the causes of what are mistaken for natural defects ; and, on the contrary, in- creased attention and cultivation sometimes produce that quickness of eye and ear, and that consequent readiness of judgment, which we are apt to attribute to natural superiority of organization or capacity." The more we spread and enlarge these roots of knowl- edge by such practical means, the more rapidly the future 22 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. tree will grow, and the more abundant and perfect wili be the fruits thereof "A little child has sensations which we ourselves had, but which we now forget. It walks in the world as we might do in a new country; the sky, the changing lights, every class of natural objects, give rise to new sensations, for each of which it seeks a name, and, long before it has words to characterize them, it is acquainted with many qualities and circumstances relating to them. But its faculties are chiefly employed upon those things most closely allied to its own nature. Every thing that lives has a special interest ; motion invariably attracts as a sign of life, but it is human society and all its relations that come home most fully to its sympathies."* Whatever the child sees done he wants to know about, and to do ; and so great is his love of the knowledge of actions, that be will gladly throw aside the playthings which delight him to watch his pa])a or mamma in op- erations where tools are employed. He wants to know about the food he eats; the uses of each article of furni- ture ; the uses of tools which he sees ; about his clothes ■ — how they are made ; and about every thing relative to man, animals, and plants. In fact, his curiosity is insatiable, because a knowledge of these things is nec- essary to existence and well-being. Now it is evident that by taking advantage of this propensity to know, while gratifying a natural desire, habits of observation may be established, a great amount of knowledge im- parted^ and, at the same time, the coyiception^ compari- S071, imagination^ reason^ and judgment cultivated, the ability for classifying and associating strengthened, and the foundation laid for a thoroughly practical education. * Young's Teacher's Manual. PRINCIPLES. 23 Books will never accomplish this; such training should precede books ; it is the work of the parent and of the primary teacher. To aid both in their endeavors to properly develop the minds of the children intrusted to their care is the design of this book. It is not ex- pected that these lessons will be followed literally; but it is hoped that they will serve to suggest methods adapted to the wants of teachers and parents undei the varying circumstances in which they may be placed, and lead them to instruct by system, in accordance with nature's laws for the acquisition of knowledge, rather than by mere experiments, unguided by system or law. No one is a master of the science of teaching until such skill has been attained as will give the ability to quickly ascertain not only what the child knows upon any subject, and what portion of this knowledge is clearly known, what part is faintly known, but what steps should be taken, and their order, that the subject may be properly known. Furthermore, the instructor must be able to determine v/hat was defective in the methods of teaching from their results alone, and to suggest readily methods adapted to correct the defects. When a teacher has become practically acquainted with a correct system and laws of instruction, all diffi. culties relative to what methods should be used in any given case will rapidly disappear. The laws of mental development are just as certain,, and may be as clearly understood, as the laws of phys- ical growth. A person is no better qualified to enter upon the duties of a teacher without knowing these mental laws, and understanding a system of teaching in accordance with them, than one would be to under take the duties of a physician who knew nothing of the lawB of health and the philosophy of medicine. 24 PKIMAliY OBJECT LESSONS. HOME TKAINING OF THE SENSES. The importance of a proper cultivation of the senses by means of home training can not be over-estimated. The mind of the child has access to the material world only through its senses. It is through these doors and windows that all knowledge of the world can be ac- quired. These senses need cultivation by suitable ex- ercise to enable the mind to act through them with readiness and clearness. When no attention is given to the training of the senses, it often happens that some of them receive so little exercise that they fail to attain their full power of activity. Sometimes it is found that for want of suitable attention the sense of hearing is very imper- fect, and, in consequence, the child is called stupid, when the difficulty exists in its not having been trained to perceive sounds readily and clearly. This condition may exist with other senses, and the child be considered dull, and slow to learn, simply in consequence of not having been trained to use its senses properly. During the period of home training all the senses should receive due attention — smelling, tasting, and feeling, as well as seeing and hearing. It is especially important that the senses of smelling, tasting, and feel- ing should be carefully trained at home, since the op- portunities are very limited for their cultivation in school, where the exercises chiefly pertain to seeing and hearing. HOME TRAINING OF THE SENSES. 25 The promiiieiit characteristics of early childhood should be carefully observed^ and plans adapted for home training in accordance with them. Among these characteristics will be found activity, a fondness for handling things, and a desire to try to do what older persons do. No better training can be given to the child, before it is old enough to go to school, than to furnish the means to enable it to exercise these charac- teristics in such a manner as to lead to a proper train- ing of the several senses. The ojjportunities for such home training are of daily occurrence. Favorable circumstances for such exer- cises should be seized whenever and wherever they arise, in the kitchen, dining-room, parlor, garden, field, or the street. Wherever they go, children might thus be trained to observe, and to acquire knowledge, and find entertainment. Where there are two or three children in the family, it will be often found desirable to arrange exercises by which they can join in these sense-training le&sons. The following lessons are presented to suggest meth ods for arranging exercises for home training of the senses. Other plans may be devised by the parent that would be equally useful, should the end to be at- tained be kept properly in view. EXERCISES FOR TRAINING THE SENSE OF SIGHT. The sense of sight may be cultivated by distinguish' ing shapes of objects, or their size, length, width, color, etc. Any plans by which shapes, sizes, lengths, widths, or colors may be compared by children will aid in tho training of this sense. 26 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Rapid Vision.— I let a child be led througli a room, and then requested to tell what it saw in the room. Repeat this, and let it tell what other objects it saw. Let children stand before a shop window for a min- ute, and afterward tell what they saw. EXERCISES FOR TRAINING THE SENSE OF HEARING. To distinguish Objects by their Sound. — Let a bell, a tumbler, and a bowl be struck lightly with a table-knife, and the child led to notice the difference in their sounds. Then let the child turn its back toward these objects while each is struck again as before, and then tell which object is struck by its sound alone. Other objects may be used in the same manner, and the child trained to distinguish them by sounds also. To distinguish the Location of Objects. by Sound. — Let a small bell be struck in different parts of a room, and children be requested to tell where the bell was sound- ed each time. It might be struck under a table, under a chair, near the floor, behind a child, then near the ceil- ing, in a box, in a closet, in a distant corner of the room. A child might be blindfolded, and a bell rung near it on one side, then far away on the same side ; then near behind it, then far away behind it ; then near and far on the other side ; then near and far in front, and the child required to tell in what position the bell was each time it was rung. To distinguish high, low, loud, and soft Sounds. — Three tumblers, each having a marked difference in tone, may be struck lightly, and the children required HOME TRAINING OF THE SENSES. 27 to notice the sound belonging to each. Then, while the eyes of the children are closed, let each tumbler be struck, and each child requested to tell which tumbler was sounded. In a similar manner children may be led to distin- guish high and low sounds. To distinguish loud, soft, and faint sounds, let loud, soft, and faint raps be made on a door, on a table, on a tumbler, on the wall. Each might be struck with the same object, then all with different objects. Finally, let the children distinguish which object is used for strik- ing by the sound produced. Children should also be led to imitate high and low, loud and soft sounds, with their voices. To distinguish Persons by Voice and by Footsteps.— Let children be trained to distinguish different members of the family by their voice, when they speak but a single word. They may also be led to distinguish the foot- steps of each member of the family. EXERCISES FOR TRAINING THE SENSE OF TASTE. To distinguish common Objects by their Taste. — Let children taste very small portions of the following articles of food without seeing them, and tell what each is, viz. : Bread, cake, cheese, butter, meat, pota- to, turnip, apple, peach, grape, plum, pear, salt, sugar, tea, coffee, milk, water, vinegar, etc. Let them also learn to distinguish fruits, nuts, berries, etc., by their taste. To distinguish Sour Substances.— Let the children 28 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. learn the taste of vinegar, lemon, sour apple, currants, pie-plant, etc., and then by taste alone distinguish each of these, and other sour substances. To distinguish Pungent Substances. — Let the children ieani the taste of common pepper, spice, cloves, horse- radish, cinnamon, peppermint, etc., and then to distin- guish them by taste, without seeing them. To distinguish Astringent Substances. — Let children taste of alum, a choke-cherry, an unripe persimmon, a piece of oak bark, and, when they clearly distinguish the puckery taste, tell them that all things that taste like these are said to be astringent. Then let them distin- guish a few substances by their astringent taste, and this quality will be understood, and never forgotten. To distinguish Bitter Substances. — Children may ac- quire z knowledge of a bitter quality by tasting of gentian, myrrh, Peruvian bark, wormwood, rue, quassia, uloes, hops, tansy, or other bitter substances. To distinguish Salt and Sugar. — Place a little dry white sugar in one paper, and in another a little salt. Let the child smell of each, then feel of each, then taste of each. Then ask it. Do these taste alike ? Do they feel alike? Do they smell alike? Has the salt any smell? Are both of the same color? Which do you like better, salt or sugar? Would you like to eat as much salt as you do of sugar? How can you tell which is sugar? HOME TRAINING OF THE SENSES. 29 EXERCISES FOR TRAINING THE SENSE OF SMELL. 1. Place successively before the child several objects, and let it tell what they are without seeing or feeling them, as cheese, coffee, onion, turnip, a rose, a pink, a ripe apple, an orange, vinegar, leather, sugar, etc. 2. A variety of flowers may thus be placed succes- sively before the nose of a child, and it requested to tell the name of each. 3. The children should be led to notice objects that they can not smell, as salt, glass, alum, iron, etc. 4. Arrange substances possessing strong odors, as camphor, peppermint, cinnamon, cologne, onion, and let the children tell their names without seeins^ them. EXERCISES FOR TRAINING THE SENSE OF TOUCH. To distinguish Objects by Touch. — Place in a small bag several objects, as marbles, tops, knife, buttons, cents, pencils, key, pieces of cloth, and paper; then request a child to put its hand in the bag, take hold of one object, then tell what it is, without seeing it, and before remov- ing it from the bag. When the name has been given by the child, the object may be taken out, and, if the right name was given, the child may keep the object, and draw another in the same manner. Should the wrong name be given, the object must be returned to the bag. Where there are two or more children, they may take turns, each naming and drawing out one object. When a child makes a mistake in naming it, the object must be returned to the basr, and that child should wait until 30 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. each of the other children have guessed the name of ar object and drawn it from the bag before it di'avvs an other. When all the articles have thus been drawn from the bag, each child may count them, and see which has drawn out the greatest number. Lumps of sugar, salt, and pieces of stone and wood may be placed in the bag, and the children requested to distinguish each by feeling, as before. Children may hold their hands behind them, and a small object be placed in one hand of each, and they be requested to tell the name of it. Let a child be blindfolded, and try to tell the names of articles placed on a table before it by touching them. To distinguish Persons by Touch. — When several chil dren are together, one may be blindfolded, and then try to distinguish the others by feeling of their clothes and hands. Let a child try to distinguish the members of the family by feeling of their hands, then by feeling of their faces. To distinguish Coins by Touch. — Place several coins ir^ a small bag or in a pocket, as one-cent, two-cent, three- cent, and five-cent pieces, and let the child distinguish them by feeling. Each coin may be drawn from the bag or pocket after its name has been given, but it must be returned when the wrong name is given. To distinguish Grains by Touch.— Several kinds of grain may be put into different bags, as wheat, oats, peas, corn, beans, etc., and the child requested to tell the name of each kind by feeling it. HOME TRAINING OF THE SENSES. 31 To distinguish Rough and Smooth Objects.— Arrange several articles that differ in smoothness and rough- ness, as pieces of silk, cotton, and woolen cloth, brown paper, writing-paper, lough and smooth pieces of wood, pieces of stone, metals, etc., and request the children to select the smooth articles, and place them in one group, and the rough articles, and place them in an= other group. To distinguish Hard and Soft Substances.— Arrange on a table several substances, as cork, pine, oak, lead, cop- per, iron, stone, glass, leather, rubber, and let the chil- dren select, hy feeling, the three softest articles, also the three hardest. Let them select all that are softer than lead, and place them on the left side of it; then all that are harder than lead, and place those on the right side of it. Place several substances before the children, and let them ascertain, by scratching each with a piece of cop- per, which are harder than copper, and which are softer than copper. To distinguish Warm and Cold Substances. — Arrange several substances on a table, as cotton, linen, and wool- en cloth, different kinds of wood, stone, lead, iron, glass, and let the children touch each, and say which they think feel cold, and which warm. To distinguish Size of Objects by Touch.— Place three objects, differing but little in size, in the hands of a blindfolded child, and request it to select the largest one. Place objects of the same shape and size, and objects of the same shape but of different size, in a bag, and let 32 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. children sc4ect and draw ont two of the same size, theij two of a different size. Objects of different sliapes, but of nearly the same size, may be placed in the same bag with the last lot, and the child led to select like sizes, then like shapes, then like sha])e and size. The sense of touch may also be improved by allowing children to compare the thickness of objects by feeling, as a thick and a thin book, a thick and a thin piece of paper or piece of cloth, a thick and a thin stick, a large and a small string. To distinguish Leaves by Touch. — Encourage children to learn the feeliiig of different kinds of leaves, and of the blades of grass and grains. They may be requested to distinguish these by touch alone. The exercises already mentioned will suggest a va- riety of methods for training the sense of touch. And, in addition to those now given, children should be trained to distinguish substances that are slippery, sticky, light, heavy, etc. On all suitable occasions they should be allowed to touch different objects, and to tell how they feel. But care should also be taken to secure a proper training in discriminating ichat and when they should not touch. HOME EXERCISES FOR TRAINING THE HAND. Let the children open and shut their hands; shut all the fingers of the right hand except the forefinger and thumb; then the same, of the left hand ; then all except a little finger on each hand ; then all but the little fin- ger and the forefinger, etc. HOME TRAINING OF THE SENSES. 33 Balancing. — Let children try to balance small objects on the tip of a finger, as a cent, a pencil, a pocket-knife, sticks, etc. Tying Knots. — Let children learn to tie a simple knot in a single string ; then a simple knot with two strings side by side ; then to join two strings together by a square knot ; then two strings may be united by a loop- knot. Children should also be taught to tie single and double bow-knots, such as are used in tying their shoe- strings, also their neck-ties. Doing up Parcels. — Children may be taught to tie up small parcels neatly, as books, pieces of cloth, a few pebbles or beans ; also sand, peas, or small grains, in parcels of a conical shape, such as grocers use. Cutting and Folding Paper. — Let children be shown how to cut and fold papers to form small boxes, boats, hats, baskets, garments, houses, etc. ; also folding slips of paper for lighting candles or gas. Cat's Cradle is a good game for exercising the fingers of children. HOME TRAINING IN FORM. Ideas of form may be developed by means of the toys furnished for the child's amusement at home. For this purpose a box of cubes and a box of brick-shaped blocks should be supplied. The brick-shaped blocks should be made of some hard wood, as cherry or maple, and be about four inches long by two inches wide, and one 3 34 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSOXS. inch thick. The child can soon be taught to pile them up, break joints in imitation of brick-work. For a boy of two or three years of age no toys can be furnished that will afford more amusement, and continue for so long a time to occupy his attention without apparent fatigue. When the boy has played with these blocks for a few weeks, it will astonish one to notice the vari- ety of square and oblong structures, towers, pyramids, bridges, arches, gateways, walls, forts, chimneys, etc., that he will construct with them. Crandall's building blocks also serve a similar pur- pose of amusement and observation in shape. Tliese are made so that the different pieces may be joined to- gether at the ends, and the structure may be carried about without falling to pieces. A toy known as a Chinese puzzle, or tangram, rep- resented below, will also be found useful in this home training in form. The tan- gram may be made of paste- board, or wood, or metal. It consists of seven pieces, as seen in the accompanying illustration representing it in the form of a large square. On the opposite page may be seen two squares formed with the same pieces. With the seven pieces that constitute the tangram many hundred figures may be constructed. First the child should be directed to form the two small squares ; afterward the large one. When it can form these readily, various outlines of figures may be given to be imitated by arranging the several pieces. In ad' HOME TRAINING OF THE SENSES. 35 The Chinese Tany;ram. dition, otlier forms may be arranged according to the child's fancy. It is said tliat the tangram was one of the amusements of Napoleon. On the following page are a few of the figures that may be arranged from the tangram. HOME TRAINING IN COLOR. To distinguish Colors. — Let the children arrange pieces of silk, ribbon, cloth, paper, or worsteds, of vari- ous colors, in groups of red colors, blue colors, green colors, yellow colors, purple colors, without any distinc- tion of light and dark reds, blues, etc. To name the principal Color of Objects. — Let the chih dren name the principal colors in their articles of dress, in objects about the room, as cai'pets, mats, etc. To arrange Flowers of like Colors. — In the summer en- courage children to notice the colors of flowers; also to arrange together flowers of like colors. To arrange Colors in Order. — Place colors in order., as red, orange, yellow, blue, green ; or green, red, orange, blue, and let childreo arrange colors in the same order. 36 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Chicken. Fruit-dish. Goose. ^r~f--. i Chinamau. Mau iu a Boat. HOME TRAINING OF THE SENSES. 37 HOME TRAINING IN NUMBER. first Steps in Counting, — Teach children to count their fingers, to count marbles, apples, nuts, buttons, blocks, cents, pebbles, chairs, and other objects, as far as ten, in order. Let them walk and count their steps. They should also count trees, cows, sheep, horses, panes of glass in a window, steps in stairs, etc. After becoming familiar with counting to -ten, let them be taught to count as far as twenty. Care should be taken to te-ach children ' counting of objects before they are allowed to learn counting by rote. Lead them to notice the resemblance between one, two, three, four, five, etc., and twenty-one, twenty-two, twenty-three, twenty-four, twenty-five, etc. One evening, when my little girl could read only a few simple words, she came to me with aa arithmetic, and asked, " What are these ?" at the same time point- ing to a group of figures arranged as follows : 1 2 3 4 5 6 H i 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 8 9 10 Requesting her to hold up one finger, I pointed to the 1, and said, "That is th^ figure one?'' Then asking her to hold up two fingers, I pointed at 2, and said, "That \^ figure ^z/;o." After proceeding in this manner as far as the 4, 1 began at 1 again, pointing at the figures, and saying, " Figure 1, figure 2, figure 3, etc. See, this is the way you count ; and the names of these figures are what you say when you count one^ two^ three, four, etc." As I came to the 4 this time, she comprehended the re- lation between the figures and counting, and at once 38 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. pointed out and named 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. In less than fifteen minutes she could name either of these figures in any order. This was her first lesson. In a few days I requested her to place in groups as many pieces of money as each figure represented. OTHER HOME EXERCISES. Children should be supplied with a variety of attract- ive and instructive games and puzzles for home amuse- ment, as "fox and geese," "garrison game," " solitaire," "checkers," "Jack-straws," etc. And for out-of-door sports, top, kite, bat and ball, hoops, croquet, sleds, skates, etc. Such games, puzzles, and amusements as lead children to habits of quick perception, or give skill to the eye, ear, or hand, when properly participated in, tend to develop the powers of both mind and body. SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. Teachers will find many children in school who have had no home training of the senses, and who seem to have made but little progress toward a ready use of these powers which God gave them, that they might learn what is in this world into which they have come to dwell. To prepare such chikiren for a proper introduction to the lessons of school, the teacher will need to perform much of the work of training which ought to have been done by the jjarent, and in such cases many of the foregoing exercises for home training will suggest meth- ods that may be used for similar work in school. Language can not be understood until pupils have been taught to observe th«ir sensa tions. INTRODUCTORY SCHOOL LESSONS. 31i INTEODUCTOKY SCHOOL LESSONS FOR CULTIVATING OBSERVATION AND THE USE OF LANGUAGiL CONVERSATIONAL EXERCISES. The child's first school lessons should be con versa* tional, and miparted in the simplest manner, with an aim to awaken the mind, develop habits of observation, and train pupils in the use of language. This work should be preparatory to a more definite knowledge of form, color, number, and of printed words. That subject in which the child manifests the great- est interest is the one about which the conversations should commence, and indicates the point where that child's instruction should begin. As the lessons pro- ceed, the interest in that particular subject may be made the key-note for drawing attention to other sub- jects having a kindred interest. Conversations about things at home — every -day things — will usually prove interesting. These lessons should be conducted without formality. The children may be led to talk about the things which they daily see, and use, or wear, and to ask and answer questions concerning them. Those subjects should be chosen at first that are very simple, and with which both children and teacher are familiar. 1. Suppose the teacher's first conversation with the children be about a cat : let her ask how many feet a 40 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. cat has ; how many ears ; what a cat does ; what a cat is good for. Encourage them to talk about their cat. Similar inquiries may be made about a dog. Care should be taken to encourage children to tell about whatever thing may form the topic for conversation. 2. They may be led to talk about their playthings, and tell what they have, and what they do with them, and who gave them their playthings. 3. As children are fond of telling what they have seen, let them tell what they saw on their way to school; what birds they have seen; what animals they have seen, and where they saw them. 4. After a few familiar conversations of this kind, which win confidence and remove restraints upon the expression of their thoughts, let them be led a little far- ther, and asked to name some objects that have a com- mon use ; as, what things are used to sit upon ? " Chair, sofa, stool, bench," probably would be the reply. Ask where they sit upon sofas, where on chairs, where- on stools, where on benches. 5. What things are worn on the hands? "Mitts, gloves, mittens, rings, muffs." Who wear mitts ? Who wear gloves? When are mittens worn? How are rings worn ? When are muffs used ? 6. What things are worn on the feet? "Stockings, slippers, shoes, boots, overshoes." Why are stockings worn? When are slippers worn? Who wear shoes? Who wear boots ? When are overshoes worn ? What else is worn on the feet ? 1. What things are worn on the head ? " Cap, hat, bonnet." Who wear hats? Who wear bonnets ? Do girls wear caps ? 8. What things can you see in the schoolroom that INTRODUCTORY SCHOOL LESSONS. 41 are made of wood ? " Chair, bench, table, desk, floor." For what is the table used ? For what are the desks used ? Do you think the scholars could walk in the schoolroom without a floor ? What, then, is its use? 9. What things are seen in the sky ? " Sun, moon, stars, clouds, rainbow." When may you see the sun? Point where the sun is in the morning. Point where the sun is at sunset. When do you see the moon ? Can you see the moon every night ? Can you see more than one moon ? Can you see more than one star at one time ? Do you see the stars in the daytime ? When can you see clouds ? Did you ever see a rainbow ? 10. Tell me the names of some articles of dress. " Coat, vest, pantaloons, gown, apron." Do girls wear coats and vests ? Who wear pantaloons ? Who wear aprons ? Who wear gowns ? Of what are coats made ? Of what are gowns made? Are vests made of calico? Are aprons made of cloth like that used for coats ? In conducting these Conversational Exercises^ care should be taken to select at first those things with which the children are familiar, and not to lead them to observe things which are beyond their comprehen- sion. The course may be pursued for some time, grad- ually taking up subjects which require a wider range of observation, as the pupils become more capable of telling w^hat they have seen, and thus they may be led to a more thorough and definite knowledge of all the ordinary objects around them. Exercises of this character are especially adapted to children that have not learned to read ; and they may be introduced with profit in immediate connection with their reading lessons. They are also ap|)ropriate to in- troduce as occasio7ial exercises^ for variety, or to fill up 42 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS, the time usually devoted to a lesson, which, from some cause, has not occupied the full time assigned to it. The following notes of conversations will suggest some of the methods that may be used in this class of lessons. CONVERSATION ABOUT A KNIFE. Teacher (holding a pocket-knife before a class, says). What is this ? , Children, "A knife." T. What can 1 do with it ? (7. *' Cut with it ; whittle ; make things." T, I have now closed the knife; can I cut with it now? C " No ; you must open it." T, How do people carry a knife of this kind ? C. "In a pocket." T. Did you ever see any other kind of knife ? C. "Yes; a dinner-knife, a table-knife, a tea-knife." T. Which is longer, the dinner-knife or the pocket- knife ? C. " The dinner-knife." T. What do we do with a dinner-knife? C. " Eat with it." T. Is the dinner-knife good to use in whittling V €, "No; it is not sharp." CONVERSATION ABOUT A CAP. Teacher (showing a boy's cap to the class). What is this? INTRODUCTORY SCHOOL LESSONS. 43 Children. " A cap." T. What is it good for ? C. " To wear on the head." T. Who wear caps? 6'. "Boys wear them; and sometimes men wear ^hem." T. When do men and boys wear caps ? C. " When they go out of doors." T. Why do they wear caps when they go out oi doors ? C " To keep the head warm." T. Do all boys wear caps ? G. '*No; some wear hats." 7! What is this cap made of? CONVERSATION ABOUT A BALL. Teacher (showing the children a rubber ball, a ball of wood, a ball of yam, marbles, etc.). Which of these is larger — the rubber ball, or the marble ? Children. ''The rubber ball." T. What is a ball good for? C. "To play with." T. What can a boy do with a ball ? C " Throw it ; knock it ; bounce it." T. Which had you rather have, this ball of wood, or the rubber ball ? CONVERSATION ABOUT A STOVE. Teacher (pointing to a stove in the room, says). What is this ? Children. " A stove." 44 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. T. What is it used for? (7. "To make afire in." T, Why do we make a fire in it ? C, "To keep us warm." T. What do we put in the stove to make a fire? C, T. Will the stove burn up ? a "No; it is iron." T. Did you ever see a stove in any other place ? C. " Yes ; at home." T, What is the use of the stove at home ? C "To cook with, and warm the room." Conversations somewhat like the foregoing might b^ had upon the following and similar subjects : Bread. Apple. Snow. Cake. Orange. Ice. Pie. Peach. Rain. Cheese. Pear. Slate. Butter. Cherry. Chair. Milk. Plum. Table. Sugar. Grape. Bell. Fork. Spoon. Shoe. Horse. Cat. Cow. Dog. Sheep. Cart. The children should also be taught to tell theit names; the name of the street in which they live; the names of their parents and of their brothers and sisters; the days of the week; to know their right and left hands ; in what city or town they live. It will be observed that these simple conversational exercises might be extended almost without a limit ; also that the interest of the pupils can be awakened IISTRODUCTORY SCHOOL LESSONS. 45 and kept alive by such variations as will readily sug. gest themselves to the ingenious teacher. Sometimes it might add interest to these exercises to tell the chil- dren beforehand what object will be talked about for the next lesson ; but this should be done only where it affords the class additional pleasure, and with subjects for which the children show great interest. Children possess active minds ; they are constantly changing from one thing to another, and it must not be expected that they can consider a subject for a consid- erable length of time, as older persons do, or that they would think much about a lesson, should they be told what it will be, before they are called upon to talk about it, especially if they do not manifest more than ordinary interest in it. It requires skill on the part of the teacher to keep up a lively interest, even during a class exercise, when the subject has all the attraction of novelty. The teachers who possess tact^ and an enthusiastic love of their work, will succeed. Such teachers will derive most benefit from these suggestions, and upon them must chief reliance be placed for a successful in- croduction into our schools of methods for cultivating habits of accurate observation, and more thorough training of the mental powers through the processes of acquiring knowledge. The importance of cultivating such habits in child- hood, and the consequent love for nature, are beautiful- ly expressed in the folloAving words from an article on the "Cultivation of the Perceptive Faculties,'* by Prof William Russell, published in BarnarcVs Journal of Education : " The * pliant hour' must be taken for all processes of miental budding, grafting, or pruning, as well as in those 46 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. of the orchard. An early dip into the study of nature will serve to saturate the whole soul with a love for it so strong as to insure the prosecution of such subjects for life. The season is auspicious ; the senses are fresh and susceptible ; the mind is awake ; the heart is alive ; the memory is retentive; nature is yet a scene of nov- elty and delight ; and application is a pleasure. The twig may now be bent in the direction in which the tree is to be inclined." HABlTb OF TUINKING AND SPEAKING PROMPTLY. 47 EXERCISES FOR TRAINING IN HABITS OF THINKING AND SPEAKING PKOMPTLY, AND A CORRECT USE OF LANGUAGE. It is of great importance to have children trained to think quickly, and speak promptly, and use language correctly. Exercises suitable for pupils during their fi'st and second years of school attendance ought to be introduced into every primary school, for the attain- ment of these habits. Such training might properly succeed the " Conversational Exercises." The following descriptions of methods will suggest means by which skillful teachers may accomplish this desirable object, and also lead children to notice their sensations. What I can See. — Request each child, in turn, to stand up quickly and tell the name of something that it can see in the class-room, as " I can see the blackboard ;" " I can see the table ;" " I can see a chair ;" " I can see a piece of chalk ;" " I can see a book ;" " I can see m^ teacher." The pupils should be so trained that no time will be lost betw'een the sitting down of one child and the get- ting up of the next. Each child should be trained to speak instantly after rising, or sit down, and the next pupil take the turn. After a few days the pupils may be allowed to men- tion the names of things that they have seen out of 48 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. school, as : "I saw a horse ;" "I saw a wagon ;" "I saw a cow;" "I saw a car;" "I saw a bird." This exercise should teach pupils 7iot to say " I seen." What I can Hear. — " I can hear my teacher speak ;" " I can hear the bell ;" " I can hear a piano ;" " I can hear a wagon ;" " I can hear a car ;" " I can hear Lucy speak." Subsequently the pupils may be requested to tell what they have heard, as : "I heard a bird sing ;" " I heard a fire-bell;" "I heard a mouse nibbling;" "1 heard a lady singing," etc. What I can Taste. — " I can taste an apple ;" " I can taste an orange ;" " I can taste a peach ;" " I can taste candy ;" " I can taste pie ;" " I can taste a banana ;" " I can taste bread," etc. T^iis exercise may be changed, and the pupils required to tell what they can eat, as : "I can eat meat ;" " I can eat cheese ;" " I can eat cake ;" " I can eat pie ;" " I can eat an apple," etc. What I can Smell. — " I can smell an orange ;" " I can smell cheese ;" " I can smell an apple ;" " I can smell an onion ;" " I can smell wintergreens ;" " I can smell peppermint;" "I can smell camphor;" "I can smell cinnamon," etc. What I can Feel.—" I can feel my book ;" " I cati feel my slate ;" " I can feel my pencil ;" " I can feel my finger ;" " I can feel my hair ;" " I can feel a chair;" " I can feel ice ;" " I can feel water ;" " I can feel the wind," etc. HABITS OF THINKING AND SPEAKING PKOMPTJ.Y. 49 What I can Do.—" I can talk ;" " I can read ;" " T can play ;" "I can walk ;" " I can run ;" " I can jump ;" " I can sing;" "I can spell;" "I can jump the lope;" "1 can play ball ;" " I can skate ;" " I can ride on a horse ;" " I can ride in a wagon ;" " I can sweep ;" " I can sew ;" " I can wash dishes ;" " I can wash my face and hands ;" " I can comb my hair," etc. Where I can G-o. — " I can go to school ;" " I can go to church;" "I can go home;" "I can go to tlie grocery store ;" " I can go to the baker's ;" " I can go to mar- ket;" "I can go to the park;" "I can go to a shoe store ;" " I can go to my cousin's ;" " I can go to my uncle's;" "I can go to my grandmother's;" "I can go in the country," etc. How I can Go. — " I can walk to church ;" " I can walk to school ;" " I can run to the store ;" " I can ride in a stage to my cousin's ;" " I can ride in a horse-car to my uncle's ;" " I can ride in a steam-boat to my grandmoth- er's." What I would like to Have. — " I would like to have a new book ;" " I would like to have a pair of new slioes ;" "I would like to have a new dress;" "I would like to have some candy;" "I would like to have my dinner;" " I would like to have a watch ;" " I would like to have a new knife," etc. What I can Wear. — " I can wear a hat ;" " I can wear a cap ;" " I can wear a coat ;" " I can wear shoes ;" " I can wear boots ;" " I can wear a dress ;" "I can wear a shawl ;" '' I can wear an apron ;" " I can wear a cloak," etc. 4 60 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. The teacher may arrange similar exercises, by which the pupils will tell what they do not like to see ; what they do not like to hear; what they do not like to taste ; what they do not like to smell ; what they do not like to feel; what they do not like to do; where they do not like to go, etc. It would also be well for the teacher to ask the chil- dren to tell the names of some things that they can not see ; of some that they can not hear; of some that they can not taste ; of those they can not smell ; of those they can not feel; also to tell what they can not do, and where they can not go. These or similar exercises might be used occasion- ally with profit during the first two years of school at tendance. FORM. Form and Color are the two properties of objects which are the most distinctive to children. Both ap- peal to the sight, and are early and generally recog- nized. Both appear in great variety every where, and therefore aiford ample scope for training children in ob- servation. These properties should receive an impor- tant place in the course of primary instruction. Children learn to group objects of like shapes accu- rately more readily than they do those of like colors. The young child learns to distinguish objects chiefly by l\\Q\v forms. It is this property, in its simplest con- ceptions, which attracts the attention of very young children to the things about them. By means of the resemblances and difierences in the shape of those ob- jects that are repeatedly brought before the eyes of a young child, it learns to distinguish the spoon from the cup, the knife from the fork, the plate from the bowl, the chair from the table, the cap from the hat, the glove from the muff, the boot from the shoe, the book from the slate, the cat from the dog, the horse from the cow, the sheep from the pig, long before it has acquired a knowledge of the other properties of these objects. Form is the most suitable quality with which to com- mence lessons for training children to observe with careful attention and accuracy the distinguishing prop- erties of objects. Ideas of shape may be represented by clear and simple descriptions and definitions, conse- quently these ideas may be easily made subjects of 62 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. early instruction, as well as a means of discipline in habits of accurate observation. Experience shows us that it is better to commence lessons on objects by teaching each conspicuous prop- erty separately, so that a distinct impression shall be made, and the idea of the given property understood, before the child is required to recognize several prop* erties in combination. Among the early perceptions of children are those of form, color, sound, number, size, motion, taste, cold.^ and heat. Each of these should receive due attention, but none of them is so well adapted for training young pupils to notice every thing which they see outside of the schoolroom as form. Perhaps the next in order of adaptation are color, sound, number, size, and motion. To teach the names of forms may be deemed some- what arbitrary, yet it is far less so than to teach chil- dren the letters before teaching them words. By exer- cising a little skill in illustrating each shape with a va- riety of objects, diagrams on cards and on the black- board, and teaching its name after its form is clearly recognized, these lessons will prove attractive and in- teresting even to young children. In all the lessons on form several objects should be associated with each shape taught, by requiring the children to recognize the shape in objects about the room, and to mention others that they have seen which resemble the given form. It does not produce a proper development of the powers of mind to show an object, and point out and name its shape ; the child must be trained to distin- guish the form, and taught to use its name. Herein lie the principal differences between modes of teaching in FORM. 53 common use. By one mode the teacher continually tells the pupils, simply pouring words into their ears, without considering whether this is the best avenue to the mind, or whether the children understand the mean- ing of the words which are thus communicated. By an- other method the teacher trains the pupils to use their own powers of mind. in obtaining knowledge, thus mak- ing their school education practically available through life. The mode of teaching employed by those whose main object seems to be telling their pupils, and expecting them to remember, makes the mind a passive recipient of words, like a bag being filled ; and it leaves the mind almost as incapable of adding more knowledge to its stores, as the bag of increasing its own contents. The other method of teaching trains all the powers of the mind to greater activity, and thus accustoms children to observe more carefully every thing around them, and leads them to acquire knowledge in such a manner that it becomes most practically useful to them in after life. Methods of teaching the lessons on Form properly will lead unconsciously to the use of better modes of instruction in other subjects. The teacher who care- fully observes the spirit of these lessons on form, and acquires skill in presenting them, will teach reading and writing, arithmetic and geography, better, because of the influence of these lessons on both teacher and pupils. Very little importance should be placed on repeating the names of forms, but a great deal upon the actual se- lection and classification of the objects by their differ- ent shapes. It is the seeing, comparing, and grouping 54 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. that perfects knowledge in this department of educa tion ; not the repetition of names merely. All of these should be combined; the child should be led to see, taught to compare^ trained to do^ and required to tell what it sees and does. APPARATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING FORM. Whenever the lessons are commenced for teaching the names of forms, there should be provided a box* containing plane formr,, as triangles, squares, polygons ; and solids, as sphere, spheroid, cone, co- noid, ovoid, cylinder, cube, pyramids, etc., etc. There should also be Chartst to illustrate the lines and forms. In the absence of any bet- ter apparatus for illustrating form, i\\Q plane figures may be cut from pasteboard, and the solids from potatoes or turnips ; and the lines might be drawn on the blackboard. But models of the regular Forms and Solids are indispensable in teaching children correct ideas of their respective shapes. The following diagrams are intended to illustrate, in their appro- priate groups, such shapes of lines, plane forms, and solids as the teacher will have occasion to use in the course of lessons on Form given in the succeeding pages. Shapes of Lines, straight lino. / Crooked line. Curved line. Wave line. Spiral line. * A box of "New Forms for Object Teaching" has been manufactured ex- pressly for this new edition. t "Charts of Lines and Forms" have been prepared for illustrating the leeaons on this subject by Mr. Calkins, and published by Harper & Brothers. FORM. Position of Lines, Horizontal line. 55 Slanting Vertical line. line. Perpendicular line. (( Parallel lines. N'ames of Lines ^V^ other Positions. ^ Circumference. Arc. Diameter. Shapes of Corners. Names of Angles, Acute angle. Right angle. Radius. L Stiarp corner. Square corner. Blunt corner. Round corner. Obtuse angle. 56 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSON^ Plane Fomis with Three straight (Sides. Equilateral triangle. Right-angled triangle. Isosceles triangle. Obtuse-augled triangle. Scalene triangle. Plane Forms with Four straight Sides. Square. Oblong. Rhomb. Rhomboid. Trapezium. Trapezoid. Plane Forms tcith 7nany straight Sides. Pentagon. Hexagon. Heptagon. Octagon. Nonagon. Decagon. FORM. ^^ Plane Forms with curved Sides. Circle. Ellipse. Oval. Riug- ( t. Curves ir.augle. Farts of Plane curved P'orms. Quadrant. begiueiit. A Sectoi . Semicircle. Cube. Solids. Triangular prism. Square prism. Bexagoiial prism. iiiiilll Square pyramid. Triangular pyramid, Sphere. Hemispher Prolate Spheiokl. gblate Hpher;):cl 58 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. Ovoid. Cyliuder. L GONIGRAPH. Couoid. The gonigraph is a small instrument resembling somewhat a jointed carpenter's rule, but made so as to bend in only two directions. It ia made with several short rulers, or joints of iron or brass, fastened to- gether by pivots. With it may be formed all the geometrical figures that consist of straight lines and angles, some of which are illustrated by the accompanying engravings : Square. Rhumb. Triaugie. ^. Parallelogram. v^ Octagon. Pcutagou. LESSONS ON FOKM. 59 LESSONS ON FORM: WHEN TO TEACH THEM.— WHICH FIRST. To know what to teach, hoio to teach, and when to teach are the chief wants of the instructor. Especially is this the condition when "object lessons" are to be given. With a view of showing what should be taught first^ and what should follow this in order, thus indica- ting when to teach a given fact or lesson, the following exercises on Form have been arranged in Steps. In all cases, each step of a subject should be taken in its order ^ and no exercise of a second or third step should be given until the pupils have been made familiar with tha first step of that subject. However, the ^rs^ steps of several subjects may be taken before the second step of either is commenced; and the second steps of sever- al subjects maybe taken before Xh^ first steps of others are taken. This will appear plainer by the following ORDER OF LESSONS FOR CITY SCHOOLS. For the guidance of teachers in graded city schools, the following suggestions are given relative to the or- der of presenting the subjects and steps, and an ap- propriate time for taking up each series of lessons on Form. During the period from the time that the children enter school until they have read through the Primer, and are ready to commence reading in a First Reader, 60 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. the First^ Second, and Third Series of Lesso7is should be taken np and completed. The Fourth Series of JLessons should be taught while the pupils are reading in a First Reader. 2'he Fifth Series of Lessons should be completed by the time that the pupils have read half through a Sec- :>nd Reader. The Sixth Series of Lessons may be given while the pupils are reading the last half of a Second Reader, or in an easy Third Reader. First Series of Lessons on Form. The First and Second Steps of Resemblances and Differences in Shape, pages 62, 63, 64. Second Series. First Step in Shape of Lines, pages 65, 66, 67. First Step in Corners, pages 80, 81, 82, First Step in Solids — Ball Shape, page 1 1 9. Third Series. Second Step in Shape of Lines, pages 68, 69. First and Second Step in Position of Lines, pages 73, 74, 75. First and Second Step in Plane Forms, pages 89, 90, 91. First step of a Cylinder, page 123. Fourth Series. Third Step in Shape of Lines, pages 70, 71, 72. Third Step in Position of Lines, pages 76, 77, 78, 79. Second Step, Angles, pages 82, 83, 84, 85, 86. Third Step in Plane Forms, page 92. First Step in Triangles, page 93. First Step in Four-sided Forms, pages 97, 98, 99, 100. First Step in Circular Forms, pages 106, 107, 108, 109. First Step in Plane and Curved Surfaces, pages U5, 116. LESSONS ON FORM. 61 Second Step in Solid Figures, pages 119, 120, 121. Second Step of Cylinder and Cone, pages 124, 125. First and Second Steps in Cube and Cubical Forms, pages 127, 128. First Step in Prisms, pages 129, 130. Fifth Series. Third Step in Angles, pages 87, 88. Second Step in Triangles, pages 94, 95. Second Step in Four-sided Forms, pages 100, 101. Second Step in Circular Forms, pages 1 09, 11 0. Second Step in Surfaces and Faces, pages 116, 117. Third Step in Solid Figures, page 122. Third Step of Cylinder and Cone, page 126. Second Step of Prisms, pages 130, 131, 132. First Step of Pyramids, pages 133, 134. Sixth Series. First and Second Steps of Many-sided Forms, pages 103, 104, 105 Third Step of Circular Forms, pages 111, 112, 113. Third Step of Surfaces and Faces, pages 117, 118. Second Step of Pyramids, pages 134, 135. Third Step of Four-sided Forms, pages 101, 102. Third Step of Triangles, pages 95, 96. Fourth Step, Radius, Quadrant, etc., pages 113, 114. For Advanced Lessons on Form, see "Manual of Object Teaching." 