iyS> - x^c* O. "^^ '% ^^ .-i\' .0 .''^ "*-., ■■> ""-C' "-^^ .V' p^%, -> \.0 ^^^^^ » A '^.. s.^ ^% ^%W: ,^:^^'^ cP N . V .„/v^ A ^ .# '"•^. " O N ■• ^ ^ o>' "°'o^r-.\'"^'v<-^^ ci- '' . ""IX,. ,-\^' PUTNAM'S HOME GTOLOPEDIA. HAND-BOOK Oy HRONOLOGY AND HISTORY. A DICTIONARY OF DATES: riTH TABULAR VIEWS OF GENERAL HISTORY, AND A HISTORICAL CHART. EDITED BY GEORGE P . P U T^ AM . NEW-YORK : GEORGE P. PUTNAM. 1853. Enter BD, according to the Act of Congress, in the j'ear 1850, by George P. PaxNAM, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for th*^ Southern District of New- York. John F. Trow, Printer and Stereotyper^ 49, 51 and 53 Ajin-st., N. Y. PEEPACE. While revising a chronological manual, in compiling whioli I hadj at the age of fifteen,* employed many midnight hours, I have found material assistance in the tables prepared by my late friend, D. A. Talboys, publisher, of Oxford, England, usually called the Oxford Chronological Tables. In the alphabetical part of the volume, the comprehensive and useful Dictionary of Dates, by Haydn.f has been incorporated almost entire, vpith such additions relating to the United States as were necessary to its completeness, and with continuations to the present year. The contemporary tables which I had formerly prepared, had cost much diligent application, and I was glad to find on collating them with the more recent works, that some slight additions only were needed to make them as full and complete as was desirable for the purpose in view, viz. : a convenient and portable volume for refer- ence, not over-burdened with details, but indicating to the intelligent reader all the great landmarks of history in their order of succession ; and showing also what was going on at the same time in different countries. To render this glance more comprehensive and clear, many of the details in the former tables are now omitted, as they are given more at large in the alphabetical part of the volume. To a reader of history the utility of such a glance at contempo- rary persons and events, is too obvious to need illustration : but while the more elaborate and ponderous works of Blair, Talboys, and * Chronclogy — An Index to Universal History. &c. 12mo. Leavitt, Now- York, 1833. The vokime has been long out of print. t Fourth edit. 8vo. Lond., 1847. That Avork needs no praise here. IV PREFACE. others, are available to the historian or the merely literary man, they are usually repulsive to the general reader, for the very reason that they contain too micch for ordinary purposes ; their very elaborate- ness serves to puzzle and to mystify. What is here aimed at is simply to indicate, in brief and sugges- tive terms, the succession of the prominent occurrences and of the governments in the chief nations of the world — enough merely to recall to the reader of history the full pictures of these events, and to enable him to classify them correctly in his memory. The aljjhabetical part of the volume gives, in most cases, more full and ample references to the same historical facts ; but still the whole work is but an index to the sources of knowledge — a Diction- ary of Dates. It has been planned so as to facilitate access to the largest amount of useful information in the smallest possible compass. There are some discrepancies among the authorities, as to names and dates — especially in the Middle Ages — and in some instances the dictionary varies from the tables ; but these instances are not numerous or important. The Biographical List at the close of the volume will contribute, it is presumed, to render the contemporary tables far more variously useful than would be at first supposed. By ascertaining from it the dates of birth and death of any eminent person, the tables will show at a glance what events happened, and what other eminent per- sons lived during the life-time of that individual. It would be superfluous to say more by way of explanation. That such a volume can be quite free from imperfections is not to be supposed ; but the compiler trusts that it will be found to answer all reasonable expectations, as a compact manual of reference to the World's Progress in Arts, Literature, and Social Life, as well as in Politics and Government. Gr. P. P. CONTENTS. TAEULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL fflSTORY, IN CONTEMPORARY COLUMNS, 1. ANCIENT HISTORY. Period I. — The Antediluvian (1656 years) ... .8 Period II.— Dispersion of Mankind (427 years).— The Deluge to Abraham 4 Period III.— The Abrahamic or Patriarchal (430 years).— Abraham to Mosea . . 6 Period IV. — The Mosaic or Theocratic (396 years).— Bloses to Saul . . 8 Period V. — The Monarchical (489 years).— Saul to Cyrus .... 14 Period VI. — The Persian (322 years). — Cyrus to Alexander ... 21 Period VII. —The Grecian (184 years). — Alexander to the Fall of Greece . , 26 Period VIII.— The Roman (146 years).— Fall of Greece to the Christian Era . 38 II. MODERN HISTORY. 48 Period I. — (306 years). — From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine , Period II. — (170 years.) — Constantine to Odoacer Period III.— (146 years.)— Odoacer to Mahomet .... Period IV. — (178 years.)— Mahomet to Charlemagne Period V.— (266 years.)— Charlemagne to William the Conqueror Period VI. — (233 years.)— William the Conqueror to Othman I. Period VII, — 154 years.) — Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire Period VIII. — (145 years.)— Fall of Eastern Empire to the Edict of Nantes Period IX. — (120 years.)— Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden Period X— (97 years.)— Charles XII. of Sweden to the Fall of Napoleon • • 134 Period XI.— (35 years.)— Napoleon to the year 1850 ...... 146 62 68 72 86 102 112 122 II. DICTIONARY OF DATES . . ■ 146 III. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY 609 IV. HEATHEN DEITIES, &c 648 V BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX 667 EXPLANATION OF THE CHART OF HISTORY, ixepresenting, in a Chronological Series, the Rise, Revolutions, and Fall J Ike principal Empires of the World. ON THE PLAN OF DR. J, PRIESTLEY. It is necessary to notice, tliat the space allotted .o each country is rather according to its relative political importance, than to its geographical extent. The spaces between the vertical lines which cross the chart, represent time, viz., eacli a cen- tury or 100 years ; those between the horizontal lines represent countries, the names of wliich are expressed at the end of the chart. By examining the vertical columns, we ascertain the contemporary state of different nations al- the period we fix upon. For instance : about 1500 years before Christ, we see states forming in Greece ; the Israelites in Egypt (from whence they depart nine years after) ; the Egyptian, Assy- rian, Persian, Chinese, and other kingdoms had been founded several centuries previous — but their history uncertain and obscure. At the time of Christ, we find the Roman Empire spread over a greater part of the then known world, but the Parthians, Britons, and Germans, as yet unsubdued by them. 700 years after, this empire exists only in Turkey, and its former territories are under barbarians : the Heptarchy in England ; the Lombards in Italy, the Franks in Gaul ; the African provinces, and a large part of Asia under the Saracens. In 1.500 we find the Eastern or Greek Empire fallen under the Turks; the Tartars powerful in Asia: many of the modern states o/ Europe founded ; America discovered by the Europeans, &c. &c. On the other hand, the revolutions of each country may be seen in continuation by looking along the chart horizontally : the Persian empire is founded in remote antiquity ; united with that of the Medes, about 600 b. c. ; is extended by Cyrus into Assyria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 536 ; falls in turn, under the Macedonians, Parthians, Saracens, Turks, and Tartars, successively. — The Israelites in Egypt from 1706 to 1491 b. c. ; in Canaan 1451 ; under the Judges about 1300; under Kings, 1095 ; Ten Tribes separated, 975 ; they are conquered, 721, and Judah, 588, by the Assyrians ; restored by the Persians, 535 ; under the Macedonians, 330 ; restored to independence by the Mac- cabees, 150; conquered by the Romans, 63; by the Saracens, a. d. 622; afterwards by the cru- saders, Mamelukes, and Turks, successively. — England subdued by the Romans in the first cen- tury; relinquished by them, A. D. 410; subdued by the Saxons, 500; by the Danes, 860; by the Normans (receiving French territories), 1066 ; united with Ireland, 1170 ; with Wales, 1280; with Scotland, 1600. — Italy in antiquity possessed by several petty tribes ; by the Romans from 300—200 B. C. to 480 A. D., then by the Herulii, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Franks, successively ; — in modern times, divided into several small republics and principalities ; joined to the French empire about ISOO, and now divided chiefly between Austria, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, Modena, &c., the Pope, and the King of Naples. " They are rather melancholy reflections which the view of such a chart of history is apt to excite in the minds of persons of feeling and humanity. What a number of revolutions are marked upon it ! What torrents of human blood has the restless ambition of mortals shed, and in what complicated distress has the discontent of powerful individuals involved a great part ol their species ! "—Priestley. UTith a Iiuli.x. Rrit. /Empire T ar t ai'y A s ia ti c P e 1- s i a Turl^ ey Aralira B at l)ar>^ ^ Fl'eiicU posFessiotls. Moiotco Spam T ovlug-al jjuvopeau Tui-key Greeee Ital. Ducllies \ A«» Ir. Eiiip . ^ W ^ X ■ t Ixiscany FopeAom 1 "N aT>le s Swilx erlaitd Holland Fran ce Gr eat IVriUiin Fr u s s i a All s Ir i a. Gei-inaii States Sweden Den 111 arlt. Russia Brit.ATJieiTca. UiiiLed \ Slates/ g/ Mexir n /^ TOew Gremarl a Sec Per It- Boll via .AvgenliiieRepifb. /* ChUi. Eouaaov ew HoUauJ , Uew'^ S.ealaud t-i: . J'li U.Empii- e f^ i*L*': THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS. PART I. TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, I. Ancient Chronology — from the Creation to the Birth of Christ — 4004 years. [I. Modern Chronology — from the Birth of Christ to the present time — 1850 years. I. ANCIENT CHEONOLOGY. DIVIDED INTO EIGHT PERIODS. 1. From the Creation, to the Deluge, 2. From the Deluge, to the Call of Abraham, 3. From the Call of Abraham, to the Exode from Egypt, 4. From the Exode, to the Kingdom of Saul, 5. From Saul, to the Captivity of Israel, 6. From the Captivity, to Alexander the Great, 7 From Alexander, B. C. 4004 2348.. 2348 1921. 1921 1491. . 1656 years The Antediluvian Period, . 427 years The Dispersion Period. . 430 years The Patriarchal Period. 1491 1095 396 years.. .The Theocratic Period, 330. 507 years The Monarchical Period. 258 years The Persian Period. 330 to the Subjugation of Greece, 146 184 years The Grecian Period. 8 From the Subjugation of Greece, 146 to the Birth of Christ, 146 years The Roman Period. ' From the Creation to the Christian era, the dates are reckoned b c- BEFORE CHRIST. They are then changed to a. B.—the Year of our Lord. Tllfi WORLD'S PllOGP^ESS. FIRST PERIOD— (^/^e Antediluvian)— 165Q years. B. C 4004 3S75 3S74 3769 3679 3609 a544 33S2 3317 3130 3074 3017 2948 2468 2348 THE CREATION OF THE WORLD.— (Seirew Pentateuch.-) [Hales places it 5411 B. c* The fall of man, and the promise of a Saviour. The birth of Cam, the tiist-born of woman — a husbandman. The death of Abel, the first subject of death. He was a shepherd. Seth born, the third son of Adam. Enos born. Cainan born. Mahalaleel born. Jared " Enoch " Methuselah " (lived 969 years.) Lamech " Death of Adam, aged 930 years. Enoch translated. Noah born. The building of the Ark commenced. THE DELUGE. [Hales places it 3154 B. c] Enoch born, the first son of Cain.t Cain builds a city, which he calls Enoch. He in- troduces the use of weights and measures, — Jo- sephus. Tytler. Irad. Mehujael. Methusael. Lamech — polygamy introduced. Jabal The first to build a Tent for habita- tion, and to use cattle for purposes of husbandry. Jubal. He invent- ed the Harp and the Or- gan,or wind and stringed instruments of music. Tubal-cain. He discov- ed the mode ofpreparing and using iron, brass, and other Metals. Naamah She intro- duced the artsof;S^zw- ning and Weaving. * See alphabetical portion of this volume for the various dates of the chronologists. The Sa- maritan Pentateuch places the Creation b. c. 4700; the Septuagint, 5872; Josephus, 4658; the Talmadists, BZii ; Scaligei; 3950; Petaviiis, d98i; and Dr. Hales, 5411. The last named enu- merates above 120 various opinions on this subject, the difference between the latest and remotest date of which is no less than 3263. The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and is here adopted as the most generally received standard. t No dates are assigned in Scripture to the names here placed in the right-hand column. — They are however contemporary with those in the other column. Remarks. — The Antediluvian Period was nearly as long as the whole period that has elapsed since the birth of Christ. Of the progress of knowledge and the arts, during that period, nothing is known beyond what is given above, except that ship-building, calking, and the use of pitch, or paint, of measures by cubit, &c., and of doors and windows, were known. They imply, in their adaptation to the use of man, other arts, ard a considerable advance in science and the mechanical powers. Ji3=-The Tabular Views are continued across two pages at th« same time, TsXE WORLD S PROGRESS. SECOND F'EmOJ)— {Dispersion of Mankind. )- SACRED HISTORY. Proqrbss op Society and the Arts. 2347 2247 2234 Wine made by Noah from the grape. Bricks made, and cement used to unite them. Confusion oi languages at Babel. Astronomical observations begun at Babylon. 2347. The descendants of Noah dispersed through the earth : those of Shem probably in Asia, of Ham in Africa, and of Japhet in Europe. 2347. The curse pronounced upon the descend- ants of Ham. 2247. The building of Babel.* 2245. BABYLON founded by Nimrod, son of Cush, and Grandson of Ham. NINEVEH founded by Ashur, son of Shem. 2122 2100 2095 Athotes (son of Menes) invents hieroglyphics. Sculpture and Painting employed to com- memorate the exploits of Osymandyas. Pyramids and Canals in Egypt. The science of Geometry begim to be cultivated. 1998 Ching Hong teaches the Chinese the art of Husbandry, and the method of making Bread from wheat, and wine from rice. 1996. Abraham bom. 1921. The call of Abraham. * The chronology here adopted is that of the Hebrew Pentateuch. The Samaritan places Babel 531 years after the deluge. THE world's progress. 427 years. — The Deluge to Abraham. PROFANE HISTORY.— (/n this period traditional and uncertain.) 2207 1 CHINA. The first imperial dynasty of Hia begins. Fohi (who is perhaps Noah him- self) is mentioned as the first Chinese monarch. 2124 2069 2059 2017 Belus reigns in BABYLON [Some suppose Belus to be the Nimrod of Scripture. If so, there is a discrepancy of 121 years between the sacred and profane chronologies.] The origin of the kingdoms of Babylon and Nineveh, and of the Assyrian empire, is variously stated by the chron- ologists. See Sacred Hist.] fiiinus, son of Belus, reigns in 'Nineveh. Reestablishes the ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. Semiramis enlarges and embel lishes Babylon, and makes it the seat of empire. [By others placed 2107 b. c] 1975 Semiramis invades Lybia,Ethi- opia, and India. 1937 The Arabs seize Nineveh. C?) Europe. 2188. Misraim (Mones), the son of Ham, builds Memphis, in EGYPT, and begins the E- gyptian monarchy. 2111. THEBES founded by Busiris. 2100. Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes into Asia, and conquers Bactria. 2085. Egypt conquered by the shepherd kings of Phenicia, who hold it 2(50 years. 1938. Lake Moeris constructed. 089. SICYON, the first king- dom of GREECE, founded by Egialus, or Inachus. 2048. A colony of Pheniciana land in Ireland. (7) 2042. Uranus arrives in Greece. Revolt of the Titans War of the Giants. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. THIKD PERIOD— (T^ Abrahamic or Fatriarchal.)— 1582 1580 1534 1506 1497 1494 Progress op Society and the Arts. Gold and silver first mentioned as money. Letters first used in Egypt by Syphoas. Memnon invents the Egyptian alphabet. Atlas, the astronomer. The chronology of the Arundelian marble? begins. The cymbal used at the feasts of Cybele. Dancing to music introduced by Curetes. Book of Job written about this time. TheJ?u/e invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian. Amphictyon gives interpretation to dreams and draws prognostics from omens. Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry. SACRED HISTORY. 1921 . Abraham called. 1920. — goes into Egypt. 1912. — delivers Lot from captivity, and re- ceives ihe blessing of Melchizedec. 1909. Ishniael born. 1897. Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed. God renews liis covenant with Abraham. 1896. Isaac born. 1871. Abraham commanded to offer Isaac in sacrifice. 1856. Isaac married. 1836. Jacob and Esau bom. 1824. Abraham dies, aged 172. 1759. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel. 1739. His name changed to Israel. 1729. Joseph sold into Egypt. 1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh. 1706. Jacob and his family settle in Egypt. 1702. End of the seven years' famine. 1699. Death of Jacob. 1635. Death of Joseph. 1577. Israelites persecuted in Egypt. 1574. Aaron born. 1571. Moses born. 1531. Moses flees into Midian. 1513. The supposed era of Job. 1491. God appears to Moses in a burning bush at Horeb, and sends him to Egypt to deliver the Israelites. The Ten Plagues in Egypt. Institution of the Passover. The EXODUS of the Israelites from Egypt. THE world's progress. Abraham to Moses. — (430 years.) PROFANE HlSTOKY.—QStm fabulous or uncertain.) Asia. Africa. 1766 China. The 2d Imperial dy- nasty begins. 1618. Sesostris reigns in Egypt. 1556. Rameses-Miamum reigns in Egypt. 1856. Inachus, the Pheniciai plants a colony in ARGOS. 1807. Phoroneus reigns in Argos. 1764. Ogyges reigns in Boeotia. 1707. Apis, king of Avgos. 1732. The Ogygean Deluge in Attica. 1711. The city of Argos built by Argus, the son of Niobe. 1710. A colony of Arcadians emigrate into Italy under CEnotrus. — CEnotria after- wards called Magna Grecia. 1641. Criasus succeeds his father, Argus. 1556. ATHENS founded by Cecrops. 1552. Triopas, king of Argos. The kingdom divided. Poly- caon reigning in Messenia. 1546. TROY founded by Sea- mander. 1529. Deluge of Deucalion in Thessaly. 1520. Cormth founded. 1516. Sparta founded, and the kingcfom of Laconia, or La- cedemon. 1507. The Areopagus establish- ed in Athens. 1506. Crotopas succeeds to the throne of Argos. 1504. Deucalion arrives in Ati tica. The kmgdom of Messe. nia commenced by Poly caon. 1493. THEBES in Boeotia, founded by Cadmus, a Phe nician, who introduces tlie alphabet into Greece. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. FOURTH PERIOD.— (TAe Mosaic or TJieocratic.)- Progress op Society and the Arts. Crockery made by the Egyptians and Greeks. Ericthonius introduces the first chariot. The fabulous or traditionary Hermes- Tr is- megisttis placed about this period. Bacchus, god of wine. Olympic Games first celebrated in Greece. Apollo, god of music and poetry. Bucklers used in single combat invented by Proetus and Acrisius of Argos. Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumol- pus. Orpheus and Linus, sons of Apollo, skilled in music. The temple of Apollo at Delphi built by the council of Amphiciyons. Jason leads the Argonautic expedition; the first OTccDoZ expedition on record. MuscBUs, a poet. The axe, teedge, wiinble and lever, also masts and sails for ships invented by Dsedalus of Athens. The game of Backgammon invented by Pala- medes of Greece. SACRED HISTORY. The Jews. 1491. Departure of the Israelites from Egypt, The law given at Mount Sinai. 1471. Rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abirani 1453. Aaron dies. 1451. Moses writes the Pentateuch, and dies. 1451. Israelites enter Canaan under Joshua. 1443. Joshua dies. 1405. Othniel judges Israel. 1390. The tribe of Benjamin tlmost ext.nct. 1343. Eglon, king of Moab, enslaves Israel. 1325. Ehud kills Eglon, and delivers Israel. 1317. Shamgar kills 600 Philistines with art ox goad. 1305. Israel subdued by Jabin, king of Canaanr 1285. Deborah and Barak defeat the Canaan- ites — Sisera killed by Jael. 1252. Israel enslaved by the Midiantes. 1249. Gideon, with 300 men, defeats the Mi- dianites. 1209. Abimelech judges Israel. 1206. Tola judges Israel. 1183. Jair, judge of Israel. THE WOULD S PROGRESS. 396 years. — Moses to Saul. PROFANE HISTORY.— (-Sit';; uncertain.) 1449 1413 1400 1374 1314 Dardarius, king of Troy, builds Dardania. Ericthonius reigns in Troy. Cushanrishathaim, king of Mesopotamia. (See Scrip ture.) Teucer, king of Troy. Troas, king of Troy. Ilus, son of Troas, founder of Ilium. 1260 1259 1252 1240 1225 1222 1220 1215 1194 1184 1183 1182 Laomedon, kmg of Troy. Phenicia : TYRE founded. Second Assyrian Dynasty : Mithreaus or Ninus II. Troy taken by the Argonauts. Hercules arrives in Phrygia. Argon, a descendant of Hercu- les, first king of LYDIA. Priam, king of Troy. Tautanas, king of Assyria. The TRO.TAN WAR begins Troy taken, 403 years before the 1st Olympiad. Teutaeus, kmg of Assyria. Trojans migrate into Italy. Africa. 1491. Pharaoh and his army drowned in the Red Sea. 1485. Egyptus reigns, and gives name to the country. 1376. Sethos reigns in Egypt. 1233. Cart, age founded by the Tyrians Sthenelus reigns in Argos. 1474. Danaus usurps the king- dom of Argos. 1463. Damnonii invade Ire- land. 1457. The kingdom of Mycene begins under Perseus, late king of Argos. 1453. Olympic games first ce- lebrated at Elis. 1438. Pandion begins to reign at Athens. 1400. Minos reigns in Crete. 1397. CORINTH becomes a kingdom under Sisyphus. 1383. Ceres arrives in Attica. 1376. The Isthmian games in- stituted. 1356. Eleusinian mysteries in- troduced. 1283. jEgeus reigns in Attica. 1266. CEdipus, king of Thebes. 1263. The Argonautic Expe- dition. 1257. Theseus unites the cities of Attica under one govern- ment. 1243. The Arcadians conducted by Evander into Italy.— Mu- saeus, a poet. 1239. Latinus reigns in Italy 1225. First Theban War.— Euristhenes and Procles, kings of Lacedemon. 1222. Hercules celebrates the Olympic Games. 1216. War of the Epigonii, or 2d Theban War. 1213. Helen carried off by Theseus, is recovered by Castor and Pollux, and mar- ries Menelaus. 1204. Helen elopes with Paris. 1182. .^neas lands in Italy. 1176. Salamis Ibunded by Teucer. 1170. Epirus : Pyrrhus Neop- tolemus. 10 THE world's progress. Fourth Period. — {The Mosaic or Theocratic.] 1115 1100 Prooress op Society and the Arts. Mariner's compass said to be known in China. C?) A standard dictionary of the Chinese contain- ing 40,000 characters, completed by Pa-out- she. (1) SACRED HISTORY. 1161. Israel enslaved by the Philistines and Ammonites. — Samson born. — Eli judges a portion of Israel. 1143. Jephtha defeats the Ammonites, and becomes judge of a part of Israel. 1136. Samson slays 1000 Philistines with the jawbone of an ass. 1117. Death of Samson and Eli. 1116. Samuel, the last judge of Israel 1096. The Philistines defeated at Ebenezer. 1095. Establishment of the HEBREW MO- NARCHY.— Saul anointed king of Israel. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 396 years. — (Continued.) — Moses to Saul 11 PROFANE HXSVOViY .—iStiU fabulous or uncertain.) 1141 U39 1122 Temple of Ephesua burnt the Amazons. Thinseus, king of Assyria. China :— 3 J dynasty ;— Tchcoo. Dercylus, king of Assyria. Africa. 1152. Alba-Longa built by Ascanius. 1124. ^olian migration. THEBES, the Capital of BcEOtia, founded. 1104. Return of the Heraclidae. —End of the kingdom of Mycene. 12 THE world's progress. FIFTH PERIOD.— (TAe Monarchical)— SACRED HISTORY. B.C, Progress op Society and the Arts. The Jews. 1095. Saul, King of Israel. 1085. David born. 1062. David kills Goliath. 1055. Death of Saul. David reigns in Hebron over Judah ; Ishbosheth reigning in Maha- naim, over eleven tribes. 1048. Ishbosheth slain. David made king over all Israel. 1043. David subdues the Philistines, Moab- ites, Syrians, and extends his dominions to the Euphrates, on the East, the Red Sea, on the South, and Lebanon, on the North. 1036. Solomon born. 1023 Revolt and death of Absaloni. 1014. Conspiracy of Adonijah. 1015 Minos gives his laws to Crete. 1015. Solomon crowned in the presence of David. 1016. David dies. 1012. Solomon lays the foundation of the temple. 1004. DEDICATION OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. 1000. Solomon extends his commerce, in con- nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, to India, via Red Sea, and to the shores of the Atlan- tic, via Straits of Gibraltar : builds Tad- mor (Palmyra) in the desert, Baalbec, and other cities. 985. He is seduced into idolatry by his wives. 975. — dies, and is succeeded by Rehoboam. JtjDAH. Israel. 975. Rehoboam, king. Jeroboam, king. 971. Shishak plunders the temple. 958. Abijah, king. 955. Asa, king. 954. Nadab, king. 953 Baasha, king. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 13 507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. PROFANE HISTORY. 1044 The Ionian emigrants settle in Asia Minor. Alliance between Solomon and Hiram, king of Tyre. Samos built. Shishak plunders Jerusalem. Alliance between Solomon ani Pharaoh. 986. Utica built. 978. Sesac, (Shishak in Scrip- ture, and supposed Sesos- tris,) king of Egypt. 1088. End of the kingdom of Sicyon. 1070. Heremon, from Gallicia, conquers Ireland. 1069. Codrus devotes himself for Athens. 1060. Athens governed by Archons. 976. Capys reigns in Alba Longa. H THE world's progress. Fifth Period. — {The Monarchical.) — SACRED HISTORY. B.C. Progress of Society and the Arts. The Jews. JuDAH. Israel. 942. Asa defeats Ze- rah, king of Ethio- pia, with a million of men. 941. — makes a league with Benhadad, king 937 Breastplates invented by Jason. of Syria. 930. Elah, king. 929. Zimri, king. Orari, king. 918. Aiiab, king. 800 786 772 721 710 685 680 Homer'' s poems brought into Greece. Lycurgics reforms the constitution of Sparta Gold and silver coined by Phtdon, tyrant of Argos. Prophecies of Jonah. Carpets in use for tents. The Corinthians employ triremes or vessels with three banks ot oars. Sculpture first mentioned in profane history- an Egyptian art. The first eclipse of the moon observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon. The Buddha religion introduced by Gautama into India. Roman Calendar reformed. The year divided, 12 months instead of 10 as before. Augurs instituted by Numa. lam,bic verse introduced by Archilocus, Tyr- iceusj and JEvander, poets. Chess invented. 914. Jehoshaphat, king. 907. Benhadad, king of „„„,,, , Syria, besieges Sa- 898. Jehoshaphat as- maria, but is re- sists Ahab. pulsed. 894. War with Moab. 9. Jehoram, king 897. Ahaziah, king. 896. Jehoram, king. 895. Elijah translated. 884. Ahaziah, king. 884. Jehu, king. Alhaliah, queen ; usurps the throne. 856. Jehoahaz, king. 878. Jehoash, king. The Prophet Jo- 841. Jehoash, kins nah. 839. Amaziah, king. 810. Azariah, king. 758. Jotham, king 742. Ahaz,king. 825. Jeroboam, king. 784. InterregnuTn. 773. Zachariah, king. Shallum, king. 772. Menahem, king. 770. Pul invades Is- rael, and is bribed to depart with 1000 talents. 762. Pekahiah, king. 759. Pekah, king. Interregnum. Hoshea, king. 721. CAPTZVITY OP ISRAEL. 17. Hezekiah, king. 712. Sennacherib in- vades Judah. 711. His army (185,- 000) destroyed by a pestilence. 696. Manasseh, king. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 15 507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. — (Continued.) PROFANE HISTORY. 971 840 820 797 767 709 680 Homer bom. Jonah preaches to the Nine- vites. Arbaces, king of Assyria. — Media revolts. Ardyssus, 1st king of LYDIA. Pul, king of Nineveh. Sardanapalus, king of Nine- veh. Media subjected to Assyria. Alyattea, king of Lydia. ERA OF NABONAZZAR.— Assyrian empire destroyed. — Meles, king of Lydia. Phamacea, king of Cappado. cia. Tiglath-Pileser conquers Sy- ria and part of Israel. Candaules, king of Lydia. Shalvianezer king of .Nine- veh, takes Samaria, and car- ries the Ten Tribes into captivity. Gyges usurps the throne of Lydia. Sennacherib, king of Nineveh. MEDIA becomes a kingdom under Dejoces. Ecbatana founded by Dejoces. Babylon and Nineveh under Esarhaddon. 869. Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Byrsa. 825. The dynasty of the Ta. nites in Egypt ; begins with Peterbastes. 781. The dynasty of the Saites in Egypt. 737. Sebacon invades Egypt. 935. Bacchus, king of Corinth 916. Calpetus, Ung of Alba. 903. Tiberinus, king of Alba. 895. Tiberinus drowned in tha river Albula, which is thence called the Tiber. 864. Romulus, king of Alba Longa. 845. Aventinus, king of Alba. 814. The kingdom of MACE- DON founded by Caranus. 18. Procas, king of Alba. 794. Numitor, " " 794. Amulius, " " Clam Fodla, king in Ii-e- land. (-!) 769. Syracuse founded by Archias of Corinth. 753. BUILDING OF ROME begun. Catania founded by a co- lony from Chalcis. 747. Union of Romans and Sabines. 743. Ist Messinian War. 716. Romulus murdered by the senators. 715. Numa Pompilius. 713. Gela in Sicily founded. 703. Corcyra built by the Co- rinthians. 685. 2d Messinian War. 16 THE world's progress. Fifth Period. — {The Monarchical.)- Progress of Society and the Arts. Attempt to discover the primitive language of mankind ; Interpreters instituted by Psam- meticus ; children educated in the language and manners of Greece. Se-Matsien's history of China' begins. The Spherical form of the earth and the true cause of lunar eclipses taught by Tholes, who discovers the electricity of amber. Periander encourages learning at Corinth. Draco frames his bloody code of laws at Athena. Pharaoh-Necho begins a canal between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The lives of 120,000 men lost in the attempt. He sends out a Phoenician fleet wliich, sailing through the Straits of Babelmandel, returned the third year by the Straits of Gibraltar, thus circumnavigating Africa. Sappho, Alccms, Pittacus, Bius, Chilo, Mj/- son, Anacharsis, .^sop, Ilychis, Theognis, Stesichorus, Phocylides, and Cadmus (of Miletus), flourish at this time. Thales' prediction of a solar eclipse accom- plished. — (See Asia.) Solon's legislation in Athens, supersedes that of Draco. The Pythian Games at Delphi. SACRED HISTORY. The Jews. 677. Marjasseh carried to Balylon, is after- wards reAored. 640. Ammon, king of Juciah. 641. Josiah. king of Judah. Josiah killed at Megiddo, by Pharaoh Ne- cho. 609. Jehoahaz, king, deposed and carried to Egypt. Jehoiakim, kmg. 606. CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM by Nebuchadnezzar. 598. Jehoiachin, king, reigns three months, and is carried captive to Bahylon. Zedekiah, king. 591. Ezekiel begins to prophesy in Chaldea. 588. CAPTIVITY OF JUDAH completed. JERUSALEM DESTROYED— the tern- pie burnt. Ohadiah prophesies. THE world's progress. 17 507 years.— Saul to Ct/ras.— (Continued.) 676 658 626 624 PROFANE HISTORY. Ardysus H., king of Lydia. Holofernes, Assyrian general. Phraortes, king of Media. Saracus, king of Babylon and Nineveh. Phraortes conquers Persia, Armenia, &c. Cyaxares, king of Media. Sadyattes, king of Lydia. Nabopolassar revolts from Sa- racus. The Scythians invade Lydia and Media. Alyattes II., king of Lydia. Nineveh a second time destroy ed. Nabopolassar, king of Baby Ion. Africa. 660. Psammeticus, king of Egypt.— Memphis becomes the capital of the kingdom. 006 604 601 599 696 Pharaoh-Necho defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at Circe- eium, on the Euphrates. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba- bylon. Daniel interprets the king's dream. A solar eclipse predicted by Thales— separates the Medes and Lydians in battle. {New ton's Chron., 585.) Birth of Cyrus. Astyages of Media drives out the Scythians. 610. Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt. 678. Argaeus, 1st king of Ma- cedon. 672. Tullus Hostilius, king oi Rome. 668. Messina in Sicily founded. 665. Alba destroyed. 664. Sea fight ' between the Corinthians and Corcyreans. 658. BYZANTIUM founded. 640. AncusMartius.— The port of Ostia built.— The Latins conquered by the Romans.— Philip, 1st king of Mace- 629. Periander rules at Co- rinth. 616. Tarquinius Priscus, king of Rome. 60O. Psammia, king of Egypt. 602. .^Eropus, king of Mate- don, conquers lUyria. 594. Pharaoh-Hophra, king of 594. Solon, Archor of Athena Egypt. 18 THE world's progress. SIXTH PERIOD.— (T/^ePersmw.)— B.c Progress of Society. 585 .578 DSy 5i0 535 Money coined a.t Rome by Ser- vius TuUius. Depoenus and Scyllis open a school of statuary at Athens. Naucrates given to the Greeks by Egypt as a factory. Egypt possesses 20,000 inha- bited cities. First comedy acted at Athens on a cart, by Susarion and Dolon. Dials invented by Anaximan der of Miletus. Anaximenes, Cleobulus. The Corinthian order of ar- chitecture invented by Call- machus. Zoroaster, the Persian Philo- sopher. iSimonides, Anacreon, poets. Thespis performs the first tragedy at Athens. Learning encouraged at Ath ens. — Firet public library founded. Confucius the Cliinese philo- sopher. The Dane issued by Darius. 559. Handwriting on the wall at Belshazzar's feast. 536. Edict of Cyrus for the Re- turn of the Jews. Joshua, Zerubbabel. 535. Rebuilding of the tem- ple begins. Zechariah. Ilaggai. 516. Dedication of the second temple. 582. Nebuchadnezzar invadea Elam — takes Susa. 572. Tyre taken by Nebuchad- nezzar. 569. Nebuchadnezzar his reason is deposed. New Tyre founded, 562. Croesus, king of Lydia. Solon and Mso\> at his court. 561. Evil-Merodach, king of Babylon. 559. Neriglissar or Belshazzai killed in the night. Cyaxares H. (Darius) king of Media. Cyrus the Persian assists him. Asia Minor subjected to Croe sus. 546. Sardis taken by Cyrus. — Croesus made prisoner. — The Lydian Kingdom end- ed. 538. BABYLON TAKEN by Cyrus. 536. PERSIAN EMPIRE founded by CYRUS, com- posed of Assyria, Media and Persia. 529. Cambyses, king of Per- sia. 522. Darius Hystaspes, king of Persia. THE world's progress. 19 258 -years. — Gyrus to Alexander the Cheat. 581 536 505 Egypt invaded by Nebuchad- nezzar. Apries taken prisoner, and strangled in his palace. Amasis, Iving — connection be- tween Greece and Egypt. Pythagoras visits Egypt. Psammenitus, last king of Egypt. — Invasion of Cam- byses, who defeats the Egyptians at Pelusium, and takes Memphis. Egypt becomes a Persian Province. 585. Death of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. 582. Corinth becomes a repub lie. Rome, etc. 560. Pisistratus, tyrant ol Ath- ens. 549. Temple of Apollo at Delphi burnt by the Plsis- tratidae. 547. Amyntas, king of Mace- don. 539. The Phocians emigrate to Gaul and build Massilia (now Marseilles). 527. Pisistratus dies. 522. Polycrates, tyrant of Sa- mos. 521. Hippias and Hipparchus reign in Athens. 510. The Pisistratidas expelled. — Democracy estabfished at Athens. — Statues erected to Harmonius and Aristogiton, leaders in the revolution. 578. Servius Tullius, king cf Rome. 567. Conquest of the Etruriana by Rome. 565. First census of Rome: 84,700 citizens. 534. Tarquinius SuperbuB, king of Rome. 530. Cadiz built by the Car- thaginians (near the ancient Tarshish). 20 THE WOULD'S PROGRESS. Sixth Period. — [Tlie Persian.) — B.C. 509 507 483 479 4:7 460 Progress op Society. Abolition of the Regal Govern- ment, and establishment of Republic at Rome. HeracUtus, Theano, Prota- goras, Anaxagoras, philoso- phers. — Corinna, poetess. The Phctnician letters carried to Ireland from Spain. Pythagoras teaches the doc- trine of celestial motions. The temple of Minerva built. The Etruriayis excel in music, the drama and architecture. jEsckylus, Pindar, poets. Simonides, of Cos, obtains the prize at Olympia, for teach- ing a system o{ 3Ineino>iics, which he had invented. Empirics instituted by Acron, of Agrigentutn. Sophocles, the tragic, and Plato, the comic poet. Voyage of the Carthaginians to Britain for tin. 483. Joachim, High Priest. 458. Esther. 457. Ezra goes to Jerusalem, collects life Jewish Scrip- tures : and 45.3. —writes the Chronicles. 508. Darius conquers India. 98. The . onians revolt from Persia and burn Sardis. 491. Darius sends an army of 500,000 men into Greece. 487. Artabazes, king of Pen- tua. 486. Xerxes, king of Persia. 481. The expedition of Xerxes into Greece. . 480. The family of Archean- actes, from Mytilene, settle in Bosphorus (now Circas- sia.) 478. Death of Confucius.— China distracted by interna wars. 466. Persians defeated by sea and land. 465. Xerxes assassinated. 464. Artaxerxes I. (Longiiua nus,) king of Persia. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 21 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 480 460 455 Egypt revolts— is subdued by Xerxes. Hamilcar killed in battle. Egypt, under Inarus, revolts from Persia. All Egypt reduced by Megaby- eus. 505. Lacedemonian War. 504. Lemnos taken by Milti- ades. 497. Alexander 1st, king Macedon. Hippocrates, tyrant Gela. 491. Invasion of the Persians under Datis and Artaplier- nes. 490. Battle of MARATHON. 488. Miltiades imprisoned. 483. Aristides banished. I Battle of Thermopylse. Athens burnt by Xerxes. Battle of Salamis. 479. Mardonius a second time takes Athens. Defeat of the Persians at Platea and Mycale on the same day. 476. Themistocles rebuilds Athens. — The Piraeus built. 470. Cimon son of Miltiades.— Themistocles banished.— The kingdom of the Odrysse extends over the most of Thrace. 466. The Persians twice de- feated at the Eurymedon by Cimon. 465. 3d Messinian War. 461. Ostracism of Cimon. — Pericles rises to great povper. 459. Athens assumes to be the head of Greece. 456. Cimon recalled. Ri. JO/ AND Italy. 509. Thj Tarqums expelled from Ili.me. Brutus and Collatinus first Consuls of Rome. 507. Second census of Rome, 130,909 citizens. The Capitol finished.— War against the Tarquins and their ally Porsenna. 498. Titus Lartius, first Dicta- tor. Tribunes of the people. 496. Posthumius, Dictator. 491. Coriolanus banished. 488. At the request of his mother, Coriolanus with- draws the Volsci from Rome. 485. Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse. 483. Quasstors appointed. 480. The Carthaginians de- feated by Gelon. 479. Syracuse governed by Hiero. 477. The 300 Fabii slain. 467. Thrasybulus succeeds Hiero, and is expelled for his cruelty. Democracy in Syracuse. 461. Earthquake at Rome. 456. Cincinnatus Dictator. 22 THE world's progress. Tim Sixth Period. — [The Fersian.)- B.c Pkogeess op Society, etc. The Bfitona inflict punish- ment of death by drowning in a quagmire. Herodotus reads his history in the Athenian council. — E7n- pedocles, Parmenides, Aris- tippus, and Antisthenes, philosophers. — Phidias the finest sculptor of antiquity. — Euripides, tragic poet. The Battering Ram invented hy Anemones. Aristophanes, prince of an- cient comedy. Melon begins his lunar cycle. Socrates, the greatest of hea- then moralists. Hippocrates, of Cos, the father 01 medicine. Thucydides, Ctesias, histo- rians. Democritus, the laugliing phi- losopher. An eclipse of the sun causes the defeat of the Atlienians at Syracuse Thucydides' history ends, and Xenophon's begins. 445. Walls of Jerusalem built by Nehemiah. Sect of Samaritans. 449. Persians defeated at Sa- lamis in Cyprus. Peace with Greece. 438. Spartacua takes posses sion of the Bosphorus. 425. Xerxes n. k. of Per.-ia 424. Darius 11. k. ol lV;rsia. 4(M. Artaxerxes H. (JVuiemon.) king of Persia. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 23 414 407 Amyrteeus, king of Egypt, shakes off the yoke of Per- sia. The Carthaginians send 300,- 000 men into Sicily. 454. Perdiccas, II., king of Ma- cedon. 449. Cimon makes peace with Persia. 448. First Sacred War. 447. Athenians defeated at Che- ronoea. 440. Pericles takes Samos. 437. Amphipolis planted by Athenians. 436. Corinth at war with Cor- cyra. 432. Revolt of Potidaea from the Athenian confederacy 431. The Peloponnesian War. Invasion of Attica. 430. The Plague at Athens. 429. Pericles dies, having goV' emed Athens 40 years. 425. An earthquake separates the peninsula of Eubcea from the main land. 424. Exile of Thucydides. Campaign of Brasidas in 420. The 'gOth Olympiad. Alcibiades effects a treaty between the Athenians and Argives. 416. Nicias, general of the Athenians. War in Sicily . 414. The Athenians .Tlarmed by an eclipse, are repulsed be- fore Syracuse. 413. Archelaus, king of Mace- don. 412. Athens governed by the 400. — Alliance of Sparta with Persia. 411. Alcibiades at the court of Tissaphemes. 410. Alcibiades defeats the Spartans. 408. Capture of Byzantium. 405. Lysander defeats the Athenians — takes Athens, and establishes the 30 ty- rants. End of the Peloponnesian War. Death of Alcibiades. Rome, etc. 451. Decemviri— the laws of the 12 tables. Virginia killed by her father. 446. Syracuse reduces Agri- gentum. 445. Military Tribunes. 444. Office of Censor insti- tuted. 440. Famine in Rome. 437. The Veil defeated. 434. War with the Tuscans. 433. The temple of Apollo de- dicated. 431. The Equi and Volsci de- feated. 24 THE world's progress. The Sixth Period. — ( The Persian.)- B.c. Progress op Society, etc, 377 368 360 CatapultcB, invented by Diony- Cynics, sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes, Plato, the philosopher. Philoxenes, the poet. Treatise on conic sections by Arist(Bus. Diogenes, the cynic ; Isocrates and Isoius, orators. A celestial globe brought into Greece from Egypt. Philippics of Demosthenes. Commerce of Rhodes with Africa and Byzantium 3GC. Jeshua slain by Johan- nan in the inner court of the temjDle, for which a heavy fine is laid on the daily sacri- fices. 401. Cyrus the younger de- feated.— Retreat of the 10,000 imder Xenophon. 400. The city of Delhi found ed. 387. The Greek cities of Asia tributaiy to Persia. 383, BITHYNIA becomes a kingdom. Mithridates 1st, king of PONTUS. 362. Ariobarzanes king of Pon- tu3. — Revolt of the Persian governor in Asia Minor. 361. Darius Ochus, or Artax- erxes III. king of Persia. 360. CAPPADOCIA becomes a kingdom under Ariarathes L THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 25 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 362 360 The Ci^rthaginians land in Italy" Tachos, king of Egypt. Agesilaus, the Spartan, aids the Egyptians. Voyages of the Carthaginians under Hanno. 401. Thrasybulus espela the 30 tyrants. Death of Socrates. 399. Amyntas II., king of Ma^ cedon. 396. Agesilaus goes into Asia, 395. Corinthian War begun.— Battle of Coronea. 382. Thebes taken by Phcebi- das. 380. Thebes delivered by Pelo- pides and Epaminondas. 100th Olympiad. 377. Spartan fleet defeated at Naxos. 372. Ellice and Bula in the Pe- loponnesus, swallowed up by an earthquake. 371. Battle of Leuctra. Alexander II., kingofMa- cedon. Predominance of Thebes. 370. Perdiccas III., king of Macedon. 364. Pelopidas killed in-battle. 362. Battle of Mantinea, death of Epaminondas. Decline of Grecian Republics. 360. Philip II., king of Mace- don. defeats the Athenians at Methone. The Macedonian phalanx. War of the allies against Athens. 358. Philip takes Amphipolis and loses his right eye by an arrow from Astoi\ 357. The 2d Sacred War. 356. Philip conquers Thrace and Illyria. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. A L B X A N D E R " the Great" bom. Rome and Italy. 400. Siege of Veil begun. 397. Lake Alba drained. 391. Camillus, Dictator, takes Veii, after a siege of ten years. 390. Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls, under Brennus. — The Capitol besieged. — Camillus delivers his coun- try. 386. Damon and Pythias. 384. M. Manlius Capilolinua thrown from the Tarpeian rock. 379. The Volsci defeat the Romans. 376. Lucius Sextus, first ple- beian consul. Camillus, the fifth time Dictator. 371. The curule magistrates appointed. 362. Curtius leaps into a gulf ' in the Forum. 357. Dionysius, the younger, expelled from Syracuse. 26 THE world's progress. SEVENTH PERIOD.— (TAe Grecian.)- B.C. Progress of Society, etc- 343 336 328 320 Aristotle, the logician and phi- losopher, founder of the Pe- ripatetics; uEschines, ora- tor. Demosthenes ; Jcetas, of Syra- cuse. The Lyceum built in Attica. Alexander spares the house of Pindar. The revolution of eclipses first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian. Caustic painting or the art of burning colors into icooei or ivory, invented by Gau- sias, a painter of Sicyon. The voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates. Apelles, the painter ; Calis- thenes, philosopher. Menander, the inventor of the new comedy. Lysistratus invents moulds from which to cast wax figures. First work on mechanics, writ ten by Aristotle. — Diving Bell first mentioned. Alexander enters Jerusa- lem. — On seeing Jaddus, the High Priest, clad in his robes, he declares he had seen him in a vision, invit- ing him to Asia, and pro- mising him the Persian em- pire. He goes to the Tem- ple, offers sacrifices to Jeho- vah, and departs. 320. Ptolemy carries 100,000 Jews into Eypt. Onias I. 336. Mithridates 11., king of Pontus. 334. Battle of the Granicus. 333. Battle of Issus. — Parthia, Bactria, Hyrcania,Sogdiana, and Asia Minor, conquered by Alexander. 332. Tyre subdued after seven months' siege. Damascus taken. — Gaza surrenders. 331. Battle of Arbela.— The Persian army totally defeat- ed. 330. CONQUEST of the PER- SIAN EMPIRE. 329. Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits Alexander, with a train of 300 women. 328. Alexander extends his conquest to the Ganges. 323. Alexander dies at Baby- lon. 322. Perdiccas takes Cappa- docia. 320. Eumenes defeated by An- tigonus. THE world's progress. 27 184 years. — Alexatider to the Fall of Gh'mce. 319 340 332 323 Darius Ochus conquers Egypt, and pillages its temples. The Carihaginians defeated by Timoleon. Egypt conquered by Alexan- der. Alexandria built. Ptolemy I. (Soter, son of La- gus.) Greece — Macedon. 353. The Phocians defeated bv Philip. 348. End of the Sacred War. Philip takes Olynthus. 346. Philip admitted to the Amphictyonic Comicil. 345. Duras buried by an earth- quake. 343. Thrace tributary to Mace- don. Aristotle appointed tutor to Alexander. 341. Philip makes war upon Athens. •340. — lays siege to Byzantium. Timoleon recovers Syra- cuse, expels Dionysius, the tyrant, and defeats the Car- thaginians at Agrigentum. 338. Philip defeats the Greeks at Cheronea. 336. Philip is murdered by Pausanias. ALEXANDER III., sur- named the Great. — He rava- ges Greece, destroys Thebes, sparing the house of Pindar. 335. ^is chosen generalissimo of Greece against Persia. 334. — invades Persia, and after several great battles (see " Asia ") subdues the Per- sian empire and Egypt, and marches into India. 330. .ffischines, the orator, banished. 325. Demosthenes banished. 323. Death of Alexander. — The Grecian cities revolt from Macedon. — Demosthe- nes recalled. 322. The Greeks defeated by sea and land near Cranon. Death of Demosthenes. 321. Antipater, regent. 319. Polysperchon succeeds Antipater, and proclaims liberty to the Grecian cities- Rome, etc. 354. Dion put to death, and Syracuse usurped by ty- rants. 345. Twelve cities in Campa- nia buried by an earthquake. 343. Samnian War, which con- tinues 53 years. 340. P. Decius aevoles him- self for his courtry. All Campania is subdued. 332. The Caledonian mo- narchy (Scotland) founded by Fergus I. 325. Papirius Cursor, Dictator. Kl. The Samnites make the Romans pass under the yoke. .320. The Samnites defeated at Luceria. 28 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. The Seventh Period. — (TAe Grecian^ — B. c. Progress of Society, etc. Commerce of Macedon with India, through Egypt. The Appian Way constructed. — The Gnomon inventecl to measure altitudes. Aqueducts and baths in Rome. 311. Judea subject to Ar.tigo- nus. Euclid, of Alexandria, the celebrated mathematician. — Zeiio, founder of the Stoics ; —Pyrrho, of the Skeptics ; Epicurus, of the Epicu- reans. — Bion, of Borysthe- nes, philosopher. The great Chinese Wall built. The first sun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius Cursor, and the time first divided into hours. Fabius mtroduces painting at Rome. The Colossus of Rhodes built by Chares, of Lindus. Theocrites, the father of pas- toral poetry. Dionysius, the astronomer at Alexandria, begins his era. He found the solar year to consist of 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes. The Septuagint translation of the old Testament, begun at Alexandria, by order of Pto lemy Philadelphus. The Jews. 301. Judea under the domi- nion of the Ptolemies. 284. The sect of the Sadducees. 312. SYRIA. Seleucus, Nicator. 311. Seleucus Nicator retakes Babylon. Era of the SeleucidtB. 310. Eumeles usurps the throne of Bosphorus, putting to death all his brothers. After a reign of six years, is murdered. 305. War in India, against Sandrocottus. 301. Battle of jfpsws.— Antigo- nus killed. ALEXANDER'S EM- PIRE DIVIDED in four parts. — Ptolemy, Seleucus, Cassander, Lysimachus. Mithvidates III., king of Pontus. 291. Seleucus founds Antioch, Edessa, and Laodicea. 285. The Scythians invada Bosphorus, THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 29 184 years. — (Continued.) 307 306 Agathocles is defeated by the Carthaginians. Peace between Sicily and Car- thage. 318. Phocion put to death by the Athenians. 317. Cassander assumes the government of Macedon, Demetrius Phalerius gov- erns Athens. 315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes, and founds Cassandria. 312. Epirus : P y r r h u s II., the greatest hero of his time. 306. Democracy established at Athens by Demetrius. 304. Athenians •repulsed from Rhodes. 303, Demetrius Poliorcetes, general of the Grecian States. 300. Restoration of Democracy at Athens. 291. Death of Cassander. — Alexander and Antipater succeed. 296. Siege of Athens, by De- metrius. 294. Demetrius murders Alex- ander, and seizes the throne of Macedon. 287. Athens revolts from De- metrius. 286. Pyrrhus expelled from Macedon. 2&1. The Achtean Republic. Rome, etc. 317. Syracuse and Sicily usurp- ed by Agathocles. 312. War with the Etruscans 310. The Carthaginians defeat Agathocles, and besiege Sy- racuse. 308. Fabius Maximus defeats the Samnites. 303. Establishment of Tribus Urbancb. the 300.First Plebeian High Priest. 290. End of the Samnite War. 86. Law of Hortensius, by which the decrees of the people had the force of those of the senate. 30 THE world's progress. The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.) — B.C. Progress op Society, etc. The Jews. Asia. 283 281 The Pharos built at Alesan- dria, the first light-house on record. Philetaerus, of Pergamus, pa- tron of the arts, especially Architecture. Alexandria, the resort of the learned, and centre of trade. Chariots armed with scythes, axA fortified camps, in use. 282. The kingdom of PER- GAMUS founded by Phile- t«rus. 281. Lysimachus defeated and killed by Seleucus.— Antio- chus Soter succeeds Seleu- cus. 276 First society of critics formed. • 267 266 Ptolemy makes a :anal from the Nile to the Red Sea. Silver money first coined. 266. Ariobarzanes III., king of Pontus. 264 The Parian Chronicle com- posed. Gladiators first exhibited at Rome. 262. Antiochus Soter defeated at Sardis. 256 255 Beroszis, the historian of Ba- bylon. The armillary sphere invented by Erastosthenes, who made the first attempt to determine the length of a degree. Greece instructs the Romans in the arts and sciences. 248. Onias 11., high priest. 256. Kingdom of PARTHIA fotmded by Arsaces. 255. The fourth imperial dy- nasty of China begins. 252. Mithridates IV., besieged in his capital by the Gauls. THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 31 184 2/mr5.— (Continued.) 283 Ptolemy Philadelphua king of Egypt. 269 256 251 Egypt first sends ambassadors to Rome. Regulus invades Africa, and is defeated by Xantippus, a Spartan general. Metellus defeats Asdrubal. 283. Lysimachia destroyed by an earthquake. 281. Lysimachus defeated and slain by Seleucus. The Achasan League of 12 states, under Aratus, of Sicyon. 279. Irrruption of the Gauls under Brennus. 278. — they are defeated near Delphi. 277. Antigonus Gonatus, king of Macedon. 274. Pyrrhus iftvades Mace don, defeats Antigonus, and is proclaimed king. 272. Pyrrhus besieges Sparta and Argos — is slain, and An- tigonus is restored. 268. Athens taken by Antigo- nus Gonatus. Second incursion of the Gauls into Macedon. 255. Antigonus liberates Athens. Athens joins the Achasan league. 251. Sicyon joins the Achaean league. 250. The Romans begin to re- sort to Greece for improve- ment in knowledge. — Par- thia revolts from Macedon. Rome, etc. 283. The Gauls and Eim- rians subdued. 281. The Tarentine War. 280. The Tarentines seek the alliance of Pyrrhus, who conquers the Romans at Pandosia, and at 279 — Asculum. 278. Sicily conquered by Pyrr- hus. 275. Curius defeats Pyrrhus, and compels him to leave Italy. 272. Fall of Tarentum. 266. Rome mistress of all Italy : census of the city 292,224. 264. The iirst PUNIC WAR. — Appius Claudius drives Hiero from Syracuse. 260. D u i 1 1 u s gains a vic- tory over the Carthaginian fleet. 256. Regulus gains ano- ther victory. 255. The Lacedemonians as- sisting Carthage. — Xantip- pus defeats Regulus, and takes him prisoner. 254. Palermo besieged by the Romans. — About this time the Huns are first heard of, governed by Teuman. 249. Naval fight at Drapanum 32 THE world's progress. The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.)—^ B. c Prooress op Society, etc. Agrarianism attempted in Sparta, but is put down. Comedies first acted at Rome, those oiLivius Andronicits. The original MSS. of JEschy- lus, Euripides and Sopho- cles, lent by the Athenians to Ptolemy, on a pledge of 15 talents. Fabius Pictor, the first Roman historian. Appollonius Rhodius, poet. — Chrysippus, Stoic philoso- pher. ArchiTnedes, the mathemati- cian, demonstrates the pro- perties of the lever, and other mechanical powers, also the art of measuring solids and surfaces,and conic sections — constructs a.plane- tarium. The art of Surgery introduced. An eclipse of the moon ob- served in Asis Minor. The Jews. 237. Simon II., High Priest. 246. Antiochus II. poisoned by his wife. 211. Attains I., king of Perga. mus. 226. Seleucus III., k. of Syria. 224. The Colossus of Rhodei thrown down. 213. Chi Hong Ti destroys tha records of the Chinese em- pire. 211. Antiochus tha Great, king of Syria. THE world's rROGRESS. 33 184 years. — (Continued.) 227 Hamilcar Barcas, general of the Carthaginians. Ptolemy Eurgetes subdues Sy- Greece. End of the Libyan War. Hamiloar with Hannibal, pass- es into Spain. Carthagena in Spain, built by Asdrubal. 219 Ptolemv Philopater, king of Egypt. Conquests of Hannibal, the Carthaginian, in Spain ; He crosses the Alps. Rome, etc. 213. Corinth taken by Aratus. 312. Demetrius H., of Mace don. 241. Agis, king of Sparta, put to death for attempting to es- tablish an Agrarian law. 240. Cleanihus, the Stoic, starves himself. 232. Philip III., of Macedon. 228. Roman ambassadors first appear at Athens and Co- nnth. The fortress of the Athe- naeum built. 226. Cleomenes, king of Spar- ta, defeats the Achaeana. — Lyscades killed. — The Agra- rian law restored. 225. The Romans send another embassy to Greece. They are admitted to a share in the Isthmian games, and granted the freedom of Ath- ens. 223. Cleomenes takes Megalo- polis. 222. Battle of Sellasia. 220. The S o c i a 1 W a r . — Philip, of Macedon, as- sists the Achaeans. — Cleome- nes dies in Eyypt. — Agesi- polis and Lycurgus elected kings of Sparta. 218. Acanania ceded to Philip. 215. Aratus poisoned at .^gium. 214. First Macedonian War, 211. Alliance of Philip with Hannibal. 247. Hamilcar defeats the Ro- mans at Liliboeum. 241. End of the first Punic War. 231. Sardinia and Corsica con- quered by Rome. 225. The Gauls repulsed in Italy. 224. The Romans first cross the Po. 223. Colonies of Placen- i i a and Cremona. 222. Insubria (Milan) andLigu- ria (Genoa) conquered by Rome. 219. Hannibal takes Sagun- tum, and crosses the Alps. 218. The Second Punic War .—The Romans de- feated by Hannibal at T i - c i n i s and T r e b i a . 217. F 1 a m i n i u s defeated at Thrasymene. 216. Varro at C a n n ae to- totally defeated by Hannibal. Fabius Maximus, Dictator. 212. Syracuse and Sicily con- quered by M a r c e 1 1 u s . — Archimedes killed. 211. The Carthaginians driven from Capua. 2* 34 THE world's progress. The Seventh Perwd. — {The Grecian.) — B.C. Progress op Societt, etc. Ennius, of Calabria, poet; Sotion, of Alexandria,, a grammarian. Plautus, of TJmbria, the co mic poet ; Appollonius, of Perga, mathematician; Ze no, of Tarsus, the philoso pher. Gold coined at Rome. The art oi printing in China. Aristonymus 4th, librarian of Alexandria. Caius Lelius-i the Roman orator. Books, with leaves of vellum, introduced by Attalus, king of Pergamus, in lieu of rolls. A total eclips,^. of the sun at Rome. Asiatic luxuries brought to Rome. A co7net visible 80 days. Bion and Moschus, comic poets. Statius Ccbcilius, comic poet. The Jews. 203. JUDEA CONaUERED 3Y ANTIOCHUS THE GREAT. 201. Onias III., High Priest. 200. Jesus, the son of Sirach, writes Ecclesiasticus. 198. The Jews assist Antio- chus in expelling Scopas and the Egyptian troops from Jerusalem. First mention of a Senate or Sanhedrim. 206. The dynasty of H a n in China. 197. Euraenes, king of Perga- mus. 196. Hannibal joins Antiochus, who seizes the Thracian Chersonese. 192. Syria at war with Rome. 190. Scipio Asiaticus defeats Antiochus at Magnesia. 187. Antiochus killed in the temple of Jupiter Belus.— Syria becomes a Roman province. 186. The city of Artaxata (in Armenia) built. 185. Seleucus IV.. king of Sy- ria. 183. Phamacesl.,king of Pon- tus, conquers S i n o p e . THE world's progress. 35 184 years. — (Continued. 202 193 180 Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of Egypt. The Roman general Scipio be- sieges Utica, and takes in one day the camps of Asdru- bal and Syphax. Hannibal recalled.— Sophonis- ba poisoned by Masinissa. Hannibal defeated at Z a m a . —End of the 2d Punic War. Treaty of Carthage with Ma- sinissa, king of Nunaidia. Egypt loses her Syrian posses- sions. Masinissa harasses the Cartha- ginians, and injures their commerce. Ptolemy Philometer, king of Egypt. 208. Battle of Lamia, near Elis. — Philip, of Macedon, de- feats the .SItolians. 206. Battle of Mantinea : Philopcemen, the Prae- tor of Achaia, defeats the Spartans. 200. The Rhodians defeat the Macedonian fleet near Chios. — Siege of Abydos. — Second Macedonian War begins. 198. The Achseans and Spar- tans join the Romans against Macedon. I9r. Philip in. defeated at Cy- nocephatas by the Romans, under Flaminius. 195. Flaminius, the Roman, quarrels with Nabis, king of Sparta. 189. Epirus declared free by the Romans. 18. Philopcemen abrogates the laws of Lycurgus in Sparta. 183. PhilopoBmen defeated and killed by Dinocrates, king of Messinia. Rome, etc. 210. Scipio takes New Carthage, and conquers As- drubal. 207. Nero and Livy defeat As- drubal at Metaurus — Asdru- bal killed. 206. The Carthaginians driven out of Spain. 204. Scipio carries the war into Africa. 201. Scipio carries Syphax in triumph to Rome. 197". Flaminius victorious in Macedon. 195. C a t o in Spain. 190. War with Antiochus, of Syria, who is totally defeat- ed by L. C. Scipio, and 188. Syria is made a Roman province. 187. Scipio Africanus banish- ed from Rome. 183. Cato,the elder, censor. 181. Plague at Rome. 180. Death of Scipio Africa- nus. 179. Numa's books found in a stone coffin at Rome. 36 THE world's progress. The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.)- B.C. Progress op Society, etc. The Jews. Asia. 176. Heliodorus in Jerusalem. 175. Jason obtains the high priesthood by corruption. 172. Jason defeated by Mene- 172. Antiochus IV. (Epipha- laus. nes) king of Syria. 171 — declares war against Pto- lemy Philomater. 172 Paper invented in China. 170. Jerusalem and the temple 170. An irruption of Tartars 169 Polybius, historian of Greece plundered by Antiochus into China. and Rome. Epiphanes, who attempts to The comedies of Terence per- abolish the Jewish religion, formed. , and commits great cruelties. 168 An eclipse of the moon, which was predicted by Q. S. Cal- lus. The first library opened at 167 167. Matthias, High Priest. Rome, consisting of books 166. Prusias, kirgof Eithynia. brought from Macedon. The Roman treasury is so rich 165. Judas Maccabeus ex- that the citizens pay no pels the Syrians, and puri- taxes. fies the temple. 162 Hipparchus of Nice fixes the first degree of longitude and latitude at Ferro, whose most western point was 164. Antiochus Epiphanes died. made the first general meri- dian — lays the foundation of 162. Demetrius Soter, king of Syria. Mithridates Philopater, king of Cappadocia. 161 Trigonometry. Philosophers and rhetoricians banished from Rome. 161. Judas kills Nicanor — is succeeded by Jonathan. First treaty with the Ro- mans. 158. Jonathan compels the Bac- chides to withdraw— is mur- 159 The clepsydra or icater clock dered by Tryphon. invented by Scipio Nascia. 157. Mithridates V., king of Pontus. 153. Ariarathes VII., king oi Cappadocia. 150 Hipparchus, of Rhodes, astro- 150. Jews take Joppa. 150. Alexander Bala kills Dc- nomer. — Aristarchus, of Alexandria, grammarian. metrius,and takes the throne. 149. Prusias, of Bithynia, kill ' ed by his son Nicomedes. THE world's progress, 184 years. — (Continued.) 37 174 H6 Cato's embassy to Carthage. Massinissa defeats the Cartha- ginians. Joint reign of Philomater and Physcon in Egypt. CARTHAGE TAKEN destroyed. 178. Perseus, king of Mace- don. 171. Third Macedonian War. 168. Perseus defeated at Pyd- na, by Paulus Emilius.— Macedon becomes a Ro- man Province. 165. Romans enter Achaia. 155. Embassy of Diogenes, Camiades, and Critolaus to Rome. 152. Andriscus usurping the government of Macedon, is conquered by Metellus. 147. Metellus defeats the Ach- asans in Greece. 146. Corinth taken and de- stroyed by Mummius. — GREECE becomes a RO- MAN PROVINCE under the name of Achaia. Rome, etc. 170. Tibe rius and Caius Gracchus. 167. Census 327,032. 155. Romans unsuccessful in Spain. 151. Defeat of Galba, 149. Third Punic War. Con3uest of Carthage and of Corinth. Greece annexed to the Roman empire. 38 THE world's progress. EIGHTH PEKIOD.— (T^e Roman.)- B.C. Progress of Society, etc. The Jews. Asia. 146 Alexandria, the centre of C07n- merce. 143 Hipparchiis begins his new cycle of the moon. 142. Simon, High Priest. 140 Toothed wheels applied to the clepsydra by Ctesibius. 137 Learning and learned inen 137. Antiochus IV., (Sidetes,) liberally patronized by Ptol- king of Syrieu emy Physcon. Diodorus and Satyrus, peri- patetics ; Nicanaer. physi- cian and poet ; Lucius Ac- 135. End of the Apocrypha. — cius, tragic poet ; Aristobu^ Ins, the Jewish peripatetic. Jerusalem besieged by An- tiochus IV. 134. Antiochus invades Judea. 133 Equestrian order, a distinct class. 130 Revival of learning in China. 130. John Hyrcanus delivers 130. Antiochus IV. defeated Judea from the Syrian yoke : and killed in a war with Par- — reduces Samaria and Idu- thia. mea. 129. Demetrius H. (Nicator) regains Syria. 123. Mithridates the Great, 120 The theory of eclipses known to the Chinese. king of Pontus. 116 L. Ccdius Antipater, histo- rian ; Lucillius, the first Roman satirist ; Apollodo- rus, of Athens, clironologist ; Castor, of Rhodes, chrono- logist; Anthemon, philoso- pher. HI. Mithridates conquers Scy- 110 First sumptuary law at Rome. thia, Bo,?phorus, Colchis, 108. Hyrcanus destroys Sama- &c. 107. — succeeded by his son Aristobulus, who first as- sumes the title of king. 105. Alexander Janneus at war with Egypt— takes Ga- za. — Rebellion excited by the Pharisees. THE world's progress. 146 years. — Fall of Greece to the Christian Era. 39 B.C. Africa-. Roman Empire. 146 Commerce of the world cen- tres at Alexandria. In the East. In Europe. ■ 145 Ptolemy Physcon becomes sole king of Egypt by the death of Philomater. 141. Numantian War. ' 140. The Picts from the north of England settle m the south of Scotland. 135. Servile war in Sicily. 133. PfiRGAMUS, a Roman 133. Numantia destroyed by Province. Scipio : Spain becomes a Roman Province. Death of Tiberius Grac- chus. 129 Ptolemy Physcon driven from his throne for his cruelty. 128 Pestilence in Egypt. 123 Carthage rebuilt. 123. Tribunate of Caius 118 Death of Micip^a, king of 118. Dalmatia, a Roman Gracchus. Numidia, and the assassina- Province. tion of Hiempsal by Jugur- tha. Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of 116 Jugurthine War. 113. First great migration of 112 the German nations. 109. War of the Teutoni and Cimbri. 107 Alexander I., king of Egypt. 105 Jugurtha is defeated and sur- 105. Numidia becomes a Ro- renders Numidia to the Ro- man province by the defeat mans, of Jugurtha. 104. The Teutoni defeat 80,000- Romans on the banks of the Rhone. 102. M a r i u s victorious over the Teutom and Ambro- nes at Aquse Sextae. 101. Marius and Catullus de- feat the Cimbri. 100. Marius buys his sixth con- sulate. Banishment of Metellua 40 THE world's progress. The Eighth Period. — {The Roman.) — B. c Progress op Society, etc. Libraries of Athens sent to Rome by Sylla. Decline of Agriculture Italy; corn supplied from the provinces. Posidonius calculates the height of the atmosphere to be about 800 stadia. Zeno, of Sidon, the Epicurean ; Apellicon of Athens ; Alex- ander Polyphistor,the gram- marian ; Photius Gallup, rhetorician ; Q. Valerius Anlias, Roman historian ; Q. Hortensius, orator. The cherry tree brought to Europe from Asia by Lu- cullus. — Terentius Varro writes three books on agri- culture. The Romans possess gold mines in Asia Minor, Mace- donia, Sardinia and Gaul ; and productive silver mines in Spain. The first water mill described near a dwelling of Mithri- dates. Ebony introduced at Rome by Pompey. Vikramaditya, king of Ozene, in India, patron of literature — at his court flourish Aine- ra Sinka, lexicographer ; Vararuchi, grammarian ; Kalidasa, poet. 79. Alexandra, widow of Jan- neus, governs Judea. 70. Hyrcanus II., High Priest, deposed by his brother Aris- tobulus. 67. Aristobulus and Hyrcanus appeal to Pompey, who en- ters Judea and takes Jerusa- lem, and restores Hyrcanus to the priesthood. 98. China still submits to the Han dynasty ; S e m a t - z i n , Emperor. 97. Mithridates conquers Cap- padocia. 95. Cappadocia declared free by Rome. — Ariobarzanes elected king. 94. Antiochus, king of Syria, defeated ly Seleucus. 93. Tigranes, king of Arme- nia. 9. Pontus at war with Rome. 86. Mithridates takes Bythi- nia and several Roman pro- vinces. 83. Tigranes made king of Syria. 75. By the death of Nicome- des Bythinia becomes a province. 63. JUDEA A ROMAN PRO- VINCE. 70. Dafnascus possessed by the Romans. 69. Mithridates and Tigranes defeated by Lucullus. 66. Mithridates defeated by Pompey. 65. Antiochus XII. defeated by Pompey.— The race of the Seleucidse becomes ex- tinct. — Ariobarzanes II., king of Cappadocia. — An earthquake in Bosphorus lays in ruins several towns. 64. Dejotarus, king of Galatia, seizes Armenia Minor. 63. Pharmaces, king of Pontus. THE world's progress. 41 146 years. — (Continued.) By the death of Ptolemy Apion, Cyrene becomes a Roman province. Thebes destroyed. Alexander II., king of Egypt. Roman Empire. In Asia and Africa. 97. Annexation of Cyrene. 9. Mithridatic War; Sylla commands the Roman army. 8. The Athenians seek as- sistance from Mithridates against Rome. 6. Athens, reduced by famine, is taken by Sylla. S3. Second Mithridatic War. Revolt in Dpper Egypt. — 82. Sylla plunders the temple Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt. of Delphi. 79. P o m p e y defeats Do- mitius in Africa. 75. Bythinia a Roman Province. 74. Third Mithridatic War under LucuUus. In Europe. 99. L u s i t a n i a conquered by Dolabella, and becomes a Roman province. — Birth of Julius Caesar. 66. Metellus subdues Crete. P n t u s becomes a Roman Province. 65. Syria, a Roman Province. 91. Social War in Italy. 8. Sylla defeating the Marsi and Peligni, puts an end to the Social War. Civil War between Ma- rius and Sylla. 82. Sylla defeats Marius, and is cxea.ted perpetual dictator. SO. JULIUS CAESAR'S First Campaign. 77. Sertorius revolts in Spain and defeats Metellus and Pompey. 73. War of Spartacus, the gla- diator. 71. Spartacus defeated by Cras sus. 70. Pompey and Cras BUS Consuls. 69. Census 450,090. 65. M. T. Cicero, Consul. 63. Cataline's Conspi- racy detected and sup- pressed by Cicero. 42 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. The Eighth Period. — [The Roman.) — B.C. Progress op Society, etc. The Jews. Asia. 62 Magnificent houses of the nobles; marble theatre of Scaurus, to hold 30,000 spec- tators. 60 Cicero, statesman and orator ; Sallust, historian; Lucre- tius and Catullus, poets; ApoUonius, of Rhodes, rhe- torician ; Aristomedes, of Crete, grammarian ; Andro- nicus, of Rhodes, peripate- tic philosopher. S5 Iron chain cables used by the Veneti. 53. Crassus plunders the tem- 53. Parthian War.— The Ro- ple of 10,000 talents. mans defeated. — Crassus slain. 60 A water mill on the Tiber at Rome. 48. Antipater, the Idumean, is made lieutenant in Judea by Caesar. 49. The era of Antioch. 47 The Alexandrian library (400,- 47. Battle of Zela.— Phamacea 46 000 vols.) burnt. The year of confusion — so called because the calejidar was altered by Sosigenes. conquered by Caesar. 45 Ccesar reforms the Calendar, by introducing the solar in- stead of the lunar year.— First Julian year. — Vitru- ' vius, the greatest Roman ar- chitect. Cornelius Nepos, historian; 44. A comet seen m China. 43 43. Judea oppressed by Cras- Diodorus Siculus, histo- rian. sus. Malichus poisons Anti- pater. 40. Herod the Great, son of ** Antipater, defeats his rival. 39. The Parthians, under Par- Antigonus, and Parcorus, corus, defeated by Venti- the Parthian— takes Jerusa- dius. lem—marries Mariamne — is Darius, king of Pontus. made king by the Romans. 38. Aiiobarzanes dethroned by Marc Antony. THE world's progress. 146 years. — (Continued.) 43 58 46 Ptolemy goes to Rome, Bere- nice reigns in his absence. The African War. — Scipio and Juba defeated at Thap- sus. — Cato kills himself at Utica. — Ptolemy Bionysius drowned in the Nile. Ceesar rebuilds Carthage. Cleopatra poisons her brother and reims alone. Roman Empire. East. 53. Crassus defeated and killed in Parthia. 48. Thessaly becomes the seat of war. — The Athenians de- clare for Caesar against Pom- pey. Battle of Pharsalia: — Pom- pey, defeated by Cessar, flees into Egypt, and is slain there. 47. CcBsar takes Alexandria, and conquers Egypt. — Cse- sar victorious at Zela, ir Asia. 45. Corinth rebuilt by Csesar. 60. First TriumviTate : — Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Ccesar. Sciold, first king of Den- mark. — Boh, a fierce son of Odin. 58. Clodius procures the ban ishment of Cicero. — The Helvetii defeated by Julius Csesar. 57. Cicero recalled. — S a 1 - lust expelled from the senate. — Gylf, king of Swe- den. 55. Cffisar passes the Rhine, defeats the Ger- mans and Gauls, and In- vades Britain. 54. Caesar's second invasion of Britain. ij^. Pompey, sole consul. 51. Csesar completes the con- quest of Gaul, which be- comes a Roman province. 49. Caesar passes the Rubicon, and in sixty days makes himself master of Italy— marches into Spain and forces Porapey's troops to surrender. 48. Battle of Dyrrhachium. 45. Caesar perpetual dictator — he subdues the two sons of Pompey, and acquires the sole power. 44. Caesar assassinated in the Senate House. 43. Second Triumvirate : — Octavius Csesar, Marc An- tony, and Lepidue. — Cicero proscribed and murdered. 42. The Battle of Philippi ;— Antony and Octavius defeat Brutus and Cassius. 44 THE world's progress. The Eighth Pe)-iod. — {The Romans B. 0. Progress op Socibty, etc. Golden age of Roman litera- ture. The revenue of the empire amounts to about 40 millions sterling. — First standing ar- my in Rome. — Direct trade of'^Rome with India. — Silk and linen manufactories in the empire. Temple of Janus at Rome closed— there being now a general peace. Treasures of Egyptian art brought to Rome. — The Pan- theon built. Horace, Virgil, Tibullus, Propertius, poets; Varrus and Tucca., critics ; Livy, historian ; McBcenas, minis- ter of Augustus, patron of literature; Strabo, geogra- pher; JEmiitus Macer, of Verona, poet ; Agrippa, war- rior, and patron of tne arts. Worship of Isis at Rome. Pantomimic dances intro- duced on the Roman stage. Aqueducts constructed by Agrippa. Dedications of byiks first in- troduced. The Jews. 30. Herod kills Mariamne. 19. Tlie Temple rebuilt by Herod — he also builds Cy- pron, Antipatris, PharsaBUs, and the to"wer of Phasael in Jerusalem. The legions distributed over the provinces in fixed camps, which soon grew into cities — among them were Bonn and Mayence. The calendar corrected by Augustus. Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, historian ; and Dionysius, geographer. BIRTH OF OUR SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST, 4 years be- I fore the Vulgar Era. 3. Archelaus succeeds Herod with the title of Ethnarch. Cyrenius taxes Judea. 34. Antony takes possession of Armenia, which becomes a Roman province — leads an inglorious expedition against Parthia. 29. Ephesus, next to Alexandria, the chief place of trade in the Roman em- pire. 20. Porus, king of India, soli- cits an alliance with Rome. Parthians defeated by Ti- berius. 14. Polemon coiiquers Bos- porus. THE world's progress. 45 146 years. — (Continued.) 34 30 Roman Empire. East. Cleopatra obtains from An- tony a grant of Phoenicia, Cyrene and Cyprus. — receives all Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus. Cleopatra and Marc Antony defeated by Octavius, at AcUum. Alexandria taken by Octavius. — Antony and Cleopatra de- stroy themselves. Egypt becomes a Ro- man province. 21. Athens finally subjected to Rome. 20. CXCth Olympiad. 8. Tiberius at Rhodes. 5. Q. Varrus appointed gov- ernor of Syria, and Cyre- nius governor of Judea. West. 36. Sextus Pompey defeated in Sicily. 32. Antony quarrels with Oc- tavius. 31. By the BATTLE OF AC- TIUM Octavius acquires the empire. 30. THE REPUBLIC BE- COMES A MONARCHY. 29. Octav tus s 3 days triumph at Rome. Temple of Janus shut. Rome contains 4,101,017 citizens. 27. The titles of Augustus and Emperor conferred on Octa- vius for 10 years. 23. Agrippa in Spain. 22. Conspiracy of Muraena. 21. Augustus visits Greece and Asia. 16. Lollius defeated by the Germans. 15. Cantabria, Austria, RhcE- bia, Vindelencia and Mcesia become Roman provinces — being conquered by Dru- sus. 13. Augustus assumes the title of Pontifex Maxiraus. 12. Pannonia, conquered by Tiberius, becomes a Ro- man province. 11. Germany subdued by Ger manicus. 4. Cymbeline, king of Britaia PA]IT II. MODERN CHRONOLOGY, FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIME. Epochas or Periods. 1. From t u. m. IV. V. VI. VII. vni IX. X. XI. .. the Christian Era \ Period of the Ten Persecutions of the Reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 306 ) Christians. Northern Invasions. Justinian and Belisarius. The Crusades. Extinction of the Western Empire, " 476 \ Flight of Mahomet, " 622 S CrowningofCharlemagneatRome, " 800 ( " Saracen Empire. Battle of Hastings, " 1066 ( " New Western Empvra. Founding of the Turkish Empire, " 1299 \ Taking of Constantinople, " 1453 ( " Tamerlane,WiMiffe,and Huso. \ " The Reformation; Discoveries Edict of Nantes, " 1598 \ and Inventions. i" The English Commonwealth and Wars of Louis XIV. } " American and French Revohi- Battle of Waterloo, " 1815 \ tions. ( " European Revolutions, Litem- present time, (1850.) \ ture and the Arts. 48 THE world's progress. MODERN" CHRONOLOGY— PERIOD 1st.— (TAe Ten Persecutions.)— A.D. Pkogbess op Society, etc. Sacred. The BIRTH OF CHRIST :-(see p. 44.) Herod Antipas being at this time tetrarch of Galilee. 8. Christ reasons with the doctors. 9 Celsus, the physician; Phcedrus, the fabu- list ; Vellius Paterculus, Roman histo- rian. 26 30 The Druids in Germany. Pkilo, Alexandrian Jew, disciple of Plato. Seneca, moral philosopher. 2.5. Pontius Pilate, governor of Judea. 26. John the Baptist begins his ministry. 27. Christ baptized by John 23. —at the marriage in Cana. — Matthew called. 29. Twelve disciples sent abroad, " two and two." 30. CRUCIFIXION of our SAVIOUR, Fri- day, April 3, at 3 P. M. ; Resurrectioti. Sunday, April 5; Ascension, Thursday, May 4. 33 37 Valerius Maximus, historian. Appion, of Alexandria, grammarian, called the "Trumpet of the World." 33. St. Peter baptizes Cornelius. 34. St. Paul converted to Christianity. 39. St. Matthew writes his gospel. 40. The disciples first called Christians ac Antioch. 41. Herod's persecution ; St. Peter imprisoned 48 A census being taken by Claudius, the em- peror and censor, the inhabitants of Rome are fo'und to amount to 6,900,000. — (Univ. Sist.)— [More than three times the number 44. St. Mark writes his gospel. — Death of St. James. 45. Barnabas and Paul preach in Cyprus. 50 of London at present.! Columella, born in Spain ; left twelve books on husbandry. 50. Paul preaches in the Areopagus, at Athens. 52. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem. 55. Paul preaches at Ephesus, and at Caesa- rea. 57. — pleads before Felix. 59. —pleads before Festus, and appeals to Caesar. THE world's progress. 49 306 years. — From the Christia7i Era to the reign of Constantine. Roman Empire. East. Caius Caesar makes peace with the Parthians. 26 Germanicus conquers Cappadocia. Germanicus poisoned at Antioch. Thrace becomes a Roman province. Tiberius returns to Rome. 3. Cinna's conspiracy detected. — Caius Cassar dies. 6. Q. Varrus encamped on the Weser, gov- erns Lower Germany like a Roman pro- vince. 9. The Germans, under jlrwizjizus, defeat and kill Varrus. Ovid is banished to Tomos. 14 Augustus dies at Nola, aged 76, and is succeeded by Tiberius .^M 9. The Jews banished from Rome. — The Marcomanni conquered by Drusus. '21 . The theatre of Pompey destroyed by fire. 26. Tiberius retires to Caprsa. 31. Sejanus disgraced and put to death. 33. Conquest of Mauritania. S7. Tiberius dies, aged 78. -Caligula. (noted for his profligacy and folly.) 41. Caligula assassinated by Chereas. Claudius" succeeds to the throne. 43. — invades Britain with his general, Plau- tius. 45. Vespasian, general in Britain. 48. Census of 'the city, 6,900,000. 51. Caractacus, the chief of the Britons, con- quered and brought to Rome. N e r ,^ a profligate and bloody tyrant. 55. — poisons Britanicus. 56. Rotterdam built. 59. Nero's mother, Agrippina, put to death by his order. 50 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Modern : Period I. — 306 years. Progress op Society, etc. Nero's golden palace built ; of great extent, inclosing fields, &c. The buildings in Rome more regular after the fire. Pliny, the elder, author of the first natural history ; Quintius Curtius, historian ; Per- sius, satirist. Josephus, the Jewish historian. The Coliseum of Vespasian. The Capitol rebuilt. Circumnavigation of Scotland. Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Very beautiful paintings in the Baths of Titus ; the group of the Laocoon: Quintillian, orator ; Valerius Flaccus, poet Martial, Epigrammatist; ApoUonius, Py- thagorean philosopher; Epicletus, stoic: Dio Chrysostom, Greek rhetorician and phi- losopher ; Philo ByHius ; Ignatius and Pa- pias, two of the fathers of the church. Tacitus, historian; Juvenal, satirist; Sta- tius, poet; Aul. Gellius, Latin gramma- rian ; Plutarch, moralist and biographer ; the younger Pliny. The Ulpian library; Public schools in all the provinces ; Jurisprudence flourishes ; the city adorned with the Forum ; Pillar of Trajan, and baths; bridge built over the Danube. Sacred and Ecclesiastical. 59. Paul is shipwrecked on the Island of Melita (Malta). 60. Paul imprisoned at Rome 63. Paul set at liberty. 64. The first persecution (if Christians by Nero. 63 to 66. I'aul visits Jerusalem, and travels through tlie greater part of the known world. 66. Pope Linus.* The Jews at war with the Romans, and Paul beheaded. St. Peter crucified. 67. The Jews massacred by Florua. — Josephus, governor of Galilee. Pope St. Clement. — Gamaliei, 68. Vespasian invades Judea. 70. The destruction of Jerusalem, by T4ua. 77. Pope St. Cletus 83. Pope Anacletus. 95. Second persecution of the Christians by Domitian. St. John writes his Gospel and Apoca- lypse, and is banished to the isle of Patmoa. 96. Pope Evaristus. 97. Timothy stoned. St. John returns from exile. 98. Christian assemblies prohibited by Trajan. * The word Pope is used in accordance with the Roman Catholic usa^e, though the name was not adopted by their Pontiffs tili several centuries after. — Christian Era to Constantine.'] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 51 Roman Empire. 60 East. Corbuli subdues Armenia. Tiridates placed on the throne of Armenia by Nero. Judea subdued and Jerusalem destroyed by Tiius. Vespasian conquers Lycia, Rhodes, Thrace, Cilicia, Byzantium and Samos. Revolt of the Parthians. 61. Revolt of the Britons under queen Boa- dicea ; they burn London. The queen, de- feated by Suetonius, poisons herself. 64. Nero sets Rome on fire, and accuses the Christians of the crime. — persecutes the Christians — Seneca, Lu- cian, and others put to death. 68.- Galba,' reigns 9 months, and is put to death by 69.- ■O the ,' (2 months) defeated and killed by -V it e 1 1 i us, who is defeated by the army of 70. Vespasian. ^§ 77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in one day. 79.- — Titus ,' (beneficent.) Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an irruption of Vesuvius. 80. Julius Agricola, conqueror and governor of Britain, reduces Wales, enters Caledonia. 81. • -Domitian, ^g ( a cruel tyrant.) 86. Dercebal, leader of the German hordes, defeats Domitian, and compels him to pay a vearly tribute. 88! Capitoline and secular games. War with Dacia 15 years. 96. Domitian put to death by Stephanus. N e r V i (well intentioned but enfeebled by age.) -Trajan,' (a ereat sovereign anda warrior.) The Roman Empire at its greatest exieiv J. Severus, general in Britain. 52 THE world's progress. [Modern : Period I. — 306 years. 107 132 180 Progress op Society, etc. The first credible historian among the Chinese. The great buildings oi Palmyra.- the Sun at Baalbec. The Roman mosaics. -Temple of Jurisprudence improved by the publishment of Adrian's perpetual code. Ptolemy, the celebrated Egyptian astronomer and geographer — Arriati, Appian, Maxi- 7nus, Lysius and Pausanius., Greek histo rians ; Lucian, a satirical writer ; Hermo- genes, rhetorician of Tarsus. Tschan^ Heng. the Chinese astronomer. Galen, Greek- physician ; Athceneus, a gram- marian; Diogenes Laertius, Greek histo- rian. The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. Ecclesiastical. 100. St. John dies at Ephesus, aet. 94. 107. Third persecution of the Christians by Trajan. lOy. St. Ignatius devoured by wild beasts. Pope Alexander I. 118. Fourth persecution of the Christiana by Adrian. 119. Pope Sixtusl. 126. Quadratus, bishop of Athens. 127. Pope Telesphorus. 130. Heresy of Prodicus, chief of the Ada- mites. 134. Heresy of Marcion, who acknowledge? three Gods. 135. Polycarp and Aristides, Christian fathers. 139. Pope Hygenus. 142. Pope Pius J. Heresy of Valentine. 150. Pope Anicetus. Canon of Scripture fixed about this time. 154. Justin Martyr publishes his apology for the Christians. 162. PopeSoter. 167. Polycarp and Pionices martyred in Asia. 171. Pope Eleutherus. 177. The Christians persecuted at Lyf ns.