62 PRIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF KESEMBLANCE AND DIFFEKENCE IN SHAPE. Before entering school, children acquire some idea of shape ; but, in most cases, their knowledge of it is so imperfect that they can scarcely arrange common ob- jects that resemble each other in form into groups. It is therefore desirable that lessons should be given for training children to distinguish prominent resemblances and diiferences in the shape of objects, and to classify them by means of these distinctions. Such distinction and classification constitute the beginning of knowledge in Form. For these lessons the teacher should provide a vari- ety of suitable objects, taking care to have several that resemble each other in shape, as balls of wood, rubber, marbles, an orange, and apple; cylinder, lead -pencil, stick of candy, crayon, slate-pencil ; cube, box, pieces of an apple or other substance cut into cubes ; squares of wood, pasteboard, paper, soda-cracker ; oblong books, slates, sheet of paper ; cent, button, ring, candy, crack- ers or cakes ; long and narrow objects, as rule, slips of paper ; top, cone, cornucopia ; crescent, boy's cap, key, thimble, tumbler, etc. FIRST STEP.— SHAPE. The teacher might commence this lesson by holding before the pupils different objects, and asking the name LESSONS ON SHAPE. 63 of each, as : ball, orange, marble, ring, book, slate, cray- on, stick of candy, button, lead-pencil, cent, knife, etc. Next the teacher may hold up two objects that have the same form, and ask the children if these are alike in shape, as a ball and marble ; lead-pencil and crayon, or stick of candy ; the cent and the button ; the book and slate, and so on. Afterward show the children objects that are not alike in form, and ask them if these are of the same shape, as a ball and crayon ; a stick of candy and a top ; a cent and a marble ; a cube and an apple. Then objects that are alike and those that are unlike may be shown, as a ball, a stick of candy, and a marble, and the children requested to tell which are alike. A ball, a cube, and a cubical box may be shown in the same manner ; then a cube, a square, and a soda-crack- er ; then a cone, a cylinder, and a top. Thus various objects may be compared, and from these simple exer- cises the children be led to discriminate differences in their form. Subsequently the teacher might talk with the chil- dren about the shape of various familiar objects, as the table, chair, door, stove, cap, hat, shoe, broom-handle, stove-pipe, etc., and request the pupils to tell which re- semble each other, and which are unlike in shape. SECOND STEP.— SHAPE. The teacher may request the children to tell which objects are ball shape, which box shape, which door shape, which cent shape, and each may be placed in a group according to its shape, or the answers given by the pupils. 64 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Next the pupils may be requested to mention the names of all the objects that they have seen that are shaped like a ball ; shaped like a lead-pencil ; shaped like a cent; shaped like a soda-cracker; shaped like a tea-chest or box, etc. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. These introductory lessons on Form may be commenced with chil- dren that are beginning the first step in reading, as early as the fourth or fifth year of their age. When the size of the class, and other cir- cumstances will permit, the children should be allowed to take the ob- jects and arrange them into groups of similar shape. The exercises in each of the steps of Shape may be divided into several lessons. In the Jirst step two or three lessons may be given in companng objects that resemble each other in shape ; then two or three lessons in comparing objects that differ in shape ; then four oi five lessons in distinguishing objects of like shape when placed with others that differ in form ; then two or three lessons in comparing fa- miliar objects. In the exercises of the second step of shape from five to ten lessons may be given, accordmg to the age and progress of the children. During these exercises, the shape as a whole should be presented to the children, and no attempt made to analyze or describe the element- ary features of the shape. In Nature's school, children first learn to know things as wholes ; they learn to know the parts afterward. The teacher who would be successful must follow Nature's plan of instruction. < LESSONS ON SHAPE. 65 LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF SHAPE OF LINES. FIRST STEP. -STRAIGHT, CROOKED, AND CURVED LINES. The teacher, holding a string, says. What have I in my hand? "A string." Holding it straight between both hands, she asks. How am I holding the string? " Straight." Bringing the hands nearer each other so that the string hangs loosely, the teacher asks. Now what can you say of the string ? " It is crooked — it bends." Then, holding a gonigraph, or a rule with joints, so that all the joints are bent, the teacher asks. What is the shape of this ? "Crooked." After making all the joints straight, she asks, What shape has it now? "Straight." Now the teacher may draw a crooked mark and a straight mark on the blackboard, thus : Then, taking the rule or a gonigraph, request the pupils to tell which mark is like the shape of the rule, as she holds it before them, first straight, then crooked. 5 66 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Several straight marks and crooked marks may noTV be made on the blackboard, and the pupils required to tell the shape of each as the teacher points to them sue cessively. Then pupils may be requested to go singly to the blackboard, and point to straight marks and crooked marks. Taking a slate, the teacher says, I hold a slate in my hand : does any part of its frame resemble the shape of a straight mark ? " Yes, the edges of the frame do." Taking up a numeral frame, she says, Does any part of this numeral frame resemble the straight marks ? " Yes, the wires, and the edges of the frame." Do you see any thing else in this room that has the same shape as the straight mark ? " The edge of the table"— "The top of the blackboard"— " The sides of the door." Straight Lines. — I will now tell you what these straight marks are called. They are called straight Imes. What are straight marks called ? " Straight lines." What are called straight lines? "Straight marks." Now repeat, " Straight marks are called straight lines." Crooked Lines. — Crooked marks are called crooked lines, and sometimes broken lines ; but you may call them crooked lines. What are crooked marks called ? "Crooked lines." What are called crooked lines? " Crooked marks." The teacher now points to the lines on the black- board, and the pupils tell their names, as " straight line," " crooked line '' etc. LESSONS ON SHAPE. 67 Next the pupils may be called to the blackboard to point to straight lines, crooked lines, etc. Curved Lines. — The teacher, holding the string so thai it bends in the form of a curve, says, I am now holding this string so that it bends like a bow — alike in all parts. How does it bend ? " Alike in all parts." I will now make a mark on the blackboard that shall bend alike in all parts. The name for this mark is a curved line. What do we call a mark that bends alike in all parts? "A curved line?" How does the curved line bend? "Like a bow- alike in all parts." The teacher may now make several straight, crooked, and curved lines on the blackboard, and as each is pointed at, the pupils may tell its name, as " Curved line," " Straight line," " Crooked line," etc. Then single pupils may be called upon to point to straight, crooked, and curved lines. The pupils may also be requested to find these shapes in objects about the room. Suppose I should pass this string around a hat, would it represent a straight line ? What line would it rep- resent? " A curved line." SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. It will be observed that the answers supposed to be given bv the children in these lessons are quoted. This plan is adopted to make the descriptions of these exercises as short as possible, and yet main- tain a prominent distinction between the remarks and questions of the teacher and the replies of the children. It is not presumed that teach- ers will always ask the questions in these lessons, nor that all children 68 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. will give these answers. It is simply intended that these questions and answers may serve to ilhistrate how the teacher should proceed^ rather than what questions should be asked and what answers given. Each lesson ought to be so presented that the pupils shall understand it, aiid the questions should be such as to lead them to give answers ghowing that they do understand the subject. Where the children are quite young, it will be well for the teachei :o give two or three lessons, each five or ten minutes long, on straight, and crooked, and curved marks, before introducing the term lines. To illustrate the terms straight, crooked, and ctiri'ed, various objects should be used, as strings, pencil, rule or pointer, whalebone, ratan, wire, etc., and these shapes should be pointed out in the sides or edges of objects around the room. Use the terms " straight line," "crook- ed line," etc., only when speaking of lines ; and the single term "straight," "crooked," and "curved" when speaking of the shape of objects. Do not attempt to teach lines, as you might teach them to a class of older pupils in geometry, in an abstract manner. Request the children to mention other objects than those in the room in wliich these shapes may be seen. SECOND STEP.— WAVE AND SPIRAL LINES. Wave Line. — The teacher, after drawing a line on the blackboard of this shape, asks the children if they ever saw water when it was uneven, like this line. What do we call the ridges of water when it is uneven? "Waves." Very good; now, because this line is uneven, like the waves on water, we will call it a tcave line. What kind of a line may we call this? "A wave line." The teacher may now draw straight, crooked, curved, and wave lines on the blackboard, and, after the children can name each as it is pointed at, they may be request- LESSONS ON SHAPE. 69 ed to point to each of these kinds of lines as theii sev- eral names are called. In a small class the pupils might represent this line with a string, on a table. Spiral Lines. — After drawing a line on the blacKboard of this shape, the teacher asks the children if they ever saw any thing of this shape ? Some w^ill answer, " A watch-spring ;" some, " The wire on which the bell hangs ;" others, " A sofa-spring;" some, "A spider's web." The teacher may then tell them that when a line winds about a point, like this, it is called a spiral line. What is the shape of a watch-spring? "Spiral.'- What is the shape of the wire that holds the bell? "Spiral." What is the shape of some springs? "Spi- ral." What objects have you seen .that resemble this spiral line ? "A string coiled up ;" " Some spiders' webs ;" "Springs for bells ;"" Watch-springs ;" "Some shells." To represent the shape of the other spiral line, the teacher may take a long lead-pencil, or a pointer, and wind a ribbon or a string around it, leaving spaces be- tween the ribbon or string. Showing this string wound around the pencil, the teacher may say. This string around the pencil represents another form of spiral lines. She may then ask them what they have seen of this shape. Some may answer, " Stripes on a barber's pole ;" some, " Vines growing around strings ;" others may say, " Springs made of wire for sofas." PKIMAKY OBJECT LEfcJttONS. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. Thus far the attention of the children has been called only to the simple idea of shape of objects and lines. Now it will be proper to give lessons requiiing attention to more minute ditferences in shape, which will enable the pupils to describe the shape of these lines. Methods for giving such lessons may be found under the "Thirci Step," on this and the following pages. THIRD STEP.— DESCRIPTIONS OF LINES, AND DRAW ING LINES. Straight Line. — The teacher makes two dots or points on the blackboard, and connects them by a straight line, thus: t « . She then remarks, Now I wiii make two more points the same distance apart, and con- nect them by a curved line, thus: Now I will measure each of these lines with this string, and ascertain which is longer — the straight or the curved line. I will tie a knot in my string, to show the length of the curved line ; now I will place this string on the straight line, and you may teil me which is longer. "The curved line." Right. I win now make two more points the same distance apart, and connect them by a crooked line, then meas- ure its length. I will measure this crooked line with the string, and you may tell me whether it is Ion ger or shorter than the curved line. " Longer." Which is the longest line on the board ? " The crooked line." Which is the shortest line? "The LESSONS ON SHAPE. 7l straight line." Can you make a shorter line between chese two points 'than the straight line? What may you say of the straight line ? " It is the shortest line between two points." Very well ; but you may call the straight line the shortest distance between two points. What is a straight line? "^ straight line is the shortest distance between two points.'''' Does a straight line change its direction ? Crooked Line. — You see that all crooked lines bend. Some of them bend more in some parts of the line than in other parts of it. Do crooked lines change direc- tion? What can you say about a crooked line? "It is lon- ger than a straight line ;" " It bends unevenly ;" ^^ It changes its direction." Very well answered ; you may say that a crooked line changes its direction and bends unevenly. What is a crooked line? "^ crooked line is a liiie that changes its direction and bends unevenly.''^ Curved Line. — What can you now say about a curved line? "It bends evenly;" "It bends alike in all it? parts ;" " It changes its direction in all its parts." Very good. " A curved line is a line that bends evenly^ changing its direction at every part of ity Spiral Lines. — Look at these spiral lines, and see how they bend. Do they change direction in all parts? Are both of these lines alike? What can you say 72 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. about them? "One bends around itself;" "The other winds around something else." "^ spiral line is a line that bends around itself, or a line that winds around some other object.'''' Wave Line. — Can you tell me any thing about a wave line ? " Its shape is like waves." How does it bend ? " It bends in curves." Can you point to a wave line ? Drawing Lines. — You may now take your slates and represent three straight lines. Now three crooked lines. Now three curved lines. You may draw a straight line entirely across your slate. Now draw a curved line across your slate Now draw a crooked line across your slate. Which is the shortest Ime ? Which is the longest one ? Describe a straight line. Describe a curved line. Describe a crooked line. You may draw spiral lines. Who would like to represent a straight line on the blackboard ? James may do it. Who will draw a crooked line? I see that all of you would like to draw crooked lines. William may make one. Who can take this string and draw a curved line ? Hiram may try to represent the curved line. Henry may draw a wave line on the blackboard, and the rest of the class may draw this line on their slates. LESliONS ON P0S1T10:N of LINEb. 73 LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF POSITION OF LINES. FIRST STEP.— SLANTING AND VERTICAL LINES. Slanting. — Taking a pointer, a ruler, or pencil, the teacher holds it before the class, first in an upright po- sition, then in a slanting position, requesting the chil- dren to notice the difference in the positions. The pointer may also be placed upright on the table, then made to lean to the right, then to the left. Then the teacher may ask, holding the pointer in a slanting posi- tion^ in 'wh2it position is this pointer now ? " Slanting ;" " Leaning." Placing the pointer in a leaning position, one end on the table, the teacher asks. In whint position is the point- er now ? " Leaning ;" " Slanting." I will now make marks on the blackboard to represent this position, and you may call these marks skmting lines. How many slant- ing lines have I made ? Vertical. — Taking the pointer again, the teacher holds it in a slanting position, then in an upright position ; then holds it upright with one end standing on the ta- ble. Now the question is asked. In what position is the pointer ? " Standing ;" " Up and down ;" " Upright." Very good. Now I will give you another name for this position ; it is Vertical. What did I call this po- sition ? " Vertical." Then vertical means the same as "Standing;" ^* Upright;" " Up and down." 74 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. I will make marks on the blackboard to repre- sent this position, and you may call these marks vertical lines. How many vertical lines did I make ? How many slanting lines do you see on the blackboard? As I point at a line on the blackboard, you may tell me its name. " Slanting line." " Vertical line." "Ver- tical line." " Slanting line." Now you may point to a slanting line ; now to a ver- tical line. Can you stand in a vertical position? Let me see you try it. [All in the class stand erect.] That is well done ; you may sit down. SECOND STEP.— HORIZONTAL AND OBLIQUE LINES. Horizontal. — Again taking the pointer, the teacher holds it in a slanting position, then in an upright posi- tion, then in a lying-down position. Placing it on the table in an upright position, it is first made to lean far over, then to lie on the table. Then the children are asked, In what position is the pointer now ? "Lying down." Taking the pointer up, the teacher holds it in various positions, then horizontal, and asks. In what position is the pointer now ? " Lying down ;" " Level ;" " Even." Yes, the pointer is level, like the ice on a pond, or the surface of water in a basin, or like the floor. You may call this the horizontal position. If you were out in a field, with the land level as far as you could see, the place where the sky and the earth seem to meet all around you would be called the hori- zon. Because this pointer is now in such a position LESSONS ON POSITION OF LINES. 75 that its ends point to the horizon^ we call it the hori- zontal position. I will now make marks on the blackboard, and you may tell me in what position they are in as I point at them. " Vertical ;" " Horizontal ;" " Slanting ;" " Hor- izontal ;" "Slanting;" "Horizontal." In how many positions have I placed these lines? "Three." What are the names of these positions? " Slanting, vertical, and horizontal." Now you may point to a vertical line ; to a horizon- tal line ; to a slanting line ; to a horizontal line ; verti- cal; slanting. Oblique. — The slanting line is sometimes called by another name, which means the same as slanting ; that name is oblique. So you may say the line is oblique^ or the line is slanting. If you place one end of the pointer on the floor, a few inches from the wall, and place the top of it against the wall, you would say the pointer is leaning. So, if you should see a tree standing so that its trunk is not in a vertical position, you would say the tree leans., or the tree is leaning ; but when you speak of the position of lines, call them slanting or oblique lines. Now you may hold your right arm in a horizontal position ; now in a slanting position ; now in an oblique position ; now in a vertical position ; now in a horizon- tal position ; in an oblique position. Let books and slates be held in these same positions. 76 PRIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. In what position are you when standing erect? In what position are you when lying down ? In what po- sition do little boys often get when trying to learn to skate ? In what position are roofs of houses ? Why are the roofs made in this position ? In what positions are the tops of tables ? In what position is the ceiling ? — is the floor ? — are the walls of the room ? THIRD STEP —PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES. Parallel. — Let the teacher take two pointers, or two pen-holders, or two lead-pencils, and hold them before the children so that two ends shall be near each other and the two opposite ends wide apart, as in Fig. 1 ; then hold them so that the other ends shall bo wide apart, as in Fig. 2 ; then hold them so that both ends shall be the same distance apart, as in Fig. 3, requesting the pu- pils to observe each position. Now the teacher may draw lines on the blackboard to represent each of these positions, thus: Fi-. 3. Then pointing to the lines as in Fig. 1, the teacher asks, Are these lines the same distance apart at each end? Pointing to the lines as in Fig. 2, the same ques- tion is again put. Then pointing to the lines as in Fig. LESSONS ON POSITION OF LINES. 77 3, the teacher asks, Are these lines the same distance apart at both ends ? Now look at the cracks in the floor, and tell me whether two of those are the same distance apart. " They are." Then drawing lines on the blackboard in a horizontal position, thus : Fifi. 0. the teacher jDoints to lines as represented by Fig. 4, and asks, Are these lines the same distance apart? Then at the other lines as represented by Figs. 5 and 6, and asks the same question. Now the teacher may say, When two lines are side by side, and the same distance apart, like these (point- ing to those represented by Figs. 3 and 4), they are called parallel lines. The word parallel means by the side of each other. Now look at these lines again, and see if each two of them are by the side of each other. You may tell me how the parallel lines difler from the other lines. " They are the same distance apart, and the others are not." Pointing at lines as represented by Fig. 6, the teacher says. These lines are the same distance apart at botl) ends ; are they parallel ? "No; they are not the same distance apart in the middle." Very good; I will now tell you when lines are parallel. When lines are side by side, and equally distant in all parts^ they are paralM. 78 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONh. Again pointing at lines as in Figs. 3 and 4, the teacliei asks, Why do you say these lines are parallel ? " Because they are side by side^ and equally distant in all parts. ''"' Do parallel lines have the same direction ? What can you see in this room that you may say are parallel? Did you ever see any thing in a parallel position in the street ? " The car tracks." The teacher may draw parallel- vertical lines, paral- lel-horizontal lines, parallel-slanting lines, and parallel curved lines on the blackboard, thus: What can you tell me about the shape of these lines? " Some are straight, and some are curved." What can you say of their position f " Some are vertical, some are horizontal, some are oblique, and all are parallel." Are the curved lines parallel ? " Yes." Why do you say these curved lines are parallel? " Because they are side by side, and equally distant in all parts." Very well. Now could you show me parallel lines in a writing book ? " Yes ; the ruled lineg^are parallel." What lines are parallel on the slate-frame ? " The two sides and the two ends." What lines are parallej in the door? You may draw parallel lines on your slates. LESSONS ON POSITION OF LINES. V9 How can you ascertain whether two lines are parallel or not ? " By measuring the distance between them." SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS. It is of great importance that the two conditions in parallel lines — side by side, and equal It/ distant in all parts — be fully illustrated, and the pupils led to perceive these points. It is a common error for teachers to require their pupils to repeat the definitions found in text- books on Geometry somewhat as follows: "Parallel lines never meet, how far soever they may be produced." By this means they fail to notice tiie two indispensable conditions mentioned above, and fail also to determine by observation what lines are parallel. These facts, that parallel lines lie in the same plane, and "can not intersect each other, how far soever both ends may be extended," be- long to the instruction for grammar schools, and should not be intro- duced into the primary school. Perpendicular. — Sometimes another name is given to the vertical line. When I hold this pointer in a vertical position, with one end resting on the table, we may say, " The pointer is in 2i perpendicular position." Now, if I draw a horizontal line on the blackboard, thus, , and then draw a vertical line so as to meet the horizontal one (see Fig. 7), the vertical line may be called a perpendic- ^_ ^ilar line. ^'"' '^' In what position is the floor? "Hor- izontal." In what position are the walls? "Vertical." What other name may you give for the position of the walls ? " Perpendicular." The walls are perpendicular to the floor. 80 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSON*^ LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF CORNERS AND ANGLES. First Step.— Corners. — The teacher may take a book and square and oblong forms, and, showing them to the children, ask, How many corners has this book ? " Foui comers." How many corners has this piece of wood? "Four." How many corners has this ? " Four." How many corners has the slate? *'Four." How many corners has the table ? " Four." Showing forms with three and five corners, the teach- er proceeds to ask, How many corners has this: "Tliree." How many has this? "Five." And this? "Three." Now I wish you to look at this form with three cor- ners, and tell me whether these are like the corners of the book? "They are not; these corners are smaller.'' Taking the trapezium, the teacher asks, Are these corners all alike ? " No ; some are small." You may call these small corners that have a sharp point sharp corners. What may you call the corners that have a sharp point ? " Sharp corners." Now I will fold this piece of paper so that one cor ner will be like a sharp point. What may you call this corner? "A sharp corner." Has the table sharp corners ? " No ; they are round." What shape are the corners of this slate ? " Round cornere." LESSONS OX CORNERS AND ANGLES. 81 Taking the trapezium, and showing the blunt end, the teacher may inquire, Has this corner a sharp point V "No." Can you think of a good name for it ? " Large cor- ner;" "Dull corner;" " Blunt corner." Very well ; you may call this corner with a wide point a hlunt corner: What may we call a corner wdtb a blunt point? "A blunt corner." Here is a form with four corners alike : you call it a — " Square." Right. Then you may call all corners that are like the corners of a square, square corners. What may we call these corners, like those of a square: " Square corners." What kind of corners has the book ? " Square cor- ners." What shape are the corners of this sheet of pa- per? "Square." Now I will draw lines on the blackboard to repre- sent these corners, and you may tell me the names of each as I make it. What did you call tlie first corner? "Sharp." And the second? "Square." What did you call the third? "Blunt." And what the fourth ? "Round corner." Which is the smallest corner? "The sharp one.' Which corner is like those of the table? "The round corner." What figure did I place by the square corner ? " Fig ure 2." What figure stands by the blunt corner ? " Fig ure 3." 6 82 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. What is the name of the comer by figure 1 ? " Sharp corner." What is the shape of the corners of the blackboard ? "Square." What kind of corners has the door? What is the shape of the corners of the panes of glass ? Drawing Corners. — You may now take your slates and draw lines to represent these corners. First draw two sharp corners. Next draw two square corners. Now draw three blunt corners. Next draw ofie sharp corner. N ow write a figure 1 at each sharp corner ; a figure 2 at each square corner; and figure 3 at each blunt corner. How many sharp corners have you drawn ? " Three." How many square corners ? "Two." How many blunt corners ? " Three." You may now turn your slates, and let me look at the corners. I wish to see who has drawn them neatly. Second Step.— Angles.— The teacher may draw lines on the blackboard to represent sharp, square, and blunt corners — two or three of each ; then, pointing at them separately, request the pupils to tell what kind of cor- ner each represents. I will now take this knife and open one blade a little way, so that the opening between the handle and the blade shall represent one of these sharp corners. Now I will open it further, and you may tell me which cor- ner the opening between the handle and the blade is like. " The square corner." Opening it still further, which is it like now ? "The blunt corner.' LESSONS ON CORNERS AND ANGLES. 83 Now which corner is it like? "The square corner." Now which is it like ? " The sharp corner." Now look at the edge of this blade; now at the edge of the knife-handle. You see that these meet so that the opening between them forms a point at one end. Sometimes it is a small point, like the sharp corner; sometimes it is larger, like the square corner; and sometimes it is a blunt point, like the blunt corner. Now I am going to give you a new name for these points, or the openings between the two lines that form a point. We will call them angles instead of corners. You may still say that the book has square corners, and the table round corners, and the door square cor- ners, and that some things have sharp corners, but we will call the corners made by two lines angles. What shall we call the corners made by two lines? "Angles." Acute- Angle. — We have names for the different kinds of corners, and we need names for the large and small angles. We will call the small angle, that is like the sharp corner, an acute angle^ be- cause the word acute means sharp. Now you may tell me the name of the angle as I point to the lines on the blackboard. "Acute angle; acute angle; acute angle." How many acute angles do you see on the black- board? "Three." Now you may make an acute angle wHth your two fore-fingers. You may point to acute angles on the "Chart of Lines ;" also on the blackboard. 84 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Right Angle. — I will now draw a horizontal line on the blackboard, and then a perpendicular line above it, so that it shall stand on the middle of the horizontal line. How many angles have I made with these two lines? "Two angles." Are these acute angles? "No; they are both larger than acute angles." Which of these two angles is larger? "Neither; both are of the same size." Then you may call them equal angles. What may we call two angles of the same size? " Equal angles." What corner are these angles like? "The square corner." — I will now give you a name for the angle that is like the square corner; it is a right angle. What may we call the angle that is like the square corner? "Right angle." How did I make these equal angles? "By drawing a horizontal line, and a perpendicular line to meet it." Very good ; when two lines are drawn so as to form two equal angles, these angles are called right angles. Now make a right angle with your two fore-fingers. I will now point to the angles on the blackboard, and you may tell their names. "Right angle ; acute angle; acute angle ; right angle ; right angle ; blunt angle." No, we do not say blunt angle ; we speak of blunt corners. But I will soon tell you a name for the angle that is like the blunt corner. Obtuse Angle. — You remember that we have a word which means the same as sharp ; what is that word? "Acute." Yes; and so we have another word which means the same as blunt • it is obtuse. Then we LESSONS ON CORNERS AND ANGLES. 85 may call the angle that is like a bluDt corner an obtuse angle. What word means blunt ? " Obtuse." What, then, may we call the angle which is like the blunt corner? " Obtuse angle." Now, how many kinds of angles have you learned ? ''Three." What are their names ? " Acute angle, right angle, Dbtuse angle," Which angle is like the blunt corner ? " The obtuse angle ?" Which is like the sharp corner? "The acute angle." Which is like the square corner? "The right angle-" Now you may point to right angles on the "Chart of Lines," also on the blackboard. Another child may point to obtuse angles on the " Chart," also on the blackboard. All of the children may now make an obtuse angle with the fore-fingers. Now make right angles. Now acute angles. Drawing Angles. — The pupils may now take their slates and pencils, and (as the teacher dictates) draw angles. Ready ! Draw an acute angle. Draw another acute angle. Draw a right angle. Draw another right angle. Draw an obtuse angle ; now another. Draw an acute angle. Draw an obtuse angle. How many acute angles have you made ? " Three." How many right angles have you drawn? "Two." How many obtuse angles did you make? "Thi-ee." Now turn your slates, that I may see how well you have drawn these angles. 8G PKIMAKV OBJECT LESSONS. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. In place of the knife, a pair of scissors might be used to illustrate the openings of different sizes, to prepare the children for the term angle. The gonigraph will also be found convenient for illustrating the lessons on angles. When the names of the different kinds of angles have been taught, it might be well to draw the angles on the blackboard, numbering each thus : Then draw several angles, juiiieJ logcther, similar to the following ; Now request the pupils to go singly and write a figure, representing one of the three kinds of angles, opposite an angle of the same kind in the group of angles. Then they may be required to tell how many angles there are of each kind in the group. In small schools, where there are children in several grades of studies, as in the ungraded schools in the country, it would be well for the teacher to provide several small sticks, and give two to each of the younger pupils, after they have taken these lessons on angles, and re- quest them to make angles with them. This might prove to be the most interesting part of the lesson, and be the means of saving the in- struction that had just been given. Besides, teachers often find diffi- culty in keeping the younger pupils profitably occupied. This plan might furnish a profitable and interesting employment for a portion of the time usually wasted in playing or idleness, much to the annoyance of the teacher. Care should be taken to make the children understand that the size of the angle does not depend upon the length of the lines, but upon the difference in their direction. LESSONS ON CORNERS AND ANGLES. 87 Third Step.— Angles. — Those who wish to teach their pupils that " an angle is the difference in the direction of two lines that meet in a point," may give exercises in this step. The teacher draws three angles on the blackboard- acute, right, and obtuse — with one line in each in a hori zontal position ; then asks, How many of these lines are in a horizontal position ? " Three." In what position are the other lines? "One is per- pendicular, and two are slanting." Do the slanting lines run in the same direction : "No; one slants toward the right, and one toward the left." What is the shape of these lines ? " All are straight." I will now draw three more angles. Do the lines of either of these run in the same direction as the lines in one of the other angles? "Yes; the lines in each right angle run in the same direction." Look at the lines in the acute angles. " They run in the same direction also." How is it with the lines of the obtuse angles ? " The lines of each of these are alike." What do you observe about the size of the two acute angles? "They are both of the same size." How about the obtuse angles? "They are alike in size." Now, w^hen angles are of the same size, their lines run in the same direction. Do the lines of angles that dif- fer in size run in the same direction ? " No." Does the size of an angle depend upon the difference in the direction of its lines ? " It does." Is the difference in the direction of the lines of a right angle greater than the difference in the direction of the lines in an acute ano^le ? " It is." 88 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. In which "angle is the difference in the direction ol the lines greatest ? " In the obtuse angle." Then we might say " an angle is the difference in the direction of two straight lines that meet in a point." How many right angles may be drawn upon one hori- zontal line ? How many obtuse angles can be drawn upon one hori- zontal line? Can more than two acute angles be made upon ont horizontal line ? How many right angles can you make with twa lines ? How many obtuse angles can you make with two lines ? How many acute angles can you make with two lines? See "Manual of Object Teaching" for a review of Lines and Angles. LESSONS ON PLANE FOKMS. LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF PLANE FOKMS. First Step.— Plane Forms. — Having provided pieces of paper, pasteboard, and cards of various sizes and shapes, as triangles, squares, oblongs, rhombs, circles, pentagons, half a sheet of paper (each form to be rep- resented by three or more pieces, and two or more sizes, including those from the Box of Forms), the teacher may place all of these forms on a table before the chil- dren, and, showing two or three at a time, lead the pupils to observe which shapes resemble each other, to count the corners, and edges, and compare the size. When the children are able readily to distinguish the differences in these forms by the number of corners and the number of edges, they may be required to classify them in groups with three corners and three edges ; and four corners and four edges; and^ive corners and five edges ; six, corners and six edges ; and groups without corners^ as circles. In a small class it would be best to allow the pupik to come to the table, one at a time, and make a selec- tion, each of two shapes, and place them witli their ap- propriate groups. But in large classes the teaclier may hold the form before the class, and require the pupils tc tellihQ number of corners and edges, and in which group to place it. The teacher may now place the "Chart of Forms" be- fore the class, and call upon pupils to point to the forms with three corners; then those with four corners; then 90 PBIMART OBJECT LESSONS. those without corners; then those with three edges; then with four edges. Afterward the teacher may draw these forms on the blackboard, and call pupils to point them out, as before. Subsequently the children may draw these forms on their slates. Second Step.— Plane Forms. — Taking several squares and oblongs from the "Box of Forms for Object Teach ing," or pieces of pasteboard representing these forms, the teacher may tell the pupils that the edges of these forms have another name; they are called sides; and when speaking of these edges we will call them sides. Holding up the square, the teacher asks, How many corners has this? "Four." How many sides has it ? "Four." Holding up the oblong, she asks, How many corners Ms this? "Four." How many sides has it ? " Four." How many corners has this form? [Circle.] "No corners." Now I will point to these forms on the " Chart of Forms." How many sides has this figure? "Four." How many has this? "Four." How many has this? "Three." How many corners has it ? " Three." How many corners has this form ? " Four." Square.— -Taking a square from the Box of Forms, the teacher asks. How many sides has this form ? " Four." Look at the sides, and then tell me which ^ide is longest ? " They are all alike." LESSONS UN PLANE FORMS. 9] Very good ; the sides are equal. Now look at this, How many sides has it? "Four." Are these sides equal ? " No ; two are longer than the other two." Taking up two squares, the teacher asks, Are the sides of both of these alike ? " They are." What kind of corners has this figure ? " Square cor- ners." How many square corners ? " Four." Now I will give you a name for this figure with four square corners and four equal sides ; it is a square. What do we call a figure with four square corners and four equal sides ? "A square." You may point to a square on the Chart of Forma You may point to a square on the blackboard. What is the shape of this piece of wood? "Square." What is the shape of this piece of paper? "Square." What is the shape of this soda-cracker? "Square." Why do you call it a square ? " Because it has four square corners and four equal sides." Oblong^. — Holding up an oblong, the teacher asks, How many corners has this figure? " Four." How many sides has it ? " Four." Are these sides all equal ? *' No r two are longer than the other two." This'form has four square corners, and two equal long sides, and two equal short sides ; we will call it an ob- long. What shall we call this shape ? " An oblong." When shall we call a figure an oblong ? " When it has four square corners, and two equal long sides, and two equal short sides." 92 PRIMAllY OBJECT LESSONS. You may point to oblongs on the Chart of Forms. You may point to oblongs on the bUickboard. What is the shape of this book ? " Oblong." Why do you say the book is oblong ? " Because it has four square corners, and two equal long sides, and ^:WO equal short sides." Third Step.— Plane Forms. — I have several pieces of paper, and cards of the shape of squares, oblongs, and other forms, on this table. Some of the squares and oblongs are large, and some of the squares and oblongs are small. Here are also long and short strings. This is a long piece of paper, and it is narrow. Here is a long piece, but it is wider than the other. Do we say a string is long and wide ? We measure strings by length only. But when we wish to ascertain the size of squares, oblongs, and simi- lar forms, we measure their length and their width. These measures are called dimeyisions. Plane Forms. — Those flat objects which we measure in two directions, as squares, oblongs, and triangles, are called jo/<2?i6 /brms. P^r« we means j^a?, or even. Then plane forms are flat forms. We find the size of these by measuring two dimen- sions — length and width. How many measures would you make to find the size of a slate ? How many to find the length of a string? How many to find the size of the top of this table ? How many dimensions have plane forms? How many dimensions has a line ? LESSONS ON TRIANGLES, 93 LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF TKIANGLES. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. The lessons on triangles should not be introduced before the pupil.s have been made familiar with plane forms, and ai e abb to distinguish them readily by the number of cor-ners and sides; nor until they have learned the names of the square and ohlong ; also of the different angles^ as idght, obtuse, acute. The first lessons on triangles should treat of them as a class of three-cornered figures, without giving attention to the kinds of tri- angles. Several lessons may be given on this class of forms before the second step is taken, and before attention is directed to the different shapes and names of the kinds of triangles. The third step on triangles might be omitted in the Primary School ; at least it should not be undertaken until the pupils have become fa- miliar with all the other lessons on Form. These uncommon names of the triangles aie more appropriate for older pupils in the more ad- vanced schools. First Step— Triangles.— What name do we give to corners ? " Angles." ' Holding up a triangle, the teacher asks, How many- angles has this figure ? " Three." How many sides has it ? " Three." I will give you a name for these forms with three sides and three angles ; they are called tri-angles. Tri means three^ and the word tri-angles means three angles. Then a figure with three angles may be called a tri- angle. What is the name of this figure with three sides and three corners ? "A tri-angle." You may point to triangles on the Chart of Forms. Now you may point to triangles on the blackboard. 94 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. How many lines does it take to make a triangle ? " Three." What does each line represent? " One side." Why do you call this figure a triangle? "Because it has three angles." Second Step,— Equilateral Triangle. — What do you call this figure which I hold in my hand? " A triangle." Look at the sides of this triangle ; what can you say of them ? " They are all equal." Then it is an equal-sided triangle. What does equal- sided mean ? "Having all sides equal." Holding triangles of different shapes successively be- fore the pupils, the teacher asks, Is this equal-sided? " Yes." Is this equal-sided ? " No." I will now give you another name for this shape, which means equal- sided ^ the name is equi- lateral. JEqui means equal, and lateral means side ; hence we may say eqiii-lateral when we mean equal-sided. This is a hard word, and if you can not think of it you may say equal-sided. Now you may point to equilateral triangles on the chart; also on the blackboard. Why do we call these equilateral triangles? "Be- cause the sides are all equal." You may now draw equilateral triangles on your slates. How many acute angles has the equilateral tri- angle ? Right-angled Triangle. — Here is another triangle; are its sides equal? "No," LESSONS ON TRIANGLES. 95 How many acute angles has it ? " Two." What do you call the other angle ? " A right angle." This is a triangle with one right angle ; so we will call it a right-angled triangle. What may we call triangles with one right angle? ' Rio^ht-ano^led trianojles." You may show me right-angled triangles on the Chart of Lines ; also on the blackboard. How many lines will it take for each triangle ? Third Step.— Isosceles Triangle. — Here is another tri- 4 angle. Is it like either of the other two trian- gles ? What kind of angles has this ? "Acute angles." What can you say of its sides? "It has two equal long sides, and one short side." This triangle has a hard name, and you may not be able to remember it. I will write the name on the blackboard, and you may see how strange it looks — Isosceles. It is pronounced I-s6s-se-lez. You may point to isosceles triangles on the Chart of Forms and on the blackboard. You may also draw this angle on your slates. You need not try very hard to remember the name of this triangle. It will not matter if you wait until you are old enough to study Geometry in the Grammar or High School before you learn the name isosceles. Obtuse-angled Triangle. — Here is a triangle with two acute angles and one obtuse angle ; two of its sides are equal. This is called an ohtuse-a^igled triangle. 90 riilMAllY OBJECT LESSONS. Scalene Triangle. — Here is another triangle with twt acute angles and one obtuse angle ; but it has no two angles, nor any two sides equal. The other trian- gle, witn one obtuse tingle^ as you may see, has tico equal sides, while this one has all its sides unequal, and all its angles unequal. Here is another triangle that has three unequal acute angles and three unequal sides. Both of these angles may be called scalene tri- angles. Tlie word scalene means crook ed or unequal. These triangles have unequal sides. When may we call a triangle an equilateral triangle f When may we call a triangle a right-angled triangle / When may we call a triangle an isosceles triangle f When may we call a triangle an obtuse-angled tri- angle f When may we call a triangle a scalene triangle ? How many kinds of triangles can you draw on your slates ? Now take your slates and draw an equilateral tri- angle, an isosceles triangle, a right-angled triangle, an olttuse- angled triangle, and two scalene triangles. Which of these triangles did you make with equal angles? Can a triangle have more than one right angle f Did you ever see a triangle with two obtuse angles? Can you make a triangle with one of its angles right, one obtuse, and one acute? J.i:S80NS ox FOUR-SIDED FORMs. 97 LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OP FOUR-SIDED FORMS. FIRST STEP.— SQUARE, OBLONG, RHOMB. Square and Oblong. — I have here several forms with four sides. You have already learned the names of some of them, and, as I hold one of these up, you may speak its name ; but when I hold up one that you do not know, you need not say any thing. What is the name of this shape? "Square." Of this? "Square." Of this? "Oblong." Of this? "Square." Of this? Of this? "Oblong." Of this? "Oblong." And of this? . How many corners has this square ? " Four." What other name can you use for cor- ners? "Angles." Then how many angles has this square? "Four angles." What kind of angles has the square? "Right an- gles." How many right angles has it? "Four right an gles." Hiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii ,ii„h,MiiiiLiiiiiiiiM ffiMT;j-Tii How many angles has the ob I I long? "Four angles." ii How many right angles has it ? »^~- ■■ ' J "Four right angles." You told me that the square has four right angles also; now what is the diiference between the square and the oblong? "The square has four equal sides. 7 98 PRIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. and the oblong has two equal long sides and two equal short sides." Very well. You see that a square has four equal sides and four right angles ; and that an oblong has two equal long sides, and two equal short sides, and four right a7igles. I will write these descriptions of a square and an ob- long on the blackboard, and you may read them. I will now take one of these forms in my hand, with- out allowing you to see it, and describe it, and then you may tell the name of it. I hold in my hand a form with four equal sides and four right angles; what is it? "A square." I now hold in my hand a form with four right angles and four equal sides; what is it? "A square." I hold in my hand a form with four right angles, and two equal long sides and two equal short sides ; what is it? "An oblong." I hold in my hand a form with four right angles, and two short sides, and two more sides of the same length ; what is it? "A square." You may now tell me the names of things that you have seen of the shape of the square, and I will write them on' the blackboard. Tilings that are square •* Soda-crackers. Stove door. End of a box. Some books. A piece of paper. Some windows. Now I will write the names of things which you havfi seen that are oblong in shape. LESSONS ON FOUR-SIDED FORMS, 99 Things that are oblong : Slates. Side of the stove. Books. Top of the table. Doors. Blackboard. Glass. Side of the room. Why do you say these objects are oblong? "Be 3ause they have four right angles, and two equal Ions sides and two equal short sides." Why do you say the soda-cracker is square ? " Be- cause it has four equal sides and four right angles." FOR THE TEACHER. ITiis first step may be taken in one, two, or three exercises, as the age of the children and their progress seem to indicate best. Rhomb. — I have here several forms which I wish you ' to observe, and tell me how they resem- ble each other. Holding up a square and a rhomb, the teacher asks. Are these tbrms alike? How many sides has this? "Four." How many sides has this? "Four." Then both have the same niimher of sides. Are all the sides of the square of the same length ? " They are." Are all the sides of this form of the same length? I will measure them with the side of the square. What do you now observe? "The sides are all equal." Are they of the same sizes as those of the square ? -'They are." Then both of these forms have the same number of sides, and all the sides are of the same length. Now why do you say these two forms are not alike '-^ " Be- cause their angles are not alike." PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONSo /6d. What kind of angles has the square? /ngles." ^ kind of angles has this form ? " Two acute /s and two obtuse angles." /will now give you a name for this figure with four /quaV sides, and two acute angles and two obtuse an gles; it is a rhomb. I will write the name on the blackboard, and you may spell it. As I hold up these forms, you may tell their names. "Square; rhomb; oblong; rhomb; oblong; square." You may now point to a square on the Chart of Forms. The next boy may point to an oblong ; the next to a rhomb. Now you may tell me what you have seen of the shape of this rhomb, and I will write the name on the blackboard. Things of rhomb shape: Some cakes. Some candies. A piece of paper. A lozenge. Some panes of glass. You may now draw rhombs, and squares, and oblongs on your slates. How many lines does it take to repre- sent a rhomb ? How many lines does it take for each of these forms ? SECOND STEP.— RHOMBOID. The teacher may prepare several pieces of paper, pasteboard, etc., in the shape of rhombs and of rhom- boids, and, holding one of each before the pupils, ask. Are the corners of these forms alike ? LESSONS ON FOUR-SIDED FORMS. 101 How many acute angles has each ? How many obtuse angles has each ? Are the sides alike? "No; one has two long sides and two short sides." Rhomboid. — This form is somewhat like a rhomb, so W§^^^^W ^^ ^^ called a rhomboid: oid means somev^hat like. You see that this differs from a rhomb only in the length of two of its sides. Point to a rhomboid on the Chart of Forms. You may describe a rhomboid, " A rhomboid has two equal long sides, two equal short sides, two acute angles, and two obtuse angles." THIRD STEP.— TRAPEZIUM, TRAPEZOID. 1 have here forms of two shapes. You may tell me bow many angles each has? "Four angles." How many sides has each ? " Four." What kind of angles has this form ? [Showing the trapezium.] "It has one acute angle, two obtuse an- gles, and one right angle." Are two of its sides parallel? "No." Trapezium. — Any form that has four sides and foui angles, and that has no two sides parallel, is called a trapezium. What may you call this figure? "A tra- pezium." You may point to a trapezium on the Chart of Forms. When do we call a four-sided figure a trapezium? *'V'hen no two of its sides are parallel." 102 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Trapezoid. — Here is another four-sided form; what can you say of its sides? "Two of g-; ^_^^_^: ^^ its sides are parallel." A figure that has four sides, with only two of tiieni parallel, is called a trapezoid. A tra- pezoid is somewhat like a trapezium. How many parallel sides has a trapezoid? How many parallel sides lias a trapezium? Quadrilateral. — All four-sided figures may be called quadrilateral forms. This word means /bwr-siiied Parallelogram. — A four-sided figure with its opposite sides parallel may be called a parallelogram. Then squares, oblongs, rhombs, and rhomboids may be called parallelograms. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. The third step m four-sided figures may be postponed until the third stups in the other divisions of Form have been taken, except the third of Triangles. Or it may be omitted altogether in the Primary School. Whether it would be better to teach it, or to omit it, must depend upon the prog- ress of the pupils and their ages. Request the pupils to cut squares, oblongs, and rhombs from paper, then to fold the square so as to make a triangle, also so as to make an oblong ; fold the oblong so as to make a square, then so as to make a ti-iangle ; fold the rhomb so as to make an equilateral triangle- LESSONS ON MANY-SIDED FOKMS. 103 LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF MANY-^IDED FOKMS. FHIST STEP.— PENTAGON, HEXAGON. Having provided pentagons and hexagons from tne Box of Forms, also several pieces of past<3board and pa- per of the same shape, the teacher may request the pu- pils to count the corners and sides as each is held up ; and those with five sides may be placed iij one group, and those with six sides m another group. Pentagon. — How many angles has this form ? " Five angles." How many sides has it ? " Five «ides." A flat figure with Jive angles and five sides is called 8i pentagon. Penta means £ve, and gon means angle; therefore the wov^ penta-gon means having five angles. A plane form with five angles is called a pentago7i. How many sides has a pentagon ? How many an- gles has it ? What do you call a plane figure with five angles ? A form with j^ye equal sides is a regular penta- gon. Hexaffon. — How many sides has this form? " Six." How many angles has it ? " Six." The name of this form is hexagon. How many angles has it ? " Six." What part of the word means angle ? '' The last i)art -goiV 104 PRIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. Then what do you think hexa may mean ? " Six." Very well. So the word hexagon means having six angles. Then this is a good name for this form. How many sides has a hexagon? How many angles has it ? What do we call a plane figure with six angles*? SECOND STEP.— HEPTAGON, OCTAGON, NONAGON, DEC- AGON. Heptagon. — We have already learned what figures with five angles and those with six angles are called. Now I hold another form in my hand ; you may count the number of an- gles on this. " One, two, three, four, five, six, seven." This is a figure with seven angles ; its name is hepta- gon. Now you may tell me what j^art of this word means seven. 1 will write it on the blackboard. " Hep- ta." Very good. Octagon. — Here is another figure. Count its angles. " One, two, three, four^ five, six, seven, eight." Then this form has eight angles. Its name is octagon. Now can you tell me what octa means ? *' Eight.'' Then an octagon is a plane figure with eight angles What does gon mean ? Nonagon. — You may count the angles in this figure. " One, two, three, four, five^ six, seven, eight, nine." It has nine angles, and it is called a nona* gon. What does nona mean? " Nine." LESSONS ON MANY-SIDED FOKMS. l05 Then iioyiagon is a plane ngure having nbie angles. A form with nine equal sides is a regular nonagon. Decagon. — You may count the angles on this form, " One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, It has ten angles ; and its name is decagon. Then deca means ten. Decagon is a plane figure having ten angles. You may now point to each of these shapes on the Chart of Forms and on the blackboard as I name them. Decagon, pentagon, octagon, hexagon, nonagon, etc. Polygons. — The teacher may show a piece of paper cut with many angles, and ask the children, Has this a few or many angles? Has it a few or many sides? This is a figure of many angles^ so it may be called a polygon : poly means many. Sometimes all of these forms that have more than four angles are called polygons. When all the sides of a polygon are equal, it is called a regidar polygon. Suggestions for the Teaxhe'.— These lessons on the many- sided forms should not be taken up until the third steps of the pre- ceding divisions of form, except those of triangles and four-sided fig- ures, have been mastered, and not until the Jirst and second steps of most of the succeeding divisions of form have been learned. The most important ,/o?vrt of the polygons is the hexagon. Besides being the shape commonly adopted for large nuts and bolt-heads, it is the shape of the cells in honeycomb. It is a wonderful fact that this from gives the largest space and greatest strength with the least amount of wax in the construction. No better shape could be devised for these cells than that which God taught the bee to use. Illustrate the perfect manner in which hexagons will fit together by usinij the ten small hexagons from the Box of Forms. 106 PKIMAIIY OBJECT LESSONS. LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF CIRCULAR FORMS. EIRST STEP.— CIRCLE, SEMrCIRCLE, RING. Tme teacher may provide for this lesson several coins, flat buttons, circles and semicircles from the Box of Forms, circles and semicircles cut from pasteboard or paper, also a triangle, a square, and an oblong. Show- ing the square, she may ask, How many corners has this form? How many has this? "Three." How many has this ? " It has no corners." Taking up the square, the teacher asks, What kind of lines are represented by the edges of this form ^ "Straight lines." " How many straight lines are represented oy this (triangle) form ? " Three.'^ How many by the square ? " Four straight lines." How many straight lines has the oblong? "Four." Circle. — How many lines are represented by the edge of this form? " Only one." What is the shape of this edge? "Curved." We sometimes say the line that forms the edge of a shape bounds that form ; that is, it shows how far the figure extends. The walls of this room show how far the room extends, and they hound the room. How many lines bound this triangle? "Three." How many bound this square ? " Four lines." * What is the shape of the lines that bound the tri- LESSONS ON CIRCULAR FORMS. 10'/ angle, square, and oblong ? " They are all straight lines." What is the shape of the line that bounds this figure? "Curved." How many lines bound this figure? "Only one." You may call this figure a circle. What is the name Dfthis shape? "Circle." Showing the various objects of a circular form, the teacher asks, What is the shape of this ? " Circle." Of this? Of this? "Circle." What is the shape of this two-cent piece ? " Like a circle.'* What is the shape of the lid on the stove ? "A cir- cle." A circle has one evenly curved edge. Circular. — Sometimes you see an object that is almost round like this circle, but not so perfect in shape ; then you may call its shape circular. You may also use this word when asked the shape of these objects, as, what is the shape of this five-cent piece ? Circular would be a correct answer. You may point to a circle on the Chart of Forms. I will now take a string, and show you how to draw a circle on the blackboard. You see that I place my finger on the string and hold It firmly against the board, and I hold the opposite end of the string and a piece of chalk with the fingers of the other hand, and then move them around on the board, thus, making a curved line with both ends meet- I will now make a mark to show the place where I ield the string on the board with my finger. 108 I'KIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Centre. — This dot is in the middle of the circle. This place is called the centre. If I should meas- ure the distance from the centre to this boundary line, it would be exactly the same in every direction. Suppose a boy should tie a string to a post so loosely that it would slip aiound it, and, taking hold of the other end, should walk around the post as far from it as the string would reach, what would be the shape of his path ? " Circular." In a small class, two boys might be called to form a circle on the floor, one being required to place himself at the centre and hold a string, while the other pupil holds the other end to a piece of chalk, and marks the floor as he passes around the centre. You may now take these strings and draw circles on your slates, and make a dot in each to show the cen- tre. These practical illustrations greatly interest children, and fix the subjects in their minds ; they should always, as much as is compatible with order, be actors in their lessons. You may now tell me the names of objects that you have seen with a circular shape. Semicircle. — I will now take one of the circles made of paper, and cut it through the middle, so as to make two equal parts. What would you call one of these parts ? " Half a circle." Very good. I will give you another name which means hcdf a circle; it is semicircle. Semi means half, so that semicircle means — "Half a cir- cle." LESSONS ON CIRCULAR FORMS. 109 Here is a half circle among these forms; what do \vc call it ? " A semicircle." Now point to a semicircle on the Chart of Forms. Did you ever see any thing of this shape in the sky? " Yes ; the moon." If you had a circular pie, how could you make a semi circle of it? " Cut it into two equal parts." What part of the pie would one piece be ? " One half' Ring. — Here is a circle with its centre cut out ; vvhat would you call it ? "A ring." What kind of a line bounds the outside of the ring ? "A curved line." What kind of a line bounds the inside of the ring? "A curved line." Then how many curved lines has a ring? "Two." Look at this ring, and tell me whether these curved lines are both of the same length. "No; one is shorter than the other." Where are these lines ? " One is outside of the other." What have you seen of this shape ? " Finger-rings, rings on chains, hoops, etc." SECOND STEP.— CRESCENT, ELLIPSE, OVAL. For this step the teacher should provide from the Box of Forms the crescent, oval, ellipse, and circle and semicircles, also the same shapes cut from paper. Crescent. — What is this figure called ? "A circle." And this? " A semicircle." Now look at this fi- acter of the light color so much as to destroy its original color. Tint. — A gradation produced by mixing white with a color, so as to render it much lighter than the original color, is called a tint o/ that color. Hue. — A hue is produced by combining two colors in unequal pro- portions ; as a little yellow mixed with pure red gives a scarlet, a hut of red. A little red mixed with yellow gives a reddish hue of yellow. A little red mixed with blue gives a reddish hue of blue, a color that Inclines to a violet. A little yellow mixed with green gives a yellow- sh hue of green. This term may be applied to colors that are lighter- as well as to those that are darker than the original color. It will be observed that the color which appears most prominent after mixing two colors gives the name to the hue, as a hue of red. This may mean a red with a little yellow mixed with it, or a red with a littiU blue in it ; but a yellowish hue of red indicates what color has been mixed with the red to make its hue. Tinge. — A slight colorinsr or tincture, which may be perceivea in addition to the principal color, is callod a tinge. If a green has « slight coloring of yellow, it may be said the green has a tinge of yel low. FACTS ABOUT COLOR. 147 COMBINATIONS OF COLORS. For illustrations showing how colors may be produced by mixing she primary ones, see the Plate of Colors fronting the title-page. Primary. Secondary. Secondary. Tertiary. Red j Orange \ and >• produce Orange. and > produce Citrine. STellow ) Green ) Yellow \ Green \ and >• produce Green. and >• produce Olive. Blue ) Purple ) Ked \ Orange \ and >• produce Purple. and >• produce Russet Blue ) Purple ) DESCRIPTIONS OF COLORS. The following familiar descriptions of colors are intended to convey as definite knowledge of standards for the several colors, their shades, hues, and tints, and names for each, as it would be desirable to teach children. It is not claimed that these are entirely perfect, yet they are suflSciently accurate for all the purposes of training children to dis- tinguish colors readily. It is nearly impossible to arrange the several names employed by artists, dyers, colorists, dealers in fancy goods, etc., to designate their various ideas of color, so that a single term shall rep- resent the same idea to each class of persons. It is no less difficult to describe a color so that the description shall correspond entirely with the conceptions formed of it even by those who are familiar with colors Hs used in their own occupations. But there are so many who never obtain any correct conceptions of colors, nor the ability to describe them with even a tolerable degree of accuracy, because they never were taught any standards for distinguish • ing colors, it becomes a matter of great importance that a foundation for a knowledge of color should be laid in childhood by fixing these starting-points. With a proper early trainmg m distinguishing colors, it will become an easy matter to attain minute and definite knowledge of color in later life, in any department of busniess which may re- quire it. 148 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. REDS. Pure Red. — Carmine — the purest deep red ; the standard pri- mary red ; the color of Chinese vermilion. Shades of Red.— Morone, or Maroon— a dark crimson ; the color of an unripe mulberry ; a crimson darkened with black. It is sometimes classed with the browns. Crimson — a pure red darkened with a deep blue, giving it a shade of red with a purplish tmge. This color may often be seen on red Garnet Color — a deep red, the color of the mineral known as the carbuncle of the ancients. Magenta — a shade ot red lighter than crimson ; a bluish-red. Damask Color — a rich dark red, darker than crimson ; the color of a damask rose. Venetian Red — a name commonly applied to a paint made of earth. It is a dark, dull red, approaching the red-browns. Hues of Red. — Scarlet — a bright red, lighter than carmine : i. pure red made lighter by a slight mixture of yellow. Cherry — a bright red lighter than a scarlet. Vermilion — a yellowish-red paint; it contains more yellow than scarlet, and may be called an orange-red. This is the color of com- mon vermilion ; the Chinese vermilion has the color of pure carmine. Turkey Red — the deep red seen in calico and woolen goods when dyed with madder. Copper Color — the color of copper ; a pale red slightly tinged with yellow. Tints of Red. — Pink — a tint of crimson ; a crimson color mad( very light by mixing white with it. Rose — a tint of carmine ; a carmine color made veiy light by mix ing white with it. Flesh Color— a tint of scarlet. FACTS ABOUT COLOR. 149 YELLOWS. Pure Yellow. — Chrome Yellow, or Chromine — a bright yei- low color ; a fair standard for primary yellow. The yellow produced by (jamhoye, a gum used for yellow in water-colors, is a good standard for a primary yellow. Shades of Yellow. — Citrine — a dark greenish - yellow ; the jolor of the fruit of the citron tree. Saffron — a deep dark yellow ; the color of the saffron flowers. Hues of Yellow. — Lemon — a yellow slightly tinged with green-, the color of a lemon. Sulphur— a yellow with a bluish tinge. Golden Color — the color of gold ; a bright yellow with a reddish tinge. Canary — a light chrome yellow ; the bright yellow of the canary- bird. Ochre — a pale dusky yellow ; a kind of earth used for paint. Tints of Yellow. — Straw — a tint of pure yellow; chrome yei- low made very light by mixing white with it. Primrose — a tint of yellow lighter than straw. Flaxen — a pale tint of yellow, resembling the color of flax. BLUES. Pure Blue. — Ultramarine — the purest blue. A very fine rich blue, formerly obtained from the mineral lapis lazuli. Bhades of Blue. — Indigo — a very dark shade of blue with ?, purplish tinge ; a deep blue containing a little red, and made darker vvith black ; a color obtained from the indigo plant. Mazarine — a deep reddish-blue. Prussian Blue — a dark blue with a shght greenish tinge. Plum Color — a dark purplish-blue. 150 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Hues of Blue. — Cobalt Blue — a pure bine, somewhat lightei than the ultramarine, and much lighter than the Prussian blue. Tdrquois — a beautiful blue, the color of this precious mineral Sometimes it has a greenish tinge. French Blue — a bright blue with a violet hue. Tints of Blue. — Light Blue — a tint of ultramarine. A pure blue made lighter with white. Azure, Cerulean, or Sky Blue — the clear blue of the sky. A light tint of pure blue. ORANGE. Pure Orange. — Orange — the color of a ripe orange; a reddish- yellow. Equal parts of pure red and yellow will produce a red-orange color. Three parts of red and five parts of yellow will give a good orange color. Shades of Orange. — Dark Amber, or Amberine — a very deep reddish-yellow ; a deep orange made a little darker with black. Amber is a fossil gum, found on sea-coasts. It is obtained on the coast of the Baltic Hea. Some varieties of this gum are semi-trans- parent, and of a lighter reddish-yellow or orange. Oak Color — a shade of orange ; the color of polished oak wood. Hues of Orange. — Salmon— a light orange with a golden tinge ; the color of a salmon fish. Buff — a light yellowish- orange. Tints of Orange.— Cream Color— a very light tint of orange tinged with yellow. Orange color made very light with white. I'he color of cream. GREENS. Pure Green. — Green— the brightest grass -green. Eight parts of blue and five parts of yellow will produce a good green. Equal parts of blue and yellow will make a common green. FACTS ABOUT COLOR. 151 Shades of Green. — Olive Green — a brownish- green ; the coloi of an olive. This shade of green may be produced by mixing yellow- ish-green with brown. Bottle Green — a dark, dirty yellowish-green ; the color of bottles made of coarse common glass. Hues of Green. — Emerald — a very rich, brilliant green; ths »lor of the emerald, a precious stone. Pea Green — a light yellowish-green, the color of green peas. Sea Green — a faint green with a bluish tinge ; a color seen in deep water. Tints of Green. — Beryline — a delicate pale green, the color of the beryl or aqua marine. Tea Color, or Tea Green — a tint of olive-green ; olive-green made very light by mixing white with it. PURPLES. Pure Purple. — Purple — a color produced by mixing equal parts, of pure blue and pure red. A purple with the blue predominating is made by mixing three parts of red with eight parts of blue. Such a purple might be called a dark violet. Shades of Purple. — Royal Purple — a very rich dark purple. This color was formerly obtained from a sticky liquid found in small quantities in a kind of shell-fish. In consequence of being very diffi- cult to obtain, it wns so expensive that none but the most wealthy could wear cloth dyed with this color. This was the color of the robes worn by Roman emperors. It was the emblem of power — the sign of royalty. Amaranth — a dark red-purple, the color of the flower of the ama^ ranth. Hues of Purple. — Violet — a purple with a bluei tinge. In this color the blue appears more prominent than the red. This color might be called a purple-blue. The amethyst has a beautiful blue- vio- let color. 152 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Mauve — a delicate light purple. One of the aniline colors made from coal tar. Amethyst — a violet with a biuish hue. Tints of Purple. — Lilac — a tint of purple; a purple made light- i»r by mixing white with it ; the color of lilac blossoms. Lavender — a light tint of violet; a violet made much lighter by mixing white with it. BROWNS. The browns are usually composed of led, yellow, and black, in vari- ous proportions, and sometimes modified by the addition of white. These colors are known by various names — dark brown, olive-brown, deep brown, red-brown, gold-brown, lir/ht brown, laiiber, chestnut, au~ burn, russet, hazel, chocolate, etc., according to the prevailing color. It is generally a tawny or dusky color. Shades of Brown. — Umber — a very dark or blackish-brown paint, the color of burnt umber. Raw umber has a yellowish tinge. Chestnut — a dark shade of brown, the color of a chestnut. Chocolate — a dark reddish-biown, the color of chocolate. Puce — a dark or purplish-brown, the color of a flea. Hues of Brown. — Auburn — a reddish-brown ; tliis name is ap- plied to a color of hair. Russet — a light brown with a yellowish tinge. This color is com- posed of two parts red, and one part each of blue and yellow. Hazel — a light brown, the color of the hazel-nut. This name is used in describing the color of eyes. Snuff — a yellow-brown, the color of snufF. Claret — a purplish, light red-brown, the color of claret. Tints of Brown. — Brunette — a very light brownish color ; a name given to dark complexions. Drab — a very light dull brown, of a yellowish tinge. Tan — a light yellowish-brown. Stone Color — a very light tint of brown. FACTS ABOUT COLOR. 153 GRAYS. The grays are usually composed of black and white, modified by a mixture of red, yellow, or blue. Slate — a bluish-gray or a reddish-gray. Pearl Gray — a very light silvery-gray. Steel Color — a dark bluish-gray. French Gray — a grayish color somewhat resembling a drab. WHITE. White is the representative of light ; it is also a modifier of colors Sometimes it is said that white is not a color, but only a composition of all colors, because it is composed of the seven prismatic coioi-:;, as in sunlight. But to the child white is just as much a reality as red or blue. Since, by universal usage, this term is employed to distin- guish the color seen in pure snow, and all objects having the same color, it is just as correct to use the word white, as the name of a col- or, as the word green or yellow. And I see no good reason why we may not call white a color as well as purple. White substances reflect all the rays of sunlight ; red substances re- flect the red rays of light, and absorb all others ; yellow substances re- flect the yellow rays, and absorb all others ; green substances reflect the green — or blue and yellow — rays, and absorb all others. Black absorbs all the colors of sunlight, and reflects none of them. White — the color of pure snow. Silver — the color of silver ; a bluish-white. Pearl — usually a bluish or silvery white ; sometimes a pinkish- white. Milk-white — a white with a slight yellowish tinge, the color of BLACK. Black is the opposite of light ; it is the representative of darkness. White reflects all colors; black absorbs all colors. For the same reason that I would use the word white as the name of a color, I would use the word black to indicate the color of coal. 154 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Although it is said that hlack is no color — that it only indicates the absence of all colors — yet, for all the ordinary distinctions of objects, it is just as much a color as blue or purple, and it may be so treated in the lessons on color in primary schools. Black — the color of coal or jet. COLORS OF ANIMALS. Black Horse — a horse with a black body and legs, and black mane and tail. BrovT-n Horse — a horse with a dark brown body, and black legs, mane, and tail. Chestnut Horse — a horse with a brown body and legs, and brown mane and tail. There are dark and light chestnut colors. Bay Horse — a horse with a reddish-brown body, and black legs, mane, and tail. Occasionally a bay horse has brown legs. There are dark and light bays. Sorrel Horse — a horse with a yellowish-brown body and legs, and usually a light yellowish-brown mane and tail. Hoan Horse — a horse with red and white hairs mixed, but with the red hairs predominating. Cream - colored Horse — a horse with a yellowish, very light brown body and legs, and generally a yellowish-white mane and tail. Dun — a very light dull chestnut, darker than a cream -color. Horses of this color usually have light mane and tail. This color is also seen on cattle. Gray Horse — a horse with brown or black hairs mixed with white ;>nes, but with the white hairs greatly predominating. The legs of gray horses are usually darker than the bodies An iron-gray has more dark hairs» FACTS ABOUT COLOR. 156 Pied Horse— a spotted horse, covered with small spots of differ- ent colors. 8oine dogs are pied. White Horse — a horse with a white body and legs, and white mane and tail. Hed Cow — a cow with a reddish-brown body :.nd legs. Brindle Ox— An ox with black and brown hairs in stripes, or light and dark brown hairs in spots or stripes. Fawn Color — a light tint of yellowish-brown. APPARATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING COLOR. Color is a subject which can be taught only by seeing it. The teacher must depend upon visible illustrations for giving definite ideas of colors. It is therefore very important that "Charts of Color,"* a " Box of Colored Cards," a " ISet of Color Cubes," worsteds and pieces of silk of various colors, sealing-wax, wafers, colored papers, flowers and fruits in their season, a glass prism, colored crayons for the black- board, etc. , should be provided for this purpose. If the teacher can not obtain more suitable apparatus for illustra- ting colors, she may procure a sheet of perforated pasteboard, and work upon it squares of about two inches by two inches with colored worst- eds, lea\ing inch spaces between the squares. In this way very good illustrations of colors may be provided. The Frontispiece of this book will serve as a guide in selecting the principal colors. "The Classification of Colors" and "The Descrip- tions of Colors" will also furnish information to aid in this matter. See article on "Color " for advanced lessons. * " Charts of Colors" and a " Box of Colored Cards" have been prepared for illustrating colors, and published by Harper & Brothers. 156 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. ORDER FOR LESSONS ON COLOR. First Series. The First, Second, and Third Steps of Kesemblances and Differences in Color may be taken during the period in which the children are learning to read in a Primer. Second Series. Lessons on Naming Colors : First Step, Naming Colors at Sight ; Second Step, Naming Objects by Colors ; Third Step, Grouping Names of Objects by Color ; Exercises with Color and Form combined. These lessons may be given during the time that the children are learning to read in a First Reader. Third Series. Ideas of Standard Colors : First Step, Red, Yellow, and Blue ; Second Step, Orange, Green, and Purple ; Third Step, White and Black, Idea of Shades and Tints of Color : First and Second Steps ; Idea of Hues of Color ; Idea of Classes of Colors, and Grouping Colors in Classes. These lessons may be given while the pupils are learning to read in a Second Reader. Fourth Series. Ideas of Primary and Secondary Colors, Mixing Colors, and Colors of Animals, may be given while the pupils are reading in the last half of a Second Reader, or in an easy Thii-d Reader. Other Lessojis. For additional lessons and facts concerning Primary and Second- ary Colors, see "Mixture of Colors," "Complementary Colors," and " Harmony of Colors," in Manual of Object Teaching. KKSEMBLANCE AND DIFFERENCE IX COLOR. 15' LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF RESEMBLANCE AND DIFFEEENCE IN COLOR FIRST STEP.— DISTINGUISHING COLORS. Having provided cards of several colors from the Box of Colors, also pieces of worsteds, silks, etc., the teacher may request the children to notice whether the colors look alike as the cards are shown. The cards may be held with their white sides toward the pupils, then with their colored sides. At first cards of the same color may be selected, as two reds, two yellows, two blues, two greens, etc. Afterward cards of differ- ent colors may be taken, as red and yellow ; blue and orange ; red and green ; purple and yellow. After several colors have been thus shown the chil- dren, and they have been led to notice that the colors of some cards and pieces of silk and worsted are alike and others unlike, the teacher may request the pupils to say alike when two objects of the same color are shown, and unlike when two different colors are shown. Let the teacher hold the white sides of two red cards before the class ; the pupils may answer, " Alike." Then hold the red sides before the class — "Alike." Then two yellow cards — " Alike." Then two blue ob- jects — "Alike." The teacher may then hold a red and a blue card be- fore the class — "Unlike." Then a yellow and a green card — "Unlike." Then a red and a green card — "Un- like." Then the white sides of a green and a purple 158 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. card — "Alike." Then the colored sides of the same cards — " Unlike," etc. These exercises should be varied and repeated for several days in classes of young children. The teacher may continue the exercises for training the children to distinguish colors by placing before them the " Chart of Colors," and, holding up a red card, say, I have a red card ; who will point to a color like it on the Chart ? From the pupils that raise their hands, intimating that they desire to point to a color like that of the card shown them, the teacher may select several, calling out one at a time, to point to the red on the Chart of Colors. The teacher may then take up a yellow card and proceed in the same manner ; then a blue card, and so on, until the children have become familiar with red, yellow, blue, orange, green, and purple by sight and by name. The teacher may next take colored crayons, and make a broad mark with each color on the blackboard, and as each mark is made let the children tell its color, thus: "Red; green; yellow; blue; orange; purple; white ; green ; blue ; red," etc. Let pupils select a crayon, and make a mark of a given color, as red, blue, yellow, green, etc. The teacher may vary these exercises by pointing to a red color on the Chart, and requesting the pupils singly to select the same color from the cards, or worst- eds and silks on the table. This method may be con- tinued until the pupils can select all the six colors men- tioned above. Let the exercise be again changed by the teacher calling upon pupils to point to red colore on the Chart ; RESEMBLANCE AND DIFFERENCE IN COLOR. 159 then blue color; then green color; and so on through yellow, purple, and orange. Next let the pupils be required to select colors by their names from the colored cards, worsteds, silks, etc. These exercises for distinguishing colors may be con- tinued through several lessons, extending over a period varying in time from two weeks to one month, accord- ing to the ages of the pupils and their progress. Ask the children how they know that all objects do not have the same color. How would all colors appear where there is no light ? SECOND STEP.— GROUPING COLORS. Children may be taught to group like colors by placing a red color on one end of the table and a green color on the other end ; then, taking up several red and green cards, pieces of silk and worsteds, request the pupils, as each piece is held before them, to tell with which color it should be placed ; and the teacher may place it with the red or the green, as the children direct. In small classes the children might take the colors and classify them in two groups, by allowing each child to take two or three colors, and place each with the group which it is alike. "When the children have continued this exercise of grouping until they can readily classify any two of the six principal colors, a new series of exercises may be given with three groups of colors in each, as recl^ yel- low, blue ; red, green, white ; yellovj, purple, white ; bhce, orange, black, etc. ; and the pupils may be required to place colors in three groups in the same manner as they before placed them in two groups. 160 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. These exercises should be continued until the pupils have become so familiar with red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, white, black, that they can readily group objects uf each of these colors. The children may now be required to arrange these colors in rows, like patterns given by the teacher, thus: Red, yellow, blue, orange, green, purple ; yellow, blue, orange, green, red, purple ; green, red, orange, purple, yellow, blue. Only one pattern should be given at a time. During this step the children should not be taught shades and tints of colors ; all these may be treated a& reds, yellows, blues, greens, etc. THIRD STEP.— LIGHT AND DARK COLORS. The children, having become familiar with six or eight colors, may next be taught that the same colors can be light or dark. The teacher may point to light reds and dark reds^ light yellows and dark yellows, light blues and dark blues, dark greens and light greens, on the Chart of Colors, and thus illustrate this fact to the class. Then the teacher may call upon pupils to poirt to light colors, then to dark colors, thus : James may point to a light red ; now to a dark red. Henry may point to a dark green; now to a ligli' green. Freddy may point to a light blue; now to a dark blue. When the children can readily point out the prin- cipal light and dark colors on the Chart, the teacher may place a white object upon one end of the table RESEMBLANCE AND DIFFERENCE IN COLOR. IGl and a black one upon the other end ; then say to the class : We will place all the light colors with the white ob- ject, and all the dark colors with the black object. Now I wish you to look at each color as I show it to you, and tell me where to place it. When I show a color, you may say " light" if you think it belongs with the light colors, and " dark" if you think it should be placed with the dark colors. The teacher may now hold up very light colors and very dark colors, and let the children tell with which group each should be placed. Subsequently light and dark colors may be grouped by the children making the selection themselves from the colors on the table, placing each with it8 appro prJ.Ve group. OTHER METHODS For Training Pupils to Com2yare and Name Colors, especially in large classes, are given under the head "Additional Suggestions for Teaching Color," in the Manual of Object Teaching. 11 iH'Z PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. LESSONS IN NAMING COLOKS. FIRST STEP.— NAMING COLORS AT SIGHT. After placing the Chart of Colors before the class, the teacher may point to the colors in groups, request- ing the pupils to give the name of the group, as reds, greens, blues, yellows, purples, oranges. Next the teacher may take up colored cards, pieces of silk, worsted, etc., and request the children to give the name of the color as soon as shown, as red, blue, green, etc. Another exercise may be given in which the pupils will be required, in the same manner, to give some of the other names of colors, as red, pink, yellow, straw, orange, cream, blue, sky-blue, green, light green, purple, violet, lilac. First the teacher may point to the color on the Chart, and the pupils give the name; then she may hold up cards or other colored objects, and request the pupil to give the name of each color singly as soon as it is shown. A very valuable exercise for securing the attention of a large class may be introduced in connection with these lessons on color. The teacher, taking several of the square colored cards from the Box of Colors, may hold them up, one at a time, and ask, What is the color of this ? What is its shape ? What is the shape of this? What its color? When the pupils are able to answer readily and coi> LESSONS IN NAMING COLORS. 163 rectly each question as to shape, color, etc., the teacher may show the card, and indicate the question by simply speaking the words color — shape. Let the changes be made rapidly from shape to color, also fi'om one color to another, so as to require the most watchful attention on the part of the pupils to understand correctly and quickly, and answer promptly. Let the names of colors be reviewed by requiring the pupils to point out colors on the Chart ; also to select colors from objects on the table as the teacher speaks the name. SECOND STEP.— NAMING OBJECTS BY COLORS. To train children to apply the appropriate names to the colors in articles of dress, flowers, fruits, and other familiar objects, let the teacher point to a red color on the Chart, or hold a red card before the class, and re- quest the pupils to mention the names of objects which are red. First let each child that can think of a red object raise a hand, and mention the name of it prompt- ly, in turn, as called upon by the teacher. In subse- quent exercises upon the same color, each child may be called upon in turn to mention the name of an object with the given color. Each color may be presented to the class in the same way until the pupils have learned to associate the right names with the colors seen in common ob- jects, and have also learned to observe more carefully what colors may be seen in the various objects around them. Other exercises for associating the names of colors with those seen in articles of clothing, and for leading 164 PRIMARY OBJECl^ LESSONS. children to a more accurate observation, may be given in tlie following manner: All the children that have a blue color in any part of their dress may stand, ^lary, what part of your dress is blue? "My sack." Cassie, what have you that is blue ? *' The ribbon on my head." Ella, what have you that is blue? ''My dress." Thus each child may be called upon to point out and tell the name of the part of dress in which the given color may be seen. Proceeding in the same way with the other colors, the teacher says : All the children that have red in any part of their dress may stand. Then let each child mention the name of the part, and point out the color, in turn, as before. Continue this exercise with each of the principal colors. Subsequently the teacher may mention the names of objects, and the children tell their colors, as, Cherries — " Red." Apples — " Red ; green ; yellow." You do not agree as to the color of apples ; which is correct ? " Some apples are red, some are green, and some are yellow." Very good; all of you were right. What is the color of leaves in the summer? "Green." Of strawberries? "Red." Of currants? "Red, when ripe." Of plums? "Red; blue; yellow; green." Yes ; some plums are red, some are blue, some green, etc. What is the color of a lemon? of an orange? of a rose ? of a violet ? LESSONS IN NAMING COLOJSS, l65 THIRD STEP.— GROUPING NAMES OF OBJECTS BY COLOR. For a class that can read well in a First Reader, the teacher may give exercises in grouping the names of objects by their colors, thus leading them to observe the colors of objects more carefully. Let the teacher write on the blackboard the names of some of the principal colors, thus : Red. Yellow. Blue. White, Then the teacher may request the pupils to name objects that are red, and, as each pupil mentions a name, the teacher may write it under the word red. When several red objects have been mentioned, the names of those that are yellow may be given and writ- ten in a like manner. Then those that are blue, and so on. The lesson on each group of colors should be repeat- ed three or four times, to lead the children to extend their observations, and become able to give longer lists of objects having the colors than they could think of on the first presentation of the lesson. These exercises may be continued with similar groups of other colors, until the children can readily group the names of objects representing eight or ten colors. When the pupils are able to write readily on their slates, this exercise might be varied by requiring them to write a list of names of red objects, green objects, blue objects^ etc., and then ascertain which pupil can write the longest list of each color. i66 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. EXERCISES WITH COLOR AND FORM COMBINED. When the pupils have become somewhat familial with the common colors introduced in the preceding lessons, exercises may be arranged which will furnish an interesting variety for the children by combining colors with plane forms. Let ten more pieces of pasteboard or thick paper be procured than there are pupils in the class. Each piece may be about four inches wide and six inches long. Also procure colored papers wiiich are good represent- atives of the six colors — red, yellow, blue, orange, green, purple. If the class contains thirty pupils, cut each of the fol^ lowing forms from/b /r of the colors represented by the papers. If the class contains forty pupils, cut each form h'oxwjive colors. If there are fifty pupils, cut each form from six of the colors ; and so on. This will allow a card with each form for the teacher. Triangle. Square. Oblong. Rhomb. Rhomboid. Circle. Semicircle. Crescent. Oval. Ring. For a class of thirty pupils, the triangle, oblong, rhomb, circle, and crescent may each be cut from the red^ yellow^ green., and purple. The square, rhomboid, semicircle, and ring may each be cut from the orange.^ blue^ red., and gree7i. Let each of these forms cut from the colored papers —the sizes of which should correspond to the forms in EXERCISES WITH COLOR AND FORM COMBINED. IGV the box or those on the Chart — be neatly pasted in the centre of the pieces of pasteboard or thick paper. The lessons on form and color may be conducted with these cards somewhat as follows : Distribute the cards so that each child shall hold one. The teacher should select beforehand one card for each form. As the card containing the square is held before the class, all the pupils that have a card containing the same shape may stand up. Each pupil standing may then be called upon to tell what shape is on its card, and also the color of it. In this instance the shape on each card of those pupils who stand up should be a square, but there will be four different colors represent- ed by these squares in a class of forty. Next the teacher may hold before the class another form, as the crescent^ and request all the pupils that have that shape on their cards to stand up. Then each pupil may tell what shape is on its card, and the color of it, as before. After each form has been thus called for, the teacher may request all the pupils that have a color like the one shown by the teacher to stand up. Then each pu- pil may be called upon to tell the name of the color, and the name of the /brm on its card. When sufficiently advanced in the lessons on form, the pupils may describe the form, thus : " The shape on my card is a square ; it has four equal sides, and four square corners. Its color is — " " The shape on my card is a circle ; it has one evenly curved edge. Its color is — " " The shape on my card is a rhomboid ; it has two equal long sides, two equal short sides, and two sharp corners, and two blunt corners. Its color is — " 168 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. A variety of questions may be given, and the interest of the children kept wide awake when this exercise is properly conducted. In several of the large public schools in New York City the teachers arrange these forms and colors on pieces of white glazed muslin, and fasten the muslin to sticks like little flags. These are passed by the pupils from one to the other, and the lessons conducted some- what in the manner described above. In these schools the children use the flags for the form and color lessons in the classes that are just learning to read short sen- tences from the blackboard, as well as with pupils that are reading in the First Reader. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. In giving lessons on the following subject — "Standard Colors" — it is important that children should obtain correct conceptions as to which of the colors are good reds, good yelloivs, good blues, good greens, etc. ; therefore, care should be taken to show them good specinnens of these colors during the first lessons. It does not matter which colors you select for the first lessons, provided you have the materials for representing them well. In addition, therefore, to the Color- Chart and Box of Colors, procure tubes of oil-colors or water-colors, such as artists use; also a small palette and palette-knife. Three colors will be sufficient. For red. get carmine, or Chinese vermilion; for blue, get ultramarine, or cobalt blue ; for yellow, get chrome ; and for making light colors, get a tube of white, which you may mix with either of the colors to make them lighter, as you desire. With these colors you can show your pupils excellent specimens of the so-called three primary colors; and, when the class is ready for this instruc- tion, also illustrate the manner of producing what are named secondary colors, by mixing two primaries to make a secondary. LESSONS ON SIANDAKD COLOKS. 169 LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF STANDARD COLOES. FIRST STEP.— RED, YELLOW, AND BLUE. We have been talking about various colors, and about objects in w'hich these colors may be seen. You have learned that some colors are dark, also that some are light ; now we will try to learn which are the best colors. Red. — You will observe that some of the 7'eds on the Chart appear to be more red than others. Now Fanny may point to the reddest red on the Chart, and if you think she points to the right color, you may say Right ; if you think she does not point to the reddest one, you may say Wrong. " Right." Jennie may now point to the color which she thinks is reddest, " Right." Let us see what the name of the color is to which Jennie pointed. It is carinine. This is correct; we will call a bright carmine the reddest of the reds, and take this for our standard red. If you will look at the Frontispiece of this book you will find a good carmine red. This color should be like the pure red of the rainbow. The pupils may now be called upon to select the standard red from the colors on the table. Yellow. — When you look at the yellows on this Chart, you can see that they do not all appear alike. Who will point to the yellowest yellow ? 