— Theophilus, Tatian., and Montajias. 185. Pope Victor I. St, Irenceus. -C/irisL'aii Era to Cimstantine.l THE WOU-LDS PB-OGllESS. Roman Empire. 102 East. Pliny, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan his account of the Christians. — Great victories of Trajan. Trajan's expedition against the Parthians. Seizure of Ctesiphon. Armenia Major again governed by its own kings dependent upon Rome. Nicomedia and other cities destroyed by an earthquake. Adrian in Asia Minor for seven years. Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, under the name of .a^lia Capitolina, and erects there a temple to Jupiter. The rebellion of the Jews crushed after a war of five years. — The Jews banished from Judea. 160 168 E'lnbassy sent by Antoninus to China. War with the Parthians, lasts 3 years. West. 100. The Huns emigrate westward. 101. Trajan reduces Dacia. 115. Massacre of the Greeks and Romans by the Jews of Gyrene. 120. — makes s progress through all the 121. provinces -visits Britain, builds there a wall from the Tyne to Solway Frith. — A wall built from the Rhine to the Danube. 13S. — Antoninus Pius, ^g (eminent for his virtues and love of peace.) 140. LoUius Urbicus extends the Roman do- minion in Britain, and erects a second ram- part, called the Wall of Antoninus. 145. Antoninus defeats the Moors, Germans, and Dacians. 146. -^introduces the worship of Serapis into Rome. 152. — stops the persecution of the Christians. 161.— Marcus Aurelius, ^^ (Anto- ninus,) (the stoic philosopher.) Escape of the thundering legion. 158. Plague over the whole known world. 169. The Marcomanni at war with Rome. 180. The emperor dies at Sirmium: ceeded by C m m o d ti s . (profligate and cruel ;) makes peace with the Germans. GOTHS in Dacia. 54 THE WORLD S PROGRKSS. [Mode7'ii : Period I. — 306 yccon. Progress op Society, etc. 242 Papinian, the greatest civil lawyer of aniv quily — Julius Africmius, chronologer. Caracalla grants the right of Roman citizen- ship to all the provinces, that they may be- come liable to the taxes, inheritances, &c. Ecclesiastical. Ammonius, founder of a new school of Pla- tonic philosophy at Alexandria. Dio Cassius, Greek historian. Censorius, a critic and grammarian. Herodian, Greek liistorian. Longinus, philosopher and critic. 197. Pope Zephyrinus. 20" Fifth persecution of the Christians under Severus. — Tertullian, an able defender of Christianity. — Clemens, of Alexandria, and Mi7iutius Felix, C. F.* 217. Pope Calixtus I. The Septuagint found in a cask. 228. Pope Urban I. 2.34. Pope Pontianus. 235. Anterus. Driven, C. F. Sixth persecution of the Christians, under Maximinus, in which Leonidtts, IrencBus, Victor, Perpetua, and Felicitas are mar- tyred. 244. Gregory Tkaumalurgus, anH Dionysiuf. of Alexandria, C. F. 250. Pope St. Cornelius. Seventh persecution of the Christians * Christian Father. — Christian Era to Constantine.] THE world's progress. 55 Roman Empire. 1S9 East. The SARACENS defeat the Romans. 242 PERSIA ; the new kingdom begun by Avtax- erxes ; (the dynasty of the Sassasidas). Parlhia tributary to Persia. Gordiaii defeats the Persians under Sapoi- West. 189. The Capitol of Rome destroyed by light- ning. 191. Rome nearly destroyed by fire. 192. Commodus assassinated by Martia and Laetus. 193.- Pertinax, proclaimed by the Preetonan guards — murdered after a reign of 3 months. — Th^; empire bought by JOidiiis Julianas, whu is put to death by order of the senate. Septimus Severus ,^§ (governs with vigor.) — defeats his competitors, Niger and Albi- nus. 194. — besieges Byzantium. 202. ^lersecutes the Christians. 203 — his sons Caracalla and Geta go to Bri- tain, where 50,000 Roman troops died o( plague. The wall of Severus between the Forth and the Clyde built. 211. Severus dies at York, in Britain. Caracalla and Geta. ^g Caracalla murders Geta. 212. — visits the provinces along the Danube. — Wars with the Catti and Alemanni. 217. Caracalla is assassinated. M a c r i n u s , put to death by the soldiers. 218. Heliogabalus,' (a monster of vice and cruelty.) 222.- Alexander Severus ,^5 (a beneficent and enlightened prince.) The Romans agree to pay an annual tri- bute to the Goths, to prevent them from molesting the empire. 226. The victory of Severus over the Persians at Tadraor. 235. Severus murdered in a mutiny of the army ; succeeded by M a X i m i n u s , ^M^ who defeats the Dacians and Sarraatians. 286. Maximinus assassinated by his troops near Aquilea. ■ Balbinus and Gordian, ^g ~ 241. The FRANKS first mentioned in his- tory ; they invade Gaul. 244. —are repulsed at Moguntiacum. Gordian put to death by -Philip ,^g (the Arabian,)- who makes makes peace with Sapor. 247. The secular games restored. 249, persecutes the Christians. 250. —slain by the Goths, who invade the empire by crossing the Danube. 56 THE WORLD'Ei PROGRESS. [Modem .- P,eriod I. — 306 years. 251 270 276 277 Progress op Society, etc. Plotinus. Odin in Scandinavia. Ecclesiastical. 251. St Cyprian, bishop of Cartilage. — Mo- nastic life ori;;inates about this time. Dispute between the churches of Rome and Africa about baptism. Paulus, a Roman poet. Longinus at the court of Zenobia. Rome surrounded with a wall. Longinus dies. Porphyri/, the Greek philosopher and opposer ol Christianity. Extraordinary naval expedition of the Thra- cian Franks in t>3 Mediterranean and Northern Seas. Diocletian's Oriental form of government — the monarchy considered hereditary — nomi- nation of Ccesars as co-rulers. Diocletian's baths, containing 3,000 benches of white marble, while the walls were adorned with paintings. 259. Pope Dionysius. 262. Paul, bishop of Samosatia, deriea the divinity of Jesus Christ 269. Pope Felix I. 272. Ninth persecution under Aurelian. 274. Pope Eutychianes. Manes originates the heresy of the Mani- chfeans — rejects all the sacraments ; refuses allegiance to temporal sovereigns, &c. 283. Pope Caius. The Jewish Talmud and Targum com- posed. Paul, the Theban, the first hermit. ^Reli- gious ceremonies multiplied. — Pagan rites imitated by the Christians. 286. Ilierax, chief of the Hieraxians ; asserts that Melchizedec was the Holy Ghost, and denies the resurrection. — Ckristiaii Era to Co7istantine.'\ THE world's progress. 57 Roman Empire. East. HUNS on the Caspian Sea. 260 261 264 269 273 The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. Persia : — Sapor's victory over the Roman arms. The temple of Biana at Ephesus burnt. Sapor, the Persian, takes Antic ch, Tarsus and Caesarea. Odenatus, king of Palmyra— lie is succeeded by his wife. Z en ob i a, who reigns with the titles of ' Augusta,' and ' Queen of the East.' Zenobia conquers Egypt, a part of Armenia, and Asia Minor. Zenobia defeated at Edessa, by Aurelian, who destroys her magnificent capital, and carries her to Rome. The Persians iefeated by Probus. G a 1 1 u s purchases a peace with the Goths. — Con- federacy of the Franks between the Rhine and Elbe. — a great pestilence prevails in the empire. 254.- Emilianus. Valerian. is successful against the Germans and Goths. 256-69. Four great piratical expeditions of the Goths into Asia Minor and Greece. 259. Valerian defeated and taken prisoner and flayed alive by the Persians. • G a 1 1 i e n u s . ^m Period of the 30 tyrants. The Persians penetrate to Ravenna. 264. Alliance with Odenatus. 267. Cleodamus and Athenius defeat the Goths and Scythians. 268. Gallienus killed at Milan. -Claudius II. defeats an army of 320,000 Goths. 269. —dies at Sirmium. 270. Aurelian, ^§ (a great warrior.) 271. —defeats the Goths and Alemanni. 273. — reduces Palmyra after an heroic resist- ance, and takes queen Zenobia prisoner. 274. France, Spain, and Britain reduced to obedience. The Temple of the Sun at Rome burnt. — Dacia given up to the barbarians. 275. Aurelian killed near Byzantium. An interregnum of 6 rnonths. Tacitus, 277.- (a descendant of the historian,) reigns with wisdom 6 months. Probus,' (a warlike prince.) — obtains several victories over the barba- rians.— The Franks permitted by Probus to settle in Gaul. 282. Probus slain by his soldiers. C a r u s killed by lightning. Carinus and Numerianus," (effeminate and cruel.) 288. Fingal, king of Morven, dies. Diocletian^ sends ambassadors to China. "The JEra of Diocletian," or of "the martyrs," Au£rust29. 287. Britain usurped by Qarausius, who reigns 7 years. The empire attacked by the north- ern barbarians, and several provinces usurped by tyrants.— Maximianus, a col- league of the Emperor. 58 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Modern : Period I. — 306 years. 290 304 312 323 330 310 357 Progress of Society, etc. The Gregorian code. Gregory and Hermogenes, lawyers ; JElius, Spartianus, and Vopiscus, hislovia.'os; Tre- bellius Polio. Ecclesiastical. 296. Monks in Spain and Egypt. Pope Marcellinus. 303. Tenth Persecution of the Christians. 30-1. Arnobius, of Africa, C. F., converted .•rom idolatry. The prmtorian guard broken up by Constan- tlne. MODERN: PERIOD SECOND.— 170 7jears,— 306. Persecution of the Christians stopped by Constantius. 310. Pope Eusebius. Arius excommunicated. 311. Pope Malchiades. 314. Pope Sylvester I. 319. Toleration of Christianity by Constantine the Great. Foundation of Constantinople by Constantine the Great. — Celebrated dome of St Sophia : the splendor of the court so great tlrat it cost more than the legions. Constantinople becomes the seat of art and literature. Ossian, the Caledonian bard, supposed to have flourished about this time. Eutropius and Marcellinus, historians ; Jam- blicus and Eunapitis, Greek historian. 325. The Council of Nice (from June 19th, 325 to August 25th) consisting of 318 bishops, who condemn Kxia.n\sm.—Eusebiv^, bishop of Csesarea, C. F., and ecclesiastical histo- rian. — Lactantius, At/ianasius, Arius, Ephraim and Basil, C. F., flourish in the reign of Constantine. 336. Pope Marcus. 337. Pope Julius. Eleventh persecution. — Saints invoked, the cross reverenced, and incense used by the Christians. 341. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by Frumaintius. 356. Pope Feta II. St. Hilary and Gregory Nazianzen, of Constantinople, an emment writer, C. F. — Elius Donatus, bishop of Carthage.— Cyril, bishop of Je rusalem. — Monasteries in Thebais. —Ckrisbian Era to Constantine.^ THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 59 325 328 333 334 337 340 350 354 361 Roman Empire. East. Narses, king of Persia, loses Armenia, Meso- potamia, and Assyria. Alexandria taken by Diocletian. Hormisdas, II., king of Persia, builds Ormus. From Constantine to Odoacer. The first general council at Nice. The seat of government removed to Constan- tinople, which was solemnly dedicated on May 11th, 330. Great famine and pestilence in Syria. Revolt of Sarmatian slaves, 300,000 are dis- persed over the empire. Death of Constantine, and the accession of his three sons, Constantius, Constans,and Constantino.^ West. 291. The Franks make themselves masters of Batavia and Flanders. 293. The Franks expelled from Batavia. 296. Britain restored to the emperor. 304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the Em- pire to Constantius and Galeritis. 306.— Constantine the Great, ^^ (first Christian emperor.) Licinius, Maximian, and Maxentius, his three colleagues. Constantine defeats the Franks. 312. Maxentius defeated and killed. 314. Civil war with Licinius. 319. Constantine favors and tolerates Chris- tianity. 321. —appoints the observance of Sunday. 322. — deteats and banishes Licinius, and be- comes sole emperor. 325. — abolishes the combats of gladiators and assemblies. 331. Constantine orders all the heathen tem- ples to be destroyed. 150 Greek and Asiatic cities destroyed by an earthquake. Hermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, founds an extensive empire. Gallus put to death by Constantius. Constantius dies at Tarsus. A disadvantageous peace with the Persians. 340. Constantine, the younger, defeated and killed by Constans at Aquilea. 350. Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius. 357. Six German kmgs defeated by Julian at Strasburg. 361. — Julian, the Apostate, ^g — attempts in vain to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. 363. — is slain in a war with the Persians. EASTERN EMPIRE extending from the lower Danube to the con- 1 fines of Persia. 364. Death of Jovian, and the accession of Valentinian and Valens, under whom the EMPIRE is DIVIDED : WESTERN EMPIRE, extending from the Caledonian ramparts to the foot of Mount Atlas. 60 THE world's progress. [Modern: Period II. — 170 years-. 412 425 135 Progress op Society, etc. Aurelius Victor, author of lives of celebrated Romans. Prudentius and Ausonius, Latin poets; Pappus and Theon, of Alexandria, mathe- maticians. Claudian, Latin poet. Macrubius, Platonic philosopher. Theodosius establishes public schools, and at- tempts the restoration of learning. The Theodosian code published. Ecclesiastical. 373. The Bible translated into the Gothic lan- guage. 379. The prerogatives of the Roman See much enlarged. 381. The second general Council of Constan- tinople. 384. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate for Paganism against St. Ambrose. 385. Pope Syricius. 392. St. Chrysostom, patriarch of Constan- tinople ; St. Ambrose, archbishop of Milan ; St. Jerome, St. Martin, and St. Augustine, ' Christian Fathers.' Image worship. — The Christian hier- archy begins. 401. Pope Innocent I. 412. C)/n7, bishop of Alexandria ; Isidore waA Socrates, ecclesiastical historians ; Orosius, a Spanish disciple of St. Augustine ; and Pelagius, a British monk, wlio denied origi- nal sm, &c. 416. The Pelagian heresy condemned by the African bishops. 417. Pope Zozimus. 418. Pope Boniface I. 422. Pope Celestine I. 429. Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, ac- knowledges two persons in Jesus Christ. 431. Third general Council at Ephesus. 432. Pope Sixtus III. St. Patrick preaches the Gospel in Ire- land. 435. Nestorianism prevails in the East. 440. Pope Leo I. (the Great). 443. The Manichcean books burned at Rome. 445. Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople. -From Constantvne to Odoacer,] THE world's progress. 61 376 378 Eastern Empire. HUNGARY, (ancient Pannonia,) invaded by the Huns, from whom it is named.— The Goths expelled by the Huns, are allowed by Valens to settle in Thrace. Valens defeated and slain by the Goths near Adrianople. Theodosius the Great, ^S a zealous supporter of Christianity. Theodosius defeats Maxiraus,the tyrant of the western empire. Western Empire. 364. Valentinian I. ^^ ■ elected by the army. 368. The Saxons invade Britain, but are de- feated by Theodosius. 375.- G r a t i an gains a victory over the Germans; suc- ceeds to the eastern empire on the death oi Valens; Maximus is proclaimed emperor. — Gratian killed at Lyons. 379. The LOMBARDS first leave Scandina- via, and defeat the Vandals. 383.- Valentinian II. —is dispossessed by Maximus, hut is re- stoied by Theodosius; makes Treves his capital. 384. —is strangled at Vienna by Arbogastes, a Gaul, commander of the army. Theodo si us W becomes sole emperor of the East and West. Complete down fall of Paganism. Theodosius defeats Eugenius, the usur per of the West, and Arbogastes, the Gaul. Final division of the empire be tween the sons of Theodosius. A r c a d i u s . -Theodosius Il.^g^ — a ehild ; Athenius, minister. Regency of the emperor's sister, Pulcheria. Persian War. Armenia divided between the Persians and Romans. A great part of Constantinople destroys 1 by fire. Pannonia, Dalmatia and Noricum gained from the western empire. Honorius, 401. Europe overrun by the VISIGOTHS. 403. Alaric defeated by Stillicho. 406. The Vandals permitted to settle in Spain, Gaul, &c. 410. Rome sacked and burned by the Goths under Alaric. 412. Beginning of the Vandal power in Spain. 413. Burgundian kingdom begun in Alsace. 414. The Visigoths plant themselves in Tou- louse. 417. The Alani defeated and extirpated by the Goths. 420. FRANKS : — Pharamond, their first king, on the lower Rhine. 424. — Valentinian III. 426. Britain evacuated by the Romans. 427. Pannonia recovered from the Huns. 428. .^Etius, the Roman general, defeated by the Franks and Goths. Franks :— Clodion, king, extends his con- quests to the river Somme. 433. A 1 1 i 1 a , " The scourge of God," forms an immense empire from China to the At- lantic. 437. .S;tius defeats the Goths. 439. The kingdom of the Vandals in Africa, under G e n s e ri c , who takes Carthage and plunders Italy. 441. The Roman territories invaded by the Huns, Persians and Saxons. 445. Th9 famous embassy from Britain, soli- citing aid against the Picts. 62 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Modern: Period II. — nO years Progress op Society, etc. Zozimus and Olympiodorus, Greek histo- rians. The pnnciple established that every accused person shall be tried by his peers, or equals. Legislation of the Visigoths in Spain — Eric being king, and founder of the Gothic mo- narchy. The tottering empire of the west was finally overthrown by Odoacer's sack of Rome, the great event which precedes the middle or '■'■dark ages." The form of the old Roman government remained — the senate, the consuls, &c. — but Italy, ravaged by a succession of wars, plagues, famines, and every form of public tyranny and domestic slavery, was nearly a desert. ECCLESIASTICAI.. 447. Eutyches asserts the existence of only one nature in Jesus Olirist. 449. Ibus, bishop of Edessa; and Eusebius, bishop of Doryleum, deposed. 450. Sozomen and Theodoret, ecclesiastical historians. 451. The fourth general Council at Chalcadon, at which Eutycheanism and Nestorianisra are solemnly condemned. 461. Pope Hilarius. 465. Pope Simplicius. Oligarchy of the bishops of Rome, Con- stantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jeru- salem — all striving for the supremacy.— The church now begins to assume a politi- cal aspect. — F'rom Constatitiiic to Odoaccr.j THE WORLD S PROGRESS. G3 450 Eastern Empire. M a r c i a n , ' 457 474 475 a Thracian, refuses to pay the annual tribute to the Huns. Leo I . , (the Thracian,) ' first emperor ever crowned by the patriarch. War with the Goths. Peace with the Goths ; Theoiloric is received from them as a hostage. Z en . a turbulent reign : debaucheries and conspi- racies. Theodoric becomes chief of the Ostrogoths, and invades the empire. He ravages Thrace. Western Empire. 448. Franks :— Merovosus 1st, king of the Me- rovingians. .ffitius defeats the Huns. 451. The arrival of the Saxons in Britain, under Hengist and Horsa. 452. The city of VENICE founded. 455. Valentinian assassinated by Petronius Maximus. ^M A V i t u s . ^M -M a j o r i a n . 458. P'ranks : — Childeric I., conquers as far as the Loire and takes Paris. 461.- ■ S e V e r u s . 467.- -Athenius. ^^g ■ (The last three emperors slain by Ricimer.) 68- Spain : — The Visigoths, under Eric, esta- blish their kingdom. ' O 1 y b i u s . Eruption of Vesuvius, seen at Constan- tinople. 473. Glycerius. 474. Julius Nepos 475.— Romulus Augustulus. ^§ 476. ROME taken by ODOACER, king of the Herulii : END of the WESTERN EMPIRE, 1228 years after the building of Rome ; and commencement of the kingdom of Italy un- der Odoacer. 64 THE world's PROGUESS. MODERN : PERIOD IH.— 146 years. 493 498 511 513 514 533 Progress of Society, etc. Rise of the feudal system in France, under Clevis. Theodoric introduces the architecture of Greece to improve the buildings of Italy. Publication of the Gemara or Talmud of Ba- bylon. Burgundian laios published, being a collec- tion of the rights and customs of the Bur- gundians. The Salic law established in France. Boethius, the Roman poet and philosopher. Use of burning glass in warfare at Constan- tinople. The Christian Era proposed and introduced by JDionysius, a monk. The schools of Athens suppressed. The fables of Pilpay translated into Pers aji. Chess introduced into Persia from India. Justinian's pandects and code of laws. Architecture : the church of St Sophia built at Constantinople. Proclus, a learned Platonist. Ecclesiastical. 483. Pope Felix III. —excommunicated by Acacius, bishop of Constantinople. 484. Christians persecuted by Huneric, king of the Vandals. 492. Pope Ge.asius I. 494. The Roman Pi macy, 496. Cnristianity introduced into France, 494. The Roman Pontiff asserts his auprt macy, Chrii 513. Christianity embraced by the Persian king, Carbades. 514. Pope Hormisdas. 519. The orthodox bishops restored by lustin. 523. Pope John I. 525. The Arian bishops deposed. 526. Pope Felix IV. Extreme Unction introduced. .529. The Order of Benedictine monks in- stituted at Monte Cassino, near Naples. 530. Pope Boniface II. 533. Pope John II. 535. Pope Agapetus. 536. " Sylvester I. Separation of the Armenians from the Greek church. 538. Pope Vigiliiis. THE world's progress. 65 — Odcacer to Malwmet. [The " Middle or Dark Ages'' begin here.} 480 481 Eastern Empire. An earthquake, lasting 40 days, destroys the greater part of Constantinople. Zeno makes Theodoric general and consul Anastasius I. The Green and Blue factions. The emperor's persecution of the Catlio- lics, and protection of the Manichaeans, oc- casions a rebellion headed by Vitalianus. The empire ravaged and the imperial army destroyed by Carbades, king of Persia. Long walls built to protect Constantinople from the Bulgarians. A great insurrection in Constantinople, 10,000 killed. Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose fleet is consumed by the burniiig glass of Proclus. Anastasius killed by lightning. -Justin I . a peasant of Dalmatia. Brilliant period of the Byzantine empire. ■Justinian I. celebrated for his code of laws and the victories of his generals, Belisarius and Narses. Belisarius defeats the Persians under Chos- roes. -quells a conspiracy in Constantinople. —defeats the Vandals in Africa. — subdues Sicily, —takes Naples. —takes Rome, defeats the Ostrogroths in Italy, —the Huns in Thrace, and Europe, generally. 481. FRANCE :— C 1 o v i s I . ,^ founder of the French monarchy. 484. Alaric IL, king of the Visigoths in Spain. 485. France :— Battle of Soissons gained by Clovis. 487. Britain :— The Saxons defeated by Prince Arthur and Ambrosius. 490 : — Italy : — ravaged by the barbarians. Britain :— kingdom of Sussex. 491. France :— Clovis subdues Thuringia. 493. Italy ;— c onquered by Theo- d o r i c , king of the Ostrogoths.— Odoa- cer put to death. 499. France :— Clovis concludes a peace with Theodoric in Italy. 500. Burgundy becomes his tributary. 507. Clovis defeats Alaric near Poictiers. 510. France :— Clovis makes Paris his capital. 511. France:— Clovis dies. ■ Child ebert l.^m 512. The HERULIl settle in Thrace. 516. The Christian Era adopted. 517. Getae ravages Ulyricuni, Macedon, &c. 519. Britain :— Prince Arthur defeated at Charford by Cerdic, who begins the third Saxon kingdom of Wessex. 522. Spain : — Amalaric, the first Gotliic king, who establishes his court in Spain— his capi- tal, Seville. 530. Britain : — kingdom of Essex. 531. Spain : — Theudis succeeds Amalaric. 532. Burgundy conquered by Childebert. 536. Vitiges, king of the Ostogroths, surren- ders his possessions in Gaul to the French king. 537. Italy conquered by Belisarius. 66 THE WORLD S PflOGRESS. [Modern : Period III. — 146 years Progress op Society, etc. The manufacture of silk introduced from China by the monks. Procopius, a Roman historian — the last of the classic writers. The Saxon lams ; the liing's authority limit- ed by the WiUenagemnt. Three orders ; the noble, the free, and the servile. — Trial by ordeal. Christianity introduced among the Picts by Columbi. The old Roman municipal system in Italy overthrown by the invasion of the Lombards — and the feudal system established. Written laws compiled among the nations of German origin— first by the Visigoths in Spain. Semi-circular arches introduced in the archi- tecture of churches, with much grotesque sculpture. The Latin language ceases to he spoken in Italy, while it supersedes the Gothic in Spain. The origin of fiefs. The Roman Catholic faith established in Spam. Gregory of Tours, the father of French his- tory. Bretwalda, king of England, converted to Christianity. Asathus, a Grecian historian. G'ildas, the first British historian. Evagrias, ecclesiastical historian. — Cassiodo- rus, the historian of Ravenna, tutor to Theodoric. The Saxons, having conquered England, it relapsed, in a great measure, into the state of barbarism, from which it had been par- tially raised by the Romans. Ecclesiastical. 540. The Monothelites, who acknowledged but one will in Jesus Christ. 552. The Fifth general Council at Conslanti nople. 555. Pope Pelagius I. 557. The church of St. Germain de Pres, buill at Paries. 560. Pope .John m. The Trilheisls acknowledge three Gods,, and deny the resurrection. 573. Pope Benedict I. 575. The first monastery founded in Bavaria. Great increase of miracles. 578. Pope Pelagius II. 590. Pope Gregory I. called The Great. The doctrine of purgatory first taught.- Mass introduced. 598. St. Augustine, first archbishop of Can- terbury, introduces Christianity into Britain. 601. Pope Sabianus, or Sabinian. (506. Pope Boniface III. made supreme head of the church by Phocas.— The title of Uni- versal Bishop assumed. The Waldenses refuse submission to Rome. •—Frovi Odoacer to Mahomet.'] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 67 542 548 549 552 554 558 561 562 563 574 576 578 582 570- 6U0 Eastern Empire. Vitiges at Ravenna. — North Africa, Cor- sica and Scirdinia, annexed to the Eastern empire. Plague at Constantinople — during three months from 5,000 to 10,000 die daily. The Lombards, settle in Pannonia. — The Turkish monarchy founded in Asia-. Siege of Petra. Narses defeats and kills Totila. ■ Italy governed by Greek exarchs. A plague extending over Europe and Asia, and lasting nearly 50 years. Belisarius disgraced by Justinian. " restored: — he quells a conspiracy. Great fire in Constantinople — the city nearly destroyed. Justinian dies. Justin II. ^M Belisarius dies in prison. The TURKS first mentioned in history. — They send embassies to Justin, and form an alliance. Tiberius associated with Justin in the gov- ernment. Justin defeats Chosroes, king of Persia. -Tiberius II.^& Maurice, the Cappadocian, king; under his reign the empire extends to the Araxes, and almost to the Caspian Sea. The Avars flourish under Baian— invade the Eastern empire, and spread over Hungary, Poland, and Prussia. ■P h o c a s, ^^ — a centurion, elected king. The empire invaded by the Persians. Europe, generally. 539. Italy : War, famine, and pestilence. The City of Milan ravaged by the Goths. 542. Britain :— Prince Arthur murdered in Cornwall. 550. POLAND a dukedom— Lech, its first duke and legislator. His brotiier, Zech. first duke of Bohemia. The Greeks form settlements on the Spanish coast, from the Straits to Valencia. 550. Civil wars in France. 558. France :— C 1 o t a i r e I . ^J 559. Britain :— t he Saxon Heptar- chy commences. 560. Britain:— the kingdom of Northumbria, formed by the union of Bernicia and Deira. — Ethelbert, king of Kent, subdues most of the Saxon kings. 561. France :— C h a r i b e r t I . ^ 565. Europe ravaged by a pestilence. 568. Italy conquered by the Lombards, under Alboin. He fixes his capital at Pavia. 571. Britain :— Bretwalda II., king of Wessex. 575. " East Anglia formed into a king- dom, and called Angle-land, whence the ori- gin of the name England. -the Suevi subdued by the Visi- 583. Spain : goths. France :— C 1 o t a i r e II. ^^ 586. Britain :— the kingdom of Mercia founded. Spain : — Recared, king. 588. The city of Paris destroyed by fire. 589. Rome inundated by the Tiber. 591. Britain :— Ethelbert, king of Kent, gains the pre-eminence, and becomes Bretwalda III. Italy : — the Lombards, under Autharis, successful against the Greeks and Franks. i95. Istria, Bo'hemia, and Poland invaded by the Sclavonians. 596. France :— Thierry II., king of Burgundy. 597. Britain :— Christianity introduced by St. Augustine. 60O. Italy ravaged by the Sclavonians. 007. Britain :— Supremacy of the Pope ac- knowledged. 68 THE world's progress. [Modem : Period III— 146 years Progkess OP Society, etc. The aristocracy acquire great power in France, somewhat restrained by the mayors of the palace. Riles and superstitions increase in all Europe. — Relics sought for, and worshipped. — Lita- nies addressed to the Virgin. — The burning of candles by day. — Exorcisms, &c. Hereditary fiefs. — Aristocratic class. Stcundus, historian of the liOmbards. Elhelbert publishes the _^rsZ corfe of laws in England. Progress of Society, etc. Isodorus, historian of Sjiain, grammarian and philosopher. Islamism, and the power of the Caliplis esta- blished in the East. In the Caliph.s were united the highest spiritual and regal autho- rity. Christianity introduced into China. In England, some improvement in ecclesiasti- cal architecture; circular arches intro- duced ; churches buiU at Canterbury, fJlas- tonbury, St. Albans, Winchester, &c. In civil architecture, forts and castles — Conis- borough Castle in Yorkshire; Castletown in Derbyshire, &c. University of Cambridge founded. Some of the monasteries of Europe continue to be tiie repositories of learning and the arts. Celibacy of the clergy enjoined. Ecclesiastical. 606. Pope Boniface III. 607. Pope Boniface IV. The Pantheon at Rome dedicated to God, the Virgin, and the Saints. 609. The Christians massacred by the Jews at Antioch. 618. Pope Boniface V. MODERN: PERIOD IV.— 178 years, Ecclesiastical. 625. Pope Honorius I. He had a taste for splendid cathedrals and processions. Jlonks and monasteries increase. Africa and Asia, with the churches of Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch lost to the Christian world by the progress of Mo- hammedanism. 6-10. Pope Severinus. 640. Pope John IV. 642. Pope Theodorus. He assumes the title of " Sovereign Pontiif." 644. Pope Martin I. He ordains celibacy of the clergy. Separation between the Greek and Roman churches. 654. Pope Eugenius. 657. Pope Vitalian. Pie established the uni- versal use of the Latin language in the service of the church. 672. Pope AdeodatUB. -Frovi Odoacer to Mahomet.'] THE world's progress. 69 A.D. Eastern Empire. Europe, generally. eOi. Britain :— St. Paul's Church founded by Ethelbert, king of Kent. 610 Heraclius takes Constantinople, kills Phocas, and makes himself king. 612 MAHOMET publishes his Koran. 612. Britain : — Ethelfrith, king of Northum- Svria ravaged by the Arabs. bria, deleats the Britons, and destroys the 614 Jerusalem taken by the Persians. monastery of Bangor. 615. War between Lombardy and Ravenna. 617. Britain:— St. Peter's (now Westminster 618 Constantinople taken and pillaged by the Abbey) founded by Sabert, king of Kent. Avari. Britain :—Bretwald IV. — From, Malwmet to Charlemas:ne. [Dark Ages, co?itinued.\ Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. TheHEGIRA; or Mahomet's Flight from Mecca to Bledina. .Bra of the Mahometans. Heraclius defeats the Persians under Chos- Death of Mahomet. Abubeker succeeds him as caliph of the Saracens. Omar, caliph. " takes .Terusaleni, which is held by the Saracens 463 years. Omar takes Alexandria, and destroys another famous library. Constantine III. ^M — C onstans II. ,^g (11 years of age.) The Saracens become masters of Africa and Cyprus. The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the Colossus. Persia becomes a part of the empire of the Caliphs. The Saracens obtain peace from Constans, by agreeing to pay him 100,000 crowns yearly. Constans goes to Rome, and plunders the Treasury. Moawiah, caliph, makes Damascus his capi- tal. Constantine IV. ^Jinvades Sicily. Grand Cairo founded. Siege of Constantinople by the Saracens, whose fleet is destroyed by the Greek fire of Callinicus. The caliph compelled to pur- chase a peace of thirty year.'!, by paying a yearly tribute. Europe, generally. 628. France : — D asobert I. ^p' He builds the church of St. Deny, ine burial place of the French kings. 631. Samo, a merchant of France, makes himself king of Bohemia. 633. Britain : — Bretwald V. ; he embraces Christianity. 634. Britain :— Bretwald VI. 638. France — C 1 o v i s II. ^^5 years old. The kingdom divided, Sigebert, (18 years old,) being king of Austrasia. 642. Britain:— Bretwald VII. 644. Britain :— The University of Cambridg6 founded by Sigebert, king of E. Anglia. 650. Britain : — Blercia converted to Chris- tianity. 656. France :— C lotaire III. ^m 660. France :— C h i I d e r i c II. 663. Lombardy conquered by Grimoald, duke of Beneventura. 672. The Saracens driven from Spain, by Wamba, king of the Goths. 7U THE world's progress. [Modern : Period IV. 178 years. K.B. Progress op Society, etc. Ecclesiastical. 674 St07ie buildings and glass come into use in England. 676. Pope Domnus. The abbey of Whitby, and the monastery of The popes become independent of the Gilling founded. Greek emperor. The Anglo-Saxons advance in civilization 679. Pope Agatho. and power, by the introduction of Ckris- 680. The sixth general Council at Constantino. tianity. Pl e, called by the emperor Constantine, who In France, the Teutonic language supersedes presides. the Latin. — National assemblies established, 68^: Pope Leo II. He usurps iha right of in- though confined to the aristocracy. vestiture. 684. Pope Benedict II. In Persia, the Magian religion gives way to 685. " John V. the Mohammeria3. 686. " Conon. 687 Severe persecution of the Jews in Spain. 687. " Sergius. 691 Julian, of Toledo, historian and moralist. 097 The venerable Bede, Ecc. historian. 698 A king first elected in Poland. Adhelm, the first British writer in prose and verse. 701. Pope John V .. Sclavonian republics in Bohemia. 704. The first province ^iven to the pnpa. 705. Pope John VII. 708. " Sissinius (20 day.?). Christianity greatly extended among the Ger- 708. " Constantine. man nations and other people in the north of Europe ; but almost exterminated in Africa, by tlie progress of Mohammedan- ism. 709 711. Custom of kissing the Pope's foot intro duced. 714. Pope Gregory II. 716 The art of making paper brought from Sa- marcand by the Arabs. George Syncellus, a Grecian chronologist. 718 Glastonbury Abbey rebuilt by Ina. Leo (Eastern Emperor) attempts to pro- cure the assassination of the Pope. The 1 Romans defend him. -F^vm Mahomet to Chai-lcmag-nc] THE world's progress. 7\ C8o (398 711 Eastern Empire, Asia, «fcc. 673. France :— T h i e r r y I . ^ 675. Spain: — Waniba gains a, naval victory over the Arabs, who attempt to invade his kingdom. The kingdom of Bulgaria founded. Yezid, caliph of the Saracen.s. iVIoawiah II., caliph. Abdallah, caliph. Justinian II, Abdulmelek, caliph. He discontinues the tribute to the Greek emperor Justinian II. deposed, and his ni.se cut olT by Leonitius, who is also deposed by Absimerus Tiberius. Armenia and the provinces between the Black and Caspian Seas subdued by Caliph Abdul- melek. Carthage rased7 and the north coast of Africa completely subjugated. Justinian II. restored. Syria recovered, 200,000 Saracens slain. Africa subdued by the Saracens. Justinian put to death by Philip Bardanes. who reigns under the name of Philippicus. -Anastasius II. 1 Theodosius III. ^^ pro- claimed by the revolted army ol Anastasius. — Leo III., (the Isaurian,) ' of a shoemaker. Europe, generally. 682. Spain :- monk. -Wamba abdicates and tunifl 690. France :— P epin d'Heristel ,^^ mayor of the Palace and duke of Austrasia, Qefeats Thierry, and becomes king. 691. France :— C 1 o v i s III .^- 695. " — C hildebert II. 698. Poland : — Cracow founded. — An elective monarchy established. Venice : — Luc Anafetto, first Doge. 700. Britain:— Anglo-Saxon Octarchy. France : — Aquitaine, Burgundy and Pro- vence become separate dukedoms. 705. Britain : — Alfred the Wise, in North- umbria. 710. Spain: — Roderic, king last of the Goths.') 711. France :— D agobert II. (the 713. Spain conquered by the Saracens under Muca. By the mar- riage ol' Abdallah, the Moor, with the widow of the Gothic king, the two nations are united in interest. 714. France :— Charles Martel, duke of Aus- trasia. 715. France : 716. Britain : -Childeric II. W- -Ethelbald, king of Mercia. 718. Spain: — Pelagius founds the kingdom oJ Asturias. 720. France :— T It i e r r y 1 1 .1 72 THE world's progress. ^ [3Iodern : Period 7F.— 178 years. Progress op Society, etc. Increasing power, spiritual and temporal of the Popes. Dark period of European literature. Winifred, an Anglo-Saxon, preaches the gos- pel to the Frisons. The venerable Bede dies — a grammarian, phi- losopher, historian, and theologian. The Abassidae, caliphs of the Saracens, en- courage learning. Fredegaire, a French historian. Virgilius, a priest, is condemned as a heretic, for believing in the existence of antipodes. An organ sent by Constantine to France. John of Damascus, a founder of the scholas- tic philosophy. Fredegaire conlinues the history of Gregory of Tours. The schools of Bagdad, Cufa, Alexandria, Fez, and Cordova, promoted by the Abas- sidae caliphs. Ignorance, profligacy, and misery, cliaracter- ized the age preceding Charlemagne. The first palm-tree planted in Spain. Golden period of learning in Arabia, imder the caliph Haroun al Ilaschid. Pleadings in courts of justice first practised. Foundation of schools in monasteries and cathedrals, by Charlemagne. The Gregorian chant. The Synod of Frankfort. George, the monk. Ecclesiastical. 726. Image worship being forbidden by tho emperor Leo, causes great disturbance. 727. Peter's pence first collected in England. 728. Leo ordei-s the pope to be seized. 730. Gregory excommunicates the emperor. The Iconoclasts, or image breakers. 731. Pope Gregory III. 736. The images throughout the empire de- stroyed by order of the emperor. Monks persecuted. 741. Pope Zachary 752. The Pope dethrones Childeric, kmg of France, by a papal decree. 752. Pope Stephen III. at war with the Lom- bards, assisted by Pepin. 754. —he journeys to Pepin to implore his protection. 753. Commencementof the Pope's temporal power under the auspices of Pepin, who bestows on Stephen the ex- archate of Ravenna. 757. Pope Paul I. 768. — — Stephen IV. 769. Council of the Lateran. 770. The Eastern monasteries dissolved by the emperor. 772. Pope Adrian I., on whom the Ecclesias- tical state is conferred by Charlemagne. 770. Imposition of Tithes enforced by Char- lemagne, for the support of the clergy, churches, schools, and the poor. 785. Forcible conversion of the Saxons by Charlemagne. 787. The seventli general Council at Nice, in which the doctrine of the Iconoclasts was condemned. 794. Pope Leo III. sends to Charlemagne for confirmation. Masses said for money. —From Mahomet to Charlemagne.'] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 73 Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. The Arabs invest Constantinojjle by land with 120,000 men, and by sea with 1800 ships. The city is saved by the Greek fire — the Aiub fleet being almost entirely destroyed. Leo confiscates Calabria and Sicily. The Greek possessions in Italy are lost in con- sequence of the edict forbidding image wor- Constantine V. (Copronymus). The Arabs defeated by Constantine. Cyprus, and Antioch captured. -Rhodes, Almanzor, caliph ; builds Bagdad and makes it his capital. Asia Minor ravaged by the Turks. Great victory over the Bulgarians. L e o I r .f^ Constantine VI. (Porphyrogenetus).^^ Irene (Queen mother) restores image worship. The empire is invaded by Hafoun al R a s c h i d , caliph of Bagdad. Constantine imprisons his mother, Irene, for her cruelty. Irene ^g puts him to death, and assumes the sole power. — proposes to marry Charlemagne. — is dethroned by Nicephorus. The Saracens ravage Thrace. Europe, generally. 725. France :— Charles Martel crosses the Rhine, and subdues Bavaria. 727. Britain :— Ina, king of Wessex, begins the tax called Peter's pence, to support a col- lege at Rome. 732. France :— Charles Martel gains a great victory over the Saracens near Tours. 740. Spoletto taken by the Normans, but re- covered by the Pope. 742. France :— C h 11 d o r i c III. ^ 752. France :— End of the Merovingian line of French kings. -Pepin le B r e f ,1 first of the Carlovingian line. 753. Pepin le Bref aids the Pope with a large army against the Lombards. Italy :— Ravenna a dukedom. 756. Spain :— Separated from the Caliphate ; A b d e r h a m a . 761. Spain :—Froila, grandson of Pelagius, builds Oviedo, and makes it the seat of his kingdom. 768. France:— CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles the Great, reigns with his brother, Carlo- man, until 771 . 774. Charlemagne invades Italy; defeats Didier, king of Lombardy, and annexes Iialv to his empire. End of the Lombard king- dom. , ^ . 778. A part of Charlemagne's army defeated at Roncesvalles. . 779. Charlemagne conquers Navarre, Sardinia, and the Saxons. Charlemagne conquers the Avari. —attempts to unite the Rhine and the Danube. 787 Britain :— First recorded invasion of the banes :— The Sea Kings and Vikings. 794. Charlemagne extirpates the Huns. Sweden conquered by Iva Viafamo. 74 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PERIOD. Y.—Tlie Middle Ages.— 2m yean, A.D. ' Prosress op Society. ECCLESIASTICAI.. Agriculture and horticul- ture encouraged by Charle- magne ; both flourish in Spain under the caliphs. Gold mines worked in Spain. Paul Warefredus (Diaconus) the historian. Haroun al Raschid, courting his alliance, presents Charle- magne with a striking clock. This clock was adorned with automaton figures, which moved and played on va- rious musical instruments. Fine Arabian breed of horses introduced into Spain. Alcuin, of York, a pupil of Bede, forms schools at Tours —patronized by Charle- magne. Transient revival of learning under Charlemagne. Eginhard, historian, secre- tary to Charlemagne. The reign of Mamun (caliph) is regarded as the Augustine age of Arabian literature. 00. The Pope separates from the Eastern Empire, and becomes supretne Bishop of the Western. Charlemagne reforms the church. Many bishoprics founded. — Great increase of monastic institutions. St. Mark's Church at Venice built. Turpin, archbishop, to whom is attributed the famous "X)e Vita Caroli Magni et Rolandi." 813. Insurrection at Rome against the pope. 816. Pope Stephen V. 817. " Paschal I. The College of Cardinals founded. 824. Pope Eugenius II. Christianity in Denmark and Sweden. 827. Pope Valentine. 828. " Gregory IV. Missionaries sent from France to Sweden. 831. Paschasius Radbertus, a monk of Corbey, father of the doctrine of trausub- stantiation. This doctrine disowned by the English Church. Ratram,us and Scotus Eri- gena, theologians, holding much the same opinions as Luther. New Western Empire. 00. NEW EMPIRE of the WEST founded by Charle- magne, who is crowned at Rome, by the pope, king of Italy, Germany, and France. 302. Charlemagne receives an embassy from Nicephorus, and from Haroun al Ras- chid. 06. Charlemagne di- vides the empire be- tween his three sons. 08. First descent of the NOR MANS upon France. 813. Charlemagne dies, Jan. 28. 814. L o u i s I . ^M (Debonaire) an inglorious and turbulent reign. 817. Louis divides the empire between his three sons. 820. Invasion of the Normans. 833. Lothaire, a fourth son of Louis, associated in the gov- ernment. 840. — L o t h a i r e .^S — 841. —defeated by his brothers, Louis and Charles, in the battle of Fontenoy. Division of the empire. France:— Charles l.^§ (the Bald). Gev. :— L o u i s I . ^m. — surnamed the Ger- Italy:— Lot hair e ^^ — ^-with imperial dignity. The Normans plunder Rouen, and advance to Paris. THE world's progress, (a. d. 800-1066.) — Charlemagne to WiUiam tlie Conqueror. rs Eastern Empire. The World, elsewhere — N icephorus .^g — The Saracens ravage Asia Minor, capture Cyprus, and compel Nicephorus to pay a tribute. — Michael I . ^g (Caropaltes) ; at war with the Bulgarl. 'W f Queen Vic- toria to Prince Albert of Saxe Cobourg. War with Chira, to en- force the opium trade. War in Syria:— Great Britain taking part with Austria and Turkey. Lord ^Palmerston's foreign ' policy excites the ill-will o/ France. 1841. The war with China ended : $0,000,000 received as a ransom for Canton 1844. Texas annexed to the United States. Anti-rent riots in New- York. 1845. Treaty with China. James K . Polk, 11th President. 1846. War vr i t h M e x i - c o : Hostilities commence on the Rio Grande, April 24. Battle of Palo Alto, iMay 8. Battle of Resaca de la Palma, May 9. ted States and England, settling the north-eastern boundary. Treaty of peace with China. 1843. Great "Repeal" agitation in Ireland. The British gain posses- sion of Scinde. 1814. Daniel O'ConneIl'3 trial and imprisonment — the sen- tence reversed by the House of Lords. 1845. Sir John Franklin .=;ail3 in search of the north west passage. 1815-1850.1 THE world's progress. 15P 1838 iSlO Talleyrand dies. Difficulty with Mexico : cap- ture ol' San Juan d'UUoa. Prince Louis Napoleon at- tempts a hostile descent on the coast of France, near Boulogne — is taken prisoner, and imprisoned at Ilam. G u i z t , minister lor fo- reign affairs. The remains of Napoleon removed from St. Helena, and deposited with great honors at the Invalides, in Paris. 18^ The duke of Orleans, heir to the throne, killed by a fall from his carnage. The Duke de Nemours ap pointed Regent, in the event of the king's death. Austria, &c. 1838. New Treaty of commerce with Eng- land, July 3. Ferdinand crowned at Milan, Sep- tember 6. 1816 Louis Napoleon escapes from Ham, May 26. The World, elsewhere. 1838. Mexico :— The Castle of San Juan d'Ulloa taken by the French. 1839. Peace between France and Mexico. China :— The Opium trade forbidden. Turkey at war with Egvpt. India :— Ghuzne taken by li e British. 1840. China :— Canton blockaded by the Eng- lish, to compel the renewal of the opium trade. Holland :— William I. abdicates : William H.^ Syria:— St. Jean d'Acre taker, by the English, Austrians, and Turks 1841. China:— Canton capitulates, 66,000,000 paid in one week, as a ransom for the city. Mexico : — Santa Anna enters the capi- tal, and places himself at the head of the government. 1812. India :— Insurrection in Affghanistan. 1843 Temporary surrender of the Sandwich Islands to Great Britain, compelled by Lord Geo. Paulet. Greece : — King Otho compelled to ac- cept a constitution, Sept. 15. The Society Islands seized by a French squailron^resiored by the govpr.iment. India: — Scinde annexed to the British empire. 1846. Poland :— A powerful, but unsuccessful insurrection at Cracow, Feb. 23. Rome :— Pius IX., pope ; electedJune 16. Poland :— Cracow deprived of its inde- pendence, Nov. 16. 152* THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period XI. — 35 years. — Pbogbbss op Society, etc. The cultivation of the Tea commenced by J. Smith, Suspension Bridge at Nia- gara Falls, opened July 29. United States. 1846. The Oregon Trea lling the North- Western Bo Commodore Sloat takes possession of California, July 6. New TarifT bill passed, establishing ad valorem du- ties. Battle of Monterey, Sep- tember 23. Tampico occupied, No- vember 14. 1847. Battle of Buena Vista. Feb. 22. Battle of Sacramento, Feb. 26. Vera Cruz surrenders. March 29. Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. Battle of Contreras, Au- gust 20. Armistice, Aug. 24. Hostilities renewed, Sep- tember 7. Battle of Molino del Rey, Sept. 8. Battle of Chepultepec, Sep, 12. Mexico surren- ders, Sept. 14. 1848. Treaty of Peace with Mexico, signed at Guada- loupe Hidalgo, Feb. 22. plant in the United Stales, near Greenfield, South Caro- lina. Postal convention betw First deposit of Califor- nia gold in the mint, Dec. 8. Great Britain. t y with Great Britain, sel- undary, signed at Londuiii June 18. 1847. Severe famine in Ire- land. Large supplii-s of food sent from the United States. The Bogue forts in China taken and destroyed, April 26. Emigration from Europe to America during this year, 300,090. 1848. Civil war in Ireland. . John Mitchell, tried and condemned to transporta- tion. May 26. een the United States and Great Britain. Habeas Corpus Act sus- pended in Ireland, July 25. Smith O'Brien arrested and condemned, Aug. 5. Return of Ross's expe dition, Nov. J 815-1850.] THE world's progress. 15c Reform Banquets in Stras- bui'g, Chartres, &c. Michelet's Lectures interrupt- ed by the ministers, Dec. Abd-el-Eader captured, Dec. 22. Debate on the Reform Bill, Feb. 8. Proposed Banquet ai Paris, abandoned, Feb. 'iL REV0LUT10^ COM- MENCED, Feo. 22. Barricades erected, Feb. 23. Louis Philippe abdicates and iiies, Feb. 24. Provisional government esta- blished. L a m a r t i n e , Provisional President, Feb. 24. French Republic proclaimed, Feb. 26. Meeting of the National As- sembly, May 4. Bloody Insurrection in Paris, June 23-25. Cavaignac, military dictator, June 24. Paris in a state of siege. New Constitution adopted. Nov. 4. Louis Napoleon Bo- naparte, elected Pre- sidrnt, Dec. 10. Austria, &c. 1847. Austria takes posses- sion of Cra- cow. The World, elsewhere. 1847. Prussia :— Frederic William grants a constitution, Feb. S. Hayti :— Soulouque, President, March 2. Algiers — Abd-el-Kadei made a prisoner to France, Dec. 22. 848. Sardinia : — Charles Albert protests against the encroachment of Austria, and calls out an army of 25,000 men, Jan 10. Naples : — Rebellion at Palermo, Jan. 12. Sardinia :— Charles Albert proclaims a constitution, Feb. 8. Bavaria : — Disturbances on account of Lola Montes — the king abdicates in favor of his son, -Maximilian IL W March 22. Charles Albert TheBanJella- chich ap- pointed gov- ernor of Hungary, Oct. 3. Insurrection at Vienna, Oct. 6. 1848. The Em- peror leaves the city. The Hungarian army advan- ces within 6 miles of Vi- enna, Oct. U. Windisch- gratz ap- pointed com- mander of the imperial army. enters Milan, March 23. Denmark : — Revolt of Schleswig-Hol- stein, March 26. Sicily declared independent, April 3. Holland receives a constitution, April 17. Poland :— Unsuccessful revolt at Cra- cow, April 25. Sicily :— The Duke of Genoa elected king, July 10. India : — Insurrection in Ceylon, Aug. 16. Armistice signed between Denmark, Prussia and Sweden, Aug. 26. India: — The British make an unsuc- cessful attempt on Moultan. Sicily : — Messina bombarded and taken, Sept. 2. Hungary :— K o s s u t h appointed Pre- sident of the Defence Committee, and Dicta tor, Oct. 154* THE world's progress. [Period XI. — 35 years.- A.D. Progress of Society, eic. United States. Great Britain. 1849 A nexD planet discovered by 1849. Zachary Taylor, 1849. Moultan, in India. takei\ Gasparis, at Naples. 12th President. Jan. 3. Magnetic Telegraph lines in use in the United States in 1849, 10,000 miles. Rail Roads 6,000 " Tubular Bridge in Anglesea, England. Magnetic Clock, invented by Dr. Locke, at Cincinnati. Emigration from Europe to America, during this year, at the rate of 1000 a day. 1850 Great agitation on the Slavery 1850. John C. Calhoun died at 1850. The war m I,ahore fiiv Question in tiie United Washington. ished, and ths Punjaub an- Slates Congress. Attempted invasion of Cuba :— 600 adventurers un- nexed to the British crown. The Pekin Monitor, a new der Lopez, repulsed at Car- paper, printed in China denas, May. The Sultan of Turlcey, grants Death of Gen. Taylor, permission to the .lews to July 9. build a temple on Mount Millard Fillmore, Zion. 13lh President. A University founded at Syd- California ad- ney, New South Wales. mitted, 31st State. Texas b[)undary settled, by the payment of 10,000,000 Deaths in 1850 : dollars to Texas. U. S. A. i EUROPE. New-Mexico and Utah A. Judson, Wordsworth, admitted as Territories. Bill for the arrest of 5f. M. Fuller, JelTrey, ML. Davis. Neander, [Zschokke, jBerzelius, 'Balzac. fugitive slaves passed by Con- gress. Slave trade in (he District of Columbia abolished. A British fleet blockades the ports of Greece, to en- , force the alleged claims of British subjects. Sir Robert Peel dies July 2. Haynau. " the Austrian butcher," chastised by tlie draymen in London, Sept. 1815-1850.] THE world's progress. 155' 1850 Louis Philippe dies in Eng- land. Austria, &(j The World, elsewhere. The Emperor issues a pro- clamation against the city. Kossuth with -draws his army from Vienna, Oct. 27. The Imperial- ists take pos- session 01 Vi- enna, Nov. 2. Ferdinand ab- dicates, Dec. 2. — Francis Joseph 1849. A new Constitution promulgated March 4. Brescia taken by Haynau, March 30. Rome :— M a z z i n i ' s proclamation. Oct. 29. Prussia :— The king prorogues the As- sembly, Nov. 9. — The Burgher Guard of Berlin refuse to give up their arms. The city in a state oi siege, Nov. 12. Rome : — Count Rossi, the Pope's prime- minister, assassinated, Nov. 16. India:— Great battle near Ramnugeur, Nov. 22. Rome : — The Pope escapes in disguise, Nov. 24. Hungary declared independent, Dec. 1849. India:— Moultan taken by the British, Jan. 3. Italy:— The Grand Duke of Tuscany flies. Provisional Government proclaimed, Feb. 9. Rome :— Republic proclaimed, Feb. 9. Sicily : — A new Constitution conceded by Naples, March 6. Sardinia :— Charles Albert defeated by Radetsky, March 21— again totally defeated at Novarra, March 23, he abdicates the throne in favor of his son, —Victor Emanuel. ^M India : — The Punjaub annexed to the Ri-itish Empire, March 29. Italy :— Insurrection in Genoa, April 1. Russia comes to the aid of Austria against Hungary, April 26. Rome : — The French army arrives un- der the walls of Rome, April 29. Haynau takes command of the Austrian army in Hungary, June. Rome surrenders to the French, July 2. Garibaldi leaves the city, July 3. Rome : — The government placed in the hands of the Pope's commissioners, Aug. 3. GiJrgey traitor -ously surrenders to the Russians, Aug. 11. Kossuth escapes into Turkey. Venice capitulates to Radetsky, Aug. 22. 1850. Rome:— The Pope returns, April. Greece disputes the claims of Great Britain for losses of British subjects: is forced to submit. China:— The Emperor Tau-Kwang, dies : ~Sze-hing ^M succeede. DICTIOMM OF DATES. CHIEFLY FROM THAT OF JOSEPH HAYDN : WITH REVISIONS AND ADDITIONS AEBEYS AND MONASTERIES, were first founded in the third century, near the close of which the sister of St. Anthony is said to have retired to one. An abbey was founded by St. Anthony at Phaim, in Upper Egypt, a. d. 305. The first founded in France was at Poitiers, in 360. The first in Ireland was in the fifth century : see Clogher, Elpliin, Down. The first in Scotland was in the sixth century : see Isles. And the first in Britain was in 560 : see Bangor. The abbey of' Mount Cassino, near Naples, founded by St. Benet in 529, was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many thousands of saints to the church. 110 monasteries and priories were suppressed in England by order in council, 2 Henry V. I'klL— Salmon. The revenues of 193 abbeys which were dissolved at the Reformation amounted to £2,653,000. These foundations were totally suppressed throughout the realm, 31 Henry Vin. 1539. See Monasteries. ABDICATION op KINGS. They are numerous in ancient history. Those in later times of most remarkable character and greatest political importance, and to which reference may more frequently be made, are the following : — He again abdicates in favor of the Bo- naparte family. See Spain. May 1, 1808 Of .Joseph Bonaparte of Naples, to take the crown of Spam, . June 1, 1808 Of the same (by flying before the British from Madrid), . . July 29, 1808 or Louis of Holland, . . July 1, 1810 Of Jerome of Westphalia, . Oct. 20, 1813 Of Napoleon of France, . . April 5, 1814 Of Emanuel of Sardinia, . March 13, 1821 Of Pedi-o of Portugal, . .May2,182G Of Charles X. of France, . Aug. 2, 1830 Of Pedro of Brazil, . . April 7, 1831 Of Don Miguel of Portugal (by leaving the kingdom), . . . May 26, 1834 OfWilliamL of Holland, . Oct. 8, 1840 Of Christina of Spain, queen dowager and queen regent, . . Oct. 12, 1840 Of Louis Phillippe of France, Feb. 24, 1848 Of Louis, king of Bavaria, . March 22, 1848 Of Ferdinand I. emperor of Austria, Dec. 2, 1848 Of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, Aug. 1849 Of Henry IV. of Germany, Of Stephen 11. of Hungary, surnamed Thunder, 1114 Of Albert of Saxony, .... 1142 OfLestusV. of Poland, . . . . 1200 OfUladislaus 111. of Poland, . .1:206 Of Baliol of Scotland, .... 1306 Of Otho of Hungary, .... 1309 OfEric IX. of Denmark . . 1439 OfEricXllI. of Sweden, . . .1441 Of Charles V. Emperor, . . . 1556 Of Christina of Sweden, . . . 1654 Of John Casimir of Poland, . . . 1669 Of .Tames II. of England, . . . 1688 Of Frederick Augustus II. of Poland, . 1704 OfPhilipV. of Spain, .... 1724 OfVictor of Sardinia, . . . . 1730 Of Charles of Naples, .... 1759 OfStanislaus of Poland, . . . 1795 OfVictor of Sardinia, . . June 4, 1802 Of Francis II. of Germany, who becomes emperor of Austria only, . Aug. 11, 1804 Of Charles IV. of Spain, in favor of his son, .... March 19, 1808 ABEL ARD AND HELOISE. Their amour, so celebrated for its passion and misfortunes, commenced at Paris, a. d. 1118, when Helolse (a canon's daugh- ter) was under 17 years of age. Abelard, after suffering an ignominious in- jury, became a monk of the abbej' of St. Denis, and died at St. Marcel, of gi'ief which never left his heart in 1142. Helo/se begged his body, and had 146 THE world's pkogress. [aca it buried in the Paraclete, of which she was abbess, with the view of reposing in death by his side. She was famous for her Latin letters, as well as love, and died in 1183. The ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French Monuments in 1800 ; and the museum having been subsequently broken up, they were finally removed to the burying-ground of Pfere La Chaise, in 1817. i\jBORIGINES, the original inhabitants of Italy ; or, as others have it, the nation conducted by Saturn into Latium, founded by Janus, 1450 b. c. — Univ. His- tory. Their posterity was called Latini, from Latinus, one of their kings ; and Rome was built in their country. They were called Aborigines, being loOsque origine, the primitive planters here after the flood. — St. Jerome. The word signifies without origin, or whose origin is not known, and is generally applied to any original inliabitants. A.BOUKIR, the ancient Canopus, the point of debarkation of the British expe- dition to Egypt under general Abercromby. Aboukir surrendered to the British, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 18, 1801. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French fleet by Nelson, Au- gust 1, 1798. See Nile. ABRAHAM, Era op. Used by Eusebius ; it began October 1, 2016 e. c. To reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months. ABSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread, and water. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of 104. St. Epiphanius lived thus to 115. Simeon, the Stylite, to 112 ; and Kenti- gern, commonly called St. Mungo, lived by similar means to 185 years of age. — Spottiswood. A man may live seven, or even eleven, days without meat or drink. — Pliny Hist. Nat. lib. ii. Democritus subsisted for forty days by smelling honey and hot bread, 323 b. c. — Diog. Laert. A Avoman of Nor- mandy lived for 18 years without food. — Petrus de Albano. Gilbert Jackson, of Carse-grange, Scotland, lived three years without sustenance of any kind, 1719. A religious fanatic, who determined upon fasting forty days, died on the sixteenth, 1789. — PliilUps. A country girl, of Osnabruck, abstained four years from all food and drink, 1799. — Hufeland's Practical Journal. Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, supposed to have been an impostor, was said to have lived twenty months without food, Nov. 1808. At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to have lived two years without meat or drink ; Aug. 1840 ; his imposture was afterwards discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See instances in Holler's Elementce PkysiologicB ; Cornaro ; Pricker's Surgical Library, &c. ; and in this volume, see Fasting. ABSTINENTS. The abstinents were a sect that wholly abstained from wine, . flesh, and marriage ; and were a community of harmless and mild ascetics. They appeared in France and Spain in the third century ; and some autho- rities mention such a sect as having been numerous elsewhere in a. d. 170. — Bossuet. ABYSSINIAN ERA. This era is reckoned from the period of the Creation, which they place in the 5493d year before our era, on tlje 29th August, old style ; and their dates consequently exceed ours by 5491 years and 125 days. To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years and 125 days. ACADEMIES, or societies of learned men to promote literature, sciences, and the arts, are of early date. Academia was a shady grove without the walls of Athens (bequeathed to Hecademus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato first taught philosophy, and his followers took the title of Academics 378 B. c. — Stanley. Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alex- andria, about 314 B. c. Theodosius the Younger and Charlemagne are also ach] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 14? named as founders. Italy has been celebrated for its academies ; and Jarckiua mentions 550, of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The first philosophical academy in France was established by Pere Mersenne, in 1135. Academies were introduced into England by Boyle and Hobbes ; and the Royal Society of London was formed in 1660. The following are among the principal academies : — American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1780. American Philosophical Society, 1769. Ancona, of the Caglinosi, 1624. Berlin, Royal Society, 1700; of Princes, 1703; Architecture, n Secretaries of Slate. Dec. 10;i795') Sept. 11, 1789 I Secretaries of the Feb 3, 1795 ( Treasury. Sept. 12,1789;) Jan. 2, 1795 > Secretaries of War. Jan. 27, 1796 S Sept. 26, 1789 ) Nov. 7, 1791 > Post Masters Gen. Feb. 25, 1795 S Sept. 26, 1789 ) Jan. 27, 1794 > Attorneys General Dec. 10, 1795 ) Speakers of the House of Representatives. Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 1st Congress, 1789. Jonathan Trumbull, Connecticut, 2d do. 1791. Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 3d do. 1793. Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 4th do. 1795. S'econd Administration;— 1797 to 1801 ; — i years. John Adams, Massachusetts, March 4, 1797 President. Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, 1797 Vice President. Appoi7ited. Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, (continued in office.') ) co„,.o*o,.;o=, «< ctot« John Marshall, Virginia, May 13, 1800 \ »ecietaiies oi fttata Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut, (continued in office.) } Secretaries of the Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, Dec. 31, 1800 \ Treasury. James M'Henry, Maiyland, {continued in office.) 1 Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, May 13, 1800 V Secretaries of War. Roger Griswold, Connecticut, Feb. 3, 1801 > George Cabot.* Massachusetts, May 3, 1798 / Secretaries of the Benjamin Stoddart, Maryland, May 21, 1798 \ Navy. Joseph Habersham, Georgia, {continued in office.) Post Master Gen. Charles Lee, Virginia, {continued in office.) Attorney deneral. -.797. 1789. Speakers of the House of Representatives. Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 5th Congress, Theodore Sedgwick, Massachusetts, 6th do. Third Administration;— 1801 to 1809;— 8 years, Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, March 4, 1801 President. Aaron Burr, New York, do. 1801 ^ vicp Prp=!id?ntq George Clinton, ' New York, do. 1805 \ ^^'^^ ^ resmants. Appointed. James Madison, Virginia, Marcli 5,1801 Secretary of State. Samuel Dexter, Mass. {continued in office.) > Secretaries of th« Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania, Jan. 26, 1802 \ Treasury. * Mr. Cahot declined the appointment. The Navxj Department was established in 1798. rso THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ ADM Henry Dearborn, Benjamin Stoddart, Robert Smith,* Joseph Habersham, Gideon Granger, Levi Lincoln, John Breckenridge, CBEsar A. Rodney, Nathaniel Macon, Joseph B. Varnum, Nathaniel Macon, Joseph B. Vamum, James Madison, George Clinton, Elhridge Gerry, Robert Smith, James Monroe, James Monroe,t Albert Gallatin, George W. Campbell, Alexander J. Dallas, William Eustis, John Armstrong, James Monroe, William H. Crawford, Paul Hamilton, William Jones, Benj. W. Crowninshield, Gideon Granger, Return J. Meigs, Caesar A. Rodney, William Pinkney, Richard Rush, Massachusetts, March 5,1801 Secretary of War. Md. {continued in office.) { Secretaries of the Maryland, Jan. 26,1832$ Navy. Georgia, {continued in office.') I Post Masters Gc- Connecticut Jan. 26, 1892 { neral. Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 i Kentucky, Dec. 23, 1805 v Attorneys General, Delaware, Jan. 20, 1807 S Speakers of the House of Representatives. North Carolina, 7th Congress, 1801. Massachusetts, 8th do. 1803. North Carolina, 9th do. 1805. Massachusetts, 10th do. 1807. [7RTH Administration;— 1809 to 1817;— 8 ye^rs. Virginia, March 4, 1809 President. New York, 1809, {died April 20, 1812) } ^. p^sidents Mass. 1813, {died Nov. 23, 1814) y^'^^^ resiaents. Appointed. Maryland, March 6, 1809 ) Virginia, Nov. 25, 1811 > Secretaries of Stata Virginia, Feb. 25, 1815 S Pennsylvania, {cojitinued in office.) Tennessee, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, New York, Virginia, Georgia, South Carolina, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Feb. 9, 1814 } Oct. 6, 1814 S March 7, 1809 i Jan. 13, 1813 ( Sept. 27, 1814 ( March 2,1815) March 7, 1809 ) Jan. 12, 1813 \ Dec. 19, 1814 S Secretaries of the Treasury. Secretaries of War. Secretaries of the Navy. Post piasters Ge- neral. Connecticut, {continued in office.) Ohio, March 17, 1814 \ Delaware, {continued in office.) ) Maiyland, Dec. 11, 1811 > Attorneys General. Pennsylvania, Feb. 10, 1814 S Joseph B. Vamum, Heniy Clay, Henry Clay, Langdon Cheves, Henry Clay, James Monroe, Danic'. D. Tompkins, .Tohn Q. Adams, William H. Crawford, Isaac Shelby,! John C. Calhoun, Benj. W. Crowninshield. Smith Thompson, Samuel L. Southard, Return J. Meigs, John McLean, Richard Rush, William Wirt, Speakers of the House of Representatives. Massachusetts, 11th Congress, 1809. Kentucky, 12th do. 1811. Kentucky, ; ,o,,, j. J 1812. South Carolina, \ ^"^"^ °°- ) 1814. Kentucky, 14th do. 1815. [■H Administration ;— 1817 to 1825 ; —8 years. Virginia, March 4, 1817 President. New York, do. 1817 Vice President. Appointed. Massachusetts, March 5, 1817 Secretary of State. Georgia, March 5, 1817 Secretary of Treaa Kentucky, March 5, 1817 ? „ , . , „, ■ - ■" ■• T..- ,(>' iQ, 7 J Secretaries of War. South Carolina, Dec. 16, 1817 J ' Massachusetts, {continued in office.) 1 o^ „»„ : » .,<■ .i. New York, Nov. ^0, 1818 t S®"^^™^ ^'^ *« New Jersey, Dec. 9,1823) ^^^y- Ohio, {continued in office.) t Post Masters Ge- do. Dec. 9, 1823 S neral. Pennsylvania, {continued in office.) i Virginia, Dec. 16, 1817 i ■ Attorneys General. * Robert Smith was appointed Attorney General, and Jacob Crowninshield, of Massachusetts, Secretary of the Navy, on the 2d of March, 1805, but they both declined these appointments ; and Mr. Smith continued in the office of Secretary of the Navy, till the end of Mr. Jefferson's admi- nistration. t James Monroe was recommissioned, having for some time acted as Secretary of War. t Isaac Shelby declined the appointment. ADM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 151 ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued. Speakers of the House of Jiepreseniatives. Henry Clay, Kentucky, 15th Congress, Henry Clay, Kentucky, > ,g,, , John W. Taylor, New York, \ ^""^ "°- Philip P. Barbour, Virginia, 17th do. Henry Clay, ,Tohn Q,. Adams, John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, Richard Rush, James Barbour, Peter B. Porter, Samuel L. Southard, John McLean, WiUiam Wirt, John W. Taylor, Andrew Stephenson, Kentucky, Sixth Administration 18th do. 1817. 5 1819. ?1820. 1821. 1823. 1825 to 1829 ;— 4 years. Massachusetts, March 4, 1825 President. South Carolina, do. 1825 Vice President. Appointed. Kentucky, Marwi 8, 1825 Secretary of State. Pennsylvania, March 7,1825 Sec'yoftheTreas'y Virginia, do. 182o;„ . • j-™- New York, May 26,1828^'='^'='^^''^™®°'^'"- New Jersey, (continued in office.j Sec'y of the Navy Ohio, (continued iti office.) Post Master Gen Virginia, (continued i7i office.} Attorney Genera;. Speakers of the House of Representatives. New York, 19th Cona;ress, 1827. Virginia, 20th do. 1828. Seventh Administration ;- Andrew Jackson, Tennessee, Jolin C. Calhoun, South Carolina, Martin Van Buren, New York, ■1829 to 1837, -—8 years. March 4, 1829 President. *^°- }^ i Vice PresideiUs, Martin Van Bui-en, Edward Livingston, Louis McLane, John Forsyth, Samuel D. Ingham, Louis McLane, William J. Duane, Roger B. Taney, Levi Woodbury, John H. Eaton, Lewis Cass, John Branch, Levi Woodbury, Mahlon Dickerson, William T. Barry, Amos Kendall, John McP. Berrien, Roger B. Taney, Benjamin F. Butler, New York, Louisiana. Delaware, Georgia, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Maryland, New Hampshire, Tennessee, Ohio, North Carolina, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Kentucky, Kentucky, Georgia, Maryland, Nevr York, !- Secretaries of State, 1833 i Appointed. March 6, 18291 1831 1833 1 1835 1 March 6, 1829 'j i^q I Secretaries of the 1^ Treasury. 1834J March 9, 1829 | Secretaries of War. March 9, 1829 ) secretaries of the Im ^^^- March 9, 1829 ; Post Masters Ge- 1835 S neral. March 9, 1829 i 1831 > Attorneys General. 1834 i Andrew Stevenson, Andrew Stevenson, John Bell, Speakers of the House of Representatives. Virginia, 21st Congress, 1829. Virginia, 22d do. 1831. Pemisylvania, 1835. Eighth Administration; — 1837 to 1841 — 4 years. Martin Van Buren, Richard M. Johnson, John Forsyth, Levi Woodbury, Joel R. 1 oinsett, Mahlon Dickerson, James K. Paulding, Amos Kendall, John M. Niles, Benjamin F. Buller, Felix GrunJy, Henry D. Gilpin, James K. Polk, Robert M. T. Hunter, New York, 1837 I'resident. Kentucky, 1837 Vice President. Appointed. Georgia, (continued in office.) Secretary of State. New Hampshire, (continued in office.") Sec'y of Treasury. South Carolina, 1837 i New Jersey, (continued in office.) \ Secretaries of War New York, 1838 S 'KexAVLOky, (continued in office.) ^ Post Masters Ge- Connecticut, 1840 \ neral. New York, (continued in office.) ) Pennsylvania, > Attorneys General Pennsylvania, 1839 ) Speakers of the House of Representatives. Temiessee, 1837, Virginia, 1839. 152 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ ADM ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued. Ninth Administration ;— 1841 to 1845 ;-^ years, 1841 President. William H. Harrison, Ohio, Died one month after inauguration, and John Tyler, Samuel L. Southard, Willie P. Mangum, Virginia, New Jersey, North Carolina, Daniel Webster, Abel P. TJpshur, Thomas Ewing, Walter Forward, John C. Spencer, John Bell, John C. Spencer, George E. Badger, Abel P. Upshur, David Henshaw, Francis Granger, Charles A. W'icklifle, John J. Crittenden, Hugh S. Legare, John Nelson, John White, John W. Jones, Massachusetts, Virginia, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Tennessee, New York, North Carolina, Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, Kentucky, Kentucky, South Carolina Maryland, Speakei's of the House of Reepresentatives. Kentucky, Virginia, 1841 \ ^^'^^ President, I became acting Pres. 1841 ) Acting V. Pres. and 1841 5 Pres. Senate. Appointed. 1341 ( Secretaries of StaU*. 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 1841 184n' 1841 \ Attorneys Generzd. 1841 J Secretaries of the Treasury. • Secretaries of War. Secretaries of thft Navy. Post Masters Gen- eral. Tenth Administration ;~1845 to 1849 ; — 4 years. James K. Polk, George M. Dallas, James Buchanan, Robert J. Walker, William L. Marcy, George Bancroft, John Y. Mason, Cave Johnson, John Y. Mason, Isaac Toucey, Tennessee, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, Mississippi, New York, Massachusetts, Virginia, Tennessee, Virginia, Connecticut, 1845 1845 Appointed. 1845 1841 1843 President. Vice President. Speakei's of the House of Kepresentatives. John W. Davis, Indiana, Robert C. Winthrop, Massachusetts, Secretary of State. 1845 Secretary of Treas. 1845 Secretaiy of War. 1845 ) Secretaries of the 1847 S Navy. 1845 Post Master Gen. 1847 ( -^-t't^i^Eys General 1845. 1847. Eleventh Administration ;- Zachary Taylor, Louisiana, MiUard Fillmore, John M. Clayton, William E . Meredith, William B Preston, George W. Crawford, Thomas Ewing, Jacob CoUamer, Reverdy Johnson, HoweU Cobb, New York, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Georgia, Ohio, Vermont, Maryland, -1849 to 1853, --4 years. 1849 President. 1849 Vice President Appointed. 1849 Secretary of State. 1849 Sec'y of Treasury. 1849 Sec'y of the Navy. 1849 Secretary of War. 1849 Sec'y of Interior.* 1849 Post Master Gen. 1849 Attorney General. Speaker of the House of Representatives. Georgia, 1849. ADMINISTRATIONS of ENGLAND, and op GREAT BRITAIN, from the accession of Henry VIII. The following were the prime ministers, or favor- ites, or chiefs of administrations, in the respective reigns, viz. : — KING HENRY viii. | Sir Thomas More and Cranmer . 1529 Bishop Fisher and Earl of Surrey . 1509 Lord Audley, chanceUor ; archbishop Cardinal Thomas Wolsey . . 1513 | Cranmer .... 1532 * A new department, created by act of Congress, 1819. Note. The dates of the appointments of the principal executive officers, in the several adminis- trations, above exhibited, are the times when the several nominations, made by the Presidents, were confirmed by the Senate, as stated in the " Journal of the Executive Proceedmgs of the Senats of the United States." Am. Almanac^ &c. ADM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 153 And lord Cromwell (earl of Essex) . 1531 Duke of Norfolk, earl of Surrey, and bishop Gardiner . . . 1540 Lord Wriothesley, earl of Hertford . 1544 KING EDWARD VI. The earl of Hertford, continued John, duke of Northumberland . 1552 aUEEN MARY. Bishop Gardiner . . . 1553 aUEEN ELIZABETH. Sir Nicholas Bacon . . . 1558 Sir William Cecil, qftenoards lord Burleigh; chief minister during al- most the whole of this long reign Earl of Leicester, a favorite . . 1564 Earl of Essex . . . .1538 Lord Burkhurst . . . 1601 KING JAMES. I. Lord Burkhurst (earl of Dorset) Earls of Salisbury, Suffolk, and North- ampton. .... 1608 Sir R. Carr, created viscount Roches ter, afterwards earl of Somerset Sir George Villiers, created earl, mar ouess, and duke of Buckingham . 1615 KING CHAELES I. Duke of Buckingham continued Earl of Portland, archbishop Laud . 1628 Archbishop Laud, earl of Strafford, lord Cottinglon . . . 1640 Earl of Essex .... 1640 Lord vis. Falkland, lord Digby . 1641 [The civil war commenced, and all went iirto confusion.] KING CHARLES II. Edward, earl of Clarendon . . 1660 Dukes of Buckingham and Lauderdale 1667 Lord Ashley, Lord Arlinston, Sir T. Clifford, aftericards lord Clifford . 1667 Lord Arlington, lord Ashley, created earl Shaltesbury, and Sir Thomas Osborne .... 1673 Sir Thomas Osborne . . . 1674 Earl of Essex, duke of Ormond, earl afterwards marquess of Halifax, sir William Temple . . . 1677 Duke of York, and his friends . 1682 KING JAMES II. Eai-ls of Sunderland and Tyrconnel, sir George aftericards lord Jeffries 1685 I,ord .Jeffries, earl of Tyrconnel, lord Bellasis, lord Arundel, earl of Mid- dleton, visct. Preston . . 1087 KING WILLIAM III. AND aUEEN MARV II. Sir.Tolm, aftericards lord Someis, lord Godolphin, earl of Danby, after- wards duke of Leeds, &c. . , 1688 The earl of Sunderland, &c. . . 1695 Charles Montagu, afterwards earl of Halifax, earl of Pembroke, viscount Lonsdale, earl of Oxford, &c. . 1697 aUEBN ANNE. Lord Godolphin, R. Harley, esq., lord Pembroke, duke of Buckingham Duke of Marlborough, &c. . . 17lii Lord Godolphin, lord Cowper, dukes of Marlborough and Newcastle . 170/ R. Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford 171 1 Earl of Rochester, lord Dartmouth, and Henry St. John, esq. c^terwards visct. Bolmgbroke ; lord Harcourt . 171( Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, &c. . 171' KING GEORGE I. Lord Cowper, duke of Shrewsbury, marquess of Wharton, earl of Or- ford, duke of Marlborough, visct. Townshend, &c. . . . 1714 Robert Walpole, esq. . . . IT'lE James, afterwards earl Stanhope . 1713 Charles, earl of Sunderland, &c. . 1715 Robert Walpole, esq. afterwards sir Robert and earl of Orford . . 17?] KING GEORGE II. Lord Carteret, lord WilmingtCLi, lord Bath, Mr. Sandys, &c. . . 1744: Hon. Henry Pelham, lord Carteret, earl of Harrington, duke of Newcastle . 174J! Mr. Pelham, earl of Chesterfield, duke of Bedford, &c. . . . 1740 Duke of Newcastle, Sir Thomas Rob- inson, Henry Fox, &c., lord Anson 1754 Duke of Devonshire, Mr. William Pitt, earl Temple, Hon. H. B. Legge . 1756 [Dismissed m April, 1757. Restored in June, same year.] William Pitt, Mr. Legge, earl Temple, duke of Newcastle, &c. . . 1757 KING GEORGE III. Earl of Bute, earl of Egremont, duke of Bedford .... 1761 Earl of Bute, hon. George Grenville, sir Francis Dashwood, .Y OF DATES. 163 ALMAN ACS, continued. Jobn Somer's Calendar, written in Ox- ford 1380 On« in Lambeth palace, written in . 1460 Firnt printed one, published at Buda . 1472 First printed in England, by Richard Pynson .... 1497 Tybault's Prognostications . . . 1.533 Lilly's Ephemeris . . . . '644 I Philadelphia) . .' . . 1733 Of Moore's, at one period, upwards of 500,000 copies were annually sold. The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing, until 1790, in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the privilege to this company, and the two universities. The stamp duty on almanacs was abolished in England, 1834. ALMEIDA, Battle op, between the British and Anglo-Spanish army, com- manded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Massena, who was defeated with considerable loss, August 5, 1811. Wellington compelled Mas- sena to evacuate Portugal, and to retreat rapidly before him ; but the route of the French was tracked by the most horrid desolation. ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and wrote thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 b. c. — Blair. But Josephus affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; though this is doubted, and deemed a mistake, or fabulous. The first lettei of the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks cwpha, and abbreviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived from the Phoenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece ; they were the fol- lowing : — A, B, r. A, I, K, A, M, N, O, n, P, 3, T, Y. These letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian char- acters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the Roman letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented the double characters, 0, X, *, E, about 1224 b. c. ; and Simoni^es added Z, ^, H, n, about 489 b. c. — Arundelian Marbles. When the E was introduced is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of sixteen letters till 399 B. c, when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was introduced. The small letters are of late invention, for the convenience of writing. The alphabets of the different nations contain the following number of letters : — English . French Italian Spanish ALPHONSINE TABLES ■ Celebrated astronomical tables, composed by com- mand, and under the direction of, Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the Wise. This learned prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 crowns in completing the work, whose value was enhanced by a preface, written by his own hand : he commenced his reign in 1252. ALTARS, were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also insti- tuted and regulated marriages, 1556 b. p. He introduced among the Greeks the worship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt. — Hero- dotus. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I. in 135 ; and they were first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar in Britain was in 634. — Stowe. The Church of England, and all the reformed churches, discontinue the name, and have abolished the doctrine that sup- ported their use. ALUM, is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about a. d. 1300 ; it was found in Tuscany, in 1460 ; was brought to perfection in England, in . 26 German . . 26 Greek . 24 Turkish . . 33 . 23 Sclavonic . 27 Hebrew . . 22 Sanscrit . 50 . 20 Russian . . 41 Arabic . 28 and .27 Latin . . 22 Persian . . 32 Chinese . 214 164 • THE world's progress. [ AMB 1608 : was discovered in Ireland, in 1757 ; and in Anglesey, in 1790. Alum is a salt used as a mordant in tanning ; it is used also to harden tallow, and to whiten bread. It may be made of pure clay exposed to vapors of sulphu- ric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley; but it is usually obtained by means of ore called alum slate. AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming from Peru, Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing com- panies of women in arms on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the river, Avhich had previously been called Maranon. A MAZONS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descend- ants of the Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands having made incursions, were all slain, being siirprised in ambuscades by their enemies. Their widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they under- went on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female state, and having firmly established themselves, they decreed that matri- mony was a shameful servitude ; but, to perpetuate their race, ihey, at stated times, admitted the embraces of their male neighbors. — Qunitus Curtius. They were conquered by Theseus, about 1231 b. c. The Amazons were con- stantly employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more force, their right breasts were burned off, whence their name from the Greek, no7i and mamma. Their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with him, in the hope of having issue by so illustrious a warrior ; three hundred females were in her train. — Herodotus. AMBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to another, are referred to early ages, and to almost all nations. In most coun- tries they have great and peculiar privileges ; and in England, among others, they and their servants are secured against arrest. The Portuguese ambas- sador in England was imprisoned for debt, in 1653 ; and the Russian, by a lace-merchant, in 1709, when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their protection. Two men were convicted of arresting the. servant of an ambas- sador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassa- dor, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned three months and the other fined. May 12, 1780. — Phillips. AMBER. Of great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a medicine before the Christian era: Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 b. c. Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau. — Phillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber, some- refer- ring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal king- dom ; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording something in favor of each opinion. AMEN. This word is as old as the Hebrew itself. In that language it means tnie, faithful, certain. Employed in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it im- plies, so be it ; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally used, both in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prayer. AMENDE Honorable, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first an infamous punishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the offender was delivered into the hands of the hangman ; his shirt was stripped off! a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he was then led into court, and was obliged to pray pardon of God, the king, and the country. Death or banishment sometimes followed. Amende honorable is now a term used for making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party. AMM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 1 65 AMERICA : See United States. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Geno- ese, better known as Christoplier Columbus, a.d. 1492, on the 11th of Octo- ber, on which day he came in sight of St. Salvador. See Bahama Islands. This great navigator foimd the continent of America in 1497, and the east- ern coasts were found by Amerigo Vespucci (Americus Vespucius) in 1498 ; and from this latter discoverer the whole of America is named. Newfoundland, the first British colony in this quarter of the world, discover- ed by Cabot, and by him called Prima Vista. .... 1497 Virginia, the first English eettlement on the main land . . . 1607 New England, the second, by the Ply- mouth company . . . 162( New York, settled by the Dutch . . 16H [For other occurrences, see Tabular Views — United Slates. See also separate states, Maine, &c. AMERICA, SOUTH. The Spaniards, as being the first discoverers of this vast portion of the Western World, had the largest and richest share of it. When they landed in Peru, a. d. 1530, they found it governed by sovereigns called Incas, who were revered bj' their subjects as divinities, but the3' were soon subdued by their invaders under the command of Francis Pizarro. The cruelties practised by the new adventurers wherever they appeared, will be a reproach to Spain for ever.* Spanish America has successfully asserted its freedom within the present century. It first declared its independence in 1810 ; and the provinces assembled, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the people in July, 1814; since when, although the wars of rival and contending chiefs have been afflicting the coimtry, it has released itself from the yoke of Spain for ever. Its independence was recognized first by the United States, chiefly through the influence of H. Clay ; by England, in 1823, et seq. ; and by France, Sept. 30, 1830. See Bro,zil, Coloinhia, Lima, Peru, &c. AMERICAN LITERATURE. The American Almanac for 1840 gives a list of 776 names of American authors who had died previous to that year. This did not include authors of mere iDamphlets, which would have swelled the number three-fold; but the "authorship " of many in the list was of very moderate amount or value. Of the 776 names, there were writers on Theo- logy, Sermons, &c., 259; Poetry, 57; History and Biography, 80 ; Politics and Law, 77. [In these numbers, writers on two or more of the subjects are repeated.] AMETHYSTS. Wlien this stone was first prized is not known ; it was the ninth in place upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests, and the name Issachar was engraved upon it. It is of a rich violet color, and according to Plutarch, takes its name from its color, resembling wine mixed with water. One worth 200 rix dollars having been rendered colorless, equalled a dia- mond in lustre valued at 18.000 gold crowns. — De Boot Hist. Gemmarum. Amethysts were discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1755. — Burns. AMIENS, Peace of, between Great Britain, Holland, France and Spain ; the ])reliminary articles, fifteen in number, were signed by lord Hawkesbmy and M. Otto, on the part of England and France, Oct. 1, 1801 ; and the definitive treaty was subscribed on March 27, 1802, by the marquis Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Scliitumelpen- ninck for Holland. AMMONITES. Descended from Ammon, the son of Lot; they invaded the land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated * I,as Casas, in describing the barbarity of the Spaniards while pursuing their conquests, records •nauy inslances of it that fill the mind with horror. In .lamaica, he says, they hanged the unrc- •sisting natives by thirteen at a time, in honor of the thirteen apostles! and he has beheld them hrow the Indian infants to their dogs for food! "I have heard them," says Las Oasa.s, "liorrcw 'he limb of a human beiiior to feed their dogs, and have seen them the next day return a quarter ol iiiiiihin' victim to the lender!" 1'66 THE world's progress. [ ANA by Jephthali, 1188 b. c. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, with an intention to put out the right eye of all those they subdued, but Saul overthrew them, 1093 b. c. They were afterwards many times van- quished ; and Antiochus the Great took Rabboath their capital, and destroyed all the walls, 198 b. c. — Josephus. A MNESTY. The word as well as the practice was introduced into Greece by Thrasybulus, the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the expul- sion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends : having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with two branches of olive. 409 b. c. — Hume's Essays. AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL : Established at Thermopylae by Amphictyon, for the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, which was composed of the wisest and most virtuous men of some cities of Greece, consisted of twelve delegates, 1498 b. c. Other cities in process of time sent also some of their citizens to the council of the Amphictyons, and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty. — Suidas. .\MPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Caesar and Curio : the latter was the celebrated orator, who called the former in full senate " Omnium mulierum virum, et omniuvi virorum mtdierem." In the Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round and oval buildings, the people assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhi- bitions ; they were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of stone, under Augustus Caesar. The amphitheatre of Vespasian was built A. D. 79 ; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphi- theatre of Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes. AMSTERDAM. This noble city was the castle of Amstel in a. d. 1100 ; and its building, as a city, was commenced about 1203. Its famous exchange was built in 1634 ; and the stadthouse, one of the noblest jjalaces in the world, in 1648 ; this latter cost three millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that time. It is built upon 13,659 piles, and the magnificence of the structure is, for its size, both in external and internal grandeur, perhaps without a parallel in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient government was restored in November, 1813. See Holland. AMULETS, OR CHARMS. All nations have been fond of amulets. The Egyptians had a great variety; so had the .lews, Chaldeans, and Persians. Among the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or conquering the passion of love. They were also in estimation among the Romans. — Plinv. Ovid. Among the Christians of early ages, amulets were made of the Avood of the true cross, about a. d. 328. They liave been sanctioned by religion and astrology, and even in modern times by medical and other sciences- witness the anodyne necklace, &c. The pope and Catholic clergy make and sell amulets and charms even to this day. — Ashe. ANA BAPTISTS. This sect arose about a. d. 1525, and was known in England before 1549. John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusi- asts, about the time of the reformation, spread its doctrines. The anabap- tists of Munster (who are. of course, properly distinguished from the existing mild sect of this name in England) taught that infant baptism was a contriv- ance of the devil that there is no original sin, that men have a free will in spiritual things, and otlier doctrines still more wild and absurd. Munster they called Mount Zi-on and one Mathias, a baker, was declared to be the king of Zi'^n. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and ANG ] DICTIOMAliy OF DATES. 167 ttey, at length, rose in arms under pretence of gospel liberty. Munster was taken about fifteen months afterwards, and they were all put to death. The anabaptists of England differ from other Protestants in little more than the not baptizing children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the representatives of above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689. ANACREONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain, named after Anacreon, of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, about 510 b. c. The odes of Anacreon are much prized ; their author lived in a constant round of di unkenness and debauchery, and was choked bj^ a grape stone in his eighty-lifth year. — Stanley's Lives of the Poets. A N AGRAM, a transposition of the letters of a name or sentence ; as from Mary, the name of the Virgin, is made army. On the question put by Pilate to our Saviour. " Q;idd est Veritas?" we have this admirable anagram, '-Est vir qui adest." The French are said to have introduced the art as now practised, in the reign of Charles IX., about the year 1560. — HenauU. ANATHEMAS. The Avord had four significations among the Jews : the ana- thema, or curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. We bave a remarkable instance of it in the city of Jericho (sec Joshua vi. 17). Anathemas were iised by the primitive churches, a. d. 387. t>uch ecclesias- tical den\mciations caused great terror in England up to the close of Eliza- beth's reign. — Rwpin. The church anathema, or curse, with excommunica- tion, and other severities of the Romish religion, are still practised in Catholic countries to this day. — Aslie. ANATOMY. The structure of the human body was made part of the philoso- phical investigations of Plato and Xenophon ; and it became a branch of medical art under Hippocrates, about 420 b. c. But Erasistratiis and Hero- philus may be regarded as being the fathers of anatomy: they were the fii-st to dissect the himian form, as anatomical research had been confined to brutes only : it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living criminals, about 300 and 293 b. c. In England, the schools were supplied with subjects unlawfully exhumed from graves ; and, until lately, the bodies of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. The first anatomical plates were designed by Vesalius, about a. d. 1538. The discoveries of Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was discovered in 1680. — Preind's History of Physic. A.NCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion were the first anchorites. Many of the early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great aus- terities. Some were analogous to the fakeers, who impose voluntary pun- ishments upon themselves as atonement for their sins, and as being accept- able to God ; and their modes of torture were often extravagant and crimi- nal. The order first arose in the fourth century. ANCHORS J'OR SHIPS, are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the Tuscans — Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the Scj'thian. — Strabo. Anchors were first forged in England a. d. 578. The anchors of a first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will weigh 90 cwt. each, and each of them will cost £450. — Phillips. ANEMOMETER, to measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was in- vented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per hour. See article Winds. ANGELIC KNIGHTS of ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, a.d. 450. The Angdici were instituted by Angelus Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople, 1191 The Aiiicelica. an ->r(ler of n\iiis. was fmindcd at Milan bv Louisa Tordli. A. n 1534. 168 THE world's progress. [ant ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of angels. Some will have it to have been at the same time with our world ; others, before all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion. — Cavers Hist. Literat. The Jews had ten orders of angels ; and the popes have re- cognized nine choirs and three hierarchies. ANGELS, IN COMMERCE. An angel was an ancient gold coin, weighing four pennyweights, and was valued at 6s. Sd. in the reign of Henry VI., and at IO5. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot was an ancient gold coin, value half an angel, struck at Paris when that capital was in the hands of the English, in the reign of Henry VI., 1431. — Wood. ANGLING. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity ; allusion is made to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bible, as Amos. It came into general repute in England about the period of the Reformation. Wynkin de Worde's Treatyse of Fysshinge, the first book printed on angling, appeared in 1496. Isaac Walton's book Avas printed in 1653. ANIMAL MAGNETISM. This deception was introduced oy father Hehl, at Vienna, about 1774 ; and had wonderful success in France, in 1788. It had its dupes in England also, in 1789 ; but it exploded a few years afterwards. It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympa- thetic affection between the sick person and the operator. The eiiect on the patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features of the operator, he placing himself immediately before -the patient, whose eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagina- tion and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number of distor- tions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. — Haydn. ANGLO-SAXONS, or ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a vil- lage near Sleswick, called Anglen, whose jiopulation joined the first Saxon freebooters. Egbert called his kingdom Anglesland. Anglia East was a kingdom of the heptarchy, foimded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, Uffa, assumed the title of king, a. d. 575 : the kingdom ceased in 792. — See Britain.. ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unknown to the Hebrews, Greeks, and Latins : the ancient philosophers denied annihilation ; the first notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology. — Dr. Burnet. ANNO DOMINI ; in the year of our Lord ; used by the Christian world, and abbreviated a.d. This is the computation of time from the incarnation of our Saviotu' and is called the vulgar era ; first adopted in the year 525. See H-a. Charles III. of Germany was the first sovereign who added " in the , car of our Lord " to his reign, in 879. .. i'ARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north or arctic pole. A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west, and 64 to 66 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by French and American Exploring Expeditions, under DTTrville and Wilkes, respec- tively on the same day, Jan. 19, 1840 ; a coincidence the more singular, as the discoverers were at a distance from each other of 720 miles. It was coasted by captain Wilkes for 1700 miles. Mr. Briscow, of the British Navy, fell in with land, Avhich he coasted for 300 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in the year 1830. ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of people in the ancient woiid, or world as it existed previous to the Flood, reached to the enormous amount of 549.755 millions, in the year of the world 1482, Burnet has .supposed that the first human pair might have left, at the I. 10 V. . 2,560 IX. . . 655,360 xni 11. . 40 VI. . . 10,240 X. . 2,621,440 XIV. ni. . . 160 VII. . . 40,960 XI. . 10,485,760 XV. IV. 640 vm. 163,840 XII. . 41,943,040 XVI. ant] dictionary of dates. 169 end of the first century, ten married couples ; and from tliese, allowing them to multiply in the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, would rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth was capable of holding. He therefore suggests a quadruple multiplication only ; and then exhibits the following table of increase during the first sixteen centu- ries that preceded the Flood : — . 167,142,160 671,088,640 2,684,354,460 10,737,418,240 ■ This calculation, although the most moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen, by at least ten times, the present number of mankind, which, at the highest estimate, amounts to only a thousand millions. ANTHEMS, OR HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, and St. Ambrose, were the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century. — Lenglet. They were introduced into the church service in 886. — Baker. Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the Western church. Thej'' were introduced into the reformed churches in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the world. The Cyclops and Lestrygones are represented as man-eaters, by Homer ; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus. Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men, as that of other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa, and the South Sea Islands, &c. ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and wo- men's eyes, as appears from 2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 30, and in eastern countries is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it makes types for printing ; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two associates, it is suffi- cient to answer all a physician desires in an apothecary's shop. — Boyle. We are indebted to Basil Valentine for the earliest account of various pro- cesses, about 1410. — Priestley. ANTINOMIANS, the name first applied by Luther to John Agricola, in 1538. The Antinomians trust in the gospel, and not in their deeds; and hold that crimes are not crimes when committed by them, that their own good works are of no eft'ect; that no man should be troubled in conscience for sin, and other equally absurd doctrines. ANTIOCH, built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 b. c. In one day, 100,000 of its people were slain by the Jews, 145 b. c. In this city, once the capital of Syria, the disciples of the Redeemer were first called Chris- tians. The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers attached to the churches of Antioch and Alexandria: it placed the creation 5492 years b. c. ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that anti- podes existed, about 368 b. c. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintain- ing this doctrine, a. d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the south-east of New Zealand; and near the spot is a small island, called Antipodes Island. — Brookes. ANTIQUARIES, and ANTIQUE. The term antique is applied to the produc- tions of the arts from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption of the Goths into Italy, in a. n. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to have e.\isted in Ireland 700 venrsi;. r.: but tliis lias very little pretensions to 170 THE world's progress. [ APO credit. A society was founded by archbisliop Parker, Camden, Stowe, and others, in 1572. — -Spelman. Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for a charter, but lier death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from favoring the design. In 1717 this society was revived, and in 1751 it re- ceived its charter of incorporation from George II. It began to publish its discoveries, &c.. under the title of Archaologia, in 1770. The Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh was founded in 1780. ANTI-RENTISM. In Rensselaer and Delaware counties, State of New- York, an armed resistance of the tenants (chiefly those on the Van Rensselaer estates) to the demand for the payment of rents, commenced in 1846. See Riots. Gov. Young pardons eighteen anti-rent rioters, and releases them from prison, Jan. 27, 1847- ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the second century. This doctrine spread widely after the reformation, when it was adopted by Ltelius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. — See Avians, Socini- ans, and Unitarians. -ANTWERP. First mentioned in history in a.d. 517. Its fine exchange built in 1531. Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parma, in 1585. It was then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil wars caused by the tyranny of Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The remarkable crucifix of bronze, thirty-three feet high, in the principal street, was formed from the demolished statue of the cruel duke of Alva, which lie had himself set up in the citadel. Antwerp was the seat of the civil war between the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-31. In the late revolu- tion, the Belgian troo])S having entered Antwerp, were opposed by the Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and sliells, doing immense mischief, Oct. 27, 1830. General Chass^ sun-endered the citadel to the French after a destructive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832. See Belgium. APOCALYPSE, the Revelation of St. John, written in the Isle of Patmos, about A. D. 95. — Irencciis. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held 1545, et seq. Rejected by Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages from the time of Justin Slartvr, wlio wrote his first Apology for the Christians in A. D. 139. APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." — Bible, 1539. The history of the Apocrypha ends 135 b. c. The books were not in the Jewish canon, but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, and so adjudged by the council of Trent, held in 1545, at seq. — Ashe. APOLLINARIANS, t^e followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who taught that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; that his flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent down from heaven, and convej^ed through the Virgin, as through a channel; that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c. Apollinarius was deposed for his opinions in a. d. 378. APOLLO, Temples of. Apollo, the god of all the fine arts, of medicine, music, poetry, and eloquence, had temples and statues erected to him in almost every country, particularly Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most splendid temple was at Delphi, built 12G3 b, o.— See Delphi. His temple at Daphiiae, ara] dictionary of dates. 17'. built 434 B. c, during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt in a. d. 362, and the Christians accused of the crime. — Lenglet. APOSTLE'S CREED. The summary of belief of the Christian faith, called the Apostle's Creed, is generally believed to have been composed a great while after their time. — Pardon. The repeating of this creed in public worship was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and was instituted in the Roman church in the eleventh century ; whence it passed to the church of England at the period of the reformation, in 1584. APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century; the second sect was founded by Sagarelli, who was burned alive at Parma, a. d. 800. They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spirit- ual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the churck of Rome, and predicting its downfall. APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, oy which they raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The nations of the East were the first who paid divine honors to their great men, and the Romans followed their example, and not only deified the most prudent and humane of their emperors, but also the most cruel and profligate. — Herodian. This honor of deifying the deceased emperor was begim at Rome by Augus- tus, in favor of Julius Csesar, b. c. 18. — Tillemont. APPEAL OF MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or innocence. In 1817, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, in appeal, claimed his right to his wager of battle, which the court allowed ; but the appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the criminal escaped, April 16, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from oif the statute book, 59 George III., 1819. APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early business in England ; and so early as 11 Edward I. it was a law, that if they valued the goods of the parties too high, the appraiser should take them at the price appraised. 1282. APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation, but the second according to the ancient Romans, Numa Pompilius having introduced Januarius and Febniarlus before it 713 b. c. — Peacham. AQUARIANS. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by Tatian in the second century, and who forbore the use of wine even in the sacrament, and used nothing but Avater. AQUEDUCTS. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct, which was therefore called the Appinn-ivay , about 453 b. c. Aqueducts of every kind were among the wonders of Rome. — Livy. There are now some remarkable aqueducts in Europe : that at Lisbon is of great extent and beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three miles long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in thr«e stories. The stupen- dous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and 126 feet high ; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805. _ \QUITAINE, formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of England, as descendants of William the Conqueror. It was erected into a principality in 1362, and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitaine was taken by the crowni of England on the conquest of thi,s duchy by Henry V. in 1418 ; but was lost in the reign of Henry VI. ARABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered ; the Arabians made no figure in history till A.n. 622. when, under the new nani(; of Sara- 172 THE wopcLd's progress. [ab6 cens. they followed Mahomet (a native of Arabia) as their general and pro- phet, and made considerable conquests. — Priestley. ARBELA, Battle op. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus, which decided the fate of Persia, 331 b. (;. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 of foot and 40,000 horse; the Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7,000 horse. — Arnan. The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions ster- ling ; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels. — Plutarch. A RC ADIA. The people of this country were very ancient, and reckoned them- selves of longer standing than the moon ; they were more rude in theii manners than any of the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley surrounded with mountains. Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, as being more nutricious than herbs, their former food ; and for this discovery Ihey honored him as a god, 1521 b. c. Arcadia had twentj'-five kings, whose history is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians were fond of militaiy glory, although shepherds ; and frequently hired themselves to fight the battles of other states. — Eustathlus. A colony of Arcadians was conducted by CEno- trus into Italy, 1710 b. c, and the country in which it settled was afterwards called Magna GrcEcia. A colony under Evander emigrated 1244 b. c. — Idem. ARCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about a. d. 320. Atha- nasius conferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into England there were three sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-IJsk ; but soon after the arrival of St. Austin, he settled the metropolitan see at Can- terbury, A. D. 596. ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church officers of this rank in England, and thirty-four in Ireland. The name was given to the first or eldest dea- con, who attended on the bishop, without any power ; but since the council of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of priest, though ancientlj!- it was quite otherwise. The appointment is referred to A. D. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity: an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1532. ARCHERY. It originated, according to the fanciful opinion of the j^oet Clau- dian, from the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was offended. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was commu- nicated to the Cretans. The eastern nations were expert in archery in the earliest ages, and the precision of the ancient archer is scarcely exceeded by our skill in modern arms. Aster of Amphipolis, upon being slighted by Philip, king of Macedonia, aimed an arrow at him. The arrow, on whicb was written "Aimed at Philip's right eye," struck it, and put it out; and Philip threw back the arrow with these words : "If Philip take the town. Aster shall be hanged." The conquei-or kept his word. ARCHERY IN England. It was introduced previously to a. d. 440, and Ha rold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bow.' of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings, in 1066 ; that which killed the king pierced him in the brain. Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. The victories of Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt, were won chiefly by archers. The usual range of the long-bow was from 300 to 400 yards. Robin Hood and Little John, 11 is said, shot twice that distance. Four thousand archers surrounded the houses of Parliament, ready to shoot the king and the members, 21 Rich- ard II. 1397. — Slowe. The citizens of London were formed into companTea of archers in the reign of Edward III. : they wer(> formed into a corporate argJ dictionary of dates. 173 body by the style of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry VIII. 1538. — Noiihouk's History of London. ARCHES, Triumphal, are traced to the era of the Macedonian conquest by the best writers. The triumphal arches of the Romans form a leading featuro in their architecture. Those of Trajan (erected a. d. 114) and Constantino were magnificent. ARCHITECTURE was cultivated by the Tyrians, about 1100 b.c. Their King, Hiram, supplied Solomon with cedar, gold, silver, and other materials for the Temple, in the building of which he assisted, 1015 b. g. The art passed to Greece, and from Greece to Rome. The style called Gothic came into vogue in the ninth century. The Saracens of Spain, being engaged during peace to build mosques, introduced grotesque carvings, &c., and the ponderous sublimity of bad taste ; which species is known hy elliptic arches and buttresses. The circular arch distinguishes the Norman-Gothic from the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian style did not fullj' revive till about the reign of James I. 1603. ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, the executive govern- ment was vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office con- tinues for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, is the first who obtained this dignity, 1070 b. c. ARCOLA, Battle op, between the French under general Biionaparte, and the Austrians imder field-marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19, 1796. The result of this bloody conflict, which was fought for eight successive days, was the loss on the part of the Austrians of 12 000 men, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags, and eighteen guns. ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. Several have been undertaken by England, and some bj^ Russia and other countries. Sir Martin Frobisher was the first Englishman who attempted to find a north-west passage to China, a. d. 1576. Davis's expeditioji to the Arctic regions was undertaken in 1585. After a number of similar adventurous voyages, Baffin, an Englishman, attempted to find a north-west passage, in 1616. See Baffin'' s Bay. For the subsequent and late expeditions of this kind, including among the latter those of Buchan, Franklin, Ross, Parry, Liddon, Lyon, Back, &c., sqq North-West Passage. AREOPAGITjE. a famous council said to have heard causes in the dark, be- cause the judges were blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Areos pagos, the Hill of Mars, because Mars was the first who was tried there for the mur- der of Hallirhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippa. Whatever causes were pleaded before them, were to be divested of all oratory and fine speaking, lest eloquence should charm their ears, and corrupt their judg- ment. Hence arose the most just and impartial decisions. ARGENTARIA, Battle of. One of the most renowned in its times, fought in Alsace, between the Allemanni and the Romans, the former being defeated by the latter with the loss of more than 35,000 out of 40,000 men, a. d. 378, — Dufresnoy. ARGON AUTIC EXPEDITION, undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been adorned viith the figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the recovery of the golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition on record ; it made a great noise in Greece, and many kings and the first heroes of the age accomijanied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its builder, 1263 b. c. — Dufresnoy. ARGOS. This kingdom v,-as founded by Inachus, 1856 b. c, or 1080 years be- 174 THE world's PUOGRESS. [ AUK fore the first Olympiad. — Blair. Tlie nine kings from the founder were called Inachida, of whom the fourtli was Argus, and he gave his name to the country. When the Heraclida3 took possession of Peloponnesus, b. c. 1102, Temenus seized Argos and its dependencies. Argos was afterwards a republic, and distinguished itself in all the Avars of Greece. — Euripides. Inachus founds the kingdom . b. c. 1856 Phoroneus reigns sixty years . ISO'^ Apis reigns thirty-five years . . 1747 The city of Argos built by Arsus, son ofNiobe 1711 Criasus, son of Argus, succeeds his father, and reigns .... 1641 Reign of Triopas; Polycaon seizes part of the kingdom, and calls it af- ter his wife, Messejiia . . 1552 Reign of Crotopus .... 1506 Sthenelus reigns .... 1485 Gelanor is deposed by Danaus . . 1474 Feast of the Flambeaux, in honor of Hypermnestra, who saved her hus- band, while her forty-nine sisters sa- crificed theirs. (See Flambeazix') B.C. 1425 Lynceus, son of Egyptus, whose hfe had been preserved by his wife, de- thrones Danaus .... 11425 Reign of Abas . . . 13&1 Reign of Proetus, twin-brother of Acri- sius 1361 Belierophon comes to Argos; the pas- sion for him of Sthenoboea . . 1-361 Rebellion of Acrisius .... IS'M Perseus leaves Argos. and founds My- ceax Ciohich see.) .... 1313 Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians, a. d. 1686. It was lost to the Turks in 1716, since when it continued in their hands until 1826. Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece under Otho, the present and first king, January 25, 18-33. Sec Greece. ARIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny iLe divinity of Christ: they arose about a. d. 315. The Arians were condemned by the council of Nice, in 325 ; but their doctrine became for a time the reigning religion ia the East. It was favored by Constantine, 819. Carried into Africa imder the Vandals, in the fifth century, and into Asia under the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva. Arius died in 336. Serve- tus was burnt, 1553. — Varillas, Hist de I'Heresic. ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certainty. It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 e. c. The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th. 8th, and 9th books of his Elements), about 300 b. c. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used A.M. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books of Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan — introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900 — into Spain, 1050^nto Eng- land, 1253. The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, Arabic characters, is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented," 1482. First work printed in England on arithmetic {de Arte Suppidandi) was bj^ Tonstall, bishop of Dur- ham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier in his Rabdolngia, in 1617. ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being the place on which Noah's ark rested after the universal Deluge, 2347 b. c. But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves : this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we are told, three floors — the first for beasts, the second for provisions, and the third for birds, and Noah's famil3^ It was not made like a ship, but came near the figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. There was a door- in the first floor, and a great window in the third. ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase. It was made a separate territory in 1819. and was admitted into the TJnion in 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slaves arm] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 175 ARMADA, The Invincible. The famous Spanish armament so called con- sisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 200C volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel, July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and HowaKl. Ten fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put to sea, and endeavored to return to their rendezvous between Calais and Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral Howard maintained a I'umiing fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obliging the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm di.s- persed them, and the remainder of the armament retm-ned by the Nortli Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement, and 5,000 men; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. Tlie English lost but one ship. — Rapin, Carte, Hume. ARMAGH, See op, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, was founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444. ARMED NEUTRALITY. The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers, against England, was commenced by the empress of Russia in 1780 ; but its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, and a treaty ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent pow- ers, December 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, the British cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Den- mark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was obliged to secede from the alliance, and acknowledge the claim of England to the empire of the sea ; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved. A RMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 2347 B. c. After being subject successively to the three great monarchies, Ar- menia fell to the kings of Syria. The Armenians were the original wor shippers of fire : they also paid great veneration to Venus Anaitis, to whoso priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters, prior to marriage. — Martin's Mevwires sur L'Armenie. City of Artaxarta built . .B.C. Tigranes the Great reigns He is called to the throne of Syria, as- sumes the fastidious title of "King of Kings," and is served by tvibutaiy princes ..... Tigranes defeated by Lucullus Again defeated, and lays his crown at the feet of Pompey His son, Artavasdes, reigns Artavasdes assists Pompey against Ju- lius Caesar .... Artavasdes assists the Parthians against Marc Antony Antony subdues, and sends him loaded with silver chains to Egypt, to grace his triumph .... The Armenian soldiers crown Itis son, Artaxias .... 35 30 Artaxias is deposed . . b. c. He is restored to his throne, and dies. — Blair Ueign of Venones . . a. d. Zenon reigns .... Tigranes IV. reigns . He is cited to Rome, and deposed Tiridates dethroned, and Roman power paramount in Armenia Armenia reduced to a Persian pi-ovince under Sapor Subdued by the Saracens Irruption of the Turks Agam made a Persian province, under Uffan Cassanes . . . 1472 Subdued by Selim II. . . 1522 Overrun by the Russians . . 1828 Surrender of Erzeroum . July 1829 (See iSyria.) 1 16 18 36 37 62 365 687 755 A RMENIAN ERA commenced on the 9th of July, a. d. 552 : the Ecclesiastical year on the 11th August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days ; and in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August 10. The Armenians use the old Julian style and months in their corre- spondence with Em-opeans. '^'ARMILLARY SPHERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a 8s manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their l?t) IHE world's progress. [ ARM natural position and motion, tlie whole being comprised in a frame. It is said to have been invented by Eratostlienes, about 255 b. c. ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redemption, and generally espouse the principles of the Church of England: especially asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil powers. They also contend for the efficacy of good works, as well as their necessity, in securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles I. favored the doctrines of the Arminians ; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in Holland and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dort (see Dort) in 1618, Arminius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1609. — Brandt. ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the twelfth century. They took their rise from the Imights painting their ban- ners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order at first to distinguish noblemen in battle a. d. 1100. The lines to denote colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Colum- biere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798 — and again in 1808. ARMOR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other defence ihan the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used ; and brass and iron armor, in plates or scales, followed. The first bodj^-armor of the Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the weU-tanned leathern cuirass. — Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo- Saxon ej-a. Hengist is said to have had scale armor, a. d. 449. The heavy cavalry were covered with a coat of mail, Henry HI. 1216. Some horsemen had visors, and skull caps, same reign. Armor became exceedingly splendid about 1350. The armor of plate commenced, 1407. Black armor, used, not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armor of Henry Vn. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. Armor ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of Charles H. ofiicers Avore no other armor than a large gorget, which is commem- orated in the diminutive ornament known at the i^resent day. — Meijriclc. ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dagger. Among ancient missiles were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the Phoenicians. See the various iveapons through the volume. ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting men, 2017, b. c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed by Saul, 1093 b. c. — Eusebius. One of the first standing armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The first standing army, existing as such, in modern times, was maintained in France by Charles "VH. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by Charles I. in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles H. 1679. The chief European nations have had in their service the following armies : Spain 150.000 men ; Great Britain, 310.000 ; Prussia, 350,000 ; Tur- key, 450.000 ; Austria, 500,000 ; Russia. 560,000 ; and France, 680,000. g ARMY, BRITISH. Statement of the effective military strength of the United King- ^ dom at the decennial periods respectively mentioned, and of the sums voted for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary returcs and other ofiBcial records : 1700, Time of war; troops of the line . . 1800, War 1810, War ; army, including foreign troops 1815, Last year of the war . . . 1820, Time of peace ; war incumbrances . 1830, Peace In 1845, the army, of all ranks, numbered 100,011 men; and the sum voted was .£4,487,753. See Militia and Volunteers. amount 110,000 men . . sum voted JE7,847,000 ditto 16S.000 men . . ditto 17,973,000 ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 26,748,000 ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 39,150,000 ditto 89,100 men . . ditto 18,253,000 ditto 89,300 men . . ditto 6,991,000 ASS J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 177 ARTILLERY. The first piece was a small one, contrived by Sclawartz, a Ger- man cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors at Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege of 1341 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy, in 1346, when Edward IIL had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venitians first employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. — Voltaire. Cast in England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists in Sussex, 1548. — Rymer's Fadera. Made of brass, 1685 ; improvements by Browne, 1728. See Iron. ARTS. See Literature. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was composed of these seven liberal arts, namely — grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. — Harris. The Royal Society of England (which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of Arts, to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, was instituted in 1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and of its first president, lord Folkstone. The first public exhibition by the artists of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the rooms of this society, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time, the Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society of British Art- ists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April 19,1824. — ^QQ British Museum; British Institution; National Gallery, Charles V., reigning over Germany, New treaty of commerce with England Austiia, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, July 3, 1833 the Netherlands, and their dependen- Ferdinand is crowned with great splen- cies, abdicates, and retires from the dor at Milan - - Sept.-6, 1838 world, leaving his German dominions Tumult at Vienna, agitation for re- to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain forms; Metternich resigns and flies; andthe Netherlands to his son, Philip _ freedom of the press and national II. — See Spain - ■ ■ 15u7 guard granted by the emperor The Protestant princes of Germany, March 13, 1648 being oppressed by the house of Aus- ; The emperor publishes, at Milan, abo- tria, call in theaid of Gustavus Add- i lition of the censorship and conven- phus of Sweden, and this leads to the tion of the states; the people demand treaty of Westphalia - - - 1648 ^ more, and are refused March 18, " Leopold I reigns. — See Gennany -1658 Blilan revolts, and contends successfully - Accessionof Francis, duke of Lorraine, i with the soldiery - March 23, " ■who marries the celebrated queen of | Austrians retire to Mantua; Milan en- Hungary, Maria Theresa, daughter of : tered by Charles Albert of Sardinia the decea,=ed emperor, Charle's VI. - 1745 Blarch 23, " Reign of Joseph II. - - -1765 Lombardy and the Tyrol in rebellion Religious toleration granted - - 1776 March, " The emperor controls the pope - 1782 The emperor retires to Innsbruck Reign of Leopold n. - - - 1790 : May IS, " Reign of Francis II. ... 1792 1 Austrian army under Radetsky holds in Austria becomes a distinct empire, and ' check Charles Albert of Sardinia, in Francis II. of Germany takes the title Lombardy - - May — " of I. of Austria • Aug. 9, 1804 Is defeated and driven to Mantua May 29, " 184 THE world's PROGRESfe. [ AZO AUSTRIA, contimied. Diet of the Croatian-Slavonic nation Ferdinand I. abdicates ; his brother, summoned by the Ban of Croatia Francis Charles, declines the throne ; May 20, 1848 it is taken by his son, Francis Joseph Insurrection at Rome ; order re-esta- Dec. 2, 1846 blished after bombardment, June 12-15 " The emperor gives a new constitution Vicenza and Padua subdued by Ra- IMarch 4-6, 1849 detsky - - - June " Haynau takes Brescia, after great Milan retaken • - Aug. 4, " slaughter, and sacks it March 30, The emperor returns to Vienna " 12, " Bologna taken, after a siege of 8 days Insurrection at Vienna ; Count Latour, May 16, minister of war, killed by the mob; Haynau takes command of the Aus- tlie diet demands the retraction of the trian army in Hungary June — , measures against Hungary, and a Ancona taken, after bombardment new ministry; the emperor flies June 11, Oct. 6, " Venice taken by Radetsky Aug. 22, The Hungarian army advanced within Hungarian war finished by the surren- six miles of Vienna - Oct. II, " derofGorgey - Aug. 11, " Prince Windischgratz appointed com- Followed by numerous executions. mander-in-chief, Oct. 16 ; and be- See Germany, Vienna, &c. sieges Vienna, 17th ; bombards the city and masters it Nov. 2, " Before the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, Fran- cis ceased to be emperor of Germany, and became hereditary emperor of Austria, under the title of Francis I. Upon the formation of the Germanic Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austria was declared hereditary head of that body. AUTHORS. For laws securing copyright, see Copyright and Literary Property. AUTO DA FE. See Inquisition. The punishment, often by burning alive, of a heretic. This is called an act of Faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition ; and since its first practice in a. d. 1203, more than one hundred thousand victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the Inquisitions of Roman Catholic countries on the burning pile. One of the last executions of this kind was at Goa, where, for the glory of the Christian rehgion (!) and in vindication of the Catholic faith, twenty sufferers perished in the flames, 1787. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain. — Aslie. AVIGNON, ceded by Philip III. of France to the Pope in 1273. The papal seat was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several times by the French, by whom it was taken from the pope in 1769, but was restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to France by the National Assembly, 1791. Horrible massacres in October of that year. Continued to France by the Congress of sovereigns, in 1815. AXE, WEDGE, WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and vari- ous others of a coarse construction, and still in common use, are said to have been invented by Dsedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 b. c. AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLES, supposed to be the site of the ancient Ata- lantis : they were discovered by Vandenburg, a. d. 1439 ; and were settled by the Portuguese, in 1448. Martin Behem found one of them covered with beech-trees, and he called it therefore Fayal; another abounding in sweet flowers, and he therefore called it Flores; and all full of haAvks, and he bherefore named them the Azores. A violent concussion of the earth took place here for twelve days, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757. Here are fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George's destroyed the town of Ursuhna, May, 1808; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near St. Michael's in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island called. Sabrina gradually disappeared, Dec. 1812. BAC] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 185 B. BABEL, THE Tower of, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 b. c. Tiie temple of Belus, originally this celebrated tower, was the most magnificent in the world; it had lofty spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred Scriptures), who was deified after death ; and in an adjoining apartment was a magnificent bed, whither the priests daily conducted a female, who, as they pretended, was there honored with the company of the god. — Blair. BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, formed in the cause of Mary against Elizabeth, for which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. Bab- ington was a gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of his own persuasion (the Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the queen, and deliver Mary. He seems to have been principally induced to this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Marj'^, in gratitude, would accept of him as a husband. 1586. BABYLON, Empire of, founded by Belus, supposed to be the Nimrod of holy writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 b. c.^ — Lenglet. Ninus of AssjTia seized on Babylon, and established what was j^i'operly the Assy- rian empire, by uniting the two soveicignties, 2059 e.g. According to Eusebius this empire existed 1240 years ; according to Justin, 1300 years ; according to Herodotus, 500 or 600 years. Of these opinions Blair has adopted the first, which calculates from the tbundation of the empire by Ninus, B.C. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was de- throned by his generals, and his kingdom divided into the Assyrian, Baby- lonian, and Median kingdoms. 820 b. c. — See Assyria. The tower of Babel built - b. c. 2247 The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 Ashur builds a city, afterwards called Nineveh - - -2245 The astronomical observations are be- gun at Babylon by the Chaldeans. — Blair ; Lenglet - - ■ 2234 Belus, kmg ol" Assj'ria, extends his em- pire over the neighboring states, de- feats the Babylonians, and makes them tributary. — Usher - -2124 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, I Taken by Darius. — Usher - - 511 The city of Babylon Avas, anciently, the most magnificent in the world; and in later times famous for the empire established under the Seleucidas. Its greatness was so reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it was but a desolate wilderness ; and at pi-esent the jjlace where it stood is scarcely Imown to travellers. — Rollings Ancient Hist. BACCHANALIA, games celebrated in honor of Bacchus. They arose in Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampus, and were there called Diouysia, about 1415 b. c. — Diodorus. They were celebrated in Rome under the name of Bacchanalia. BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on immarried men ; and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars, and inflicted on them various marks of infamy and disgrace. — Vossius. After twenty-five years of age, a tax was laid upon bachelors in England. 12^. lO.";. ii[ _iov a duke, and for a common person, one shilling, 7 William III. 1695. Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their male and female servants, in 1785. BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game (decidedly one of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 e. c. It ia and names his capital after himself, Nineveh. — Lenglet ■ - B. c. 2069 Babylon taken by Ninus - - - 2059 The Assyrian empire ends - - 820 Belesis governs in Babylon - - 766 Babylon taken by Esar-haddon - - 680 Nebuchadnezzar reigns - - - 604 He takes Jeru.=alem. —Lenglet - - 587 He is driven from among men - - 569 Babylon taken by the Medes and Per- sians, under Cyrus - - - 538 186 THE world's progress. [bri stated by some to have been invented in Wales in the period preceding the Conquest. — Henry. BADAJOS, Siege of. This important barrier fortress had surrendered to the French, March 11, 1811, and was invested by the British under lord Wel- lington on Marcli 18, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, following. This victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, birt it obliged the French, who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder, to commence a precipitate retreat from that kingdom. BADEN, House of, descended from Herman, son of Berthold I. duke of Zah- ringen, who died a. d. 1074. From Christopher, who united the branches of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden- Baden, and Baden-Dourlach. This family makes a most conspicuous figure in the annals of Germany, and is allied to all the principal fatnilies in the empire. BADEN. Treaty of, between France and the emperor, when Landau was ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden was formerly a margravate ; it was erected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish-Confederation, in 1806. Its territorial acquisitions by its alliances with France, were gua- ranteed by the congress of Vienna, in 1815. The grand Duke granted his people freedom of the press, a burgher guard, trial by jurj^, and the right of public meeting, Feb. 29. Troops revolt at Rastadt, May, 1849. Insur- rection at Carlsruhe ; — the grand Duke Hues, May 13, 1849. Insurrection subdued by the Prussians, June, 1849. BAFFIN'S-BAY, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions of Ross and Parrj^ proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his state- ment. These voyagers returned home in 1818. See article North Wed Passage. BAGDAD, built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, a. d. 762 — taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It has since been often taken by the Persians, and from them again by the Tui'ks. — Blair. BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland and Scotland ; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece of Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, now in Rome, is represented a bagpiper dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said to have played upon a bagpipe, a.d. 51. BAHAMA ISLES. These were the first points of discovery by Columbus. San Salvador was seen by this great navigator on the night of the 11th Octo- ber, 1492. — The Bahamas were not known to the English till 1667. Seized for the crown of England, 1718, when the pirates who inhabited them sur- rendered to Captain Rogers. -BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, all felonies were bailable, till murder ^\■as excepted by statute ; and by the 3d Edward I. the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken away, 1274. Bail was further regulated, 23 Henry VI. ; 2 Philip and Slary and in later reigns. BAILIFFS OR SHERIFFS, are said to be of Saxon origin. London had its sMre- reve prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for counties in Engknd in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the name of bailifis, in 1308; and the name was changed to sheriff 1548. There are still some places where the chief magistrate is called bailiff, as the high bailiff of Westminster. The term Bimi-ba.illffis a corruption ofbormd-bailiff, every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good he- ha.vior. -^Bladstone. BAL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 1 87 BALANCE OP POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and control ambition ; the principle is said to he a discovery of the Italian poli- ticians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France— Robertson. By the treaty of Munster, the principle of a balance of power was first recognized by treaty October 24, 1648. BALLADS. They may be traced in British history to the Anglo-Saxons.— Turner. Andhelme, who died a. d. 709, is mentioned as the first who intro- duced ballads into England. "The harp was sent round, that those might sing who could."— .Bciie. Alfred sung ballads.— iWaZOTsiwrT/. Canute com- posed one..— Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edward IV. ; but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. — Viner. BALLADS, NATIONAL. "Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may make the laws." — Fletcher of Saltoun. A British statesmaB has said, " Give me the writing of the ballads of the country, and while I place at your com- mand every other species of composition, I will fix public opinion, and rule public feeling, and sway the popular sentiment, more powerfully than all your writers, political and moral can do by any other agency or influence." The beautifal and frequently touching ballads of Dibdin, particularly those of the sea, inspired many a brave defender of his country in the late war ; Dibdin died Jan. 20, 1833. BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One performed at the interview between Hen. Vlll. of Eng. & Francis I. of France, in the field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520.— Guicciardini. In the next century, they reached the summit of their glory in the splendid pomps of the courts of Tuscany and Lorraine ; and their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore a part in one, 16G4. BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave . the hint as to hydrogen, in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by MM. Montgolfler, in 1783, whenRozier and the marquis d'Arlandes ascended at Paris. Pilatre Desrozier and M. Romain perished in an attempted voyage from Boulogne to England, the balloon having taken fire, June 14, 1785. At the battle of Fleurus" the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the enemy's army, and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 1794. Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4,000 feet, and descended by a parachute. Sept. 21. 1802. Gaj'-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of 23,000 feet, Sept. 6. 1804. Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night, and the balloon, being surrounded by fire-works, took fire, and she was pre- cipitated to the grormd, and killed, July 6, 1819. BALLOON, The Nassau. The great Nassau balloon, of immense dimensions, and wliicli had for some time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants of London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gardens, started from that place on an experimental voyage, having three individuals in the car, and, after having been eighteen hours in the air, descended at Weilburg, in the duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836. BALTIMORE, the third city in population and fifth in commerce in the United States ; founded 1729 ; named from lord Baltimore, the proprietor of the Maryland patent. In 1765 it contained but 50 houses ; chartered as a city in 1797. Population in 1790, 13 508 ; in 1810, 35,583 ; in 1830, 80,625 ; in 1840, 102,313, including 3,199 slaves. A handsome monument in the city commemorates its successful defence against the attack of the British under general Ross, Sept. 12, 1814. BALTEVIORE, Battle of, between the British army under general Ross and the Americans ; the British in making an attack r;pon the town were unsuc- l88 THE world's progress. [ BAN cessful, and after a desperate engagement were repulsed with great loss; the gallant general who led the enterprise was killed, Sept. 12, 1814. BANK. The first established was in Italy, a. d. 808, by the Lombard Jews, pf whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still reside. The name bank is derived from banco, a bench, which was erected in the market-place for the exchange of money. The mint in the tower of London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles I. laid his hands upon the money, and destroyed the credit of the mint, in 1640. The traders were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, which, when kept at home, their apprentices freqiiently absconded with to the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmiths in Lombard-street, who were'provided with strong chests for their own valu- able wares ; and this became the origin of banking in England. — Bank of Venice formed - - - 11.57 i Bank of Hamburgh - -1619 Bank of Geneva - • - 134.5 Bank of Rotterdam • • 1635 Bank of Barcelona - - - 1401 Bank of Stockholm • • -1688 Bank of Genoa - - - 1407 Bank of England - • - •'694 Bank of Amsterdam - • - 1607 I Bank of the United States • 1791 and 1816 BANK OF ENGLAND. (See preceding article,) originally projected by a mer- chant named Patterson. It was incorporated by William III. in 1694, in con- sideration of 1.200 000/., the then amount of its capital, being lent to gov- ernment. The capital has gone on increasing from one period to another up to the present time as the discretion of parliament allowed ; and the same authority has also at difterenfc intervals prolonged the privileges of tlie bank, and renewed its charter. When first established the notes of the bank were at 20 per cent, discount ; and so late as 1745, they vf&ve under par. Bank bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first bank post-bills were issued 1754 ; small notes were issued 1759 ; cash payments were discontinued February 25, 1797, when notes of one and kco pounds were put into circulation. Silver tokens appeai-ed in January, 1798 ; and afterwards Spanish dollars, with the head of George III. stamped on the neck of Charles IV., were made current. Cash payments were resumed partially, Sept. 22, 1817, and the restriction had altogether ceased in 1821. For a number of years the financial mea- sures of the crown have been largely aided by loans from this great reser- voir of wealth. The average amount of the Bank of England notes in cir- culation is as follows : — In 1718 (earliest account) - ^61,829,9.30 1778 . - . . 7,030,680 1790 - - - - 10.217.000 1800 .... 15;450,000 1810 - - - - 23,904,000 The circulation of notes, in 1845, exceeded 27 millions, and the bullion in the bank fluctuated between 15 and 16 millions. The returns of issues, &c. are now made weekly. To secure the credit of the Bank it was enacted, " that no other banking company should consist of more than sis persons," 6 Anne 1707. There are branch banks of the Bank of England in many of the chief towns of the kingdom ; as Birmingham, Bristol, Exeter, Glouces- ter, Hall, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Swansea, &c., all formed since 1828. See Funds. BANK OF THE UNITED STATES, first one established 1791. Cap. S10,000,000. —A new one with cap. of $35,000,000, 1816. The act of Congress rechar- tering it vetoed by president Jackson, July 10, 1832. The "removal of the deposits " of the U. S. government from the bank, by order of presi- dent Jackson, signed by R. B. Taney, secretary of the Treasury, (W. J. Duane the late secretary having refused to sign the order,) Sejit. 23, 1833. Resolution of the Senate that the removal was uncalled for, and the respon- sibility assumed by the president unconstitutional, &e., introduced by Mr In 1815 .... £26,803,520 1820 . • - - 27,174,000 1830 - - - - 20,620,000 1835 - - - - 18,215,220 1840 - - - - 17,231,000 BAP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 189 Webster and passed (26 to 20) March. 28, 1834. Senate refused to enter on tlieir journal the pi'esident's protest against their resolution, May 7, 1834, Noted resolution of the Senate "expunging" from their journals their reso- lution of 1834, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16, 1837.— Sub-Treasury Bill passed Jan. 1840, repealed Aug. 9, 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incorporated by Pennsylvania, March 29, 1836 : suspended payment Feb. 5, 1841. Bill for establishing a " Fiscal Bank of the U. S." passed the House of Representa- tives Aug. 6, 1841 ; vetoed by president Tyler Aug. 16. Another bill for a "Fiscal Corporation" vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, followed by a resignation of all the Cabinet, except Mr. Webster. BANKRUPTCY. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New Eng- land and New- York, May 10 — 16, 1837 ; — legalized for one year by legisla- ture of N. Y. Banks of Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c., also suspended same month. General bankruptcy law passed bj'' Congress Aug. 9, 1841. BANKRUPTS, in England, first law enacted regarding them, 35 Henry VIE. 1543. Again, 3 of Elizabeth, 1560 ; again, I'james I. 1602 ; again, 1706 ; and more recently. It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrupt may be arrested except in going and coming from any examination before the commissioners. May 13, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused a bankrupt his certificate because he had lost five poimds at one time in gaming, July 17, 1788. Enacted that members of the house of commons becoming bankrupts, and not paying their debts in full, shall vacate their seats, 1812. The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrupt court, passed October 1831. — Slatules at Large. NUMEEE OP BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 1700 - • - - 38 I 1800 - - - 1339 I 1830 - - 1467 1725 - - - . - 416 I 1810 - - - - 2000 1835 - - - 954 1750 - - - - 432 1820 - - - 1358 1840 - - 1308 1775 520 I 1825 - - - - 2683 | 1844 - - - 1064 According to a return to parliament made at the close of February 1826. there had become bankrupt in the four months preceding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy to a hundred merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was, however, the period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented commercial embarrassment and ruin. ~ BANNOCKBURN, B.\ttle of, between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland, and Edward II. of England ; the army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 Scots, and that of Edward of 100,000 English, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug pits, which he had covered, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The rout was complete, the king narrowlj'^ escaping, and 50,000 English were killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1314. — Barbour. BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any thing, and hence arose the custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage. The use of matrimonial banns is said to have been introduced into the Galil- ean church, about a. d. 1210; and banns of marriage are proclaimed in llic church of England to this day. BAPTISM. The sacrament of admission instituted by Christ and practised liy all sects professing Christianity, except Quakers. St. John, the forerunner of our Saviour, is eminently called the Baptist, as being the first that publicly baptized with a spiritual intention. Christ came from Galilee to Jordan, and was baptized by John. a. d. 30. Originally the people were baptized in rivers; but in the reign of Constantino, a. d. 319, in great cities they buiit chapels, or ]jlacfs si)ecially to baptize in \\liiih in the eastern conntrii-s was 190 THE world's Progress. I^as. by dipping the person all over. Now, in the western and colder parts, they use sprinkling ; at first every church had not a baptistery belonging to it ; onr fonts answer the same end. — Pardon. BAPTISTS, OR Anabaptists, a sect distinguished from other Christians by their opinions respecting baptism, began their doctrine about a. d. 1525, but much earlier dates are mentioned. They suffered much persecution in England in the sixteenth century. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in 1635. Of Baptist missions, it may be said, that the Moravian brethren led the way to their benevolent enterprises, about 1732. — See Anabaptists. BARBADOES, the first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother plantation gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605 ; and was, with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to the earl of Marl- boroiigh, 2 Charles 1. 1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental visitations : in a dreadful hurricane in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabit- ants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroyed, by the land removing from its original site to another, and covering every thing in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two great fires. May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thou- sands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, August 10, 1831. The history of Tiikle and Yarico, which Addison, in his Spectator, has re- corded for the detestation of mankind, took its rise in this island. BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century b. c. In England, barbers formerly exhibited a head, or pole, at their doors ; and the barber's pole until lately used by them was a burlesque imitation of the former sign. BARBER-SURGEONS. Formerly the business of a surgeon was united to that of a barber, and he was denominated a barber-surgeon. A company was formed under this name in 1308, and the London company was incorporated, 1st Edward IV. 1461. This union of profession was dissolved by a statute of Henry VIII. BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great^ lustre in Gaul, Britain, and Ireland. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; Alexander the Great had a bard named Cherylus ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The druids among the English were philosophers and priests, and the bards were their poets. Thej' were the recorders of heroic actions, in Ireland and Scotland, almost down to our own times. Ossian flourished in the third century, Merlin in the fifth. The former speaks of a prince who kejDt a hundred bards. Irish sonnets are the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. — See Ballads. BARNET, Battle of, between the houses of York and Lancaster, when Ed- ward IV. gained a decisive and memorable victory over the earl of War- wick, Easter-daj^, April 14, 1471. — Brooks. BAROMETERS. Torricelli. a Florentine, having discovered that no principle of suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump owing to nature's abhorrence of a vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and made the first barometer, in 1643, and Descartes explained the phenomena. Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668 ; pendant barometers in 1695 ; marine in 1700. \RONS. The dignitj'- of baron is extremely ancient: its original name in England was Vavasour, which, by the Saxons was changed into Thane, and by the Normans into Baron. Many of this rank are named in the his- tory of England and unfloubtedly had assisted in. or had been summoned to parliament; b)it such is tlie deficiency of public records, that the first bat] dictionary of dates. 191 precept to be found is of no higher date than tlie 49th Henry III., 1265. The first who was raised to this dignity by patent was John de JBeauchamp, created Baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1387. Barons first sum- moned to parliament, 1205. Took arms against l^;ing John, and com- pelled him to sign the gi-eat charter of our liberties, and the charter of the forests, at Runnymcde, near Windsor, June 1215. Charles II. granted a coronet to barons on his restoration : they attended parliament in complete armor in the reign of Henry III. — Beatson. BARONETS, the first among the gentrj', and the only knighthood that is here- ditary : instituted by James I., 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created in 1619. Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625. BARRISTERS. They are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. about 1291 ; but there is earlier mention of professional advocates in Eng- land. There are various ranks of barristers, as King's Counsel, Ser- geants, &c. BARROW'S STRAITS. Discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as Mel- ville Island, in lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 118° 47' W. The strait was entered on the 2d August, 1819. The lowest state of the thermometer was 55° below zero of Fahrenheit. BARTHOLOMEW, Massacre of St. This dreadful massacre in France com- menced at Paris on the night of the festival of St. BartholomeAV, August 24, 1572. More than seventy thousand Hugonots, or French Protestants, were murdered throughout the kingdom, by secret orders from Charles IX., at the instigation of the queen-dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mother. The masaacre was attended with circumstances of demoniacal cruelty, even as regarded the female and the inlant. BASTILE OP PARIS. A roj-al castle, built by Charles V. king of France, in 1369, et seq. for the defence of Paris against the English, completed in 1383. It was afterwards used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and be- came the scene of the most deplorable suftering and frightful crimes. It was of such strength that Henry IV. and his veteran array assailed it in vain in the siege of Paris, during the intestine war that desolated France between the years 1587 and 1594; yet it was piilled down by the infuriated populace, July 14. 1789, and thus was commenced the French revolution. On the capture of this great monument of slavery, the governor and other ofllicers were seized, and conducted to the Place de Greve, and having had their hands cut off, they were then beheaded. The furious citizens having fixed their heads on pikes, carried them in triumph through the streets. "The man with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner ever known, died here, November 19, 1703. — See Iron Mask. BATAVIA. The capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East Indies, fortified by that people, 1618. Twelve thousand Chinese massacred here in one day, 1740. Taken by the English, January, 1782. Again, by the British, under general sir Samuel Auchmuty, to whom the gaj-rison surrendered, Aug. 8, 1811. F.ATHS, long used in Greece, and introduced by Mfecenas into Rome. The thermaj of the Rom.ans and gymnasia of the Greeks were sumptuous. The marble Laocoon was found in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules in those of Cai-acalla. — Slrabo. BATl'EL ROLL. After the battle of Hastings, which decided the fate of England, and subjected it to the Norman yoke, a list was taken of William's chiefs^ amounting to 629 and called the Battel-roU ; and among these chiefs the lands and distinction.'^ of the foiloww's of tlie defeated Harold wei'e dis- tributed. 1060. 192 THE world's progress. [BAT BATTLE, Wager of. A trial by combat, formerly allowed by English laws, where the defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, and make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. In a case of appeal of murder, Ashford v. Thornton, before the King's Bench in London, April 1818, the court allowed that the . law gave the defendant a right to his wager of battle ; but the appellant, the brother of a lovely girl, whom Thornton had first violated and then murdered, not accepting the challenge, the murderer was discharged. A statute was immediately passed, putting an end to this mode of trial, 59 George III., 1819. — Statutes at large. B ATTERING-RAM. Testudo Arietaria, with other military implements, some of which are still in use, invented by Artemones, about 441 b. c. These ponderous engines by their own weight exceeded the utmost effects of our battering cannon. — Desaguliers. Sir Christopher Wren emploj'ed a batter- ing-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul's church, previouslj'' to re- building the new edifice in 1675. BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos was the first who ranged an armj' in a regu- lar line of battle, and placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the sol- dier's vigilance by giving him a ^vatcll-word. — Lenglet. The following are the principal and most memorable battles mentioned in gvneral history, and are those also that are most commonly referred to : A. D. Actium (,the empire of Ro7ne is con- firmed to Augustus) ■ ■ - 31 Xy]-iq:\s. (.Fall of Persia) ■ - - 331 Aboukir (TMrAs) Acre (Siege commenced) - (Sir Sydney Smith) (Storming of) Adrianople ( Constant ine) Albuera PiXfoxA (Covenanters) • Alexandria (Abercrombie) ■ (Abercrombie) Algiera (E.vmout/i) - (French) Alderton Moor Agincourt Aliwal (India) Almanza,, in Spain Amoy ( City taken) - Almeida Anjou, or Breagne - . Antoign - Areola Ascaloii (Richard I.) ■ Assaye ( iVelleslcy) - Auerstadt Augsburg Austerlitz Badajos Balkan, passage of the - Baltimore Bannockburn Barnot (Edward I V. ) Barrosa - Bautzen Bayonne - Belgrade ■ Brit.) Nov. 19, 1796 Sept. 3, 1191 Sept. 23, 1SU3 Oct. 14, 1806 Aug. 24, 1796 Dec. 2, 1S05 Mar. a, 1?11 July 26, 1829 Sept. 12, 1814 June 25, 1314 April 14, 1471 Mar. 6, 1811 May 20, 1813 Mar. 19, 1794 - - 1456 - 1717 - Au£. 1777 April 13, 1759 Berwick - - • - 1378 Bilboa (British legion) Dec. 24, 1836 Blackheath ( Cornish Rebels defeated) 1497 Blackrock (Amer. ^ Brit.) - Dec. 3, 1813 Bladensburg - - - Aug. 24, 1814 Blenheim (Marlborougli) Aug. 2, 1704 Borodina - - - Sept. 7, 1812 Boswonh - - Aug. 22, 1485 Bothvvell Bridge, Scotland - - - 1679 Boyne, Ireland - - July 1, 1690 Bovines (French and Gerjnans) - - 1214 Boxtel - - - Sept. 17, 1794 Brandywine - - - Sept. 11, 1777 Brechin, Scotland - - • - 1452 Brenau (Austrians and Bavarians) - 1743 Breslau - - - Nov. 22, 1757 Briar'.s Creek - - - - 1779 Brienne - - - Feb. 29, 1814 Bridgewater (Americans and British) •July 25, 1814 Buena Vista (Amer. a7id Mexicans) Feb. 22, 1847 June 21, 1806 July 6, 1807 June 17, 1775 Sept. 27, 1810 Aug. 8, 1812 July 26, 1799 Mar. 18, 1799 May 27, ibid Nov. 3, 1810 - 323 May 16, 1811 July 2, 1615 Mar. 21, 1801 May 17, 1799 Aug. 27, 1816 July 4, 1830 - - 1643 Oct. 25, 1415 Jan. 20, 1846 April 4, 1707 Aug. 27, 1841 AU2. 5, 1811 ^ - 1121 Aug. 13, 1792 I Buenos Ayres (Popham) ■ ( Whitelock) Bunker's Hill Busaco - Brownstown (Careat/a) Ca.r\ns (Victory of Hannibal) - 216 Carthage (taken by Publius Scipio) - 146 Chceronea ( Tohnidas) ■ - - 447 (Philip) - . - - 338 Bennington (Amer. Bergen ■ Sept. W and 'Oct. 2, 1799 Bersen-op-Zooni (taken) - ■ 1747 - Mar. 6, ISU UiM'esiaa - - - Sf|)t. 7. 181^! (Sylla) Cnidos (Lysander killed) - Cranon, in Thessaly Cyzicum Calais taken Calcutta (India) Camden (Amer. ^- Brit.) — (Amer. Sf Brit.) ■ Campo Santo Canton ( Bogne forts taken) C'afle! Niiovij " - - - 394 - 322 - - 400 A. D. - Jan. 7, 15.58 June 1750 • Aug. 16, 1780 April 25, 1781 - 1743 Feb. 2C, 1841 Sept. 29. 1800 April 13. 181 L' bat] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 193 BATTLES, continued. A. D. Cassano (Prince Eugene) - - 1705 Castlebar (French) - - Aug. 28, 1798 Castiglione - - July 2, 1796 Castillon, in Guienne - - - 1453 Charleroi .... 1690 Charleroi Fleurus - - June 17, 1794 Charleston (taken by the British) May 12, 1780 Chepultepec(^?«.^iViejr.)Sept. 12-14, 1848 Chippewa - July 5 and 25, 1814 - - Oct. 1814 Ciudad Rodrigo (invested) June 11, 1812 (stormed) - Jan. 19, 1812 Clontarf, Ireland - - - 1039 Cojistantina (Algiers) ■ Oct. 13, 18-37 Contreras (Amer. and Mexicans) - 1848 Corunna, (Moore) • ■ Jan. 16, 1809 Cowpens (Amer. Sr Brit.) - - 1781 Craney island (Americans and Brit.) June 21, 1813 Cressy (Teh Dien) - . ■ ~ CuUoden (Pretetider) - Cunnersdorf - Detroit (surrendered) - TloUmgen (George-II.) Dresden - Dreux, in France Drogheda (taken by storm) Dumblain (Sheriff-Muir) ■ Dunbar - — (King of Scots taken) -, Siege of. Aug. 25, 1346 April 16, 1746 Aug. 12, 1759 Aug. 16, 1812 - - 1743 Aug. 26, 1813 - - 1562 - 1649 Nov. 12, 1715 Sept. 3, 16.50 - - 1296 - 1337 DungariHill- ' - - July 10, 1647 Dunkirk - - - Sept. 7, 1793 Dunsinane - - - - - 1054 Durham, Nevil's Cross . - - 1346 Eastport (Atnericans and British) July 1814 Edgehill fight - - Oct. 23, 1642 Erie, Fort - - • Aug. 15, 1814 Erzeroum ( Turks and Prussians) - 1745 Eutaw Springs Evesham Eylau Fairfield (Amer. ^ Brit.) Falkirk, ( Wallace) - 1781 Aug. 4, 1265 Feb. 8, 1807 - 1779 July 22, 1298 Flatbush, L. I. (Am. i?