170 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Henry may do it. " Wrong." William may try it. "Right." James may now point to the yellowest col- or. "Right." You may look at this color carefully; we will take it for our standard yellow. You can see this color on the Frontispiece of this book. The children may now be requested to select the standard yellow from the colors on the table. Blue. — On the Chart of Colors you will notice that some of the blues are light, and some are very blue. Now Cora may point to the bluest blue. "Right." Lizzie may show us which she thinks is the bluest of the blues. "Right." The name of this blue is ultramarine. It is a rich pure blue, and we will choose it for the standard blue. This color resembles the bright blue of the rainbow. The children may now be requested to select the standard blue from the colors on the table. The pupils may also be requested to select the three standard colors, and place them in one group on the table. This may be called the first group of standard colors. SECOND STEP.— ORANGE, GREEN, AND PURPLE. You may tell me how many standard colors we have selected. "Three." What are their names? " Red, yellow, blue." Who will point them out on the Chart of Colors ? Anna may do it. "Right; right; right." Well done; now we will select more standard colors. LESSONS ON STANDARD COLORS. 171 Orange. — When you look at the orange colors on the Chart, you observe that some of them do not have the same color as the orange. Carrie may point to a color which she thinks is like that of the orange. " Right." We will take the color of the ripe orange for our sta7idard orange color. Green. — When you look at grass, or green leaves, and the colors on the Chart, you will notice that some greens are brighter than others. Let us choose the brightest color of green grass in early summer for our standard green. Who will point to a color which resembles it on the Chart ? Fanny may show us that color. "Right." Let pupils be called upon to select the standard green fi'om the colors on the table. Purple. — You may look at the colors on the Chart, and select the best purple. Jane may show us which purple she selected. "Right." Alice may show us which purple she selected. " Wrong ; right." Now let us examine these colors, and see if Alice is correct. She pointed to the royal purple, which is a very dark, rich purple. This purple is too dark for the purple seen in the rainbow, so we will choose the light- er purple which Jane selected for our standard purple. The pupils may now be requested to select colors like the standard purple, after the teacher shows it on the Chart. They may also be requested to select the last three standard colors and place them in a group on the table. This may be called the second group of standard colors. I 72 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. How many standards of colors have we selected m all? " Six." What are their names ? "Red, yellow, blue, orange, green, purple." Which did we select first ? ** The standard red." Which did we select at the first lesson ? " The red, yellow, and blue." You may call these the ^/irst colors, because they are the three standards which we selected at the^fV^^ lea- son. What was the color selected first at the second lesson ? " Orange." How many colors did we select for standards at the second lesson ? "Three." What are their names ? " Orange, green, and purple." These were the standard colors selected at the second lesson, so we will call them the second colors. Which do we call the second colors ? " Orange, green, and purple." Which do we call the first colors? " Red, yellow, and blue." THIRD STEP.— WHITE AND BLACK. White. — You may tell me what you call the lightest color that you ever saw. " White." What is the whitest object that you ever saw ? " Snow." LESSONS ON STANDARD COLORS. 173 Very good ; snow is the purest white that is known. This we call our standard white. Sometimes we call sunlight white, but it is a golden white. You may mention the names of objects that are white. Black. — You told me the name of the lightest color that you ever saw, now you may tell me the name of the darkest color that you know. " Black." What have you seen that is black ? " Horses, cats, dogs, birds, coal, cloth, silk, ribbon." These two colors, lohite and blacky are the boundai-ies of all the other colors. I will try to explain what I mean by this on the blackboard. Here I will write the word white at one end of the blackboard, and I will write the word black at the other end. Next to the white I will write yellow., the lightest of the standard colors, and next to that orange^ and next to that red. Kow I will write blue next to black, then purple next to blue, then green. You observe that all these colors come between white and black. Can you mention any color that is lighter than white ? Can you mention any color that is darker than black? Then these two show how far colors ex- tend each way. Now I will write the name of the lightest color at the top of the blackboard. What is it ? "White." I have written the word white; wtiat shall I writ© next below it ? "Yellow." 174 TRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. And next below that ? " Orange." And next below that ? "Red." And next below red ? " Green." And next below green? " Purple." And next below purple ? " Blue." And next below blue ? " Black." And next below black ? " There is no darker color." Very good. Now you see that black is at the bot- tom, and white is at the top of the column of colors. Thus you see that all colors belong between these two extremes — white and black. iSHADES AND TINTS OF COLORS. 175 LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF SHADES AND TINTS OF COLOES. FIRST STEP.— SHADES. You have already learned that some colors are light and some are dark ; I am now gomg to tell you what we call those colors that are made dark by mixhig some darker color, or a black, with them. Where the sun shines it is very light ; but if you go under a tree, or by the side of a house so that the sun can not shine upon you, you are in the — " Shade." Right. Now tell me whether the shade is as light as sunlight. Then a shade is where the light is not so bright. So when w^e mix a dark color with a light one, so as to make that light color darker than it was before, we say it is a shade of that color. If I take red and mix black with it, so as to make a dark red of it, then it may be called a shade of red. Suppose I should mix black with green, what would it produce ? "A shade of green." If I should mix black with blue, what would it pro- duce ? So if I should mix blue, which is a very dark color, with red, it would produce a crimson^ which is a shade of red. How may we produce shades of colors ? '' By mixing black or dark colors with light ones." 176 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. SECOND STEP.— TINTS OF COLORS. In the last lesson we were talking about — What ? " Shades of colors." Now we will talk about making colors lighter. If 1 take yellow and mix white with it, what effect will it have on the yellow ? "Make it lighter." If I take red and mix white with it, what effect will it have on the red ? " Make it lighter." If I mix white with green, what will be produced? ''•A light green." When we mix white with any color so as to make it appear very light, we call it a ti7it of the color. If white be mixed with blue so as to make it look very light, we call it a tint of blue. Suppose you should mix white with purple so as to make it very light, what would we call it ? "A tint of purple." Now you may come to the Chart, one at a time, and point to a tint of some color, and tell what color it is a tint of. You may select tints from the colors on the table. Vou may point to shades of colors on the Chart. Now you may select shades from the colors on the table. HUES OF COLORS. 177 LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF HUES OF COLOES. Sometimes we find a color which appears as if an other color had been mixed with it. If you will look at vermilion on the Chart of Colors, you will see that it has more of a yellowish appearance than the other reds; so we might say it is a yellowish hue of red. Hue. — When you can see that some other color has been mixed with the one you are looking at, so that it appears reddish, yellowish, bluish, or greenish, it may be called a hue. Now look on the Chart of Colors, and see if you can find a yellowish hue of green. Who will point it out '? Who can point out a hue of orange ? Who will show us a hue of brown ? Emma may select a hue of blue from the colors 013 the table. Carrie may select a hue of red. 12 178 PRIMAKY OBJECl' LESSONS. LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF CLASSES OF COLOKS. You have had several lessons on color; now I wish to see who can tell me the names of the groups or kinds of colors that you have learned. As you mention their names, I will write them on the blackboard. Red, Yellow. Blue. Orange. Green. Purple. White. Black. How many kinds or groups of color have you named? "Eight." I will write three of these names on another part of the blackboard, and leave room to write other words under each, thus : Bed. Yellow. Blue. Grouping Colors in Classes.— You the names of all the colors that you each group, commencing with red. may now tell me can remember foi Bed Yellow. Blue. Pink. Sulphur. Ultramarine, Rose. Saffron. Indigo. Crimson. Canary. Mazarine. Scarlet. Lemon. Prussian blue. Carmine. Straw. Cobalt blue. Cherry. Citrine. Turquois. Vermilion. Ochre. Azure. Magenta. Golden. Light blue. Garnet. Primrose. French blue. CLASSES OF COLORS. 179 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. Probably the first time this exercise is given the children will be able to mention only a few of the names presented above in each group of colors ; but by requesting the pupils to try to find more names for each of these classes, by inquiring of their parents, or older brothers and sisters, in two or three days they will be able to add many more to their first lists. The teacher should also lead the pu- pils to perceive how the colors in each class differ from each other in the same group. A reference to "Facts about Color" will aid in this work. A similar plan should be pursued in grouping the names of other colors in classes. And in each case give the children an opportunity to observe the colors and learn more names, and then teach them how the colors of the same group differ from each other. Teaching the pupils to distinguish the differences in colors of the same class should not be undertaken until they have advanced so far as to read in a Second Reader, and are familiar with all the lessons preceding these on "Classes of Colors." These distinctions of colors will require several lessons, each illus- trated with the colors described. Grouping Colors in Classes. — To-day we will take a new lesson in grouping the names of colors. You may mention the names of all the colors that you can think of, while I write them on the blackboard. When you have given me the names of all that you can think of to-day for each group, we will leave the lesson, that you may learn the names of more colors to give me to-morrow Orange. Green. Purple. Amber. Grass-green. Violet, Salmon. Emerald. Mauve. Buff. Pea-green. Lilac. Cream, Olive. Lavender. Oak. Tea-green. Amaranth. 180 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. BROWNS AND GRAYS. In our lessons on grouping colors you have men- tioned the names of some that we could not place in either of the classes already given. I will try to teach you something about two other classes — broicns and grays — so that you can group the other common names. Browns. — Brown is a reddish color, but it usually has some other hue. Brown colors are produced by mixing red, yellow, and black. All colors, then, that appear to be composed of these three — red, yellow, and black — you may group with the class called browns. Grays. — Gray is a color produced by mixing white and black. But this color is frequently modified by red, or blue, or yellow, so that the gray may have a reddish hue, or a bluish hue, or a yellowish hue. Now you may try to give me names of colors to group in these two classes, and I will write them on the blackboard. Brow7is. Grays. Dark brown. Light gray. Light brown. Dark gray. Chestnut. Steel-gray. Chocolate. Iron-gray. Auburn. French gray. Russet. Slate. Hazel. Pearl-gray. Snuff. Clar«t. PRIMAEY AND SECONDARY COLORS. 181 LESSONS TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF PKIMAKY AND SECONDAKY COLORS. FIRST STEP. — MIXING EED, YELLOW, AND BLUE. Who can tell me the names of the first group of standard colors which we selected? Sidney may answer. " Red, yellow, and blue." Very well. What did we call the first three stand* ard colors that we selected ? ''''First colors.''^ I am now going to take these first colors and show you something more wonderful than any thing you have seen in colors. Mixing Red and Yellow. — I have here two colored crayons; what is the color of this? "Red." What is the color of this ? " Yellow." I have also some red and yellow paints. I will place some of the red paint on this, white paper, and then mix yellow paint with it. Now look at it, and tell me what the color is like. " It is like the color of an orange." Then what may we call it ? " An orange color." What two colors did I mix together to produce the orange color? "Red and yellow." I will now make a broad red mark on the blackboard with the red crayon, and then make a broad yellow mark across one end of it, as you may see in Figure 1 of the 182 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Frontispiece. When I rub these colors so as to mix them, what color do they form ? " An orange." When I wish to make an orange color, what two colors must I mix together ? "A red and a yellow." I hold a red color in my hand; what other color must I take that the two colors held will represent those that will produce an orange? " A yellow." What color must I mix with yellow to produce orange ? SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. It would be well, when the size of the class will permit it, to call upon individual pupils to select colors to represent those that will pro- duce orange ; also to request pupils to take the colored crayons and represent the mixing of these colors on the blackboard. What chil- dren learn to do they remember longer than what they learn to repeat. The same practice should be introduced in teaching each of the sec- ondary colors — orange, green, and purple. Mixing Yellow and Blue. — I now have yellow and blue paints, and yellow and blue crayons, and I will show you how we can produce another beautiful color by mixing two of these. First I will place a little yelloic paint on this paper, and then mix a little blue with it. Please to observe carefully what I do, so that you can tell me when I am through. What color have I produced? " A green." What colors did I mix together? "Yellow and blue." I will now make a broad yellow mark on the black* PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS. 183 board with tliis crayon, and a broad blue mark across the end of it, like Fig. 2 on the Plate of Colors, and then rub the yellow and blue colors together. What color does it produce ? " A green." Which of the colors that I mixed together does thf^ green look like ? " It does not look like either." What two colors will produce a green ? I hold a yellow color in my hand ; what other color must I take that the two may represent those which will produce green ? What color mixed with blue will produce green ? I hold a green ; who will select the two colors that would produce it ? Let pupils come and select the two colors which produce green, and hold them in one hand, and select a green to hold in the other hand. Now let me see if you have them right. John has red in his hand wdth the yellow. Is that right? « No." What color would he have, should he mix these? "Orange." Try it again, John. Mary, let me see yours. You have yellow and green in one hand, and blue in the other. Ella, you may show her how to hold them. Now all have the right colors, I believe. What two colors have you in your left hand ? "Blue and yellow." What color have you in your right hand? "Green." If you mix blue and yellow paint* what color will you have ? " Green." 184 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Mixing Red and Blue. — Now I have red and blue paints, and red and blue crayons. By mixing these we may produce another color. I will show it to you. Here is a little red paint on this white paper, and I will mix a little blue paint with it. Do you know any name for this beautiful color ? " It is a purple." Very good. What two colors did I mix to produce the purple ? "A red and a blue." Now I will see if we can make a purple with the col- ored crayons on the blackboard. What is the color of this mark? "Red." I will now draw a broad blue mark across it, as in Fig. 3 on the Plate of Colors, and rub the red and blue colors together. What have 1 produced ? " A dark reddish color, like a purple." What colors must I take to make a purple ? "Red and blue." What color must I mix with blue to make a purple? What color must you mix with red to make a purple ? I promised to show you something wonderful with the first colors. Who can tell me what I did with them ? " You mixed them together, and made other colors with them." Very good. When you saw these colors made by mixing the first colors, which one of the colors that I produced seemed most wonderful to you ? "- The green." I suppose this was because the green is so unlike both of the colors that we mix to produce it. PBIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS. 185 SECOND STEP.— PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS. Let us now talk about the colors that we mixed to make other colors. Who can tell me what colors we mixed together? "Red and yellow; yellow and blue; blue and red." How many colors did we produce by mixing the red, yellowy and blue? " Three colors." What are their names ? " Orange, green, and purple." How many and which Jirst colors did we use to make the orange ? "Two; the red and the yellow." How many and which ^rs^ colors did we use to make the green ? " Two ; the yellow and the blue." How many and which ^rs^ colors did we use to make the purple ? " Two ; the red and the blue." Primary Colors. — What name did we give to the standard red, yellow, and blue? " First colors." Now I will give you a new name for this group of colors ; we will call them primari/ colors. Primary means first, or simple. These first colors a'*e simple colors ; they can not be produced by mixing; any othei colors together. What may we call these first colors ? "Primary colors." Which colors do we call simple or primary ? 186 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. "The red, yellow, and blue." Why do we say these are simple colors ? "Because they can not be made by mixing other colors." And we might also say, because each of these simple colors does not contain any other color. They are pure colors. Secondary Colors. — Who can tell me what we called the second group of standard colors that we selected? " Second colors." Very good. Can you tell their names ? " Orange, green, and purple." Rio;ht. What were the names of the colors that we produced by mixing the prirjiari/ colors? " Orange, green, and purple." Are these names like those of either group of the standard colors ? "Yes; they are like the group of second colors." I will srive vou a new name for the three colors that may be produced by mixing Xhe primary colors ; we did call them second colors, but now we will call them secondary colors. This means the second colors, or those colors that may he produced by mixing together two pri- mary colors. Which are the secondary colors? "Orange, green, and purple." What two primary colors will produce the secondary orange ? " Red and yellow." Wliat primary colors will produce the secondary green ? "Yellow and blue." PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS. 1&7 What primary colors will produce the secondary purple ? " Red and blue." I will write the word orange on the blackboard, and then one of the class may take the two crayons that will produce an orange, and make a mark with each color under this woi"d. What are the colors of these marks ? "Red and yellow." Now I will write the word green^ and one of you m^y make marks under it to show what two colors will pro- duce a green. What colors do you see in these marks ? " Yellow and blue." Now another pupil may make marks under the word purple^ to show what colors will produce it. What marks have been made under purple? " Red and blue marks." How many primary colors are there ? How many secondary colors did we make with the primary ones ? See Manual of Object Teaching for additional facts about "Primary and Secondary Colors," "Mixture of Colors," "Complementary Colors," and "Harmony of Colors." 188 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. LESSONS FOR BOYS ON COLOKS OF ANIMALS. First Lesson.— I suppose you have noticed that horses and cattle differ very much in color. Who can tell me the names of some of the colors of these animals ? "Bay; black; gray; white; sorrel; brown." Which of the colors on the Chart does the hay most resemble ? Which color does the sorrel resemble ? I will w^'ite descriptions of these two colors on the blackboard, and to-morrow you may tell me how many bay horses and how many sorrel horses you have seen. A hay horse has a reddish-hrovm hody^ and hlack legs^ ma7ie^ and tail. A sorrel horse has a yellowish-hroum hody ayid legs., and usually with a mane and tail of the same color. Who can describe a bay horse? John may tell us how we may know when to call a horse hay. "A bay horse has a reddish-brown body, and black legs, mane, and tail." Who will describe a sorrel horse ? Abram may tell us how we can know a sorrel horse from a bay one. "A sorrel horse has a yellowish-brown body and legs, and a yellowish-brown mane and tail." Very good. To-mori'ow you may tell me how many horses you have seen of each color. Second Lesson. — Yesterday we were talking about the color of horses, and you were to notice the color of COLORS OF ANIMALS. 189 the horses that you saw, and tell me how many you have seen of each color. What were the names of the colors that you were to notice and count ? " Bay and sorrel." I will now write these words on the blackboard, thus* Bay horses. Sorrel horses. Kow as each of you in order, commencing with the first boy, tell me how many hay horses you have seen, I will place the number under the words "bay horses." If any of you have not seen a bay horse, I will make a naught under these words. The teacher may now proceed to place figures under the words "bay horses," as each boy gives the number that he has seen, thus : j^ When the teacher has asked each boy in the horses ^^^^^ ^^^^ many bay horses he saw, the same plan may be pursued to ascertain how many sorrel horses each saw. 3 Suitable remarks should be made to stimu- late those who saw no horses to use their eyes 5 better next time, and to commend those who 4 appear to take notice of what they see. 1 The teacher may call upon individual pupils to describe one of the bay horses that he saw ; also to tell where he saw it. The same may be done with those who saw sorrel horses. To prepare for another lesson, the teacher may in- quire whether any of the pupils saw horses of any other color. Those who did may describe the color, or tell the name of it. The pupils may mention the names (/ray horse, hroicn horse, chestnut horse. The teacher may write a description of each of these 190 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. colors on the blackboard, and request the boys to learn them. A brown horse has a dark brown body, and black legs, mane, a7id tail. A chestnut horse has a dark brown body and legs, and a brow7i mane and tail. A gray horse has brown hairs mixed with white ones, but with many more white than brown hairs. The teacher may request the boys to notice horses, and tell how many each saw, as before, for a third ex- ercise. A similar plan may be pursued with all the colors common among animals. NUMBER. When a child has learned to distinguish objects by 'Form and Color ^ it soon perceives two or more objects alike, and thus gains its first idea of more than one. This is its starting-point in Namher. It obtains this first notion of number at an early age, and, until it leanis to count, its ideas appe**. to be limited to one and more. These ideas are enlarged by means of count- ing objects, and thus it takes its first step in a knowl- edge of number. Hence with counting objects should commence the child's training in the elements of arith- metic. Veritable ideas of number, like those of Form and Co/or, belong to the facts that are chiefly acquired through the sense of sight. Early instruction in this subject must depend for success upon the actual pres- entation of objects. No description of numbers, or of arithmetic, nor the memorizing and repetition of rules, will ever teach a child true ideas of number, and lay a proper foundation for a practical knowledge of arith- metic. A common error in the teaching of arithmetic con- sists in the abstract manner in which it is usually pre- sented ; and, owing to this, many pupils seldom think of finding illustrations of what they are taught in the daily transactions of life, or of making practical appli- cations of what they learn in school to their experiences out of school. How shall the lessons in number and arithmetic be- 192 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. come living representations of real transactions instead of mere abstract knowledge ? How may these lessons in school be associated with the real affairs of life out- side of the schoolroom? These are most important questions for the teacher to answer ; and upon the manner in which these are answered in the practices of instruction will chiefly depend success in teaching. To answer these questions properly, the teacher must go back of the usual course of instruction in arithmetic, and ascertain what is the true starting-point, and how children obtain their first ideas of number, and learn that they do not at first separate number from the things numbered; that, notwithstanding they may be able to count five fingers or eight apples, they can not reason about the numbers five and eight ; that it is with concrete numbers that instruction should commence. The following lessons are intended to suggest appro- priate methods for an objective course of training, as a preparation for commencing the study of the science of number at the point where the subject is usually taken up in text-books on arithmetic. Some teachers may say, " I have no time for this ob- jective teaching." Then some of the other subjects, usually known as " higher branches," had better be omitted, for it is of vastly greater importance that the first steps be properly taken than that attempts be made to teach the abstract studies in which many pu- pils spend so much time unprofitably. You can teach arithmetic thoroughly without this ob- jective training? Ah, yes ; I perceive that your stajid- arc? of what constitutes a knowledge of arithmetic is to be able to repeat what the text-books say about it. Would you say that a farmer, a carpenter, a hatter, a NUMBER. 193 jailor, an engraver, or a watchmaker understands his business thoroughly because he can repeat what the books say about his occupation or trade, regardless of his ability and skill in performing the actual work per^ caining to it? fVhat is your standard of a true knowledge of arith- metic ? What do you try to teach your pupils concerning it ? Whi/ do you teach them this subject ? How do you commence your instruction in numbers ? A thoughtful consideration of these questions may lead to more natural methods of teaching arithmetic. 13 194 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE FIEST IDEAS OF NUMBER Before commencing the first lessons in Number^ the teacher should procure a variety of objects to be count' ed, as pencils, cents, buttons, beans, pebbles, nuts, mar« bles, books, apples ; also a numeral frame. FIRST STEP.— COUNTING. First Group of Numbers, 1 to 9. — The teacher may place several objects of the same kind, as cents, but- tons, pencils, or pebbles, on a table before a class, and arrange them in rows, thus ; The teacher may then commence counting, saying owe, and at the same time pointing at the first object. Then beginning with the second row, pointing at the two in order, saying o?^e, two. Next pointing at the row of three, saying owe, tv^o^ three. Now the teacher may commence as before, and pro- ceed to point at each object in the order of their groups, and let the children count with the teacher, thus: " Owe;" "one, two :" " one, two, three." FIliST IDEAS OF NUMBER. 195 When the children can count objects as far as three, let marks be made on the blackboard in similar groups, thus, \ \ I III and the children requested to count them in the same manner as they counted the objects on the table. When the children have learned to count t/u^ee readi- ly, the teacher may place under the other objects a row with four, and, commencing at the first, let the children count, as before, "One;" ''one, two;" "one, two, three;" " one, two, three, four." When the children can readily count four objects, and four marks on the blackboard, and four balls on the numeral frame, the teacher may add a group of tive, so that the several groups or rows will appear thus : * * * * The teacher should now commence countinor at one 196 PRIMAIIY OBJECT LESSONS. again, as before, and let the children count each line, thus: "One;" "one, two;" " one, two, three ;" "one, two, three, four;" "one, two, three, four, live." When the children can readily count live objects on the table, live balls on the numeral frame, and live marks on the blackboard, the teacher may add a row with six objects, and then commence at one, and proceed as before. The same plan may be pursued until the children are able to count groups of objects from one to nine readily and correctly. Let the teacher ask the children, How many cents* in the first row? "One cent." How many pencils in the second row? "Two pen- cils." How many buttons in the third row ? " Three but- tons." How many cents in the fourth row ? How many buttons in the fifth row? "Five buttons." Thus the children may be led to read the objects or marks in groups, as " Three cents ;" " four pencils ;" "five buttons," etc. At this stage it would be profitable to call upon m- dividual pupils to count a given number of balls on the numeral frame, or objects on the table, or marks on the blackboard. Let one stand and count five balls, then sit down ; another stand and count eight marks ; an- other, four pencils; another, nine balls; another, seven marks ; another, three balls, etc. The children may be requested to count and hold up three fingers ; then five fingers • then eight fingers, etc. * The teacher will, of course, ask the question so as to corresponJ with the objects used for counting. FIRST IDEAS OF NUMBEE. 197 Ask the children, How many eyes have you ? How many ears ? How many feet ? How many toes on one foot? How many hands? How many lingers and thumbs? How many wheels has a cart? How many has a wagon? How many wheels has a car? Thus lead pupils to count a great variety of objects. Value of Numbers. — To lead the pupils to observe the value of numbers, ask them. What number is greater than eight ? What number is less than seven ? Now you may tell me a number that is less than nine; one that is less than four; one less than eight; one less than six, etc. Tell me all the numbers you know that are less than four; all that you know that are less than six; all less than three ; all less than eight, etc. Now tell me the numbers that you know which are more than seven; those which are more than five; those more than six ; those more than four, etc. Which is the largest number, three, six, or five ? Which the largest, eight, four, or seven ? six, nine, or five? two, five, or seven? Which is the smallest number, four, one, or three ? two, six, or five ? eight, seven, or nine ? six, four, or three ? Which is the smallest number that you know? which the largest ? Here are four cents in this pile, and six cents in this ; which pile contains the greater number of cents ? 1 have placed eight beans in one place, and eight cents in another; w^hich contains the larger number? The teacher will readily perceive how these exercises can be extended in an almost unlimited variety, and she 198 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. will vary them according to the attainments and prog- ress of her pupils. SECOND STEP.— COUNTING. Second Group of Numbers, 10 lo 19. — When the pupils liave learned to count objects readily to nine,ihe teacher may proceed to teach them the numbers in order from nine to nineteen. Plans similar to those for teaching the children to count from one to 7iine may be used, but the numeral frame and marks on the blackboard will be found more convenient for large classes than objects on the table. When the pupils have learned to count objects, balls, marks, etc., readily as far as ninetee?!, a new mode of grouping may be mtroduced for numbers from twenty to ninety-nine inclusive, as in the next step. THIRD STEP.— COUNTING. Third Group of Numbers. — The teacher may now show the children how to count from twenty to twenty-nine by the balls on the numeral frame, by marks on the blackboard, and by other objects. When they can readily count these numbers, teach them to count from thirty to thirty-nine in the same way ; also to compare the numbers from thirty to thir- ty-nine with those from twenty to twenty-nine, and thus leach a new mode of grouping, as follows, viz. : Twe7ity^ twenty-o^ie, twenly-tioo, tv^euty -three, twen- ^^j-four^ twQwiy -Jive, etc. Thirty, t\\\vty-one, thii'ty-two, thirty-three, thirty^/bwr, thirty^ve, etc. FIRST IDEAS OF NUMBER. 199 In the same way teach counting from forty to forty- nine ; from fifty to fifty-nine ; and so on through ninety to ninety-nine. Order of Numbers. — Care should be taken to teach the order of numbers, so that the children can tell what number comes before, and what after, any given num- ber. To accomplish this thoroughly, after the pupils have learned to count in order, ask them, What comes after six? What comes after twelve? What comes before seventeen ? What comes after forty - eight ? What comes after seventy-nine ? What comes before thirty? etc. 200 PIUMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE FIRST IDEAS OF FIGUEES. When the children have learned to count leadily from one to nine inclusive, they may be taught thej^^- ures from to 9 as symbols of numbers, or signs of the number of things counted. While the pupils are learn- ing this group of figures, they may be taught counting from ten to ninetee?!, and review from one to ?iineteen. FIRST STEP.— FIGURES AS SYMBOLS. First Group of Figures, to 9. — The teacher may take a numeral frame, and, before moving the balls, ask. How many balls have I moved? How many fingers do I hold up ? How many marks have I made on the black- board ? Continue similar questions until the pupils an- swer readily, " No balls ;" " No fingers ;" " No marks." The teacher may then say, I will now make a figure on the blackboard that stands for nothing. It shows that there are no marks on the board — that you have not counted any balls or fingers. The name of this fig- ure is naught. What is its name ? " Naught." How many balls does it stand for ? " Not any balls." How many fingers does it stand for? "Not any fingers." Moving one ball on the numeral frame, the teacher says, How many balls have I moved ? " One ball." How many fingers do I hold up ? " One finger." You may now hold up one finger. I will make a FIRST IDEAS OF FIGURES. 201 mark on the blackboard. How many marks did I make? "One mark." How many books am I holding up: " One book." I will make a figure on the blackboard that stands for 07ie. It shows that one ball has been moved, one finger held up, 07ie mark made on the blackboard ; it stands for one of any thing. It is C2i\\ki(\ Jigure one. What do we call this figure? "Figure one." How many balls does it stand for*? "One ball." How many apples would it stand for? " One apple. '^ Now look at the numeral frame again, and tell me how many balls I move? "Two baUs." How many fingers do I hold up ? " Two fingers." You may hold up two fingers. I will make more marks on the blackboard. How many marks did I make this time ? " Two marks." How many books am I holding up ? " Two books." I will now make a figure that stands for tico. It shows two balls moved ; tioo fingers held up ; tioo marks ; two books, etc. This is called ^^i^re two. What is this called ? " Figure two." How many balls does it stand for? "Two balls." How many boys would it stand for? "Two boys." Now look at these figures ; we have one that stands for no balls, one that stands for one ball, and one that stands for turn balls. Who will come and point to the figure that stands for no balls? Lucy may come and point to it. Maggie may point to the figure that stands for one ball. Ellen may point to the figure that stands for two balls. To-morrow we will have another lesson with figures. Who can tell me the names of the figures which you 202 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. learned yesterday ? " Naught ;" " Figure one ;" " Fig- ure two." Very good ; 1 will write them on the blackboard as before : 1 2 Now you may count balls on the numeral frame as I move them. " One." Now count the balls that I move on the next wire. " One, two." Now count the balls as I move them on the next wire. "One, two, three." How many balls did I move on the last wire ? " Three balls.'' How many fingers am I holding up ? " Three fin- gers." You may hold up three fingers. I will make marks on the blackboard ; how many marks have I made ? "Three marks." I will make 2l figure three to stand for three balls, three marks, etc. What is this figure called? "Figure three." How many balls does it stand for? "Three balls." Now look at these figures, and read them as I point. " Figure naught ; figure one ; figure two ; figure three." See, this is the way you count — one^ t\oo^ three. Each figure tells how many you have counted. * You may look at the balls again. How many balls did I move on the first wire ? " One ball." How many balls were moved on the second wire? "Two balls." How many balls did I move on the third wire ? "Three balls." Now count — "One, two, three, four." How many balls did I move on the last wire? "Four balls." FIRST IDEAS OF FIGURES. 203 See how many marks I make. " Four marks." I will now make the figure four. How many balls does this stand for ? " Four balls." Now count the balls on the next wire as I move them " One, two, three, four, five." How many balls did I move ? " Five balls." I will now make thQ figure five. How many fingers does this figure stand for? "Five fingers." Now look at the blackboard, and see how I have made the marks and figures: I II III MM MM! 12 3 4 5 You may read these marks, and the figures that stand for them, as I point. "No mark, figure naught; one mark, figure one; two marks, figure two; three marks, figure three; four marks, figure four; five marks, figure five." I will make these figures that you have learned, and you mny tell me their names. "Figure one." "Figure three." "Figure five." "Figure two." "Figure four." Now, as I point to these figures, you may hold up as many fingers as each one stands for. At subsequent lessons, let these exercises of counting and representing by figures the number counted be con- tinued as before, until all the figures from to 9 have become so thoroughly learned that the pupils can call each by name, tell how many it represents, and can readily point out each one in any order. To give individual drill, call upon pupils to take the numeral frame, and move and count as many balls as a 204 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. given figure represents, tlius : Point at the figure 5, and let a pupil hold the numeral frame, and, moving the balls, count " One, two, three, four, five." Proceed in the same manner with all the figures, thus giving a variety of exercises for learning the value of figures. Care should be taken to train the pupils thoroughly with the figures from to 9 before presenting any larger number. Time properly spent in this step will save double the time in subsequent steps. SECOND STEP.— FIGURES AS SYMBOLS. Second Group of Figures, 10 to 19. — Having become familiar with counting to twenty^ and with figures to nine^ the pupils are prepared to learn the second group of figures from 10 to 19. Commence as in the first group, and let the pupils count " One, two, three, four, five balW'' on one wire, and six halls on the next wire, and seven balls on the next, eight balls on the next, 7ii7ie balls on the next. Beginning with the new group, the pupils count"One, two,three,four,five, six, seven, eight, nine, ^e/^ balls on the wire next below the one with ni7ie balls. The teacher represents this number on the blackboard thus: 10. Then eleven balls are counted in the same manner, and this number represented by figures, as before. Then twelve balls are counted, the figui-es representing them written, and so on to nineteen. During these exercises several other objects are counted also, and the figures representing each number from 10 to 19 are given as symbols of the number counted. Now the teacher may arrange the figures on the blackboard in the following order, viz. : FIRST IDEAS OF FIGURES. 205 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 The attention of the pupils may now be called to the formation of the characters which represent numbers greater than nine. The pupils may be asked to tell the greatest number that can be represented by one figure; also what figures are used to represent te7i^ eleven.^ twelve, thirteen, etc. Thus lead them to observe tha.t, to form the figures which represent the numbers from 10 to 19 inclusive, the figure 1 is written before each of the fig- ures that stand for the numbers from to 9. Subsequently the pupils may be requested to read these figures as follows, viz. : " One ten and naught, ten; one ten and one, eleven; one ten and two, ticelve; one ten and three, thirteen; one ten and fom; fou7'teen; one ten and fiv e,Jif teen j"* etc. The pupils should also be trained, to read these num- bers at si^ht, when pointed at in any order, after they have become familiar with them in the order of counting. How can I write the figures for te?i ? " Make a fig- ure one, and a nanght on the right-hand side." How shall I write eleven f "Make a figure 07ie, and another figure one on the right-hand side of it." How can I write tivelve f SUGGES riONS FOR THE TEACHER. A Caution. — During these elementary lessons on number and^^'- ures, do not attempt to explain the local value of figures, nor to teach the pupils to say units, tens, etc. This work belongs to a later period of development, and to attempt to do it at this stage would only result in a waste of time and an injury to the progi-ess of the pupils. Do Dot attempt to teach more than one difficulty at a time. 206 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. All of these figures in both the Jirst and second groups should be taught as signs of the number of balls or other objects counted. This ought to be so thoroughly done that 15 would represent to the child a whole number, or group of objects, just as completely as 5 does. During the time of learning the second group of figures, the cliil- dren should be taught counting to fifty. THIRD STEP.— FIGURES AS SYMBOLS. Third Group of Figures, 20 to 29. — When the pupils have become familiar with figures from to 19 inclu- sive, as presented in the preceding pages, they are pre- pared to be taught figures representing numbers from twenty to twenty-nine. The teacher may now proceed to require the pupils to count balls or other objects to tw^enty, and then write the figures representing this number on the black- board, as in the second group. When the pupils have counted and the teacher writ- ten the figures to represent all the numbers from 20 to 29, let the figures be arranged on the blackboard in the following order, viz. : 0123456789 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 The attention of the pupils should be called to the figures in each line, and led to observe that while the secondXmQ is formed by writing the figure 1 before each figure in the first line, that the third line is formed by writing the figure 2 before each figure in the first line. The pupils may now be shown two groups of ten balls each on the numeral frame, also two groups of FIRST IDEAS OF FIGURES. 207 marks on the blackboard with ten in each, and led to see that two groups often each make twenty balls or twenty mai-ks. Three groups of ten may in a like man- ner be shown to make thirty. Let the pupils read the groups thus : " One ten, or ten balls ;" " Two tens, or twenty balls ;" "Three tens, or thirty balls." Kow point to the figure 10, and read it: "One ten, or ten ones ;" to 20, and read, " Two tens, or twenty ;" then to 30, and read, " Three tens, or thirty." Ask the children. How many tens in ten ones ? " One ten." How many tens in twenty ? " Two tens." How many tens in thirty ? The children may be requested to read the figures in the second line as follows, viz. : " Two tens and naught are twenty; two tens and one are twenty-one; two tens and tw^o are twenty-two; two tens and three are twenty-three ; two tens and four are twenty-four," etc. These figures should subsequently be wn-itten out of the order of counting, and the pupils trained to read each at sight ; also to take the numeral frame, and count as many as any given figure stands for. Group of Figures from 30 to 39.— The figures in this group should be taught and Avritten in a manner simi- lar to those from 20 to 29. When this has been done, the last two lines may be compared in a new way, as a means of teaching the succeeding groups of figures to 99 more readily, thus : 20 21 22 23 24 25 2G 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 The teacher may now call attention to the resem 208 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. blance between these two lines of figures by pointing and reading with emphasis on the units, thus : Twenty, twentj-o?ie, t\\ enty -tioo, twenty-three, twenty-four, etc. ; thirty, thirty-o^^e, thirty-two, thirty -three, thirty -four, thirty7/ivt^, etc. Then adding, You see these figures have the same order in each line. Now we can write the figures from 40 to 49 in the same order, and 50 to 59 also. At this point the teacher might be able to proceed with the figures without counting objects through all the groups to 99, and the pupils taught to read them by comparing the groups as in 20, 21, 22, etc., and 30, 31,32, etc. By this time the pupils will be prepared to learn all the figures from 40 to 99 in about half the time required for teaching them thoroughly from to 39. But fre- quent reviews should be had to keep the children fa- miliar with all the figures previously learned while teaching each new group. By comparing the group from 20 to 29 with the one from 30 to 39 carefully, the pupils will learn how to read all subsequent groups more readily. When the pupils can readily read the figures to 99, they may be subsequently drilled in counting as many objects as each figure represents. Let the figures from to 99 be placed on the black- board and carefully reviewed in the following order, viz. : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 •^l 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 FIRST IDEAS OF FIGURES. 209 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 Let the pupils read these figures m order, " Naught, one, two, three," etc., through to " ninety-nine." Next let them read the tens^ thus : " One ten, two tens, three tens, four tens," etc., to " nme tens." Then they may read the tens as "One ten, or ten ones; two tens, or twenty ; three tens, or thirty," etc., to " nine tens, or ninety." The pupils may also read each line of tens as follows: "One ten and naught, ten; one ten and one, eleven; one ten and two, twelve ; one ten and three, thirteen ; one ten and four, fourteen," etc. " Two tens and nauglit, twenty ; two tens and one, tw^enty-one ; two tens and two, twenty-two," etc. "Three tens and naught, thirty ; three tens and one, thirty-one; three tens and two, thirty-two," etc. Proceed in the same manner through "Nine tens and nine are ninety-nine." Subsequently the pupils may be asked to tell what figures must be used, and how, to represent each num ber, as. How can I represent seventy-five? "Make g seven, and a five on the riojht-hand side of it." 1 o 14 210 PlilMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. FOURTH STEP.— FIGURES. The Group of Hundreds. — Having carefully taught the children figures, as symbols of numbers counted, through ninety-nine, the pupils are ready to learn to read three figures, or hundreds. The teacher may ask, What is the largest number that may be represented by one figure? "Nine." What is the largest number that can be represented by two figures ? " Ninety-nine." I will now show you how we write a number that is one greater than ninety-nine — one hundred — thus: 100, with a figure one, and two naughts on the right-hand side of it. The teacher may then proceed to place the tens from 10 to 90 on the blackboard, and to write the hundreds from 100 to 900 in another column, by the side of the tens, thus : Now let the pupils read first the tens col^ umn, then the hundreds column, thus : " One ten, two tens, three tens, four tens, five tens, six tens, seven tens, eight tens, nine tens;" "one hundred, two hundred, three hundred, four hundred, five hundred, six hundred, sev- en hundred, eight hundred, nine hundred." Lead the pupils to notice that it takes two figures to write each of the tens, and three figures to write each of the hundreds. The class may next be shown, from the blackboard, the figures representing numbers from 100 to 199 in one group, and from 200 to 299 in another group, and so on, thus • 10 100 20 200 30 300 40 400 50 500 60 600 70 700 80 800 90 900 100 101 110 111 120 121 130 131 FIRST IDEAS OF FIGURES. 211 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 10J» 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 and 60 on to 199. 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232, and so on to 299. 