- Brit.) Aug. 27, 1776 Flodden Fontainebleau - Fontenoy Fort du Q,uesne - French Town, Canada Friedburg Friedland - r Granicus - Sept. 9, 1513 Feb. 17, 1814 April 30, 1745 July 9, 1755 Jan. 22, 1813 June 4, 1745 June 14, 1807 B.C. - 334 A. D. Germantown - - - Oct. 4, 1777 Gisors (Dieu et mon droit) ■ - 1198 Guilford - - - Mar. 16, 1781 Halidon Hill, Berwick - July 19, 1333 Halle (Bernadotle) ■ - Oct. 17, 1806 Hanau ( Wrede) - Oct. 29, 1813 Hastings (Conquest) - Oct. 14, 1066 Hexham ( Yorkists defeated) May 15, 1464 Hochkirchen - - Oct. 14, 1758 Hohenlinden • - Nov. 3, 1800 Ipsus (Antigomis slain) Issus (110,000 Persians slain) .301 3.33 Jamac ... Mar. 3, Jemappe • . Nov. 5, Jena .... Oct. 14, Ket and Warwick ... Killiecrankie, Scotland - July 27, Kowno . - . Dec. 14, Krasnoi - - • Nov 16, Leuctra ..... Laffeldt (Duke of Cumberland) - Landshut (Prussians and Austrians) (Austrians) - April 21, Langside - - May 13, Leipzic - - - Oct. 16, Lepanto ( Greeks) - '' .- May 9, Lewes - - - May 14, Lexington (Amer. revolution) April 19, 177: Ligny Lincoln Lisle (taken by the Allies) Lissa - . - - Lodi Long Island - Lutzen - Lutzingen (Gustavus slain) June 16, Feb. 2, May 19, Dec. 5, May 10, Aug. 27, May 2, Mantinea (Epaminondas slain) Munda, in Spain McHenry, Fort (Americans and Brit.) Oct. 13, Malplaquet (Marlborough) Manheim - - - May 30, - July 12, - Sept. 23, May 29, ■ Jan. 31, June 14, - Sept. 15, July 3, Sept. 12-14, April 27, Aug. 1, Mantua Marengo - Marignan, Italy Marston Moor - Mexico Milan Minden ISIittau (Swedes and Russians) Mockern - - - April 1, Oct. 14, Mohartz, Hungary Molwitz - - - April 10, Monmouth (Amer. S)' Brit.)- June 28, Monterey (Mexico) ■ Sept. 24, Montmorenci - - Aug. 10, Moodkee, India - - Dec. 18, Morea (Castle surrenders) Oct. 28, Moscow (burnt) ■ Sept. 4, Moskwa - - ■ Sept. 7, Moscow (retaken) - Oct. 22, Narva ( Charles XII. of Sweden) Naseby - - • June 14, Newark • - ■ • - - Newbury - ... - (second battle) ■ Oct. 20. New London (burnt by the. British) New Orleans - • Jan 3, Niagara, Fort - - • Nov. Nisbet - - - May 7, Norfolk (burnt by the British) June Northallerton, (or the .battle of the Standard) . - - . A.D. 1569 1792 1806 1549 1689 1812 1812 B. C. 370 A.D. 1747 1745 1809 1568 1813 1829 1264 1775 S15 1141 1217 1708 1796 1757 1776 1813 1632 B. c. 363 45 A.D. 1814 1709 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1800 1515 1644 1848 1799 1759 1705 1813 1813 1687 1741 1778 1846 1759 iai5 1828 1812 1812 1812 >70i) 1645 1644 1(>W 164i 17S1 1815 1813 1402 1779 !94 THE world's progress. [bav BATTLES, continued. A. D. Norwalk (.burnt by the Brit.) Aug. 22, 1779 Novi {Suwarrow) • Aug. 16, 1799 ... Jan. 8, 1800 Ogdensburg {British and Americans) Feb. 22, 1813 Oporto - - - May 11, 1809 Otterburn (CAer'y CAose) - - -1308 Oudenard (Marlborough) July 11, 1708 B. C. Pharsalia - - - - 48 Philippi (,Ro7nan Republic ends) • 42 A.D. Palo Alto (ist o/Amer. Sr Mex.) May 8, 1846 Parma (Austrians and French) - 1734 ■ (Suwarrow) ■ - July 12, 1799 Patay (Joan of Arc and the English) 1429 Pavia (French andAu^trians) Feb. 24, Pensacola (taken by general Jackson) Nov. 20, Peterwarden • - Aug. 5 Pfaffendorf - - - Aug. 15, Piakey - - - Sept. lOi Plattsburg (Americans and Biitish) Sept. 11 Poitiers - - Prague - Sept. 19 Nov. 9. Maya: Jan. 2: July 8, Dec. 26 July 28; June 16 Princeton (Amer. £)• Brit.) Pultowa (Charles XII.) Pultusk - Pyrenees Uuatre Bras Quebec (or the plains of Abraham) Sept. 13 (death qfMontgo}nery)X)ec. 21 - - - April 28, ftueenstown (Amer. S/- Brit.) Oct. 13, Ramilies (Marlborough) ■ May 23! Resaca de la Palma (Mexico) May 9. kosbach • - - Nov. 17j Nov. b. 1525 1814 1717 1760 I 1547 A. D. Sobraon (India) • Feb. IC, 1846 Solway Moss - - Nov. 25, 1542 St. Albans ( York and Lancaster) - 1455 1814 1356 1620 1757 1777 1709 1806 1813 1815 1759 1775 1760 1812 1706 1846 1382 1787 Sackett's Harbor (Americans and British) .... 1813 ■salamanca - - ■ July 22, 1812 san Maretal (Spajiiards) Aug. 4, 1813 Saratoga (Burgoyne's surrender) Oct. 17, 1777 Savannah (taken Inj the British) Dec. 29. 1778 Schwerdnitz - - Aug. 16, 1762 Sedgemoor - - . - July 5, 1685 Seidlitz (Poles) - - Mar. 31, 1831 Sempach - - - July 9, 1386 Seringapatam .... 1791 — (Tippoo reduced) - -1791 ( Tippoo killed) May 4, 1799 Shrewsbury - - July 21, 1403 Skenesborough - - July 7, 1777 Smolensko - - - Aug. 27, 1812 (second) 1461 - 1567 Jan. 27, 1814 May 5, 1836 Mar. 13, 1470 St. Denis (Montinorenci) Si Dizier, France - St. Sebastian Stamford Stony Point (taken by the Americans) 1779 Stratton (jwet Waller) ■ May 16, 1643 Talavera de la Reyna - July 27, 1809 Tai-ragona - - - Jan. 24, 1812 Tev.'kesbury - .- May 4, 1471 Thames (Americajts and Brit.) Sept. 1813 Thermopylae (Greeks) - July 13, 1822 Tirh mont (French and Allies) - 1705 Toplitz (Austfians and Prussians) - 1762 - - Aug. 30, 1813 Toumay - - - May 8, 1793 ToulSn - - Oct. 1, 1793 Touli.use - - - April 10, 1814 Towton - - - Mar. 29, 1461 Trenton (Amer. ^ Brit.) ■ Dec. 26, 7, 1776 Turin (French and Germans) - 1706 Ulm .... June 21, 1800 (surrendered) ■ Oct. 29, 1805 Valenciennes - • May 23, 1793 Vania (surrenders) - Oct. 11, 1E.25 Vera Cruz (taken by Amer. Gen. Scott) March 27, 1847 Villa Franca Vimiera ( Wellington) Vittoria, Spain Wagram Wakefield Waisaw April 10, 1812 Oct. 21, 1808 - - 1702 June 21, 1813 .Tuly5, 1809 Dec. 31, 1460 Oct. 10, 1794 Nov. 8, ibid Sept. 8, 1831 ••«Z by the Britisli) Aug. 1814 June 18, 1815 mer. ^ Brit.) Oct. 28, 1776 Nov. 30, ibid - June 12, 1&31 Sept. J3, 1642 - - 1651 July 1778 ".n) ■ (Charles II.)* Wyoming massacre York (Canada) captured by Ameri- cans - - - April 27, 1813 York Town (surrender of Cornwallis) Oct. 19, 1781 B. C. Zama (Scipio and Hannibal) ■ ■ 202 Zela ( Coisar : veni, vidi, vici) - 47 A. D. Zeuta, Hungary (Prince Eugene) - 1697 Zurich 1799 ;AV ARIA, House OF. The dukedom founded in tlie eleventh century: this house has the same origin as that of Saxony, and is a branch of the Guel- phian family ; Henrj^ Guelph was made duke of Bavaria by Conrad II., em- peror of Germany, who reigned in 1024. Otho, count Wittelpatch, was made duke in 1179 ; and Maximilian I. elector in 1624. Bavaria was * This battle and defeat of Charles put a period to the civil war in England, N. B, — Many of the above battles are described more fully under each name. BEA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 19£ erected into a kingdom by Bonaparte in December 1805 ; and obtained by the treaty of Presburg the incorporation of the whole of tlae Italian and German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. This kingdom joined the coalition against France in Oct. 1813. Bavarian cham- ber recommends freedom of the press, &c., by almost unanimous vote, Oct, 17, 1847. Riots at Munich on account of Lola Montes, the king's mistress, Feb. 9, 1848. Violent movement at Munich; the king abdicates in favor of his son, Maximillian II., March 22, 1848. KINGS OF BAVARIA. I 1825 Louis, 13th October ; — abdicated, 1805 Maximilian Joseph, the preceding elec- I Maixh 22, 1848. tor, created king. | 1848 Maximilian II. LiAYEUX TAPESTRY. This important historical document was wrought by Matilda, the queen of William I., and represents the facts of the Conquest, from the signature of theawill of the Confessor down to the crowning of William, 1066. — Rapin. This curious monument of antiquity embroidered by Matilda, is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compart- ments showing the train of events, commencing with the visil^of Harold to the Norman court, and entling with his death at Hastings ; it is now presei ;ed in the town-house of Rouen. — Agnes Strickland. BAYONETS. The short sword or dagger fixed at the end of a musket. This weapon was invented at Bayonne, in France (whence the name), about 1670. According to the abbe Lenglet, it was first used in battle by the French, in 1603, " with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter with so formidable a novelty." BAZAAR, OR Covered Market. The word is of Arabic origin. The bazaar of Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has several times held 30,000 men in order of battle. BEADS. The Druids appear to have used beads. They were early used by Dervises and other holy men of the East. They were in general use in Roman Catholic devotions, a. d. 1213. The bead-roll was a list of deceased persons for the repose of whose souls a certain nunijjer of prayers were re- cited, which the devox^t counted by a string of beads. — Butler. BEARDS. Various have been the customs of most nations respecting them. The Tartars, out of a -eligious principle, waged a long and bloody war with the Persians, declaring them infidels, because they would not cut their beards after the rite:, of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved lest the beard should give a handle to their enemies, 330 b. c. Beards were worn by the Romans, 297 b. c. They have been worn for centuries by the Jews. In England, they were not fiishionable after the Conquest, a. d. 1066, until the thirteenth century, and were discontinued ■ at the Restoration. The Russians, even of rank, did not cut their beards until within these few years ; and Peter the Great, notwithstanding his enjoining them to shave, was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut ofi" the beard by force. BEARDS ON WOMEN. A bearded woman was taken by the Prussians at the battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 1724 : her beard measiu-ed 1^ yards. A Avoman is said to have been seen in Paris with a bushy beard, and her whole body covered with hair. — Diet, de Trevoux. The great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very long stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard. BEAUVAIS, Heroines of. On the town of Beauvais being besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men. the womeii under the conduct of Jeanne de la Hachette, or Laine, particularly distin- guished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the siege/july 10, 1472. In memory of their noble exploits during the siege, the females of l96 THE world's progress. [ BEl Beauvais walk first in a procession on the anniversary of tlieir deliverance — Henault. BECKET'S MURDER. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at the altar, Dec. 29, 1171. Four barons hearing Henry II. say, in a moment of exasperation, "What an unhappy prince am I, who have not aboirt me one man of spirit enough to rid me of this insolent prelate," resolved upon Becket's assassination ; and rushing with drawn swords into the cathedral of Canterbury, where he was at vespers, they announced their design, when he cried out, "I charge you, in the name of the Almighty, not to hurt any other person here, for none of them have been concerned in the late trans- actions." The confederates then strove to drag him from the church ; but not being able to do so, on account of his resolute deportment, they killed him on the spot with repeated wounds, all which he endured without a groan. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and set with jewels, in 1220; and were taken up and burned in the reign of Henry VIII. 1539. — Stowe. » BED. The practice was universal in the first ages, for mankind to sleep upon the skins of beasts. — Whittaker. Tliis was the custom of the early Greeks and Romans, and of the Britons, before the Roman invasion. They were after- wards changed for loose rushes and heather. Straw followed, and was used in the royal chambers of England so late as the close of the fifteenth cen- tury. The Romans were the first who used feathers. BEER. See Ale. A beverage of this sort is made mention of by Xenophon, in his famous retreat, 401 b. c. Beer was drunk generally in England in the thirteenth century. By a law of James I., when there was a kind of duty paid on "afe called here" one quart of the best thereof was to be sold foro, penny. Subjected to excise in 1660. In England the number of retailers in 1834 amounted to about 60,000. See Brewers. BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abun- dance of honey, has been poetically called the " empire of bees." Hymettus, in Attica, is also famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was admired in the earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on bees, 741 b. c. There are 292 species of the bee, or apis genus, and 111 in England. Strange to say, bees were not originally natives of New England : they were inti-oduced into Boston by the English, in 1670, and have since spread over the whole continent ; the first planters never saw any. — Hardie's America. BEET-ROOT. It is of recent cultivation in England. Margraff" first produced sugar from the white beet-root, in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France at the instance of Bo- naparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. A refinery of sugar from beet-root was lately erected at the Thames-bank, Chelsea. BEGUINES. Nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in 1207. The '• Grand Beguinage " of Bruges is the most extensive of modern times. — Some of these nuns once fell into the extravagant error that they could, in this life, arrive at the highest moral perfection, even to impec- cability. The council of Vienne condemned this error, and abolished a branch of the order in 1311. BEHEADING — or Decollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Nor- mandy (as a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by WilHam the Conqueror, 1074, when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, North- ampton, and Northumberland, was first so executed. — Salmon's Chron. English history is filled with instances of this mode of execution, particu- BEL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 19/ larly in the reigns of Henrj"- VIII., and Mary, when even women of the noblest blood, greatest virtues, and most innocent lives, thus suffered death.* BEHRING'S STRAIT. Explored by a Danish navigator in the service of Rus- sia whose name it bears. Behring thus established that the continents of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about ihirtj'-nine miles, 1728. BELGIUM. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and anciently the territory of the Belgae, who were conquered by Julius Cajsar, 47 b. c. Under the dominion of France so late as a. d. 1369 ; formed into a kingdom in 1831. Became an acquisition of the house of Austria .... 1477 Charles V. annexed the Netherlands to the crown of Spain - - -1556 Seven provinces, under William, prince of Orange, revolt, owing to the tyranny of Philip 11.; freed- - - 1579 The ten remaining provinces are given to the archduke - - - 1598 These again fall to Spain - - - 1648 Seven again ceded to Germany - 1714 And three to France - - - 1748 Austrians expelled ; but their rule after- wards restored . . . . 1789 The French entered Belgium Nov. 1, 1792 United to France - Sept. 30, 1795 Placed under the sovereignty of the house of Orange - - -1814 The revoluiion commences at Brussels Aug. 25, 1830 The Provisional Government declares Belgium independent - Oct. 4, 1830 The Belgian troops take Antwerp ; the Dutch are driven to the citadel, from whence they cannonade the town, Oct. 27, 1830 Belgian independence acknowledged This last treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian question ; by the decision of which, the treaty of November 15, 1831, was maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of francs, offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared in- admissible. BELGRADE. Battle of, between the German and Turkish armies, in which the latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men, fought 1456. Belgrade was taken by Solyman, 1522 ; and re-taken by the Imperialists in 1688, from whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. Taken by prince Eugene in 1717 {see next article), and kept till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks. It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach, in 1790. BELGRADE, Siege op. The memorable siege, so often quoted, was undei- taken in May, 1717, under prince Eugene. On August 5, of that year, the Tui'kish army, of 200,000, approached to relieve it, and a battle was fought, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men ; after which Belgrade surrendered. Belgrade has been frequently besieged. See Sieges. by the Allied Powers, announced by Van der Weyer - - Dec. 26, 1830 Duke de Nemours elected king; but his father, the king of France, refuses his consent - - Feb. 3, 1831 M. Surlet de Chokier is elected regent of Belgium - - Feb. 24, 1831 Leopold, prince of Coburg, is elected king - - - July 12, 1831 He enters Brussels - - July 19, 1831 The king of the Netherlands recom- mences the war - Aug. 3, 1831 [France sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, and an armistice ensues.] A conference of the ministers of the five great powers is held in London, which terminates in the acceptance of the 24 articles of pacification - Nov. 15, 1831 Leopold marries Louise, eldest daughter ol Louis Philippe - - Aug. 9, 1832 The French army returns to France Dec. 27, 1832 Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) ; much mischief ensues - - April 6, 1834 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed in London - April 19, 1839 * Among other instances (besides queens of England), may be mentioned the Lady Jane Grey, beheaded, Feb. 12, 1554 ; and the venerable countess of Salisbury — the latter remarkable for her resistance of the executioner. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused to do it; telling him, that she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die like a criminal. He pur- sued her round and round the scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at lencth took it off, aftei mangling the neck and shoulders of the illustrious victim in a horrifying manner. She was daughter of George, duke of Clarence, and last of the royal line of Plantagcnet." May 27, liAl.—Hume. l98 THE world's progress. [ BEiV BELL, BOOK, and CANDLE ; an ecclesiastical ceremony of the Romish churcli. used in excommunication, which see. BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learning. We owe the revival of the belles- lettres in Europe, after the darkness of previous ages to Brunetto, Latini, and other learned men in diflerent countries, about a. d. 1272. — Gen. Hist. Learning greatly promoted by the Medici family in Italy, about 1550. — Fon- tana. Literature began to flourish in France, Germany, and England, about this time. The belles-lettres commenced in England in the reign of Eliza- beth, and flourished in that of Anne. ELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor of them, about 569 b. c. To him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, the potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furna- ces of the Romans. ■JELLS. Used among the Jews, Greeks, Roman Catholics, and heathens. The responses of the Dodonsean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. — Strabo. The monument of Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each surmounted by bells. — Pliny. Introduced bj' Paulinus, bishop of Nole, in Campagna, about A. D. 400. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothair II., king of France, was frighted from the siege of Sens by the ringing of the bells of St. Stephen's church. The second Excerption of our king Egbert commands every priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his church. Bells were used in churches by order of pope John IX., as a defence, hj ring- ing Ihem, against thunder and lightning, about 900. First cast in England by Turkeytel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor im- proved the invention, and caused the first tunable set to be put up at Croyland abbey, 960. — Slowc. Great Bell of St. Pauls, weighs - lbs. 8,400 I St. Peter's, at Rome - - lbs. 18,607 Great Tom of Lincoln - - 9,894 Great Bell at Erfurth - - 28,224 Great Tom of Oxford - - - 17,000 | St. Iv-an's Bell, Moscow - - 127.836 Bell of the Palazzo, Florence - 17,000 | Bell of the Kremlin - - 443,772 The last is the great unsuspended bell, the wonder of travellers. Its metal alone is valued, at a veiy low calculation, at i'66,565 sterling. In its fusion great quantities of gold and silver were thrown in as votive offerings by the people. BELLS, Baptism of. They were early anointed and baptized m churches. — Du Presnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in Essex, were baptized by the name of St. Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, &c., in 1501. — Weever. The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, was bap- tized by the name of Duke of Angouleme, in 1816. On the Continent, in the Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do ships, but with religious solemnity. — Ashe. BENEDICTINES. An order of monks founded by Benedict, who was the first that introduced the monastic life into the western part of Europe, in the beginning of the sixth century. No religious order has been so remark- able for extent, wealth, and men of note, as the Benedictine. It spread over a large portion of Europe, but was superseded in the vast influence it possessed over other religious communities, about a. d. 1100. The Bene- dictines appeared early in England ; and William I. built them an abbey on the plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, 1066. William de Warrenne, earl of Warren, built them a convent at Lewes in Essex, in 1077. At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are denomi- nated Benedictine dames. — Leigh. Of this order, it is reckoned that there have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archb-shops, 4G0C bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 queens, and 3600 saints. Their founder was canonized. — Baronius. BEN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 199 BENEFICES. Clerical benefices originated in the twelfth century ; till then the priests were supported by alms and oblations at mass. All that should become vacant in the space of sis months were given by pope Clement VII. to his nephew, in 1534. — Notitia Monastica. The number of benefices in England, according to parliamentary returns, is 10,533, and the number of glebe-houses 5,527 ; these are exclusive of bishoprics, deaneries, canonries, prebendaries, priest-vicars, lay-vicars, secondaries, and similar church pre- ferments. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapels about 12,000. The number of benefices in Ireland is 1456, to which there are not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest having no glebe-houses. — See Church of England. BENEFIT OF CLERGY. A privilege first enjoyed only by clergymen, but afterwards extended to lettered laymen, relating to divers crimes, and pai-- ticularly manslaughter. The ordinary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a verse or two ; and if the ordinary said " Legit ut clericus," the ofiender was only burnt in the hand, otherwise he suSered death, 3 Edward I., 1274. This privilege was abolished with respect to murderers and other great criminals, as also the claim of sanctuary, by Henry VIII., 1513. — Stowe. Benefit of clergy was wholly repealed by statute 7 and 8 George IV., June 1827. BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS, PUBLIC CHARITIES, &c., m the Unite: States. The known voluntary contributions by citizens of Boston alone, during 45 years, ending 1845, was ascertained to be (see details in American Almanac, 1846) as follows : For miscellaneous objects (such as monuments, &c.) - - - 438,321 For theological education and other religious objects - - #1,054,966 For purposes of instruction - 1,09.5,594 For charitable purposes - - 2,162,412 Total - $4,751,293 [Exclusive of the contributions in chiirches, for the poor, &c. The popula- tion of Boston, in 1800, was about 25,000 ; in 1845, about 114,000. Few cities can boast of such munificence, in proportion to the number of in- habitants.] BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES— some of the principal in the United States. Formed. Income. Form.ed. Income, Amer. Board of Com. Foreign 1849. Missions - - - 1810 - 1260,897 Amer. Sunday Sch. Union - 1824 207,764 " Bible Society - - 1816 - 284,514 ■ " Tract Society - - 1814 - 308,428 " Home Miss. Society - 1826 - 157,460 1849. Amer. Education Society - 1816 - $32,754 " Colonization Society 1819 17,414 " Seamen's Friend Society - 23,497 Miss. Soc. Methodist Church 1819 - 99,635 Presbyterian Board Missions - 126,013 United States ship, Jamestown, sailed from Boston for Cork, loaded with provisions, to be given to the distitute Irish, March 28th, 1847. The frigate Macedonian sailed from New York on same errand, July 8, 1847. Abbott Lawrence gave $50,000 to Harvard College, for scientific department, June, 1847. BENGAL. Of the existence of Bengal as a separate kingdom, there is no record. It was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi in 1340, when it became independent, until 1560. It afterwards fell to the Mogul empire. — See India. The English were first permitted to trade to Bengal - - a. d. 1534 Factories of the French and Danes - 1664 First factory at Calcutta - - 1690 The settlements first placed in a state of defence - - - -1694 Calcutta bought, and fortified - - 1700 Its garrison consisted of only 129 sol- diers, of whom but 55 were Europeans 1706 Calcutta taken by Surrjah Dowla ; and the dreadful affair of the Black-hole- 17.56 Retaken by Colonel Clive - - 1757 Imperial grant, vesting the revenues of Bengal in the Company, by which the virtual sovereignty of the country was obtained - - Aug. 12, 1765 Celebrated India-bill ; Bengal made the chief presidency - - June 16, 1773 See India. ^00 THE world's progress. [_ BET BERESINA, Battle of. Total defeat of the French main army by the Rus- sians on the banks of the Beresina, followed by their disastrous passage of it when escaping out of Russia. The French lost 20,000 men in the battle, and in their retreat the career of their glory was closed, Nov. 28, 1812. BERGEN, Battle op, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, April 14, 1759. The allies again defeated by the French with great loss, Sept. 19, 1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 2, same year, the allies lost 4,000 men; and on the 6th, they were again defeated before Allcmaer, losing 5,000 men. On the 20th, the duke of York entered into a convention by which he exchanged his army for 6,000 French and Dutch prisoners in England. BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, whose works were deemed impregnable, taken by the French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. Here a gallant attempt was made by the British, under Graham, to carry the fortress by storm, but it was defeated ; after forcing an entrance their retreat was cut off, and a dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, March 8, 1814. BERLIN. Founded by the margrave Albert, surnamed the Bear, in 1163. Its five districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714 ; and it was subse- quently made the capital of Prussia. This city was taken by an army of Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1760, but they were obliged to retire m a few days. On Oct. 27, 1806, thirteen days after the battle of Jena, the French entered Berlin, and from its palace Napoleon issued his famous Berlin decree. — See next article. BERLIN DECREE, a memorable interdict against the commerce of England. It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and all Enghsh- men found in countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as prisoners of war ; the whole world, in fact, was to cease from any commu- nication with Great Britain : issued by Bonaparte from the court of the Prussian king, shortly after the battle of Jena (which, for the time, decided the fate of Prussia), Nov. 21, 1806.— See Jena. BERMUDAS, or SOMMERS' ISLES, discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1527 ; but they were not inhabited until 1609, when sir George Sommers was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute of 9 James I., 1612. Awful and memorable hurricane here, October 31, 1780. Another, by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven ashore, July 20, 1813. BERNARD, MOUNT St. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian army by this pass into Italy ; and it was by the same route that Bonaparte led his troops to the plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo, fought June 14, 1800. BERNARDINE MONKS. This order was founded by Robert, abbot of Mo- leme, in the twelfth century. On the summit of the Great St. Bernard is a large community of monks, who entertain in their convent aU travellers gratis for three days. — Brooke. BERWICK. ' This town was the theatre of many bloody contests between the English and Scots ; and while England and Scotland remained two king- doms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging to them, because it stood on their side of the river. Berwick was burned in 1173, and again in 1216. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed to England, 1333 ; and after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to Eng- land in 1502. The town surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterwards to general Monk. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 1603), the forti- fications, which were formerly very strong, have been much neglected. BETHLEHEM, the birth-place of Christ. The Bethlehemite monks, who BIB J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 201 had an order in England in 1257, are named from this once distinguished city. It now contains a chm-ch, erected by the famous St. Helena, in the form of a cross ; also a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where they pretend to show the manger in which Christ was laid ; another, called the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. Bethlehem is much visited by pilgrims. — Aslie. BEYROUT. This city, which was colonized from Sidon, was destroyed by an earthquake, a. d. 566. It was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the Christians and Saracens ; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into the power of Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman em- pire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. Total defeat of the Egyp- tian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacua- tion of Beyrout, the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and 20 pieces of cannon, Oct. 10, 1840. ^ BIARCHY". When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons twins, Eurysthenes and Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom precedence should be given, placed them both upon the throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102 b. c. The descendants of each reigned alternately for 800 years. — HerodoHs. BIBLE. The first translation from the Hebrew into the Greek was made by seventy-two interpreters, by the order of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; it is thence called the Septuagint version, and was completed in seventy-two days, at Alexandria, 277 e. c. — Josep/ms. It was commenced 284 b. c. — Lenglet. In 283. — Blair. The Jewish sanhedrim consisted of seventy or seventy-two members ; and hence, probably, the seventy or seventj^-two translators of Josephus. — Hewlett. The seventy-two were shut up in thirty-six cells, and each pair translated the whole; and on subsequent comparison, it was found that the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or a letter. — Justin Martyr. BIBLE, Ancient copies of the. The oldest version of the Old and New Tes- tament belonging to the Christians, is that in the Vatican, which was writ- ten in the fourth or fifth century, and published in 1455. The next in age is the Alexandrine MS., in the British Museum, presented by the Greek patriarch to Charles I., and said to have been copied nearly about the same time. The most ancient copy of the Jewish Scriptures existed at Toledo, about A. D. 1000 ; and the copy of Ben Asher, of Jei'usalem, was made about 1100. BIBLE, Bishops'. Bishop Alley prepared the Pentateuch ; bishops Davis and Sandys, the Historical Books : bishop Bentham, the Psalms, &c. ; bishop Home, the prophets ; bishop Grindal, the Minor Prophets ; bishops Pai'k- hurst and Barlow, the Apocrypha ; bishop Cox, the Gospels and Acts ; and archbishop Parker, the remainder. Printed a. d. 1568. BIBLE, Division of the. The Bible was divided into twenty-two books by the Jews, the number of letters in their alphabet. The Christians divided the Bible into thirty-nine books. The Hebrew division into chapters was made by the rabbi Nathan, about 1445. Our Bible was divided into chapters, and a part into verses, by archbishop Langton, who died in 1228; and this division was perfected by Robert Stephens, about 1534. BIBLE, Editions, OF the. The vulgate edition, in Latin, was made by St. Je- rome, A. D. 405 ; and is that acknowledged by the Catholic church to be authentic : it was first printed by Guttenberg at Mayence, 1450 — 55. (See Books.) The first perfect edition in Enghsh was finished, as appears from the colophon, by Tindal and Coverdale, Oct. 4, 1535. A revision of this edition was made, 1538-9. This last was ordered to be read '■'■> churches. 202 THE world's progress. [bil 1549. In 1604, at the conference at Hampton-court (see Conference), a new translation was resolved upon, which was executed 1607-11, and is that now generally used in Great Britain. J. Eliot's Indian Bible, one of the first books printed in North America, at Cambridge, 1663. The Bible was first printed in Ireland, at Belfast, in 1704. Permitted by the pope t-o be trans- lated into the language of the Catholic states, 1759. The Bible was printed Spanish -1478 Russian -1581 Manks - -1771 German - - -1522 Hungarian - - 1589 Italian - - 1776 English -1534 Polish - 1595 Bengalee -1801 French - - -1535 Modern Greek - - - 1633 Tartar - - 1813 Swedish -1.541 Turkish - 1666 Persian -1815 Danish - - - 1550 Irish - - 1685 African - - 1816 Dutch -1560 Portuguese - 1748 Chinese -1820 Editions of t.he Old and New Testament, separatelj^ appeared in several in- stances at earlier dates, particularly in European languages. The Polyglot Bible, edited by Walton, bishop of Chester, in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek, and Latin languages, 1657. — Wood's Fasti. Oxon. BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have made the dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object, are the following : — The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was formed 1698; Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701; Society, in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1709 ; French Bible Society, 1792 ; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1801 ; Hibernian Bible Society, 1806 ; City of London Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812 ; American Bible Society (which now has numerous branches), founded 1816 ; Ameri- can and Foreign Bible Society (Baptist), founded at New- York, 1838. A bull from the pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817. BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty parties with an infamous mark: with us, the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act respecting it was passed 5 Edward I. 1276. — Viner's Statutes. Declared to be felony, without benefit of clergy, 1 James I. 1602. Subjected to the same punishments as grand or petit larceny, 35 George IE. 1794. — Statutes at large. BILL OF RIGHTS. One of the great foundations of the British constitution, was obtain ^d from Charles I. by parliament, 1628. This bill recognized the legal privileges of the subject; and notwithstanding the employment of all manner of arts and expedients to avoid it, Charles was constrained to pass it into a law. The Bill of Rights, declaratory of the rights of British subjects, passed 1 William and Mary, February 1689. This is the only written law respecting the liberties of the people, except Magna Charta. — Virier's Statutes. BILLS OF EXCHANGE. Invented bj^ the Jews, as a means of removing their property from nations where they were persecuted, a. d. 1160. — Anderson. Bills were used in England, 1807. — The onlv legal mode of sending money from England, 4th Richard II., 1381. Regulated, 1698— first stamped, 1782 — duty advanced, 1797 — again, June 1801 ; and since. It was made capital to coimterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 millions of pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes. The present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many statutes regarding bills of exchange were consolidated by act 9 George IV. 1828. A new act regulating bills of exchange, passed 3 Victoria, July 1839. BILLS OF MORTALITY for London. These bills were first compiled about A. D. 1536, but in a more formal and recognized manner in 1593, after the BIS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 20o great plague of that year ; and however imperfect they still are, they yet afford valuable mat-erials for computation on the duration of life ; no com- plete series of them has been preserved. The following are returns, show- ing the numbers at decennial distances, within the last sixty years : — Iti the year 1780, Christenings 1790, Christenings 1800, Christenings 1810, Christenings 1820, Christenings 1830, Christenings 1840, Christenings 16,634 In the year 1780, Burials 18,980 1790, Burials - 19,176 1800, Burials 19,930 1810, Burials - 26,158 1820, Burials 27,028 1830, Burials - 30,387 1840, Burials - 20,507 18,038 - 23,068 19,892 19,348 23,524 - 26,774 BILLIARDS. Invented by the French, by whom, and by the Germans, Dutch, and Italians, they were brought into general vogue throughout Europe. — Nouv. Diet. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an artist, in the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate biUiard-tables were introduced in England in 1827. BIRDS. Divided by Linnseus into six orders ; by Blumenbach into eight ; and by Cuvier into six. Man is especially enjoined not to harm the nest of the bird : " If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way in any tree, or on the ground, whether they be young ones or eggs, and the dam sitting upon the young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the young." — Duteronomy, xxii. 6. BIRMINGHAM, England. This town existed in the reign of Alfred, a. d. 872 ; but its importance as a manufacturing town commenced in the reign of Wil- liam III. Birmingham was besieged and taken by prince Rupert in 1643. The great works of Soho were established by the illustrious engineer, Mat- thew Boulton, in 1764. BIRTHS. Parish registers of them^and of marriages and burials, were insti- tuted by Cromwell, earl of Essex, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The births of chil- dren were taxed in England, viz. : birth of a duke, 30Z. — of a common person, 2s. — 7 WiUiam III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of four children at a birth are numerous ; but the most extraordinary delivery recorded in modern times is that of a woman of Konigsberg, who had five children at a birth, September 3. 1783. — Phillips. The wife of a man named Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-market, London, had five children at a birth, in October 1800. — Annals of London. BISHOPS. The name was given by the Athenians to those who had the in- spection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also a like officer ; but now it means only that person who has the government of church affairs in a certain district. In England, the dignity is coeval with Christianity. St. Peter, the first bishop of Rome, was martyred a. d. 65. The bishops of Rome assumed the title of pope in 138, the rank was anciently assumed by all bishops ; but it was afterwards ordained that the title of pope should belong only to the occupant of St. Peter's chair. — Warner. BISHOPS OF ENGLAND. The first was appointed in a. d. 180. See York, London. They were made barons, 1072. The Conge d'' Elire of the king to choose a bishop originated in an arrangement of king John with the clergy. Bishops were elected by the king's Congi d' Elire, 26 Henry "VIII. 1535. Seven were deprived for being married, 1554. Several suffered mar- tyrdom lender queen Mary, 1555-6. See Cranmer. Bishops were excluded . from voting in the house of peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. 1640. Twelve were committed fur high treason, in protesting against the legality of all acts of parliament passed while they remained deprived of their votes, 1641. Regained their seats, Nov. 1661. Seven were sent to the tower for not reading the king's declaration for liberty of conscience, contrived to bring the Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil power, and were tried and acquit- 204 THE world's progress. [ BLA ted, June 29-30, 1688. The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Bancroft) and five bishops were suspended for refusing to take the oaths to WilUam and Mary, 1689, and were deprived 1690. — Wa,rner's Eccles. Hist. The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united, and that of Ripon created, in 1836. An order in council, in Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created thei-eupon. This order, as regarded the union of the sees, rescinded in 1846. — See Manchester. BISHOPS OF IRELAND. Bishops are said to have been consecrated in this country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first planted at Saiger, was founded a. d. 402, thirty years before the arrival of St. Patrick. BISHOPS OF SCOTLAND. They were constituted in the fourth century. The see of St. Andrew's was founded by Hergustus, king of the Picts, who, according to a legendary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of Regulus, a Greek monk of Patrse, about a. d. 370. The bishops were deprived of their sees, and episcopacy abolished in Scotland at the period of the revo- lution, 1688-9. Warners Eccles. Hist. — There are now, however, six bishops belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church, viz : Aberdeen, Brechin, Edin- burgh, Glasgow, Moray, and St. Andrew's. BISHOPS, Precedency of, was settled by statute 31 Henry VIII. to be vcxt to viscounts, they being barons of the realm, 1540 ; and they have the title of Lord, and Right Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester have precedence of all bishops ; the others rank according to the seniority of consecration. A late contest in Ireland between the bishops of Meat^ and Kildare for precedency was de- cided in favor of the former, who now ranks after the archbishop of Dublin. The others rank according to consecration. BISHOPS IN AMERICA. The first was the Right Rev. Doctor Samuel Sea- bury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New- York and Penn- sylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, Feb. 4. 1787 ; and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Catholic bishop of the United States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789. BISSEXTILE OR LEAP YEAR. An intercalary day was throvra into every fourth year to adjust the calendar, and make it agree with the sun's course. It originated with Julius Csesar, who ordered a day to be counted before the 24th of February, which among the Romans was the 6th of the calends, and which was therefore reckoned twice, and czWudi bissextile: this added day we name the 29th of February every fourth year, 45 b. c. — See Calen- dar and Leap Year. BITHYNIA. Conquered by Croesus, about 560 b. c. ; and again by Alexander, 332 B. c. It afterwards recovered its liberty; but its last king bequeathed it'to the Romans, 40 b. c. In modern history Bithynia makes no figure, except that from its ruins rose the Othman Turks, who, in a. d. 1327, took Prusa its capital, and made it the seat of their empire before they possessed Constantinople. BLACK BOOK, a book kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the scandalous enormities practised in religious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors under Henry VIIL, 1535, in order to blacken them and hasten their dissolution ; hence the vulgar phrase " I'll set you down in the black book." BLASPHEMY. This crime is recognized both by the civil and'canon law of BLO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 205 England. Justinian adjudged it the punishment of death. In Scotland, the tongue was amputated. Visited by fine and imprisonment, 9 & 10 William III., 1696-7.— Stetetes at large. In England this offence has been subjected, on some late occasions, to the visitation of the laws. Daniel Isaac Eaton was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 13th March, 1812. A pro- testant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London twice for the same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely fined, for (among other things) reviling the Redeemer in his discourses, July, 1831. Even as late as in Dec. 1840, two prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous writings, subjected the offenders to the sentence of the court of Queen's Bench. BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arms was introduced, and cecame heredi- tary in families in France and England, about a. d. 1192, owing to the knights painting their banners with different figures, thereby to distinguish them in the crusades. — Dugdak. BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, Syria, and India. Known in ancient Gaul. — Pliny. In the last century an improved chemical system was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 1768. There are now immense bleachfields in both countries, particularly in Lancashire, and in the counties of Fife, Forfar, and Renferew, and in the vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The chemical process of Berthollet was introduced in VJ^t.^—Blanchiment des Toiles. BLENHEIM, Battle op ; between the English and confederates, commanded by the duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, under marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom Marlborough signally defeated with the loss of 27,000 in killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among the latter : the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The nation testified its gratitude to the duke by the gifts of the honor of Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim. Fought Aug. 2, llOL— Hume. BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, a punish- ment inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the mid- dle ages they changed the penalty of total blindness to a diminution of sight. Blinding the conquered was a practice in barbarous states ; and a "whole army was deprived of their eyes by Basilius, in the eleventh century. See Bulgarians. Several of the Eastern emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. See article Eastern Empire. BLISTERS. They were first made, it is said, of cantharides. — Freind. Blisters are said to have been first introduced into medical practice by Aretseus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. — Le Clerch Hist, of Physic. BI\2.— Phillips. A copji" of the "Mazarin Bible," being the first edition and first book ever printed (hj Guttemberg at Mentz in 1455) was sold at auction in London BOO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 209 in April 1846 for 500Z. This copy, the only one known to exist exeept 19 in public libraries, is now in a private library in New York. BOOKS, Printed. The first printed books were trifling hymns and psalters, and being printed only on one side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The first printing was, as a book, the Book of Psalms, by Faiist and SchseflPer, his son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Several works weve printed many years before ; but as the inventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their first printed works as manuscripts. This gave rise to an adventure that brought calamity on Faust; he began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, which was finished in 1460. See article Devil and Dr. Faustus. The second printed was Cicero de Officiis, 1466. — Blair. The first book printed in England was The Game and Play of the Chesse, by Caxton, 1474. The first in Dublin was the Liturgy, in 1550. The first classical work printed in Russia was Corn. Nepotis Vitce, in 1762. Ldccian's Dialogues was the first Greek book printed in America (at Philadelphia), 1789. Books of astronomy and geometry were all de- stroyed in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edward VI. 1552. — Stowe's Chronicles. The above is from Haydn; but according to Pettigreto, {Biblio. Sussex.) the first book printed with movable types was tlie Latin Bible, printed by John Gnttemberg at Mayence, about 1455. It was in two folio volumes ; and so excellent was the workmanship, both in type, ink, paper, and press- work, that it has scarcely been surpassed since. The succeeding editions for 200 years were much inferior. This edition is called the Mazarin Bible, as a copy was first found in the library of cardinal Mazarin. Only 20 copies are now known to exist — all but one being in public libraries in Europe. [See previous article.] Specimens of the block books, printed with engraved wooden blocks, instead of type, are now very rare. Of the Biblia Pauperum, done in this way, only two copies exist, one of which belongs to a citizen of New York. BOOK-BINDING. The book of St. Cuthbert, the earliest ornamented book, is supposed to have been bound about a. d. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards was bound in the ninth century. A MS. copy of the four evangelists, the book on which our kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. took their coronation oath, was bound in oaken b6ards, nearly an inch thick, a. d. 1100. Velvet was the covering in the fourteenth century ; and silk soon after. Vellum was introduced early in the fifteenth centurj'- ; it was stamped and orna- mented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. Cloth binding superseded the common boards, generally, about 1831. Caoutchouc, or India-rubber backs to account-books and large volumes introduced 1841. BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book- keeping, was taken from the course of algebra which was published by Burgo, at Venice, then, a great commercial stalCj in the fifteenth century. It was made known in England by James Peele, who published his Book- keeping in 1569. — Anderson. BOOK TRADE of Great Britain, France, and Germany. The number of new works published in successive years is thus stated : Gt. Brit. France. Germany. 1828 - 842 - — - 5,654 laSO - 1,142 - — - 5,926 1834 - 1,220 - — - 6,074 The number of printed books received from 1814 to 1847 inclusive, under the copyright acts, from the trustees of the British Museum, amount to 55,474, or 1681 each year. England. —Ttid Avhole number of books printed in England during 14 years, from 1666 to 1680, was 3,550 ; equal to 253 yearly ;— but deducting the Gt. Brit. France. Germany. 1836 - 1,332 - — . 7,891 1849 - — . _ . _ 1850 - — - 7,208 - — 210 THE world's progress. [boo reprints, pamplilets, single sermons, and maps, the annual average of new books may be computed at much less than 100. The number of new works, exclusive of "all pamphlets and other tracts," issued during 56 years, as appears from a " Complete Catalogue of Modern Books published from the beginning of the century (1700) to 1756," was 5,280 ; equal to a yearly average of 94. The number of new works, exclusive of reprints and pamphlets, issued during eleven years, from 1792 to 1802 inclusive, was 4,096 ; equal to 372 each year. The number of new publications issued in 27 years, from 1800 to 1827, in- cluding reprints altered in size and price, but excluding pamphlets, was, according to the London Catalogue, 19,860 : — deducting one fifth for reprints, we have 15,888, equal to 588 each year. Mr. McCulloch estimates the nimiber of volumes of new publications pro- duced annually in Great Britain (exclusive of reprints, pamphlets, and periodical publications not in volumes) at about 1,500 ; and the average impression of each volume at 750 copies ; — annual total, 1,125,000 volumes : — value at 95. a volume, £506,250. "The number of reprinted volumes, particularly of school-books, is very great; and if to these we add the reviews, magazines, pamphlets, and all other publications, exclusive of news- papers, the total publication value of the new works of all sorts, and new copies of old works that are annually produced, may be estimated at about £750,000." France. — The activity of the French press has been very greatly increased since the downfall of Napoleon. The count Daru, in a very instructive work {Notions Statistiques sur la Librarie)^ published in 1827, estimated the number of printed sheets, exclusive of newspapers, produced by the French press in 1816 at 66,852,883 ; and in 1825, at 128,011,483 ; and we believe that the increase from 1825 down to the present period has been little if any thing inferior. The first six months of the year 1837, as stated by the "Foreign Quarterly review," there were printed in France, 3.413 works, in French and other languages ; also 571 engravings and lithographs. Germany. — The book-trade of Gei-many is greatly facilitated by the book- fairs held at Leipsic at Easter and Micheelmas, which are attended by the booksellers of Germany, and by many of those of the neighboring countries, as France, Switzerland, Denmai'k, &c. This trade began to flourish in 1814 ; the number of works then annually offered for sale was about 2,000 ; but the number has been gradually increasing, having for the first time exceeded 5,000 in 1827 ; and it now exceeds 7,000. "An Augsburg paper states." (says the " Foreign Quarterly Review," 1836,) " that, on a moderate calculation, 10,000,000 of ^t)lumes are annually printed in Germany, and as every half-yearly fair catalogue contains the names of more than 1,000 German writers, it may be assumed, that there are now living upwards of 50,000 persons who have written one or more books. The total value of all the books published annually in Germany is estimated from 5 to 6,000,000 dollars." Russia. — In the year 1836, 674 original works, and 124 translations were published in Russia, exclusive of 46 periodicals. Sweden. — There are only 28 or 30 printing presses in Sweden ; 10 in Stock- holm, 3 in Gottenburg, 2 in Upsal, 2 in Norkoping, and 1 in several other places. BOOK-TRADE op thr UNITED STATES. The number of new works which appeared in the United States, in 1834 and 1835, amounted to 1,013, forming nOK. J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 211 1,300 volumes, and the cost of which may be estimated at ^1,220,000. In 1836, the number was considerably increased, and the cost of the books published in that year cannot be computed at less than S 1,500,000. Boston, New York; Philadelphia, and Hartford furnished 19 20ths of the amount. Another statement for the years 1833, 1834, and 1835, is as follows : — originals 1,030, reprints, 854 ; total, 1,884 ; — number of volumes printed (1,000 for each edition), 1,884,000. In most cases the editions of one and the same work are larger and more frequent in the United States than in any other countrj^. Many reprinted English works have here passed three or four editions, while the publishers of the original in England have but 'one. In one instance, the sale cf a book in America amounted to 100,000 copies, whereas in England onty four editions, of 1,000 copies each, were disposed of The amount of literary productions in America has more than doubled during the last ten years. The sales of five book-selling establishments amounted in 1836, to $ 1,350,000. The following statement will show the relative proportion of native and im- ported literary productions in 1834 : Original. Rej^rint. Education - - 73 - 9 Divinity - - - 37 - 18 Novels and Tales - 19 - 9.5 History and Biography - 19 - 17 Jurisprudence - - 20 - 3 | Thus it appears in American literature the scientific and practically useful predominate, and that works of imagination are chiefly derived from foreign sources. The school-books are almost all written or compiled in the United States ; and some idea of the extensive business done in them may be formed from the circumstance, that, of some of the most popular com- pilations in geography, from 100,000 to 800,000 copies have been sold in ten years ; so that, in many instances, works of this kind produce a permanent income, as well to the author as the publisher. During the last five years, the number of American original works in proportion to reprints, has nearly doubled. [The preceding paragraph is derived from statistics in the Booksellers^ Advertiser, edited hy G. P. Putnam, New York, 1835. Since then, no complete register has been kept of publi- cations in successive years : but the following list is compiled from the semi-montnly register in the Literary World.] American Vvbi.ications— January to June, 1849. triginal. Reprint. Poetiy • - i 3 Travels . - 8 10 Fine Arts - . - S Miscellaneoi .IS works 59 - 43 Original. . Reprint, i Original, Reprint. Education 36 ^ Travels - - - 21 - 7 Divinity - - 25 25 1 Metaphysics - - 3-8 Novels and Tales 18 - 28 ! Miscellaneous - - 25 - 10 History - 20 - 12 1 Law ) Biography 15 - 6 Juvenile > not ascertained. Political Economy 3 Periodical ) Medicine 12 11 Science - 11 9 For six months - 200 - 128 Poetry 11 6 1 Total, 328. The number of new publications for the year 1849 would thus be 656, exclu- sive of law and juvenile books, and occasional pamphlets and periodicals. BOOTS. They are said to have been the invention of the Carians, and were made of iron, brass, or leather ; of the last material some time after their invention, boots were known to the Greeks, for Homer mentions them about 907 B. c. BORODINO OR MOSKWA, Battle of. one of the most sanguinary in the records of the world, fought Sept. 7, 1812, between the French and Russians ; commanded on the one side by Napoleon, and on the other by Kutusoff, 5^12 THE world's progress. [ BOl 240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the loss of the other was so immense ; but it was rather in favor of Napoleon, for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscow to its fate. The road being thus left open, the French entered Moscow, Sept. 14, with little opposition. But a signal reverse of fortune now took place, which preserved the Russian empire from ruin, and paved the way to the downfall of the French military power over Europe. See Moscow. BOROUGH. Anciently a company of ten families living together. The term has been applied to such towns as send members to parliament, since the election of burgesses in the reign of Henry HI. 1265. Burgesses were first admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 — and into the Irish, 1365. BOROUGH ENGLISH. This was an ancient tenure by which the j'ounger son inherits. Its origin is thus explained : in feudal times the lord is said to have claimed the privilege of spending the first night with the vassal's bride, and on such occasions the land was made to descend to the next son, in con- sequence of the supposed illegitimacy of the elder. This kind of tenui'e is mentioned as occurring k. d. 834. It existed in Scotland, but was abohshed by Malcolm HI. in ¥)^l.~Haydn. BOSPHORUS, now called Circassia. The history of this kingdom is involved in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian, from the Cimmcri, who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Arcliean- actes of Mytilene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by order of the emperor Spartacus, in 438 b. c. Mithridates conducted a pris- oner to Rome, by Claudius, and his kingdom soon afterwards made a pro- vince of the empire, a. d. 40. The strait of the Bosphorus was closed by the Turks, Sept. 8, 1828. It was blockaded by the Russian squadron under ad- miral Greig, Dec. 31, same year. See Dardanelles. BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, founded in August 1630. Here com- menced the American Revolution. British soldiers fired on the peoi^le, 1770. The celebrated " Tea-party" here, took place 1773. The port closed by par- liament 1774. British army evacuated Boston in March 1776. [See Lexing- ton and Blinker Hill.] The cause of Amei-ican freedom was nowhere more actively sustained than by the people of Boston. Benjamin Franklin was born here, Jan. 17, 1706. John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration of Independence, was a Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a city, 1822. Population in 1700, 7000; in 1790, 18,038; in 1810, 33.250; in 1820, 43,298; in 1830, 61,391 ; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels in 1840, 220,243 tons. BOSWORTH FIELD, Battle of, the thirteenth and last between the houses of York and Lancaster, in which Richard HI. was defeated by the earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., the former being slain, Aug. 22, 1485. The crown of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the battle was fought, and Henry was so impatient to be crowned, that he had the ceremony performed on the spot with that very crown. In the civil con- tests between the "Roses," many of the most ancient families in the king- dom were entirely extinguished, and no less than 100,000 human beings lost their lives. BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany. The Historia, Plantaruvi of Theophrastus, written about 320 b. c. Authors on botany are numerous from the earlier ages of the world, to the close of the 15th century, when the science became better understood. The study was advanced by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Csesalpinus, and others, between 1535 and 1600. — Mdchior Adam. The system and arrangement of Linnteus, the first botanist of modern times, made known about 1750. Jussieu's sy.s- BOU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 213 tem, in 1758, At the time of Linnasus's death, a. d. 1778, the species of plants actually described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100,000. BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Britain, The first governor, Phillips, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived at the settlement in January, 1788. The bay had been discovered by cap- tain Cook in 1770, and the place took its name from the great variety of herbs which abounded on the shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson, about thirteen miles to the north of the bay. See Neiv South Wales and Ti-ansportation. BOTTLES, of glass, were first made in England, about 1558. — See Glass. The art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses was known to the Romans at least before 79 a. d., for these articles and other vessels have been found in the Ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads Avas blown, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January, 1747-8. BOULOGNE, France. Taken by the British in 1542, but restored to France upon the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels, and sinking five. Aug. 3, 1801. Prince Louis Napoleon made a descent here with about fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840. — See next article and France. BOULOGNE FLOTILLA. This celebrated armament against England excited much attention for some years, but the grand demonstration was made in 1804. In that year, Bonaparte had assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to invade England. The coasts of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of defence ; and nearly half the adult population of Britain was formed into volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French armament served merely for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the inva- sion. BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, in the United States. Award of the king of the Netherlands on the ^boundary between Maine and the British possessions, Jan. 10, 1831 (rejected by both parties). Collisions between the people of Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed territory on the Aroostock, 1838-9, suspended by a mutual agreement between sir J. Harvey, Governor of New Brunswick, governor Fairfield, of Maine, and general Scott, of the U. S. army, March 21, 1839. This boundary settled by the Treaty of Washing- ton, 1842. Oregon boundary — 49th parallel agreed upon as the northern boundary of the United States, in Oregon, by treaty signed at Washington, June 1846. BOUNTIES. They were first granted on the exportation of British commodi- ties — a new principle introduced into commerce by the British parliament. The first bounties granted on corn, were in 1688. First legally granted in England for raising naval stores in America, 1703. Bounties have been granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods. — Elements of Commerce. BOUNTY, MUTINEERS of the Ship. Memorable mutiny on board the Bounty, armed ship returning from Otaheite, with bread-fruit. The mutineers put their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka. one of the Friendly Islands, April 28, 1789, and they reached the Island of Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of nearly 4000 miles, in which their preservation was next to miraculous. The muti- neers were tried Sept. 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom three were executed. See Pitcairn's Island. BOURBON, House op. Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of Bourbon, so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage with the heiress of the estate. Henry IV. of France and Navarro, justly 214 THE world's PROGE-ESS. [ B07 styled the Great, was son of Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589. The crown of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, and guaran- teed by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. — Rapin. The Bom-bon Family Compact took place, 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791, and were restored, 1814. Re-expelled, and again restored, 1815. The elder branch was expelled once more, in the persons of Charles X. and his family in 1830, a consequence of the revolution of the memorably days of July in that year. — See France. BOURBON, Isle of, discovered by the Portuguese, in 1545. The French first settled here in 1672, and built several towns. The island surrendered to the British, July 2, 1810. It is near the Isle of France, and the two are styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in February 1829, by whicli immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the Island. See Mauritius. ROURDEAUX (or Bordeaux) was imited to the dominions of Henry II. of England, by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black Prince brought his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the battle of Poitiers, in 1356, and here held his court during eleven years : his son, Richard II., (of Eng.) was born at Bourdeaux, in 1362. The fine equestrian statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1748. Bourdeaux was entered by the victorious British army, after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 25, 1814. BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by Madame Antoinette Bourignon, a fanatic, who, in 1658, took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France, Holland, England, and Scotland. In the last she made a strong party and some thousands of sectarists, about 1670. She maintained that Christianity does not consist in faith or practice, but in an inward feeling and supernatu- ral impulse. This visionary published a book entitled the Light of the World., in which, and in several other works, she maintained and taught her pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good estate. She died in 1680. BOWLS, OR BOWLING, an English game, played as early as the thirteenth century, and once in great repute among the higher ranks. Charles I. plaj^ed at it. It formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II., at Tunbridge. — Memoircs de Gramviont. BOWS AND ARROWS. See Archery. The invention of them is ascribed to Apollo. Known in England previous to a. d. 450. The use of them was again introduced into England by the Conqueror, 1066 ; and greatly encour- aged by Richard I., 1190. — Baker's Chronicle. The u.sual range of the long- bow was from 300 to 400 yards ; the length of the bow was six feet, and the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock of iron or wood, and were discharged by a trigger. BOXING, OR PRIZE-FIGHTING, the ■pugilatus of the Romans, and a favorite sport with the British, who (possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, an advantage which gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decid- ed by the bayonet. A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court — Broughton's amphitheatre, behind Oxford-road, built 1742. Schools were opened in England to teach boxing as a science in 1790. Owing to the dishonest practices in the " ring," selling the victory, and one combatant allowing the other to beat him, &c., the fights have been fewer of late, and the number of the patrons of boxing have declined. BOYLE LECTURES. Instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl of Cork), an exceedingly good man and philosopher, distinguished by his genius, virtues, and unbounded benevolence. He instituted eight lectures in vindication of the Christian religion, which were delivered at St. Mary-le- bra] dictionary of dates. 215 Bow church, on the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and September to November — endowed 1691. BOYNE, Battle op, between kmg William III. and his father-in-law, James II., fought July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, his adherents losing 1500 men, and the Protestant army about a third of that mimber. James immediately afterwards fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle. BRABANT. It was erected into a duchy a.d. 620, and devolved upon Lam- bert I. count of Louvain, in 1005, and from him descended to Philip 11. of Burgundy, and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the seventeenth century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant, and Walloon. These provinces underwent many changes in most of the great wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French 1746 — again in 1794 by their Republic ; and it now forms part of the kingdom of Belgium, under Leopold, 1831. See Belgium. BRACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients ; we read of them in almost all nations ; those that were called armillce were usually distributed as rewards for valor among the Roman legions. — Nouv. Diet. Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies ; and armlets are female ornaments to the present day. BRAGANZA, House op, owes its elevation to royalty to a remarkable and bloodless revolution in Portugal, a. d. 1640, when the nation, throwing off the Spanish yoke, which had become intolerable, advanced John, duke of Braganza, to the throne, on which this family continues to reign. — Abbe Vertot. BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Py- thagoras is thought to have learned from them his doctrine of the Metemp- sychosis; aird it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to India on purpose to converse with them. The modern Brahmins derive their name from Brahme, one of the three beings whom God, according to their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all carnal enjoy- ments. — SLrabo. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the de- positaries of the whole learning of India. — Holwell. BRANDENBURGH, Family op, is of great antiquitj^, and some historians say it was founded by the Sclavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, which signifies Guard of the Forests. Henry I., surnamed the Fo^vler, fortified Brandenburgh, a. d. 923, to serve as a rampart against the Huns. He be- stowed the government on Sifroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or frontiers, in 927. The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nurem- berg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia. BRAND YWINE, Battle of, between the British royalist forces and the Ameri- cans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell to the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777. BRASS. Its formation was prior to the Flood, and it was discovered in tlie seventh generation from Adam. — Bible. Brass was known among all the early nations. — Usher. The Britons from the remotest period vrere acquainted with its use.— Whittaker. When Lucius Mumonius burnt Corinth to the ground, 146 b. c, the riches he found were immense, and during the confla- gration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together, formed the valuable composition since known under the name of Corinth- ian Brass. This, however, may wvU be doubted, for the Corinthian artists " had long liofore obtained great credit for their mothcKl of combining grold 216 THE world's progress. [bee and silvei with copper ; and the Syriac translation of the Bible says, that Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Articles made of this brilliant composition, though in themselves trivial and insig nificant, were yet highly valued. — Du Fresnoy. BRAZIL. It was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese. Avho was driven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He called it the Land of the Holy Cross ; but it was" subsequently called Brazil on account of its red wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about 1504. The gold mines were first oijened in 1684 ; and the diamond mines were discov- ered 1730 (see Diamonds). The French having seized on Portugal in 1807, the royal family and most of the nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolution took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, when Don Pedro assumed the title of emperor, in November 1825. He abdicated the throne of Portugal, May 2, 1826 ; and that of Brazil, in favor of his infant son, now emperor, April 7, 1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civil war ensued. — See Portugal. BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and Avine from rice, 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hisi. Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal ages ; see Exodus xii. 15. Baking bread became a profession at Rome, 170 b. c. During the siege of Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a pound, was at last made from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a. d. 1594. — Henault. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was made of barley ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread; and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been eaten as bread in some parts of tlie world : near Moscow is a portion of land Avhose clay will ferment when mixed with flom-. The Indians of Lou- isiana C?) eat a white earth with salt ; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat a white unctuous earth. — ■ Gixig ; Phillips. ^ BREAKWATER at PLYMOUTH. The first stone of this stupendous work was lowered in the presence of the army and navy, and multitudes of the great, August 12 1812. It was designed-to break the swell at Plymouth, and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound ; it is 360 feet in breadth at the bottom, and more than thirty at the top. and consumed 3,666,000 tons of granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841 ; and cost a million and a half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone of the lighthouse on its western extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841. BREAST-PLATES. The invention of them is ascribed to Jason, 937 b. c. The breast-plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in the lapse of ages to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Armor. BREDA. This city was taken by prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590 ; by the Spaniards in 1625 ; and again by the Dutch in 1637. Charles II. resided here at the time of the Restoration, 1660. See Restoration. Breda was taken by the French in 1793, and retaken by the Dutch the same year. The French garrison was shut out by the burgesses in 1813, when the power of France ceased here. BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It Avas Avorn by the Dacians. Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Itaty, it is said, it Avas Avorn in the time of Augustus Csesar. In the reign of Ho- norius, about a. d. 394, the braccari, or breeches-makers, were expelled from Rome ; but soon aftcrvA^ards the use of breeches Avas adopted in other coun- tries, and at length it became general. BRl] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 217 BREMEN, a venerable Hanse town, and duchy, sold to George I. as elector of Hanover, in 1716. It was taken by the French in 1757 ; they were driven out by the Hanoverians in 1758 ; and it was again seized in 1806. Bremen was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its indepen- dence was restored in 1813. See Hanse Toions. BRESLAU, Battle op, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under prince Bevern, who was defeated, but the engagement was most bloody on both sides, Nov. 22, 1757, when Breslau was taken ; but was regained the same year. This city was for some time besieged by the French, and sur- rendered to them January 5, 1807, and again in 1813. BREST. It was besieged by Julius Csesar, 54 b. c. — possessed by the English, A. D. 1378 — given up to the duke of Brittany, 1391. Lord Berkeley and a British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burnt, to the amount of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty galley-slaves, burnt, 1766. The magazine again destroyed bj'' a fire, July 10, 1784. From this great, depot of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England during the late war. BRETHREN in INIQUITY. The designation arose from persons covenanting formerly to share each other's fortune, in any expedition to invade a coun- try, as did Robert de Oily and Robert de Ivery, in William I.'s invasion of England, 1066. BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded with France at Bretigny, and bj'' which Eng- land retained Gascony and Guienne, acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord, Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, aud Rovergne, and renounced her preten- sions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; England was also to receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to release king John, who had been long prisoner in London, May 8, 1360. BREVIARIES. The breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church of Rome. It was first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; and both the clergy and laity use it publicly and at home. It was in use among the ecclesiastical orders about a. d. 1080 ; and was reformed by the councils of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and other popes. The quality of tj'pe in which the breviary ^^'as first printed gave the name to the type called brevier at the present daJ^ BREWERS. The first are traced to Egypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo- Saxon ancestors. — T'nulal. " One William JMnrle, a rich maultman or bruer, of Dunstable, had two horses all traped with gold, 1414." — Stowc. There are about 1700 public brewers in England, about 200 in Scotland, and 250 in Ireland : these are exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers, of which there are in England about 1400 ; there are, besides, 28,000 victuallers, &c., who brew their own ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers, many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brev/ers and the sale of beer have been enacted from time to time. See Beer. BRIBERY. In England an indictable offence to bribe persons in the adminis- tration of public justice. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the land for bribery, in 1288; he was chief justice of the Common Pleas. Wil- liam de Thorpe, chief justice of the King's Bench, was hanged for bribery in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,000Z. for the like offence, 1616. Mr. Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the tower for bribery in 1712. Lord Strangford was suspended from voting in the Irish House of Lords, for soli- citing a bribe, January 1784. BRIBERY at ELECTIONS, as in the preceding cases, made an indictable ofience. Messrs, Sykes and Rumbold fined and imprisoned for l)ribery at 10 218 THE world's progress. [ BRj an election, March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July 1803 ; and several similar instances have occurred since. BRICKS, for building, were used in the earliest times in Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Used in England by the Romans, about a. d. 44. Made under the directioTi of Alfred the Great, about 886. — Saxon Chroji. The size regulated bv order of Charles I. 1625. Taxed, 1784. The number of bricks which paid duty in England in 1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, the number exceeded 1,100,090,000 ; and in 1840 it amounted to 14,000,000,000. See Building. IJRIDAL CEREMONIES. Among the more rational ceremonies observed by I he ancients, was the practice of conducting the biide to the house of her spouse on a chariot, which was afterwards burned ; it originated with the Tiiebans, and was intended as a symbol of the bride's future dependence on her husband, from whom there was no chariot to convey her back to her parents ; it is mentioned 880 b. c. BRIDEWELL. Originally the name of a royal palace of king John, near Fleet-ditch, London ; it was built anew by Henry VIII. in 1522, and was given to the city by Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of this'' name throughout England. The first London Bridewell was in a locality near to Bride's well; but this is no reason, as is justly observed, why simi- lar prisons, not in a similar locality, should have this name. BRIDGES. So early and general, and the expedients for their construction so various, their origin cannot be traced ; they were first of wood. The ancient bridges in China are of great magnitude, and were built of stone. Abydos is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont. Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was built in A. D. 103. The Devil's bridge in the canton of Uri, so called from its frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were invented to account for it At Shaffhausen an extraordinary bridge was built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide : there was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wagons heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroyed by the French in 1799. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls completed July 29, 1848. BRIDGES IN ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and were fortified with planks and merlined ; the first bridge of Stone was built at Bow, near Stratford, a. d. 