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 etc. When the children have become familiar with the figures of one group in the order of counting, they should be taught the same figures out of order. The same plan may be pursued for each group. Children may be taught figures by means of count- ing, as described in the preceding lessons, so as to read any number readily, as a whole, from one through hun- dreds. To attempt, during this stage, to teach the pu- pils to analyze these numbers, and tell how they are composed of units, or to try to teach them the U7iits, tens, and himdreds, would be little better than a waste of time. They might be taught to repeat words in any order, but they are not prepared to comprehend what is meant by " figures increase in a tenfold ratio from right to left." Remember that the^v^^ steps are teach/- ing figures as symbols of the numher of objects counted^ as signs fior whole 7iumbers or groups. 212 PBIMABY OBJECT LESSbONS. LESSONS FOR TRAINING IN ADDING. FIRST STEP.— ADDING OBJECTS. Adding should be commenced with objects, as balls on the numeral frame, pebbles, beans, pencils, etc. Marks on the blackboard may be used after the children have become familiar with adding objects. Adding balls oil the numeral frame should not be confounded with count- ing balls ; the two processes differ, although the ability to count must be acquired before adding can be taught ; it also aids in teaching adding. First Exercises. — Commencing with the numeral frame, the teacher might proceed as follows, viz. : First moving one ball at a time, require the pupils to say, "One ball and one ball make two balls; two balls and one ball make three balls ; three balls and one ball make four balls," etc. When the children can readily add thus as far as twenty, using balls, pencils, or other ob- jects, let them be taught to add two balls, thus : " Two balls and two balls make four balls ; four balls and two balls make six balls ; six balls and two balls make eight balls ;" and so on to ten balls and two balls. At this stage much practice should be given the pu- pils in adding various kinds of objects, one and two at a time, as already described, until they can readily add one to any number below twenty, and two to any num ber below ten. ADDING. 213 Second Exercises. — When the pupils have been thor- oughly trained in the first series of exercises for adding, the teacher may proceed to teach them as before, to add one to numbers from twenty to fifty. Then to add two to numbers from ten to twenty. Tliese exercises, also the first series, should be thor- oughly reviewed before taking up those of the third series. Third Exercises.— During the third series of exei-cises the pupils may be taught to add one to numbers from fifty to one hundred ; and two to numbers from twenty to fifty ; and three to numbers below ten. The train- ing should be sufficiently thorough to enable the pupils to add 07ie or two to odd as well as to even numbers; also, that they may add them to any one of the num- bers, out of its order as well as in order. SECOND STEP.— ADDING. First Exercises. — The pupils may now be trained m adding concrete numbers without having the objects before them. The teacher may ask, How many are one apple and one apple ? " Two apples," How many are two apples and one apple? "Three apples." How many are three boys and one boy? "Four boys." How many are four pencils and one pencil ? " Five pencils." In this manner teach pupils to exercise their con- ception of objects and numbers by adding one to num- bers, in order and out of order, as far as fifty. 214 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. The pupils may then be trained in a similar mannei to add two to numbers, in order and out of order, as far as twenty ; and three as far as ten. Second Exercises. — If the preceding exercises have been properly attended to, the pupils will now be pre« pared for adding three to numbers below fifty; and sub- sequently to add/'owr andy^^;e to numbers below fifty. First let the balls on the numeral frame or other ob- jects be used ; then let them add concrete numbers, as in the first exercises of this step. During these lessons in this step the teacher should make frequent use of the blackboard, making marks to be added, and also represent the numbers by figures. During this stage a variety of exercises may be given, chiefly with a view of training the pupils more thor- oughly in adding numbers already presented — one, two, three, four, five — to numbers below fifty. The teacher might ask questions similar to the following, viz. : How many balls must be added to six balls to make seven balls ? How many cents must be added to three cents to make five cents ? How many pencils must be added to four pencils to make seven pencils? How many apples must be added to five apples to make nine apples ? How many marbles must be added to three marbles to make eight marbles ? How many cents must be added to twelve cents to make fourteen cents ? How many cents must be added to twenty-five cents to make twenty-eight cents? ADDING. 215 In this mariner the teacher may continue questions until all the numbers from one to five have been thus presented to be added to numbers below fifty. During these exercises the pupils may be required to tell what numbers may be added to produce each of the numbers below ten, thus : What numbers can you add to produce three f " Two and one ; one, one, and one ; one and two." What numbers can you add to produce /v6 f " Four and one ; three and two ; two and two and one," etc. Third Exercises. — During these exercises the pupils may be taught to add six^ seven, eight, and nine to num- bers below^ fifty, in the same manner that the numbers three, four, and five were taught. The training should be varied and ing sounds that have been heard elsewhere than in the school, the various sounds made by an animal may be grouped together, as, Sounds made by Dogs. — Barking, growling, whining, howling. Sounds made by Cats. — Mewing, purring, spitting. Sounds made by Fowls. — Crowing, cackling, clucking. Second Exercise. — The pupils may next be led to clas sify sounds that they have heard undei- the various heads of lohiiting sounds^ squealing sonncU^ bleating^ gruntiv(,\ barking^ etc. Thev mav l)e tautiht to classifv sounds that are loud. 296 riaMARY object lessoxs. confused, and continuous, as roarmg ; those that are low, heavy, and continuous, as rumhling ; those that are low, indistinct, like running water, as murmur i7%g ; those that are loud and rapid, as if many things were falling and breaking at once, as crashing ; those that are small, ab- rupt, and repeated rapidly, as crackling ; those that are small, indistinct, and of quick succession, like the rub- bing of silk, as ru8tlmg. THIRD STEP. Classifying Sounds as Long and Short. — By pronoun- cing, several of the vowels, as a, o, with prolonged sounds, then with very short sounds, the teacher may readily lead the children to observe a difference in the length of sounds. Experiments may be made by utter- ing various sounds with the voice; also by striking a bell, a tumbler, a slate, the table, etc., until the pupils readily distinguish long from short sounds. Then let the pupils be trained to produce-long and short sounds with the vowels ; also by singing la. Classifying Sounds as Loud and Soft. — By usmg the vowels, lead the children to observe that sounds may be loud or soft. When they can readily distinguish this quality in sounds, train them to utter loud and soft sounds by using fo, la ; also other elementary sounds. Classifying Sounds as High and Low.— The teacher may readily train the children to distinguish high from low sounds by uttering the syllables la la first high, Lhen low; also by usins^ the several vowel sounds. After- ward let the pupils be taught to sing high and low notes. iiOUNDS OF LANGUAGE. 29 now TO TEACH THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE. When children have had sufficient training in exer cising their sense of hearing to enable them readily to distinguish such qualities of sounds as have been pre- sented in the preceding lessons, they can easily be taught the elementary sounds of language ; and thus the training of the ear may be successfully continued, and the organs of speech be cultivated at the same time. FIRST STEP. Distinguishing Sounds of Speech. — With children that have not yet learned to read short sentences of familiar words, the first step should be to train the ear to distiu' guish sounds of speech readily. This may be done by the teacher making each sound several times, and then reqiiiring thr children to imitate it. During this step nothing should be said about voiceh or co?isonants, nor about the number of sounds that any letter has. As the object of this step is to train the organs of hearing in acuteness and accuracy, the sounds may be taken up without regard to the order of the let- ters in the alphabet ; also without regard to the num- ber of sounds given to any letter. While the pupils are learning to read w^ords at sight that are familiar to the ear, and to know them as names of objects or signs of ideas, they may be led to notice 298 PRIMAliY OBJECT LESSONS. whicli words have similar sounds, and to group theru together, as : Cat. Cake. Rat. Rake. Mat. Slate. Hat. Day. Old. Box. Cold. Fox. Stove. Lot. Ice. Tin. Line- Wind. Fine. In. Ball. Cart. Hall. Park. Call. Mark. Saw. Barn. Bee. Net. See. Men. Me. Ten. Blue. Sun. Tune. Cup. Cube. Run. When a list of words of similar sound have been thus arranged in a group, let the class pronounce each word in the group, and then repeat the prominent vowei sound, thus: Cat, rat, mat, hat — a, a, a, a ; cake, rake, slate, day — a, a^ a, a j old, cold, stove — o, o, o, etc. By this exercise the pupils will be prepared to dis- tinguish the different sounds of the vowels when the lessons for that purpose are presented, and then they will soon leai'n to make all the sounds of each vowel. At any time after the children have learned to dis- tinguish some of the vocal sounds, the teacher may give consonant sounds, beginning with the simplest ones first, as m, w, /, s, ^,/*, ?;, h^ etc., and request the pupils to imi- tate them. Thus let the order of procedure be, J^rst. Train the pupils to distinguish sounds of speech. Second. Train them to make the sounds. During this stage it is not desirable that these sounds be taught as sounds of letters. Indeed,! believe it would he much better to have the exercises of this step conduct SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE. 290 ed solely for the purpose of training the pupils to distm^ guish and make the separate sounds of speech, without any attempt at associating them with the letters that are used to represent these sounds in written language. SECOND STEP. Distinguishing Sounds of Words.— At this stage the pupils will be prepared to commence analyzing the sounds of spoken words. The first words selected for this exercise should be short, and contain only simple sounds, as 77ie, see, man, cat, cake, sate, lot, stone, tin, ice, sun, face, snow, etc. Let it be distirictly remembered that no attention is to be given to the silent letters, nor to any letters, during this step. Only the sounds of the words as spoken are to be distinguished and made sep- arately. To train the pupils in this work, let the teacher pro- nounce a short word very distinctly, then make each of its sounds separately, and next require the pupils to imitate her, thus : Me, m-e, me. Man, m-a-n, man. Saw, s-a, saio. Stone, s-t-o-n, stone. This exercise should be commenced while the chil- dren are learning to read words at sight, as signs of fa- miliar spoken words. THIRD STEP. Associating Sounds with Letters. — If the pupils have been properly trained in the preceding steps, they will now liave acquired some knowledge of sounds as the elements of spoken words, and be prepared to learn which letters represent these several sounds. Although 300 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. it is common to commence with the vowel sounds, yet there is no good reason why the teacher may not begin this step with some of the simple consonants. M. — The word me may be printed on the blackboard, and the pupils taught to pronounce it distinctly. Then they may be requested to say me^ and to commence speaking it again, but keep the lips closed, so that the sound of e can not be made. The pupils may be told that the sound which is made in beginning to say me is the sound of m. Then let the pupils make the in sound three times. To furnish more practice in making this sound, place the following words and letters on the blackboard, thus : Aim m m m make. Let the pupils pronounce the word aim, prolonging the m sound ; then make the sound of rn three times, an^, then the short sound of a, then the sound of ?i, and to pronounce it mian. But in the use of this method the child soon encounters difficulties, and finds these sounds uncertain guides in determin- ing what to call the word. After being taught the sounds of the letters in the word cap^ the word cape appears, and the child is told that in this word a has a different sound. Tlien he meets the word car, and finds that a has still another sound. At length he encounters the word call^ and is told that the same character has yet another sound. Perhaps he finds the word care^ and becomes more astonished on hearing that a has a fifth sound. The pupil also learns the sound of e in we, and of 6 in rtien.^ and of e in Aer, and he soon is told that e has no sound in time. Thus it appears that many obstacles attend learning to read by the Phonic Method, as well as by the A B C Method. Attempts have been made to systematize this method by classifying the sounds, ana teaching first words con- taining only short vowel sounds, as hat^^nat^cat^hen^pefi, pin^ tin, hot, lot, hut, cup. Having spent several months in learning this class of monosyllables, the pupils are next introduced to words containing the long sounds of the vowels, as cape, hate, hee, me, find, pine, hope^ told, tube, rude. Subsequently words beginning alike, as blind, block ; brown, breio ; clip, clog ; drop, dry ^ gnat, gnaw ; knee, knob ; plug, plum ; smut, smack; twill, twang, are arranged in groups or classes. After- ward those containing similar silent letters are present PRIMARY READING. 317 ed, as lights night ; plague^ vague ; edge, loedge ; scent, sce7ie. It will be readily seen that, with these classifications of words having similar sounds, an attempt is made to lead the pupils to master the difficulties of our language through a plan that reverses the natural order by treat- ing the real office of the printed word — that of represent^ ing thought — as of secondary importance, and directing the child's attention first and chiefly to sounds o^ letters, which constitute no element of the thought represented. Although some success has attended this plan, yet it is accompanied with so much complexity as to prove in adequate as a successful means of teaching reading. So long as a single sign is made to represent from one to six sounds, and the same sounds are frequently rep- resented by different signs, and the same signs often have no sound at all, it will continue to remain a dif- ficult task to teach reading in our language by the sounds of letters alone. Yet for teaching languages like the German and Spanish, whose phonic structure is regular, this method would be most appropriate. Those who advocate it on the ground that it is suc- cessfully used in Germany do not give due considera- tion to the difference in phonic structure between our language and the German. But the chief defects of the Phonic Method for teach- ing our language lie in its unnatural and unphilosophical system. The natural way for a child to learn language is to begin with the units of language, which are words. Language deals with thoughts ; words are symbols of thoughts. Keither letters nor sounds are elements of thought. Letters are elements oi the forms of words; simple sounds are the elements of the sounds of words,- 318 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSOXS. neither of these elements are units in language. The true starting-point for reading must be with the thought and its sign as a whole. Subsequently the sign may be analyzed, and the elements of both its sounds and/brw* learned. To teach a child the sound of a single letter, then of another, and afterward to unite them into a compound sound or word, is no more natural in its relation to the child's mind, nor to the thoughts represented, than to teach it the names of two letters singly, and then to unite them together, and call the product a word. Sounds of letters, when properly classified, furnish a most valuable aid in teaching reading, after the pupils have made some progress in learning printed words as the signs of familiar spoken words. This process, how- ever, is not adapted to the child until it has learned some words as wholes, as units of language, and as rep- resentatives of thoughts. Mechanical and artificial methods of teaching may be employed with apparent success, as systems of mnemon- ics are sometimes made to appear valuable as aids to memory, but careful observation and experience will prove that they possess little or no genuine merit. PHONOTYPIC METHOD. The "Phonotypic Method" is another form of the Phonic Method, yet it differs from that in its applica- tion, since it provides a character or letter for each sound in the language. The pupil is required to learn forty or more letters in place of twenty-six. As each of these phonetic letters always stands for the same sound, it avoids the difficulty of using the same letter to rep resent several sounds. ~~ PRIMARY READING. 31 & The desire of many who advocate this system is to have all our books ultimately printed in these charac- ters; but this scheme is generally regarded as vision- ary. In the relations of the Phonotypic Method to teaching the first reading lessons, it has been consider- ed by some as a valuable aid. The plan of using it is to introduce the child to these characters at once on its entering school, and teach it to read by the use of books printed with phonotypic letters. The reading lessons are confined to these books until the pupils can read fluently in them; afterward they are taught reading from books in the common letters. It has been claimed that pupils would learn both methods, and become able to read better thereby, in a given time, than they usu- ally do Avhen taught entirely from the common print. The Phonotypic Method is liable to some of the ob- jections that are urged against the Phonic Method, and it also has more serious faults. The forms of the words and their spelling are materially changed, and, in consequence of this fact, its use in reading is gener- ally regarded as a hinderance rather than an aid in learn- ing to spell the words of our language in accordance with the common orthography. Besides, it does not re- move the irregularities of our language by its tempo- rary use in learning to read. It only furnishes a means by which the difliculties to be surmounted in reading are delayed for a time. Its practical value, therefore, may be justly questioned as a means for teaching read- ing. It attempts such radical changes in the formation of the words of our language that it fails to commend itself to teachers or the people as a means of lear-iing to read. 320 FBIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. LEIGH'S PHONETIC METHOD, OR PRONOUNCING ORTHOGRAPHY. The Phonetic Method recently produced by Dr. Edwin Leigh seems to j^ossess fewer objections than any other Phonetic system that has been devised for teaching chil- dren to read and spell our language as now printed. It provides signs to represent all the sounds of the lan- guage, using the common letters each to denote but one sound (the most frequent one) of that letter, and providing slight modifications of these letters to de- note the other sounds. Thus the various sounds of a are represented by different forms of the letter a, and the various sounds of o by different forms of o, and the same with other letters, as is shown by the following illustrations : This form of a represents its sound in cane. a u a a u cap. a a u u a car. a a a a a call. a a a a u care. a u a u old. a u u a on. u a u a do. O u a u a look. u a a u or. e u a u u me. e a u u u men i(> s a u u a see. PRIMARY READING. 32] This form of s represents its sound in his. u u ^ u a u u ^^^ .4 " c " " " '' ice. .' ic g " " '' " get a a q '' ^' " '' gem. This method preserves the present forms of the words so far as relates to the spelling. By making the silent ietters with hair lines only, the letters that indicate the sounds of the word appear prominent, and, w^hen the characters have been learned, the pupils can readily determine the pronunciation of the words. The gen- eral form of the words and the number of letters in each being the same as in the common type, both the word as a whole and its spelling are readily learned. This method is called a "Pronouncing Orthography," and is designed to be used as an introductory means in teaching children to read our common print. The pu- pils may first learn words printed with these letters, and then the sounds represented by each, and then learn the spelling as with common print. When chil- dren can read through the First Reader fluently, a reader printed in the common type may be placed in their hands, and instruction continued in nearly the same manner a*^ if the "Pronouncing Orthography" had not been used. THE WORD METHOly. The "Word Method" begins at once with teaching the words in a manner similar to that by which chih iren learn to distinguish one object from another, and 2] 322 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. learn the names. It proposes to teach words as the sz^n» of things, acts, and qualities, etc. It does not propose to teach pupils the alphabet, but to leave them to learn this after they have become familiar with enough words to commence reading. In Europe this method is sometimes called "Reading without Spelling," and sometimes the " Look-and-Say" Method. When properly used, this plan introduces the learner to the meaning of the spoken word before teach- ing it the printed form; thus the idea is associated with the form which represents it. THE WORD-BUILDING METHOD. The " Word-building Method" was in limited use in Kurope about forty years ago. The author who intro- duced it into this country, about fifteen years since, with some modifications, claims that " it unites all the advantages of the old system of teaching to read by first commencing with the alphabet, and the new and preferable one which begins with entire words." Its plan is to commence with words of one letter, as A, 1,0, and gradually form new words by prefixing or affixing single letters. The child is taught first to pro- nounce the word, then the letters that form it. Separ- ate letters of the alphabet and spelling are taught by asking questions similar to the following: "What letter is placed after a to form an f What after a7% to form andf What before and to form landf'' Those methods which embrace the plans most com* monly employed in teaching the first lessons in reading have now been described. There are, however, modi' PRIMARY READING. 323 fications of these methods in use, each of which may prove more or less successful, according to the skill of the teachers who employ them. From the descriptions of methods already given, it will be perceived that there is a Avide difference be- tween the practical character of some of these plans. Notwithstanding so great a variety of methods is used for teaching reading, many children still acquire habits of reading in an unnatural and monotonous manner, and without understanding what they read, while these bad habits do not exist in the ordinary conversation of the same children. Why does this difference exist between the tones of conversation and those of reading? Is it caused by the use of unnatural methods for teaching reading ? May not this difference of manner between reading and conversation be due chiefly to the difference in the attention given to the thoughts and the ivoi^ds which represent them? In conversation the thoughts uttered receive chief attention ; words are used simply as a con- venient means of communicating these thoughts. In reading, owing to the habits usually formed from the way in which the early lessons are taught, greater prominence is given to the ivords than to the thoughts which they represent. In conversation children follow nature, giving thoughts the foremost place. In some of the methods used for teaching readino- the forms or sounds of the words are kept most promi- nently in view, while but little attention is given to the thoughts. In view of the great importance of having those whose duty it is to give instruction in the first lessons of read- ing understand what is the proper starting-point in this 324 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. work, and the order of proceeding, attention is invited to a careful consideration of the following : FACTS TO BE OBSERVED IN TEACHING READING. 1. Reading directly exercises the senses oi seeing and hearing. 2. Sounds of words, i. e., the words as spoken, are learned by hearing only, and chiefly tlirongh their use in conversation. In view of this, they may be tei-med Bound-words. 3. Forms of words, i. e., the words as printed and wri^ ten, are learned by seeing. These may be termed Form- words. 4. Words, both of sound and form, symbolize ideas. The ideas symbolizea by sound-words are perceived through the ear. The ideas symbolized by the form- words are perceived through the eye. Words constitute the units in language. 5. Sound-words may be separated into simple or ele- mentary sounds; but these simple sounds do not sym- bolize ideas, nor the elements of them. 6 Form-ioord.'^ may be separated into simple element- ary forms or letters; but these letters do not svmbol- ize ideas, nor the elements of ideas. V. Children learn, naturally, by proceeding from the knoimi to that which is akin in the unknown. This is the true order for teaching. 8. Sound-words, as used in conversation, constitute the known to the child just commencing to learn i-eading. Form-ii'ords are the unknovyn to this beginner, and the kin to the sound-words, or knou^n. 9o Whole words are first learned in conversation. The PRIMARY READING. 325 whole form of the word should be learned first in read- mg. The first object of the mstructor should be to teach the children to know by sight the forms of those words which are already known to the ear. 10. Children learn the concrete before the abstract; the whole before its parts. Words are the wholes in the first lessons of reading. Their parts, or analysis into sounds and letters^ belong to a subsequent step. 11. To secure a habit of reading with an easy, natural voice, the child must be trained from the first to treat printed words as signs of things, actions, and thoughts. Both t\vQform and the sound of the word should be as- sociated with the object or thought represented. Nei- ther a spoken word nor a printed word means any thing to a child until it symbolizes an object or an idea which that child already knows. " Let the child's mind be filled with as many ideas as possible, and with spoken words to represent them. When a child knows the audible sound for an idea, it will very soon learn to recognize the visible symbol of the same idea without reference to the letters that form the word, or the sounds that the letters stand for ; and this is a far more effectual method of teaching it to read than the usual practice of making the pupil go through a weary synthetical process, which he is utterly incap- able of comprehending. The mind of the child, daily increasing in its knowledge of things, and in the power of knowing, will not long be satisfied with the general form of the words that stand for the names of its fa- vorite objects ; he will want to know about the letters. This spontaneous movement of inquiry indicates the moment at which the teaching of the elementary sounds, and their combinations, should begin. The value of the 326 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. several letters is a more difficult process, and better suited to a more advanced state of mental culture than exists at the initial step of reading. "The rapidity with which a child may be taught to read by recognizing the simple form of the words at first is surprising, and no less surprising is the facil- ity and perfection with which spelling is afterward learned."* THE OBJECT METHOD. By the " object method" of teaching reading the at- tention of children is first directed to some object with which they are familiar by sight, name, and use. When- ever practicable, during the first lessons in reading, the object is shown, talked about, and its name spoken ; then a picture of the object is presented, or a drawing of it made on the blackboard, and the pupils are led to notice this as a picture of the object. Next the name of it is plainly printed on the blackboard, or shown on a card. The pupils are now taught to distinguish the object^ the picture of it, and the loord from each other, as " the cup ; the picture of a cup ; the word cup." Sev- eral words may be taught in this manner before the sounds or the letters of the word are introduced to the pupils. By this method the words are taught as symbols of objects, and of their spoken names ; thus both the sound- word and the form-word will equally symbolize the ob- ject, and both possess equal power in recalling the qual- ities of the object to the mind. Whole words should be presented and learned, as above, until the children * Human Culture^ by M. A. Garvey. PRIMARY READING. 327 have become familiar with the fact that the words are symbols for sounds, and things, and thoughts. During this time the pupils should not be taught to spell, as their eyes have yet become accustomed only to whole words. Subsequently the analysis of these words into sounds and letters may be taught. Then the value of the elementary sounds and of the several letters will be readily understood, and a knowledge of them easily acquired. This analysis will be greatly facilitated by familiarity with the forms of the words. Children usually learn naynes of things first, and names of qualities and of actions afterward. Printed words representing the names of things should be taught first, as whole words, then words representing names of qual- ities and actions. The little words that are only joints and hinges in language, and those that are used as sub- stitutes for other words, should not be taught until they are needed in the formation of phrases and sentences, and their use can be illustrated. This plan can be easi- ly carried out by using the blackboard for giving these lessons. STEPS IN READING BY THE OBJECT METHOD. First Step. — Teach by sight whole words as signs of objects, ac- tions, qualities, etc., selecting those words that are already known to the child by Iiearing and using them. Second Step. — Teach the analysis of the word by its letters. Let the child "print" the word on a slate, and thus learn the forms and names of the letters and tlieir order in the word, or spelling. Or, instead of this, the sounds of the word may be taught as the second step. Third Step. — Teach the analysis of the word by its elementary sounds, without giving attention to the letters tliat represent those sounds. 328 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Or the letters of the word may be taught as the third step. Which should be taught first, the sounds or the letters, may be determined by the condition of the pupils. Fourth Step. — Require pupils to pronounce the word at sight, to sound it, to spell it. Fifth Step. — Teach pupils to read words in groups, as " My hat," "A new top," "A good boy," " Spin the top," etc. Also to use them in short sentences, as " I can spin my top." "I have a hat." By observing these steps in teaching, the word as a whole, its sounds, and its spelling, will become intimate- ly associated with the object or idea represented. It may be asked. How will a child acquire the ability of learning the new words which it will find in reading? By observing their resemblances, and comparing words known with new words. Who that has carefully watch- ed the operations of the child's mind in learning to read, does not know that the learner is constantly comparing the forms and sounds of words ? The association of sound with form, which the child makes with one word, it endeavors to apply to every other word where the resemblance in form gives an opportunity. Where a proper use of the elementary sounds is made, the child adds to its ability to learn new words with each word acquired. Then the teacher may greatly aid the child in increasing this ability by showing it how to arrange in groups those words which resemble each other in sound, and those which resemble each other in form, and then directmg the attention carefully to the mean- ing, sound, form, and spelling of each. By this order for teaching reading — the idea first, its signs second^ and the ability to represent the idea by its signs third — the natural order of learning language, and the natural order of using it, are made to correspond. PKIMAK\ READING. 321 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. That the plan of teaching children to read by the ohject method ma^ fee more clearly undersioud and readily applied, the following bugges tions are given relative to it : It is of little importance what words are tanght first, if they are fa- miliar to the children by use in conversation, and the objects which the words represent and their pictures can be readily shown. First Step— Whole Words.— What am I holding in my hand? '' A cap." What do boys do with caps ? " Wear them. " How many of these boys wear caps? All who do may hold up theii hands. Now look at this picture, and tell me what it is. "A cap.'* "A picture of a cap. " Those who think it is a real cap may hold up their hands. Now those who think it is the picture of a cap may hold up their hands. We will call this a picture of a cap. Can you wear a picture of a cap ? What do I hold in my hand ? "A cap." What do you see on this Chart ? "A picture of a cap." I will now make the icord cap on the blackboard. After printing the word, using the small letters, the teacher asks, What did I say I would make? " The icord cap." Here it is ; now I will make it again. What is this ? "The word cap. " How many words have I made ? "Two." Are these Avords alike? What is the first word that I made? " Cap. ' What is the next word ? " Cap. " What have I in my hand ? "A cap. " What is this on the Chart ? "The picture of a cap." What is this on the blackboard ? " The word cap." Which of them can you wear ? " The cap." James may come and point to the picture of a cap. Henry may ])oint to the word cap. When several words have been learned at sight and read from the blackboard, fix the attention of the children upon them again by rub cap, top. mat^ doll. hat, box, man, boy, bag, shoe, ball, cuke, wall, slate. salt, face, saw, skate, chalk, plate, 330 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS^ bing off one word at a time quickly, and request the pupils to tell it. each case what word was rubbed out. When the pupils have learned several familiar words in this ivay, such as bell, net, pen, sled, egg, and the pupils have beccjme so familiar with the form of each as tt name it at sight, as the several words are pointed out on the black- board, or on charts, or in a book, then proceed to take the Second Step. In reviewing the words learned in the First Step, point to a word, and ask what we do with the thing which it represents or stands for, without mentioning the word, thus : Pointing to the word cap, ask, What do boys do with this? "Wear it." Pointing to bag, ask. What do we do with this? "Put things in it.'* Pointing to cdke, ask, What do we do with this? "Eat it," etc. This exercise will awaken much interest, and lead pupils to associate the printed words with the objects which they symbolize. Second Step — "Words by Sounds, — Print on the blackboard, in a column, all the words which the pupils have learned that resemble each other in sound, as in the columns above. Let the pupils pro nounce the words in the column — cap, mat, hat, man, bag — and notice that one sound is heard in each. Then let them make this sound sev- eral times — a, a, a, a, a. The word mat may now be taken, and each sound in it made dis- tinctly by the teacher, thus : ?«, a, t, mat. After repeating this two or three times, let the pupils make the sounds in the same way, and re peat them. Then take the word man. and sound its elements in the same way, thus : m, a, n, man, and require the pupils to do the same. Proceed in this manner to teach the pupils to make the elementary sounds of the several words learned by sight. Next let the teacher point to a word and say. Pronounce it, and the pupils speak it. Tlien the teacher, still ])ointing at it, may say. Soun it, and the pupils give the separate sounds which compose it. PRIMARY READING. 331 Third Step — "Words by Letters. — [It may be better, with some pupils, to take this as the second step^ and "Words by Sounds" as the third step. Which is better for the class may be decided by the teacher.] When several words have been learned as wholes, teach the letters that form them ; and require the pupils to "print " them on slates. Selecting the word jnat^ print it on the blackboard two or three times ; also print each letter in it separately two or three times. Point to the word mat, request the pupils to pronounce it, then to sound it. Next tell them the name of the first letter; show them the same letter in the other words and among the separate letters, and request the children to give its name Proceed in the same manner with a and t. Then require the pupils to name each letter in order as it is pointed at. In the same way the letters of other words may be taught, until the alphabet is learned. Afterward the children may learn to repeat the letters of the alphabet in their order. How to secure Attention. — The attention of the entire class may be secured while teaching the names of the letters and spelling by means of various exercises which a teacher of skill will readily devise and use. To lead the children to observe what letters form given words, and the order of their arrangement, rub out or cover up a let- ter, and let the pupils tell what letter was rubbed out or is covered up. Also let the pupils tell what letters must be made to form a given word, and the teacher print each letter as it is named. Fourth Step. — Having taught a good list of famihar words in accordance with the three preceding steps, review them by requiring the pupils to pronounce them at sight, to sound them and spell them as the several letters are pointed at. Do not alloiv the pupils to reverse this order, and spell the word before pronouncing it. N. B. — From this step on, the fii"st three stejts m.iy be taken at each lesson — the word as a whole, by its letters, by its sounds. Fifth Step — Grouping "Words. — When the pupils have learned a few words re])resenting qualities and actions, they may be led tc group them into phrases and sentences, as good Vtoy ; good girl • new hat , new dress ; old coat , old cap etc. A dog can run ; a cat can vun • a flosj can bark ; i cat can mew 332 VKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. See my new hat. ^ee the old horse ruiL See my old shoe. See my dog run. See my new ball. See my top spin. Place words on the blackboard so that several sentences may be formed by the change of one word in reading, thus : A dog can bark, bite, run. A cat can mew. purr. Point to the words, and let the pupils read them as follows, viz. : A dog can bark. A dog can bite. A dog can run. A cat can bite. A cat can run. A cat can mew. A cat can purr, etc. Then change the bentence by placing can before it, thus . Can a dog bark ? Cau a dog bite ? Can a dog mew ? Can a cat bite ? Can a cat bark ? etc. When the pupils have become acquainted with a sufficient variety of words to render it practicable arrange them in longer sentences, as, A dog can bark, bite, growl, whine, walk, trot, run, and junij). A horse can walk, trot, run, kick, draw, eat, drink, see, and hear. A boy can sing, talk, read, spell, study, play, run, jump, hop, spin a top, fly a kite, and play ball, A good girl will try to keep still in school, mind her teacher, learn to read, spell, and count. Bad boys play truant, do not mind their teacher, and do not try ':o learn. In this manner extend the reading lessons on the blackboard, making them more and more difficult as the pupils progress in then- acquaint- ance with words. Let the pupils give words to be printed on the blackboard and learned by the class. Do not be alarmed and decline to print them, even if they give you such words as breakfast, dinner, supper, mother, sister, father, brother, etc. The children can easily learn these words by the time they have been through the first three steps in reading, and are prepared to take the Fourth Step. Also request the pujiils to tell you what to write about a horse, a dog, a cat, a cow, etc. Thus lead them to think about what they rea«l and to aid in making their own reading lessons. PRIMARY READING. 333 Reading Words in Groups. — For aiding pupils in discover- ing the thoughts represented by phrases and sentences, it is very im- portant that they be early trained to read those words together which are spoken together in expressing thoughts. By this means they will avoid the bad habit of reading words singly, and thus failing to un- derstand the sentence. The following exercise may be used as an early step for training pupils to read phrases and sentences. Groups of Words, representing what has been said by a pupil, o/ the teacher, about an object, may be placed on the blackboard so as to show the grouping, and the pupils taught to read the words gr()uj)ed together as they should be spoken. The following sentences will il- lustrate the manner of grouping the words on the blackboard, with wide spaces to separate the groups, and mark a short pause in read- ing, and with the hyphen used to show which words should be spoken closely together : The -door is shut. The-stove is hot. A-horse can trot. My slate is clean. My top is new. How old aie you? John can fly his kite. Jane can roll a-hoop. Can you read your book? I like to-hear a-bird sing. The-pencil is in my desk. The-man has a-new hat. The-hat is on his head. Continue the exercises in reading words in groups, until the pupils acquire the habit of reading them as they are used in groups in good conversation. This exercise, if properly conducted, will break up the habit of reading words as if each stood singly, as cliildren usually read who are taught to spell and pronounce words before learning to read them at siglit as signs of spoken words. Do not teach the pupils to say " «M door" nor "m topS' Good usage requires that the and a, before words commencing with conso- nants, should be spoken lightly and with the following word, but these tvords should never he perverted to thu and u. Speak the with the fol- lowing word, as if it were the first syllable of it, sounding the e as in 334 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. e-vent, e-vade. Speak a with the following word, as if the first sylla- ble of it, sounding the a as in a-muse. Teach Sentences. — The teacher may take some object, as a key, a knife, ball, cap, slate, and say, "I hold a key," etc. Then give tlie object to two or three pupils in succession, and request each to say the same. The teacher may then tell the pupils that she will put the words just said on the blackboard ; and, having done so, she may proceed somewhat as follows: "Which word was said first?" "Who can find it on the blackboard?" "Now rej^ /." "What word was saiil next?" "Maud, you may find the word hold, and read it." " Now the class may read both of these words together, as 1 point to them." I hold. " What was the last word that you said when you told us what you held in your hand?" "You may find the word key.'' "Now find the word that you spoke with key, and read them together. " A key. "The class may now read all of these words as I point to them." / hold— a key. "Well done; which words do you speak together?" I hold, and a key. The new words in the sentence having been thus learned by sight, call a pupil to take the object in one hand, a pointer in the otiier, and point out and read the sentence. After several members of the class have thus read the sentence that tells what they are doing, proceed in a similar way to teach new sentences with other objects. In reviewing these sentences, place a new ol)ject in the hand of a pupil, and let him try to find a sentence on the blackboard, among those previously learned, which tells what he holds. Let him discover that the word which represents the neiv object is not there ; that it must be written before he can read the thought. Teach the pupils to write these sentences on slates. By means of these and similar ex- ercises, the children will early learn to associate thoughts with all that they read. Tiie following will give an idea of some of the sentences which may be taught in this objective manner : " I have a knife in my hand." " I have some candy in my mouth." " I have a knife in my pocket." " I can mark with this chalk." "The ])encil is on my slate." " I put tiie book on my desk." " I have a piece of sponge." " 'J'he door is open.' "This sponge is wet." "The door is shut, now." READING FROM BOOKS. 335 EEADING FROM BOOKS. First Stage of Teaching Reading. — The period em- braced in the exercises described in the five preceding steps may be called the first stage of teaching reading. During this stage the methods employed are intended to lead the pupils to learn by sight symbols of spoken words^ phrases^ and sentences. Under the conditions in which young children ai-e usually taught in classes, in public schools, it requires about three months to com- plete the steps of this stage, so that the pupils shall know one hundred common words, and half as many phrases and sentences. Second Stage of Teaching Reading.— During the/rs^ stage of learning to read, the lessons presented are com- posed of words already known by use in speech — the pupil knows the thoughts signified by these words — the lesson to be taught consists in learning the loord-signs that represent those thoughts. During the second stage of learning to read, the pu- pil takes his book and is led in neio icays by lessonp which aim chiefly at teaching the discovery of th^ thoughts represented by groups of known words in new combinations. Yet the manner of the instruction must not all be new in this second stage. The teachei must tarry with the pupils, at the beginning of each lesson, until the new icords have been learned by sight (by the steps in the previous stage), before proceeding with the new purpose, the discovery of the thoughts represented by the sentence. 336 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. The following steps will indicate the order of pro- ceeding, and some of the methods that may be used, in the transition of teaching from objects and the black- board to teaching by the use of books. First Step. — Teach the children to take or pass books; to hold books; to find the page; to find single known words; to find groups of two or three words; to find the lesson. The exercises of this step may be taken once each day for a week, while the pupils are still reading sentences from the blackboard. SecoHd Step. — Select from the reading book an ap- propriate lesson, one composed chiefly of words already learned. Place the words of this lesson in columns on the blackboard ; making a column, like a spelling lesson, for each sentence, so that it may be read downward. Then let the pupils pronounce all the words that have been previously learned ; next proceed to teach the new words, as in the first stage. Afterward request the pupils to read all the words in one column and find what they say. Proceed in a similar manner to teach eacli column or sentence in the lesson. Next, place the sentences across the blackboard, as in ordinary reading, and let the pupils read each two or three times. This exercise will prepare the pupils for reading the same lesson from books. JVoio let the piqnls take books containing the lesson just learned. Require them to find the page which contains the lesson learned on the blackboard. When they have found the lesson, request them to find in their books a sentence like the first one on the black- board. When they have done so, and some four or five READING FROM BOOKS. 337 have read it from the book, select another sentence and proceed in the same way. In this manner teach the children to read the entire lesson from their books. It will be well to place the sentences on the blackboard in an order different from those in the book, if it be found that the pupils are trying to read by rote instead of by sight. During all of these reading exercises train the pupils to read as they should speak the thoughts. Third Step. — Select from the new reading lesson the difficult words; teach them from the blackboard. Next give the pupils books and require them to find the same words in the lesson ; also, to pronounce at sight other words in the lesson. Attention may be given to the elementary sounds of the words containing several si- lent letters, as nighty though^ they^ knoio^ head^ etc. Now request the pupils to find what the words in the first line or sentence say; then what the second line says; and so on through the lesson. During this exercise each sentence should be read by three or more pupils. There may be had, also, conversation about the meaning of words, groups of words, etc. Follow these exercises with teaching the pupils how to read the lesso?i. Do not commence a lesson by reading it for the pu- pils, and thus leading them to acquire the habit of leaning upon you for both the thoughts of the lesson and the manner of reading it. Teach each lesson so that by it the pupil shall acquire self-power that will soon develop into ability to read at sight new lessons composed chiefly of known words. 22 338 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Fourth step. — Place the reading book in the hands of the pupils; require the class to pronounce, without spelling, all the words of the lesson, beginning with the last word of each paragraph and ending with the first, 60 that the story of the lesson may not be learned be- fore the pupils know the words by sight. If more practice be required for learning the words, let the teacher pronounce the first word, the pupils the second in concert, the teacher the third, the pupils the fourth, and so on. If some of the pupils still do not know all the words readily, let each of these pronounce the words of the paragraph to be read, before reading it, commencing with the last word, as above. Next request the pupils to find what the first line says ; then what the second line says, as in the third step. Fifth Step. — Place the books in the hands of the pu- pils. Select the most unfamiliar words in the lesson ; require the pupils to sound them, and notice the silent letters; also to tell what the phrases mean in which these words are used'. Next request them to find what is said in the first sentence, and then to say it as they think it ought to be said. If the pupil does not read it in a proper manner, re- quest him to look at you and tell what he read. When he can do this well, let him look on the book and tell it again. Thus train each pupil until a habit of reading in an easy, natural tone of voice has been formed. Sometimes it will be necessary for the teacher to show how a sentence should be read by reading it cor- rectly, to assist the pupils in forming a standard by whicli they may judge of the cliaracter of their owB READING FROM BOOKS. 339 reading. Follow this by calling upon several pupils to try to read the sentence or paragraph in the same manner. Request the class to observe and tell which pupils read it in the best manner. Thus aim to de- velop the ability to judge intelligently, and with a good degree of correctness, how a sentence should be read. Such training in reading is worth more for teaching children to read intelligently than all the rules of the best elocutionist about pitch, emphasis, modulation, etc. Sixth Step. — Let the meaning of words and of phrases, and the statement of the principal facts or thoughts, be made a prominent exercise for the pupils from this point on. For the meaning of words do not teach formal definitions. Even the definitions usually placed in columns at the beginning or end of reading lessons should not be used as the chief means for this purpose. Lead the pupils to show that they understand the meaning of words by using them somewhat as follows : Cat : a cat can mew. Coio : a cow gives milk. Sidm : a fish can swim. Careful: I must be careful with my books. Obedient: I am obedient when I do what my Hiother tells me to do. Attentive: I try to be atten^ tive to my lessons. For exercises in the meaning of phrases, ask the pu- pils to tell you what is meant by " Fly a kite ;" " Wear a cap;" "John is lazy;" "Play truant;" "Glass is brittle;" "Obey the teacher;" "Intense heat." Request the pupils to substitute another word that means the same as the one used, and to read the sen- tence with the new word. This, when properly con- ducted, will be an interesting and valuable exercise. 340 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Teach the pupils to find groups of words that should be read together as phrases, and train them to read the thoughts represented by such groups, instead of reading single words. During all the exercises for teaching reading care should be taken to make the pupils kiiow the words of the lesson at sight ; to know lohat the icords mean in the lesson y then to read iti an easy manner, with tones of voice resembling those heard in good conversation. To Prepare the Pupils for Reading a New Lesson, the teacher may conduct a conversational exercise with the class, while the pupils have their books open to the new lesson, by asking questions, etc., as follows : "What is this lesson about? What does the first line tell you? Who said that? Find the first ques- tion in this lesson, and ask it. Now find the answer to that question. Read it. " Now look at the next paragraph and tell me what that is about. Is a question asked in that? James may read the question ; John may answer it. "We are now going to read about two boys. Who will tell me the name of one of them ? What is the name of the other one? What did the first boy do? What did he say ? What did the other boy say ?" By means of a similar examination of each paragraph of the reading lesson, with the attention thus specially directed to each important fact stated in it, the pupil will understand the lesson and be prepared to read it. Follow this exercise by requiring each paragraph to be read. Let several pupils read the same sentence until they can read it in a proper manner. Emphasis and inflectio7i must be taught chiefly by READING FEOM BOOKS. 341 imitation ; and the pupils should be led to perceive how these aid in expressing thoughts more clearly. Two extremes in the amount of reading should bt avoided — that of keeping the pupils too long on the same lesson, and that of reading over many lessons without suflScient attention to the matter read, and to the manlier of readmg it. The first extreme destroys the pupils' interest in reading; the second leads to carelessness in manners, and lack of attention to the thoughts read. When a lesson has been read, let the pupils try to tell the story of the lesson in their own words. Do not ask many questions. The principal ones may be some- what as follows: What is this lesson about? What does it tell you? Who said it? What question is asked? What is the ansioer to that question ? During all instruction in reading, require your pupils to consider — First. What does the sentence, or paragraph, say ? Second. How should it be said ? Around these two questions may be clustered all im- portant matters needing attention in teaching children to read. Errors in Methods of Teaching. — Many of the com- mon faults in reading may be traced to improper methods used in teaching. Bad habits formed at this period usually cling to the pupils during all their school-days, and often seriously affect their entire edu- cational ])rogress. Suggestions as to how errors in teaching reading may be avoided, and how overcome, are given in following pages. 342 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. ERRORS IN TEACHING. Allowing the children to take books before they have learned the principal words of the reading lesson at sight. Teaching them "to mind the pauses" by requiring each child to stop and count " one" at a comma, "one, two" at a semicolon, and "one, two, three, four" at a period. Such attention to the pauses generally leads to a mechanical, unnatural style of reading. First attend to the meaning of the sentences, and lead the i)upils to see how the ])auses aid in understanding their meaning. Do not teach reading as if attention to commas is the chief object to be attained. Learning and reciting definitions of pauses is not only useless, but it leads to a great waste of time. Of what practical benefit is it to a child just learning to read to be able to say, "A comma is the shortest pause, stop long enough to count one." For all the advantage that may be obtained from it in reading, the child might as well say, "Tommy showed his paws long enough to count one." Teach the use of the pauses in the lesson, instead of the definition of them. v^ome teachers "hear their classes read," and suppose they are teaching them to become good readers by telling each pujjil what mistakes were made as the paragraph is finished. Usually the errors are so varied and numerous that the pupils are bewildered in their ef forts to remember them. They are told of "words left out;" "words put in;" "words mispronounced;" "reading too fast;" "reading too low ;" " kept the voice up at a period ;"' "did not let the voice fall at a comma;" "did not emphasize the words;" "called and ann ;" "did not mind the pauses," and many other "faults of omission and commission." Notwithstanding so much is said to the pupils about their blunders, they are not taught how to read any better next time. Do not suppose that it is necessary or desirable to have the class of beginners commence their lessons, in reading from books, with those sentences that are made up from words of two letters, as "I am up," "He is up," etc. If the pupils have been properly taught from the blackboard, it will be far better to skip all of this class of reading les- sons, and commence at once with those composed of such words as children use, as, READING FROM BOOKS. 343 "Ann has a new hoop. She can roll her hoop." "Can she roll her hoop fast?" "Ann runs when she rolls her hoop fast." Such a lesson would be learned as quickly as those composed of ** words of two letters," which mean nearly nothing to the pupil. The length of the word to be learned presents a much less difficulty than a lack of familiarity with its use and meaning. Familiarity with the use of the words in a lesson, rather than iheir length, should be the guide in selecting an elementary reading lesson. However, pref- erence may properly be given at first to short words which are thus familiar. Attend to Faults singly.— When you take a class in reading that has been allowed to form bad habits, first ascertain what fault is most serious and common among the pupils. Having determined this point, give special attention to correcting this one error until it has been brought under the ready control of the pu})ils ; then take the next serious fault in order, and treat it with special attention until both the faults are under control. Thus remove each fault by special attention, and train the pupils to a complete control and avoidance of all of them. But it must be remembered that telling pupils of their faults in read- ing will not correct them. They should he shown how to correct their faults, and then trained so as to secure their correction. Spelling. — A knowledge of spelling is chiefly valuable for the purpose of writing. It is of little worth as a means of teaching read- ing. When tauglit exclusively from spelling, reading seldom becomes natural, and the pupils frequently stumble all the way through school, calling was saw, on no, and making many similar mistakes. Spell- ing should be learned through reading, not reading through spelling Reading words naturally precedes spelling words. To teach reading chiefly by si)elling belongs to the ABC method. Spelling should not be introduced until the children's eyes hav3 be- come accustomed to distinguishing X\\e forms of simple words as wholes. Spelling deals with the elementary forms of words, not with thei! sounds as spoken. The first lessons in spelling, given while the chil- dren are learning to read familiar words, should be conducted by print ing words on the blackboard, and taught by sight instead of hearing 344 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. The pupils should be taught to spell by printing words on their sl.ites, copying them from the blackboard at first, subsequently from books. So soon as they can write, let spelling be taught by writing words on their slates. This should be the chief mode of teaching impelling. However, oral spelling may be employed as a valuable means of teaching written spelling successfully, thus causing two senses — sight and hearing — to take cognizance of the elementary parts of each word instead of only one, as in the common ])lan of teaching oral spelling. The plan of requiring pupils to pronounce each syllable separately while spelling is one of those customs which long usage has so firmly established that it is difficult to look upon any other mode without prejudice. From a long personal experience, and the results of the experience of others with many thousand children, 1 believe that, in- stead of its being an advantage to treat tlie several syllables as so many separate words, and tjien unite them together gradually by repeatedly pronouncing the previous syllables as each successive one is spelled, it is a positive hinderance to progress in oral spelling, and a loss of time. To spell perplexity thus, p-e-r per, p-l-e-x ]>lex, per-plSx, i ?, per- plSx-i, t-y ti, per-plSx-i-ty, seems to be a sort of" House-that-Jack^ built" style, which may serve as an occasional amusement for children ; yet to continue such repetitions daily as a part of the process of spell- ing is a needless perplexity to pupils, and a great hinderance to theii- progi-ess in learning to spell. Every requirement that diverts the at- tention of the pupils from the order and arrangement of the letters that form the word retards rather than aids in learning to spell the word. The following method has been thoroughly tested, and found to be entirely satisfactory for oral spelling : A word is pronounced by the teacher ; the pupil repeats the pronun- ciation distinctly, then spells it, speaking each letter plainly, and mak- ing a pause between each syllable • then finishes by repronouncing the whole word, thus : Teacher. Commandment. Pupil. "Com mand ment; c-o-m m-a-n-d m-e-n-t, commniidment." Care should be taken to secure a distinct pause be- tween the syllables, and the speaking of each letter distinctly. QUALITIES OF OBJECTS, IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING THEM. Before children commence Lessons on Objects with a view to observing their several qualities and uses, it is desirable that they should receive special training in distinguishing and naming the qualities. Lessons have been given in the preceding pages for training children to perceive the shapes, colors, number, size, and sounds of objects, and it is important that lessons should also be given to aid them in distinguishing other properties. Besides, the plan of taking a single quality for a lesson, ana training the pupils to discover it in a variety of objects, furnishes facilities for a thorough discipline of their minds, and leads to habits of classifying and asso- ciating like kinds of qualities and facts in accordance with the natural laws of mental acquisition. These les- sons will also lead teachers to avoid those desultory and unprofitable exercises which are sometimes called " Ob- ject Lessons." After having received such training, the children will be able to take up any object and readily distinguish and name its principal properties. These lessons will also prepare children to understand what qualities ren- der objects most valuable for the several uses in which they are employed. The exercises in " Home Training of the Senses," on pages 27 to 32 inclusive, may furnish some hints that will prove useful in giving these lessons on Qualities, 346 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. LESSONS ON QUALITIES. TO DISTINGUISH AND NAME THEM. Rough and Smooth. — To lead children to distinguish the qualities rough and smooth^ request them to feel of a slate, of writing-paper, and a piece of polished wood; then to feel of sand-paper, of coarse cloth, and a piece of rough wood. Tell them that when any thing has an even surface^ like the paper, or the slate, or window-glass, we say it is smooth. When any thing has an uneven surface^ like sand- paper or coarse cloth, we say it is rough. Also lead the pupils to notice that smooth substances are pleasant to the feeling ; that rough ones are unpleas- ant to the feeling. Then write on the blackboard, and require the pupils to read it : * Smooth — having an even surf ace^ pleasant to the feel- ing. Rough — having an uneven surface, unpleasant to the feeling. Next request the pupils to tell the names of objects that are smooth and rough., and the teacher may write them in separate columns. Ask the children. Why do you call these objects smooth ? " Because they have an even surface, and are pleasant to the feeling." Why do you call objects rough ? LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 347 " Because they have an uneven surface, and are un pleasant to the feeling." When do you say an object is smooth ? Sticky. — To lead children to observe the quality sticky, provide a piece of paper with mucilage on one side ; also a piece of wax or putty. Show the pupils how these substances loill hold to any thing to which they may be applied. Tell theni that we call those things that will hold to or stick, like wax, mucilage, etc., sticky. Request the pupils to mention the names of things that will stick or hold to, like soft wax, and write them on the blackboard in a column, thus : Wax, Glue, Paste, Mucilage, , are called sticky, because they win Molasses, j hold to or stick. Honey, Candy, | Putty, J We say any thing is sticky or adhesive that "wiii hold to, or stick, or adhere. Why do you say glue is sticky ? " Because it will hold to or stick." Whe?i do you say any thing is adhesive ? " When it wnll stick or hold to." Slippery. — The pupils may be led to understand the quality slippery by directing their attention to the feel- ing of soap when wet, of ice, of oil, etc. Ask how these objects feel. Some of the children may say "they feeJ 348 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. smooth." Tell them that any tiling that is smooth to the feeling and moves easily^ like wet soap, is called slippery. Ask the pupils whether it is easy to hold a piece of ice, or any thing covered with grease. Request them to mention the names of substances that are slippery, and write them on the blackboard, in a column, as was done with the names of things that are sticky. Why do we say a piece of wet soap is slippery ? " Because it is smooth to the feeling, and will move easily, or slip." Whe7i do you say any thing is slippery ? " When it slips, or causes any thing to move easily." Brittle. — To train the pupils to notice the quality brit- tle^ take articles that will break very easily, as chalk, candy, cinnamon, small sticks, and show the class that each ^f these may be easily broken. Request the pu- pils to mention the names of oDJects that will break easily, and write them on the blackboard, thus : Chalk, ] Candy, j are brittle. GIrss, f They are easily broken. China, etc., J Why do you say glass is brittle ? " Because it is easily broken." Why did you say that china is brittle ? " Because it will break easily." When do you say any thing is brittle? Tough. — This quality may be readily illustrated ^vith articles that are not easily broken or torn^ as a piece of lead, copper, leather, linen cloth, etc. Require the pu- LESSONS ON (QUALITIES. 349 pils to give a list of tough articles, to be written as be- fore. Tell the pupils that we call those things tough which we can not easily break or tear. Write, as the definition of tough, not easily broken or torn. Ask the usual questions relative to this quality. Porous. — To lead children to observe the quality /)or- ous^ provide a sponge, a cork, a rattan, etc. Let them look at the sponge and tell what they see. Cut one end of the rattan, and let them look at it and tell what they see in it. When they have noticed the "little lioles" in the rattan, in the sponge, and the cork, tell them that we call these little holes joores y and we say any thing that i^fuU of little holes is porous. Request the pupils to give a list of objects that are full of little holes, to be written on the blackboard, thus : Sponge, ^ Bread, I are porous. Cake, I They are full of little holes or pores. Rattan, J What do we call the little holes in the end of the rat- tan ? "Pores." What do we call the little holes in the sponge and the cake? "Pores." What do we say of any thing that is full of little holes ? " It is porous." Why do you say sponge is porous ? Is glass porous ? Is cloth porous ? Will porous things bold water ? Is candy porous ? When do you say any thing is porous ? What does porous mean ? " Full of little holes." 350 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Your skin is full of very Uttle pores, through which the perspiration comes. Transparent. — To teach children to notice the quality transparent^ take a piece of glass, a cup of water, a tumbler, a slate, a sheet of paper, etc. Take a piece of 3halk, hold it in one hand, and hold a piece of glass be- tween the chalk and the class. Ask the pupils, What am I holding behind the glass ? How do you know that it is chalk? '• We can see it." But the glass is between you and the chalk : how can you see the chalk ? "We can see through the glass." Very good. I will now take a slate and hold some- thing behind it, and you may tell what it is. But you must not guess. If you do not know what I have in my hand behind the slate, say " I do not know." Why can you not tell me what I am holding behind the slate ? " We can't see it." Why can't you see what I have now as well as yon could when I held the chalk behind the glass? "We can't see through the slate; we could see through the glass." The teacher drops a slate-pencil and a piece of chalk into the cup of water, and asks the children to look into the cup and tell what is in the water. " A slate-pencil and chalk ?" You did not see me put them in the cup ; how do you know they are there ? "We can see them through the water." After various illustrations, and the pupils have ob- tained the ideas that some things ca7i be seen through LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 351 dearly^ and some can not he seen through^ request the pupils to mention the names of things that can be seen through. Write these on the blackboard : Glass, Water, are transparent. , ' , , I They can be seen throuo^h clearly. Alcohol, o .7 Some ice, J Ask the pupils. How do you know that air is trans parent ? •'' We can see through it." Can you see the air ? How do you know that some oil is transparent? Why do you say water is transparent ? When do you say any thing is transparent? Is thin cloth transparent ? Do we say any thing is transparent when we look through holes in it ? We may also say any thing is transparent when light and color pass through it freely. Why is glass so useful for windows ? Why is mica used in stove doors ? It might be well to explain that some things s,re part- ly transparent., should a substance be mentioned that will allow light to pass through, but will not permit ob- jects to be seen distinctly througli it. For this quality the term transhicent may be given. When a substance is translucent the light will pass through it, but we can not see objects distinctly through it. We can distinguish shape, but not color, through translucent objects. Ground glass is translucent. a52 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Opaque. — The pupils will now be prepared to give a list of objects which can not he seen through. These may be written on the blackboard: Slate, Wood, Iron, p . are opaque. ^ ' They can not be seen throngh. Tin, Chalk, - Can you mention as many objects that are transpar^ ent as you can that are opaque? Why do you say the paper is opaque ? When do you say any thing is opaque? Elastic and Elasticity. — The teacher, having provided herself with pieces of whalebone, rattan, steel spring, sponge. India-rubber, etc., takes up a piece of whale- bo7ie, and bends it, at the same time requesting the pupils to observe what it does when she lets the end go from one hand. Next the rattan is taken, and bent in the same manner; then the steel spring. Now the pupils are asked to tell what movement they observed in each of these substances. Some children say "they go back;" others say "they fly back again;" one says ' they spring back ;" some, that " they snap." The teacher then remarks. When I bend the whale- bone, and let one end of it go, you see that it springs back to its place again. When I bend the steel spring, and let one end of it go, it springs back to its place again. Now, when I bend the rattan, and let one end of it go, what does it do ? "It springs back to its place again," LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 353 When I let the end of the bent whalebone go, what ioes it do ? " It springs back to its place again." What does the steel spring do as I let one end go after bending it ? " It springs back again." The teacher next takes up a piece of India-ruhher^ stretches it out, and lets one end of it go, at the same time requesting the children to observe what the rub- ber does. Some of the pupils reply, "It snaps;" others say " it flies back again ;" one says " it springs back again." Again taking up the whalebone and bending it as be- fore, the teacher asks. What does the whalebone do after being bent ? " It springs back." What does the rubber do after being stretched ? " It springs back." Next the teacher takes up a piece of moist sponge^ from which the water has been squeezed. While com- pressing the sponge, she requests the children to ob- serve and tell what she is doing. Various answers are given, as " squeezing it," " pinching it," " pressing it," On removing the pressure, she asks, What does the sponge do now ? " It goes back to its shape again." The teacher then says, suiting her actions to hex words. When I squeeze this sponge and let go of it — " It springs back again." When I stretch this India-rubber and let it ^o — ^' It springs back." When I bend the whalebone and let it go— " It springs back." 95^ 354 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Taking a flat piece of whalebone or thin steel, the teacher twists it, and requests the pupils to observe what it does when she lets one end go. " It springs back to its place again." Having thus fully prepared the class for the word which is used to signify this power of springing back, the teacher proceeds, I will now tell you a word which means springing back ; it is elastic; and I will write it on the blackboard, that you may observe how it looks, and learn to spell it. At the same time she turns to the board and forms the word in plain letters. Again turning to the class, she says, Spell elastic. What does elastic mean ? ' '• Springing back." Now I wish you to mention such things as you think have this power q{ springing back^ and I will write their names on the blackboard as you give them to me. As the children mention the names of elastic sub- stances, the teacher writes on the board, and soon u. list is formed which presents an appearance similar Xn the following : Whalebone, Rattan, India-rubber, Steel spring, , -r^ , ^ , ^ . ^ Y iiach has the power of spring- Sponge, . T , I if J^ .„ i7iq back. Quill, Feathers, Wool, The lesson is now reviewed by questions somewhat as follows, viz. : Why do we say whalebone is elastic ? "Because it will spring back after being bent.''' are elastic. I LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 355 Why do we say a steel spring is elastic ? " Because it will spring back after being be7iV Why do we say that India-rubber is elastic ? " Because it will spring back after being stretchecV Why do we say sponge is elastic ? " Because it will spring back after being squeezed.'''' When do we say any thing is elastic ? " When it will spring back after being herit^ stretched^ squeezed^ or tioistedy' Is lead elastic ? " No ; it will not spring back after being bent." Are copper wire and tin elastic ? " No ; they will not spring back." You can stretch chewing-gum; is that elastic? " No ; it does not spring back." Is a boy's ball elastic? "Yes; it will bound or spring back when thrown against any thing hard." At a subsequent lesson, after reviewing this quality, the teacher may inform her pupils that we sometimes call this ^:)Oi/jer of springing back again elasticity^ at the same time writing the word on the blackboard. She then adds, Every thing that will spring back after be- ing bent^ stretched., squeezed., or tvnsted^ has elasticity. Then India-rubber has — "Elasticity." And whalebone " — " And sponge " — " And wool " — And a quill " — Now you have seen that elastic means springing back, and that elasticity means the potcer of springing back. Thus you see we may say that an object is elastic; alsc 356 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. that it has elasticity. Why do we say any thing liae elasticity f "Because it has the power oi springing back after be- ing bent^ stretched^ squeezed^ or twisted.'''' Is snow elastic ? " Snow has no elasticity ; it has not the power of springing back after being squeezed." Why does the boy's ball bounce when he throws it upon the ground? " Because it has elasticity." Will a ball of putty bounce when thrown upon the hard ground? Is dough elastic ? Flexible and Pliable. — The quality of being easily bent or folded is expressed by the words flexible, flexile^ and pliable. To lead children to perceive this quality, the teacher may provide pieces of leather, cloth, cord, paper, whalebone, willow, lead, etc., and show that each of these articles will bend easily, and that some of them may be folded, as cloth, paper, etc. When the pupils have become familiar with this qual- ity, tell them that all things which may be be?tt or /aid- ed easily Sira flexible. Then request them to give a list of articles that can be be7it easily, which the teacher may write on the blackboard : Cloth, Paper, Cord, Lead, Leather, We might also say these things are pliable., for this ^rQ flexible. They are easily bent. LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 35*7 word means easily bent, or folded. But it is more common to use the word pliable when the quality ijs that of being easily folded. Why do we say leather is flexible ? " Because it is easily bent." Why do we say sponge is flexible? ^ Because it is. easily cot)ipressed or bent.'' Why do we say paper is pliable ? '' Because it is easily folded." Why do we say whalebone is flexible ? "Because it is easily bent." Whe7i do we say any thing is flexible ? " When it can be easily bent." When do we say any thing is pliable ? " When it may be easily folded." Mention things that are pliable^ or may be folded. Mention things that are not pliable. Liquid and Fluid. — To lead the pupils to perceive the qualities liquid and fluid, it would be well to procure small vials filled with water, milk, oil, molasses, etc., and, showing each to the pupils, tell them what the several vials contain. Then request the members of the class to observe how the water, milk, oil, etc., flow as you proceed to pour out each so as to cause it to form into dropts. Call the attention of the pupils to the manner of flowing by saying. See how the water flows. Now see how the milk fiows. Look at the oil; see how it flows. Who will tell me how each of these flow ? " They allflov) in drops.'''' Then say to the pupils, You may now tell me the names of things that flow in drops, and I will wiite them on the blackboard: 358 PKIMAKY OBJECT LEolSONlS. are liquids. ThQj flow in drops^ and wet. Water, Milk, Ink, Vinegar, Oil, Molasses, _ Why do we say water is a liqaid ? "Because it will flow in drops, and will wet oi moisten." Why do you say milk is a liquid ? When do we say any thing is a liquid ? " When it will flow in drops, and will wet." How do you know that these things flow in drops? " We can see them drop." Very good ; but there are some things which flow that you can not see. If I should open a window, you might feel the wind or air flowing into this room. Could you see it ? How, then, could you know that the air was flowing into the room ? " We could feel it." If I should turn on the gas without lighting it, it would flow into the room. Could you see it ? Then how might you know that gas was flowing into the room ? " We could smell it." Thus you perceive that we can not see air and gas when they flow; we can only fleel them or smell them. As you feel the air flowing, does it seem to come in drops or in a stream ? "It flows in a stream." We call any thing tlint flows easily, like air and gas, A fluid. Water, milk, etc., flow easily, so we may caU these flf fids also. Now read what I write on the blackboard: LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 359 Any thing that flows easily, like air, gas, water, milk, etc., is a fluid. Any thing thatfloios in drops is a liquid. What do we call any thing that will flow easily? What do we call any thing that will flow in drops? You see that all liquids are fluids ^' but some fluids are ?iot liquids. If you put water or milk in a cup, what will be the dhape of the water or milk ? If you put milk in a tumbler, what will be the shape of the milk? If you put water in a pail, what will be the shape of the water ? Thus you see that liquids always take the shape of the vessel that contains them. Have liquids any shape of their own ? How could you cause milk to take the shape of a cylinder ? You may now mention the names of fluids Air, Gas, Steam, Mercury, Alcohol, Water, Why do we say air is a fluid ? Do you drink fluids? Ask a suflicient variety of questions to make it cer- tain that the pupils kriow what is meant by the terms fluid and liquid. Solid. — To give children an idea of the quality solid^ take a piece of chalk, a pencil, a marble, a piece of wood are fluids. They flow easi'j 360 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. a key, and other objects, and lead the pupils to com- pare them with water and other liquids. Call attention to the tact that these substances will not Jioiv; tfiat they have the poicer of I'etaining shape. When the pupils are able to readily distinguish and name objects that have this power of retaining shape and will not flow, tliey may be told that each of these substances is a solid. Ask questions shnilar to those in connection with the other qualities. Absorbent. — For leading children to observe the qual- ity absorbe7it^ provide a sponge, blotting-paper, a lump of sugar, and pi^ce of cloth. Show the pupils that the sponge, cloth, and sugar will suck up wate)\ and that the blotting-paper will suck up ink, or other liquids. Tell them that we say any thing that will suck up liquids is absorbent ; that absorbent means drawing in or sucking up. Request them to name objects that are absorbent, to be written on the blackboard, proceeding as with other qualities. Combustible and Inflammable. — The idea of the qual- ity called combustible may be brought clearly to the comprehension of children by telling them that all things that vyill take fire and burn^ as wood, coal, cloth, etc., are combustible. The idea of inflaiinmahle may be made plain by tell ing them that all things which take fire readily and burn with aflame^ as paper, oil, kerosene, gas, etc., are inflam mable. Write on the blackboard : Things that will take fire and burn are combustible^ LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 361 Thi/igs that tafcejire easily and burn witn aflame art inflaiuiuable. Request the pupils to give lists of objects that are combustible and iiitiammable, to be written on the blackboard in separate columns. Fusible. — By directing the attention of children to the familiar fact that some things melt by heat, while others will not melt, they may obtain a clear idea of the quality known diffusible. To aid in giving them a good understanding of this quality, let them mention names of substances that will melt by heat, and write these on the blackboard ; then ask questions about the quality, as in the other les- sons. If the class be composed of pupils whose ages are more than ten years, the temperatures at which various substances will melt might be given. The following list will furnish the teacher with intormation for this purpose : Degrees of Heat at lohich Substances Melt. I Ice melts at 32°. Zinc melts at 700°. Tallow 100^ Silver u 1870°. Wax 150°. Copper a 1990° India-rubber " 250°. Gold u 2200°. Tin 445°. Iron (( 2800°. Lead " 600°. Platina a 3000° Soluble. — Taking salt, sugar, gum-arabic, or glue, and dissolving them in water, will give children an idea of the quality known as soluble. The usual exercises, questions, etc., may be had, and the detinition written on tne blackboard : 362 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Any thina that will melt or dissolve in a liquhl is soluble. Pungent. — By talking with children that have had special home training in the use of their senses, about the taste of pepper, cloves, ginger, mustard, etc., thej may be led to understand the meaning and use of the term pungent. The usual exercises may be had with the blackboard, and the following definition given : Pungent — bithig to the taste ; having a warm, prick- ing taste. Astringent. — ^Direct the attention of children to the taste of alum, choke-cherries, oak bark, etc., and lead them to observe the effect of these substances upon the tongue and mouth. Tell them that the quality which will produce the feeling of drawing together, or a puckery taste, is called astringent. Write on the blackboard : Astringent — drawing together^ or puckery to the taste. Other qualities may be illustrated in a similar man- ner. Care should be had not to allow these exercises to become merely those of teaching definitions of quali- ties. They are equally valuable for their effects in the discipline of the pupils' minds, and in giving them habits of careful observation in relation to the properties of objects. They are also valuable for their influence on the teacher's general methods of instruction. The following qualities may also be taught in accord ance with the methods already illustrated. LESSONS ON QUALITIES. 363 Fibrous — stringy; containing thread-like parts ; full of threads or fine stri/igs, as whalebone, bark of some trees, rattan, willow, linen, etc. Odorous — having a S77iell, or odor, as camphor, co- logne, tobacco, onion. Fragrant — having a sioeet smell, or odor, as a rose, a violet, new-mown hay, coffee, etc. Acid — having a sour taste, as lemon, vinegar, etc. Crumbling — breaking into small pieces easily, as bread, cake, chalk, etc. Granular — composed of small grains, as sugar, salt, sandstone, etc. Malleable — may he easily spreaa out hy pounding ot heating, as lead, gold, silver, copper, some iron, etc. Ductile — may he drawn out into fine wire, as gold, sil- ver, copper, iron, etc. Tenacity — holding loith great strength ichen drawn out into wire ; very strong, as wire made of silver, gold, iron, copper, etc. Volatile — easily passing into the air, as camphor, gpiiits of turpentine, and the various perfumes. Nutritious — sustaining life and promoting growin^ as the various kinds of food. 864 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Grouping Qualities by the Senses. — When several qualities have been learned, an interesting exercise may be had by requiring the pupils to arrange the qualities in groups, each to be designated by tlie sense through which it is perceived. To do this, the teacher may write the names of the senses on the blackboard, and, as each quality is mentioned, let the pupils tell where its name should be written, so that when the lesson is finished it shall appear somewhat as follows. VIZ. : Qualities perceived through the Sense of Sight. Sense of Feeling. Sense of Taste. Sense of SmelL Transparent. Opaque. Porous. Combustible. Inflammable. Smooth. Rough. Sticky. Slippery. Brittle. Pungent. Acid. Astringent. Sweet. Bitter. Fragrant. Odorous. Volatile. Rancid. Aromatic Absorbent. Fusible. Tough. Spicy. Spicy. Soluble. Soluble. Elasticity. Flexible. Elasticity. Pliable. Liquid. Solid. Fluid. Solid. Crumbling. Granular. Malleable. Crumbling. Granular. Malleable. ^^ Properties of Objects,'' supplementary to Lessons on Qualities, may be taken up for pupils in the lower classes of Grammar ISchools. See Manual of Object Teaching. OBJECT LESSONS. THEIR NATURE AND DESIGN. Lessons on " Common Things," given chiefly to im part information about the thing selected for tlie lesson, without any system or order of arrangement, are fre- quently,but improperly, called "Object Lessons." Some- times teachers who give occasional information about things of every-day life suppose that they are carrying out the principles of object teaching. This misconcep- tion of the true system of instruction by Object Lessons is one of the serious obstacles in the way of its general and successful introduction into all elementary schools. True Object Lessons are arranged with special adap- tation to the mental condition of the pupils to whom thev are to be given ; and they are made to keep prom- inently in view the development of the faculties of chil- dren, and the cultivation of habits of ready and accurate observation. The manner of giving information is made the means of training the mental powers of the pupils, so that the instruction necessarily becomes much more valuable than any exercise of the memory. To hold an object before a class, and tell its shape, color, size, what it is made of, its name and use, and then to ask the pupils to repeat all of that information, is not giving an object lesson. Again, to hold an object before a class, and ask, What is this? to what kingdom does it belong? where is it found? what is it used for? is not giving an object lesson. 866 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. All similar methods are at best merely an exercise of the memory, and fail to meet the conditions of object teaching. Telling a child that which it should be led to observe is not developing its mind. Filling the memory with words to be repeated in response to questions is not education. The children's own senses of sight, touch, taste, and hearing must be exercised to produce mental development. Any plan of primary teaching that does not provide for such training is de- fective. It is not in accordance with good common sense nor true objective teaching. In giving these lessons, the object itself should be before the pupils, or it should have been previously so carefully observed by them that they can recall its shape, color, uses, and principal qualities. "To tell a child this and to shoio it the other, is not to teach it how to observe, but to make it a mere re- cipient of another's observations — a proceeding which weakens rather than strengthens its powers of self- in- struction ; which deprives it of the pleasure resulting from successful activity; which presents this all-attract- ive knowledge under the aspect of formal tuition; and which thus generates that indifference and even disgust with which these object lessons are sometimes regard- ed. On the other hand, to pursue the true course is simply to guide the intellect to its appropriate food, and to habituate the mind from the beginning to that practice of self-help which it must ultimately follow. "Children should be led to make their own investi- gations and to draw their own inferences. They should be told as little as possible, and induced to discover as much as possible. Humanity has progressed solely by self-instruction ; and that, to achieve the best results, OBJECT LESSONS. 367 each mind must progress somewhat after the same fashion, is continually proved by the marked success of self-made men."* A very important point to be attended to in giving these lessons is the adaptation of them to the different stages of advancement of the children to whom they are given. A child of five years is quite a different be- ing intellectually from one often ; hence we should not attempt to lead children to the observation of those qualities that require the exercise of faculties which are not developed until the period of youth, nor to consider a subject which requires a previous training to under- stand before that training has been given. To illustrate this idea more clearly, we vvili indicate some of the properties of objects that may be presented for observation during different stages of school life. Of course these divisions must not be considered as ab- solute ; they are rather suggestive, and designed to aid teachers in making a proper arrangement of object les- sons for their own classes. Some teachers limit their lessons to specimens from cabinets of curiosities ; the consequence is, that such les- sons usually become mechanical as soon as the novelty of the objects has passed. Often these specimens are such as are rarely Been by the children, and they fail to awaken a desire to examine more common objects, and to cultivate those habits which will lead children to be- come interested in every thing around them. It should be understood that these lessons on objects can not be properly introduced until the pupils have received training in some of the steps of Form, Color, Number, Size, etc. * Herbert Spencer. 868 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. First stage. — During tins pei-iocl the pupil may be re quired to distinguuh objects by their 7iames^ to observe and name tJieir principal parts ^ to describe their form ^ color ^ and uses. Second Stage. — During this period, which may com mence in the second year of school life, the lessons should embrace the form^ color^ size, material, qualities, and 2ises of objects, and answers to the simple inquiry, ivherc obtained 1"* or, by whom ryiadef Third Stage. — During this period, which should com- mence in the third year of school life, the lessons may include a more complete analysis of the several proper- ties of objects, and attention to the adaptation of theii prominent qualities to the purposes for which these ob- jects are commonly used. In presenting the following sketches of lessons, I have taken up a variety of objects, and endeavored to sug- gest how similar exercises may be given during the sev- eral periods of school attendance. Teachers should not be satisfied with copying these sketches and teaching only these lessons ; they should acquire the necessary skill by practice to enable them to prepare similar lessons on other objects. Those who do this will teach much more successfully than those who merely attempt to repeat what others have pre- pared. LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 369 LESSONS ON OBJECTS. FIRST STAGE. Snggestions for the Teacher. — In giving these Lessons oi, Objects, it is very necessary tliat tlie information obtained from the children should not be drawn out by such questions as will enable them to answer " Yes" and " JSo." They must be led to see, observe, think, ind tell, to derive the intended benefit from the lessons. Train the ijupils to do most of the talking about the object. A CHAIR. The teacher may place a chair before the class, and ask for the name of the object. Then the name may be written on the blackboard, the word pronounced, sound- ed, and spelled. Parts. — Placing her hand upon the back of the chair, the teacher asks, " What is this part of the chair called ? "Back." This word is then written on the blackboard, pro nonnced, sounded, and spelled. Next the teacher touches the seat, its name is given by the pupils, and the word written under the word hack^ and pronounced, sounded, and spelled. Then the legs are touched, name given, written, pro nounced, sounded, and spelled. Then the rounds or bars are touched, names given, written, etc., as before. Each pupil may now be called upon to touch a part of the chaii', and ])()int to its name on the blackboard. Suppose the chair had no back, would it be as com- 24 3*70 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. fortable as it is now? "No; we could not rest weii when tired." Why not ? " There would be nothing to lean against. *' Suj^pose it had no seat, what would be the conse- quence? "There would be nothing to «it upon; it rt^ould not be of any use." Suppose it had no legs. " The seat would be on the djor; it would be too low to be of use," Suppose it had no bars. " The chair would soon fal\ to pieces." How many parts are there in this chair? Of which parts are there only one each ? " Of the seat and the back." How many legs are there ? " Four." Why does a chair have four legs instead of two ? " It could not stand on two legs." How many bars or rounds ai-e there ? Uses of Parts. — The teacher may next proceed to talk about the various uses of chairs, and then ask, What is the use of the back? "To lean against." This may be written on the blackboard opposite the word back. What is the use of the seat ? " To sit on." This may be written opposite the word seat. What is the use of the legs ? " To keep the seat up?" This may be written after the word legs. What is the use of the bars ? " To hold the legs to gether, and make the chair strong." Shape of Parts. — The teacher may now proceed to point to the parts of the chair, and ask the shape of each, thus: What is the shape of the back? "It is ob .'ong, with curved sides and end." LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 371 This may be written on the blackboard after the use of the back. Wliat is the shape of the seat ? " Four-sided, with sides curved." This may be written after the use of the seat. What is the shape of the legs? "Cylindricak" What is the shape of the bars ? " Some are cylm vlrical, and some are flat and oblong." When the lesson is finished, its appearance on the blackboard will be somewhat like the followinoj : CHAIR. Parts. Uses of Parts. Sliape of Parts. Back. To lean against. Oblong, with curved sides and end. Seat. To sit on. Four - sided, with sides curved. Legs. To keep the seat up. Cylindrical. Bars, or|^ To hold the legs together, and Some are flat and oblong, rounds. ) make the chair strong. and some cylindrical. Pupils may now be called upon to go to the black- board, and, while pointing to what has been written, de- scribe the chair somewhat as follows : " The chair is made of wood. The parts of the chair are back, seat, legs, and bars. The use of the back is to lean against ; the seat, to sit on ; the legs, to keep the seat up ; the bars, to hold the legs together, and make the chair strong. The shape of the back is oblong, with curved sides and end ; the seat is four-sided, with curved sides ; the legs are cylindrical ; some of the bars are flat and oblong, and some are cylindrical." Afterward pupils may point to the parts of the chair, and describe it, without reading from the blackboard. 