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest erected in these realms, and not surpassed by anj^ in the world, except in China, was completed in twelve years, 1750. The other London bridges are Blackfriars, completed 1770 ; London, (rebuilt) 1831 ; Southwark, of iron, 1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was erected over the Severn, in Shropshire, 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the Menai Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge, 1845. BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was begun by the duke of Bridgewater, styled the father of canal navigation in that country, in 1758 : Mr. Brindley was the architect. The canal com- mences at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester ; and at Barton-bridge is an aqueduct which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the navigable river Irwell ; its length is twenty-nine miles. BRIEF. A written instrument in the Catholic church, of early but imcertain date. Briefs are the letters of the pojDe dispatched to princes and others on public affairs, and are usually "written short, and hence the name, and are without preface or preamble, and on jjaper ; in..wliic]i particulars th ~ »'•« BRI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 219 distinguished from bulls. The latter are ample, and always written on parchment ; a brief is sealed with red wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St. Peter ill a boat, and always in presence of the pope ; they are used for graces and dispensations, as well as business. BRIENNE, Battle of, between the allied armies of Russia and Prussia, and the French, fought on the 1st, and resumed on the 2d February, 1814. The allies were defeated with great loss ; this was one of the last battles in which the French achieved victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon. BRISTOL. This city, one of the principal in England, was built by Brennus, a prince of the Britons, 380 b. c. It was granted a charter and became a distinct county in the reign of Edward III. Taken by the earl of Glouces- ter, in his defence of his sister Maude, the empress, against king Stephen, 1188. Bristol was attacked with great fury by the forces of Cromwell, 1655. Riot at Bristol, on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the iccorder, into the city, attended by a large police and special force, to open the sessions. He being politically obnoxious to the lower order of the citizens, a riot en- sued, wiiich was of several days' continuance, and which did net terminate until the mansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, some of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses were burned, and many lives lost, Oct. 29, 1831. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832; four were executed, and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during his trial by court-martial, Jan. 9, same year. BRITAIN. The earliest records of the history of this island are the manu- scripts and poetrj' of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the Britons and modern Welsh, and were the first inhabitants of Britain. Bri- tain, including England, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name of Britain being applied to all the islands collectively — Albion to only one. — Pliny. The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Csesar, 55 B. c, but they made no conquests. Tho emperor Claudius, and his gen- erals, Plautius, Vespasian, and Titus, subdued several provinces after thirty pitched battles with the natives, a. d. 48 and 44. The conquest was com- I^leted by Agricola, in the reign of Domitian, a. d. 85. First invasion of Britain by the Romans, under Julius Caesar - - b. c. 55 Cymbeline, king of Britain - - 4 Expedition of Claudius into Britain, a. d. 40 London founded by the Romans - 49 Caractacus carried in chains to Rome • 51 The Romans defeated by Boadicea; 70,000 slain, and London burnt - 61 A vast army of Britons is defeated by Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York - - - - A. D. 30e The Roman forces are finally with- drawn from Britain - 420 to 426 The Saxons and Angles are called in to aid the natives against their northern neighbors the Picts and Scots - 449 Having expelled these, the Anglo-Sax- ons attack the natives themselves, Suetonius, and 80,000 slain - - 61 : driving them into Wales - - 455 Reisr, of Lucius, the first Christian kinj^ of Britain, and in the world - - 179 Severus keeps his court at York, then called Eboracum - - - 207 He dies at York - - - - 211 Carausius, a tyrant, usurps the throne of Britain - - - - 286 He is killed by Alectus, who continues the usurpation - - - - 293 Constantius recovers Britain by the de- feat of Alectus - - - - 296 Many of the natives settle in Armorica, since called Brittany - - - 457 The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into seven kmgdoms - - - 457 Reign of the renowned Arthur - - 506 Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and establishment of Christianity - - 596 Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, began his reign - - - 678 The Saxon Heptarchy ends - - 828 See England, and also Tabular Views, p. 75, &c. That Britain formerly joined the Continent has been inferred from the simi- lar cliffs of the opposite coasts of the English Channel, and from the con- stant encroachments of the sea in still widening the channel. For mstaucc, a large part of the cliffs of Dover fell, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27, 1810. Phillips's Annals. BRITISH MU.SEDM. The origin of this ereat national in.stttution was th- 220 THE world's PHOGRESS. [ BRtt grant by parliament of 20,000Z. to the daugliters of sir Hans Sloane, in pay- ment for his fine hbrary, and vast collection of the productions of nature and art, which had cost him 50,000/. The library contained 50,000 volumes and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of vertu were enumerated in the cat- alogue of curiosities. The act was passed April 5, 1753 ; and in the same year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for the recep- tion of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased to an immense extent by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species of curiosity, MSS., sculpture and work of art, and by the transference to its rooms of the Cottonian, Harleian, and other libraries, the Elgin marbles, &c. George IV. presented to the museum the library collected at Bucking- ham-house by George III. — See Cottonian Library, and other collections. BROAD SEAL of ENGLAND, first affixed to patents and other grants of the crown, by Edward the Confessor, a. d. 1048. — Baker's Chron. BROCADE. A silken stuff variegated with gold or silver, and raised and en- riched with flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chi- nese. — Johnson. The trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians. — Anderson. Its manufacture was established with great success at Lyons, in 1757. BROCOLI : an Italian Plant. — Pardon. The white and purple, both of which are varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England from the Isle of Cj'prus, in the seventeenth century. — Anderson. About 1603. — Burns. The cultivation of this vegetable was greatly improved in the gardens of Eng- land and came into great abundance about 1680. — Anderson. BROKERS. Those both of money and merchandise were known early in Eng- land. See Appraisers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it was enacted that they should be licensed before transacting business, 8 and 9 William III. 1695-6. The dealings of stock-brokers were regulated by act 6 George I. 1719, and 10 George II. 1736. — Statutes at large. See Pawn- brokers. BRONZE, known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels, and various other articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestrian statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Vend6me at Paris, (demolished Aug. 10, 1792,) was the most colossal ever made ; it contained 60.000 lbs. weight of bronze. Bronze is two pai'ts brass and one copper, and the Greeks added one fifteenth of lead and silver. BROTHELS, were formerly allowed in London, and considered a necessary evil, under the regulation of a good police. They were all situated on the Bank- side, Southwark, and subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Winches- ter ; and they were visited weekly by the Sheriff's officers, and the severest penalties being enacted against keeping infected or married women, 8 Henry 11. 1162. — Survey of London. Brothels tolerated in France, 1280. Pope SixtTis IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tax, which amounted to 20,000 ducats a year, 1471. — Ital. Chron. BROWNISTS, a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark, named Robert Brown, about 1615. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesiastical distinc- tions, and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all other coiumunions. But the founder subsequently recanted his doctrines for a benefice in the church of England. — Coltins's Eccles. Hist. BRUCE'S TRAVELS, undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. The illustrious Bruce, the " Abyssinian Traveller,"' set out in June 1768, and pro- ceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jidda, passed some months in Arabia Felix, and after various detentions, reached Gondar, the capital of Abys- BUG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 221 sinia, in Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14tli, 1770, he obtained the great object of his wishes — a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to England in 1773, and died in 179J:. BRUNSWICK, House of. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family of Este. Azo died in 1055, and left, bj^ his wife Cunegonde (the heiress of Guelph III., duke of Bavaria), a son who was Guelph IV., the great-grand- father of Henry the Lion. This last married Maude, daughted of Henry II. of England, and is always looked upon as being the founder of the Bruns- wick family. The dominions of Henrj^ the Lion were the most extensive of any prince of his time ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., he drew the emperor's re- sentment on him, and in the diet of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed. The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family of Bavaria ; the duch}'^ of Saxony, to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhalt ; and his other territories to different persons. On this, he retired to England ; but on Henry's intercession, Brunswick and Lxmenburg were restored to him. The house of Brunswick has divided into several branches. The present duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel is sprung from the eldest ; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was from the second ; and from this last sprang the roj'al familj^ of England. A revolution took place at Bruns- wick, Avhen the ducal palace was burnt, and tlu^ reigning prince obliged to retire and seek shelter in England, Sept. 8, 1830. BRUSSELS, founded by St. Gery of Cambray, in the seventh century. The memorable bombardment of this city by Marshal Villeroy, when 14 churches and 4000 houses were destroyed, 1695. Taken by the French, 1746. Again, by Dumouriez, 1792. The revolution of 1830 commenced here, Aug. 25. — See Belgium. This town is celebrated for its fine lace, camlets, and tapestrj''. There is here a noble building, called the H6tel de Ville, whose tur- ret is 364 feet in height ; and on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 feet high, which turns with the wind. Riot in Brussels, in which the costly furniture of 16 principal houses was demolished, in consequence of a dis- play of attachment to the house of Orange, 5th April, 1834. BUBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a name given to projects for raising money upon false and imaginary grounds, much practised, often with disas- trous consequences, in France and England, in 1719 and 1721. Many such projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825. See Covipanies, and Law's Bubble. BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French, English, and Dutch, commenced their depredations on the Spaniards of America, soon after the latter had taken possession of that continent and the West Indies. The principal commanders of the first expedition were, Montbar, Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan, who murdered thousands, and plundered millions. The expedition of Van Horn, of Ostend, was undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont, in 1685 ; and that of Pointis, in 1697. BUCHANITES. Hundreds of deluded fanatics, followers of Margaret Buchan, who promised to conduct them to the new Jerusalem, and prophesied the end of the world. She appeared in Scotland in 1779, and died in 1791, when her followers dispersed. BUCHAREST, Treaty of. The preliminaries of peace ratified at this place between Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be the frontier limit of those empires, signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent war between those powers altered many of the provisions of this treaty. BUCKINGHAM PALACE, London. Buckingham-house, built 1703, was pulled down in 1825, and the new palace commenced on its site ; and after 222 THE world's progress. [ BtTi, expenditure which must have approached a million sterling, it was com- pleted, and was taken possession of bj' queen Victoria, July 13, 1837. BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Proetus and Acri- sius, of Argos, about 1370 e. c. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Sam- nites, he took from them their bucklers, which were of gold and silver, 309 B. 0. See article Arvior. BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles 11. ; but people of inferior rank, and such as affected plainness in their garb, wore strings in their shoes some years after that period : these last were, however, ridiculed for their singularity in using them. RUDA; once called the Kej^ of Christendom. It was taken by Solyman U. at the memorable battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of his subjects were carried away captives, 1526. Buda was sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hun- gary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperial- ists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. See Hungary. BUENA VISTA, B attle of, between the American force, of about 5,000 men, un- der general Taylor and general Wool ; and the Mexicans, about 20,000, imder Santa Anna : the latter defeated with the loss of 2500 killed and wounded. American loss, 264 killed, 450 wounded. This victory securing to the Ameri- cans the whole of the northern provinces of Mexico, Feb. 22, 1847. BUENOS AYRES. The capital was founded by Pedro Mendoza, in 1535. It was taken by the British under sir Home Popham, J'une 21, 1806 ; and was retaken, after an attack of three days, Aug 12. the same year. The British suffered a great repulse here under general Whitelock, who was disgraced, July 6, 1807. Declaration of independence of this province, July 19, 1816 : the treaty was signed February 1822. To put a stop to a war between Bue- nos Ayres and Monte Video, England and France blockaded the port of Bue- nos Ayres, Oct. 24, 1845 ; the troops of Buenos Ayres under general Rosas, defeated by the combined forces, Nov. 20, 1845. BUFFOONS. These were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The shows of the buffoons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abol- ished by Trajan, A. D. 98. Our ancient kings had jesters, who are described as being, at first, practitioners of indecent raillery and antic postures ; they were employed under the Tudors. Some writers state that James I. con- verted the jesters into poet-laureates ; but poet-laureates existed long before ; Selden traces the latter to 1251. — Warton. BUILDING. The first structures were of wood and clay, then of rough stone, and in the end the art advanced to polished marble. Building with stone was early among the Tyrians ; and as ornaments and taste arose, every nation pursued a different system. The art of building with stone may be referred in England to Benedict, or Benet, a monk, about a. d. 670. The first bridge of this material in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with brick was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged it in England, in 886. Brick-building was generally introduced by the earl of Arundel, about 1598, London being then almost built of wood. The increase of building in London was prohibited within three miles of the citj^ gates by Elizabeth, who ordered that one family only should dwell in one house, 1580. BULGARIANS. They defeat Justinian, a. d. 687; and are subdued by the emperor Basilius, in 1019. On one occasion, this emperor having taken 15,000 Bulgarians prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every hundredth man,- to enable him to conduct his countrymen BUO] DICTIONARY Of DATES. 223 home. Bulgaria was governed by Roman dukes till 1186; subdued by Bajazet, 1396. — Univ. Hist. vol. xvii. BULL, OR EDICT op the POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of ancient use, and generally written on parchment. The bull is, properly, the seal, deriving its name from bulla, and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other, the name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The celebrated golden bull of the emperor Charles IV. was so called because of its golden s^:ai; and was made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet ol Nuremburg, A. D. 1856. Bulls denouncing queen Elizabeth and her abet tors, and consigning them to hell-fire, accompanied the Spanish Arma'la 1588. BULL-BAITING, or BULL-FIGHTING. This atrociously criminal sport of Spain and Portugal is somewhat equivalent in those countries to the figlits of the gladiators among the Romans. It is recorded as being an amuse- ment at Stamford so early as the reign of John, 1209. Bull-running was a sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Sporls of England, Ave read of the " Eastei fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and huge bears were baited with dogs ;" and near the Clink, London, was the Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- bition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown out in the Commons, chiefly through the influence of the late Mr. Windham, who made a singular speech in favor of the cus- tom. May 21, 1802. — Bwtler. It has since been declared illegal. See Cru- elly to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced into Spain about 1260 : abol- ished there, " except for piotis and patriotic purposes," in 1784. There was a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 specta- tors, on Sunday, June 14, 1840. BULLETS. Those of stone were in use a. d. 1514 ; and iron ones are first mentioned in the Pcedera, 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close of the sixteenth century, and continue to be those in use in all nations for musketry. The cannon-ball in some Eastern countries is still of stone, instead of iron. — Ashe. BUNKER HILL, Battle of, (near Boston,) between the British under Howe, and the Americans under Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss, 1054 killed and Avounded ; American, 453. The latter obliged to retreat for want of powder. But this, the first important battle of the revolution, has always justly been regarded as a great victory for the American cause, and is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which ^ the corner-stone was laid by general La Fayette, in 1825. It Avas finished ' July 23, 1842, at the cost altogether of about $100,000, raised by voluntary contributions. The height is 220 feet. Its completion celebrated by a pro- cession, &c., and an oration by Daniel Webster ; president Tyler and 50,000 people present, June 17, 1843. BUONAPARTE S EMPIRE op FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most extraordinary man of modern times, ruled over France, and subdued most of the nations of the Continent, in the early part of the present century. See his A'arious military and other achievements under their respective heads throughout the volume : — Napoleon bom at Ajaccio, in Italy, Aug. 1.5, 1769 He first distinguishes himself in the command of the artillery at Toulon - 179-3 He embarks for Egypt • May 10, 1798 Is repulsed before Acre - May 27, 1799 lie returns from Egypt - Aug. 23, 1799 Deposes the French directory, and be- comes first consul - Nov. 9, 1799 Sends overtures of peace to the king of England - - - Jan. 1, 1800 His life attempted by an " infernal ma- chine" - - - Dec. 24, 1800 2-^4 tj;k woiiLo't; puoghess. [buh son - - - June 22, 1815 Intending to embark for America, he arrives at Rochefort - July 3, 1815 He surrenders to Capt. Maitland, of the ' Bellerophon - - July 15, 1815 Transferred at Torbay to the Northum- berland.axidi sails for St. Helena Aug. 8, 1815 Arrives at St. Helena (where it is de- creed by the allied sovereigns he shall remain for life) - Oct. 15, 1815 The family of Bonaparte excluded for ever from France by the law of am- nesty - - - Jan. 72, 1816 Death of Bonaparte - May 5, 1821 His will registered in England - Aug. 1824 His son, ex-king of Rome, dies July 22, 1832 The French chambers decree, with the consent of England, that the ashes of Napoleon be removed from St. Hele- na, and brought to France - May 12, 1840 They are exhumed - Oct. 16, 1840 The Belle Poule, French frigate, aiTives at Cherbourg with the ^«mains of Napoleon, in the care of ^he prince de Joinville - - Nov. 30, 1810 They are interred with great solemnity in the Hotel des Invalides - Dec. 15, 1840 BUONAPARTE'S EMPIRE of FRANCE, conlinued. Elected president of the Italian, late Is defeated at Waterloo - June 18, 1815 Cisalpine, republic - Jan. 25, 1802 ! Returns to Paris - June 20, 1815 Elected consul for 10 years - May 8, 1802 j And abdicates in favor of his infant Made first consul for life - Aug. 2, 1802 l Accepts the title of emperor from the ! senate in name of the people May 18, 1804 i Crowned emperor by the pope Dec 2, 1804 Crowned king of Italy - May 26, 1805 Divorced from the empress Josephine Dec. 16, 1809 Marries Maria Louisa - April 7, 1810 A son, the fruit of this marriage, bom, and styled king of Rome - March 20, 1811 His overtures of peace to England re- • jected - - - April 14, 1812 [The reverses of Bonaparte now follow in quick .succession.] He renounces the thrones of France and Italy, and accepts of the Isle of Elba for his retreat - April 5, 1814 Embarks at Frejus - - April 28, 1814 Arrives at Elba - - May 3, 1814 Again appears in France ; he quits Elba and lands at Cannes - March 1, 1815 Enters Lyons - - March 10, 1815 Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815 Joined by all the army - March 22, 1815 The allies sign a treaty for Iris exter- mination - - - March 25, 1815 He abolishes the slave-trade March 29, 1815 Leaves Paris for the army - June 12, 1815 BURGESS, from the French Bourgeois, a distinction coeval in England witli its corporations. Burgesses Avere called to parliament in England a. d, 1265 ; in Scotland, in 1326 ; and in Ireland, about 1365. Burgesses to be resident in the places which they are elected to represent in parliament, 1 Henry V. 1413. — Viner's Statutes. See Borough. BURGLARY. Until the reign of George IV. this crime, in England, was pun- ished with death. BURGOS, Siege of. Wellington entered Burgos after the battle of Salamanca, which was fought Jiily 22, 1812, and the castle M-as besieged by the British and allied army, and several attemjits were made to carry it by assault, but the siege was abandoned in October, same year. The castle and fortifica- tions were blown up by the French in June 1813. BURGUNDY. This kingdom begins in Alsace, a. d. 413. Conrad II. of Ger- many being declared heir to the kingdom, is opposed in his attempt to an- nex it to the empire, when it is dismembered, and on its ruins are formed the four provinces of Burgundy, Provence, Viennes, and Savoy, 1034. Bur- gundy becomes a circle of the German empire, 1521. It falls to Philip 11. of Spain, whose tyi-anny and religious persecutions cause a revolt in the Batavian provinces, 1566. After various changes, Burgundy annexed to France, and formed into departments of that kingdom. BURIAL. The earliest and most rational mode of restoring the body to eartk. The first idea of it was formed by Adam, on his observing a live bird cover- ing a dead one with leaves. Barrows were the most ancient graves. See Barrows. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in 210. — Eusebius. The first Christian burial-place was instituted in 596 ; burial in cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in church-yards, 758. Vaults were erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds used in Eng- land, 1666. Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729 ; and woollen shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695 — again, 1673.. See Cemeteries. BURIALS. Parochial registers of them, and of births and marriages, were in- BUU ] DICTIONARY- OF DATES. 225 stituted in England by Cromwell, Lord Essex, about 1536. — Stowe. A tax was exacted on burials in England : for the burial of a duke, £50, and foi that of a common person 4s., under William III., 1695, and Geo. III. 1783. — Statutes. See Bitls of Mortality. BURKING. A new and horrible species of murder committed in England. It was thus named from the first known criminal by whom the deed was perpe- trated being called Burke. His victims were strangled, or made lifeless by pressure, or other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no marks of violence, were afterwards sold to the surgeons for the purpose of dissection. Burke was executed at Edinburgh in February, 1829. The crime has been more recently perpetrated by a gang of murderers in London. The monster named Bishop was apprehended in November 1831, and exe- - cuted with Williams, one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor Italian boy, named Carlo Ferrari, a friendless wanderer, and therefore selected as being less likely to be sought after (they confessing to this and other similar murders), December 5, same year. BURMESE EMPIRE. Founded in the middle of the last century, by Alom- pra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty. — See India. BURNING ALIVE. This punishment was inflicted among the Romans, Jews, and other nations, on the betrayers of councils, incendiaries, and for incest in the ascending and descending degrees. The Jews had two ways of burn- ing alive : one with wood and faggots to burn the body, the other by pour- ing scalding lead doAvn the throat of the criminal, cmnbustio animce, to burn the soul.— See Sitttees. BURNING ALIVE, in England. Even in England (see preceding article) burn- ing alive was a punishment upon the statute-book. The Britons punished heinous crimes by burning alive in wicker baskets. See Stonehenge. This punishment was countenanced by bulls of the pope ; and witches suffered in this manner. — See Witches. Many persons have been burned alive on ac- count of religious principles. The first sufferer was sir William Sawtree, parish priest of St. Osith, London, 8 Henry IV., February 9, 1401. In the reign of the cruel Mary numbers were burned, among others, Ridley, bishop of London ; Latimer, bishop of Rochester ; and Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, who were burned at Oxford in 1555 and 1556. Numerous others suffered this dreadful death in Mary's reign.* BURNING THE DEAD. The antiquity of this custom rises as high as the The- ban war ; it was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and the poet Ho- mer abounds with descriptions of such funeral obsequies. The practice was verj' general about 1225 b. c, and was revived by Sylla, lest the relics of the dead in graves should be violated ; and to this day the burning of the dead is practised in many parts of the East and West Indies. BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS. Their power was not unknown to Archimedes, but the powers of these instruments are rendered wonderful by the modern improvements of Settalla: of Tchirnhausen, 1680; of Bufibn, 1747 ; and of Parker and others, more recently. The following are experi- ments of the fLi.«ion of substances made with Mr. Parker's lens, or burning mirror : * It is cninputeil, that during the three years of Mary's reisn in which these shocking violences and barbaviiies were carried on, there were 277 persons brought to the stake ; besides tho.se who were punished by imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those who suffered by fire were 5 bisliops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, SI tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers, h'l womevi, and 4 children. The unprincipled agents of this merciless queen were the bishops Gar- dner and Honner. The latter especially was a man of brutal character, who seemed to derive a vage pleasure in witnessing the torture of the sufferers. 226 THE world's progress. [ BYZ Substances fused. Weight. Time. A topaz - - - 3 grains 45 seconds. An emerald - - 2 grains 25 seconds. A crystal pebble - 7 grains G seconds. Flint - - - - 10 grains 30 seconds. Cornelian - - 10 grains 75 seconds. Pumice stone - - 10 grains 24 seconds. BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS, contimi^d. Substances/used. Weight. Time. PiU'e gold - - 20 grains 4 seconds. Silver - - - 20 grains 3 seconds. Copper - - - 33 grains 20 seconds. Platina - - - 10 grains 3 seconds. Cast iron - ■ 10 grains 3 seconds. Steel - - - 10 grains 12 seconds. Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils immediately ; bones arc calcined ; and things, not capable of melting, at once become red-hot like iron. BURYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Bceotia, where Creon ordered Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 b. c. The Roman vestals were subjected to this horrible kind of execution for any levity in dress or conduct that could excite a suspicion of their virtue. The vestal Minutia was buried alive on the charge of incontinence, 337 b. c. The vestal- Sextilia was bui'ied alive 274 b. c. The vestal Cornelia a. d. 92. Lord Bacon gives instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive ; the fa- mous Duns Scotus is of the number. The assassins of Capo d'Istria, Presi- dent of Greece, were (two of them) sentenced to be immured in brick walls built .around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this species of torture until they died, October, 1831. — See Greece. BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is the same with the herma of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the inventor of moulds from which he cast wax figures, 328 b. c. — Pliny. Busts from the f;ice in plaster of Paris were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about A. D. 1466. — Vasari. BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were three classes : the Suarii pro- vided hogs, the Boarii oxen, and the hanii, whose office was to kill. The butchers' trade is very ancient in England ; so is their company in London, although it was not incorporated until the second year of James I. 1604. — Annals of London. BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the early Romans it was irsed only as a medicine — never as food. The Chris- tians of Egj^pt burnt butter in their lamps, instead of oil, in the third cen- tury. In 1675, there fell in Ireland, during the winter time, a thick yellow dew, which had all the medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable butter is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba, than any butter made from cow's milk. — Mungo Park. BUTTONS, of early manufacture in England"; those covered with cloth were prohibited by a statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal but- tons, 8 George I. 1721. The manufacture owes nothing to encouragement from any quarter of late years, although it has, notwithstanding, much im- proved. — PkilMps. BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England, on his voyage round the globe, June 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. In his voyage he dis- covered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name, Au- gust 16, 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his general ill fortune at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet, " Foul- weather Jack." — Bellchambe7's. BYZANTIUM. Now Constantinople, foimded by a colony of Athenians, 715 B. c. — Eusebius. It was taken by the Romans, a. d. 73, and was laid in ruins by Severus in 196, Byzantium was rebuilt by Constantine in 338 ; and after him it received the name of Constantinople. See Constardinople CAD J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 22''?' CABAL. A Hebrew word, used in various senses. The rabbins were cabalists, and the Christians so called those who pretended to magic. In English his- tory, the Cabal was a council which consisted of five lords in administration, supposed to be pensioners of France, and distinguished by the appellation of the CabaL, from the initials of their names: Sir Thomas Clilford, the lord Ashley, the duke of Buckingham, lord Arlington, and the duke of Lauder- dale, 22 Charles II. l&lO.—Hume. CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England so early as the reign of Ina, king of the West Saxons, a. d. 690; Offa, king of the Mercians, 758, and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. The cabinet council, in which secret deliberations were held by the king and a few of his chosen friends, and the great officers of state, to be afterwards laid before the second council, now styled the privy council, was instituted by Alfred the Great, about a. d. 896. Spelman. The modern cabinet council, as at present constituted, was recon- structed in 1670, and usually consists of the following twelve members :* Lord president. Lord chancellor. Lord privy seal. First lord of the treasury. Chancellor of the exchequer. Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state. President of the board of control. President of the boari of trade. Master of the mint. First lord of the admiralty. In 1841 the number was 14, and included the Secretary at War, the Woods and Forests, and Chief Secretary for Ireland, the Mint and the Board of Trade being united in right hon. H. Labouchere. The cabinet ministers of . the various reigns Avill be found under the head Administrations of England. CABLES. Their use was known in the earliest times : a machine for making the largest, by which human labor was reduced nine-tenths, was invented in 1792. This machine was set in motion by sixteen horses, when making cables for ships of large size. Chain cables were introduced into the British navy in 1812. CADDEE, OR League of God's House. The celebrated league of independence in Switzerland, formed by the Grisons, to resist domestic tyranny, a. d. 1400 to 1419. A second league of the Grisons M'as called the Grise or Gray league, 1424. CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitive from his coun- ti-y on account of his crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed 20,000 Kentish men, who armed " to punish evil ministers, and procure a redress of grievances." Cad'e entered London in triumph, and for some time bore down all opposition, and beheaded the lord treasurer, Lord Saye, and several other persons of consequence. The insurgents at length losing ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, finding himself de- serted by his followers, fled : but a reward being offered for his apprehen- sion, he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, 1451. CADIZ, formerly Gades, was built by the Carthaginians 530 b. c. — Priestley. One hundred vessels of the armament preparing, as the Spanish Armada, ' The term cabinet council is of comparatively modem date, and originated thus : the affairs of state, in the reign of Charles I. were principally managed by the archbishop of Canterbury, the earl of Strafford, and the lord Cottington ; to these were added the earl of Northumberland, for or- nament; the bishop of London for his place, being lord treasurer; the two secretaries, Vaae and Windebank, for service and intelligence ; only the marquis of Hamilton, by his skill and interest, meddled just so far, and no further, than he had a mind. These persons made up the committee of state, reproachfully called ihe junto, and afterwards, enviously, the cabinet council. — Lord Cr»A- RENDON. 228 THE world's progress. [ CAL against England, were destroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake, 1587. Cadiz was taken by the English, under the earl of Essex, and plundered, September 15, 1596. It was attempted by sir George Rooke in 1702, but he failed. Bombarded by the British in 1797, and blockaded by their fleet, under lord St. Vincent, for two years, ending in 1799. Again bombarded by the British, on board whose fleet were 18,000 land forces, October 1800. Besieged by the French, but the siege raised after the battle of Salamanca in 1812. Massacre of the inhabitants by the soldieiy, March 10, 1820. Cadiz was declared a free port in 1829. CjESARS, era of the ; or Spanish Era, is reckoned from the first of January 38 B. c, being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was much irsed in Africa, Spain, and the south of France; but by a synod held in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV.. of Arragon, abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John of Castile did the same in 1383. It continued to be used in Portugal till 1455. The mouths and days of this era are identical with the Julian calen- dar, and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the year; if before the Christian era subtract thirty-nine. CAI-FONG, in China. This city being besieged by 100,000 rebels, the com- mander of the forces who was sent to its relief, in order to drown the enemy, broke down its embanlanents : his stratagem succeeded, and every man of ■the besiegers perished ; but the city was at the same time overflowed by the waters, and 300,000 of the citizens were drowned in the overwhelming flood, A. D. 1642. CAIRO, OR GRAND CAIRO. The modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for the minarets of its mosques, and the splendid sepulchres of its caliphs in what is called the city of the dead : it was built by the Saracens, in a. d. 969. Burnt to i^revent its occupation by the Christian invaders, called Cru- saders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, and their empire siibdued, 1517. Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, June, 1754; when 40.000 persons perished. Set on fire bj* a lady of the beglerbeg, Dec, 1755. Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte, July 23, 1798. Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French capitulated, June 27, 1801. CALAIS. Taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1347, and held by England 210 years. It was retaken in the reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 1558, and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the queen's heart, historians say it occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards. Calais was bom- barded by the English, 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long exile from France, April 24, 1814. See France. CALCUTTA. The first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. It was purchased as a Zemindary, and Fort William built in 1698. Calcutta was attacked by a large army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants, in June, 1756. On the capture of the fort, 146 of the British were crammed into the Black-hole prison, a dungeon about 18 feet square, from whence twenty-three only came forth the next morning alive. Calcutta was re- taken the following year, and the inhuman Soubah put to death. Supreme court of Judicatm-e established 1773. College founded here 1801. — See Bengal and India. CALEDONIA. Now Scotland. The name is supposed by some to be derived from Gael or Gaelmen, or Gadel-doine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, who died a. d. 99, distinguishes this portion of feritian by the appellation of Caledonia; but the etymology of the word seems undetermined. Vener- able Bede says, that it retained this name until a. d. 258, when it was invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scofia. The ancient inhabitants appei» oal] dictionary of dates. 229 to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, who passed over from the opposite coasts of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth century of the Christian era, they were invaded (as stated by some autho- rities), by the Scuyths or Scythians (since called Scots), who, having driven the Picts into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to the whole country. Hence the origin of that distinction of language, habits, customs, and persons, which is still so remarkable between the Highlanders and the inhabitants of the southern borders, Caledonian monarchy, said to liave been founded by Fergus I., about - b. c. 330 Tlie Picts trom the north of England settle in the southern borders - - 140 Agricola carries the Roman arms into Caledonia, with little success, in the reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor- bred 11. " - - - A. d. 79 He is signally defeated by the forces of Corbred 80 Christianity is introduced into Caledonia in the reign of Donald I. - ■ 201 The country is invaded by the Scuyths, or Scots, and the government is over- thrown, about - - A. D. 300 The Caledonian monarchy is revived by Fergus II. 40i After many sanguinary wars between the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Ken- neth II. obtains a victory over the Picls, unites the whoje counti-y under one monarchy, and gives it the name of Scotland - . - - 838 to 843 See Scotland. The origin of the Scots, it should be stated, is very uncertain ; and the his- tory of the country until the eleventh century, when Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, reigned (1057) is obscure, and intermixed with many and improb- able fictions. CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By means of this magnificent canal, the nautical intercourse between the western ports of Great Britain, and tliose also of Ireland, to the North Sea and Bal- tic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others, 1000 miles. A sum exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time ; and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was completed, and opened in 1822. CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by almost all nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into ten months, comprising 304 days, a. d. 738 b. c. The year of Romulus was of fifty days less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than the solar year, and its commencement did not, of course, correspond with any 6xed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 b. c. corrected this calendar, by adding two months ; and Julius Caesar, desirous to make it more correct, fixed the solar j^ear as being 365 days and six hours, 45 b. c. This ahnost perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed gener- ally throughout the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIH. The calendar of Julius Cajsar was defective in this particular, that the solar year consisted of 365 days, five hours, and forty-nine minutes : and not of 365 days six hours. This difference, at the time of Gregory XIII. had amounted to ten entire days, the vernal equinox falling on the 11th, instead of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, that that year should consist of 365 days only ; and to prevent further irregu- larity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should not be bis- sextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century : thus, 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so ; but the year 2000 will be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 years, because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in about that period. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar year ; and future errors of chronology are avoided. See New Style. CALICO. The well-known. cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India, which was discovered by tlic Portuguese, in 1498. Calico was first brought to England by the East India Company, in 1631. Calico printing, and the 230 THE wokld's progress. [ CAl Dutch loom engine, were first used in 1676. — Anderson. Calicoes were pro-; liibit€d to be printed or -worn, in 1700 ; and again, in 1721. They were first made a branch of manufacture in Lancashire, in 1771. See Cotton. CALIFORNIA, Lower, discovered by Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, 1534 ; explored by Cortes himself, 1536, and by his subordinate TJlloa, 1538. First settlement by Viscaino and a small colony sent out by Philip n. of Spain, 1596. Viscaino explored the coast and founded St. Diego and Monterey, and was the first Spaniard in Upper California, 1602. CALIFORNIA, Upper, discovered by sir Francis Drake, and named New Al- bion, 1596. The Spanish colonists having been expelled by the ill-used natives, the country was granted by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits, in 1697. Jesuit missions and Presidios estabhshed in New ."'alifornia 1769. Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a province of Mexico, 1824 ; the Mexican governor expelled from Monterey, 1836. California ex- plored by the United States expedition, under Wilkes, co-operating with that of Fremont, overland, in 1811-3. Another expedition under Fremont, 1845-6. Mexican war began 1845. San Francisco taken possession of by Com. Montgomery, July 8, 1845. Com. Stockton takes possession of Uppci California May-August, 1846, and institutes United States military govern- ment. Movements of general Kearney, lieutenant Emory, &c,, 1846. Cali- fornia secured to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. Gold placers first discovered on the grounds of captain Suter, Februaiy, 1848. Great emigration from the United States commenced November, 1848. Con- vention at Monterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 31, 1849. Con- stitution adopted by popular vote, and P. H. Burnet chcsen first governor, Dec. 1849. CALIPH. In Arabic, vicar, or apostle; the title assumed by the Soplii of Persia, in the succession of Ali, and by the Grand Seigniors as the succes- sors of Mahomet. The caliphat was adopted by Abubeker, the father of the Prophet's second wife, in whose arms he died, a. d. 631. In process of time the soldans or sultans engrossed all the civil power, and little but the title was left to the caliphs, and that chiefly in matters of religion. — Sir. T. Herbert. CALLIGRAPHY. Beautiful writing, in a small compass, invented by Callicra- tes, who is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum seed, 472 B. c. The modern specimens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and beautiful. In the sixteenth centurj', Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer, creed, decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to whom he presented it at Hampton-court, all within the circle of a silver penny, enchased in a ring and border of gold, and covered with crystal, so accu- ._ rately done as to be plainly legible, to the great admiration of her majesty, the whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574. — Holinshed. CALLAO, IN Peru. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, and returned in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city, a. d. 1687. The same phenomenon took place in 1746, when all the inhabitants perished, with the exception of one man. who was standing on an eminence, and to whose succor a wave providentially threw a boat. i:ALOMEL. The mercurial compound termed calomel is first mentioned by Crollius, early in the seventeenth century, but must have been previously known. The first directions given for its preparation were those announced by Beguin, in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimate was known some centuries before. cam] DIUTIOiN'ARY OF DATES. 231 CALVARY', Mount. The place where the Redbemer suftered death, a. d. 33. Calvary was a small eminence or hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated to the execution of malefactors. See Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian at the time of his persecution of the Christians erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, a. d. 142. Here is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock from all Christian countries. CALVINISTS. Named after their founder, John Calvin, the celebrated re- former of the Christian church from the Romish superstition and doctrinal errors. Calvin was a native of Noyon, in Picardy ; but adopting the princi- ples of the Reformers, he fled to Angoulfime, where he composed his Iiisti- tutio Chrisbiana Religionis, in 1533, published about two years afterwards. He subsequently retired to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he differed from Luther in essential points, still his followers did 'not consider themselves as different on this account from the adherents of Luther. A formal separation first took place after the conference of Poissy, in 1561, where they expressly rejected the tenth article of the confession of Augs- burg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists. CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemed manufacture called cambric takes its name. This city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable sur- prise, in 1595. Cambray was taken and retaken several times. In the war of the French revolution it was invested by the Austrians, August 8, 1793, when the republican general, Declay, replied to the Imperial summons to surrender, that "he knew not how to do that, but his soldiers knew how to fight." In the late war it was seized by the British under general sir Chas. Colville, June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day, and was occupied by Louis XVIII. and his court. CAMBRAY, League of. This was the celebrated league against the republic of Venice, comprising the pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and Spain ; and whereby Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in the kingdom of Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508. CAMBRICS. A fabric of fine linen used for ruffles. — Skakspeare. Cambrics were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Eliza- beth, 1580. — Stowe. The importation of them was restricted, in 1745 ; and was totally prohibited by statute of 32 George II. 1758. Readmitted ii 1786, but afterwards again prohibited : the importation of cambrics is now allowed. CAMBRIDGE, once called Granta., and of most ancient standing, being fre- quently mentioned in the earliest accounts of the oldest British historians. Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and s\yord to be revenged o'. king William Rufus. The university is said to have been commenced bj Sigebert, king of East Angles, about a. d. 631 ; but it lay neglected during the Danish invasions, from which it suffered much. Cambridge now containh thirteen colleges and four halls, of which first, Peter-house is the mos ancient, and King's College the noblest foundation in Europe, and thu chapel one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in the world. CAMERA LUCIDA. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about l^i— Wood's Ath. Ox. Also an instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera ob- scm-a, or dark chamber, was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger Bacon, in 1297 ; it was improved by Baptista Porta, the writer on natural magic, about 1500. — Moreri. Sir I. Newton remodelled it. By the recent invention of M. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera are rendered perma- nent ; the last was produced in 1889. CAMERONIANS. A sect in Scotland which separated from the Presbyterians, and continued to hold their religious meetings in the fields. — Biirncf. 232 THE world's progress. [ CAl^ CAMP. All the eiLvly warlike nations had camps, which are consequently most ancient. The disijosition of the Hebrew encampment was, we are told, at first laid out by God himself. The Romans and Gauls had in- trenched camps in open plains ; and vestiges of such Roman encampments are existing to this day in numerous places in England and Scotland. The last camp in England was formed at Hyde Park in 1745. (JAMPEACHY-BAY. Discovered about a, d. 1520; it was taken by the Eng- lish in 1659 ; and was taken by the Buccaneers, in 1678; and by the free- booters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up the citadel. The English logwood cutters made their settlement here, in 1662. CAMPERDOWN, Battle of. Memorable engagement off Camperdown, south of the Texel, and signal victory obtained by the British fleet under admiral Duncan,' over the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral de Winter ; the latter losing fifteen ships, which were either taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797. CAMPO FORMIO, Treaty op, concluded between France and Austria, the latter power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memor- able and humiliating treaty resulted from the ill success of Austria on the Rhine. By a secret article, however, the emperor took possession of the Venetian dominions in compensation for the Netherlands, Oct. 17, 1797. CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, a. d. 1499, and was settled by the French, in 1608, but it had been previously visited by them. Canada was taken by the English, in 1628, but was re- stored in 1631. It was again conquered by the English, in 1759, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. This country was divided into two provinces, Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791 ; and it was during the debates on this bill in the British parliament, that the quarrel between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose. CANADIAN INSURRECTION. The Papineau rebellion commenced at Mon- treal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St. Eustace, Dec. 14, following. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and wei'e repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head, Jan. 5, 1838. Lord Durham, governor general, Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and Mathews hanged as traitors, April 12, 1838. Lord Durham resigned, Oct. 9, 1838. Rebellion again man- ifested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 1838. The insurgents concentrated at Napierville under command of Nelson and others, Nov. 6 ; some skirmishes took place, and they were routed with the loss of many killed and several hundred prisoners. Sir John Colborne announced the suppression of the re- bellion in his disyatches dated Nov. 17, 1838. Lord Gosford, governor of Lower Canada proclaims martial law, and a reward of .£1,000 for Papi- neau. Doc. 5, 1837. M Leod (charged with the destruction of the Ca?-oZwie, American steamer, at Schlosser, Dec. 30, 1837) acquitted at Utica, Oct. 12, 1841. President Van Buren's proclamation warning citizens of the United States against meddling with the Canadian insurrection. Sir Charles Met- calfe, governor-general, 1844. Earl of Elgin appointed governor-general, took the oath, Jan. 30, 1847. Riots at Montreal, and burning of the Parlia- ment House by a mob (caiised by the dissatisfaction about the act for paying losses by the late rebellion to some of the rebels themselves), Aug. 15, 1849. Movements in favor of annexation to' the United States. Warning against such movements as high treason, proclaimed in the dispatch of earl Grey, the British colonial secretary, Feb. 1850. CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth centiu-y. The canal of Languedoc which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Oceao CAN ] DICTIONARY UF DATES. 233 was commenced in 1666. That of Orleans, from the Loire to tlie Seine, com- menced in 1675. That between the Caspian Sea and the Baltic, commenced 1709. That from Stockholm to Gottenburg, commenced 1751. That between the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 1785. That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, commenced 1790. The first canal made in England was by Henry I., when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, a. d. 1134. That from the Durance to Marseilles, France, 83,000 metres, of which 17,000 are subterranean passages through the Alps, finished July 8, 1847. In Eng- land, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the length of those only that are navigable — total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there are but SOO miles of canals ; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the Shannon, navigable below Limerick, making in all 510 miles. — Williams. CANALS IN THE UNITED STATES. Act for cumraencing the great Erie canal in New York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton, 1817. The canal (363 miles long) completed ; a grand celebration, 1825. Chesa- peake and Delaware canal opened, &c., July 4, 1829. CANARY ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients as the Fortti- nate Isles. The first meridian was referred to the Canary isles by Hipparchus, about 140 B. c. They were re-discovered by a Norman, named Bethencourt, A.D. 1402; and were seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which flourish here, about 1420. The canarj'-bird, so much esteemed in all parts of Europe, is a native of these isles ; it was brought into England in 1500. CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is Mount Ida, so famous in history. It was seized by the Saracens, a. d. 808, when they changed its name. Taken by the Greeks, in 961 ; sold to the Venetians, 1194, and held by them till the Turks obtained it, after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200,000 men perished, 1669. CANDLE. The Roman candles were composed of strings surrounded by wax, or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, were used for light among the lower classes in England about a. d. 1300. At this time wax candles were little used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The wax-chandlers' company was incorporated, 1484. Mould candles are said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of modern manufacture. The Chinese candles (see Candleberry Myrtle) are made from the berries of a tree, and they universally burn this wax, which is fragrant, and yields a bright light. CANDLEMAS-DAY. A feasl instituted by the early Christians, who conse- crated on this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the year. It is kept in the reformed church in memory .of the purification of the Virgin Mary, who, submitting to the law under which she lived, pre- sented the infant Jesus in the Temple. Owing to the abundance of light, this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. The practice of lighting the churches was discontinued by English Protestants by an order of council 2 Edward VI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome. CANNJ2, Battle of. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to the Romans. Hannibal commanded on one side 50.000 Africans, Gauls, and Spaniards ; and Paulus ^milius and Terentius Varro, 88,000 Romans, of whom 40 000 were slain.— i>zt;y. The victor, Hannibal, sent three bushels of rings, taken from the Roman knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage. Neither party perceived an awful earthquake which occurred during the battle. The place is now denominated the field of blood ; fought May 21. 216 B. c. — Bossueb. CANNIBALISM has prevailed from the remotest times. The Greeks inform us that it was a primitive and universal cirstom, and many of the South 234 THE WORLD S PROGPv.ESS. [ CAN American tribes and natives of the South Sea Islands eat human flesh at the present day, and the propensitj' for it prevails more or less in all savage nations. St. Jerome says, that some British tribes ate human flesh ; and the Scots from Galloway killed and eat the English in the reign of Henry I. The Scythians were drinkers of human blood. Columbus found cannibals in America. See Anthropophagi. CANNON. They are said to have been used as early as a. d. 1338. According to some of our historians they were used at the battle of Cressy in 1346 ; but this Voltaire disputes. They are said to have been used bj' the English at the siege of Calais, 1347. Cannon were first used in the English service by the governor of Calais, 6 Richard II. 1883. — Ripner's Fcedera. Louis XIV., upon setting out on his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, inscribed upon his cannon, "The last argument of kings." See ArtUlery. CANNON, Remarkable. The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, cast in India in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in Germany, opposite Coblentz on the Rhine, is a jarodigious cannon eighteen feet and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and three feet four inches in the breech. The ball made for it weighs ISOlbs. and its charge of powder 941bs. The inscription on it shows that it was made by one Simon, in 1529. In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen Elizabeth's pocket- pistol, which Avas presented to her b.y the States of Holland ; this piece is 24 feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the States, and a motto in Dutch, importing thus, " Charge me well, and sponge me clean, I'll throw a ball to Calais Green." Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. A leathern cannon was fired three times in the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated, a. d. 380. — Usher. Canonical hours for prayers were instituted in 391. The dignitj' of canon existed not previously to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768. — Paschier. Canon law was first introduced into Europe by Gratian, the celebrated canon law autho'", in 1151, and was introduced into England, 19 Stephen, 1154. — Slowe. CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted in the Romish church by pope Leo III. in 800. — Tallent's Tables. Saints have so accumulated, every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. — Henaidt. CANTERBURY. The Durovcrnum of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king of Kent, who reigned a. d. 560. Its early cathedral was erected during the.Heptarchj^ and was several times burnt, and rebuilt. It was once famous for the shrine of Becket (see Beclceb) and within it are interred Henry IV. and Edward the Black Prince. CANTERBURY, Archbishopric of. This see was settled by St. Austin, who preached the gospel in England a. d. 596, and converted Ethelbert, king of Kent. The king, animated with zeal for his new religion, bestowed great favors upon Austin, who fixed his residence in the capital of Ethelbert's dominions. The church was made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ, although it was formerly called St. Thomas, from Thomas a. Becket, mur- dered at its altar, December 1171. The archbishop is primate and metropo- litan of all England, and is the first peer in the realm, having precedency of all otncers of state, and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a patriarch. This see hath yielded to the clnirch of Rome, 18 saints and 9 cardinals ; and to the civil state of England. 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. St. Austin was the first bishop, 596. Tlie see was made superior to York, 1073. CAP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 235 — See York. The revenue is valued in the king's books at £2816. ll $. 2d. — CANTHARIDES. A venomous kind of insects Avhich, when dried and pulver- ized, are used principally to raise blisters. They were first introduced into medical practice by Aretseus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. — Freind's History of J'kysic. CANTON. The only city in China with which Europeans have been allowed up to the present time to trade. Merchants first arrived here for this pur- pose in 1517. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of Eng- land surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating to this city will be found under tlie article China. In 1822, a fire destroyed 15,000 houses at Canton ; and an inundation swept away 10,000 houses and more than 1000 persons in October 1833. CAOUTCHOUC, or Indian Rubber, is an elastic resinous substance that exudes by incision from two plants that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, called H/je.via caoutchoitc and Siflwiiia elasLica, and vulgarly called syringe trees. It Avas first brought to Europe from South America, about 1733. — See India Rubber. CAP. The Romans ^vent for many ages, without regular covering for the >ead, and hence the heads of all the ancient statues appear bear. But ai one period the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their slaves it entitled them to freedom. The cap was sometimes used as a mark of infamj'', and in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and in France those who had been bankrupts were for ever after obliged to wear a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is referred to the year 1449 ; the first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of Charles VII. into Rouen, from which time they took the place of chaperons or hoods. A statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 20.^. (40 cts.) nor cap above 2s. U. (66 cts.) 5 Henry VII. 1489. CAPE BRETON, discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the French in 1632. but Avas afterwards restored ; and again taken in 1745 ; and re-taken in 1748. It was finally possessed by the Eu'glish, when the garrison and marines, consisting of 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven ships of the French navy were captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to Eng land at the peace of 1763. CAPE COAST CASTLE, settled by the Portuguese, in 1610: but it soon fell tb the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes, in 1661. All the British settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, de Ruyter, in 1665. This Cape was confirmed to the Enghsh by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE; the geographical and commercial centre of the East Indies : it was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, and was originally called the " Cape of Tempests," and was also named the " Lion of the Sea," and the "Head of Africa." The name was changed by John II., king of Portugal, who augured favorably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached the extremity of Africa. The Cape was doubled, and the paasage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama, Nov. 20, 1497. Planted by the Dutch, 1651. Taken by the English, under admiral Elphinstone and general Clarke, Sept. 16, 1795, and restored at the peace in 1802 ; again taken by sir David Baird and sir Home Popham, Jan. 8, 1806 ; and finally ceded to England in 1814. Emigrants began to arrive here from Britain in March, 1820. The Caffres have made several irruptions on the British settlements here; and they committed dreadful ravages at Grahamstown. in Oct, 1834. Battle between the English and the Boors, Aug. 26, 1848. 236 THE world's progress. [ CAP CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients under tlie name of Gorgades ; but were not visited by the moderns till discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, a. d. 1446. CAPE ST. VINCENT, Battles op. Admiral Rooke, with twenty ships of war, and the Turke3'' fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville, with a force vastly superior to his own, oft" Cape St. Vincent, when twelve English and Dutch men-of-war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or destroyed by the French, June 16, 1693. Battle of Cape St. Vincent, one of the most glorious achievements of the British navy. Sir John Jervis, being- in command of the Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, gave battle to the Spanish fleet of 27 ships of the line ofi" this Cape, and signally defeated the enemy, nearly double in strength, taking four ships, and destroying several others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory Sir John was raised to the English peerage, by the titles of baron Jervis and earl St. Vincent, with a pension of SOOOl. a year. CAPET, House of, the third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count of Paris and Orleans, tlie first of this race (which was called from him Cape- vigians). was raised to the throne for his military valor, and public virtues, A. D. 987. — Henwult. CAPITOL, the principal fortress of ancient Rome, in which a temple was built to Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Capitolinus. The foundation laid by Tar- quinius Prisons. 616 b. c. The Roman Consuls made large donations to this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds weight of gold, of which precious metal the roof was composed, whilst its thresholds were of brass, and its interior was decorated Avith shields of solid silver. De- stroyed by lightning, 188 b. c. ; by fire, a. n. 70. The Capitoline games in- stituted by Domitian, a. d. 86. CAPPADOCIA. This kingdom was fotmded by Pharnaces, 744 b. c. The suc- cessors of Pharnaces are almost wholly unknown, until about the time of Alexander the Great, after whose death Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathes 11. became king of Cappadocia. Pharnaces is declared king - b. c. 744 mg the throne, poisons five of her own His successors are unknown for nearly three centuries. Reign of Ariarathes I. - - - 362 Perdiccas takes Cappadocia, and Aria- rathes is crucified - - - - 322 Defeat of the Parthians - - - 217 Irruption of the Trocmi - - - 164 INIithridates, surnamed Philopator, as- cends the throne - - - 162 Orophernes dethrones Philopator - 161 Attalus assists Philopator, and Oro- phernes dethroned - - - - 154 Philopator joins the Romans against Aristonicus, and perishes in battle - 153 His queen, Laodice, desirous of usurp- children, the sixth and only remaining child is saved, and the queen put to death ..... 153 This young prince reigns as Ari.arathes VII. 153 Gordius assassinates Ariarathes VII. - 97 Ariarathes VIII. assassinated . . 96 Cappadocia declared a free country by the senate of Rome - - - 95 The people elect a new king Ariobar- zanes 1. - - . - - 94 His son, Ariobarzanes II. reigns . 65 He is dethroned by Marc Antony - 38 Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, dies, and bequeathes his .tingdom to. the Roman empire • a. d. 17 CAPRI. The Caprese of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tibe- rius, and for the debaucheries he committed in this once delightful retreat, during the seven last years of his life : it was embellished by him with a sumptuous palace, and most magnificent Avorks. Caj^ri was taken by sir Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806. (!APUCHIN FRIARS. A sort of Franciscans to whom this name Avas giA'en, from their Avearing a great Capuchoii, or coaa'1, Avhich is an odd kind of cap, or hood, sewn to their habit, and hanging doAvn upon their backs. The Capu- chins Avere founded by MatthcAv Baschi, about a. d. 1525. Although the CAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 237 rigors of this order have abated, still the brethren are remarkable for their extreme poverty and privations.— ^s/ie. CAR. Its invention is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, about 1486 b. c. The covered cars {currus arcuati) were in use among the Romans. Triumphal cars Avere introduced by Romulus, according to some ; and by Tarquin the Elder, according to others. CARACCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries, a. d. 1498. The pit)vince declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812, it was visited by a violent convulsion of nature ; thousands of human beings were lost ; rocks and mountains split, and rolled into valleys ; the rivers were blackened or their courses changed ; and many towns swallowed up, and totally destroyed. CARBONARI. A dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for freemasonry, which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror in several states ; they were suppressed, however, by the Austrian govern- ment in Sept. 1820. CARDINALS. Thej^ are properly the council of the pope, aLd constitute the conclave or sacred college. At first they were only the principal priests, or incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this footing they continued till the eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive power of electing the popes till A. D. 1160. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes of the church, by Innocent IV., 1243. Paul II. gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1630 ; some say in 1623. — Du Cange. CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans ; but it is generally supposed that they were invented in France about the year 1390, to amuse Charles VI. during the intervals of a melancholy disorder, which in the end brought him to his grave. — Mezerai, Hist, de France. The universal adoption of an amusement wliich was invented for a fool, is no very favorable specimen of wisdom. — Malkin. Cards are of Spanish, not of French origin. — Daines Barrins^ton. Picquet and all the early games are French. Cards first taxed in England, 1756. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 2s. &d. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were stamped ; but in 1827, the stamp duty was reduced to Is., and 310,854 packs paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs, in the year ending 5th Jan. 1840. — Pari. Reports. ' ARICATURES originated, it is said, with Bufalmaco, an Italian painter: he first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since followed by bad masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330. — De Piles. A new and much improved style of caricatures has latterly set in ; and the productions in this way of a clever but concealed artist, using the initials H. B., aro political satires of considerable humor and merit. — Haydn. CARLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for manj^ ages a strong garrison was kept. The castle, founded in 1092, by William II., was made the prison of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken by the parliament forces in 1645. and by the pretender in 1745. CARLSBAD, Congress of, on the affaii'S of Europe: The popular spirit of emancipation that prevailed in many of the states of Europe against despotic government, led to this congress, in which various resolutions were com(! to, denouncing the press, and liberal opinions, and in Avhich the great conti- nental pov/ers decreed measures to repress the rage for limited monai-chies and free institutions, August 1, 1819. CARMELITES, or White Friars, named from jMount Carmel. and one of the four orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules, appeared in 1141. Their rigor was moderated about 1540. They claim their descent in an nn- 238 THE world's PIIOGRESS. [ CAB interrupted succession from Elijah, Elisha, &c. Mount Carmel Las a monas- tery, and the valley of Sharon lies to the south of the mount, which is 2000 feet high, shaped like a flatted cone, with steep and barren sides : it is often referred to in Jewish histories. " See spicy clouds from lowly Sharon rise, And Carmel's flowery top perfumes the skies." — Pope. CAROLINA, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1550. A body of English, amounting to about 850 persons, landed and settled here in 1667 ; and Caro- lina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. See N. 4" S. Carolina. ("ARPETS They were in use, at least in some kind, as early as the days of Amos, about 800 b. c. — Amos ii 8. Carpets were spread on the ground, on which persons sat who dwelt in tents: but when first used in houses, even in the East, we have no record. In the 12th century carpets were arti- cles of luxury ; and in England, it is mentioned as an instance of Becket's splendid style of living, that his sumptuous apartments were every day in winter strewii with clean straw or hay; about a. d. 1160. The manufacture of woollen carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had quitted France in disgust went to England, and established the carpet manufacture, about 1750. There, as Avith most nations, Persian and Turkey carpets, especially the former, are most prized. The famous Axminster, Wilton, and Kidder- minster mairafacture is the growth of the last hundred j^ears. The manu- fiicture of Kidderminster and Brussels carpets has much advanced within fifteen years, at Lowell, Mass. and Thomsonville Conn. CARRIAGES. The invention of them is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, who jToduced the first chariot about 1486 b. c. Carriages were known in France in the reign of Henry II. a. d. 1547 ; but they were of very rude construction, and rare. They seem to have been known in England in 1555; but not the art of making them. Close carriages of good workmanship began to be used by persons of the highest quality at the close of the sixteenth century. Hen- ry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. Their construction was va- rious: they were first made in England in the i-eign of Elizabeth, and were then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses ; and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. They were first let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre; and hence their name. See Coaches. C'ARTESIAN DOCTRINES. Their author was Rene des Cartes, the French philosopher, who promulgated them in 1647. He was an original thinker: his metaphysical principle "I think, therefore I am," is refuted by Mr. Locke; and his physical principle, that "nothing exists but substance," is disprov- ed by the Newtonian philosophy. His celebrated system abounds in great singularities and originalities; but a spirit of independent thought prevails throughout it. and has contributed to excite the same spirit in others. Des Cartes was the most distinguished philosopher of his time and country. — Dufresnoy. r.^RTHAGE. founded by Dido, or Elissa, sister of Pj'gmalion, king of Tyre, 869 B. c. She fled from that tyrant, ^vho had killed her husband, and took refuge in Africa. Carthage became so jiowerful as to dispute the empire of the world with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars, and the total demo- lition of that city. Taken by Scipio, and burned to the ground, 146 b. c. when the flames raged during seventeen days, and many of the inhabitants perished in them rather than survive the subjection of their country. The Roman senate ordered the walls to be razed, that no trace might remain of this once P'^wcrful republic. — Euscbius. CAS] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 239 CARTHAGE, continued. Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Eyrsa. —Blair - - - b. c. 869 First alliance of the Carthaginians with the Romans - - - - 509 The Carthaginians in Sicily are defeated by Gelo ; the elder Hamilcar perishes. Herodotus, I. vii. - - 480 They send 300,000 men into Sicily - 407 The siege of Syracuse - - - 396 The Carthaginians land in Italy - 379 Their defeat by Timoleon - - 340 They are defeated by Agathocles, and immolate their children on the altar of Hannibal, at the age of nine years, having first made him swear an eter- nal enmity to the Romans - b. c. 237 Hamilcar is killed in battle by the Vet- tones . . - . . 227 Asdrubal is assassinated - - - 220 Hannibal subjects all Spain, as far as thelberus - - - - 219 The second Punic war begins - - 218 First great victory of Hannibal - - 217 Hannibal crosses the Alps, and enters Italy with 100,000 men - - - 217 Great battle of Cannas (which see) - 216 Saturn, thereby to propitiate the gods - 310 : New Carthage taken by Pub. Scipio - 210 The first Punic war begins - -264 1 Asdrubal, brother of Hannibal, defeated The Carthaginians defeated by the Ro- | and slain in Italy - - - 207 mans in a naval engagement - - 260 i The Carthaginians expelled Spain - - 206 Xantippus defeats Regulus - - 255 1 Scipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege Re^ulus is crucified - - - - 256 ! to Utica - - - - - 204 Asdrubal defeated by Metellus - - 251 j Hannibal recalled from ;(aly - - 203 Romans defeated be'fore LilybcBum - 250 i Great battle of Zama (i.*/n'c7i see) -202 End of the first Punic war - - 241 1 An ignominious peace ends the second War between the Carthaginians and I Punic war - . . . 201 African mercenaries - - - 241 i The third Punic war begins - - 149 Hamilcar Barcas is sent into Spain ; he Destructionof Carthage, which is burned takes with him his son, the famous i to the ground - ' - - - 146 CARTHAGENA. or New Carthage, in Spain; built by Asiirnbal, the Ca. tba-' ginian general, 227 b. c. From licre Hannibal set out in his memorable march to invade Italy, crossing the Alps, 217 b. c. Carthagena, in Colombia, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1584. It was pillaged by the French of £1,200,000 in 1697 ; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon in 1740-1, but he was obliged, though he took the forts, to raise the siege. CARTHUSIANS. A religious order founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired from the converse of the world, in 1084, to Chartreuse, in the mountains of Dauphine. Their rules were formed by Basil VII., general of the order, and were peculiarly distinguished for their austerity. The monks could not leave their cells, nor speak, without express leave; and their clothing was cwo hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, the principal monastery, from which the order is named. — Auberti; Mirai Origines Cartlms. CARTOONS OF RAPHAEL. They were designed in the chambers of the Va- tican, under Juhus II. and Leo X.. about 1510 to 1515. The seven of them that are preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of England, for Hampton-court palace, in 1629. These matchless works repre- sent — 1, The miraculous draught of Fishes; 2, the Charge to Peter; 3, Peter and John healing the Lame at the gate of the Temple ; 4, the Death of Ana- nias; 5, Elymas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness; 6, the Sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas, by the people of Lystra ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. CARVING. We have scriptural authority for its early introduction. See Ex- odiis xxxi. The art of carving is first mentioned in profane history 772 b. c. and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in Avood, next in stone, and s.fterwards in marble and brass. Dipoenus and Scyllis were eminent carvers and sculptors, and opened a school of statuary, 568 b. c. — Pliny. See arti- cle Sculptvres. Carvers of meat, called by the Greeks deribitarcs, are mention- ed by Homer. (.'ASHMERE SHAWLS. The district from whence come these costly shawls is described as being -the happy valley, and a paradise in perpetual spring." The true Cashmere shawls can be manufactured of no other wool than that Thibet. They were first brought to England in 1666 ; but they were well imitated by the spinning at Bradforcl and the looms of Hudderslield 240 THE world's progress. [ CAT Shawls for the omrahs, of the Thibetian wool, cost 150 rupees each, about the year 1650. — Bernier. CASTEL NUOVO, Battle of. The Russians defeated by the French army, Sept. 29, 1806. Castel Nuovo has several times sufiered under the dreadful visitation of earthquakes : in the great earthquake which convulsed all Na- ples and Sicily, in 1783, this town was almost obliterated. It is recorded that an inhabitant of Castel Nuovo, being on a hill at no great distance, looking back, saw no remains»of the town, but only a black smoke ; 4000 persons perished; and in Sicity and Naples, more than 40,000. CASTIGLIONE, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories of the French arms, under genei-al Bonaparte, against the main ai'my of the Austrians, commanded by general Wurmser : the battle lasted five days successively, from the 2d to the 6th Julj'', 1796. Bonaparte stated the enemy's loss in this obstinate conflict at 70 field-pieces, all his caissons, between 12 and 15,- 000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded. CASTILE. The most powerful government of the Goths was established here about A. D. 800. Ferdinand, count of Castile, assumed the title of king in 1020. Ferdinand of Arragon married Isabella of Castile, and nearly the whole of the Christian dominions in Spain were united in one monarchy, 1474. See Arragon and Spain. CASTLES. Anciently British castles were tall houses, strongly fortified, and built on the tops of hills, with gates and walls. The castle of the Anglo Saxon was a tower-keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight oi steps in front. There were eleven hundred castles built in England by the nobles, by permission of king Stephen, a. d. 11-35, and 1154: most of these were demolished by Henry II., who deprived the barons of such i^ossessions, on his accession, in 1154. CATACOMBS; the early depositories of. the dead. The name first denoted the tombs of Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, and afterwards the burial-places of all martyrs. They were numerous in Egypt ; and Belzoni, in 1815 and 1818, explored many catacombs both in that country and Thebes, built 3000 j^ears ago: among others, a chef-d'amrre of ancient sculpture, the temple of Psam- maticus the Powerful, whose sarcophagus, formed of the finest oriental alabaster, exquisitely sculptured, he brought to England. Many other na- tions had their catacombs ; there were some of great extent at Rome. The Parisian catacombs were projected a. d. 1777. The bodies found in cata- combs, especiallj 'hose of Egjqjt, are called mummies. See Embalming. CATANIA, OR C ATANE A . At the foot of mount Etna. Founded by a colony from Chalcis, 753 b. c. Ceres had a teiuple here, in which none but women were permitted to appear. This ancient city is remarkable for the dreadful overthrows to which it has been subjected at various times from its vicinity to Etna, which has discharged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of lava four miles broad and fift}' feet deep, advancing at the rate of seven miles in a day. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna, in 1669. By an earthquake which happened in 1693, Catania was nearly swal- lowed up, and in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried in the ruins of the city. An earthquake did great damage, and a number of i^ersons perished here, Feb. 22, 1817. CATAPHRYGIANS. A sect of heretics, so called because they were Phry- gians, who followed the errors of Montanus. They made up the bread of the eucharist with the blood of infants, whom they pricked to death with needles, and then looked upon them as martyrs. — Pardon. CATAPULTS. Ancient military engines for throwing stones of immense weight, darts, and arrows ; invented by Dionysius-. 399 b.'c. — Joxphta. They CAUJ PICTIONARY OF DATES. 241 were capable of throwing darts and javelins of four and five yards length.—' Pardon. CATHOLIC MAJESTY. The title of Catholic was first given by pope Gre- goiy III. to Alphonsus I. of Spain, who was thereupon surnamed the Catho- lic; A. D. 739. The title of Catholic was also given to Ferdinand V., 1474. See Spain. CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Sergius L. Catiline, a Roman of noble family, having squandered away his fortune by his debaucheries and extravagauce, and having been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated tlie ruin cf his country, and conspired with many of the most illustrious of the Romans, as dissolute as himself, to extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and aei- Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero, whom he had resolved to murder ; and on seeing five of his accomplices arrested, he retired to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling an army. Cicero punished the condemned conspirators at home, while Petreius attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined forces, and routed them, and the conspir- ator was killed in the engagement, about the middle of IDecember, 63 b. c. His character has been branded Avith the foulest infamy, and to the violence he offered to a vestal, he added the murder of his own brother ; and it is said that he and his associates drank human blood to render their oaths more firm and inviolable. — Sallust. C ATO, SUICIDE OF. Termed as the " era destructive of the liberties of Rome." Cato, the Roman patriot and philosopher, considered freedom as that which alone " sustains the name and dignity of man:" imable to survive the inde- pendence of his country, he stabbed himself at Utica. By this rash act of suicide, independently of all moral considerations, Cato carried his patriot- ism to the highest degree of political frensy ; for Cato, dead, could be of no use to his country ; but had he preserved his life, his counsels might have moderated Ctesar's ambition, and have given a different turn to public affairs. Feb. 5, 45 b. c. — Montesquieu. CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. The mysterious plot of a gang of low and desperate politicians, whose object was the assassination of the ministers of the crown, with a view to other sanguinary and indiscriminate outrages, and the overthrow of the government : tlie conspirators were arrested Feb. 23, 1820 ; and Thistlewood and his four principal associates. Brunt, Davison, Ings, and Tidd, after a trial commenced on April 17th, which ended in their CO :viction, were executed according to the then horrid manner of traitors, on May 1, following. — Haydn. CAUCASUS. A mountain of immense height, a continuation of the ridge of Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, inhabited anciently by various savage nations who lived upon the wild fruits of the earth, it was covered with snow in some parts, and in others was variegated with fruitful orchards and plantations : its people were at one time supposed to gather gold on the shores of their rivulets, but they afterwards lived with- out making use of money. Prometheus was tied on the top of Caucasus by Jupiter, and continually devoured by vultures, according to ancient authoi-s 1548 B. c. The passes near the mountain were called Caucasicc Porta, an(' it is supposed that through them the Sarmatians, called Huns, ma^e their way, when they invaded the provinces of Rome, a. d. 447. — Strabo. Hera- dotus. CAUSTIC IN PAINTING. The branch of the art so called is a method of burning the colors into wood or ivory. Gausias, a painter of Sicyon, was the inventor of this ijrocess. He made a beautiful painting of his mistress Glycere, whom he represented as sifting on tlie ground, and making gar- liinds of flowers; and from this circumstance the picture, which was 11 242 THE world's progress. [ CEM bought afterwards by Lucullus for two talents, received the name of Stepha- noplocon, 335 b. c. — Plinii Hist. Nat. CAVALIERS. This appellation was given as a party name in England to those who espoused the cause of the king during the unhappy war which brought Charles I. to the scaffold. They were so called in opposition to the Round- heads, or friends of the parliament, between 1642 and 1649. — Hume. TAVALRY. Of the ancient nations the Romans were the most celebrated for their cavalry, and for its discipline and eflSciency. Attached to each of the Roman legions was a body of horse 300 strong, iu ten turmte ; the com- mander was always a veteran, and chosen for his exijcrience and valor. In the early ages, the Persians brought the greatest force of cavalry into the field: they had 10,000 horse at the battle of Marathon, 490 b. c. : and 10,000 Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 b. c. — Plutarch. CAYENNE. First settled by the French in 1625, but they left it in 1654, It was afterwards successively in the hands of the English, French, and Dutch. These last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was restored to the French at the peace in 1814. In this settlement is produced the capsicum baccalum, or cayenne pepper, so esteemed in Europe. wELESTIAL GLOBE. A celestial sphere was brought to Greece from Egypt, 368 B. c. A planetarixim was constructed by Archimedes before 212 b. c. The celestial globe was divided into constellations after the age of Perseus. The great celestial globe of Gottorp, planned after a design of Tycho Brache, and erected at the expense of the duke of Holstein, was eleven feet in diameter : and that at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. Long, is eighteen feet. See Globes. f 'ELESTINS. A religious order of monks, reformed from the Bernardins by pope Celestine V. in 1294. The order of nuns was instittited about the same period. CELIBACY, and the monastic life, preached by St. Anthony in Egypt, about A. D. 305. The early converts to this doctrine lived in caves and desolate places till regular monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected at the council of Nice, a. d. 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in 692. The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of celibacy in 1073. Its observance was finally established by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. Among the illustrious philosophers of antiquity, the follow- ing were imfriendly to matrimony: — Plato, Pythagoras, Epicurus, Bion, Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus, and IDiogenes ; and the folloAving among the moderns : — Newton, Locke, Boyle, Gibbon, Hume, Adam Smith, Harvey, Leibnitz, Bayle, Hobbes, HamiDden, sir F. Drake, earl of Essex, Pitt, Michael Angelo, the three Caraccis, sir Joshua Reynolds, Haydn, Handel, Wolsey, Pascal, Fenelon, Pope, Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins, Thompson, and Jeremy Bentham. CEMETERIES. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding all their dead in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow pre- cincts of a place reputed sacred, much less of amassing them in the bosom of their fanes and temples. The burying places of the Greeks and Romans were at a distance from their towns ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in gardens — John xix. 41 ; and in fields, and among rocks and mountains — Matthew xxvii, 60. The present practice was introduced by the Romish clergy, who pretended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privileges by being interred in consecrated ground. The burying-places of the Turks are hand- some and agreeable, and it is owing chiefly to the many fine plants that grow in them, and which they carefully place over their dead. It is only CEY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 243 within a very few years tliat public cemeteries have been formed in these countries, although the crowded state of our many churchyards, and the danger to health of burial-places in the midst of dense populations, called for some similar institutions to that of the celebrated Phre la Chaise at Paris. Six public cemeteries have been recently opened in London suburbs. The inclosed area of each of these cemeteries is planted and laid out in walks after the manner of Pere la Chaise.* There are similar ceme- teries in Manchester, Liverpool, and other towns ; and in Ireland, at Cork, Dublin, &c. Some of the rural cemeteries of the United States, especially that at Mount Auburn, near Boston (opened 1831), Laurel Hill, Philadelphia (183-), and Greenwood, near New- York (1839), are far more beautiful in their natural features than any of those near London or Paris. CENSORS. Roman magistrates, whose duty it was to survey and rate, and correct the manners of the people ; their power was also extended over private families, and they restrained extravagance. The two first censors were appointed 443 b. c. The office was abolished by the emperors. CENSUS. In the Roman polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and personal effects, delivered to the government upon oath every five years : established by Servius Tullius, 566 b. c. — Legal Polity of t/ie Roman State. In England the census, formerly not periodical, is now taken at decennial periods, of which the last were the years 1811, 1821, and 1831 ; and the new census, 1841. CENSUS OP THE UNITED STATES, has been taken at six different periods, viz. 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1030, and 1840. The seventh census is taken this year, 1850. — See Population. CENTURION. The captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Ro- man legion, which consisted of 100' men, and was called a centuria. He was distinguished by a branch of vine which he carried in his hand. By the Roman census, each hundred of the people was called a centuria, 566 e. c. CENTURY. The method of compirting by centuries was first generally observed in ecclesiastical history, and commenced from the time of our Redeemer's incarnation, a. d. 1. It is a period that is particularly regarded by church historians. — Pardon. CERES. This planet, which is only 160 miles in diameter, was discovered" by M. Piazzi, astronomer royal at Palermo, on the 1st. of Jan. 1801 . To the naked eye it is not visible, nor will glasses of a very high magnifying power show it with a distinctly defined diameter. Pallas, discovered by Dr. Olbers, is still smaller. CEYLON. The natives claim for this island the seat of paradise ; it was dis- covered by the Portuguese a. d. 1505 ; but it was known to the Romans in the time of Claudius, a. d. 41. The capital, Colombo, was taken by the Hollanders in 1603 ; and was recovered by the Portuguese in 1621. The Dutch again took it in 1656. A large portion of the country was taken by the British in 1782, but was restored the next year. The Dutch settlements ■ Pere la Chaise takes its name from a French Jesuit, who was a favorite of Louis XIV., and .'lis confessor. He died in 1709 ; and the site of his house and grounds at Paris is now occupied by this beautiful cemetery. It was a practice of high antiquity to plant herbs and flowers about the graves of the dead. The women in Egypt go weekly to pray and weep at the sepulchres, .and it is then usual to throw a sort of herb (our sweet-basil) upon the tombs: which in Asia Minor, and Turkey in Europe, are also adorned either with the leaves of the palin-tree, boughs of myrtle, or cypresses planted at the head and feet. Between some of the tombs is placed a chest of ornamentel stone, tilled with earth, in which are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. These are regularly cul- tivated by females, who assemble in croups for that duty. At Aleppo, there grow many mynlo?. which they diligently propagate, becau=!e they are be-uuiful, and remain long green, to put 'about their graves.— /lfa//e/; C/iandler ; Butler. 244 THE world's PROGKESS. [ CHa were seized by the British; Trincomalee Aug. 26, 1795, and Jaffnapatam, in Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred, or imprisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sove- reignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815. CILERONEA, Battles of. The Athenians are defeated by the Boeotians, and Tolmidas, their general, is slain, 447 b. c. Battle of Chferonea, in which Greece lost its liberty to Philip, 32,000 Macedonians defeating the confed- erate army of Thebans and Athenians of 30,000, Aug. 2, 338 b. c. Battle of Chasronea in which Arclielaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, is defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians are slain, 86 b. c. CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is saiu to be that at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top of one mountain to the top of another. The honor of constructing the tirst chain-bridge on a grand scale belongs to Mr. Telford, who commenced the chain-suspension bridge over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of Wales, July 1818. — See Menai Bridge. CHAIN-CABLES, PUMPS, and SHOT. Iron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a people intimately connected with the BelgcB of Britain in the time of Cfesar, 55 b. c. These cables came into modern use, and generally in the royal navy of England, in 1812. Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an enemy's ships, was invented by the Dutch admiral De Witt, in 1666. Chain- pumps were first used on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787. CHAISE OR CALASH. The invention of the chaise, which is described as a light and open vehicle, is ascribed to Augustus Csesar, about a. d. 7. Aure- lius Victor mentions that the use of post-chaises was introduced by Trajati, about A. D. 100. The chariot was in use fifteen centuries before. See Chariot. CHALDEAN REGISTERS. Registers of celestial observations were commenced 2234 B. c, and were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 331 B. c, being a period of 1903 years. These registers were sent by Callis- thenes to Aristotle. Chaldean Characters : the Bible was transcribed from the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra. CHAMP DE MARS; an open square space in front of the Military School at Paris, with artificial embankments raised on each side, extending nearly to the r'ver Seine, with an area sufficient to contain a million of people. Plere was held, on the 14th July, 1790, the famous " federation," or solemnity of .swearing fidelity to the " jjatriot king" and new constitution. In the even- ing great rejoicings followed the pi'oceedings ; public balls were given by the municipality in the Champs Elysecs and elsewhere, and Paris was illumi- nated throughout. 1791, July 17, a great meeting of citizens and others held here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the " altar of the country" — left standing for some time afterwards — praying for the enforced abdication of Louis XVI. Another new constitution sworn to here, under the eye of Bonaparte, May 1, 1815, a ceremony called the Champ de Mai. CHAMPION OF ENGLAND. The championship was instituted at the corona- tion of Richard II. 1377. At the coronations of English kings the champion still rides completely armed into Westminster-hall, and challenges any one that would deny their title to the crown. The championship is hereditary in the Dymocke family. CHANCELLORS, LORD HIGH, of ENGLAND. The Lord Chancellor ranks after the princes of the Blood Royal as the first lay subject. Formerly, the ofiSce was conferred upon some dignified clergyman. Maurice, afterwards bishop of London, was created chancellor in 1067. The first personage who cha] PICTiOiMARY OF DATKS. 245 was qualified by great legal education, and who decided causes upon his own judgment, was Sir Thomas More, in 1530, before which time the office was more that of a high state functionary than the president of a court of justice. Sir Christopher Hatton, who was appointed chancellor in 1587, was very ignorant, on which account the first reference was made to a master in 1588, In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission ; but it was not until 1813 that the separate and co-existent office of Vice- Chancello?- was permanently held. LORD CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND, (From the time of' Cardinal Wolsey.) 1515 Cardinal Wolsey. 1530 Sir Thomas More (beheaded). 1533 Sir Thomas Audley. 1534 Thomas, bishop of Ely. 1545 Lord Wriothesley. 15J7 Lord St. Jolm. 1547' Lord Rich. 1551 Bishop of Ely again. 1551 Sir Nich. lia.ve, Lord Keeper. 1(353 Bishop of Winchester. 1555 Archbishop of York. 1559 Sir Nicholas Bacon. 1579 Sir Thomas Bromley. 15S7 Sir Christopher Hatton. 1.592 Sir John Packering. 1596 Sir Thomas Egerlon. 1616 Sir Francis Bacon, afterwards lord Verulam. 1625 Sir Thomas Coventry. 1639 Sir John Finch. 1640 Sir Edward Littleton, afterwards lord Littleton. 1645 Sir Richard Lane. 1648 In commission. 1653 Sir Edward Herbert. 1658 Sir Edward Hyde, aftericards earl of Clarendon. 1667 Sir Orlando Bridgeman, L. K. 1672 Earl of Shaflesbmy. 1673 Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of Nottingham. 1682 Lord Guilford, L. K. 1685 Sir George Jeffreys, lord Jeffreys. 1690 In commission. 1690 Sir John Trevor, Sir William Rawlin- son, and Sir Geo. Hutchins, L. K. \ 1692 Sir John Somers, afterwards lord Somers. 1702 Sir Nathan Wright, L. K. I 1705 Lord Cowper, L. K. ! 1710 In commission. j 1713 Lord Harcourt. 1714 Lord Cowper again. 1718 In commission. 1718 Viscount Parker, afterwards earl of Macclesfield. I 1725 Sir Peter King, L. K. afterwards lord King. 1733 Lord Talbot. 1737 Philip, lord Hardwicke. 1761 Sir Robert Henley, aftericards lord Henley, and earl of Northington. 1766 Charles Pratt, lord Camden. 1770 Hon. Chas. Yorke, Jan. 18 ; died next day. 1770 In commission. 1771 Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley, succeed- ed as earl Bathurst. 1778 Lord Thurlow. 1783 Lord Loughborough and others April 9 - Dec. 23 (in comviission) - 1-83 Lord Thurlow again - 1792 In commission. 1793 Lord Loughborough again. 1801 Lord Eldon. - - April 14 1806 Lord Erskine. - - Feb. 7 1807 Lord Eldon again. - March 25 1827 Lord Lyndhurst. - - April 20 1830 Lord Brougham. - Nov. 22 1834 Lord Lyndhurst again • Nov. 14 1835 In commission. 1836 Lord Cottenham. Jan. 16 Aug. 31 Julys 1841 Lord Lyndhurst agam. ' 1846 Lord Cottenham agaiii CHANCELLOR op IRELAND, LORD HIGH. The earliest nomination was by Richard I. a. d. 1186, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The office of vice-chancellor was known in Ireland, but not as a distinct appoint- ment, in the reign of Henry III., GefiTrey Turville, archdeacon of Dublin, being so named, 1232. CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND. In the laws of Malcolm II. who reigned A. D. 1004, this officer is thus mentioned: "The Chancellar sal at al tymes assist the king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor of the rest of the nobility. The Chancellar sail be ludgit near unto the kingis Grace, for keiping of his bodie, and the seill, and that he maybe readie, baith day and nicht, at the kingis command." — Sir James Balfour. James, earl of Seafield, afterwards Findlater, was the last lord high" Chancellor of Scotland, the office having been abolished in 1708. — Scott. CHANCERY, COURT of. Instituted as early as a. d. 605. Settled upon a better footing by William I., in imi.—Stoice. This court had its origin in the desire to render justice complete, and to moderate the rigor of other courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to or against infants, notwithstanding their minority ; and to or against married 246 THE world's progress. I CHA women, notwithstanding tlieiv coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confidence, for which there is no redress at common law, are relievable here. — Blackstone. EFFECTS OF SUITORS LODGED IN COURT AT THE FOLLOWING DECENNIAL PERIODS. 1770 - Amount locteed - £.5,300,000 I 1810 - Amount lodged - £26,212,000 1780 - ditto - - 7,741,000 | 1820 - ditto - - 34,208,785 1790 - - ditto - 13.338,000 | 1830 - - ditto - 38,886,135 1800 - ditto - - 19;8.34,000 | 1840 - ditto - - 39,772,746 There are about 10,000 accounts. By the last official returns the number of committals for contempt was ninety-six persons in three years. — Pari. Returns. CHANTRY. A chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the souls of the donors. — Skakspeare. First mentioned in tlie commencement of the seventh century, Avhen Gregory the great established schools of chant- ers. — See Chayithig. CHAOS. A rude and shapeless mass of matter, and confused assemblage of inactive elements which, as the poets suppose, pre-existed the formation of the world, and from which the universe was formed by the hand and power of a superior being. Thi.s doctrine was first advanced by Hesiod, from Avhom the succeeding poets have copied it ; and it is probable that it was obscurely drawn from the account of Moses, by being copied from the annals of San- choniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to the siege of Ti"oy in 1193 b. c. See Geology. CHARIOTS. The invention of chariots, and the manner of harnessing horses to draw them, is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 b. c. Chariot racing was one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian officer, mentioned in Acts viii. 27, 28, 31, was, it is supposed, something in the form of our modern chaise with four wheels. Csesar relates that Cassi- belanus, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 war chariots about his person. The chariots of the ancients were like our phastons, and drawn by one horse. See Carriages, Coaches, 4'C. CHARITIES in the United States. — See Benevolence. In England there are tens of thousands of charit-able foundations ; and the charity commission reported to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain amounted to £1,500,000 annually, in 1840. — Pari. Hep. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin. CHARLESTON, S. C, was first settled in 1680. In 1690 a colony of French refugees, exiled in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, settled in Carolina, and some of them in Charleston : from them are de- scended many of the most respectable of the inhabitants. At the close of 1779, the city was taken by the British, and held by them until ]May follow- ing. Population in 1790, 16,359 ; in 1810, 24,711 ; in 1820, 24.780 ; in 1830, 30,289; in 1840, 29,261— (a decrease of 1,028 in ten years) including 14,673 slaves. CHARTERS op RIGHTS. The first charters of rights granted by the kings of England to their subjects, were by Edward the Confessor, and by Henry }. A. D. 1100. The famoiis bulwark of English liberty, known as Magjia Chart.c or the great charter, was granted to the barons by king John, June 15, 1215. The rights and privileges granted bj^ this charter were renewed and ratified by Henry III. in 1224, et seq. Sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it had been confirmed above thirty times. Charters to corporations were of frequent grant from the reign of William I. See Magna Charta. CHARTERS, to the American colonies. That to Virginia granted by James I., 1606 ; to Massachusetts, by the same, 1020, but withdrawn by Charles II., CHE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 247 1684 ; that granted to Connecticixt by Charles II., 1665, was concealed in an aik to preserve it from the tyrannical Andros. General suppression of charter governments in America, 1688. CHARTER PARTY. The same species of deed or agreement as the ancient chirograph. A covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating to the ship and cargo. It was first used in England in the reign of Henry in., about 1243. CHARTISTS. The agitators for radical political reforms in England were so called from the Charter which they drew up and urged for adoption as th" law of the land, 1838. The petition for it, signed by about 5,000,000 names. Proclamation against tumultuous assemblies of the Chartists, Dec. 12, 1838. Chartist attack on Newport, Wales, headed by John Frost, an ex-magistrate, defeated, Nov. 4, 1839. Frost and others taken prisoner, tried, and trans- ported. Another Chartist demonstration on Kennington Common, near London, exciting great alarm (chiefly because of the recent revolution in Paris), April 10, 1848. The six chief demands of the Chartists are : 1. Uni- versal suifrage. 2. Vote by ballot. 3. No property qualification. 4. Annual parliaments. 5. Payment of members. 6. Equal electoral districts. CHARTS. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical and celes- tial charts, about 570 b. c. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by Bartholomew Columbus, with a view to illustrate his brother's theory respect- ing a western continent, 1489. Mercator's chartj in which the world is taken as a plane, was drawn, 1556. CHARYBDIS, a dangerous whirlpool on the coast of Sicily, opposite another whirlpool called Scylla, on the coast of Italy. It was very dangerous to sail- ors, and it proved fatal to part of the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation of the Charybdis is not discovered by the moderns, as no whirlpool suffi- ciently tremendous is now found to coiTCspond to the description of the ancients. The words Incidit in Scijllam qui vult vitare Charybdim, became a proverb, to show that in our eagerness to avoid an evil, we fall into a greater. CHANTING, Chanting the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from the pa- gan ceremonies of the Romans, about a. d. 350. — Lenglet. Chanting in churches was introduced into the Roman Catholic service in 602, by Gregory the Great, who established schools of chanters, and corrected the church song. — Dufrcsnoy. CHEATS. The convicted cheat punishable by pillory (since abolished), impri- sonment, and fine, 1 Hawk. L. C. 188. A rigorous statute was enacted against cheats, 33 Henry VIII. 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning at any time more than 10^., or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous, and wei-e to .suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 1711. — Black- stone's Comm. CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned the process of making cheese from the Romans (who brought many useful arts with them) about the Christian ei'a. Cheese is made by almost all nations. Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire, make vast quantities ; the last alone, annu- ally, about 31,000 tons. The Cheddar of Somerset, and Stilton of Hunting- don, are as much esteemed as the cheese of Parma, and Gruyere of Switz- erland. In 1840 England imported, chiefly from the U. States, for home use, a quantity exceeding 10,000 tons. CHEMISTRY and DISTILLING. Introduced into Europe by the Spanish Moors, about a. d. 1150; they had learned them from the African Moors, and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt, they had, in very early ages, ex- tracted salts from their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine ; l!d4S THE world's ritOGRESS. [ CHI and embalming- Avas a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an early acquaintance Avith chemistry ; but the fathers of true chemical philo- sophy were of our own country; Bacon, Boyle, Hooke, Mayow, NeAvton, &c. The modern character of chemistry was formed under Beecher and Stahl, who perceived the connection of the atmosphere and the gases, with the production of phenomena. Bergman and Scheele were cotemporary with Priestley in England, and Lavosier in France ; then followed Thomson, Davy, and other distinguished men. CHERRIES. They were brought from Pontus, to Lucullus, to Rome, about 70 B. c. Apricots from Epirus : peaches from Persia; the finest ph;ms from Damascus and Armenia; pears and figs from Greece and EgjqDt; citrons from Media; and pomegranates from Carthage; 114 b. c. The cherry tree was first planted in Britain, it is said, about a. d. 100. Fine kinds were brought from Flanders, and planted in Kent, and with such success that an orchard of thirty-two acres produced in one year jCIOOO, a. d. 1540. See Gardening. CHESAPEAKE, Battle of. At the mouth of the bay of that name, between the British admiral Greaves, and the French admiral De Grasse, with the naval force sent to assist the United States ; the former was obliged to retire, 1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were blockaded by a British fleet in 1812. The Chesapeake American frigate struck to the Shaniwn British frigate, commanded by captain Broke, after a severe action, June 2, 181B. CHESS, Game of. Invented, according to some authorities, 680 b. c; and ac- cording to others, in the fifth centurj' of our era. The learned Hyde and Sir William Jones concur in stating (as do most writers on the subject) that the origin of chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess-player Avas exhibited in England in 1769. CHEVALIER DEON. This extraordinary personage, who had been acting in a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and who was for some time a minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was proved upon a trial had in the King's Bench, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex, to be ajvoman, July 1, 1777. He subsequently wore female attire for many years; yet at his death, in London, in 1810, it was manifest, by the dissection of his body, and other undoubted evidence, that he was of the male sex. — Bio. Die. CHILDREN. Most of the ancient nations had the unnatural custom of expos- ing their infants — the Egyptians on the banks of rivers, and the Greeks on highways — when they could not support or educate them; in such cases they were taken care of, and humanely protected by the state. The custom which long previously existed of English parents selling their children to the Irish for slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017. — Mat. Paris. At Darien, it was the practice when a widow died, to bury with her, in the same grave, such of her children as were unable, from their tender years, to take care of themselves. And in some parts of China, su- perstition has lent her hand to sanction the horrid deed of offering infants to the spirit of an adjoining river, first attaching a gourd to their necks to prevent them from immediately droAvning. CHILI. Discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru, a. d. 1535. Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, and the natives, regarding the Span- iards on their first visit as allied to the DiA'inity, collected for them gold and silver, amounting to 290,000 ducats, a present which led to the subsequent cruelties and rapacity of the iuA'aders. Chili was subdued, but not Avholly, in 1546. The Chilians fought for liberty at A'arious times, and Avith A^arious success, until 1817, when, by the decisive victory gained by San Martin over CHI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 249 the royal forces, Feb. 12, in that year, the province was released from its op- pressors, and declared independent. CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An estate of the crown in England, on the chain of chalk hills that pass from east to west through the middle of Bucking- hamshire, the stewardship Avhereof is a nominal office, conferred on members of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an office under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again returned by his constituents : this custom has existed time immemorial. ' 'HIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chim- neys, which were first introduced into these countries in a. d. 1200, when they were confined to the kitchen and large hall. The family sat round the stove, the funnel of which passed through the ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys were general in domestic architecture in 1310. The ancients made use of stoves, although Octavio Ferrari affirms that chimneys were in use among them ; but this is disputed. CHINA. This empire is very ancient, and the Chinese assert that it existed many thousands of years before Noah's flood : but it is allowed by some author- ities to have commenced about 2500 years before the birth of Chri&t. By others it is said to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of the Bible, 2240 b. g. We are told that the Chinese knew the periods of the sun, moon, and planets, and were acute astronomers, in the reign of Yao, which is set down 2857 b. c. But dates cannot be relied upon until towards the close of the seventh century, b. c. when the history of China becomes more distinct. In the battle between Phraates and the Scythians 129 b. c, the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the countries on the coasts of the Caspian, which is their first appearance in history. — Lev.glet. Jesuit missionaries endeavor to esta- blish Christianity - - - - 1692 The .Jesuits are expelled through their own misconduct - - - 1724 ENGLISH INTBRCOUKSE WITH CHINA. Tlie Chinese state their first cycle to have commenced - - b. c 2700 Tiie first of the 22 Chinese dynasties commenced - - . . 2207 In the history of China, the first dates whicii are fixed to his narrative, by Se-ma-tsien, begin - - - 651 Confucius, the father of the Chinese philosophers, born - - - 551 Stupendous wall of China completed - 211 The dynasty of Han - - - - 206 Literature find the art of printing encou- raged 202 Religion of Ta tse commenced • - 15 Religion of the .'bllowers of Fo, com- menced about - - A. D. 60 Embassy from Rome ■ - - 166 Nankin becomes the capital - - 420 The atheistical philosopher, Fan-Shin, flourishes .... 449 Tlie Nestorian Christians permitted to preach their doctrines - - - 635 They are proscribed, and extirpated - 845 The seat of the imperial government is transferred to Pekin - - • 1260 Wonderful canal, called the Yn Ho, completed about - - - 1400 Euc;' ^ans first arrive at Canton - 1517 Macao is granted as a settlement to the Portuguese - - - - 1536 .Jesuit missionaries are sent by the pope from Rome .... 1575 The country is conquered by the East- em Tartars, who establish the pre- sent reigning house - - - 1644 An earthquake throuEhout China buries 300,000 persons ui Pekin alone - 1662 11* Earl Macartney's embassy: he leaves England - - Sept. 26, 1792 He is ordered to depart from Pekin, Oct. 7, 1793 Edict against Christianity - - 1812 Lord Amherst's embassy; he leaves England - - - Feb. 8, 1816 [His lordship failed in the objects of his mission, having refused to make the prostration of ihe kou-tou, lest he should thereby compromise the ma- jesty of England.] The exclusive rights of the East India Company cease - April 22, 1834 Lord Napier arrives at Macao, to super- intend British commerce - July 15, 1834 Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese, Nov. 7, 1831 Commissioner Lin issues an edict for the seizure of opiuin - March 18, 1839 British and otlier residents forbidden to leave Canton - - March 19, 1839 The factories surrounded, and outrages committed - - March 24, 1839 The opium destroyed during several days by the Chinese - June 3, 1839 The British trade with China ceases, by an edict of the emperor, and the last servant of the company leaves the country this day - - Dec. 6, 1839 Edict of the emperor interdicting all trade and intercourse with England for ever - - - Jan. 5, 1840 250 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [cm CHINA, continued. Blockade of Canton by a British fleet of 15 sail and several war steamers, hav- ing 4,000 troops on board, by orders from Sir Gordon Bremer - June 28, 1810 Seizure of Capt. Anstruther - Sept. 16, 1840 Lin deprived of his authority, and finally degraded; Keshin appointed imperial commissioner - Sept. 16, 1840 Capt. Elliott declares a truce with the Chinese - - - Nov. 6, 1840 Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great Britain, and 6,000,0(10 dollars agreed to be paid within ten days to the British authorities - - - Jan. '20, 1841 Imperial edict from Pekin rejecting the conditions of the treaty made by Ke- shin - - - Feb. 11, 1841 Hostilities are in consequence resumed against the Chinese - - Feb. 2-3, 1841 Chusan evacuated - - Feb. 24, 1841 Rewards proclaimed at Canton for the bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 50,000 dollars to be given for i-ing- leaders and chiefs - Feb. 23, 1841 Bogue Forts taken by Sir Gordon Bre- mer ; admiral Kvvan killed, and 459 guns captured - - Feb. 26, 1841 Sir Hugh Gough takes the command of the army - - March 2, 1841 Heights behind Canton taken, and 94 guns captured • - May 25, 1841 The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars, of which 5,000,000 are paid dowjt, and hostilities cease - May 31, 1841 British trade re-opened - July 16, 1341 Arrival at Macao of Sir Henry Pottin- ger, who, as plenipotentiary, pro- claims the objects of his mission ; Capt. Elliott superseded - Aug. 10, 1841 Amoy taken, and 296 guns found and destroyed - - Aug. 27, 1841 The Bogue forts destroyed - Sept. 14, 1841 The city of Tinghae taken, 136 guns captured, and the island of Chusan re-occupied by the British - Oct. 1, 1841 Chin-hae taken, with 157 guns, many of them brass - - Oct. 10, 1841 Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, on board the Cornwallis by sir Henry Pottinger for England, and Keying Elepoo and Neu-Kien on the part of the Chinese emperor - Aug. 29, 1&15 CONDITIONS OF THE TREATY. Lasting peace and friendship between the two empires. China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, part forthwith and the remainder within three years. The ports of Canton, Amoy, Poo-choo- foo, Ning-po, and Shan^-hae to be thrown open to the British. Consuls to reside at these cities. Tarifis of import and export to be esta- blished, ifec. &c. The emperor signifies his assent to the conditions - - Sept. 8, 1842 Mr. Davis succeeds Sir Henry Pottinger as British commissioner • Feb. 16, 1844 Bogue Forts captured by Gen. Aguilar and Sir John Davis, 836 pieces ol' ar- tillery seized and spiked - April 5, 1847 Treaty between China and the Uni- ted States negotiated by Caleb Cushing, Aniierican Commis- sioner - • July 3, 1844 ratified at Washington Jan. 16, 1845 Alexander H. Everett appointed commissioner to China from the United States - - - 1845 John W. Davis appointed commis- sioner from the United States - 1847 CHINESE EMPERORS. The following is a list of those who have reigned for the lajst two centuries : — Chwang-lei 1627 Shun-che ----- 1644 Kang-he 1669 Yung-ching .... 1693 Keen-lung . ' - - - - 1736 Kea-ding 1796 Taou-kwang- - - - - 182] Sze-Hing, present emperor - - 1850 The embassy of lord Macartney from England procured the first authentic information respecting; this empire : it appears that it is divided into 15 pro- vinces, containing 4402 walled cities; the population of the whole country is given at 333 000,000 ; its annual revenues at £66,000,000; and the army, in- cluding the Tartars, 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800,000 cavalry; the rehgion is pagan, and the government is absolute. Learning, with the arts and sci- ences in general, are encouraged, and ethics are studied profoundly, and influence the manners of the people. See details in Williams's " Middle Kingdom." CHINA PORCELAIN. This manufacture is first mentioned in history in 1531 ; it was introduced into England so early as the sixteenth century. Porcelain was made at Dresden in 1706 ; fine ware in England, at Chelsea, 1752 ; at Eovv in 1758 ; in various other parts of England, about 1760 ; and by the ingenious Josiah Wedgwood, who much improved the British manufacture, in Staffordshire, 1762 etseq. CHINESE ERAS. They are very numerous, fabulous, and mythological. Like the Chaldeans, they represent the world as having existed some hun- dreds of thousands of years; and their annals and histories record events CHO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 251 said to have occurred, and name philosophers and heroes said to have lived, more than 27,000 years ago. B3' their calculation of time, which must, of course, differ essentially from ours, they date the commencement of their empire 41,000 years b. c. — Abbe Lengkt. CHIPPEWA, Battles of. The British forces under general Riall were de- feated by the Americans under general Brown, July 5, 1814. Another ac- tion with the British, commanded by generals Drummond and Riall ; the latter taken prisoner at Bridgwater, near Chippewa, July 25, 1814. CHIVALRY. Began in Europe about a. d. 912. From the twelfth to the fif- teenth century it bad a considerable influence in refining the manners of most of the nations of Europe. The knight swore to accomplish the duties of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies. He devoted him- self to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect the distressed, to practise courtesy, to fulfil obligations, and to vindicate, in every perilous adventure, his honor and character. Chivalry, which OAved its origin to the feudal system, expired with it. — Robertson ; Gibbon. CHIVALRY, Court of. It was commonly after the lie-direct had been given, that combats took place in the court of chivalry. By letters patent of James I. the earl-marshal of England had ""the like jurisdiction in the court of chivalry, when the office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter and the marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. The following entries are found in the pipe-roll of 31 Henry I., the date of which has been fixed by the labors of the record commission : — " Robert Fitz Seward renders account of fifteen marks of silver, for the office and wife of Hugh Chivill. Paid into the exchequer four pounds. And he owes six pounds;" p. 53. "William de Hocton renders account of ten marks of gold that he may have the wife of Geoffrey de Faucre i?i marriage, with her land, and may have her son ih custody until he is of age to become a knight ; he paid into the exchequer ten marks of gold, and is discharged." — Pari. Reports. CHOCOLATE. First introduced into Europe from Mexico about a. d. 1520. It is the flour of the cocoa-nut, and makes a wholesome beverage, much used in Spain. It was sold in the London coffee-houses soon after their establish- ment, 1650.— Tte&r. CHOIR. The choir was separated from the nave of the church in the time of Constantine. The choral service was first used in England at Canter- bury, a. d. 677. The service had been previously in use at Rome about 602. — See Chanting. The Choragus was the superintendent of the ancient chorus. — Warburton. CHOLERA MORBUS. This fatal disease, known in its more malignant form as the Asiatic cholera, after having made great ravages in many countries of the north, east, and south of Europe, and in the countries of Asia, where alone it had carried off more than 900,000 persons in its progress within two years, made its first appearance in England, at Sunderland, October 26, 1831. Proclamation, ordering all vessels from Sunderland to London, to perform quarantine at the Nore, December 4, 1831. Cholera first appeared at Edin- burgh, Feb. 6, 1832. First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, London. February 13 ; and in Dublin, March 3, same year. The mortality was very great, but more so on the Continent ; the deaths by Cholera in Paris were 18,000 between IMarcli and August, 1832. Cholera first appeared on this continent at Quebec, June 8, 1832 ; and at New- York, June 27, 1832. Cho- lera again raged in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin, &c. in 1836-7. It again appeared in Asia and the east of Europe in 1848, and raged in Lon- don, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and Paris at intervals, in 1848-9. First ap- peared again on this continent in 1849, on the Mississippi, in New York in 252 THE world's progress. [ CKR May, and continued more or less in various parts of the United States until November of that year. CHRIST. See Jesus Christ. This name, so universally given to the Redeemer of the world, signifies, in Greek, The Anointed, being the same with Mes- siah in the Hebrew, which the Jews called that Saviour and Deliverer whom they expected, and who was promised to them by all the prophets. This appellation is commonly put to our Jssus (signifying Savioiir), the name of the great object of our faith, and divine author of our religion. St. Clement, the earliest father, according to St. Epiphanius, fixes the birth of Christ oa the 18th of November, in the 28th year of Augustus, i. e. two years before the Christian era as adopted in the sixth century. Cerinthus Avas the first Christian writer against the divinity of Christ, about a. d. 67. The divinity of Christ was adopted at the council of Nice, in a. d. 325, by two hundred and ninety-nine bishops against eighteen. CHRISTIAN. This name was first given to the believers and followers of Christ's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, Acts xi. 26, in the year 38, accoi'd- ing to Bictlcr; in the year 40, according to Tacitus; and according to other authorities in the year 60. The Christians were divided into episcopoi, presbyteroi, diacouoi, pistoi, catachumens, or learners, and energumens who Avere to be exorcised. CHRISTIAN ERA. The era which is used by almost all Christian nations ; it dates from January 1st, in the middle of the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, in the 753d of the building of Rome, and 4714th of the Julian period. It was first introduced in the sixth century, but was not very generally employed for some centuries after. We style the Christian era A. D. 1. It was fii-st used in modern chronology in 516. CHRISTIAN KING; Most Christian King; Christianissimus. This title was given by pope Paul II. to Louis XI. of France in 1469 ; and never was a distinction more unworthily conferred. His tjTanny and oppressions obliged his subjects to enter into a league against him ; and 4,000 persons were executed publicly or privatelj^ in his merciless reign. — Henault ; Fleury. CHRISTIANITY. Founded by the Saviour of the world. The persecutions of the Christians commenced a. d. 64. — See Perscciotions. Christianity was first taught in Britain about this time ; and it was propagated with some success in 156. — Bede. Lucius is said to have been the first Christian king of Bri- tain, and in the world : he reigned in 179. But the era of Christianity in England commenced with the mission of St. Austin in 596, from which time it spread rapidly throughout the whole of Britain.* It was introduced into Ireland in the second century, but with more success after the arrival of St. Patrick in 432. It was received in Scotland in the reign of Donald I. about 201, when it was embraced by that king, his queen, and some of his nobility. Constantine the Great made his solemn In Sweden, hetween 10th and 11th centuries. declarationofthe Christian religionA.D. 312 In Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, Christianity was establislred in France under Clovis the Great - - 496 In Helvetia, by Irish missionaries - 643 In Flanders in the seventh century. In Denmark, under Harold - - 827 In Bohemia, under Borzivoi - - 894 In Russia, by Swiatoslaf - - 940 In Poland, under Meicislaus I. - • 992 In Hungary, under Geisa - - 994 In Norway and Iceland, under Olaf I. - 1000 when they were returning from the holy wars - - - a. d. 1227 In Lithuania, where Paganism was abo- lished, about .... 1386 In China, where it made some progress (but was afterwards extirpated, and thousands of Chinese Christians were put to death) .... 1575 In Greece, where it was once more re- established .... 1628 * It is said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, chanced one day to pass through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some children of great beauty who were set up for sale, he inquired about their country, and finding they were English Pagans, he is Raid to have cried out, in the Latin language, " Noii Angli, sed AngeU.furent, si assent Christimii," CHU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 253 Christianity was propagated in varions parts of Africa, as Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the fifteenth centuiy ; and in America and India it made some progress in the sixteenth, and now rapidly gains ground in all parts of the world. CHRISTMAS-DAY. A festival of the church, universally observed in com- memoration of the nativity of orrr Saviour. It has been denominated Christ- mass, from the appellative Christ having been added to the name of Jesus to express that he was the Messiah, or The Anointed. It was first observed as a festival a. d. 98. Ordered to be held as a solemn feast, and Divine service to be performed on the 25th of December, by pope Telesphorus, about a. d. 137.* In the eastern primitive church, Christmas and Epiphany {ivhich see) were deemed but one and the same feast ; and to this day the church universally keeps a continued feast within those limits. The hc^ly and misleioe used at Christmas are remains of the religious observances of the Druids, and so with many other like customs. CHRONICLES. The earliest chronicles are those of the Chinese, Hindoos, Jews, and perhaps those of the Irish. After the invention of writing, all well-informed nations appear to have kept clironiclers, who were generally priests or astrologers, and who mingled popular legends with their records. — Phillips. CHRONOLOGY. The Chinese pretend to the most ancient, but upon no cer- tain authority. The most authentic, to which all Europe gives credit, is the •Tewish ; but owing to the negligence of the Jews, they have created abun- dance of difficulties in this science, and very little certainty can be arrived at as to the exact time of man}'- memorable events. The earliest epoch is the creation of the world, 4004 b. c. Theophilns, bishop of Antioch, was the first Christian chronologist, about a. d. 169. See the different eras through the volume. CHURCH. It is said that a church was built for Christian worship in the first century; and some will have it that one was built in England, a. d. 60. See Glastonbury. In the small island of Whitehorn, Scotland, are the remains of an ancient "church, Avhich Avas the first place of Christian worship, it is be- lieved, in that coimtry, and supposed to have been built before the cathedral at Whitehorn, in Wigtonshire, where Nenian was bishop in the fourth cen- tury. The Christians originally preached in woods, and in caves, by candle- light, whence the practice of candle-light in churches. Most of the early churches were of wood. The first church of stone was built in London, in 1087. The first Irish church of stone was built at Bangor, in the county of Down, by Malachy, archbishop of Armagh, who was prelate in 1134. — Gor- doii's Ireland. Church towers were originally parochial fortresses. Church- yards were permitted in cities in 742. CHURCH OF ENGLAND, (the present). Commenced with the Reformation, and was formally established in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534. This church consists of two archbishops and twenty-four bishops, exclusively of that of Sodor and Man ; and the other dignitaries are chancellors, deans (of cathe- drals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor canons, and priest vicars ; these, and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, mat IS, " they would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time he was struck with an ardent desire to convert that unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk, named Austin, or Augustin, and others of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain, in the yc&r 596 — Goldsmith. ' Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the Christians were assembled on ihi.'? day in great multitudes, to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered the doors to be shut, and the chutch to be set on fire, and six hundred jjerished in thi; burning p.ie. This was the commencement of the tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, a. d 303. 254 THE world's PKOGUESS. [ CIN and c?id,pelries, make the number of preferments of the estabUshed chiirch, according to the last official returns, 12,327. The number of churches for Protestant worship in England was 11,742 in 1818. CHURCH OP IRELAND. Called, in connection with that of England, the United Church of England and Ireland. Previously to the Church Tempo- ralities Act of William IV. in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which several have since ceased ; that act providing for the union of sees, and for the abolition of certain sees, accord- ingly as the present possessors of them die. There are 1,659 places of Prot- estant worship, 2,109 Catholic chapels, 452 Presbyterian, and 414 other houses of prayer. See Bishops. CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its distinguishing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formulary of faith attributed to John Knox, and compiled by that reformer in 1560. It was approved by the parliament and ratified in 1567 ; was finally settled by an act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and was afterwards secured bj'' the treaty of union with England in 1707. Previously to the abolition of episco- pacy in Scotland in 1688, there existed two archbishoprics and twelve bish- oprics, which Avere then dissolved ; but there are now six bishops. The Church of Scotland is regulated bj^ four courts — the General Assembly, the Synod, the Presbytery, and Kirk Session. See Presbyterians. CHURCH MUSIC, was introduced into the Christian church by Gregory the Great, in a. d. 602. Choir service was first introduced in England, at Can- terbury, in 677. Church organs were in general use in the tenth century. Church music was first performed in English in 1559. See Choir; Chanting. CHURCH-WARDENS. Officers of the parish chu-«h, appointed by the first canon of the synod of London in 1127. Overseers in cA^ery parish Avere also appointed bj' the same body, and they continue noAV nearly as then consti- tuted. — Johnson's Canons. CHURCHING OF WOMEN. It originated in the JcAA'ish rite of purification, A. D. 214. Churching is the act of returning thanks in the church for any signal deliverance, and particularly after the delivery of Avomen. — IVheatley. It was a Jewish law that a Avoman should keep within her house forty days after her lying in, if she had a son, and eightj' if she had a daughter, at the expiration whereof she Avas to go to the temple, and offer a lamb Avith a young pigeon or turtle and in case of poverty, two pigeons or turtles. See Purification. CIDER. Anciently this beverage, Avhen first made in England, AA'as called wine, about A. D. 1284. When the earl of Manchester Avas ambassador in France, he is said to have frequentty passed off cider upon the nobility of that coim- try for a delicious Avine. It Avas subjected to the excise regulations in England, 1763, ct seq. A powerful spirit is draAvn from cider by distillation. — Butler. 03MBRI. The Avar of the Cimbri, 113 e. c. They defeat the consul Marcus Silanus, 109 b. g. They defeat the Romans under Manlius, on the banks of the Rhine. AA'here 80 000 Romans are slain. 105 b. c. The Teutones are de- feated by Marius in two battles at Aquse Sextise (Aix) in Gaul, 200,000 are killed, and 70 000 made prisoners, 102 b. c. The Cimbri are defeated by Marius and Catullus as they AA-ere again endeavoring to enter Italy ; 120,000 are killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 101 b. c. Their name afterwards sunk in that of the Teutones or Saxons. CINCINNATI. Ohio, the most populous city Avest of the Alleghanies in the United States, AA'as founded in 1789, hy emigrants from Ncav England and DICTIONARY OF DATES. 255 New Jersej'. Population in 1795, 500; in 1800, 750 ; in 1810, 2,510 ; in 1820, 9,642 ; in 1830, 21,831 ; in 1810, 46,338. CINCINNATI, Society of. Establislied by the officere of tlie American«army, in 1783, after the Revolution, and still continued by them and their descend- ants. There was at one time a popular jealousy of this society as suggest- ing a sort of hereditary nobility or aristocracy ; but this has long since passed away, and the society is now but seldom mentioned. CIRCASSIA. The Circassians are descended from the Alanians. They contin- ued unsubdued, even by the arms of the celebrated ""imur ; but in the six- teenth century the greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the Czar, Ivan II. of Russia. About a d. 1745, the princes of Great and Little Kabarda took oaths of fealty to that power. One branch of their traffic is the sale of their daughters, famed throughout the world for their beauty, and wliom they sell for the use of the seraglios of Tui'key and Persia : the merchants who come from Constantinople to i^ui'chase these girls are gener- ally Jews. — KlaprotKs Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia. CIRCULATING LIBRARY". The first in England, on a public plan, was opened by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 1740. He had little encouragement in the undertaking, which in the end failed. — IPergu- soji's Biog. CIRCULATION of the BLOOD, and the motion of the heart in animals, con- firmed experimentally by William Harvey, the celebrated English physician and anatomist, between 1619 and 1628. See article Blood. By this dis- covery the medical and surgical art became greatly improved, to the benefit of mankind.— /'Vei«rf'5 Hist, of Physic. CIRCUMCISION. A rite instituted 1897 b. c. It was the seal of the covenant made by God with Abraham. — Josephus. Even to the present day many of the Turks and Persians circumcise, although not regarding it as essential to salvation ; but in some eastern and African nations it is rendered necessary by a peculiar conformation, and is used without any reference to a religious rite. — Bell. The festival of the Circumcision was originally called the Octave of Christmas. The first mention found of it is in a. d. 487. It Avas instituted by the church to commemorate the ceremony under the Jewish law to which Christ submitted on the eighth day of his nativity ; it was introduced into the Liturgy in 1550. CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the greatest and most daring of human en- terprises was the circumnavigation of the earth at the period when it was first attempted, a. d. 1519.* The following are the most renowned of this illustrious class of men ; their voj^ages were undertaken at the dates affixed to their names. See Navigators. Magellan, a Portuguese, the first who entered the Pacific ocean Groalva, a Spanish navigator Avalradi, a Spaniard Mendana, a Spaniard - Sir Francis Drake, first English Cavendish, his first voyage Le Maire, a Dutchman - ' Quiros, a Spaniard Tasman, Dutch - Cowley, British Dampier, an Englishman Cooke, an Englishman 1519 1537 1.537 - 1567 • 1577 . 1585 -1615 - 1625 - 1642 - 1683 -1689 - 1708 Clipperton, British - - a. d. 1719 Roggewein, Dutch • - - 1721 Anson (afterwards Lord) - • - 1740 Byron (grandfather of Lord Byron) - 1764 Wallis, British - - - - 1766 Carteret, an Englishman - - 1766 Cook, the illustrious captain - - 1768 On the death of Captain Cook, his last voyage was continued by King - JiT) Bougainville, French - - -1776 Ponlocke, British • - - 178S Wilkes, American - - - - 1837 D'Urville, French - • - ia37 * The first ship that sailed round the earth, and hence determined its being globular, was Magellan's, or Magelhoen's ; he was a native of Portugal, in the service of Spain, and by keeping a westerly course he returned to the same place he had set out from in 1519. The voyage was com- pleted in three years and twenty-nine days ; but Rlasellan was killed on his homeward prissage, at the Philippines, in 1521. — Bull'ei: 256 THi; world's progress. [ ciV Several voyages have been since undertaken, and, among other nations, bj the Russians. The early navigators, equally illustrious, are named else- where. CIRCUS. There were eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ; the largest of them was called the Circus Maximus, which was built by the elder Tarquin, 605 b. c. ; it was of an oval figure ; its length was three stadia and a half, or more than three English furlongs, and its breadth 960 Roman feet. This circus was enlarged by Caesar so as to seat 150,000 persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus. All the emperors vied in beautifying it, and Julius Caesar introduced in it large canals of water, which on a sudden could be covered with an infinite number of vessels, and represent a sea-fight. — Pliny. CISALPINE REPUBLIC. Founded by the French in June 1797. It was ac- knowledged by the emperor of Germany to be independent, by the treaty of Campo Formio {which see'), Oct. 17, following. Received a new constitution in Sept. 1798. It merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; Napo- leon was crowned king in May following, and was represented by his vice- roy, Eugene Beauharnois. See Italy. CISTERCIANS. An order founded by Robert, a Benedictine, in the eleventh century. They became so powerful that they governed almost all Europe in spiritual and temporal concerns. They observed a continual silence, ab- stained from flesh, lay on straw, wore neither shoes nor shirts, and were most austere. — De Vitri. CITIES. The word ciiy has been in use in England only since the Conquest, at which time even London was called Londonburgh, as the capital of Scotland is still called Edinburgh. The English cities were very inconsiderable in the twelfth century. Cities were first incorporated a. d. 1079. The institu- tion of cities has aided much in introducing regular governments, police, manners, and arts. — Robcftson. CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome. — Livy. In England a citizen is a person who is free of a city, or who doth carrj^ on a trade therein. — Camden. Various privileges have been conferred on citizens as freemen in several reigns, and powers granted to them. The wives of citi- zens of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) were obliged to wear minever caps, being white woollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks projecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads; alder- men's wives made them of velvet, 1 Elizabeth, 1558. — Stowe. The title of citizen, only, was allowed in France at the period of the revolution, 1792, et seq. CIUDAD RODRIGO. This strong fortress of Spain was invested by the French June 11, 1810; and it surrendered to them July 10, following. It remained in their possession until it was gallantly stormed by the British commanded by Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812. Wellington had made a previous attack upon Ciudad Rodrigo (Sept. 25, 1811), which ended in his orderly retreat from the ijosition. CIVIL LAW. Several codes come under this denomination of laws. A body of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, was first collected by Alfrenus Varus, the Civilian, who flourished about 66 s. c. ; and a digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, the Civilian, 53 b. c. The Gregorian laws were compiled a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian in 435 ; and the Justinian, 529-534. Many of the former laws having grown out of use, the emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them, which was called the Justinian code, and this code constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil law was restored in Italy, Germany, &c. 1127. — Blctir. Civil law was intro- duced into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was afterwards CLE J DICTIONARY OF DATKiJ. 257 arclibishop of Canterbury, in 1138. It is now used in tlie spiritual courts only, and in maritime affairs. See Laws. CIVIL LIST IN ENGLAND. This comprehends the revenue awarded to the kings of England, partly in lieu of their ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue of Elizabeth was not more than 600, 000^. and that of Charles I. was but 800,000Z. After the Revolution a civil list revenue was settled on the new king and queen of 700,000Z., the parliament taking into its own hands the support of the forces, both maritime and military.^ The civil list of George II. was increased to 800.000L ; and that of George III. in the 55th year of his reign, was l,O3O,000Z.' By the act 1 William IV. 1831, the civil list of that sovereign was fixed at 510,000Z. By the act of 1 Victoria, Dec. 1837j the civil list of the queen was fixed at 385 OOOZ. ; and Prince Albert obtained an exclusive sum from parliament of 3O,O0OZ. per arm. 4 Victoria, 1840. CLANSHIPS. These were tribes of the same race, and commonly of the same name, and originated in feudal times. — See Feudal Laws. They may be said to have arisen in Scotland, in the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008. Clanships and other remains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scot- land (where clans ivere taken to be the tenants of one lord), and the liberty of the English was granted to clansmen. 20 George II., 1746. — Ruffhead. The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's feathers in his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan. — Ckambers. CLARENDON, Statutes of. These were statutes enacted in a parliament held at Clarendon, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous power of the clergy. They are rendered memorable as being the ground of Becket's quarrel -svith Henry II. A number of regulations were drawn up under the title of the statutes or constitutions of Clarendon, and were voted without opposition, a. d. 1164. These stringent statutes were enacted to prevent the chief abuses which at that time prevailed in ecclesiastical affairs, and put a stop to church usurpations which, gradually stealing on, threatened the destruction of the civil and royal power. — Huvie. CLARION. This instrument originated with the Moors, in Spain, about a. d. 800 ; it was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding their tenor and bass. — Ashe. Its tube is narrower, and its tone shriller than the common trumpet. — Pardon. CLASSIS. The name was first given by TuUius Servius in making divisions of the Roman people. The first of sis classes were called dassici, by way of eminence, and hence authors of the first rank came to be called classics, 573 B. c. CLEMENTINES. Apocryphal pieces, fable and error, attributed to a primi- tive father, Clemens Romanus, a cotemporary of St. Paul; some say he succeeded Peter as bishop of Rome. He died a. d. 102. — Niceron. Also the decretals of pope Clement V., who died 1314, published by his successor. — • Boii-yer. Also Augustine monks, each of whom having been a superior nine j^ears, then merged into a common monk. CLEMExMTINES and URBANISTS. Parties by whom Europe was distracted for several years. The Urbanists were the adherents of pope Urban VI., the others those of Robert, son of the count of Geneva, who took the title of Clement VII. All the kingdoms of Christendom according to their various interests and inclinations were divided between these two pontiffs ; the courts of France, Castile, Scotland, &c. adhering to Clement, and Rome, Italy, and 258 THE world's progress. [ CLC England declaring for Urban. This contention was consequent upon the death of Gregory XI. 1378. — Hmiie. CLERGY. In the first century the clergy were distinguished by the title of presbyters or bishops. The bishops in the second century assumed higher functions, and the presbyters represented the inferior priests of the Levites: this distinction was still further promoted in the third century ; and, under Constantine, the clergy attained the recognition and protection of the secu- lar power. CLERGY IN England. They increased rapidly in number early in the seventh century, and at length controlled the king and kingdom. Drunkenness was forbidden among the clergy by a law, so eai-ly as 747 a. d. The first frnitf of the then clergy were assigned by parliament to the king, 1534. The cler- gy were excluded from parliament in 1536. .The conference between the Protestant and Dissenting clergy was held in 1604. See Conferenct. Two thousand resigned their benefices in the church of -England, rathei than subscribe their assent to the book of common prayer, including the thirty- nine articles of religion, as enjoined by the Act of Uniformity, 1661-2. The Irish Protestant clergy were restored to their benefices, from which they had been expelled, owing to the state of the kingdom xmder cSimes II., 1689. The Clergy Incapacitation act passed, 1801. See Church of England. CLERK. The Clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen after the Norman custom from the sacred order ; and the otticers being cler- gy ; this gave them that denomination, which they keep to this day. — Black- stone's Comm. CLOCK. That called the clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome 158 B. c. by Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesi- bius, about 140 b. c. Said to have been found by Caesar on invading Britain, 55 E. c. The only clock supposed to be then in the world was sent by pope Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, a. d. 760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, invented one in the ninth century. Originally the wheels were three feet in diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record, was made by a Saracen mechanic, in the 13th centurj'. Thescapement, ascribed to Gerbert,A.D. 1000 , den) and the younger Galileo con- A clock constructed by Richard, abbot '■ structed the pendulum - a. d. 1641 of St. Alban's, about - - -1326 Christian Huygens contested this disco- A striking clock in Westminster - 1368 very, and made his pendulum clock A perfect one made at Paris by Vick - 1370 some time previously to - - 1658 The first portable one made - - 1530 Fromantil, a Dutchman, improyed the In England no clock went accurately i pendulum, about - . - 1659 before that set up at Hampton-court i Repeating clocks and watches invented (maker's initials, N. O.) - - 1510 by Barlow, about - - - 1676 Richard HaiTis (who erected a clock in The dead beat, and horizontal escape- the church of St. Pauls, Covent-Gar- > ments, by Graham, about - - -1700 The subsequent improvements were the spiral balance spring suggested, and the duplex scapement invented bj^ Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes jewelled by Facio ; the detached scapement invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthoud, Arnold, Earnshaw and others. CLOCK, MAGNETIC. Invented by Dr. Locke of Cincinnati, 1847-8. CLOTH. Both woollen and linen cloth were known in very early times. Coarse woollens were introduced into England a. d. 1191; and seventy families of cloth-workers from the Netherlands settled in England by Edward III.'s in- vitation, and the art of weaving was thereby introduced, 1331. — Rpmr's Fa- dera. Woollens were first made at Kendal, in 1390. Medleys were manu- factured. 1614. Our fine broad cloths were yet sent to Holland to be dyed, 1654. Dyed and dressed in England, by one Brewer, from the Low Coun- tries, 1667. The manufacture was discouraged in Ireland and that of linen coa] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 259 countenanced, at the i-equest of both houses of pariiament, 1698. See Woollen Cloth. CLOVTS, Family of. Kings of France. The real founder of the French mo- narchy was Clovis I., who commenced his reign a. d. 481, and was a warlike prince. He expelled the Romans, embraced the Cliristian religion, and pub- lished the Salique law. On his being first told of the suflferings of Christ, he exclaimed, " O, had I been there with my valiant Gauls, how I would have avenged him !" Clovis imited his conquests from the Romans, Germans, and Goths, as provinces to the then scanty dominions of France : removed the seat of Government from Soissons to Paris, and made this the capital of his new kingdom; he died in 511. — Henault. COACH. The coach is of French invention. Under Francis I., who was a co- temporary with our Henry VIII., there were but two in Paris, one of Avhich belonged to the queen, and the other to Diana, the natural daughter of Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550 ; and Henry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. The first courtier who set uj^ this equipage was John de Laval de Bois-Dauphiu, who could not travel otherwise on account of his enormous bulk. Previously to the use of coaches the kings of France travelled on horseback, the princesses were carried in litters, and ladies rode behind their squires. The first coach seen in England was in the reign of Mary, about 1553. — Priestley's Led. They were introduced much earlier. — Andrews' Hist. Great Brit. They were introduced by Fitz-Allen, earl of Arundel, in 1580. — Stowe. And in some years afterwards the art of making them. — Anderson's Hist, of Commerce. A bill was brought into parliament to prevent the effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* — Carle. See Carriages. Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. COALITIONS. The great coalitions against France since the period of the French revolution, have been six in number ; and they generally arose out of the subsidizing hj England of the great powers of the Continent. They were entered into as follows : 1st. The king of Prussia issues liis ma- nifesto - - - June 26, 1792 2nd. By Great Britain, Germany, Rus- sia, Naples, Portugal, and Turkey, signed - - - June 22, 1799 3rd. By Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Naples - - Aug. 5, 1805 4tli. By Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony - - Oct. 6, 1806 5th. By England and Austria - April 6, 1809 6th. By Russia and Prussia ; the treaty ratified at Kalisch - March 17, 1813 See Treaties. COALITION MINISTRY. This designation was given to the celebrated mia- istr}' of Mr. Fox and lord North, and which was. rendered memorable as an extraordinary union in political life, on account of the strong personal dis- like which had always been displayed by these personages, each towards the other. The ministrj- was formed April 5, 1783, and dissolved Dec. 19, same year. See Administrations. COALS. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coals, although they are not mentioned by the Romans in their notices of Britain, were yet in use by the ancient Britons. — Brandt. They were first discovered at Newcastle- upon-Tyne in 1234, some say earlier ; and others in 1239. Sea-coal was pro- hibited from being used in and near London, as being " prejudicial to human health ; " and even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273. — Stowe. Coals were first made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Richard U. 1381. — Rymer's Feeder a. Notwithstanding the many previous comj^lainls * In the beginning of the year 1619, the earl of Northumberland, who had been imprisoned ever emcc the Gutipowtier Plot, obtained his liberation Hearing that Buckingham was drawn about with six hort-cs in his coach (being the first that was so), he put on eight to his, and in that manner passed from the tower through the city. — Rapin. 260 THE AVOELTd's PKUGRESS. [ COD against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned in Lon- don in 1400 ; but coals were not in common use in England until the leign of Charles I., 1625. NUMBER OP CHALDRONS OP COALS CONSUMED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS: 1650 - - 160.000 chald. I 1800 - - 814,000 chald. i 1830 - - 1,.588,360 chald. 1700 - 317,000 ditto. 1810 - - 980,372 ditto. 18:35 - 2,299,816 tons. - 1750 - - 510,000 ditto. | 1820 - - 1,171,178 ditto. | 1810 - - 2,638,256 ditto. The coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland are 723 square miles in extent ; those of Newcastle, Sunderland, Whitehaven, and other places, arc also of vast magnitude ; and there are exhaustless beds of coal in Yorkshire. The coal in South Wales alone, would, at the present rate of consumption, supply all England for 2000 j'ears. — Blakeivell. It is supposed that there are now about 25,000,000 of tons consumed annually in Great Britain. — Phillips. Scotland teems with the richest mines of coal, and besides her vast collieries there must be vast fields unexplored. — Pennant. Fine coal is found in Kil- kenny, Ireland. Tlae first sliip laden with Irish coal arrived in Dublin from Newry, in 1742. — Burns. COALS IN THE United States. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylva- nia, first mined and used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c., extend 700 miles. COCCEIANS. A sect founded by John Cocceius of Bremen; they held, amongst other singular opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world, after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian faith, 1665. COCHINEAL. The projjerties of this insect became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was not known in Italy in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there. — See Dyeing. The annual import of this article into England was 260,000 lbs. in 1830 ; and 1,081,776, in 1845. COCK-FIGHTING. Practised by the early barbarous nations, and by Greece. It was instituted at Rome after a victory over the Persians, 476 b. c. ; and was introduced by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on Shrove Tuesdaj"". Cock-fighting was prohibited, 39 Edward III., 1365; and again by Henry VIII. and Cromwell. Till within these few years there was a Cock-pit Royal, in St. James's-park : but this practice is happily now dis- couraged by the law. COCK-LANE GHOST. A famous imposition (1) practised upon the credulous multitude by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter. The contrivance was that of a female ventriloquist, and all who heard her believed she was a ghost : the deception, which arose in a malignant conspiracy, was carried on for some time at the house, No. 33 Cock-lane, London ; but it was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the pillory and imprisonment, July 10, 1762. COCOA. Unknown in Europe until the discovery of America, about 1500, The cocoa-tree supplies the Indians with almost whatever they stand in need of as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, ■iordage, nails, covering for their houses, &c. — Ray. CODES OP LAWS. The laws of Phoroneus were instituted 1807 b. c. : those of Lycurgus, 884 b. c. ; of Draco, 623 b. c. ; of Solon, 587 b. c. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 66 b. c. ; and Ser- vius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 b. c. The Gregorian and Hermoginian codes were pubhshed a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian code in 435 • the celebrated code of the emperor Justinian, in 529— a digest from (;OIJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 261 this last was made in 533. — Blair. Alfred's code of laws is the foundation of the common law of England, 887. — See Laws. CODICILS TO WILLS. C. Trebatius Testa, the civilian of Rome, was the first who introduced the use of this supplementary instrument to wills, about 31 B. c. CGEUR DE LION, OR the Lion-hearted. Tlie surname given to Richard Plan- tagenet I. of England, on account of his dauntless courage, about a. d. 1192. This surname was also conferred on Louis VIII. of France, who signalized himself in the crusades and in his wars against England, about 1223. This latter prince had also the appellation of tbe Lion given !:im. COFFEE. It grows in Arabia, Persia, the Indies, and America. Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians.* It came into great repute in Arabia Felix about a. d. 1454 ; and passed thence into Egj^pt and Syria, and thence, in 1511, to Constantinople, where coffee-houses were opened in 1554. M. Thevenot, the traveller, was the first Mdio brought it into France, to which country he returned after an absence of seven years, in 1662. — Chambers. Cof- fee was brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his common beverage at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641. — Anderson.^ COFFEE and TEA. The consumption in the United States at different periods is reported by the secretary of the treasury (see American Almanac, 1848) thus : — 1821 - - Tea, 4,536,223 lbs. - - Coffee, 11,886,063 lbs. 1830 - " 6,873,091 lbs. - " 38,363.687 lbs 1885 - - " 12.331,638 lbs. " 91,753,002 lbs. 1842 - - " 13,482,645 lbs. - " 107,387,567 lbs. lSi6 - " 16,891,020 lbs. " 124,336,054 lbs. COFFEE-HOUSES. The first in England was kept by a Jew, named Jacobs, in Oxford, 1650. In that year, Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, brought home with him a Greek servant named Pasquet, who kept the first house for making coffee in London, which he opened in George-j'ard, Lom- bard-street, in 1652. Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the first house in that country. — Anderson. The Rainbow coffee-house, near Temple-bar, was represented as a nuisance to the neighborhood, 1657. Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation, 26 Charles II., 1675. The proclamation was afterwards suspended on the petition of the traders in tea and coffee. COFFEE-TREES. These trees were conveyed from Mocha to Holland in 1616; and were carried to the West Indies in the year 1726. First cultivated at Surinam by the Dutch about 1718. The culture was encouraged in the plantations about 1732. COFFINS. The Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of the cedar tree; ow- ing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities. — Thucy did.es. Coffins of marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been buried in one of gold : and glass coffins have been found in England. — Gough. The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us, is that of the burial of king Arthur, who was buried in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed, a. d. 542 — Asser. The patent coffins were invented in 1796. COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 b. c. The invention of coin is ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whose nu)ney * Some ascribe the discovery of coffee as a beverage to the prior of a monastery, who, being in- formed by a 2oat-hci-d that his cattle sometimes browsed upon the tree, and that they would Iher wake at night, and snort ami bound upon the hills, became curious to prove its virtues. He ac- cordingly tried it on liis monks, t6 prevent their sleeping at malias, and he found that it rhrd.c I their slumb.^TM. 262 THE world's progress. feoi was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Phidon tyrant of Argos, 862 B. c. Money was coined at Rome under - Servius Tullius, about 573 b. c. The most ancient known coins are Macedonian, of the fifth century b. c. ; but others are believed to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at Rome previously to 269 b. c. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a sign that little correspondence was then held with the East, where gold and silver were in use long before. Gold was coined 206 b. c. Iron money was used in Sparta, and Iron and tin in Britain. — Dufresnoy. Julius Caesar was the first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his portrait on the coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier and more simple days of Rome, the likeness of no living personage appeared upon their money : the heads were those of their deities, or of those who had re- ceived divine honors. COIN IN ENGLAND. The fii-st coinage in England was under the Romans at Camulodunum, or Colchester. English coin was of different shapes, as square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, when round coin only was used. Groats were the largest silver coin until after a, d. 1351. Coin was made sterling m 1216, before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and maney was found only in the cofiers of the barons. — Stowe The first gold coins on certain record, struck, 42 Henry III. - a. d. 1257 Gold florin first struck, Ed. III. (Cam- den) 13.37 First large copper coinage, putting an end to the circulation of private lead- en pieces, &c. - - . . 1620 Halfpence and J'arthings coined - 1665 Guineas first coined, 25 Char. II. - 1673 Sovereigns, new coinage - - 1816 Half-fariliings - - - - 1843 Gold coin was introduced in six shilling pieces by Edward III. and nobles followed, at six shillings and eightpence, and hence the lawyer's fee : aftei'- wards there were half and quarter nobles. Guineas Avei-e of the same size; but being made of a superior gold from sovereigns, guineas passed for more. SeeGuiiieas. English and Irish money were assimilated Jan. 1. 1826. See Gold. MONEYS COINED IN THE FOLLOWING REIGNS, AND THEIR AMOUNT. George III. and regency, gold - - £74,501,586 George IV. - -41.782,815 William IV. - - 10,827,603 Victoria, to 1848, 32.370.814 Elizabeth ■ - £5,832,000 1 .lames II. - - £3.740,000 James I. ■ - 2,500,000 | William III. - - 10^511,900 Charles I. - - - 10,500,000 i Anne - - - 2,691,626 Cromwell ■ - 1,000,000 George I. - ■ 8,72.1,920 Charles II. - - 7,524,100 | George II. • - 11,966,576 The coin of the realm M^as about twelve millions in 1711. — Davenant. It was estimated at sixteen millions 1762. — Anderson. It was supposed to be twen- ty millions in 1786. — Chalmers. It amounted to thirty-seven millions in 1800. — Philtips. The gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic currency is thirteen millions, while the paper largely supplies the place of coin,1830. — Diike of Wellington. In 1841, it may be calculated as reaching forty-five millions. See Gold. COIN OF THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The coinage from that time to 1836 was thus : — Pieces. Value. Gold - - 4,716,325 - - $22,102,035 Silver - - - 115,421,762 - 46,739,182 Copper - - 77,752,965 - - 740,331 Total - 197,891,502 - . $69,581,549 1837 to 1SJ8 inclusive 145,389,748 - - $81,436,165 Total in 56 years - 343,281,250 pieces. - $151,017,714 The gold coinage consists of double eagles S'20, eagles, half eagles, quarter eagles and dollars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first de- posit of California gold for coining, was made by Mr. David Carter, 1804 ounces. Dec. 8. 1848. COI, J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 263 COINING, lliis operation was originally performed by the metal being placed between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill was invented by Antonie Brucher, and introduced into England in 1562. An en- gine for coining was invented by Balancier in 1617. The great improvements of the art were effected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho. 1788, and subsequently. The art was rendered perfect by the creation of the present costly machinery at the mint, London, commenced in 1811. 1 OLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to prtduce the same percep- tions on the skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost 1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and in the just proportions of Augustan architecture. — Grcig. Perhaps the cold- est day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796, when the thermometer was 16" below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow Jan. 13, 1810. See Frosts, Ice. COLISEUM. The edifice of this name at Rome was built by Vespasian, in the jjlace where the basin of Nero's gilded house had previously been a. d. 72. The splendid Colisseum of London, and one of its most worthy objects of admiration, is built near the Regent's Park, and was completed in 1827-8. COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which were munificent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of liv- ing at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said to have been first conferred at the University of Paris, a. d. 1140; but some authorities say, not before 1215. In England, it is contended that the date is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they were the first doctors of those universities. Cambridge, Oxford, &c. Cheshunt College Ibuiided - a. d. 1792 Mareschal College, Aberdeen - a- d. 1591 Doctor's Commons, civil law • -1670 Durham "University - . . * * Edinburgh University - • - 1580 Eton College 1441 Glasgow University • - - 1451 Maynooth College - - - 1795 Physicians, London - - - - 1518 Sion College .... 1329 Sion College, re-founded • - - 1530 Surgeons, London - - - 1745 Harrow 1585 I Trinity College, Dublin - - - 1591 Highbury College - - - 1820 ! University, London - - - 1826 • King's College, Aberdeen • - - 1494 | Winchester College - - - - 1387 King's College, London - - - 1829 ^'OLLEGES IN THE UNrrED States. The first established was Harvard, at Cambridge, Mass., by John Harvard, 1638; and this is now the most im- portant and best endowed in the United States. The second was William and Mary, in Virginia, 1693. Third, Yale, at New Haven, 1700. Fourth, College of New Jersey, Princeton, 1746. Fifth, Columbia, New- York, 1754. Sixth, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1755. Seventh, Brown University, Providence, 1764. Eighth, Dartmouth, at Hanover, N. H., 1769. Ninth, Rutgers. New Brunswick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the Revolution. The first medical school was that at Philadelphia, founded 1764. The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Conn., 1782. In 1849 there were 118 colleges in the United States ; 42 theological schools ; 12 law schools ; 36 medical schools. See list in American Almanac. Girard College opened Jan. 1, 1848. COLOGNE. A member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews were expelled from here in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, and it has since fallen into ruin. Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In the cathedral are shown the heads of the three Magi; and in the church of St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint and bones belonging to the 11,000 vir- gins said to have been put to death along with her. (vOLOMBTA. A rej)ublic in Sohth America, formed of slates which have 264 THE world's progress. [ COl. declared their independence of the crown of Spain ; but its several chie^ have been contending- one against another, and each state has been a prey to civil war, and the stability of the union is far from assured. Battle of Carabobo, the Royalists wholly overthrown - - June 24, 1821 Bolivar is named Dictator by the Con- gress of Peru - - Feb. 10, 1834 Alliance between Colombia and Mexico formed - - - June 30, 1824 Alliance with Guatimala - March 1825 New Grenada, discovered by Colum- bus - - - - A. D. 1497 Venezuela discovered - - - 1498 IheCaraccas formed into a kingdom, under a captain-general - - 1547 The history of those provinces under the tyranny and oppression of the Spa niards, presents but one continuous | Congress at Lima names Bolivar Pre- scene of^rapine and blood. sident of the republic - Aug. 182t) ******* ' Bolivar's retui-n to Bogota - Nov. 18^0 Confederation of Venezuela - -1810 He assumes the dictatorship - Nov. 23, 1826 Independence formally declared - - 1811 ' Padilla's insurrection - April 9, ISiS Defeat of General Miranda - - 1812 | Conspiracy of Santander against the Bolivar defeated by Boves - - - 1816 i life of Bolivar - Sept. 25, 1828 Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of i Bolivar resigns his office of president of Sombrero - - - Feb. 1818 the republic - - April 11, 1829 Union of the States of Grenada and Ve- He dies - - - Dec. 17, 1830 nezuela - - Dec. 17, 1819 Santander dies ■ - May 26, 1840 COLON. This point was known to the ancients, but was not expressed as it is in modern times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by Thrasymachus about 373 b. c.—Siddas. It was kno-\^Ti to Aristotle. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. Tlie colon and semicolon were both first used in British literature, in the sixteenth century. COLONIES OF GREAT BRITAIN. They are described under the name of each. The wliite and the free colored population, as far as it has been ascertained, amounts to about 2 500,000, and tlie slaves at the period of their emancipa- tion, were 770,280. The number of convicts in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, is 36,267 ; the aborigines of the latter place have not been ascertained. The act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British colonies, and for compensation to the owners of slaves (£20,000,000 sterling) was passed 3 &- 4 William IV. 1833. Bj' the provisions of this statute all the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on August 1, 183i. COLONIZATION. The American Colonization Society, for colonizing free people of color ou the coast of Africa, founded December, 1816, at Wash- ington, chiefly through the exertions of Rev. Robert Finley. [Plan advo- cated by Jetferson as early as 1777, urged bj' Dr. Thornton, 1787, and by the legislature of Virginia, 1801.] First president of the society, Bushrod Washington; succeeded by Charles Carroll, James Madison, and Hemy Clay Liberia purchased 1821. COLOSSLS OP RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high, erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, and esteemed one of the wonders of the world. Built by Chares of Lindus, 290 b. c. It was thrown down by an earthquake 224 b. c. ; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens on their taking Rhodes in a. d. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg being extended on each side of tire harbor, so that a vessel in full sail could enter between. A'winding staircase ran to the top, from which could be discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt. The statue had lain in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had never been repaired ; but now the Saracens pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, weighing 720,900 lbs , to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camels in transporting it to Alexandria — Dw Frcsnoy. COLTJaVlBIA, District op. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Vir- ginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the seat of ffovornmcnt. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown. COM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 265 and Alexandria ; but in 1843 the latter was re-ceded to Virginia. Popula- tion in 1800, 14,093 ; in 1840, 43,712, including 8,861 free colored persons, and 4,694 slaves. COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyiic poetry. Susarion and Dolon were the inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 b. c. They performed the first comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four wheels, for which they were rewarded with a basket of figs and a cask of wine. — Arundelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient comedy, 434 B. c, and Menander that of new, 320 b. c. Of Plautus, 20 comedies are extant ; he flourished 220 b. c. Statius Csecilius wrote upwards of 30 come- dies ; he flourished at Rome, 180 b. c. The comedies of Ltelius and Terence were first acted 154 b. c. The first regular comedy was performed in Eng- land about A. D. 1551. It was said of Sheridan, that he wrote the best comedy (the Sr.liool for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna), and the best after- piece (the Critic), in the English language. — See Drama. COMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately, was by Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets appeared, Avhich were seen for seventy-two days together, and whose splen- dor eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied forty-five degrees, or the fourth part of the heavens, 135 b. c. — Justin. A remarkable one was seen in England, 10 Edward III., 1337. — Stowe. These phenomena were first rationally explained by Tycho Brache, about 1577. A comet, which terri- fied the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov. 3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses, by Newton, 1704. A most brilliant comet appeared- in 1769, which passed within two millions of miles of the earth. One still more brilliant appeared in Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye. Another brilliant comet appeared in 1823. — See the three next articles. COMET, BIELA'S. This comet has been an object of fear to many on account of the nearness with which it has approached, not the earth, but a point of the earth's path : it was first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian oflicer, Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three comets whose reappearance was pre- dicted, its revolution being performed in six years and thirty-eight weeks. Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time of its perihelion passage was Nov. 27. Us third appearance was in 1839, and its fourth in 1845. COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly named by astronomers after professor Encke, from his success in detecting its orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the three comets which have appeared according to prediction, and its revolu- tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. COMET, HALLEY'S. This is the great and celebrated comet of the greatest astronomer of England. — Lalancle. Doctor Halley first proved that many of the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns of the same bodies, and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet of 1456, of 1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of the first mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to the comets described as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore, first fixed the identity of comets, and first predicted their periodical returns — Viiiceh Astronoiny . The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in about seventy-six years: it appeared in 1759, and came to its perihelion on March 13 ; and its last appearance was in 1835. COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in the earliest ages. In later times it was spread over Europe by a confed- eracy of maritime cities A. D. 1241. — Sua Han se Towns. The discoveries of Columbus and the enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese. 'MiJarged the 12 266 THE world's PK.OGRESS. [ COM sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England, to engage extensively in its pursuit. — See the various articles connected with this subject. COMMERCE. See Navigation. COMMERCE, New- York Chamber of, instituted 1783. COMMERCIAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by Eng- land with any foreign nation, was entered into with the Flemings, 1 Edward I., 1272. The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward 11. 1308.— Anderson. See Treaties. COMMON COUNCIL of LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208. The charter of Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, this being a Saxon appella- tion, and which may fairly be rendered the court or assembly of the people. COMMON LAW of ENGLAND. Custom, to which length of time has given the force of law, or rules generally received and held as law, called Lex non scripta, in contradistinction to the written law. Common law derives its origin from Alfred's body of laws (wLich was lost), a. d. 890. The common law of the United States is founded on that of England. — See Custom. Laws. COMMON PRAYER. Published in the English language by the authority of parliament, in 1548. The Common Prayer was voted out of doors, by par- liament, and the Directory {which see), set up in its room in 1644. A pro- clamation Avas issued against it, 1647. See Directory. COMMONS, House of. The great representative assembly of the people of Great Britain, and third branch of the Imperial legislature, originated with Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who ordered returns to be made of two Ivuiglits from every sliire, and deputies from certain boroughs, to meet the barons and clergy who Avere his friends, Avith a vieAv thereby to strengthen his OAvn power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry HI. This was the first confirmed outline of a house of commons ; and the first commons Avere summoned to meet the king in parliament 42 & 43 Henry HI. 1258. — Goldsmith. Stoice. According to other authorities, the first parliament formally conA'ened Avas the one summoned 49 Henry III., Jan. 23, 1265; and Avrits of the latter date are tlie earliest extant. Some historians date the first regularly constituted parliament from the 22d of Edward 1. 1294. The first recorded speaker, duly chosen, Avas Petre de Montfort in 1260 ; he was killed at the battle of EA'esham, in 1265. The city of London first sent members to parliament in the reign of Henry III., while Westminster was not represented in that assembly until the latter end of Henry VIII's life, or rather in the first House of Commons of EdAvard VI. The following is the constitution of the House of Commons since the passing of the Reform Bills {which see,) in 1832 : — English. — County members - 144 Universities - ■ - 4 Cities and boroughs - - 323—171 Welsh. — County members - - 15 Cities and Boroughs - - 14 — 29 English and Welsh - 500 Scotch. — County members - 30 Cities and Boroughs - • 23- — 53 Irish. — County members - - 64 University - - ■ ■ 2' Cities and boroughs - - 39 — 105 English and Welsh - 500 Total (see Parliament) - 658 COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. This Avas the interregnum between the decollation of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles U. The form of the government Avas changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I. Jan. 30, 1649. Oliver CromAvell Avas made Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Crom- AveU was made Protector, Sept. 1658. Monarchy Avas restored in the person of Charles II., Avho returned to London May 29, 1670. See England. COMMONWEALTH of ROME. Sec Rome. The greatest and most renoAvn- ed republic of the ancient world. It dates from 609 b. c, Avhen the goven> CON ] DICTIONAE.Y OF DATES. 26V mentof kings ceased with the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, tlie seventh and last king of Rome, and the election of consuls. After this revolution Rome advanced by rapid strides towards universal dominion. The whole of Italy received her laws. Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, Carthage, Africa, Greece, Asia, Sy- ria. Egypt. Gaul, Britain, and even a part of Germany, were successively sub- dued by her arms : so that in the age of Julius Csesar this republic had the Euphrates, Mount Taurus, and Armenia, for the boundaries in the east; Ethiopia, in the south; the Danube, in the north; and the Atlantic Ocean, in the west. The republic existed under consuls and other magistrates un- til the battle of Actium, from which we commonly date the commencement of the Roman empire, 31 b. c. COMMUNION. It originated in the Lord's supper, and was practised early in the primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is said to have its rise in the west, under pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth Lateran council decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at least at Easter, 1215. The communion service, as now observed in the church of England, was instituted by the authority of council, 1548. COMPANIES. Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be named the Steel-yard society, established a. d. 1232. The second company was the merchants of St. Thomas k Becket, in 124S.—Stoioe. The third was the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Thv re are ninety-one city companies in London ; the first twelve are 1 Mercers - A. D. 1393 7 Merchant Tailors - A. D. 146G 2 Grocers - - - 1345 8 Haberdasliers - 1447 3 Drapers - 1439 9 Salters - - - 1558 4 Fishmongers - - 1384 10 Ironmongers - - 1464 5 Goldsmiths - 1327 11 Vintners - - - 1437 6 Skinners - . - 1327 12 Clothworkers - - 1482 COMPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under this name have been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-1, was perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcelj^ less memorable for its ruin of thousands of families. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and 1825, and most of them turned out to be bubbles; and owing to the rage for taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, immense losses were in- curred by individuals, and the families of thousands of speculators were totally ruined. See Law's Bubble, and Bankrupts. COMPASS, The MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese, 1115 B. c. ; but this seems to be a mistake. They had a machine which self- moved, "jjointed towards the south, and safely guided travellers by land or water; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, the invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, a. d. 1260; while others, with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja, of Pasitano, a navigator of Naples. Until his time the needle was laid upon a couple of pieces of straw, or small split sticks, in a vessel of water ; Gioja in- troduced the suspension of the needle as we have it now, 1302. Its variation was discovered by Columbus, in 1492. The compass-box and hanging com- pass used by navigators were invented by William Barlowe, an English di- vine and natural philosopher, in 1608. — Biog. Die. The measuring compass was invented by Jost Byng, of Hesse, in 1602. CONCEPTION OF THE VIRGIN. This is a feast in the Romish church in honor of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and born immaculate, or without original sin. The festival was appointed to be held on the 8th of Dec. bv the church, in 1889. Conckptionists. an order of nuns, established 1488. " 268 THE world's progress. [ CON CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, in 1665, when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and talent from every part of England. The first concert of like kind perform- ed in London was in 1678. Concerts afterwards became fashionable and frequent. CONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny, and was a favorite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It was first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major of Kiel, who published his classification of the Testacea in 1675. Lister's system was published in 1685 ; and that of Largius in 1722. CONCLAVE FOR THE ELECTION of POPES. The cone ave is a range of small cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope at Rome, where me cardinals usually hold their meetings to elect a pope. The word is also used for the assembly, or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a pope. The conclave had its rise in a. d. 1271. Clement IV. being dead at Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years unable to agree in the choice of a successor, and were upon the point of breaking up, when the magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo. shut the gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical p&lace till they agreed. Hence the present custom of shutting up the cardinals while they elect a pope. CONCORDANCE to the BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all the words in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transac- tions of that sacred volume. The first concordance to the Bible was made under the direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who emploj'ed as many as 500 monks upon it, a. d. 12-17. — Ahbh Lenglct. CONCORDAT. The name given to an instrument of agreement between a prince and the pope, usuallj^ concerning benefices. The celebrated concordat between Napoleon Bonapaj-te and Pius VII., whereby the then French consul was made, in effect, the head of the Gallican Church, as all ecclesiastics were to have their appointments from him, was signed at Paris, July 15, 1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and the same pontifl'was sign- ed at Fontainbleau, Jan. 25, 1813. CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests,_A. d. 1132. Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage, both as to dignity and civil eflects, yet concubine~was a reputable title, very difierent from that of mistress among us. This kind of union, which is formed by giving the left hand instead of the right, and called half-marriage, is still in i;se in some parts of Germany. CONFEDERATION at PARISH. Upwards of 600,000 citizens formed this memorable confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking of the bas- tile, at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the people, solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 4, 1790. See Champ de Mars, Bastilc. CONFEDERATION or the RHINE, or League of the Germanic States form- ed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league, the minor German princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of war, and they established a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806. See Germanic Confederation. CONFERENCE. The celebrated rehgious conference held at Hampton Com t palace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenting ministers, in order to effect a general imion, at the instance of the king, 2 James I. 1004. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, which CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 269 was esecnted in 1607-11, and is that now in general use in England and the United States ; and during the meeting some alterations in the church liturgy were agreed upon, but this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was done. A conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers with the same view was held in 1661. CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish church was first instituted about A. D. 1204, and was regularly enjoined in 1215. It is made to a priest, in order to obtain absolution for the sins or faults acknowledged by the pe- nitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest; and if this be done with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to be absolved in heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at first left wholly indifferent, by the council ; but this was the prelude to its entire abolition in the clwirch of England. — Burnet. CONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian hurch ; it was used by Peter and Paul ; and was general, according to some church au- thorities, in A. D. 190. It is the public profession of the Christian I'eligion bj^ an adiilt person, who was baptized in infancy. It is still retained in the church of England ; but to make it more solemn, it has been advanced into a saci'ament by the church of Rome. CONGE D'ELIRE. The license of the king, as head of the church, to chap- ters, and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had an arrangement with the clergj^' for the election of bishops. Bishops were elected by the king's Conge d Elire, 26 Henry VIII. , 1535. CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settle- ment of the affairs of nations, or of a people. Several congresses were held during the continental wars ; but the following were the most remarkable congresses of Europe : — Congress of Soissons - June 14, 1728 Congress of Carlsbad - Aus. 1, 1819 Congress of Troppau • Oct 20, 1820 Congress of Antwerp - April 8, 1793 Congress of Radstadt - Dec. 9, 1797 Congress of Chatillon - - Feb. 5, 1814 Congress of Vienna - Nov. 3, 1814 Congress of Laybach - May 6, 1821 Congress of Verona - Aug. 25, 1822 See Alliances, Conventions, Sic CONGRESS, U. S. A. The first Colonial Congress, composed of the delegates from nine of the colonies (Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., S. Ca.), met at N. Y. Dec. 7, 1765.-Tim. Ruggles, Prest. The Continental Congress met at Phila. Sep. 5, 1774 : again May 10, 1775 : adopted Dec. Indep. July 4, 1776; met at Bait. Dec. 20, 1776; at Phila. March 4, 1777; at Lancaster, Pa. Sep. 27, 1777; at York, Pa. Sep. 30. 1777 ; at Phila. July 2, 1778; at Prince- ton, June 30, 1783; at Annapolis, Nov. 26, 1783; at Trenton, Nov. 30, 17"84; at N. York, Jan. 1785 ; and that continued to be the place of meeting until the adoption of the constitution, 1789 : removed to Phila. 1790 : to Wash- ington, 1800. CONVENTION, The, for forming the Constitution of the U. S. met at Phila. May 10, 1787 ; in session till Sep. 17, same year. CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general su- William Congreve, in 1803. They were used with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, in Oct. 1806, when they set a part of the town on flre, which burned for two days; they M'ere employed in various operations in the late war with much success, dis- charged by a corps called rocket-men. CONIC SECTIONS. Their most remarkable properties were probably known to the Greeks four or five centuries before the Christian era. Tlie study of them was cultivated in the time of Plato 390 b. c. The earliest treatise was written by Aristteus, about 380 c. c. Appolonius's eight books were 270 THE world's progress. [ CON written about 240 b. c The parabola was applied to projectiles by Galileo; the ellipse to the orbit of planets, by Kelper. CONJURATION and WITCHCRAFT. They were declared to be felony by various statutes, and the most absurd and wicked laws were in force against them in England in former times. See article Witchcraft. Conjuration was felony by statute 1 James I., 1603. This law was repealed 9 George II., 1735 ; but pretensions to such skill was then made punishable as a misde- meanor. — English Statutes. CONNECTICUT. One of the U. States : first settled in 1633, at Windsor, by a eolony from Massachusetts. Hartford, settled by the English in 1635, the Dutch having previously built a foi't there, which they did not permanently hold. English colonj^ founded at New Haven, 1638. The two colonies of New Haven and Hartford united by a charter of Charles II., in 1655. This char- tor, when in danger from the tyranny of Andros, was preserved in an oak, near Hartford, since called the Charter Oak. Conn, took an active part in the revolution; a number of its towns, Danbury, N. London, &c., burnt by the British during that struggle. It became one of the original 13 states, adopting the constitution of the Union in 1788, by a vote of 128 to 40. Pop- ulation 1713, 17.000: 1790, 237.946; 1810, 261,942; 1830, 297,655; 1840, 309,978. CONQUEST, The. The memorable era in British history, when William duke of Normandy overcame Harold II., at the battle of Hastings, and obtained the crown which had been most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the Confessor (for Edgar was the rightful heir) Oct. 15, 1066. William has been erroneously styled the Cnnqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of England by compact. He killed Harold, who was himself a usurper, and defeated his army, but a large portion of the kingdom afterwards held oiit against him, and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the laws and cus- toms of the realm, in order to induce the submission of the people. For- merly the judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar who casually gave him the title of William the Conqueror, instead of Wil- liam I. — Seidell. CONSCRIPT FATHERS. Patres conscripii was the designation given to the Roman senators, and used in speaking of them, in the eras of the republic and the Caesars : becaiise their names were written in the registers of the senate. CONSECRATION. Tlia/ of churches was instituted in the second century, the temple of worship being dedicated with pious solemnity to God and a patron saint. Tl>? consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is admit- .ted in the refoi-med religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in the latter church in 1549. — Stowe. CONSISTORY COURT m England. Anciently the Consistory was joined with the Hundred court, and its original, as divided therefrom, is found in a law of William I. quoted by lord Coke, 1079. The chief and most ancient Con- sistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, tod is called the Court of Arches. CONSPIRACIES AND INSURRECTIONS in GREAT BRITAIN. Among the recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remark- able. They are extracted from Camdeii, Temple, Hume, and other authori- ties of note : — Of Anthony Babington and others, the Duke of Ormond, woiincled him, against Elizabeth - - a. d. 1.58G and would liave hanged him; and The Gunpowder Plot (lehich see) - 160.3 who afterwards stole the crown - 167i Insurrection of the fifth monarchy men The pretended conspiracy ot tlie French, against Charles II. - - -1660 Spanish, and English .Testdts to assas- Of Blood and his associates, who seized sinate Ch. II. revealed by the infa- con] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 271 mous Titus Dates, Dr. Tongue, and others 1678 The Meal-tub plot 1679 The Eye-house plot to assassinate the king on his way to Newmarket. (See Rye-house plot) .... 1683 Of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against Q,ueen Anne. - „ - . 1703 Of Colonel Despard and others, to over- turn the government - - - 1802 Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, when lord Kilwarden was killed - July 23, 1803 Of Moreau, Pichegra, and Georges, against Bonaparte - Feb. 15, 1804 Of Thistlewood, to assassinate the king's ministers. (See Cato-street) - 1820 CONSPIRACIES, in or relating- to the United States. Burr's trial for conspiracy to divide the i United States .... 1807 John Henry's secret mission from the British government, to undermine the American union, exposed, Feb. 25, 1812 CONSTANCE, Council op. The celebrated council of ^iri/tes (!) which con- demned the pious martyrs John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to he burnt alive, a sentence executed upon the first on July 6, 1415, and on the other, on May 30, following. Huss had complied with a summons from the coun- cil of Constance to defend his opinions before the clergy of aU nations in that city, and though the emperor Sigismund had given him a safe-conduct, he was cast into prison. Jerome of Prague hastened to Constance to defend him, but was himself loaded with chains, and in the end shared the fate of his friend. This scandalous violation of public faith, and the cruelty and treachery which attended the punishment of these unhappy disciples of Wickliffe, our great reformer, prove the melancholy truth, that toleration iS not the virtue of priests in any form of ecclesiastical government. — Hume. CONSTANTINA. The former capital of Numidia. It has become known to Europeans but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French occupation of Algiers, fi^ere was fought a great battle between the Fi-ench and the Arabs, Oct. 13, 1837, when the former carried the town by assault, but the French general, Daremont, was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina. CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantino the Great, who removed the seat of the Eastern Empire here, a. d. 828. Taken by the western crusaders who put the emperor Mourzoufle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1204. Retaken by Michael Palseologus, thus restoring the old Greek line, 1261. Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew Constantino Palteologus, the last Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his people, 1453. The city, taken by as- sault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, on seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conquer- or. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125 years, and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Europe See Eastern Empire and Turkey. CONSTANTINOPLE, Era of. This era has the creation placed 5508 years b. c. It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. The civil year begins September 1, and the ecclesias- tical year towards the end of March; the day is not exactly determined. To reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 5509 from September to the end. CONSTELLATIONS. Those of Arcturus, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzaroth, are mentioned by Job, about 1520 b. c. Homer and Hesiod notice constel- lations; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained in very early ages, our first direct knowledge was derived from Claud, PtolemfBus, about a. d. 140. CONSTITUTION of ENGLAND. See Magna Ckarla. It comprehends the whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which 5://i THE world's progress. I CON it is presumptively held that every individual has assented. — Lord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government, in this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought to govern at all times : and government is that by which he does govern at any particular time. — Lord Bolingbroke The king of England is not seated on a solitary eminence of power ; on the contrary, he sees his equals in the co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in the LAW. — Sherida?i. CONSTITUTION of the U. S. Adopted by the general convention of dele- gates from all the (then) states, May, 1787. Ratified by the several states at different times. See the respective states. / The 50th anniversary of Washington's inauguration, was celebrated in New York as a jubilee of the constitution, and John Quincy Adams pronounced an oration before the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840. CONSTITUTION and GUERRIERE. The American frigate Constitution, capt. Hull, after an action of 30 minutes, captured the British frigate Guer- riere, capt. Dacres, Aug. 20, 1812. American loss 7 killed, and 7 wounded, British loss 100 killed and wounded. The English attribiite the victory to the- superior force of the American frigate. As this was the first important naval victory of the U. S., it caused a strong sensation. For others see Naval Battles. CONSULS. These oflScers were appointed at Rome, 509 b. c. They possessed regal authority for the space of a year : Lucius Junius Brutus, and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, were the first consuls. A consular government was established in France, November 9, 1799, when Bonaparte, Cambacerfe, and Lebrun, were made consuls; and subsequently Bonaparte was made first consul for life, May 6, 1802. Com- mercial agents were first distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy, in 1485. CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary. In the two last wars voluntary contributions to a vast amount were several times made by the British people in aid of the government. The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that in 1798, when, to support the war against France, the contributions amount- ed to two millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, among others, sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,OOOZ. ; and200,000i were transmitted from India in 1799. CONVENTICLES. These were private assemblies for religious worship, and were particularly applied to those who differed in form and doctrine from the established church. But the term was first applied in England to the schools of Wickliffe. Conventicles, which were very numerous at the time, were prohibited 12 Charles II., 1661. CONVENTIONS. See Alliances, TVeaties, &c. in their respective places through- out the volume. CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in a. d, 270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. — Camden. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, when Ethelreda took the veil, in 670. They were founded earlier than this last date in Ireland. Convents were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly in that of Heniy VIII., and comparatively few now exist in Great Britain. More than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within the last few years. The emperor of Russia abolished 187 convents of monks, by a ukase dated July 31, 1832. The king of Prussia followed his example, and secularized all the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in Portugal, in 1834, and Spain has lately abolished 1800 convents. COP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 273 CON'VICTS. The first arrival of transported convicts from England, at Botany Bay, was in 1788. Convicts are now sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk Island, Sydney, in New South Wales, &c. See New South Wales and Trans- poTtatio7i. COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in the Endeavor, on his first voyage, July 30, 1768 ;* and returned home after hav- ing circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead, July 13, 1771. _ Sir Joseph Banks, afterwards the illustrious president of the Royal Society, accompanied captain Cook on this voyage. Captain Cook again sailed to explore the southern hemisphere, July 1772, and returned in July 1775. In his third expedition this great navigator was killed by the savages of O-why- hee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of February 14, 1779. His ships, the Eeso- lution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780. COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were incorporated in 1501. COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, a. d. 1443. In 1728 more than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its famous palace, valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 per- sons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arstiial, admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bom- barded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker : and in their engagement with a Danish fleet, of twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, after a bom- bardment of three days, the citj" and the Danish fleet surrendered to admi- ral Gambler and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun- boats, and immense naval stores. — See Denmark. COPERNICAN SYSTEM. The system of the world wherein the sun is sup- posed to be in the centre, and immovable, and the earth and the rest of the planets to move round it in elliptical oi'bits. The heavens and stars are here imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion, which they seem to have from east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east. This system was published at Thorn, a. d. 1530 ; and may in many points be regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. — Gassendus. COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals ; its discovery is said to have preceded that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two ves,sels of fine copper, precious as gold. — Ezra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes, soda, &c., Avill give a sensible color to more than 500,000 times its weight in water ; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if the least drop of water touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun. — Boyle. Tlie mine of Fahlun, in Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now forms an immense branch in the British trade : there are upwards of fifty ' A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 176S, setting forth the advan- ages which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit :il Venus over the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavor was, in consequence, prepared for that purpose, and the command of her given to Lieutenant James Cook. He sailed in .July 1768, touched at iMadeira and Rio de .Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous voyage reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in April 1769. By a comparison of the observa- tions made on this transit (.June 3. 17G9) from the various parts of the globe, on which it was viewed by men of science, the sysiem of the universe has in some particulars, been better understood ; the distance of the sun from ihe earth, as calculated by this and the transit in 1701, is now settled at 10S,0;X),000 miles, instead of ;'';e commonly received computation, of 95,000,000.— J3(£«cr. 12* 274 THE world's progress. [ CO? mines in Cornwall, where mining has been increasing since the reign of Wil- liam HI. COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius TuUius, used rude pieces of copper for money. — See Coin. In England, copper-money is of extensive coinage. That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 1665. It was again coined by the crown, 23 Charles 11., 1672. Private traders had made them previ- ously to this act. In Ireland copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in Scot- land in 1406 ; in France in 1580. Wood's coinage in Ireland {which see) com- menced in 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively used, 1797. COPPER-PLATE PRINTING. This species of printing was first attempted in Germany, about a. d. 1450. Rolling-presses for working the plates were in- vented about 1545. Messrs. Perkins of Philadelphia, invented, in 1819, a mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, will multiply cop- per-plates and fine impressions indefinitely. — See Engraving. COPPERAS. First produced in England by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. COPYRIGHT ON BOOKS, &c. in ENGLAND. The decree of the Star-chamber regarding it, a. d. 1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed, 1585. An ordinance forbidding the printing of any work without the consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright furtlier secured by a statute en- acted in 1709. Protection of copyright in prints and engraving, 17 George III., 1777. Copyright protection act, 54 George III., 1814. Dramatic au- thors' protection act, 3 William IV., 1833. The act for preventing the pub- lication of lectures without consent, 6 William IV., 1835. The act of the 17th George III., extended to Ireland, 7 William IV., 1836. International copyright bill, 1 Victoria, 1838. Copyright of designs for articles of mami- facture protected, 2 Victoria, 1839. For important act of 1842, see Literary Proj)e rty . — Ha ydn. COPYRIGHT IN UNITED STATES. The first act for the protection of literary property in the United States passed chiefly through the influence of Noah Webster, the lexicographer, May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it, April 29, 1802 — granting copyright for 14 years, subject to renewal for 14 years if the author is Uving. Memorial of 56 British authors asking for International Copyright, presented in the Senate by Mr. Clay, Feb. 1, 1837. Act to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of books to secure the copyright must be deposited in there as well as in the library of Congress and oflice of Sec. State, Aug. 10, 1846. COPYRIGHT, Produce of. The following sums are stated to have been paid to the authors for the copyright of the works mentioned. HISTORY. Fragments of English History, by CM. Fox - - - . £5,000 History of England by Sir J. Mackin- tosh 5,000 Ditto, by Linsard - - - - 4,633 Life of Napofeon, by Sir W. Scott - 18,000 History of England, by Macaulay, vol. 1 and remainder, £600 per annum for ten years, say - - - 3,000 Prescott's Historical Works are said to have produced to the author (who yet owns the copyright) before 1850 - ® 100,000 BIOGSAPHY. Life of Wilberforce - - - £4,000 LifcofByron, by Moore - - 4,000 Lockhart's Scott (two years' use) - 12,500 POETRY. Byron's Works (in all) - - £20,000 Moore's Lalla Rookh - - - 3,000 Rejected Addresses - - • 1,000 Campbell's Pleasures of Hope (after ten years' publication) - - 1,000 Campbell's Gertrude, after ditto - 1,500 FICTION. It was estimated that Scott's novels produced for copyright at least - 250,000 Bulwer received for his novels, each 1,200 to 1.500 Mari-yatt, do. do. 1,000 to 1,200 Goldsmith's " Vicar" was sold by Dr. Johnson for - - - - 63 Goldsmith received for " Animated Nature" - - - - 800 Noah Webster is said to have derived lrving"s Columbu- (paid by Murray) - 4,000 ' Book $1000 per annum from his Spelling COR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 275 CORDAGE. The naval cordage in early ages was, probably, merely thongs of leather ; and these primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the third century, and by some northern nations in the ninth. Cordage of weed and of horse-hair was also used anciently before that made of hemp. See Hemp. CORFU. So celebrated in mythology and poetry, and capital of the island of the same name, was placed under British administration, by the treaty of Paris in Nov. 1815. It is the chief of the Ionian Isles, which see. CORINTH. This city was built in 1520 and the kingdom founded by Sisyphus in 1376 B. c. In 146 b. c. the capital was destroj'ed by the Romans, but was rebuilt by Julius Caesar ; and was among the first cities of Greece that em- braced the Christian religion. It Avas defended by a fortress called Acro- corinth, on a summit of a high mountain, surrounded with strong walls, The situation of this citadel Avas so advantageous, that Cicero named it the Eye of Greece, and declared, that of all the cities known to the Romans, Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great empire. Corintli built on the ruins of Epliyra, iAbbe LengleV) . - b. c. 1520 Rebuilt by the king of Sicyon, and first called by its name - - - 1410 Sisyphus, a public robber, seizes upon the city (.idem) - - - - 1375 The Pythian games instituted, it is said by Sisyphus - - - - 1375 The reign of Bacchus, whose successors are called Bacchids, in remembrance of the equity of his reign - - 935 The Corinthians invent ships called A colony goes to Sicily, and they build Syracuse - - - B. c. 732 Sea fight between the Corinthians and Corcyreans - - - . 664 Periander rules and encourages genius ■ and learning .... 629 Death of Periander - - . . 585 The Corinthians form a republic - 582 War with the Corcyreans . . 439 The Corinthian war (which see) - • 395 Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus - 242 The Roman ambassadors first appear triremes ; vessels consisting of three : at Corinth .... 228 benches of oars . - . 786, Corinth destroyed by Lucius Mummius Thelestes deposed, and the government j Avho sends to Italy the first fine paint- of the Prytanes instituted: Auto- ings there seen, they being part of the menes is the first on whom this dig- spoil (Livy) .... 146 nity is conferred - . - 757 1 CORINTHIAN ORDER. The finest of all the orders of ancient architecture, aptly called by Scamozzi, the virginal order, as being expressive of the deli- cacy, tenderness, and beauty of the Avhole composition. The invention of it is attributed to Callimachus, 540 b. c. CORINTHIAN WAR. The war which received this name, because the battles were mostly fought in the neighborhood of Corinth, was begun b. c. 895, by a confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against the Lacedsemouians. The most famous battles were at Corouea and Leuc- tra, tvhich see. CORN OR GRAIN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who having taught the art to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 b. c. — Arundelicm Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and Avine from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 b. c— Univ. Hist. But corn provided a common article of food from the earliest ages of the Avorld, and baking bread Avas knoAAOi in the patriarchal ages. — See Exodus xii. 15. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the sixth century, by Coll ap Coll Fviiv<\.~Roberts' Hist. Anc. Britons. The first importation of corn of AA'hich Ave have note. Avas in 1347. Bounties Avere granted on its importation into England, in 1686. CORN LAWS IN England. Various enactments relative to the duty on " corn'- or grain passed 1814. Riots, caused by the passing of the act permitting its importation Avhen corn should bo 8O5. "per quarter," 1815. The "sliding- scale" of duties passed July 15. 1828. Another April 29. 1842; act fixing 276 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ COB the duty on wheat at 4s. until Feb. 1849, and after that at Is. per quarter, passed June 26, 1846. This was the virtual abolition of the Corn Laws — and the Anti-Corn Law League — which had been formed in 1841 was there- fore formally dissolved, July 2, 1846. CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop, was that of Majocianus, at Constantinople, in a. d. 457. The ceremony of anointing at coronations was introduced into England in 872, and into Scotland in 1097. The coronation of Henry III. took place, in the first instance, without a cro\\Ti, at Gloucester, October 28, 1216. A plain circle was used on this occasion in lieu of the crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John, in passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wishe&ch.—Mattheiu Paris. Rymer. CORONATION FEASTS, and OATH. The oath was first administered to the kings of England by Dunstan (the archbishop of Canterbury, afterwards canonized), to Ethelred II. in 979. An oath, nearly corresponding with that now in use, was administered in 1377 ; it was altered in 1689. The f(^tes given at coronations commenced with Edward I. in 1273. That at the cor- onation of George IV. rivalled the extravagances and sumptuousness of former times. CORONERS. They were officers of the realm in a. d. 925. Coroners for every county in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edward I. 1276. — Stowe. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Mal- colm II., about 1004. By an act passed in the 6th and 7th of queen Victoria, coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them, but only in case of illness. Aug. 22, 1843. CORONETS. The caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish the rank of the nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and for barons by Charles II. — Baker. But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbmy, was the first of the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604. — Bcatson. It is uncertain when the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled. — Idem. CORPORATIONS. They are stated by Livy to have been of very high anti- quity among the Romans. They were introduced into other countries from Italy. These political bodies were first planned by Numa, in order to break the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by instituting sep- arate societies of every manual trade and profession. — Plutarch. CORPORATIONS. MUNICIPAL, in ENGLAND. Bodies politic, authorized by the king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and members, who are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive, in law. any matter within the compass of their charter. — Covxl. Corporations were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of England to vari- ous towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Hemy I. granted charters, a. d. 1100 ; and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them to numerous large communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths, and conditions. — -Blackstone. CORSICA. Called by the Greeks Cyrnos. The ancient inhabitants of this island were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists, according to Seneca, when he existed among them. It was held by the Car- thaginians ; and was conquered by the Romans, 231 b. c. In modern times, Corsica was dependent upon the republic of Genoa, until 1730 ; and was sold to France in 1733. It was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its first and only king, in 1736. He came to England, where he was imprisoned in the King's Bench prison for debt, and for many years subsisted on the be- nevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insolvency COS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 277 in 1756, he g&ve in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica as an estate to his creditors, and died the same year, at his lodgings in Chapel-street, Soho. The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet erected near his grave, in St. Anne's church. Dean-street : — " The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ; Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by the Corsicans, in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vans, and fled to England, 1769, The people acknowledged George III. of England for their king, June 17, 1794, when sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, and he opened a parliament in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in June 1796 ; and the island was -elin- quished by the British, Oct. 22, same year, when the people declared for the French. CORTES OF SPAIN. A deliberative assembly under the old constitution oi Spain ; several times set aside. The cortes were newly assembled after a long interval of years, Sept. 24, 1810; and they settled the new constitution, March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who banished many members of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes or states- general were opened by Ferdinand VII. 1820, and they have since been reg- ularly convened. CORUNNA, Battle of, between the British army under sir John Moore (who was killed) and the French, Jan. 16, 1809. COSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients, and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Gre- cian stage. The Roman ladies painted ; and those of Italjj^ excelled in height- ening their charms artificially, by juices and colors, and by perfumes, Rouge has always been in disrepute among the virtuous and well-ordered women of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded as innocent, and are in general use. — Ashe. ' The females of France and Germany paint more highly than most other nations. — Richwrdson. A stamp was laid on cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as reallj'' or suppositiously beau- tify the skin, or perfume the person, and the venders were obliged to take out licenses, 26th Geo. III. 1786. COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition, and relation of the parts of the world, or the manner of representing it on a plane. — Sclden. It consists of two parts, astronomy and geography : the earliest accounts of the former occur 2234 b. c. — Blair. The first record of the latter is from Homer, who describes the shield of Achilles as rep- resenting the earth. — Iliad. See the articles on Astronomy and Geography respectively. COSSACKS. The warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia, Tartary, and Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys and the people of Natolia : they were formed into a regular army by Ste phen Batori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the incursions of the Tartars. In the late great war of Europe against France, a vast body of Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian armies, and fought almost in- vincibly. COSTUME. See Dress. Accounts of magnificent attire refer to verj' remote antiquity. The costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and graceful. The women of Cos, whose country was famous for the silkworm, wore a manufacture of cotton and silk of so beautiful and delicate a texture, and their garments, which were always white, were so clear and thin, thai 278 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. I COT their bodies could be seen through them. — Ovid. As relates to costume worn on the stage, ^schylus the Athenian was, it is said, the first who erected a regular stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to be suited to their characters, about 436 b. c. — Parian Marbles. COTTON. The method of spinning cotton formerly was by the hand ; but about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny with eight spindles ; he also erected the first carding-machine with cylin- ders. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a new invention of machinery in 1769 ; and another patent for an engine in 1775. Crompton invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manufac- ture of cotton, in 1779, and various other improvements have been since made. The names of Peel and Arkwright are eminently conspicuous in con- nection with this vast source of British industry ; and it is calculated that more than one thousand millions sterling have be- .^n yielded by it to Great Britain. Cotton manufacturers' utensils were prohibited from being export- ed in 177i. — Haydn. HISTORY OF COTTON, FOR OVER ONE HUNDRED YEARS. The following brief items of the hislonj of cotton, from 1730 to 1836, are taken from a South Carolina paper : — 1730. Mr. Wyatt spins the first cotton yarn in England by machinery. 1735. The Dutch first export cotton from Surinam. 1742. First mill for spinning cotton erected at Bu-minghara, moved by mules or liorses ; but not successful in its operations. 1749. Tlie fiy shuttle generally used in England. 1^56. Cotton velvets and quiltings made in England for the first time. 1761. Arkwright obtained the first patent for tlie spinning frame, which he further improved. 1768. The stocking frame applied by Hammond to makins of lace. 1773. A bill passeil to prevent the export of macliinery used in cotton factories. 1779. Mule spinning invented by Hargra\'e. 17S2. First import of raw cotton from Brazil into England. 1782. Watt look out his patent for the steam-engine. 1783. A bounty granted m England on the export of certain cotton goods. 1785. Power-looms invented by Dr. Cart- wright — steam engines used in cotton fac- tories. 1785. Cotton imported into England from the United States. 1786. Bleaching first performed by the agency of the oxyniuriaiic acid. 1787. First machinery to spin cotton put in operation in France. 1789. bea Island cotton first planted in the United States ; and upland cotton first cul- tivated for use and export about this time. 1790 Slator, an Englishman, builds the first American cotton factor)^, at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. 1792. Eli Whitney, an American, invents the cotton gin, which he patents. 1798. First mill and machinery for cotton erected in Switzerland. 1799. Spinning by machinery introduced into Saxony this year. IS03. First cotton factory built in New Hampshire. 1805. Power-looms successfully and widely introduced into England. 1807. The revolution in Spanish America begins to furnish new markets for cotton manufactures. 1810. Digest of cotton manufactures in the United States by Mr. Gallatin, and another by Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia. 1811. Machinery to make bobbin lace pa- tented by John Burn. 1813. The India trade more free, and more British manufactures sent thither. 1S14. The power-loom introduced into the United States ; first at Waltham. 1818. Average price of cotton 34 cents — higher than since 1810. New method ol preparing sewing cotton by Mr. Holt. 1819. Extraordinary prices for Alabama cotton lands. 1820. Steam power first applied with suc- cess extensively to lace manufactures. 1822 First cotton factory in Lowell erected. 1823. First export of raw cotton from Egypt into Great Britain. 1825. In New Orleans cotton at from 23 to 25 cents per pound. 1826. Selfacting mule spinner patented in England by Roberts. 1827. American cotton manufactures first exported to any considerable extent. 1829. Highest duty in the United States on foreign cotton manufactures. 1830. About this time Mr. Dyer introduced a machine from the United States into Eng- land for the purpose of making cards. 1832. Duty on cotton goods imported int.T the United States reduced ; and in England it is forbid to employ minors in cotton mills, to work them more than ten hours per day, or more than nine hours on a Saturday ; m consequence they work at something else. 1834. Cotton a't 17 cents. 1835. Extensive purchases made of cottos lands by speculators and others. 1836. Cotton at from 18 to 20 cents. cou ] DICTIOISAKY OF DATES. 279 COTTONIAN LIBRARY. Formed by great labor and with great judgment by sir Robert Cotton, a. d. 1600 et seq. This vast trea.sury of knowledge, after having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans during the protectorate, was secured to the public by a statute, 13 William III. 1701. It was removed to Essex-house in 1712 ; and in 1730 to Dean's- yard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained damage by fire. The library was removed to the British Museum in 1753. COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfred, to whom we are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the busi- ness of the nation, that all resolutions passed through thi'ee councils. The first was a select council, to which those only high in the king's confidence were admitted ; here were debated all aftairs that were to be laid before the second council, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the present priry council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king was pleased to appoint. The third was a general- council or assembly of the na- tion, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot, to which quality and offices gave a right to sit independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of pai'liaments ; but the term cabinet coimcil is of a much more modern date, according to lord Clar- endon. — See Cabinet Comicil, Common Coimcil, Privy Council, &c. COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH, The following are among the most memorable Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils (the list of which would make a volume) either respected national churches or ecclesiastical government. Sir Harris Nicolas enumerates 1604 councils. The second Lateran, tenth General, In- nocent II. presided ; the preservation of the temporal ties of ecclesiastics, the principal subject, which occa- sioned the attendance of 1000 la- thers of the church - - A. D. 113'J The third Lateran, eleventh General ; held against schismatics - -1179 Fourth Lateran, twelfth General ; 400 bishops and 1000 abbots attended; Innocent III. presided - - - 1213 Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, under pope Innocent IV. - - - 1245 Ot Lyons, the fourteenth General, under Gregory X. - - - - 1274 Of Vienne in Dauphine, the fifteenth General; Clement V. presided, and the kings of France and Arragon at- tended. The order of the Knight Templars suppressed - - -1311 Of Pisa, the sixteenth General ; Gre- gory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed, and Alexander elected Of Constance, the seventeenth General ; Martin V. is elected pope ; and John Huss and Jerome of Prague con- demned to be burnt Of Basil, the eighteenth General The fi llh Lateran, the nineteenth Gene- ral, begun by Julius II. - - 151ii Continued under Leo X. for the sup- pression of the Pragmatic sanction of France, against the council of Pisa, &c. till - - - - - 15' I Of Trent, the twentieth and last Gene- ral council, styled OEcumenical, as re- garding the affairs of all the Chris- tian world ; it was held to condemn the doctrines of the reformers, Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin. — Abbe Lenglet 154r Of the Apostles at Jerusalem - a. d Of the western bishops at Aries, in France, to suppress the Donatists ; tliree fathers of the English church went over to attend it - The first (Ecumenical or General Ni- cene, held at Nice, Constantine the Great presided; Arius and Eusebius condemned for heresy. This council composed the Nicene Creed - At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana- sius was canvassed The first held at Constantinople, when the Arian heresy gained ground At Rome, concerning Athanasius, which lasted eighteen months At Sardis ; 370 bishops attended Of Rimini ; 400 bishops attended, and Constantine obliged them to sign a new confession of faith The second General at Constantinople ; 350 bishops attended, and pope Da- masius presided The third at Ephesus, when pope Ce- lestine presided Fourth at Chalcedon ; the emperor Jlar- cian and his empress attended The fifth at Constantinople, when pope Vigilius presided The sixth at Constantinople, when pope Agatho presided Authority of the six general councils re- established by Theodosius The second Nicene council, seventh Ge- neral ; 350 bishops attended - Of Constantinople, eighth General ; the emperor Basil attended The first Lateran, the ninth General ; the right of investitures settled by treaty betv/een pope Calixtus IL and the emperor Henry V. • , - 335 1409 1414 1431 280 THE world's progress. [ cov COUNCILS, French Republican. The council of Ancients was an assembly of revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. 1, 1795, together with the council of Five Hundred ; the executive was a Directory of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St. Cloud, Nov 9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and Sieyes, consuls pro- visoires. — See France. COUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusion were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward I., 1284. Coun- sel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 William HI. 1696. Act to enable persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel, 6 & 7 William IV., Aug. 1836. COUNTIES. The division of England into counties began, it is said, with king Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. County courts were instituted in the reign of Alfred, 896. Counties first sent members to par- liament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1259. — See CoTmnons, and Parliament. COURIERS OR POSTS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus ; and Herodotus says tliat thej^ were common among the Persians. But it does not appear that the Greeks or Romans had regular couriers till the time of Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 b. c. Couriers or posts are said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. The couriers or posts for letters were established in the early part of the reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary eager- ness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, a. d. 14iSZ.—Hena%at. COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. — See Areopor- gitce. There were courts for the distribution of Justice in Athens, in 1272 E. c. — Blair. They existed under various denominations in Rome, and other countries. COURT OF HONOR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high constable was a judge, was called Curia M'ditaris in the time of Henry IV., and subsequently the Court of Honor. In the Stat^es of Bavaria, in order to prevent duelling, a court of honor was instituted in April, 1819. In these countries, Mr. Josepli Hamilton has ardently labored to establish similar in- stitutions. COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those persons who in the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby mutually engaging to stand by each other in opposition to the projects of the king ; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between England and Scotland, was formed in 1643 ; it was declared to be illegal by parliament, 14 Charles II., 1662. COVENTRY. PEEPING TOM of. The great show fair of Coventry owes its origin to the following tradition: — Leofric, earl of Mercia, had imposed such heavy taxes on the citizens, his ladj^, Godiva, moved by their entreaties, importuned her lord to remit them, and he consented on the condition of her riding naked through the city at mid-day. Her humanity induced her to consent, and she so disposed her flowing tresses as to hide her person ; and ordering all the inhabitants, on pain of death, to close their doors and win- dows, she rode quite naked through the town. One person, yielding to curiosity, stole a glance at the countess, and was struck dead ; and has been famed ever since under the name of Peeping Tom, and his effigy is shown to this day. To commemorate this event, a. d. 1057, at the great show fair the mayor and corporation walk in procession through the town, accom- CRE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 28 1 panied by a female on horseback, clad in a linen dress closely fitted to her limbs. COW-POCK INOCULATION. This species of inoculation, as a security against the small-pox, was introduced by Dr. Jenner, and it became general in 1799. The genuine cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the teats of the cow, and was first noticed by Dr. Jenner, in 1796. He was re- warded by parliament with the munificent grant of ^10,000, June 2, 1802. — See Inoculation, Small-Pox, Vaccination. CRACOW. The Poles elect Cracus for their duke, and he builds Cracow with the spoils taken from the Franks, a. d. 700, et seq. Taken by Charles XII. in 1702 ; taken and retaken by the Russians and confederates on the one side and the patriotic people on the other several times. Kosciusko expel- led the Russian garrison from the city, March 24, 1794. It surrendered ito the Prussians, June 15, same year. Formed into a republic in 1815. Occu- pied by 10,000 Russians who followed there the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831. Its independence extinguished ; seized by the emperor of Austria, and in- corporated with the Austrian empire, November, 1846. — See Poland. CRANES. They are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may be so called. The theory of the inclined plain, the pulley, &c. are also his, 220 B. c. — Livy. CRANIOLOGY. The science of animal propensities. Dr. Gall, a German, started this new doctrine respecting the brain, in 1803. Dr. Spurzheim fol- lowed, and by his expositions gave a consistency to the science, and it seems to be rapidly gaining groimd ; it has now many professors, and in almost all countries craniology is countenanced by learned and enlightened men. The science assigns the particular locations of certain organs, or as many differ- ent seats of the most prominent operations of the mind. CRANMER, LATIMER, and RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the list of Eng- lish martyrs of the reformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and Lati- mer, bishop of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555>; and Cran- mer, archbishop of Canterbury, March 21, 1556. His love of life had in- duced Cranmer, some time previously, in an unguarded moment, to sign a paper wherein he condemned the Reformation ; and when he was led to the stake, and the fire was kindled round him, lie stretched forth his right hand, with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, '■ This unworthy hand !" Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first martyr of the Christian church, "Lord Jesus, receive my spirit!" CRAPE. A light kind of stuflf like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and twisted on the mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said some crape was made by St. Badour, when queen of France, about a. d. 680. It was first made at Bologna, and in modern times has been principally used for mourning. CRAYONS. They were known in France before a. d. 1422 — improved by L'Oriot, 1748. CREATION or the WORLD. It was placed by Usher, Blair, and Dufresnoy, 4004 E. c. Josephus makes it 4658 years. — Whiston. The first date agrees with the common Hebrew text, and the vulgate Latin translation of the Old Testament. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the creation : some place it 3616 years before the birth of our Saviour. Plato, in his dia- logue entitled Critias, asserts his celebrated Atalahtis to have been buried in the ocean about 9000 years before the age in which he wrote. The Chi- nese represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands of years ; and we are told that the astronomical records of the ancient Chal- 282 THE world's PROGKESS, [ CRl deans carried back the origin of society to a period of no less than 473,000 years. CREATION, Era or the. In use by many nations. This era would be found convenient, by doing away with the difficulty and ambiguity of counting before and after any particular date, as is necessary when the era begins at a later period ; but, unfortunately, writers are not agreed as to the right time of commencing. This epoch is fixed by the Samaritan Pentateuch at 4700 B. c. The Septuagint makes it 5872. The authors of the Talmud make it 5344 ; and difierent chronologers, to the number of 120, make it vary from the Septuagint date to 3268. Dr. Hales fixed it at 5411 ; but the Catholic church adopted the even number of 4000, and subsequently, a cor- rection as to the birth of Christ adds four years : tlierefore, it is now gener- ally considered as 4004 years, which agrees with the modern Hebrew text. CREED. The Apostles' Creed is supposed to have been written a great while after their time. — Pardon. It was introduced formally into public worship in the Greek church at Antioch, and subsequently into the Roman church. This creed was translated into the Saxon tongue, about a. d. 746. The Nicene Creed talies its name from the council by whom it was composed, iu A, D. 325. The Athanasian Creed is supijosed to have been Aviitten about 340. — See Apostles', Nicene, and other creeds. CRESSY, OR CRECY, Battle of. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Ed- ward the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip, king of France, Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs ever achieved by English arms. John, duke of Bohemia ; James, king of Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; a number of French nobles, together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia was three ostrich feathers, with the motto '• Ich Dien," in English, " I serve ;" and in memory of this victory it has since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of Eng- land. — Froissart, Carte, Hume. CRESTS. The ancient warriors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies by the sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of crests is ascribed to the Carians. In English heraldry, are several represen- tations of Richard I., 1189, with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume of feathers ; and after his reign most of the English kings have crowns above their helmets; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by a lion on a cap of dignit.y. In later reigns, the crest was regularly borne as Avell on the helmet of the kings, as on the head-trappings of their horses. CRETE. Now Candia, wliich see. This island was once famous for its hundred cities, and for the laws which the wisdom of Minos established about 1015 B. c. Some authors reckon the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven won- ders of the woi-ld. Crete became subject to the Roman empire, 68 b. c. It was conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 808 ; taken by the Greeks, 961 ; passed into the hands of the Venetians, 1194 : and was taken from them by the Turks, in im'd.—PrieslUy. CRIME. " At the present moment," observes a popular English writer, "a one-fifteenth part of the whole i^opulation of the United Kingdom is sub- sisting b}'' the lowest and most degrading prostitution ; another fifteenth have no means of support but by robbery, swindling, pickpocketing, and every species of crime ; and five-fifteenths of the people are what are denorni- - nated poor, living from hand to mouth, and daily sinking into beggary, and, as an almost necessary consequence, into crime."' A comparative \iew of foreign countries with Great Britain demonstrates the effects of poverty and ignorance on tlie great mass of the population. In North America pauper- ism is almost unlcnown, and one fourth of the people are educated ; pre- CRO J DICTIONAE.Y OF DATES. 283 meditated murder is alone capital ; imprisonment for debt has, in several states, been abolished, and crimes, particiilarly of enormity, are exceedingly rare. The Dutch, who possess a competency, and are generally educated, are comparative!