372 riilAIAKY OBJECT LESSONS. Kinds of Chairs. — This lesson may be extended, or an additional one given on the chair. Write on the black- board Kinds of Chairs and their Uses j then request the pupils to give the names of all the kinds of chairs that they have seen, and let these names be written un- der the proper head. Then their uses may be men tioned, and these written under the appropriate head. When the lesson is finished, the blackboard might cou* tain somethinsj like the followino^ : Kinds of Chairs. Their Uses. Dining chair. To sit on at the table. Parlor " u a n. in the parlor. Easy " 1 " rest in. Rocking " " " " while rocking. Arm " " " the arms while sitting. Little *' For little children to sit on. High " Some are for little children to sit on at the table. The preceding sketch of a lesson on a chair will serve as a model for lessons on the following objects, viz. : table, pail, stool, bench, door, desk, box, basket. When properly conducted, these lessons on objects become exceedingly valuable aids in teaching reading and spelling, as well as in training children to observe carefully and describe intelligently. BELLS. Taking a bell in her hand, the teacher asks. What is this? "A bell." What do we do with it? "Ring it;" "Make it ring." I will make the word bell on the blackboard, and you may pronounce it, and sound it, then spell it. Taking up the bell by its handle, the teacher asks, k LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 3*73 With what am I holding this bell ? " With the hand." What part of the bell do I take hold of? " Its handle." Very good. I hold the bell with my hand^ and L take hold of the handle. We call this the handle be- cause it is the part which we take with the " ." The word handle may now be written on the black- board under the word Farts. When the handle has been pronounced, sounded, and spelled, the teacher takes up the bell, holds it with the mouth upward, so as to make it resemble a cup. She then asks. What have you seen of the shape of this part of the bell ? "A cup;" "A tea-cup." Very good. We will call the name of this part of the bell the cup. I will write the word under handle. What word have I made under handle ? " Cup." Of what is this word a name ? "A part of the bell." Holding the opening of the cup toward the children, the teacher says. When you open your mouth and speak, something moves inside of it. Can you tell what it is? " The tongue." When you look in the mouth of this bell, what can you see ? "A tongue ;" " A clapper." What does the tongue do to the cup ? " It makes it ring." Where do you see the tongue ? " In the cup." What may we call the open part of the cup ? " Its mouth." Let the words tongue and mouth be written under cup, and spelled as before. The teacher may next proceed to talk about the uses of parts ^ and ask, What is the use of the handle? "Tcr take hold of" 374 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Write this on the blackboard after the word handle, Tinder the head " Uses of Farts.'''' What is the use of the cup? "To ring." Write this after cup. What is the use of the tongue? " To make the bell ring." Does your tongue tell any thing when you speak ? Then your tongue enables you to talk. Does the tongue of the bell tell any thing ? Why do I ring this bell when you are in the yard ? Why do I ring it in school ? Then it tells you something each time that I ring it, but it does not always tell the same thing. When you talk your tongue tells something, but it does not al- ways tell the same thing. Now what is the use of the tongue of the bell ? "To tell something." Write this after the word tongue. When you talk, do you keep your mouth shut? Why do you open your mouth when you talk? "So we can speak;" "To let the sound out." Very good ; you open your mouth to let the sound out. What use is the mouth of the bell ? "To let the sound out." At this stage the lesson on the blackboard might ap- pear somewhat as follows : BELL. Parts. Uses of Parts. Handle. To take hold of. Cup. To ring. Tongue. To tell something. Mouth. To let the sound out. Pupils may now be required to point to the words LESS0-1S ON OBJECTS. 375 on the blackboard, and read them thus : " A bell. Its parts are handle, cup, tongue, and mouth. The uses of the parts : The handle is to take hold of; the cup, to ring ; the tongue, to tell something ; and the mouth, to let the sound out." By a suitable conversation with the pupils, they may be led to mention various kinds of bells, and tell why they ring. These names, etc., may be written on the blackboard somewhat as follows : BELLS. Kinds 0/ Bells. What they tell m. Door bell. Somebody at the door. Dinnei- u Dinner is ready. Tea u Come to tea. School (( Come to school. Take our seats. Church (( It is time to go to church. Fire (.1 A building is on fire. Car il Stop the car. Make the car go on. Steam-boat " The steam-boat is going to start. Ash (( Bring out the ashes. Cow it Where the cow is. Sleigh n A sleigh is coming. Let the pupils read this in a manner similar to the •'Parts of Bells and Uses of Parts." PIN. The teacher, showing a large 7?^>^ to the class, may say. What am I holding iu my hand ? "A pin." After illustrating the use of the pin in pinning things together. What can I do with the i)in ? Why does this pin go thi'ough the cloth so easily? "Because it has a sharp point." 376 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Why does not the pin hurt the finger when we push against the end of it ? " Because it has a head to push against." I will now write the word Pin on the blackboard; also the words Parts^ Shape^ and Uses. Now, if you will tell me the names of the parts of the pin, I will write the words on the blackboard under the \vord Parte. ''Head;" "Point;" "Body." What is the shape of the body of the pin ? " Cylin- drical." Can some one tell me any thing else about the body of the pin ? '' It is straight ;" " It is smooth." Would the pin be useful if it was crooked ? What do we do with crooked pins ? Would the pin })e useful if it was rough ? Why not ? " It would not go through cloth easily;" "It would tear the cloth." What is the shape of the point of a pin? "Tapering and sharp ;" " Conical." Could we use a pin if it had no point ? What is the shape of the head of this pin? "Round and flat on the top ;" " Like an oblate spheroid." A needle will go quite through a piece of cloth; why will not the pin go through ? " The head of the pin will not let it go through." Could you sew with a needle if it had a head like a pin? What is the use of the head of a pin ? " To keep the pin in its place ;" " To prevent it from hurting our fin- gers when we fasten any thing with it." What is the use of the point ? What is the use of the body of the pin? When the lesson is drawn out and written on the blackboard, it will appear somewhat as follows: LESS02SS ON OBJECTS. 3*77 PIN. Parts. Shape. Uses, Point. Conical. Go through cloth easily. Head. Oblate spheriod. Push against ; hold the pin in its place; to k«ep it from hurting the fingers. Ti^A-^ ( Cylindrical. ) To hold parts of the dress to- rJoay, 1 Straight. ^ gether. The teacher may talk about the size of pins, as large and small; of the color, as lohite, blacky and yellow. The children should be shown the impoilance of not using pins where strings or buttons should be used ; also the danger of placing pins in the mouth. The lesson should be read, the words spelled, etc. WATCH. Holding a watch before the children, the teacher asks, What is this ? "A watch." Now look at it, and tell me what you can see. " I see the face." " The hands." Where are the hands ? " On the face." " The face is white." "It has figures on it." " It is circular." Very well. What else do you see? "There is a glass over the face." "There is a rim around the face." What is the use of this rim? "To hold the glass." What else can you say about the watch ? " It has a case." "The case will open." "It has a stem." "There is a ring in the stem." What is the use of the ring ? " To take hold of when pulling the watch from the pocket, and to fasten the cham to the watch." 378 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Is there any part of the watch which you do not see? "Yes, we can not see the mside." Let us look inside of the watch. What do those wheels do? "Move round." Does any part of the watch which you can see move round ? " Yes, the hands." Who can tell me what these hands are for? "To point out the time of day." How many hands are there? "Two." Are both alike ? " No ; one is longer than the other." You have told me several parts tliat you could see ; now is there any way by which you could tell that there is a watch in my hand without seeing it ? " We could hear it if it was near to our ears." When you hear the watch, what do you say it does? "It ticks." The teacher may now write on the blackboard the words Watch and Parts^ and the name of each part un- der the word Parts. Now let us talk about the use of a watch. " It is to show us what time it is." Is there any thing else that tells us the time ? " Yes, a clock." Which is the largest — a watch or a clock? What are the uses of the parts of the watch ? " The wheels are to turn round and make the hands move." " The case is to hold the w^heels." " The face is for the figures and hands." " The hands point out the time." " The glass keeps the hands from being broken, and the dirt out of the watch." " The stem is to take hold of" '' The ring is to fasten it to the chain." The rames and uses of the parts may be written on the blackboard, and spelled as in former lessons. LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 3V9 HAT. We will have a talk to-day about something that is Worn on the head. What do you think it is ? "A cap ;" "A hat;" "A bonnet." I will print the name of it on the 1 lackboard, and then you may tell me what it is. " A hat." Very good. ' Who will lend me a hat to look at while we talk about it ? Thank you, Willie, I will try to make a good use of your hat. I have placed the word hat on the blackboard ; now I will write the words Parts ^ Shape ^ and Uses. Now, as I touch a part of the hat, the class may tell me the name of that part. *' Crown." " Brim." "Body." "Band." "Binding." "Lining." "Trim- ming." James may come here and touch the crovm of this hat. Henry may point to the body of the hat. George may show us which part is called the brim. Henry may point to the band. Horace may show us which part is called the binding. John may point to the lining. Charles may show us where the trimmings are. You may now tell me the shape of these parts, and I will write it on the blackboard. " The croimi is circu- lar." "The body is like a hemisphere." "The body of most hats are cylindrical." " The brim is circular, somewhat like a flat ring." " The band is like a hoop." The binding^ lining^ etc., have various shapes, and it would not be worth Avhile to trouble a class to try to give the shape of these. Let us now talk about the uses of these parts of the 380 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. hat. The teacher may proceed to ask various ques- tions, until the children have observed and mentioned uses for these several parts, and these should be written on the blackboard. When the lesson is completed, it will appear somewhat as follows : HAT. Parts. Shape. llse§. Crown. Circular. To cover the top of the head. Body Cylindrical. To cover the sides of the head and give shape to the hat. Brim. Flat ring. To protect the face and neck from sun and storm. Band. Like a hoop. To keep the size of the hat. To make it look well. Binding Lining. Trimming. This lesson should be read by tlie pupils from the blackboard m a manner similar to preceding lessons. SHOES. What do children wear on their feet? "Shoes." " Stockings," " Boots.'' We wall talk about only one of these things to-day, and I will write the name of that one on the black board. What word did I make ? " Shoes." When do children wear shoes ? Do they wear shoes all night ? Why do you wear shoes ? Can you tell me what shoes are made of? Which do you think are better to wear — shoes mado of leather, or shoes made of cloth ? LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 381 Why do you think shoes made of leather are better than those made of cloth? What is the man called who makes shoes ? Who can tell me the names of parts of a shoe ? "Toe." "Heel." "Sole." "String." "Upper part." 'inside." "Tongue." Continue the conversation, leading the children to give the names of different kinds of shoes, and their uses. When finished, the lesson on the blackboard may show the following statements : SHOES. Kinds. Parts. Kid shoes. Toe. Morocco ' ' Heel. Cloth Sole. Buttoned " String. Laced " Tongue. Gaiter " Inside. Slipper " Upper part. DOOR. What do you open when you go into a room ? " The door." What should you shut when you enter a room ? " The door." What is the use of a door ? What are doors made of? What is the shape of the door? Which way is the door longer? "Up and down." What keeps the door from falling down when we open it? "The hinges." What holda the door shut ? " The latch ; or a lock.'* 382 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Talk with the pupils about the parts of the door, and their uses, until they are able to give information that may be written on the blackboard in a form similar to the following : DOOR. Parts. Descriptions and Uses of Parts. Panels. Oblong thin parts in the centre of the door. Stiles. Long, narrow, upright parts by the sides of the panels. Rails. Horizontal parts at the ends of the panels. Hinges. The iron parts on which the door hangs and moves. Latch. Lock. Parts used to hold the door shut. Let the pupils read this ; also spell the names of the parts. A LETTER. Show the children letters inclosed in envelopes. Re- quest them to tell the shape of an envelope. Shape. — Oblong, flat. Oolor. — E)ivelopes are white, buff, bluish, sometimes straw color. The jt9«per of the letter- is white, sometimes bluish. Parts. — Outside. The envelope is a paper pocket or cover for the letter, to keep it clean, and to prevent any one from seeing what is written in the letter. The ivrit- ing on the envelope tells the postman where to tale the letter., and to whom it should he delivered. The postage stantp, in the upper right-hand coyx\q\\ pays for carrying the letter. The stamp must be put on the letter before sending it. The seal or gum fastens the letter so that no one can read it before it reaches the person for wliom LESSONS OJSr OBJECTS. 383 It was written. It is a great crime to open a letter that does not belong to you. The post-mark^ or circu< lar stamp containing letters and figures, near the post- age stamp, tells where the letter was mailed, or from what place it was sent ; also lohen it was sent. Inside. The i7iside of the letter contains a date, show- ing iche7i and lohere it was written ; also the name oi the person who wrote it. This is called a signature. The writing between the date and the signature tells what the person who wrote the letter wants the person to know to whom it is sent. All of these facts should be properly brought out by showing letters, by conversation, etc., and, when fin- ished, the principal facts may be written on the black- board and read by the pupils. Thimble.— A lesson on the thimble might lead to a consideration of the following facts relative to it: It tapers toward the top ; is hell-shape ; hollow inside, and fits on the finger like a cap; is worn on the middle fin- ger of the right hand when sewing, to keep the needle from pricking the finger while pushing it through the cloth; the outside is covered with little holes called cells; the cells keep the needle from slipping while pushing it through the cloth ; it has a rim around the bottom to guard the finger from injury should the needle chance to slip ; it has a border around it, be- tween the cells and the rim. Write the outline of the lesson on the blackboard as it proceeds, and let the pupils review the whole by read- ing the outline when the lesson is finished. The same plan should be pursued with all similai lessons. 384 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Key. — A lesson on this object might lead the children to observe the following facts : The key has a cylin- drical barrel^ which is hollow at one end ; it has an oval- Jiaped ring at the other end; it has rlngt around the barrel ; on one side of the hollow end of the barrel is an ohlong piece^ sometimes called the lip y the lip con^ tains grooves or notches. The oval ring is to turn the key; the lip to move the bolt in the lock; the hollow end of the barrel fits on a ste7n in the lock, which keeps the key in its place while moving the bolt. For what are keys used ? What kinds of keys have you seen ? The methods of conducting the preceding lessons will suggest how lessons may be given on the following ob- jects : Blackboard. Cap. Hammer. Slate. Cup. Needle. Window. Pencil. Knife. Clock. Boot. Book. Numeral Frame. Stove. Broom. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. During the lessons of the "first stage," such heads as the following might be written on the blackboard, and the pupils requested to men- tion appropriate objects, the names of which should be written under the headings to which they relate, as : " Things we have for hreakfast.^^ " Things we get for dinner.'"' " What is used in the kitchen.^^ " What is in the parlor ^ '"''Rooms in a house/^ " Parts of our clothing/^ '' Things that may he bought at the grocery."" " Things that grow in the garden.''^ ^^ Kinda of imeat used for food.^' '"''Kind* of fruit that we aat." I LE8S0NS ON OBJECTS. 385 LESSO]S[S OK OBJECTS. SECOND STAGE. Suggestions for the Teacher. — In giving lessons on objectti in this stage of training, it will be appropriate to lead the pupils to consider the materials of which the objects are madf^, their most prom- inent qualities, form, color, size, parts, uses, where found, or by whom made. Care should be taken not to allow these lessons to fall into a barren monotony by requiring the pupils to frequently mention those qualities which are so common to objects as almost to permit their being called universal qualities, as opaque, solid, useful, inanimate, etc. Chief at- tention should be given to the leading characteristics of objects ard especially to those qualities which contribute most to the usefulness of the objects. SPONGE. Pieces of sponge may be shown, and the children al- lowed to handle them, while a conversation is had be- tween the teacher and the pupils which will lead them to observe that the color of the sponge is yelloioish ; that it is soft to the touch ; that it is compressible, or easily squeezed by the hand; that it is elastic^ porous^ and ahsorbent. The conversation may also consider the ^ises of the sponge, as for bathing^ for loashing carriages, for clean- ing slates^ etc. ; and what qualities make it useful foi- these purposes, as soft, co77ipressible, elastic, absorbent, and fibrous. If this lesson has been well presented, the black- board will now contain an outline somewhat as fol- lows, viz. : ^5 386 PllIMAliV OBJECT LESSOMb. SPONGE. m Qualities. How thes:. make it Useful, Soft. Will not scratch. Compressible. Water may be easily squeezed out. Elasticity. Will quickly return to its shape agaiA. Porous. The holes or pipes enable it to be ab- Absorbent. sorbent, or to suck up liquids. Fibrous. Not easily torn. It is Useful for Washing carriages, cleaning slates, and bathing. Its Color is It is Found Yellowish. On rocks in sea-water. The teacher should now question the pupils abou^ these qualities, their uses, etc., until they clearly under- stand how the sponge becomes useful by possessing tiiese properties. Afterward tell lohere and how the sponge grows, and how it is obtained. HOW THE SPONGE GROWS. Suppose you were standing by the shore of the Med- iterranean, on a rock which jutted out a little way into the sea, you might observe a pile of sponge fastened under the water on the rock, and, as you watched it carefully, you would see now and then a jelly-like look- ing thing, resembling a drop of the white of an egg^ and somewhat of the shape of a pear, but very small, fall off the side of an old sponge. This little thing is called a gemmule^ or bud. It has no shell nor skin to cover it, no eyes, no ears, no feet, and no fins, yet it has life, keeps itself from sinking, and not only moves up and down with quickness, but soon it becomes partly eovered with fine hairs like eyelashes, called cilia. The LESSONS OK OBJECTS 387 gemmide moves these cilia about quite rapidly, making a motion in the water, and starts off. As it swims, il looks as if it did not know what it wanted, nor where it was going. But its Creator knows, for He cares for it, and di'aws the little sponge geinrnule far away from the old sponge, that it may live in another place, and so spiead the good of its existence over the sides and bot- tom of the sea. If two of these gemmides happen to meet and to touch each other, they instantly stop moving their cilia. The next moment they turn themselves round, and then off they go on their way through the water. After wan- dering about for some three days, the gemmide seems to become tired of roaming, and settles down upon some piece of rock, or shell, or wood, and begins to fasten the smaller end of its body to this hard substance. The place where it settles thus becomes its home as long as it lives. While this gemmule is making itself fast to the rock, its cilia keep the water around it in motion ; but in a few hours after it has fixed itself tight, these cilia become quiet, and this jelly-like animal lies down flat on the rock. Soon after the gem^mule has become quiet, a great number of dark spots may be seen floating in its clear little body. These dark spots are the fibres of the sponge beginning to grow in the live jelly. These fibres are made of silex, lime, glue, and albumen, which substances are drawn into the body out of the sea- water. These little spots of sponge soon join together like a net-work, and make a sort of frame-work or skeleton for the live jelly to rest upon. As the sponge's frame-work grows in the gemmide, its live jelly grows too, and the 888 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. jelly fills all the tubes and holes of the sponge, and even covers quite over the outside of the sponge. When the jelly is much grown, a great many fine spikes are sometimes seen to shoot out of the sides of the sponge tubes. It is supposed that these fine spikes are made to grow m the inside of the tubes, to prevent the weight of t.je growing sponge from pressing too heavily upon the live animal jelly. All ai'ound that part of the sponge which is fastened on the rock you may see a clear rim of jelly spread out; and when two sponges grow so near each other that these rims toucli, they immediately grow together, and make one lump of sponge. Persons have tried to take hold of the living jelly of the sponge, in order to see what it is like ; but they are always disappointed, for as soon as it is taken oft' tlie sponge, it turns into a kind of thick oil or glue, and soon dries up. As the sponge grows on the rocks, it throws up many round or cone-like heads, with large holes at the top. The sides of the sponge are full of little holes or pores. It is by these little holes that the sponge draws the sea- water into its substance ; and after letting the water run through the whole mass of its body, the living creature throws out wliat it does not want through the large holes at the top, and often sends this water out with such force as to cause it to rise up like a little fountain. These sponge animals are of many shapes, according to their species. Some grow like shrubs, some like \ases and tubes, and some like globes. All the sponges stick, so tight to the rocks upon which they are fastened that the dashing of the waves hardly ever tears them LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 389 off. In some places they are seen to cover cliffs and rocks; in other places their soft bodies line the walls of caves deep under the waters ; and sometimes they hang in drooping branches from the roofs of the cav- erns.* Sponge is found in the various parts of the ocean, but the strongest sponge is obtained from the Mediterra- nean Sea. When the sponge is taken from the water, the animal jelly soon dries up and crumbles to pieces. That which we call sponge is the frame-work, or soft bones of the animal. The inhabitants who live near the water where sponges grow are taught to dive for the sponge when they are children. They learn to remain under the water from o-.ie to two minutes at a time, pulling the sponges from the rocks, that they may bring them up to the surface and take them on shore. WATER. Talk with the children about what they can do with water ; also about the uses which people make of it. as for drinking^ cooking^ loashing^ etc. Lead them to ob- serve and tell how it> looks, as deai\ transparent ; also that it is cool^ tasteless, colorless, and inodorous — it has no smell; that it will^ot^ in drops and 2^e^, conse- quently is a liquid ; that it can not be gathered up again when spilled ; that it soaks into the ground, or dries up. Lead the pupils also to observe how the water comes from the clouds as rain; that some of it soaks into the * How the Sponge grows is from " The Observing Eye." 390 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. ground, and some of it runs away in little streams and flows into rivers ; that the rivers flow into the sea. Also that water flows from springs • that the streams from several springs unite and form a river. Lead them also to observe that water will turn into vapor or steam by heat, and become hard by cold ; that it is useful to move machinery and warm our houses when in the form of steam ; and valuable as ice in pre- serving various kinds of food during warm weather. At the close of the lesson, the outline on the black- board will appear somewhat as follows, viz. : , WATER. Qualities. Transparent, Tasteless. Colorless. Inodorous, Liquid. Will evaporate. " Freeze. Uses. Drinking. Cooking. ' Washing. Moving machinery and * warming houses. * Preserving food in summer. Where Obtained. From clouds, as rain, ' ' the ground, as springs and wells. " streams. " ponds and lakes- It is the most useful liquid, hence God provides it most abundantly. MILK. A lesson may be given on milk in a manner similar to the one on water. During this lesson these two liquids should be compared. The exercise on Milk should lead the children to consider the following prop- erties, which may be written on the blackboard as each one is talked about during the lesson ; LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 391 MILK. properties. Fses. Where Obtained. White. Making cheese. From cows; also frona Opaque. " butter. goats, ill Switzerland ; Liquid. Cooking. from reindeer, in cold Sweet. Drinking. countries ; from cam- Nutritious, Food for young animals. els, in hot countries. GLASS. Taking pieces of window-glass, and a tumbler, and Other kinds of glass, the teacher may lead the children to notice the principal qualities and uses of glass in a manner similai to that pursued in teaching transparency in the lessons on Qualities, Experiments may be had with the glass, and the pupils allowed to feel of it, and look through it, etc. Afterward questions should be asked somewhat like the following, to lead the pupils to consider all the important properties and uses of this material. Who will tell me something about glass ? " We can see through it." What word means ca?i be see7i through P " Transpa- rent." What else can you tell me about glass ? " It will break easily." What word means will break caiilj/ f " Brittle." What else can you say about it? "It is smooth." "It is thin." How do you know it is smooth and thin ? " By feel- ing of it." Who can tell more about glass? "It is used in#win- dows." 392 PKIMAIIY OBJECT LESSONS. Why do w(i p\it glass iii windows? "So we can see through." Suppose there were no windows in this room, coul^ you see what is in it? "No." What then must be in the room to enable you to see in it? "Light." How does the light get in this room? "It comes through the glass in the window." Then for what other purpose is glass used in win- dows besides seeing through? "To let the light in." Can you see through the door when it is closed ? Can you see through the blaokboard ? What is rndde of glass ? " Tumblers ; " Dishes ;" "Bottles;" "Beads;" "Mirrors;" "Inkstands." You have examined these pieces of glass, now you may tell me the names of the diiFerent kinds. " W^in- dow-glass;" "Flint-glass;" "Bottle-glass;" "Stained glass." Which is the flint-glass ? " The white, clear glass of which goblets are made." For what is stained glass used ? " For church win- dows." When the exercise is finished, the blackboard will con- tain an outline of the lesson somewhat as follows: GLASS. Qualities. Uses. Kinds. Hotv Made. Transparent. Windows. Window. Some kinds by melt Brittle. Tumblers Plate. ing sand ano pot Smooth. Dishes. Flint. ash together. Colorless. Bottles. Bottle. Stained. Mirrors. Stained. * Watch crystals. Inkstands. LESSONS' OX OBJECTS. 393 WOOL. What have I in my hand ? " Some wool." Where does wool come from ? " It comes from the back of sheep." How is the wool obtained from the sheep? "It is cut off with large shears." When is it cut off? "When the weather becomes warm in the beginning of summer." What is done with the sheep before the wooi is sheared from them ? " They are taken into a stream of water, or into a large tub into which clean water runs, and the wool is washed." Who can tell me of what use wool is to the sheep? " To keep them warm." Yes, wool is the sheep's clothing. Can the sheep make its own clothing? " No." Who gives the sheep their clothing ? " God ; He makes the wool grow." After the children have felt of a piece of wool, ask, How does the wool feel ? " Soft." " Warm." Because wool is soft and warm, it is very useful tor clothing, for it prevents the warmth of the body from passing away, and thus it keeps us warm. Here is a little water in this basin. I will place some wool in it. What do you observe ? " The water has disappeared ; the wool has sucked it up." What did we say of the sponge when we found that it would suck up water? "That it is an ahsorhenV What, then, may we say of wool ? " It is an absorb&nV* Why do we call any thing an absorbe^U f " Because it sucks up water or other liquids." 394 PRIMARY OBJECT* LESSONS. Squeeze the wool and then let go of it. WliuL do you observe ? " It is elastic.'''' What is the color of wool ? " White." Did you ever see a black sheep ? For what is wool used ? " For making cloth for coats, pantaloons, vests, and cloaks; for flannel, blankets, shawls, carpets, stock- ings, hats, etc." What is done with the wool when cloth is made of it ? " It is spun into yarn, and the yarn is woven into cloth."* You may now read what has been written about wool on the blackboard : WOOL. Qualities. Uses. Where, when, and how Obtained. Soft. Cloth for clothing. From sheep, when the warm Warm. Shawls. weather begins, after wash- Absorbent. Carpets. ing them, by shearing. Elastic. Blankets. Hats, etc. SALT. This substance may be presented by observation, ex- periment, and conversation, and the children led to con- sider the following qualities, uses, kinds, etc. Qualities. — Saline^ soluble, granular, sparkling, hard^ white. * The extent to which the teacher should lead the pupils to consider and describe the processes of manufacture of woolen goods must de- pend upon their age and their familiarity with the process employed. In a town where woolen goods are manufactured, it would be propel to extend tliis subject with the older pupils, so as to include the vari- ous processes of the manufacture of woolen goods. LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 395 Kinds. — Bock salt^ coarse salt^Jine or table salt, hay or sea salt. Uses. — Seasoning food^ preserving meat^ glazing earth enioare^ manure^ for animals. It is necessary to health and life. Where and how Obtained. — Rock salt is dug from salt mines in the earth. The salt used in the United States is obtained chiefly from springs and wells of salt water. Coarse salt is made by evaporating the water in shal- low vats, or tanks, by the heat of the sun. Fine or ta- ble salt is made by boiling the brine in large iron kettles. The most extensive salt-works in this country are at Syracuse, New York. SUGAR. Proceed with this substance as with salt ; show speci- mens of it, experiment with it, talk about it, and con- sider the following properties, uses, etc. : Qualities. — Sweety soluble^fusible, sparkling, crumbling, brittle, nutritious. Kinds. — Brow?i sugar, loaf sugar, powdered sugar, crushed sugar, maple sugar. Uses. — To svjeeten food and drinks, as cake, pie, pud- ding, tea, coffee, etc. To preserve fruit. From what Obtained. — Chiefly from sugar-cane ; some from maple-trees. It may be obtained from some kinds of beets ; also from sorghum. GLUE. By suitable observation and experiments, lead the children to consider the following • 396 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Qualities. — Hard^ soluble m hot water^ sticky or ad^ hesive, tenacious^ brown color. Uses. — To join pieces of wood together^ to bind books, A weak solution of glue, called size^ is used in white* wash to prevent it from rubbing off. Glue is used by carpenters, cabinet-makers, etc. Where Obtained. — From hoofs and skins of animals. Some fine kinds are obtained from parts of fish. Kinds. — Gelatine is a kind of refined glue, used in cooking. Ismglass is the finest kind of glue, obtained from the air-bladders offish, and is used for jellies, etc. GUM ARABIC. Qualities. — Semi-transparent^ hard^ soluble^ adhesive, yellowish color^ inodorous^ i}isipid taste. Uses. — For sticking thin articles^ as postage-stamps, envelopes, etc. ; for mucilage ; for making iyik y for stiffening crape^ bonnets of straw, etc. Where Obtained. — From the acacia-tree, which grows in sandy regions in the East Indies and in Airica. It is the gum of the tree, and oozes out of the bark during the hot weather, as gum oozes out of the plum, cherry, and peach trees in this country. It becomes hard by exposure to the air. CORK. Qualities. ^ — Light, soft, compressible, elastic, inflam^ mable. Uses. — Stoppers for bottles, life-preservers, floats for flsh-7iets, inner soles of shoes, etc. What it is and where Obtained. — Cork is the outer LESSONS ON OBJECTS. .SO*? bark of an evergreen-tree that resembles a kind of oak. The cork-tree grows in Spain, Portugal, southern part of France, in Italy, and the northern part of Africa. This tree lives to a great age. When fifteen or twenty years old, it is customary to commence peeling off the outer bark This is done in July or August. Tlie bark is cut lengthwise of the tree, and a blunt instrument in- serted under the bark to peel it off. Care is taken not to injure the inner bark. The outer bark may be re- moved once in six or eight years. The bark is slightly charred on one side, then pressed out flat. It is cut up for stoppers of bottles, and other uses, by hand, with a sharp, thin knife. This knife is sharpened on a board by one whet or stroke on each side of it after every cut. It must also be frequently sharpened on a stone. Corks for bottles are cut lengthwise of the bark, so that the pores will all extend across the cork. Other Objects. — Lessons may also be given, during the second stage, on the following objects : India-rubber, Coal. Blotting-paper, Wax. Blackboard crayon. Putty, vvhaleboneo Alum. Honey. Starch. Honev-coma JBread 398 PRIM All V OBJECT LESSONS. LESSONS ON OBJECTS. THIRD STAGE. Suggestions for Teachers. — During the lessons in this staga ,f draining, the pupils may be led to analyze objects more completely, xnd to consider their adaptation to the purposes for which they are commonly used. The examination of the several objects, and the observation of their various properties, should be performed by the children as for as pos- sible. Lead them 1o notice the qualities, but do not tell the puj)ils of the existence of those wliich they can readily discover. Only a few lessons will be drawn out in this stage, to suggest the general plans of giving tliem. Other objects will be mentioned, with their most prominent qualities, leaving the teachers to supply the ex- ercises in experimenting, talking about the object, and questions for the pupils relative to its qualities, uses, etc. LEATHER. Children, you may tell me what I hold in my hand "Pieces of leather." You may look at these pieces of leather, and feel of them, and then tell me what you observe. " One side is black, and the other is a light brown," " It is smooth." Is it smooth on both sides ? " The black side is smoother than the brown side." " Some are yellow." "Some pieces are red." "Some are white." What can you do with it? "Bend it — it is flexible.''^ Why do you say it is flexible P "Because it may be easily bent." What could you do with paper? "Tear it." Try to tear the leather. " We can not tear it." Why ? LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 399 "Because it is tough." When do you say a thing ia toughs "When it can not be torn easily." You say this leather is smooth, flexible, and tough ^ take it between your thumb and finger, and see if you can observe any thing more of it. "It is thin." "It is light." How did you discover that leather is smooth, flexi ble, tough, thhi, and light f " By feeling it." Now shut your eyes. What is near your face^* "Leather." Did you see the leather while I held it near your nose ? " No.;' How, then, did you know that I held it there ? " We could smell it." What, then, may you say of leather ? " It has a smell." What do we say of any thing that has a smell ? " It is odorous^ What, then, may we say of leather ? " It is odorous." How did you find out that leather is odorous ? How did you find out the color of the leather? " By looking at it." What qualities did you find out by feeling ? For what is leather used? Are you Avearing any thing made of leather ? Why is leather good for shoes ? "It is tough." Can you think of any other reason w^hy it is good for shoes ? " It is flexible." " It is thin and light.''' Paper is thin and light ; why would it not make good shoes ? " It would not keep out ^vater.'' Now we have found out a very important reason why leather is good for shoes : it keeps the w^ater from our feet. Because it will keep out water so well, we say it is vjctter-proof. Who will now tell me several reasons why leather is 400 PKIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. good for shoes? "Because it is tough^ flexible, thin^ light, and umter-proof.''^ Observe this piece of leather when I put it in the fire. " It frizzles up." " It has a very unpleasant odor." Do you remember what happened when I put the paper in the fire? "It was soon burnt up." That, you remember, was made from a vegetable — a plant. Leather is an animal substance, and when it burns it frizzles up and gives out a disagreeable odor. Who can tell me whei'e we get leather? Is it dug from the ground ? " No; it is the skin of an animal." Can you mention some animals, the ^kins of which are used for leather ? " The cow, the calf, the horse, the sheep, the dog, the hog." Does the skin of either of those animals look like this leather? What is the difterence ? "Their skins are covered with hair." What must be done to them in making leather? '' The hair must be scraped ofi", and the skin tanned." After talking with the children about the process of tanning leather, and the several kinds that are made, the teacher may require the pupils to read what has been written on the blackboard during the lesson : LEATHER. Kinds. Qualities. Uses. Hoio Obtained. Upper. Smooth. Boots. From the skins of the Sole. Various colors. Shoes. cow, ox, horse, calf, Calfskin. Flexible. Gloves. goat, sheep, hog, Cowhide. Tough. Harness. ani other animals, Morocco. Thin. Reins. which are tanned Kid. Light. Saddles. with an astringent Harness. Odorous. Trunks. bark, then dressed Chamois. Water-proof. Pocket-books. and colored for use. LESSONS ON OBJECTS. 401 WIND. Sometimes we hear a low, roaring sonnd out of doors; sometimes a whistling sound ; sometimes the windows rattle, and the shutters slam, and the limbs of the trees move back and forth, and the leaves rustle. Can you tell me the cause of these sounds and movements? "The wind." Did you ever see wind ? You can not see wind, and how do you know that it is the wind that makes these sounds, and causes the leaves of trees to move ? " We can hear it." " We can feel it." How do you feel wind ? " We feel it move." What is wind ? Can you tell me what air is V " Something that we breathe." Yery good. Wind is air in motion. What Wind does. — Who can tell me what wind does ? "Moves trees." "Rustles leaves." "Makes clouds move." " Makes kites fly." "Makes ships sail." '-Whis- tles." "Throws dust in our eyes." "Blows hats oif«" "Blows down signs." " Breaks umbrellas," etc. Kinds of Wind. — Sometimes the air is so quiet that we can not feel it move, then we say it is a calm. Did you ever feel a gentle wind? That is called a breeze. Did you ever feel the wind blowing so strongly that it carried away hats, and made it hard to walk ? What would you call such a wind ? " Jl strong wind.'''' " A hard wind.'''' " A high wind.^^ Yery good. Such strong winds sometimes do great damage to ships. 26 402 PKIMAliV OBJECT LES80NS. Did you ever hear of a violent storm of wind that tore down barns, and houses, and fences, and trees? Such a wind is called a hurricwne. Did you ever have a whirling wind lift your hat from your head and whirl it up in the air along with dust from the street ? What would you call such a wind ' '"'A whirlwindP Sometimes whirlwinds are very violent, and move rap- idly, and destroy all that comes in their way. These are called tornadoes. Winds often do much damage, ytt they are very use- ful. They move the clouds to bring us rain ; they move ships across the lakes and over the sea; they dry our clothes, and dry the mud in the roads ; they help to ripen grain; they purify the air; they scatter seeds; they cool the air. You may now read what I have written on the black- board about WIND. It is air in motion. What it does. Kinds of Wind. Moves the leaves of trees, No wind — calm. grass, and grain. Light " — oi-eeze. Makes kites fly, ships sail, Hard " — strong wind. clouds move, waves dash Violent " — hurricane. on shore. Whirling " — whirlwinds It whistles, blows hats oif, Rapidly whirling " —tornado. breaks umbrellas, and blows down signs, build- ings, and trees. Winds are useful in many ways — to bring rain, cool the air, purify the air, move ships, dry our clothes, etc. LESSOJSS ON OBJECTS. 403 I I WAFERS. Show the children wafers of various sizes and colors. Lead them to notice their lightness, brittleness, shape, color, adhesiveness when wet, etc. Then they may be requested to find out and tell their uses. Afterward the teacher may tell the pupils that wafers are made of a thin paste of flour and water, and colored loith paint ; that the paste is poured into smooth iron pans which shut together something like waflOie-irons, but so closely as to press the paste into very thin sheets ; these wafer- pans are then held over a charcoal fire, and the paste is baked in them. The pans are greased before the paste is poured in to keep the wafer from sticking. Several of these large wafer sheets are placed iti a pile, and the wafers are cut out iHth circular punches. Illustrate the process of cutting by talking with the children about cutting dough into cakes with a cake-cutter, or a punch for cutting holes in leather or tin. Tell them that the paint used for coloriyig is poison- ous / hence we must not eat wafers, nor hold them in the mouth. When the lesson is finished, the blackboard may con- tain something like the following : Shnpe and Qualities. Circular. Thin. Smooth. Glossy. Brittle. Adhesive Of various colors. Poisonous. WAFERS. Uses. How Made. Fastening letters ; also Made of thin flour for seals after names paste, colored with of persons signed to paint ; pressed and deeds and other le- bakedin smooth iron gal documents. pans ; cut out with circiUar punches- 404 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. LEAD Show the children pieces of lead in sheets, bars, pipe, bullets, etc. By experiments, lead them to observe its properties ; and talk with them about its uses, where found, how obtained, and tell them such facts as they can not readily ascertain. Afterward the pupils may be required to tell all they can about lead, under the guidance of the teacher, and the names of the several properties, uses, etc., may be written on the blackboard as they are observed and described by the pupils. Care should be taken not to allow one or two pupils to do ail the talking; encourage each one to tell something about the lesson. What can you say about lead. " It is heavy. I know this by lifting it." " It will sink in water. I know this by experimenting." " It is soft. I know this because it is easily cut, or scratched, or dented ; also because it will mark on paper." "It is softer than any other metal." ''^ It is pliable. I know this because it is easily bent." "It IS fusible. I know this because it melts in firCo" " It is malleable. I know this because it can be made into thin sheets by pounding it." For what is lead used ? " For water-pipes." " Bullets and shot." " Lining tea chests." " For solder, by mix- inof it with tin/' " On roofs of houses, for abutters, etc." Where is lead obtained ? " From lead mines in the earth." What is it called when dug out of the earth ? " Lead ore." " It is smelted in furnaces, to separate it from the earth." What are those called who work with lead ? " Plumb- LESSONS ON OBJECTS. . 405 The principal facts of the lesson should be read from the blackboard by the pupils. Similar lessons may be given on iro?i^ copper^ silver^ gold^ etc. Iron. — Qucdities. —Il2ivdi, ductile, tenacious, mallea- ble, fusible, heavy. Uses.—Yov stoves ; cooking uten- sils ; made into steel for knives, and forks, and tools ; used for railroads, car-wheels, wagons, houses, bridges, boats, etc. Where found. — In the earth. Called ore. Smelted in large furnaces. Fire very hot. Iron, when converted into steel, exceeds in hardness other metals. It is more ductile than gold, and may be drawn into a wire as fine as Juiman hair. It is the most tenacious of the metals ; a wire of one tenth of an mch in diameter will support 550 pounds. In the state of steel it is the most elastic of metals. It is also the most useful of metals. Copper. — Heavy, tenacious, sonorous, fusible, ductile, malleable, poisonous. It is eight times heavier than water. A wire one tenth of an inch in thickness will support 300 pounds. It is the most deeply sonorous of all the metals. It is more easily melted than iron. It is used for printing pictures ; for printing caUco ; for making brass, by mixing zinc with it ; for bronze, by mixing tin with it ; for making bells, gongs, etc. Silver.— Heavy, ductile, malleable, tenacious, fusible, brilliant, reflective, not affected by common acids. Silver is about eleven times heavier than water. It can be drawn into the finest wire. It can be reduced to an extreme thinness A wire of silver one tenth of an inch in thickness will support 200 pounds. (Jold.— Heavy, malleable, ductile, tenacious, fusible^ brilliant. Gold is considered a perfect metal, because it does not change ncr 406 PRIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. bse any of its weight when melted. It is nineteen times heavier than water. It is the most malleable of metals : a piece of gold of the size of a pin's head may be hammered out so as to cover a space of fifty square inches. It is so ductile that one dollar can be drawn out into a wire that will reach nearly two miles. Its tenacity is much less than that of iron. A wire one tenth of an inch in diameter will support 160 pounds. Other Lessons on Objects may be given during this stage upon Whalebone, India-rubber, Camphor, Cotton, Linen, Silk, Mirror, Snow and Ice, Brass, etc. The teacher may also write on the blackboard the following heads, and the pupils be required to ascertain and give appropriate informa- tion to be written under each, as : What may be seen in a farm-yard. Materials used for building. Materials used for furniture. Tools used by a carpenter. Tools used by a shoemaker. What may be bought at a hardware store. How to air the house. Things made of iron. Things made of wood. Things made of feather. Things made of glass. Things made of India-rubber. Things made of wool. What farmers plant. What farmers sow. Grains that farmers raise. Kinds of fruits. Kinds of nuts. Kinds of vegetables that we eat. For Advanced Lessons on Objects, Plants, Minerals, and common Substances ; on Trades and Occupations; and Graded Lessons on Animals, with Information, and Suggestions for the Teacher, see Man- ual of Object Teaching. HUMAN BODY. ' A healthful body and a vigorous mind, A countenance serene, expanded chest, Heroic stature, and a temperate tongue.' An examination of the Human Body ever awakens feelings of wonder in each observer, as it did when the divine psalmist exclaimed, " I am fearfully and wonder- fully made." One of the most curious and remarkable things in the world is the house that each human being lives in — the body. A knowledge of its frame- work, its parts, the uses of each, and how to keep it in good con- dition, is of the greatest importance to every one, and especially so to the young. When lessons on the Human Body are properly pre- sented, it becomes not only an appropriate object of ex- amination and study for children, but one of the most important and interesting subjects that claim their at- tention. These lessons are valuable for leading chil- dren to habits of taking a proper care of their bodies, as well as for the knowledge which they impart, as a foun- dation for a subsequent study of physiology. These lessons will furnish suitable opportunities for correcting any vague and imperfect notions which chil- dren may have acquired about their bodies, and for giv- ing them suitable terms for description ; also for pre- paring them to understand many wonderful details in the modification and adaptation of the organs of ani- 408 nilMAJiY OBJECT LESSOJ^^S. mals to their peculiar habits, propensities, and locali- ties. The summaries given in the following exercises, whicb appear in smaller type, are intended to be repeated by the pupils, to aid them in remembering the facts taught in the several lessons on the Human Body; but in no case should a summary be presented to the pupils be- fore they have been taught the facts which it contains by a training exercise. It is just that I should state that these summaries were prepared, nearly as given here, by Miss Margaret W. Lewis, the teacher for object lessons in the Primary Department of School No. 49, in this city, for the classes of that school. The success of these lessons, as given by Miss Lewis during the past two years to some two thousand children, between the ages of six and ten years, led me to make arrangements with her to incor- porate the summaries into a series of training lessons on the Human Body, in place of those given in the for- mer editions of this work. Miss Lewis also furnished some of the material for the training lessons. I trust that these exercises can be readily given by teachers and that thev will be fo and interesting and prohtaole. THE HUMAN BODY. 409 TRAINING LESSONS ON THE HUMAN BODY. FIRST EXERCISE. The Human Body as a Whole. — The lessons on the Human Body may be introduced by means of conver- sations about our bodies — those of children and of grown persons ; what children can do ; what men and women can do; also about houses as places to live in; then about the body as the house of the soul. Talk about the building of houses, their frames, and coverings. Afterward request the children to feel of the face, arms, etc., and then tell of what their bodies are built. Some will probably say, " Of bones." What covers the bones ? " Flesh." What covers the flesh ? " Skin." Of what, then, may you say the frame of your body is built? "Of bones." With what is your body covered ? " With flesh and skin." You may say. My body is built of bones, covered with flesh and skin. I will print this on the blackboard, and you may read it. SECOND EXERCISE. Part£ of the Body. — The teacher can best illustrate the principal parts of the body by showing a doll to the class. Let the pupils name and tell the position of the head, the neck, the body or trunk, the arms, the hands» 410 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. the legs, and the feet, as each is pointed out by the teacher. An appropriate conversation should be had about these parts, and the children led to point out and name the same parts of their own bodies. One pupil may stand before the class, and point out each of these parts as the teacher names them. Then the class may name them as the pupil points them out in the same order as before. When a sufficient variety of exercises have been had^ and the pupils can readily point out and name all of these parts, in order and out of order, and have learned to know their right and left hands, etc., the teacher may print on the blackboard, for the pupils to read, the fol lowing: PARTS OF MY BODY. The parts of my body are my head^ my neck, my trunk, my arm\s^ my hands, my legs, my feet. As the children repeat the above, let them touch each part as it is named by them. THIRD EXERCISE. Breathing. — The teacher may take a deep, full breath, and request the children to stand up and imitate her, When they have repeated this several times, ask them what they have been doing. " Breathing" will be the answer of some. Do we breathe all the time ? " Yes." Do you breathe when you are asleep ? If the children can not answer, tell them to watch their baby brother or sister when it is asleep. If you should stop breathing, what would happen ? " We would die." THE HUMAN BODY. 411 Now let the pupils repeat the full breathing, and lead their attention to the dra'clng in and throwing out of something, which they may feel by holding the hand before the mouth. Ask them what they call that which they feel blowing upon the hand ? Some of the chil dien will say "Wind." Tell them that wind is only air moving. Also talk about aii-, and lead the children to understand that we take it into the body when we draw in the breath, and that we throw out the air again, then take in more, and so on. Now who can tell me what you breathe through? "The mouth." "The nose." You may hold your hand on your chest, between your arms, and take a full breath. Now where does the air go that you take in when you breathe? "In the trunk." " In my body." " In my chest." The teacher may now tell the pupils something about the windpipe and the lungs, and that the lungs are our breathing machines. When the pupils appear to under- stand these facts about breathing, they may be required to read the following from the blackboard ; BREATHING. I breatlie through my nose and my mouth, and take the air into my lungs. FOURTH EXERCISE. The Blood. — Children, if you prick your finger, what ♦vill flow out? "Blood." If you cut your foot, what will flow from it? "Blood." If yon scratch your face, what will flow from it? *' Blood."- 412 PRIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. Where is the blood in your body? "In all parts of it." "All through it." Where do you think the blood comes from ? " From the head," some may answer. Now place your right band on your left side. What io you feel? " Something beats." " 1 feel my heart." Show me how it beats by moving your hand. Now tell the pupils that every time the heart beats it throws out blood, which passes through tree-like pipes or tubes to every part of the body. When does the blood flow through the body? "When the heart beats." Does the heart beat when we are asleep ? " It does not." " It does." Correct the error of those who think the heart does not beat while we sleep by leading them to understand what would happen to us should the heart stop beat- ing. The pupils may now read the summary from the blackboard : THE BLOOD. The blood flows through my body all the time from my heart. It will now be proper to talk about blood being made from our food and drink ; of its flowing through the body, leaving something in every part of it to keep it alive and make it grow ; of its taking away the waste pai tides, and thus becoming impure, and needing to be changed or purified before it is fit to go through the body again. Tell the pupils that the impure blood goes into the lungs, and there meets the air that we breathe in, and that the air takes away the waste particles, and makes the blood pure, or freshens it, after which it re- turns to the heart, and is again sent all through the THE HUMAN BODY. 413 \,(>dy. Lead the children to understand the importance of eating wholesome food and breatlung pure air, that the blood may be in a good condition for building up the body. Now the summaries of the four exercises may be placed on the blackboard, and repeated by the pupilsj each one touching the parts mentioned. The whole subject may also be reviewed by questions; ABOUT MY BODY. My body is built of hones, covered with flesh and skin. The parts of my body are my head, my trunk, my arms, my hands, my legs, my /eet. I breathe through my 7iose and my mouth, and take the air into my lungs. The blood flows through my 6orf^ all the time from my heart. FIFTH EXERCISE. Head and its Parts. — Talk with the children about the head and its parts; where it is; its shape; what we do with it ; what it is covered with ; where the face IS ; which part we see most ; where the ears are ; what the top of the head is called ; about the nose, mouth, etc. ; and let the pupils touch each part as it is talked about. When the pupils have become familiar with the parts of the head, they may learn to repeat the following summary from the blackboard, at the same time touch- ing each part mentioned : THE HEAD. The parts of my head are the crown, the back, the sides, myjace, (tnd my two ears. 414 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. SIXTH EXERCISE. Face and its Parts. — Talk with the children about the face and its parts ; its shape, round, or oval, narrow part lowest down ; the forehead, the highest part of the face ; the temples on each side of the head, in front of the ears ; the eyes below the forehead, each side of the nose ; the nose in the middle of the face, long up and down ; the cheeks are each side of the face, soft and smooth ; the mouth below the nose ; the chin below the mouth, the lowest part of the face, pointed, some- times has a little hollow in it called a dimple. Teach the children that the face tells many things about us — when we feel happy, when we feel sad, when we feel ashamed, when we are good, and when naughty. Neck and Throat. — Talk with the pupils about the neck, to join the head to the body ; its shape ; how it can bend, and turn; the back of the neck, and the throat ; that the throat contains the windpipe and the food passage, etc. Let the pupils now learn the following summary from the blackboard, and touch each part mentioned : FACE AND NECK. The parts of my face are my forehead, my two temples, my two eyes, my nose, my two cheeks, my mouth, and my chin. The parts of my neck are the back of my neck, and my throat. SEVENTH EXERCISE. Trunk and its Parts. — Talk with the pupils about the back, its position, how it will bend; about the sides; THE HUMAN BODY. 415 about the chest, its use ; the shoulders, and their posi- tion on the sides of the trunk at the top ; the jirms, joined to each shoulder; the hands, at the end of each arm ; the legs, as two props on which the trunk rests, and which keep it up from the ground ; the knees, at the middle of each leg; the feet, at the end of each leg:, to enable us to stand. When the pupils have learned the position and names of these parts, they may learn the following summary from the blackboard, and tou^h each part : TRUNK. The parts of my trunk are my hack, ray two sides, my chest, my two shoulders, my two arms, my two hands, my two legs, my two knees, my two feet ; and now I am sitting erect. EIGHTH EXERCISE. Arms and the Parts. — Talk with the children about the arm, its use for reaching things ; lead them to no- tice its two parts joined at the elbow, and why it is better to have two parts than one, by illustrating the movements of the arm without bending it at the elbow. Request the children to bend their wrist and elbow joints in every possible direction. Show them the hinges on a box, or shutter, or door, and let them com- pare the movements of their elbow and wrist joints with those of the hinges ; then request them to tell what name may be given to these joints. Some children will say " Hinge-joint." Now let the children move the arm at the shoulder : tell them that the end of the upper arm is rounded like a ball, and that it fits into a hollow place or cup. Then ask, What name may be given to the joint at the shou^ 416 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. der ^ " Ball and cup joint" some will say. Tell theiu we call it a ball and socket joint . The pupils may now learn the follownig summar)^ from the blackboard : ARM. My arm has two parts and three joints ; my upper-arm and vcvjfon- tim ; my a/7rt of my hand.* The 6ac^- of my hand. Mvjingefs, my thmnb, my Jorejinger, my middle Jinger, my ring-finger, my litth finger. My knuckles, my finger-joints, my nails. The tips of my fingers, the veins, the ball of my thumb, and the lines where the flesh 's bent ♦ As this is spoken the children clap their hands. They also touch each part as it is mentioned by them. THE HUMAN BODY. 41 7 TENTH EXERCISE. jjeg and its Parts. — Talk about the parts of the lege and their uses when standing, Avalking, running, jump- ing, and sitting ; of their position, shape, etc. ; of the thigh, the upper part nearest the body ; of the knee, joiniiig the thigh to the lower leg ; of the knee-pan — its uses ; of the lower leg with two bones ; of the hip-joint — a ball and socket joint; the knee-joint; and the an- kle. Let the pupils now learn the summary of the LEG. My leg has iwo parts and three joints. My thigh, and my lower leg My hip-joint, my knee-joint, my ankle-joint. ELEVENTH EXERCISE. Foot and the Parts. — Talk with the children about the uses of the foot for standing, walking, running, jumping, and skating ; about the instep, the part in front of the ankle, top of the foot ; the toes, their num- ber, names, etc. ; the sole, the bottom part; the ball, the part on which the foot rests; the arch, or hollow, the part between the ball and heel ; the use of the toe- nails, to protect the toes, etc. These parts may be il- lustrated by showing a shoe. The summary of the lesson may now be learned : FOOT. My foot is used in standing, walking, running, jumping, and skat- ing. My instep, my ioes, the sole of my foot, the ball, the hollow, my '^£el, my toe-joints, and my toe-nails, which protect my toes. 27 418 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. TWELFTH EXERCISE. Review.— At this stage the teacher should carefully review the exercises on the Arms, Maud, Leg, Foot, and their parts, by questions, etc. Afterward the pupils may be taught to repeat the following SUMMARY OF THE LIMBS. My arm has two parts and three joints ; my upper arm, and my fore-arm ; my shoulder-joint, my elbow-joint, my wrist-joint. My hand is used in holding, throwing, catching, lifting, pulling, and feeling. The jsa/m of my hand, the back of my hand. My Jingers, my thumb, my for ejinger, my middle Jinger, my ring-finger, my little finger. My knuckles, my finger-joints, my nails. The ti])S of my fingers, the veins, the ball of my thumb, and the lines where the flesh is bent. My leg has two parts and three joints. My thigh, and my lower leg. My hip-joint, my knee-joint, my ankle-joint. My foot is used in standing, walking, running, jumping, and skat- ing. My instep, my toes; the sole of my foot, the ball, the hollow; my heel, my toe-joiyits, and my toe-nails, whicli pi'otect my toes. Suggestions for Teachers. — In each of these exercises, it should be distinctly understood that in the conversations liad with the pupils, the teacher should lead the children to observe and tell as much as possible about the subject under consideration. The point or fact which they should be led to notice is only briefly given in the exercise ; the teacher should lead the pupils to perceive these facts by conversa- tions and questions. Sometimes the severnl parts of the summary may be written on the blackboard as the lesson proceeds ; but in some of the exercises it may be found necessary to talk about each fact, and then review all by leading the pupils to tell what may be written on the blackboard about the lesson. N. B. — The twelve preceding exercises may be completed before the children finish reading in the Primer, or first reading-book. HONES Oh" THE HUMAN BODY. 4T.) LESSONS ABOUT THE BONES OF THE HUMAN BODY. FIRST EXERCISE. Names, Shape, and Number of Bones. — Let the chil- dren feel of their arms, liaiids, face, head, etc., and learn that all parts of the body do not feel alike ; that some are hard and some soft. Ask, What makes this differ- ence? "Bones." Let the children ascertain that there are bones r> everi/ part of the body — in the head, face, neck, shoul- ders, trunk, arms, hands, legs, feet ; also that the bones are not all in one piece ; that in some parts of the body a great many small bones are joined together. Lead the pupils to observe that the bones are of different sizes and shape, as the long bones of the legs and arms, the small bones of the hands, etc. That those of the skull are curved and cup-like; those of the shoulders, flat; those of the arm and legs, round like a cylinder. Tell the children that there are about tico hundred bones in the lohole Joc^y, besides the teeth ; that the face has fourteen bones; the ear has four little bones, \\\\\Q\i are the smallest bones in the body ; that the root of the tongue has one bone. Let the pupils notice that the lower jaw is hinged to the skull, at the back part of the jaw. Bones of the Trunk. — The children may now touch the back-bone, and the teacher give them its name — spine, writing it on the blackboard. In the same manner they may touch, and the teacher 420 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. give the name and write the word, as before, of the curved hones in the sides — ribs ; the upright hone i/i front of the chest — hreast-hone j the hones near the top of the hack — shoidder-blades y the hones crossing from the hreast-ho7ie to tlie shoulder-hlades — collar-bones. The pupils may now learn the summary of BONES IN HEAD AND TRUNK. My bones are hard ; they make my body strong, and keep it upright. There are more than two hundred bones in my body. The bones of my liead are my &kull^ my lower jaw. My face has fourteen bones. My ear has four small bones, and at the root of my tongue is one bone. The bones of my trunk are my spine, my ribs, my breast-bone, my two shoulder-blades, and my collar-bones. SECOND EXERCISE. Bones of the Arm and Hand. — Lead the children to notice that there is only one bone in the upper arm ; that there are two bones in \\\q fore-arm ; eight bones in the torist ; that from the wrist to the knuckles there are five bones in the hand ; two in the thumb ; three in each of the fingers., making nineteen bones in the hand. BONES OF ARM AND HAND. My xipper arm has one bone ; my fore-arm has two bones ; my wrist has eight bones ; from my wrist to my knuckles are five bones ; my thumb has two bones ; each Jimjer has three bones, making nineteen hones in my hand. [Here let the pupils point to and count the bones of the hand, commencing at the thumb knuckle, and ending with the lower bone of the little finger. J BONES OF THE HUMAN BODY. 421 THIRD EXERCISE. Bones of the Leg and Foot.— Tell the pupils of the one bone in the thigh, which is the longest bone in the body ; of two bones in the loicer leg ; of one bone over the hiee-]omt, called the knee-pan ; of seven bones, near the heel, in the foot ; of five bones in the middle of the foot ; of two bones in the great toe ; of three in each of the other toes ; and that the whole number of bones in the leg and foot is thirty. BONES OF LEG AND FOOT. My thigh has one bone ; my lower leg has two bones ; my knee-pan is one bone ; in my foot, near my heeJ, are seven bones ; in the middle of my foot are five bones. My great toe has two bones ; each of my other toes has three bones, making thirty bones in my leg and foot. Suggestions for the Teacher.— These exercises on the hones may be reviewed, and the several summaries taught together, as in the twelfth exercise. 'V\\q lessons abont the bones may be commenced before Uie pupils have finished their first reading-book. 422 PBIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. LESSONS ON THE OKGANS OF THE SENSES. FIRST EXERCISE. Introduction. — Talk with the children about the use.s of windows and doors to a house ; also about the win- dows and doors to the body — the house of the soul ; of the mouth, as the door for food and drink, and the taste of things to go in, and the voice to come out; of the nose, as the door where the breath goes in and comes out, and where the smell of things goes in ; of the ea)\ as the door where sounds go in ; of the eyes^ as the win- dows where the soul looks out, and sees the beautiful things in the world; of the eyelids^ as curtains for these windows. The Eyes.— Talk with the children about the uses of the eyes; of their shape — round like a ball; of their movements — as upward, downward, to the right, to the left. Illustrate the movements by requesting the chil- dren to hold their heads still and look down at the floor, then up at the ceiling, then to the right, then to the left of them. The teacher may look in this manner, and request the children to observe the movement of her eyes. Where children have an opportunity for observ ing the eyes of fowls and birds, let them notice that their eyes are placed on the sides of their heads, and that they do not move them around as we do ours. Thus lead them to see that our eyes are placed in the very best position for us. By showing a cube, cone, cylinder, and sphere, lead ORGANS OF THE SENSES. 423 the pupils to observe that the ball-shape is the best form for an eye. Tell them that the eyes are called eyeballs^ because they are round hke balls; also tell them of the great delicacy of the eye, and its need of protection. Lead them to notice how it is protected from injury by feeling of the forehead, the temples, the cheeks, and lose, thus observing that the eyes are placed in deep 3ups, or sockets of bones. Eyelids. — Let the children also notice and talk about the two eyelids^ that can be drawn up and down like curtains, or some window-blinds, and thus protect the eyes by shutting out the light when it is too strong ; also by covering them when we sleep, and keeping dust from getting into the eyes. Parts of the Eye. — To lead the children to observe the parts of the eye, let them look at each other's eyes, and notice the ichite of the eye, that part which is called the eyeball ; also the colored ring inside the white, called the iris ; that the ring is not of the same color in all eyes ; also to notice the small circular spot^ like a hole, in the centre. Tell the children that this black, circu- lar spot is the part that we see with ; that it is called the pupil of the eye; that the colored ring around the pupil is called the iris ; that it is a curtain to close and open the pupil ; that when the sun shines brightly this curtain draws together around the pupil and leaves a very small spot uncovered, so that only a little light can get in ; when we are in a room where there is but little light, this curtain opens and the pupil becomes large, so as to let in enough light to enable us to see. Request the pupils to observe the eyes of cats in a light room, also in a dark room, and notice the difference in the size of the pupils of their eyes ; also the shape of 424 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. their pupils. After the children have observed the cat'a eyes, talk with them about the use of their having j)u- pils that can be opened so wide as to enable them to see in the night. SECOND EXERCISE. The Tears.— The children may be told that the tears come into the eye-socket at the outer corner, and pass out at the inner corner of the eye into the nose ; that sometimes the tears flow into the eyes so fast that they can not all pass out through the small opening into the nose; then they run over the eyelids, and fall on the cheeks. Did your tears ever run over the eyelids? What made them do so ? To lead the children to understand the use of tears, talk with them about their mother using oil on her sewing-machine. Why does she use the oil on the ma- chine? "To make it go easily." "To keep it clean." " To keep it from wearing out." We are moving our eyes about nearly all the time, and they keep clean, and move easily, and do not seem to wear out by rubbing against the sockets. Can you tell me what washes your eyes, and oils them so that they move easily, and do not wear out ? " The tears." Yes, the tears keep the eye moist, and the eyelids wash it like a soft sponge. Eyelashes. — Let the children notice the hair-fringes along the edge of the eyelids, called the eyelashes ; tell them that these help to keep out the dust by brushing it away when we wink; that they also help to shield the eye from strong light ; and they make the eye more beautiful. ORGANS OF THE SENSES. 425 Eyebrows. — The pupik. may observe th<^ arches of hair, called eyebroios^ which project over the eyes some what like the eaves of a house ; and notice their crescent- like shape. Tell the pupils that these help to keep the perspiration which rolls down the forehead from get ting into the eyes; that the eyebrows conduct the per- spiration down the sides of the face ; that they also make the eyes and face appear more beautiful. Direct their attention to the wonderful structure of the eye; its beauty; its uses; how it enables us to gain knowledge; and the importance of taking care of our eyes. Ask the children, Who gave us our eyes, and placed them so that they may be preserved from injury ? Now request the pupils to assist in forming short sentences, which will tell what has been learned about the eye. Thus the following summary of the lessoi. may be placed on the blackboard, and learned by the children : THE EYE. I have two eyes to see with. They are like balls in deep, bony sock ets, which protect them from injury. The black chicle in rhe middk is the pupil or window of my eye. The colored ring around the pupil is the iris or curtain. The white part is the eyeball. My upper and lower eyelids cover my eyes and protect them from dust. My eyelashes are for beauty, and to brush the dust away from my eyes. My eye- brows keep the perspiration from rolling into my eyes ; and they arc also for beauty. My eyes are washed by tear-drops every time I winb my eyelids. To preserve my eyes, I must keep them clean and cool ; I must not read or sew in a fiiint light 126 PEIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. THIRD EXERCISE. ilie Ears. — Lead the children to observe the position of the ears, each side of the head ; their shape^ coricavt or dish-shape, to catch sounds ; of the outer edge, or rim y the y?ci!p, the lower, soft part, in which ear-rings are placed ; the opening or passage which leads to the place where the sounds are made, the drimi of the ear — a part which can not be seen, as it is about an hich from the outer opening. Tell the children that sounds are produced by waves of air striking against the drum of the ear, and that the hearing nerves^ inside the drum, receive the sound. Il- lustrate the waves of air by the circles formed on the surface of water when a stone is thrown into it. Tell them of the danger of injury to the drum by putting a pin or other hard substance into the ear. Call attention to the bitter vkix in the passage of the ear ; to its yellow color ; its use for keeping insects from going into the ears, it being so unpleasant that insects avoid it, and so sticky that they could not crawl through it ; that sometimes a great deal of this wax collects in the ear, and stops up the passage, and prevents the waves of air from going in to the drum ; that the ears should be kept clean. Also tell the children about the stiff hairs in the passage, and that the wax collects around the roots of these hairs. Now teach the pupils the following summary from the blackboard: THE EAR. My ears are to hear with. The rim of my ear ; the flap of my ear; ORGANS OF THE SENSES. 427 the drum of my ear. The drum of my ear is protected by short, stiff hairs, and by bitter wax about the roots of these hairs. To preserve my hearing, I must keep my ears clean, and not injure the drum with a pin or any thing else. FOURTH EXERCISE. The Nose— its Parts. — Lead the children to notice the position of the nose, in the middle of the face, over the mouth; of the bridge, or top; the point, or tip; the nostrils, the oval openings through which we breathe and smell ', the cartilage, Avhich separates the nostrils. Tell the pupils that the cartilage is like the white, tough substance seen in beef, called gristle. Tell them, also, that the inside of the nostrils ai-e lined with a spongy kind of flesh, and that just below the thin skin of this soft substance are the smelling nerves. Uses. — Let the children notice how easily we breathe through the nostrils, with the mouth closed ; the use of the sense of smell, to enable us to know whether our food is good or bad before putting it in the mouth ; to give us pleasure in smelling sweet odors ; of the use of the nose in making the voice agreeable. Now let the pupils learn the summary of THE NOSE. My nose is to smell and breathe with. It is in the middle of m> face. The bridge of my nose ; the ti]> of my nose ; my two nostrils ; the cartilage, which separates my nose into two parts. My nostrils lead to a passage back of tlie mouth, through which I breathe. I must not destroy my sense of smell by using snuff. 428 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSOKb. FIFTH EXERCISE. The Mouth— its Uses. — Talk about the mouth as the piace from which the voice comes ; of its use for eating and drinking, that the body may be sustained ; of its use for breathing when the nose is stopped. Parts of the Mouth. — Lead the pupils to notice the t'wo lips — the upper lip and the lower lip ; theii- shape^ curved and rounded ; and color, red ; their motion — up and down, out and in ; also that they are soft. Of the tongue ; its uses for speaking, eating, and drinking ; of its ,color and shape ; covered with little red dots ; that it is the organ of taste ; root of the Unigue, fastened in the throat, yet soft and flexible, and can be moved about easily ; of the teeth^ for chewing ; and the jaws, of which only the lower one moves when we eat ; and the gums, the flesh which covers the jaws. The following summary may now be learned of THE MOUTH. I use my mouth for speaking, eating, and breathing. My upper lip ,- my lower lip. In my mouth are my tongue, to talk with ; my upper teeth; my lower teeth; and my upper and loiver jaws, covered with flesh called gutns. SIXTH EXERCISE. The Teeth.^ — Direct the attention of the children to their teeth. Ask the pupils where they are ; how ar- ranged ; of what they are made ; tell them about the e?iamel — the white, hard substance which covers the teeth ; that eating unripe, sour fruit will injure the enamel. Lead the pupils to notice that their teeth are ORGANS OF THE SENSES. 429 tiot all alike ; that some are sharp for biting or cutting^ as the front teeth ; that some are pointed for tearing^ Uke those each side of the four cutting teeth ; that some are broad, for cliewing or grinding, like the back teeth. Let the children count the number of their teeth in each jaw. Tell them about the first set of teeth, those that came when they were little children ; how a new set of teeth grow under them, and push the first ones out. Lead the pupils to notice tlie difi*erence between their own teeth and those of cats and dogs. Tell them of the use of the teeth in talking. This may be illustrated by the use of the teeth in making some of the sounds of letters. Let the children now learn and repeat the summary for THE TEETH. My teeth are used in eating and talking. My teeth are covered with 'darnel. A grown person has four kinds of teeth — cutting teeth, tear- ing teeth, crushing teeth, and grinding teeth. In each jaw there are four front teeth, or cutters ; two tearers ; two crushers ; andyb?lace for my heart, lungs, and stomach. My ribs are curved, strong, and light. FOURTH EXERCISE. Shoulder-blades. — Let the children feel of the shoul- der-blades, and learn their shape— broad, flat, thin, and triangular ; and that the arms rest upon them. Collar-bones.— The pupils may also learn the position and shape of the collar-bones by touching them. Tell them that these bones form a kind of brace between the shoulder and the breast-bone, and keep the arms from going too far forward. The summary may now be taught for SHOULDER-BLADES AND COLLAR-BONES. My shoulder-blades are flat, thin, and of a triangular shape. They are for my arms to rest npon. My collar-bones are fastened to my shoulder-blades and my breast bone. They help support my arms, and keep them from moving too far forw^ard. FIFTH EXERCISE. Growth of Bones. — Talk with the children about young and old trees, how one may be more easily bent than the other : how the bones of children will bend, 28 434 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. while those of old persons break more easily ; thus leao tl>em to perceive the difference between the bones of children and those of grown people. Tell the pupils of the importance of standing and sit- ting erect, that their bones may grow in a proper shape ; and of the need of wearing loose clothing while youngs Bones made from Food. — Tell the children more about the making of blood from the food, and that the bones, as well as the flesh, are formed from the blood. Tell them also of the importance of eating good food, that good blood may be made, and the bones grow to be strong. Use of pure Air. — Call the attention of the pupils to what they have previously learned about the effects of air upon the blood, and then lead them to understand the importance of hrenthmg pure air, if they w^ould have healthy and strong bones. The teacher may now write the summary on t))e blackboard for the GROWTH OF BONES. The bones of old people are hard and brittle ; those of children are soft and flexible. / must sit and stand erect, that my bones may not be bent out of shape. I must not wear tight clothing, nor do any thing that will crowd my bones out of their places. My bones are made from my food, after it has been changed into blood ; so I must be careful to eat good, wholesome food, that my bones may be strong and healthy. I must not breathe impure air, becuuse it makes bad blood, and bad blood makes poor bones. Suggestion for Teachers. — This series of exercises may be commenced when the pupils are able to begin reading in a Second Reader. ■THE SKIK. 435 LESSONS ABOUT THE S K 1 I^, FIRST EXERCISE. Qualities of the Skin. — Talk with the children about the covering or skin of the sheep, cow, horse, cat, dog, birds, etc. ; then of the thin skin which covers our bod- ies. Let the pupils see that it is elastic^ by squeezing the skin of the hands and cheeks, and noticing that it returns to its shape again. Let them see that it h flex- ible, by bending the finger and by pinching the skin. Ask them what comes on the face and other parts of the skin in very warm weather. Tell them that the perspiration oozes from the skin through little holes called pores. Ask them what we say of any thing that is full of little holes. Tell them that we say the skin is porous, because it is full of little holes, through which the perspiration comes out. These pores are so small and so numerous that the end of the little finger, if placed on the hand or face, would cover hundreds of them. Parts of the Skin. — The children may now be told about the three layers of the skin — the outside, or cuti- cle, the inside or real skin, and the middle layer, or coU oring matter. Explain to them that the outside skin has no feeling ; that it is transparent ; that it is the part which rises when the skin is blistered ; that the cuticle is thicker in the palms of the hands, and on the soles of the feet ; that it becomes thick and hard by using the hand in work, to protect the true skin from injury. 436 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. Explain by suitable illustrations that the real skin is like net-work ; that it is composed of very fine blood- vessels and nerves, so numerous that we can not prick it with a sharp needle without touching some of the blood-vessels, and causing blood to flow out, nor with- out touching some of the nerves and causing pain. SECOND EXERCISE. Color of the Skin. — Call attention to the differences in the color of the skins of people of different countries, as of the Indian, Negro, Chinese, and others. Tell the children that between the cuticle and the real skin there is a very thin, jelly-like substance, which is spread all over the body ; that this substance is white in tliose whose skin is white, and black in the Negro, red in the Indian, and yellow in the Chinese ; that it differs in people as the color of their skins differ. Talk with the children about what happens after the skin is cut or scratched ; lead them to notice that when only the outside skin is scratched, it heals up^ leaving no mark or scar; and that a deep cut^ or burn, which destroys the real or inner skin, leaves a scar when it heals, because the inner skin will not grow again when once destroyed. Perspiration. — Teach the children that some of the waste or worn-out substances of the body ai-e always coming out through the pores of the skin, whether we feel the perspiration or not. Talk with them about the importance of washing the skin of the body to remove all this waste matter, and keep the pores open. Tell them also of the importance of wearing clean clothing, that the skin may keep healthy THE SKIN, 437 The pupils may also be told of the beneficial effects of pure air and sunlight. Illustrate this by the sickly appearance of plants that grow in cellars or dark places. It may be found desirable, in giving this lesson on the skin, to divide it into three exercises. Whenever the children understand the various facts presented about the skin, let the following summary be taught : THE SKIN. My skin covers my body. It is thin, elastic, flexible, porous, and absorbent. My skin has three pai'ts, or layers. The outer skin, or cuticle ; the inner, or real skin ; and the colored substance between them. My outside skin is not of the same thickness over my whole body. On the palms of my hands and the soles of my feet, it is very thick and tough. If my outer skin be destioyed, it will grow again ; but if my real skin is destroyed, it will never grow again. More than half the waste substance of my body passes from it through the pores of my skin in the form of perspiration. To preserve my health, I must keep my body clean ; I must Avear clean clothing ; T must breathe pure air, and live in the sunlight. For exercises in Physical Training, etc., see Manual of Object Teaching. MORAL TRAINING. " Simple thoughts of God and Christian virtues, impressed upon u* in early childhood, are never erased from memory or heart." " Train up a child in the way he should go" is not only Go^'s command to parents, but it is society's first demand on both teacher and parent. This training, too, is one of the first needs of the child's own nature. With it, happiness is within his reach ; without it, not only is his own happiness impossible, but he will inter- fere with the rightful enjoyment of others. This training should be commenced at home very early. As soon as emotion is exhibited by the child it may be biased by education. The impressions that ad- here longest to us, and are the deepest rooted, are those of which we remember not the origin — those which we imbibed unconsciously in infancy. The child's dispo- sition may receive during this period a strong bent to good. Then there are no obstacles to overcome ; noth- ing to unlearn ; the afi*ections are soft and pliable. If this period pass without moral training, the difliculties are greatly increased, the affections take a bent of theii* own. The great means of training the moral feelings is tj draw them out into action. A feeling without action is mere sentiment ; it does nothing. If we would cul- tivate kindness in children, we must show kindness in our deeds ; if reverence, we must exhibit the example MORAL TRAINING. 439 i)f reverence ; if we would develop ideas of justice, hon- esty, truthfulness, we must improve the opportunities of daily intercourse to exemplify them. It will be of little use to tell the child about rever- ence, justice, honesty, truthfulness, if these are never acted before it; it is only by acts that the child can know them. We have too much abstract teaching in morals, as well as in mental education. The law of ex- ercise is of universal application to moral and mental, as well as to physical training. And there is greater room for activity here than most of us at first suppose. The daily occurrences of the schoolroom, and the inci- dents of the playground, fui-nish opportunities for the most effective lessons in morals. To seize upon these opportunities, and to improve them in the right spirit, should be the earnest aim of every teacher. Let the golden rule be the key-note in moral train- ing; teach the children to do to others as they would have others do to them. This positive teaching is the characteristic feature of the morality of the New Tes- tament. This moral insti'uction should be commenced with the first day's attendance at school, and continued by practice and precept with every day's lessons, or in- cidents that furnish an appropriate opportunity. Much of this instruction may be most profitably given incidentally, without stated times for moral train- ing; yet there are first ideas of God, virtue, right, love to others, duty, etc., which might be taken up and pre- sented in regular succession for the development of sim- ple moral and religious truths as a foundation for future instruction. Children should be taught ideas of God as a hind fa- ther ; of God as the maker of all things ; oi an immor^ 440 PKIMAKY OBJECT LESSONS. ial mind ; oi conscierice ; oi truth ; o^ obedience ; ofiit- diistry y of clea7ili)iess / of order. And all of this train- ing should be simple, familiar, and free from technical phrases and formal teaching ; it should be chiefly illus- trated by examples and incidents from life. " Our Fa- ther, who art in heaven," uhould be the key-note of this instruction ; then love, reverence, and obedience to Him would have a real significance to the young. Let the fundamental ideas of religion be thus estab- lished in early childhood, and they will shine out clear- ly in future years, an anchor of rescue to the soul when happiness and life seem in danger of being wrecked by the billows of passion or avarice, oi- by evil habits. Simple moral truths thus early implanted in the heart have rescued many a noble youth from the whirlpool of corruption, when all other lessons of wisdom had been washed away by the wild waves of passion. A few lessons and subjects for lessons will suggest what course may be pursued in giving children ideas of God, of the soul, of conscience, of truthfulness, honesty, obedience, etc. For a more complete statement relative to the means and methods of developing the moral powers, and the formation of habits of right acting, see Manual of Ob- ject Teaching. GOD AS A KIND FATHER. 441 TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF GOD AS A KIND FATHER I WISH to talk with you, children, about those you love. Borne of you may love your mothers best, some your fa- thers ; some love your brothers, your sisters, and youi cousins. Those who would like to tell me whom you love best may hold up their hands. Very well ; you have told me whom you love best ; now who can tell me lohy you love one person better than any body else? Why do you love your mother best? Why do you love your father best ? Why do you love your sister ? Why do you love your brother ? What did your mother do for you before you came to school this morning ? What will she do when you go home ? If you are sick, or any one hurts you, to whom do you go and tell your trouble ? Who is pleased to hear that you have been a good child ? Who works to get money to buy your clothes, and food for you to eat? In this manner, by familiar conversation, the teacher should lead the children to talk freely upon the different acts which show the love of their friends, and endeavor to call out their warmest feelings of love and gratitude in return. Why do your parents thus feed and clothe you, and kiss you, and watch over you when you are sick ? Yes, because they love you. All of you have some kind friends who love and care for you. Now, children, listen very attentively, and I will tell 442 PRIMAEY OBJECT LESSONS. you about a Friend that you all have — one who is kind to all of you — one who loves you better than your fa- ther or your mother does — one who takes care of you at all times — one who watches over you when you are asleep as well as when you are awake ; for he never sleeps — one who is ready to give you all things you ask him for. Do any of you know who it is that I mean? This good friend is God. You can not see him, but he alw^ays sees you, and knows all about you. He tells us to call him Father because he loves us as a father. He is in heaven — he is our Father in heaven. Now tell me what kind, good Friend we all have? What does he tell us to call him ? Who is this good Friend ? Where is he ? What does he do for us ? How ought you to feel toward so good a Friend ? "Love him," What should you do in return for the many kind things which He does for you? "Thank him every, day." How should you act when you know what He desires you to do? "Obey him." The teacher may now write on the blackboard, and require the pupils to read and learn the following : God is our Father in heaven. He loves ics^ and takes care of KS. We ought to obey Him., and love Him., and tha7ik Him every day. The teacher should aim to impress the children witli a feeling of reverential love to God. This love may be awakened by bringing the affection to their parents into lively exercise, and then directing it to their heavenly Father; their reverence may be awakened by makii>g them feel that God is far above us in heaven; though GOD AS THE MAKER OF ALL THINGS. 443 invisible to our eyes, that he still cares for and watches over us day and night — that he is our heavenly Father. Much of the effect of these lessons will depend upon the manner and feeling with which they are given. They should be so conducted as to call into exercise the emo- tions and moral feelings of the children. TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF GOD AS THE MAKER OF ALL THINGS. Let us have a talk to-day about making different things that you wear and see about you. Who made your shoes for you ? Who made your dress ? Could things make themselves ? No, it would be very silly to think they could. Who made the bread you eat ? Could the bread make itself? Other questions should be asked, leading the children to see that things must have a maker, and that they 30uld not make themselves. Can your father make any thing? Here allow the children to talk about what their different fathers can do. The art of the teacher is first to call but the mind and heart into activity, and then to direct the thoughts and feelings. You can tell me who made your shoes, your clothes, and the bread you eat, but I want to talk about some- thing much more beautiful than these, and see if you can tell who made them. You have all seen the sun. How brightly it shines ! It warms us and gives ua 444 PKIMARY OBJECT LESSONS. light. Can any of you tell me who made this beautb fill sun ? " It was God who made the sun to warm us and give us light and heat." What did God make? Why did he make the sun ? What did I tell you about God the other day ? All of you may repeat it together. " God is our Father ht heaven ; He loves us, and takes care of us. We ought to obey Him, ayid love Him, and thank Him every day.'''' What has God made ? " God made the beautiful sun that warms us and gives us light." If there were no sun you could not see. It would also be cold, and nothing would grow. God is good, then, to give us the sun. Who made the sun ? For whose good has God made the sun ? What good is it to us ? "It gives us light and warmth, and causes the grain to grow." God makes all the trees, and plants, and flowers grow ; He made all the animals and birds ; and He made us also. Now let us think what He has given us. How do you know what is in this room? "We can see the things." What do you see with ? " Our eyes." Who gave you eyes? How do you know I am talking to you? "We can hear you." With what do you hear? " With our ears." Who gave you ears ? How do you know that fur is soft and iron hard? "By feeling them." Who gave you feeling ? How do you know that sugar is sweet and lemon sour? " By tasting them." GOD AS THE MAKER OP ALL THINGS. 445 Who gave you taste ? How do you know tliat the rose has a pleasant odorl "By smelling it." Who gave you smell ? 'Now all these things give you pleasure ; it is pleas ant to see, and hear, and feel, and taste, and smell ; and these things should make you happy, and make you love God for giving you so many senses to add to your hap- piness. How should you feel toward God for giving you al! these good things ? " We should love Him and thank Him." The teacher may write on the blackboard, and re- quest the pupils to read, the following : God made the sun to give us light and heat^ and cause the grass, andfloicers^ and grain, and trees to groin He made the birds and aoiimals, and made us also. He gave us our eyes, and ears, and taste, and smell, and feel mg. For all these we should love Him, 446 PlilMAliY OBJECT LESSONS. TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF THE SOUL* Children, have cats, dogs, horses, and cows bodies ? '-' Yes." Can they see ? and hear ? and taste ? and smell ? and feel? Can they talk? Have they flesh, and blood, and bones, and skin? Are their bodies like yours ? Who gave them their bodies ? " God." Who gave them taste, and feeling, and sight, and hearing? "God." Are the bodies of animals like your bodies ? How many legs have you ? How many legs has the dog ? Has the dog arms ? Has the dog hands ? No, the dog has legs instead of arms. Your skin is smooth ; with what is the dog^s skin covered ^ Is the cat's body like yours ? Is the chicken's body like yours ? How many legs has the chicken ? Has the chicken feet like yours? With what is the cat's body covered? What covers the chicken's body? What has the chicken in the place of arms, or two legs? Who gave bodies to dogs, horses, cows, chickens, and flies ? Who keeps them alive ? * In a little volume entitled " Peep of Day,'' published by the Amer- ican Tract Society, ideas of the body, of God as a father^ and of the soul, are admirably drawn out in simple illustrations for children. We are chiefly indebted to that volume for this lesson on the soul. We can not do a better service in illustrating how to proceed in moral training than by commending that book to leacbers and parents. IDEAS OF THE SOUL. 447 Can a dog or a horse thank God ? No ; dogs, and horseSj and cows, and chickens can not thank God-, they can not think of God. They never heard of God. They can not understand about God, because they have no soids, or minds, like yours. Your soul can think of God, and thank him for all that he does for you. It often tells you u'hat is right and tohat is lorong. If you had no soul or mind you could not learn to read and write. You could not learn about God and all the beautiful things that He made for us. Your soul will never die. It is the best part of you. Your body is made of dust. God made the dust into flesh, and bones, and blood. Your soul is made of the breath of God. Some day the dog will die, and its body will be thrown away. The dog will be quite gone when its body is dead. But when your body dies your soul w:ill still live; it will go back to God w^ho gave it. Your body will decay, and turn to dust again ; but your soul will live forever ; it will never die. It is your soul that thinks ; if we wish to make any thing, we can think how to make it, and then use the tools to make it. If we want more tools we can make them too. Birds can build nests, but they can not use tools, nor make any thing except what God taught them to do. Animals can learn a few" things, but children can learn a great many things. The teacher may write on the blackboard, for the pupils to read, as a summary of the lesson — God gave each of us a body, and placed in it a soul The soul is that part of us ichich tJiinks^ and will ?ievei die. 448 PRIMARY OBJECT LESSON.^, In a manner similar to that pursued in these lessons^ the teacher may proceed to develop ideas of Conscience^ right and wrong; of self-control, gentleness, truthful- ness, honesty, kindness to others and to animals ; of obedience, punctuality, order, cleanliness, industry, etc. Ample illustrations will occur to exhibit what is meant by right and wrong; and the pupils should frequently be called upon to decide in simple cases which is the one and which the other. A little volume by Jacob Abbott, " Learning about Right and Wrong," will be useful in suggesting how to give these lessons. Illustrate the unkindness of calling names, and of mocking the aged or infirm ; of pinching and teasing each other ; and train children to understand the im- portance of forming (^ojc? habits, and the danger of form- ing bad ones, in childhood. Finally, take the examples of the Great Teacher as a model. Observe how He selected familiar scenes and objects to illustrate His truths. Study His methods, seek His guidance, accept His promises, and success and happiness will be the crown. THE END.