}^ free from grave ofiences ; and France affords a remark- able illustration in the same waj^ But in the United Kingdom, the differ- ence is painfully exemplified : — Scotland. England. Ireland. Instruction to the people - - - 1 in 11 - 1 in 20 - 1 in 35 Criminals among the people - 1 in 5093 - 1 in 920 - 1 in 468 There was recently a revision of the English criminal code, and several acts have been passed calculated to reduce the amount of crime, and miti- gate the severity of its punishment. An act for improving the criminal law of England, passed 8 George IV., 1827. An act for consolidating and revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Mr. Peel's digest, passed 9 George IV., 1828. Hanging criminals in chains was abolished by statute 4 William IV., 1834. See E.vecutions, Hanging, Triak,SLC. — Haydri. CRIMEA. The ancient Taurica Chersonesus. Settled by the Genoese, in 1193. The Genoese were expelled bj' the Crim Tartars, in 1474. The khans were tributary to the Turks until 1774. The Russians, with a large army, took possession of this country, in 1783 ; and it was ceded to them the following year; and secured to them in 1791. CRISPIN. The name sometimes given to shoemakers. Ci-ispin and Crispianus were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from whence, it is said, they tra- velled to Soissons, in France, about a. d. 303, to propagate the Christian religion ; and because they would not be chargeable to others for their main- tenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers ; but the governor of the town discovering them to be Christians ordered them to be decollated. On this account, the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them as their tutelar saints. CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 b. c— Blair. Of this class were Varro, Cicero, Appolonius, and many distinguished men. In modern times, the Journal de Scavans was the earliest work of the system of period- ical criticism, as it is now known. It was originated by Dennis de Sallo, ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and was first published at Paris, May 30, 1665, and continued for neai'ly a century. The first work of this kind in England, was called the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term being invented by himself ) published in Feb. 1703. The Wales of Litera- ture was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. The Monthly Revicxo, which may be said to have been the third work of this nature in England, was published 1749. The Critical Review appeared in 1756 ; the Edinburgh Review, in 1802 ; and London Qioarterly in 1809. The American Review, established in N. Y. 1799, was the first Review in the U. S. The North American Review was established by Wm. Tudor in 1818; the Ameri- can Quarterly, by Robert Walsh, at Phila., 1827; the New York Review, by Prof C. S. Henry, 1835; the SoiMiern Quarterly, at Charleston, 1842. See Periodicals. The legality of fair criticism was established in the English courts, in Feb 1794, when an action that excited great attention, brought by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique i\pon his work, was de- termined in favor of the defendant, on the principle that criticism, however sharp, if just and not malicious, is allowable. See Reviews, &c. CROCKERY. In use, and made mention of as produced by the Egyptians and Greeks, so early as 1390 b. c. The Romans excelled in this kind of Avare, many of their domestic articles being of earthen manufacture. Crockery, of a fine kind, in various' household utensils, was made at Faenza, in Italy, about A. D. 1310; and it is still caWcdL fayence in French. See Earthenware. 284 THE world's -progress. [ GUI. CROWN. "The ancientest mention of a royal crown is in the holy story of the Amalekites bringing Saul's crown to David." — Selden. The first Ro- man who wore a crown was Tarquin, 616 b. c. The crown was first a fillet tied round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and also of stuffs adorned with jewels. The royal crown was first worn in En- gland by Alfred, in a. d. 872. The first crown or papal cap was used by pope Damasius II., in 1053; John XIX. first encompassed it with a crown, 1276 ; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295 ; and Benedict XII, form- ed tlie tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously wore a crown with two circles. — Rainaldi. CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on account of the shame attached to it : it was usuallj^ accompanied by other tortures. Among early accounts may be mentioned, that Ariarathes of Cap- padocia. when vanquished by Perdiccas, M'as discovered among the prison- ers ; and by the conqueror's orders the unhappy monarch was flayed alive, and then nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, in the eighty-first year of his age, 322 e. c. Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constan- tine, A. D. 330. — Leiiglet. See Death, Punishment of. (URUSADES, OR Holy Wars. (In French, Croisades.) Undertaken by the Chris- tian powers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem, and the adjacent countries, called the Holy Land. They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter the Hermit, an enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted the military profession and turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy Land, he deplored, on his return, to pope Urban II. that infidels should be in possession of the famous city where the author of Christianity first promul- gated his sacred doctrines. Ui'ban convened a Council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian poten- tates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to a general war, a. d. 1094. The first crusade was published ; an army of 300,- 000 men was raised, and Peter had the direction of it, 1095. — Voltaire. The holy warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulders, with the name of Crois6s, Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volonte de Dieu, "God's will." The epidemical rage for crusading now agitated Europe, and in the end, these unchristian and iniquitous wars against the rights of mankind, cost the lives of 2,000,000 of men. — Voltaire. CUBA. Discovered by Columbus on his first voj^age, in 1492. It was conquered by Valasquez, in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The Buccaneer Mor- gan took Havana in 1669. See Buccaneers. The fort here was erected by admiral Vernon, in 1741. Havana was taken by admiral Pococke and lord Albermarle in 1762, but was restored at the peace, in 1763. Attempt of Lopez and his 400 followers, landing at Cardenas, to stir up a revolution, defeated May, 1850. CLTBIT. This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we read of; the ark of Noah was made and measured by cubits. — Holden. The Fe- brew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven Eng' ish feet. Originally it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards to ihe extremity of the middle finger. — Cahnet. CUCUMBERS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and Egypt, where, it is^said, they constituted the greater part of the food of the poor and slaves. This plant is noticed by Virgil, and other ancient poets. It was brought to England from the Netherlands, about 1538. CULLODEN, Battle of. In which the English, imder William duke of Cum- berland, defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the yoimg Pretender, the last of the Stuarts, near Inverness, April 16, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 men CYC] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 285 m killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursuit, while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. The duke's army prac- tised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenceless inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the battle. — Smollett. Immediately after the engagement. Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and continued wandering among the frightful wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,- 000^. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were constantly in search. He at length escaped from the Isle of Uist to Morlaix, and died at Rome, in 1788. CURACOA. In the Caribbean Sea, seized by Holland, in 1634. In 1800, the French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with ' the Dutch, the latter surrendered the island to % single British frigate. It was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a British squadron, in 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814. CURFEW BELL. From the French couvre feu. This w^s a Norman institii- tion, introduced into England in the reign" of William I , a. d. 1068. On the ringing of the cui'few at eight o'clock in the evening, all fires and candles were to be extinguished, under a severe penalt3^ — Ra-pvn. The curfew was abolished 1 Hen. I., a. d. 1100. CURRANTS. They were brought from Zante, and the tree planted in England 1533. The hawthorn currant-tree (Ribes oxyacanthoides) came from Canada in 1705. CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and con- sent. By lawyers and civilians it is defined lex non scripta, and it stands opposed to Lex scripta, or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is derived from a. d. 1189, downwards. Sixty years is binding in civil law, and forty years in ecclesiastical cases. CUSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethel- red II., in 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was estab- lished 3 Edward I., 1274. The customs were farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith, for 20,000^. for several years, in the reign of Elizabeth. — Stowe. They were farmed by Charles II. for 39O,O0OZ. in the" year l&m.—Davenant. In 1748 they amounted to - ;e2,000,000 In 1808 ditto - - 9,973,240 111 1823 ditto - . - 11,498,762 In 1830 United Kingdom - - 17,540,323 In ia35 ditto - - - 18,612,906 In 1840 ditto - - 19,915,296 The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., on every sack of wool, M. ; on every last of hides, &d. ; and 2d. on every barrel of wine. — Annals of Dublin. Custom-house officers, and officers of excise, were disquahfied from voting for the election of members of parliament, by statute 22 George III., 1782. See Revenue. CUSTOMS (DUTIES) in the UNITED STATES. The amounts collected $15,005,612 ■ 20,098,714 21,922,391 19 391 311 13^499^940 See Tariff. CYCLE. That of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of llie week return to the same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen lunar years and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty years or sexagenary. The Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years, by V'ictorins. .\.r).463. — Blair. In 1530 they amounted to - - jB14,000 In 1592 ditto - - - 50,000 In 1614 ditto - - 148,000 In 1622 duto - - - 168,000 In 1642 ditto - - 500,000 In 1720 ditto - - - 1,555,600 were, in 1789-91 1800 . 1805 1810 - 1815 - 84,399,473 - 9,080,9.38 12,936,487 • 8,583,309 - 7,282,942 1820 1825 1830 1835 1840 1845 - ■ $27,528,113 1846 - - 26,712.668 1847 - - 23,747.864 1848 - - 31,757,070 286 THE world's progress. ^ [ DAG CYCLOPEDIA— See Encyclopedia. CYMBAL. The oldest musical instrument of which we have certain record. It was made of brass, like a kettle drum, and some think in the same form, but smaller. Xenophon makes mention of the cymbal as a musical instru- ment, whose invention is attributed to Cybele, by whom, we are told, it was used in her feasts, called the mysteries of Cybele, about 1580 b. c. The ffistivals of Cybele were introduced by Scamander, with the dances of Cory- bantes, at Mount Ida, 1546 b. c. CYNICS. The sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes, 396 b. c. — Diog. Laert. He lived in the ninety-fourth Olympiad. — Pardon. These philoso- phers valued themselves for contemning all worldly things, and even all sciences, except morality; they were very free in reprehending vice, and did all their actions publicly, and practised the greatest obscenities without blushing. — Idem. Diogenes was one of this sect. They generally slept on the ground. — Diog. Laert. CYPRUS. An island, whose inhabitants anciently were much given to love and pleasure. — Pliny. It was divided among several petty kings till the time of Cyrus, who subdued them ; it ranked among the proconsular pro- vinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 648; but recovered by the Romans, in 957. Cyprus was reduced bj'' Richard I. of England, in 1191. Taken by the Turks from the Venetians, in 1570. — Priestley. CYRENAIC SECT. Aristippus the Elder, of Cyrene, was the founder of the CjTenaici, 392 b. c. Thej' maintained the doctrine that the supreme good of man in this life is pleasure, and particularly pleasure of a sensual kind ; and said that virtue ought to be commended because it gave pleasure, and onlj' so far as it conduced thereto. The sect flourished for several ages. — Laer. Ar. Cicero. CYRENE. Founded by Battus, 030 b. c. Aristseus, who was the chief of the colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called Pentap- olis, on account of its five towns, namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apol- lonia, and Arsinoe. Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 B. c. It is now a desert. — Priestley. CZAR, From Cffisar, a title of honor assumed by the sovereigns of Russia. Ivan Basilowitz, after having achieved great triumphs over the Tartars, and made many conquests, pursued them to the centre of their own country, and returning in triumph, took the title of Tzar, or Czar (signifying Great King). — Aspin's Chron. The courts of Europe consented to address the Russian Czar by the title of Emperor in 1722. — Idem. D. DAGUERREOTYPE. The name given to a process invented by M. Daguerre of Paris, in 1839, by which perfect fac-similes of objects are transferred upon thin copper plates, plated with silver. The images are produced by the ac- tion of light upon the iodine, through the focus of the camera obscura. An apparatus somewhat kindred in design, was in contemplation about the same time by M. Niepc^. and about 5 years previously by Henry Fox Talbot of Lon- don: the original idea, however, is traceable as far back as the days of Roger Bacon. By means of the Talbotype, a recent improvement upon the above process, pictures in colors are produced both on paper and plates. So im- portant a discovt'ry in the fine arts, was the Daguerreotype deemed by the French government that it awarded to its inventor a life pension of 6000 francs. UAK ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 287 DAMASCUS. This city was in being in the time of Abraham. — Gen. xiv. It is, consequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians, Damascus passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks under Alex- ander ; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 b. c. It was taken by the Saracens, a. d. 633 ; by the Turks in 1006 ; and was destroyed by Tamerlane in 1400. It was in a journey to this place that the apostle Paul was miracu- lously converted to the Christian faith, and here he began to preach the gospel, about a. d. 50. Damascus is now the capital of a Turkish pachalic. DAMASK LINENS and SILKS. They were first manufactured at Damascus, and hence the name, their large fine figures representing flowers, and being raised above the groundwork. They were beautifully imitated by the Dutch and Flemish weavers ; and the manufacture was brought to England by artisans who fled from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, between the years 1571 and 1573. — Anderson. DAMON AND PYTHIAS. Pythagorean philosophers. When Damon was con- demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he obtained leave to go and settle some domestic affaii's, on a j^romise of returning at the appoint- • ed time of execution, and Pythias being surety for the performance of his engagement. When the fatal hour approached, Damon had not appeared, and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led away to execution ; but at this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge. Dionysius was so struck with the fidelity of these friends, that he remitted the sentence, and entreated them to permit him to share their friendship, 387 b. c. DANCING. The dance to the measure of time Avas invented by the Curetes, 1534 B. c. — Ensebhis. The Greeks were the first who united the dance to their tragedies and comedies. Pantomimic dances were first introduced on the Roman stage, 22 b. c. — Usher. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced into England from Italy a. d. 1541. In modern times, the French were the first who introduced ballets analogues in their musical dramas. The country dance {contrc-daiise^ is of French origin, but its date is not precisely known. — Spelman. DANES, Invasions op the. The invasions of this people were a scourge to England for upwards of two hundred years. During their attacks upon Britain and Ireland, they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Nor- mans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 912. DANTZIC. A commercial city in a. d. 997. — Busching. It was built, accord- ing to other authorities, by Waldemar I. in 1169. Seized by the king of Prussia, and annexed to his dominions in 1793. It surrendered to the French after a siege of four months. May 5, 1807? and by the treaty of Til- sit, it was restored to its former independence, under the protection of Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and after a gallant resistance, surrendered to them Jan. 1. 1814. By the treaty of Parif- it again reverted to the king of Prussia. Awful inundation here, owing to the Vistula breaking through its dykes, by which 10 000 head of cattle and 4,000 houses were destroyed, and a vast number of lives lost, April 9. 1829. DARDANELLES, Passage of the. The Dardanelles are two castles, one called Sestos, seated in Romania, the other called Abydos, in Natolia, commanding the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli. They were built by the emperor Mahomet IV., in 1659, and Avere nnmed Dardanelles from the contiguous toTn of Dardanns. The gallnnt cxpli.tit oi' forcing the passage; of the Dan 288 THE world's progress. [ DEA danelles was achieved by the British squadron under admiral sir John Duckworth, Feb. 19, ISOY ; but the admiral was obliged to repass them, which he did with great loss and immense damage to the fleet, March 2, following, the castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down rocks of stone, each of many tons weight, upon the decks of the British ships. DAUPHIN. The title given to the eldest sons of the kings of France, from the province of Dauphine, which was ceded by its last prince, Humbert II. to Philip of Valois, on the condition that the heirs of the French throne should bear the arms and name of the province, a. d. 1343. — Priestley. DAVIS'S STRAIT. Discovered by the English navigator, John Davis, whose name it bears, on his voyage to find a North-west passage, in 1585. DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sun- set among the Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans day commenced at midnight, as it now does among us. The Italians in most places, at the present time, reckon the day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day, as is done in all other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but par- tially used in the larger towns of Italy, most public clocks in Florence, Rome, and Milan, being set to the hour designated on French or English clocks. The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil day is distinguished from the astronomical day, which begins at noon, and is the mode of reckoning used in the Nautical Almanac. At Rome, day and night were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of Scipio Nasica, 158 b. c. — Vossius de Scien. Math. DEACON. An order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise from the institution of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a long period in many churches, about a. d. 51. See Acts, chap. vi. The original deacons were Philip, Stephen, Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parme- nos, and Nicolas. The qiialifications of a deacon are mentioned by St. Paul, 1st Timothy iii. 8-13. DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was made bj' Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about a. d. 1570. Bonet, who was also a monk, published a system at Madrid, in 1620. Dr. Wallis published a work in England on the subject, in 1650. The first regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Great Britain was opened in Edinburgh in 1773. DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, and INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. In 1810 there were 6 916 blind persons, or 1 in 2 467 of the population; 7,659 deaf and dumb or 1 in 2 228; 17,434 insane and idiotic, or 1 in 979. There were in the United States 28 asylums for the insane, with about 2,840 patients. Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the United States, are Dr. Amariah Brigham, of Hartford; Dr. S. G. Howe, of Boston ; Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, Hartford. DEATH, Punishment op. Death by drowning in a quagmire was a punish- ment among the Britons before 450 b. c. — Stoive. The most eulogized heroes of antiquity inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women suffered on the cross, the victims sometimes living in the most excruciating torture many days. A most horrifying instance'of death by torture occurs in the fate of Mithridates. an assassin of Xerxes. See a note to the article Persia; see also Ravillac; BoUin.g to Death; Burning to Death. Sic. Maurice, the son of a nobleman, was hanged, drav.-n, and quartered for piracy, the first execution in that manner in England. 25 Henry III.. 1241. The punishment DEL ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 289 of death was abolished in a great number of cases by Mr. Peel's acts, 1824-9, in-other cases 1832, for forgery 1837. Capital punishment, except in cases of martial law, abolished by Prussia, and by German parliament, at Frank- fort, same day, August 4, 1848. DECEMBER. In the year of Romulus this was the tenth month of the year, called so from decern, ten, the Romans commencing their year in March. Numa introduced January and February before the latter month, in 713 B. c, and from thenceforward December became the twelfth of the year. DECEMVIRI. Ten magistrates, who were chosen annually at Rome to go- vern the commonwealth instead of consuls ; first instituted 450 b. c. — Livy. The decemviral power became odious on account of their tyranny, and the attempt of Appius Claudius to defile Virginia, and the office was abolished, the people demanding from the senate to burn the decemviri alive. Con- suls were again appointed, and tranquillity restored. — See Virginia. DEEDS. They were formerly written in the Latin and French languages : the earliest known instance of the English tongue having been used in deeds, is that of the indenture between the abbot and convent of Whitby, and Robert, the son of John Bustard, dated at York, in the year 1343. The English tongue was ordered to be used in all law pleadings in 1364. Ordei'ed to be used in all law-suits in May, 1731. DEFENDER of the FAITH. Mdei Defensor. A title conferred by Leo X. on Henry VIII. of England. The king' wrote a tract in behalf of the Church of Rome, then accounted Domicilium fidei CatholiccB, and against Luther, who had just begun the Reformation in Germany, upon which the pope gave him the title of Defender of the Faith, a title still retained by the monarchs of Great Britain: the bull conferring it bears date Oct. 9, 1521. DEGREES. The first attempt to determine the length of a degree is recorded as having been made, by Eratosthenes, about 250 b. c. — Snellius. The first degree of longitude was fixed by Hipparchus of Nice (by whom the latitude was determined also), at Ferro, one of the Canary islands, whose most west- ern point was made the first general meridian, 162 b. c. Several nations have fixed their meridian from places connected with their own territories ; and thus the English compute their longitude from the meridian of Green- wich. See Latitude, Longitude, and the various Collegiate degrees. DEISM. This denomination was first assumed about the middle of the six- teenth century by some gentlemen of France and Italy, in order thus to disguise their opposition to Christianity by a more honorable appellation than that of Atheism. — Virot's Instruction Ciiretvcnne, 1563. Deism is a rejection of all manner of revelation : its followers go merely by the light of nature, believing that there is a God, a providence, vice and virtue, and an after state of punishments and rewards : it is sometimes called free-think- ing. The first deistical writer of any note in England, was Herbert, baron of Cherbury, in 1624. The most distinguished deists were Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Hume, Holcroft, and Godwin. DELAWARE. The smallest of the TJ. States except R. Island. First settlcl in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphu and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by 11 c Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English in 1664. and then named Delaware. The duke of York granted it to Wni. Penn, in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 177'"). This state bore an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered much in the struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the TJ. S. by a unanimous 13 290 THE world's progress. [ DEN vote iu convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population -- 1790, 59,094; 1840, 78,085 ; including 2,605 slaves. DELHI. The once great capital of the Mogul empire : it is now in decay, but contained a million of inhabitants, in 1700. In 1738, when Nadir Shah invaded Hindoostan, he entered Delhi, and dreadful massacres and famine followed: 100 000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword; and plunder to the amount of 62,000,000Z. sterling was said to be collected. DELPHI. Celebrated for its oracles delivered by Pythia, in the temple of Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 B. c. The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came to consult the oracle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The tem- ])le was burnt by the Pisistratidae, 548 b. c. A new temple was raised by the Alcmseonidse, and was so rich in donations that at one time it was plundered by the people of Phocis of 20,000 talents of gold and silver; and Nero car- ried from it 500 costly statues. The first Delphic, or sacred war, concerning the temple was 449 b. c. The second sacred war was commenced c a Delphi being attacked by the Phocians, 356 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. DELUGE, THE GENERAL. The deluge was threatened in the year of the world 1536 ; and it began Dec. 7, 1656, and continued 377 days. The ark- rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark, Dec. 18, follow- ing. The year corresponds with that of 2348 b. c. — Blair. The following are the epochs of the deluge, according to the table of Dr. Hales. Septuagint B.C. 3216 I Persian - B.C. 3103 Jackson - 3170 Hindoo - - 3102 Hales - - 3155 | Samaritan - - 2998 Josephus - 3146 | Howard - - 2698 Playfair - b. c. 2352 Usher - - 2348 Englisli Bible -2348 Marsham - -2344 Petavius - b. c. 2329 Strauchuis - 2293 Hebrew - -2288 Vulgar Jewish 2104 Some of the states of Europe were alarmed, we are told, bj^ the prediction (!) that another general deluge would occur, and arks were every where built to guard against the calamity; but the season happened to be a very fine diy one, a. d. 1524. DELUGE OF DEUCALION. The fabulous one, is placed 1503 b. c. according to Eusebiiis. This flood has been often confounded by the ancients with the general flood : but it was 845 years posterior to that event, and was merely a local inundation, occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, whose course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and aome of their subjects, saved themselves by climbing up Mount Parnassus. DELUGE OF OGYGES. In the reign of Ogyges was a deluge which so inun- dated the territories of Attica that they lay waste for near 200 years ; it occurred before the deluge of Deucalion, about 1764 b. c. — Blair. BufFon thinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and arose from the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting into the valley of the Mediterranean. DEMERARA and ESSEQUIBO. These colonies, founded by the Dutch, were taken by the British, 1796, but were restored at the peace of 1802. Demarara and Essequibo again surrendered to the British under general Grinfield and commodore Hood, Sept. 20, 1803. They are now fixed English colonies. DENMARK. The most ancient inhabitants of this kingdom were the Cimbri and the Teutones, who were driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones settled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they were defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland obtains its name from the Jutes ; and the general name of Denmark is supposed to be derived from Dan, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and marJ,\ a German word signi- fying country, i. e. Dan-mnrk. the country of Dan# DEN 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 291 60 750 1014 1157 DENMARK, continued. Reign of Sciold, first king - B.C. The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings to the time of Ragnor Lodbrog - a. d. [Ragnor is killed m an attempt to in- vade England, and for more tnan 200 years from this time the Danes were a terror to the northern nations of Eu- , rope, and at length conquering all England. See Danes.] Reign of Canute the Great Reign of Waldemar the Great Waldemar II., with a fleet of 1000 sail, makes immense conquests - - 1223 Gothland conquered - - - 1347 Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are united into one kingdom - - 1397 Revolt of the Swedes - - -1414 The nations reunited - - - 1439 Copenhagen made the capital - - 1440 Accession of Christian I., from whom the present royal family springs - 1448 Christian II. is deposed, and the inde- pendence of Sweden acknowledged - 1523 Lutheranisni established by Christian m. 1536 Danish East India Company established by Christian IV. - - - - 1612 Christian IV. chosen head of the Pro- testant league - - - - 1629 Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades Denmark, besieges Copenhagen, and makes large conquests ■ - 1658 The crown made hereditary and abso- lute 1660 Frederick IV. takes Ilolstein, Sleswick, Tonningen, and Stralsund ; reduces Weismar, and drives the Swedes out of Norway - - - 1716 et seq. Copenhagen destroyed by a fire which consumes 16-50 houses, 5 churches, the university, and 4 colleges - - 1728 The peaceful reign of Christian VI., who promotes the happiness of his subjects ... - 1730 Christian VII. in a fit of jealousy sud- denly confines his queen, Caroline Matilda, sister of Georse HI. who is afterwards banished. See Zell Jan. 18, 1772 The counts Struensee and Brandt are seized at the same time, on the charge , of a criminal intercourse with the queen; and the former confessing to avoid the torture, both are beheaded for high treason - April 28, 1772 The queen Caroline Matilda dies at Zell - - - May 10, 1775 Christian VII. becomes deranged, and prince Frederick is appointed regent 17&i One- fourth of Copenhagen is destroyed by fire - - - June 9, 1795 Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard Copenhagen, and engage the Danish fleet, taking or destroying 18 ships of the line, of whose crews 1800 are kill- ed. The Confederacy of the North (see Armed Neutrality) is thus dis- solved - - - April 2, ISOl Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart bombard Copenhagen, and seize the Danish fleet of 12 shins of the line, 15 fr eates, and 37 brigs, &c. - Sept. 7, 1807 Pomerania and Rugen are annexed to Denmark, in exchange for Norway - 1814 Commercial treaty with England - 1824 Frederick bestows a new constitution on his kingdom - - - 1831 A new constitution oflered by Christian VIII. - - - Jan. 20, 1848 Duchies of Schleswig and Hplstein de- mand separation from Denmark March, 1848 The king grants freedom of the press and of public meetings - March, 1848 Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein re- volt and join the great German na- tion - - - March 26, 1848 Prussia artds the duchies, and re-organ- izes the Grand Duchy of Posen March 26, 1848 Danes victorious over the Germans, April 10 ; but driven out of Schleswig April 23, 1848 Truce agreed upon (provisional govern- ment of 5 to rule the duchies mean- while) - - - July 10, 1848 Armistice till March 1 , 1849, signed Aug. 1848 (See Copenhagen.) KINGS OP DENMARK. . D. 714 750 770 801 809 811 812 814 849 &56 858 873 915 920 9Z5 928 930 935 Gormo I. Ragnor I.odbrog. Sigefrid. Godefrid. Glaus I. Hemming. Siward and Ringon, killed in a sea-fight. Harold and Regner; the latter made prisoner in Ireland, and died in a dungeon there. Siward II. deposed. Eric ; killed in battle. Eric II. Canute I. Frothon. Gormo II. Harold. Hardicanute. Gormo III. Harold III. Suenon. 1014 Canute 11. the Great. 1036 Hardicanute II. 1041 Magnus I. 1048 Suenon II. 1079 Harold IV. lOSO Canute III. assassinated. 1086 Olaus II. 1097 Eric III. 1106 Nicholas, killed in Sleswick. 1135 Eric IV., killed at Ripen. 11.38 Eric V. 1147 Suenon III., beheaded by Waldemar for assassinating prince Canute. 1157 Waldemar the Great. 1182 Canute V. 1202 Waldemar II 1240 Eric VI. 1250 Abel I., killed in an expedition against the Prisons. 1252 Christopher I., jioisoned by the bishop of Arhus. 292 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [dia 1523 Frederick. 1534 Christian III. 1559 Frederick II. 1588 Christian IV. 1648 Frederick III. 1670 Christian V. 1699 Fredsrick IV. 1730 Christian ^^. 1746 Frederick V. 1766 Christian vn. 1808 Frederic VI. 1839 Christian VIII. ilied Jan. 20, 1&43. DENMARK, continued. 1259 Eric VII. assassinated. 1286 Eric Vni. 1319 Christopher II; (An interregnum of seven years.) 1340 Waldemar III. 1375 Glaus III. 1375 Margaret I., queen of Denmark and Norway. 1411 Eric IX., abdicated. 1439 Christopher III. 1448 Christian I. of the house of Oldenburgh. 1481 John. 1513 Christian II., confined 27 years in a dungeon, where he died. DENIS, St. An ancient town of Franco, six miles Ironi Paris to the nortli- ward, the last stage on the road from England to that capital, — fanions for • its abbey and church, the former abolished at the Revolution; the latter desecrated at the same epoch, after having been the appointed place of sepulture to the French kings, from its foundation by Dagobert, in 613. " DEVIL AND DR. FAUSTUS." Faustus, one of the earliest printers, had the policy to conceal his art, and to this policy M-e are indebted for the tradition of " The Devil and Dr. Faustus." Faustus associated with John of Gut- temberg; their types were cut in wood, and fixed, not movable, as at present. Having printed off numbers of copies of the Bible, to imitate those which were commonly sold in MS., he undertook the sale of them at Paris, where printing was then unknown. As he sold his copies for sixty ci'owns, while the scribes demanded five hundred, he created universal as- tonishment ; but when he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and lowered the price to thirty crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uniformity of the copies increased the wonder ; informations were given to the police against him as a magician, and his lodgings being searched, and a great number of copies being found, they Avere seized. The red ink with which they were embellished was supposed to be his blood, and it was seriously adjudged that he was in league with the devil ; and if he had not fled, he would have shared the fate of those whom superstitious judges condemned in those days for witchcraft, a. d. 1460. Nouv. Diet. See Printing. DIADEM. The band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and which wai3 consecrated to the gods. At first, this fillet was made of silk or wool, and set with precious stones, and was tied round the temples and forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the neck. Aurelian was the first Roman em^icror who wore a diadem, a. d. 272. — T'dlemo7it. DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c. — Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at Rome, was placed on the temple of Qulrinus by L. Papirius Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 293 b. c. — Blair. In the times of the emperors almost every palace and public building had a sun-dial. They were first set up in churches in a. d. 613. — Lenglet. DIAMONDS. They were first brought to Europe from the East, where the mine of Sumbulpour was the first known ; and where the mines of Golconda were discoverd in 1584. This district may be termed the realm of diamonds. The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728. From these last a diamond, weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, and was valued by M. Romeo de I'lsle at the extravagant sum of 224 mil- lions ; by others it was valued at fifty-six millions : its value was next stated to be three millions and a half; but its true value is 4O0,000Z. The diamond called the "mountain of light," which belonged to the king of Cabul, was the most superb gem ever seen ; it was of the finest water, and the size of die] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 293 an egg, and was also valued at three millions and a half. The great dia- mond of the emperor of Russia weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 gr., troy. The empress Catharine II. offered for it 1(M,166Z. besides an annuity for life, to the owner, of 1041Z. which was refused ; but it was afterwards sold to Catharine's favorite, count OrlofF, for the first mentioned sum, with- out the annuity, and was by him presented to the empress on her birth- day, 1772 ; it is now in the sceptre of Russia. The Pitt diamond weighed 136 carats, and after cutting 106 carats ; it was sold to the king of France for 125,000Z. in 1720. DIANA, TEMPLE of, at EPHESUS. One of the seven wonders of the world, built at the common charge of all the Asiatic States. The chief architect was Ctesiphon ; and Pliny says that 220 years M'cre employed in completing this temple, whose riches were immense. It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was supported by 127 columns, (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons of Parian marble.) furnished by so many kings. It was set on fire on the night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus, who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him to destroy so magnificent an edifice, was the desire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 b. c. The temple was rebuilt, and again burned by the Goths, in their naval invasion, a. d. 256, Uuiv. Hist. DICTATORS. These were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, in- stituted 498 B. c, when Titus Larcius Flavus, the first dictator, Avas ap- pointed. This oflice, respectable and illustrious in the first ages of the Republic, became odious by the perpetual usurpations of Sylla and J. 'Csesar ; and after the death of the latter, the Roman senate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for ever forbade a dictator to exist in Rome, 44 b, c. DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing about 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude reprtisentations somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1100 b. c. — Morrison. Cyclopaedias were compiled in the fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of celebrity, perhaps the first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in Latin ; he wrote one in eight languages, about a. d. WOO.— Niceron. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published by Edmund Castell, in 1659. Bayle's dictionary was pub- lished in 1696, " the first work of the kind in which a man may learn to think." — Voltaire. Chambers' Cyclopedia, the first dictionary of the circle of the arts, sciences, &c., was published in 1728. The great dictionary of the English language, by Samuel Johnson, appeared in 1755. Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, was compiled in 1768 ; and from this period numerous dictionaries have been added to our store of literature. Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven in 1828. It was re- printed in London, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. Numerous abridgments and a new edition of the whole work have since been published. See Encyclopedia. DIET OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. The supreme authority of fMs empire may be said to have existed in the assemblage of princes undc: this name. . The diet, as composed of three colleges, viz. :— the college of electors, the college of princes, and the college of imperial towns, commenced with the famous edict of Charles IV. 1356.— See Golden Btdl. Diets otherwise constituted had long previously been held on important occasions. The diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1179. The celebrated diet of Worms, at which Luther assisted in person, was held in 1521. That of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, was held in 1529 ; 294 THE WOULD's PROGIi-ESS. [ DIP and the famous diet of Augsburg-, in 1530. In the league of the German princes, called the confederation of the Rhine, they fixed the diet at Frank- fort, July 12, 1806. A new diet at Frankfort, for the purpose of con- solidating the government of the German States, 1848. See Germany. DIEU ET MON DROIT, "God and my right." This was the parole of the day, given by Richard I. of England, to his army at the battle of Gisors, in France. In this battle {ivhich see) the French army was signally defeated ; and in remembrance of this victory, Richard made " Dieii et mon droit^' the motto of the royal arms of England, and it has ever since been retained, A. D. 1198. — Rijmcr's Eadera. DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian of Cremona, 66 b. c. — Quintil. Inst. Oral. Other digests of Roman laws followed. The Digest, so called by way of eminence, was the collection of laws made by order of the emperor Justi- nian : it made the first part of the Roman law, and the first volume of the civil law. Quotations from it are marked with a ff. — Pardon. DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, which were at that period civil governments, is ascribed to Constantine, a. d. 323 ; but Strabo remarks that the Romans had the departments called dioceses long before. — Strabo, lib. xiii. In England these circuits of the bishops' juris- diction are coeval with Christianity ; there are twenty-four dioceses, of which twenty-one ai-e suffragan to Canterbury, and three to York. DIOCLETIAN ERA. Called also the era of Martyrs, was used by Christian writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the sixth century, and is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29th August, 284. It is called the era of martyrs, on account of the persecution of the Chris- tians in the reign of Diocletian. DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long previously been an object of wonder and delight at Paris, was first opened in London, Sept. 29, 1823. The diorama differs from the panorama in this respect, that, instead of a circular view of the objects represented, it exhibits the whole picture at once in perspective, and it is decidedly superior both to the panorama and the cosmorama in the fidelity with which the objects are depicted, and in the completeness of the illusion. DIPLOMACY OP THE UNITED STATES. List of ministers plenipotentiaiy to Great Britain and France. GREAT BRITAIN. 1783 John Adams. 1739 Gouv. Morris, commissioner. 1792 Thomas Pinckney, oi' S. C, min. plen. 1794 John Jay, of N. Y. do. 1796 Rulus King, do. do. 1803 James Monroe, Va. } Jointly, 1806 Wm. Pinckney, Mass. \ in 1806. 1808 Wnl Pinckney, do. alone do. 1815 John Q,uincy Adams, Mass. do. 1817 Richard Rush, Pa. do. 1826 Albert Gallatin, N. Y. do. 1828 .lames Barbour, Va. do. 1830 Lou\s McLane, Del. do. 1831 M. \'m. Buren, N. Y. do. 1832 AarO'L Vail, charge d'affaires. j 1823 James Brown, La. "lo. tese And. Stevenson, Va., minister plen. ! 1830 Wm. C. Rives, Va. do. 1841 Edward Everett, Mass. do. ' 1833 Edward Livinsslnn, La. do. 1845 Louis McLane, Md. do. ■ 1836 Lewis Cass, Mich. .to. 1846 Georse Bancroft, Mass. do. ; 1S44 Wm. R. King, Ala. do. 1849 Abbott Lawrence, do. do. ■ 1849 W. C. Rives, Va. do. FRANCE. 1776 B. Franklin, S. Deane, & A. Lee, com'rs. 1790 Wm. Short, of Va., charge d'affaires. 1792 Gouv. Morris, N. J., minister plen. 1799 James Munroe, Va. do. 1796 C. C. Pinckney, S. C. ; ■,„ 1797 E. Gerry & John Marshall, \ ^°- 1799 Ol. Ellsworth, Patrick Henry, and W. Vans Murray, do. 1801 .Tames A. Bayard, Del. tb. 1801 R. R. Livingston, N. Y. c o. 1804 John Armstrong, do. ao. 1811 Joel Barlow, Conn. do. 1813 Wm. H. Crawford, Geo. do. 1815 Albert Gallatin, Pa. do. DIV J DIOTIOiVARY OF DATES. 295 DIRECTORY, the CHURCH. The book so called was published in England at the period of the civil war. It was drawn up at the instance of the par- liament, by an assembly of divines at Westminster, with the object that the ministers might not be wholly at a loss in their devotions after the suppres- sion of the Book of Common Prayer. There Avere some general hints given, which were to be managed at discretion, for the Directory prescribed no form of prayer, nor manner of external worship, nor enjoined the people to make any responses, except Amen. The Directory was established by an ordinance of the parliament in 1644. — Bishop Taylor. DIRECTORY, French. The French Directory was installed at the little Lux- embourg, at Paris, under a ncAV constitution of the government, November 1, 1795, and held the executive power four years. It was comi^osed of five members, and ruled in connection with two chambers, the Council of An- cients and Council of Five Hundred, which see. Deposed by Bonaparte, whc;, with Cambac6rfes and Sieyfes, became the ruling power of France, the three governing as consuls, the first as chief, Nov. 9, 1799. DISSENTERS. The " Dissenters " from the Church of England arose early in the Reformation, contending for a more complete departure from the Romish models of church government and discipline. They were reproached with the name of Puritans, on account of the purity they proposed in religious worship and conduct ; and the rigorous treatment they endured under Eliza- beth and James I. led multitudes of them to emigrate to this country in those reigns. The first place of worship for Dissenters in England was established at Wandsworth, near London, Nov. 20, 1572 ; and now, in Lon- don alone, the number of chapels, meeting-houses, &c., for all classes of Dis- senters, amounts to near 200. The great act for the relief of Dissenters from civil and religious disabilities, was the statute passed 9 George IV. c. 17. By this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal Act, so much of the several acts of parliament of the preceding reigns as imposed the neces- sity of receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for certain offices, &c. was repealed. May 9, 1828. Several other acts of ameli- orating effect have been since passed. DIVINATION. In the Scriptures wo find mention made of different kinds of divination ; and it is mentioned by most of the ancient authors. It was re- tained in the hands of the priests and priestesses, the magi, soothsayers, augurs, and other like professors, till the coming of Christ, when the doc- trines of Christianity and the spirit of philosophy banished such visionary opinions. The oracles of Delphi began 1263 b. c. Augurs were instituted by Numa at Rome, 710 b. c. See Augury, Witchcraft, t^c. DIVING-BELL. First mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, 325, b.c. The diving-bell was first used in Europe, a. d. 1509. It is said to have been used on the coast of Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before a. d. 1669. Halley greatly improved this machine, and was, it is said, the fii'st who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on dry ground at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton applied the condensing-ptimp to force down air. ]Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving-bell in Ireland, were drowned, June 1, 1783. The Royal George man-of-war, which was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diving- bell, in May 1817. Lately, and particularly in 1840, it has been employed in sub-marine surveys. The first divmg-belle was the Avife of Captain Mor- ris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago. DIVORCES FOR ADULTERY. Of the earliest institution, both in ecclesiasti- cal and civil law, among the ancients. First put in practice by Spurius Car- vilius at Rome, 281 b. g. — Blair. At this time morals were so debased, that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Divorces were attempted 296 TiiE world's niOGRESS. [ DOG to be made of more easy obtainment in England, in a.d. 1539. The bill to prevent women marrying their seducers was brought into parliament in 1801. DOCKS OF LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest con- structions of the kind, for the purposes of commerce, in the world. In Lon- don there are a number of these docks, of which the following are the principal: — The West India docks, the act for whose formation passed in July 1799; they were commenced February 3, 1800, and were opened Aug. 27, 1802, when the Henry Addington West Indiaman first entered them, decorated with the colors of the difierent nations of Europe. The London docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and were opened January 31, 1805. The East India docks were commenced under an act passed July 27, 1803, and were opened August 4, 1806. The first stone of the St. Katherine docks was laid May 3, 1827 ; and 2,500 men were daily employed upon them until they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828. DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the church was a title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysois- tom, in the Greek church ; and to SS. Jerome, Augustin, and Gregory the Great, in the Romish church, a. d. 373, et seq. Doctor of the law was a title of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, 1207. — Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the time of the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the former of whom, it is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge, about a. d. 725. See Collegiate Degrees. DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law residing in the city of London ; the name of Commons is given to this col- lege from the civilians commonii:ig together as in other colleges. Doctors' Commons was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, whose original college was de- stroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after some years it was rebuilt on the old site. The causes taken cognizance of here are, blasphemy, divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. See article Civil Law. DOG. The chie7i de berger, or the shepherd's dog, is the origin of the whole race. — Buffon. Buffon describes this dog as being " the root of the tree," assigning as his reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known in Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessel, landed at Calais, and after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned to Vienna. DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3d of July, and end on the 11th of August. Common opinion has been accustomed to regard the rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star,* with the sun, as the cause of excessive heat, and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed as the sign when such effects might be expected. The star not only varies in its rising, in every one year as the latitude varies, but is always later and later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may, by the same rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow. — Dr. Hutton. DOGE. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by a * Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixed stars ; and they compute its distance from our earth at 2,200,000 millions of miles. They maintain that a sound would not reach our earth from Sirius in 50,000 years, and that a cannon-ball, flying with its usual velocity of 480 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage tlierjce to our globe. DOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATEs^. 297 prince so named, Anafesto Paululio, a. d. 697. The Genoese revolted against their count, and chose a doge from among their nobility, and became an aristocratic republic, 1030-4. The ceremony of the doge of Venice marrying the sea, "the Adriatic wedded to our duke," was instituted in 1173, and was observed annually on Ascension-day, until 1797, when the custom was dis- pensed with. See Adriatic. DOMINGO, ST. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. The city was founded in 1494. The town of Port-au-Prince was burnt down, and nearly destroyed by the revolted negroes, in Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1791. Toussaint L'Ouverture governed the island, on the expulsion of the French colonists, after this till 1802, when he was entrapped by Bonaparte, and died in prison. His successor, Dessalines, recommended the blacks,' by proclama- tion, to make a general massacre of the whites, which was accordingly ex- ecuted with horrid cruelty, and 2-500 were butchered in one day, March 29, 1804. Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor, Oct. 8, 1804. See Hayti, in which article particulars will be found up to the independence of St. Do- mingo, acknowledged by France, in April, 1825. DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. This island was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the subsequent peace in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hur- ricane in 1806 ; and several devastating hurricanes have more recently occurred. DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days of the week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated as by the first seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G; and the one of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If the year begin on Sunday, A is the dominical letter ; if it begin on Monday, that letter is G ; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. Generally to find the dominical letter call New Year's day A, the next day B, and go on thus till you come to the first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the dominical letter ; in leap years count two letters. DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost uni- versal. They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Blackfriars, and were founded by St. Dominick, approved by Innocent III. in 1215 ; and the order was confirmed by a bull of Honorius III. in 1216, under St. Austin's rules, and the founder's particular constitutions. In 1276 the corporation of London gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, where they erected a large and elegant convent, and whence that part is still called Blackfriars. DOOM'S-DAY OR DOME'S-DAY BOOK. Liber Judiciarius vel Censualis Anslus-- A book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign of William I. a. d. 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register whereby to determine the right in the tenure of estates ; and from this book the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still decided. ' The book is still preserved in the Exchequer, fair and legible, consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of England, except Northumberland and Durham, are surveyed. It was fin- ished in A. D. 1086, having been completed by five justices. "This dome's- day book was the tax-book of kinge William." — Caviden. The taxes were levied according to this survey till 13 Henry VIII. 1522, when a more. accu- rate survey was taken, and was called by the people the new Doom's-day book. DORIC Ordkr of Architecture. The most ancient of the five, the invention of the Dorians, a people of Greece. The Dorians also gave the name to 13* 298 THK world's progress, |_dra the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Peloponnesus took place 1104 b. c. They sent, in their vast spirit of enterprise, many colonies into diiferent places, which afterwards bore the same name as their native country. DORl . Here happened an awful inundation of the sea, a. d. 1446. It arose in the breaking doip\Ti of the dykes ; and in the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 persons were overwhelmed and perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dul- lart, in Friesland and in Zealand. In the last fwo provinces upwards of 300 villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers and steeples were for ages after to be seen rising out of the water. Dort is famous for the Prot- estant synod held in 1618 ; a general assembly, to which deputies were sent from England, and from all the Reformed churches in Europe, to settle the differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, princi- pally upon points of justification and grace. The synod condemned the tenets of Arminius. — Aitzema. DOUAY, IN Fr.4nce. Erected into a imiversity by Philip II. of Spa,in, who founded here the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, a. d. 1569. Douay was taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person, in 1667. It was taken by the duke of Marlborough, in 1710; and retaken by the "'^'rench next year. This town gives its name to the Catholic edition of th^ Bible, which continues in almost universal use by the consent of the suc^.essive popes among the members of that communion, as the only English version authorized by Catholics ; its text being copiously explained by the notes of Catholic divines. DRACO, Laws of. Draco, when he exercised the office of archon, made a code of laws, which, on account of their severitj^, were said to be written in letters of blood : l3y them idleness was punished v/ith as much severity as murder ; the smallest transgression, he said, deserved death, and he could not find any punishment more rigorous for more atrocious crimes, 623 b. c. — Sigonius de Repub. Athen. DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth, No. 13, 1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many perilous adventures, Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was vioe-admiral under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the memorable conflict with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588. His expeditions and victories over the Spaniards have been equalled by modern admirals, but not his gene- rosity ; for he divided the booty he took in proportional shares with the common sailors, even to wedges of gold given him in return for his presents to Indian chiefs. — Stowe. Rafvn. DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the Greeks. The first comedy was performed at Athens, by Susarion and Dolon, on a movable scaffold, 562 b. e. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced 556 B. c. See Chorus. Tragedy was first represented at Athens, by Thespis, on a wagon, 536 b. c. Arund. Marb. Thespis of Icai-ia, the inventor of tra- gedy, performed at Athens Alcestis, this year, and was rewarded with a goat, 536 B. G. — Pliny. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who in- troduced intrigues and rapes upon the stage. He composed about a hun- dred plays, of which ten obtained the prize ; he died 340 b. c. DRAMA IN ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion of a plague which raged during the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and C. Lucinius Stolo. The magistrates to appease the incensed deities insti- tuted the games called Scenici, which were amusements entirely new. Actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 b. c. Subsequently came satires accompanied with music set to the flute ; and DKO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 299 afterwards plays were represented by Livius Andronicus, who, abandoning satires, wrote inlays with a regular and conneeted plot, 240 b. c. — lAvy. Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two differ- ent performers ; he danced himself, and gave the sipging to a younger exhibitor. — Livy. DRAMA, Modern. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. — Warton. Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin of sacred comedy. — Idem. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the church, is said to have constructed a drama about a. d. 364, on the Passion of Christ, to counteract the profanities of the heathen stage, and thus to have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama ; but this is not clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Thomas a Becket, asserts that " London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representa- tion of miracles wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteries were performed about 1270. Plays were performed at Clerkenwell by the parish clerks in 1397, and miracles were represented in the fields. Allego- rical characters were introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Individual characters were introduced in Henry VII. 's reign. The first regular drama acted in Europe was the " Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre- sence of i5ope Leo X., 1515. — Voltaire. The English drama became perfect in the reign of Elizabeth. The first royal license for the drama in England was to master Burbage, and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 1574. A license was granted to Shak- speare, and his associates, in 1603. Play's were opposed by the Puritans in 1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration in 1660. Two companies of regular performers were licensed by Charles II., Killegrew's and Davenant's, in 1662. Till this time boys performed women's parts. DRESDEN, Battle of, between the allied army under the prince of Schwar- zenberg, and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 1813. The allies, who were 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his posi- tion at Dresden, and»the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia ; but Vandamme pursuing them too far, his division ivas cut to pieces, and himself and all his staff" made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal wound while in conversation with the emperor of Russia. DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in England, in the reign of Edward IV., 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574. — Stowe. Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, Avore a white satin-pinked vest, close sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely flowered, and embroidered with peans. In the feather of his hat, a lai'ge ruby and pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His breeches, with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and buff shoes, which on great court days, were so gorgeously covered with precious stones, as to have exceeded the value of 66OOI, ; and he had a suit of armor of solid silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckingham, could afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame he desired from the pickers-up, Avho were generally Ics Dames de la Cow. DROWNING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons were first instituted in Holland, a. d. 1767. The second society is said to have been formed at Milan, in 1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the foiarth at Paris, in 1772; and the fifth in London, in 1774. Similar societies 300 THE world's progress. [ DUR have been instituted in other countries. The motto of the Royal Humane Society in England is very appropriate : — Laieat scintiLlula forsan — a small spark may lurk unseen. DRUIDS. A celebrated order among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, vrho from their veneration for the oak (Drys) were so called. They acted as priests and magistrates ; one of them was invested occasionally with supreme authority. In England they were chosen out of the best families, that the dignity of their station, added to that of their birth, might pro- cure them the greater respect. They were versed in sciences ; had the administration of all sacred things ; were the interpreters of the gods ; and supreme judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who opposed Cassar's tirst landing, 55 b. c. They were cruelly put to death, defending the freedom of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Pau- linuB, who totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, a. d. 59. — Rowland's Mona Antiqua. DRUNKARDS. The phrase " Drunk as a lord," arose oiit of an older proverb. " Drunk as a beggar;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice of drunkenness prevailing more among the great of late years. Drunken- ness was punished in many of the early nations with exemplary severity. In England, a canon law restrained it in the clergy so early as a. d. 747. Constantine, king of Scots, punished this offence against society with death. He used to say, that a drunkard was but the mimic of a man, and differed from the beast only in shape, a. d. 870. Drunkenness was restrained in the commonalty in England in 975 ; and by several later laws. DUBLIN. This city, anciently called Aschcled, built a. d, 140. DUCAT. First coined by Longinus, governor of Italy. — Procopius. First struck in the duchy of Apulia. — Dit, Cange. Coined by Robert, king of Sicily, in a. d. 1240. The ducat is so called because struck by dukes. — John- son. It is of silver and gold, the value of the first being 4s. %d., and that of the gold 9s. Qd. — Pardon. DUELLING AND KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, took their riSfe from the judicial com- bats of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character, took place a. d. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France, 1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I. to the emperor Charles V., 1527. The fight with small swords was intro- duced into England, 29 Elizabeth 1587. Proclamation that no person should be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II., 1679. Duelling " was checked in the army, 1792. — See Battle, Wager of; Combat, (^c. As many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought dm'ing my grand cli- macteric. — Si?- J. Barrington. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded : in three of these cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sen- tence of the law. — Ha'tnilton. DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In England, during Saxon times, the commanders of armies were called dukes, duces. — Camden. The title lay dormant from the Conquest till the reign of Edward III., who conferred the title on his eldest son, Edward the Black Prince, by the style of duke of Cornwall, a. d. 1336. Robert de Vere was created marqxiis of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Richard II., 1385. The first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert IH., who created David, prince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to the king's eldest son, a. d. 1398. DUKE, Grand. The Medici familj^ was one of extraordinary greatness and immense wealth. Of this family, Alexander de Medicis was acknowledged EAR j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 301 the chief of the republic of Tuscany in 1531 ; he was stabbed in the night : and his son, Cosmo, was created grand duke, the fii'st of that rank, by pope Pius V. in 1569. DUNBAR, Battle OF, between the Scottish and English armies, in which John Baliol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued, by Ed- ward I., fought April 27, 1296. Battle between the Scots and English under Cromwell, who obtained a signal victory, September 3, 1650. DUNKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and French, and put into the hands of the English, June 24, 1658, the last year of Cromwell's administration. It was sold by Charles II. for 500,000^. to Louis XIV., in 1662. The French king made Dunkirk one of the best for- tified ports in the kingdom ; but all the works were demolished, and the basins filled up, in consequence of the treaty of Utrecht- in 1713. DUNSINANE, Battle op. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal Shakspeare. On the hill of Dunsinane was fought the renowned battle between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Seward, earl of Northumber- land. Edward the Confessor had sent Seward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had murdered. Macbeth, who was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said, to Lumphanan, in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057. The history of Macbeth is the sub- ject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama. DURHAM, Battle of, between the English and Scottish armies, fought at Nevill's-cross, near Durham. The former armj^ was commanded by queen Philippa and lord Piercey, and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland, who was vanquished. Fifteen thousand of Bruce's soldiers were cut to pieces, and himself, with many of his nobles and knights, and many thou- sand men, were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346. DYEING, Art op. The discovery of it attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing and dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their manufactures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England for sale. The art of dyeing woollens was brought from the Low Countries in 1608. "Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the north" (of England) 1628. E. EAGLE. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians ; and the Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a spear ; they adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 b. c. When Charlemagne became master of the whole of the German empire, he added the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of Rome and Germany were united in him, a. d. 802. The eagle was the im- perial standard of Napoleon ; and is that of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. It is also the national emblem of the United States of America. EARL. An honor which came from the Saxons, and continued for many ages the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard II. created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earls. They had, anciently, for the support of their state, the third penny oiit of the sheriff" 's court, issuing out of the pleas of the shire whereof they had their title, as in ancient times there were no counts or earls but had a county or shire for his earldom. Upon the increase of earls their revenue ceased, and their powers were abridged. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute foi king. H)2 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. EARTH. The globular form of the earth was first suggested by Thales of Miletus about 640 b. c. Its magnitude was calculated from measuring an arc of the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The Greeks taught the sphericity of the earth, and the popes believed it to be a plane, and gave all towards the west to the kings of Spain. The first ship that sailed round the earth, and thence demonstrated that its form was globular, was Magel- lan's, in 1519. The notion of its magnetism was started by Gilbert in 1576. The experiments of M. Richer, in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to be in the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation of its axis was dis- covered by Dr. Bradley in 1737. See Globe. EAUTHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancient nations. Various domestic articles were made by the Romans, 715 b. c. The art was revived and improved in Italy, a. d. 1310. Wedgewood's patent ware was first made in 1762. His pottery in Stafibrdshire was extended to a variety of curious compositions, subservient not only to the ordinary pur- poses of life, but to the arts, antiquity, history, &c., and thereby rendered a very important braucli of commerce, both foreign and domestic. See China. — Porcelain. EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed Avith any degree of certainty. Anaxagoras sup^josed that earthquakes were pro- duced by subterraneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the vaults that confined them, b. c. 435. — Diog. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes, and others, supposed that there were many vast cavities under ground which have a communication with each other, some of which abound with waters, others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitu- men, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be suj^ported till 1749-50, when an earthquake was felt at London, and several parts of Britain. Dr. Stukeley, who had been engaged in electrical experiments, then began to suspect that a phenomenon of this kind ought to be attributed not to vapors or fermentations generated in the bowels of the earth, but to electricity. These pi'inciples at the same time were advanced by Signer Beccaria, with- out knowing any thing of Dr. Stukelej^'s discoveries, and the hypothesis has been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Priestley. In many cases, how- ever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into steam by subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which occasions earthquakes. Among those which are recorded as having been the most destructive and memorable, are the following, which are quoted from the best sources : it would be impossible to enumerate in this volume all that have occurred : — One which made the peninsula of Eubopa an island - - b. c. 425 EUice and Bula in the Peloponnesus, swallowed up ... 372 One at Rome, when, in obedience to an oracle, M. Curlius, armed and mounted on a stately horse, leaped into the dreadful chasm it occasion- ed CLivy') ■ - - - 358 Duras, in Greece, buried with all its inhabitants ; and twelve cities in Campania also buried - - 345 Lysimachia totally buried, with all its inhabitants - - - - 283 Awful one in Asia, wliich overturned twelve cities - - - A. D. 17 One accompanied by the eruption of Vesuvius ; the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum buried - 79 Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, a. id two in Galatia, overturned - - 107 Antioch destroyed - '- a. d. 114 Nicomedia, Csesarea, and Nicea in Bithynia, overturned - - 126 In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 cities and towns damaged. - Nicomedia again demolished, and its inhabitants buried in its ruins One felt by nearly the whole world - At Constantinople : its edifices destroy- ed, and thousancis perished - In Africa ; many cities overturned Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; more than 500 cities were de- stroyed, and the loss of life surpass- ed all calculation In France, Germany, and Italy Constantinople overturned, and all Greece shaken - - - 936 One felt throughout England - - 1089 One at Antioch ; many towns destroy- 357 358 543 558 560 742 EAS] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 303 EARTHQUAKES, continued. ed : among them, Mariseum and Ma- mistria - - - a. d. Ul-1 Catania in Sicily overturned, and 15,000 persons buried in the ruins - 1137 One severely felt at Lincoln - - 1142 At Calabria, v^hen one of its cities and all its inhabitants were overwhelm- ed in the Adriatic Sea One again felt throughout England - At Naples, when 40,UD0 of its inhabit- ants perished - - . . One felt in London : part of St. Paul's and the Temple churches fell In Japan, several cities made ruins, and thousands perished Awfu! one at Calabria - One in China, when 300,000 persons were buried in Pekin alone - One severely felt in Ireland - One at Jamaica, which totally destroy- ed Port Royal, whose houses were ingulfed forty fathoms deep, and 300 persons perished One hi Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and towns, and 300 villages. Of Catania and its 18,000 inhabit- ants, not a trace remained; more than 100,000 lives were lost - Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000 persons perished Again in China; and 100,000 people swallowed up at Pekin One in Hungary, which turned mountain round Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 persons buried in the ruins Oct. 28, 1746 One at Palermo, which swallowed up a convent : but the monks escaped 1740 In London, the inhabitants terrified by a slight shock - Feb. 8, 1750 Another, but severer sliock, March 8, 1750 Adrianople nearly overwhelmed - 1752 At Grand Cairo, half of the houses, and 40,000 persons swallowed up - 1754 Quito destroyed - - April, 1755 Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight minutes most of the houses, and upwards of 50,000 inhabitants, were swallowed up, and whole streets buried, The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and Braga, suffered dread- fully, and St. Ubes was wholly over- turned. In Spain, a large part of Malaga became ruins. One half of Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and more than 12,000 Arabs perished there. Above half of the island of Rladeira became waste : and 2,000 houses in the island of Meteline, in » the Archipelago, were overthrown : this awful earthquake extended 5000 miles, even to Scotland Nov. 1, 1755 One in Syria extended over 10,000 square miles : Balbec destroyed - 1759 One at Martinico, when 1600 persons lost their lives - . au". 1767 At Guatemala, which, with 80,000 in 1186 1274 1456 1.5S0 159G 1638 1662 1690 1692 1693 1726 1731 1736 A destructive one at Smyrna - a. d 1778 At Tauris : 15,000 houses thrown down, and multitudes buried - - 1780 One which overthrew Messina and a number of towns in Italy and Sicily : 40,000 persons perished - - 1783 Arciiindschan wholly destroyed, and 12,000 persons buried in its ruins - 1784 At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening of the earth swallowed up many houses and 1000 persons - Sept. 1789 Another fatal one in Sicily - - 1791 One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing forth its flames overwhelmed the city of Torre del Greco - - -1794 In Turkey, where, in three towns, 10,000 persons lost their lives - 1794 The whole country between Santa Fe and Panama destroyed, including the cities of Cusco and Quito, 40,000 of whose people were, in one second, hurled into eternity - - - 179J One at Constantinople, which destroy- ed the royal palace and an mimen- sity of buildings, and extended into Romania and Wallachia. - - 18U0 A violent one felt in Holland - Jan. 1804 In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000 persons lost their lives - - 1805 At the Azores: a village of St. Mi- chael's sunk, and a lake of boiling water appeared in its place - Aug. 1810 Awful one at Caraccas {which see) - 1812 Several felt throughout India. The district of Kutch sunk ; 2000 persons were buried with it - - June 1819 In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns ; great damage sustain- ed, and thousands perished - - 1819 One fatal, at Messina - - Oct. 1326 One in Spain, which devastated Mur- cia, and numerous villages; 6000 persons perished - March 21, 1829 In the duchy of Parma ; no less than 40 shocks were experienced at Bor- gotaro ; and at Pontremoli many houses were thrown down, and not a chimney was left standing Feb. 14, 1834 In many cities of Southern Syria, by whichi hundreds of houses were thrown down, and thousands of the inhabitants perished Jan. 22, 1837 At Martinique, by which nearly half of Port Royal is destroyed, nearly 700 persons killed, and the whole island damaged - Jan. 11. 1839 At Ternate : the island made a wasted almost every house destroyed, and thousands of the inhabitants lose their lives - - Feb. 14, l^lrt Awful and destructive earthquake at Mount Ararat ; in one of the districts of Armenia 3137 houses were over- thrown, and several hundred persons perished - - July 2, 1840 Great earthquake at Zante, where ■ many persons perished Oct. 30, 1840 habitants, was swallowed up' Dec. 1773 EASTER So called in England from the Saxon goddess Eos{re. The festival of Easter was instituted about a. d. 68 ; the day for the observance of it was fixed in England by St. Austin, in 597. It was ordained by the council 304 THE world's progress. I ECl, of Nice to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian world. Easter is the first Sunday after the first full moon that occurs after the 21st of March. EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens, a. d. 364, and ended in the defeat and death of Constantino XIII., the last Christian emperor, in 1453. Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constan- tinople ; he laid seige to that city both by sea and land, and took it by assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the Imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conqueror ; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and com- menced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. See Tabular Views, in this vol. from page 61. See also Turkey. ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and ecclesiastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, a. d. 1066. The following are the causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to be- nefices, matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery, probate of wills, administrations, &c. — Blackstone. ECCLESIASTICAL STATE or STATES op the CHURCH. See Rome. In A. D. 1798, this state was taken possession of by the French, who erected it into the " Roman Republic." They obliged the pope, Pius VI., to remove into Tuscany, and afterwards into France, where he died in 1799. In the same year a conclave was permitted to be held at Venice ; and, in 1800, cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected to the papal chair, took the title of Pius VII., and resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. This power was held until 1809, when he was deprived by Bonaparte of his temporal sovereignty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome ; but in 1814 the pope was restored. For succession of popes, see p. 50 et seq. ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers, also called Analogetici, and Philalethes, or the lovers of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, they chose what they judged good from each: founded by Polemon of Alex- andria, about A. D. 1. — Dryden. Also a sect, so called in the Christian church, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the spirit of the doctrine of the Christian. ECLIPSES. The theory of eclipses was knoAvn to the Chinese at least 120 B.C. — Gaubil. An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to be the effect of magic ; hence the custom among them of drumming during its continuance. The first eclipse recorded, happened March 19, 721 b. c. at 8' 40" p. M. according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was observed with accuracy at Babylon. — See Astronomy. The following were extraordinary eclipses of, the sun and moon : — In England, where it occasioned a total darkness (T^m. iWatesft.) - -1140 Again ; the stars visible at ten in the morning ( Camden) ■ June 23, 1191 The true sun, and the appearance of another, so that astronomers alone could distinguish the difference by their glasses (,Co7np. Hist. Eng.) ■ 1191 Again ; total darkness ensued (idem) - 1331 A total one ; the darkness so great that the stars shone, and the birds went to roost at noon ( Oldmixon's Annals of Geo. I.) ■ ■ April 25, 1715 OF THE StJN. That predicted by Thales ; observed at Sardis (Pliny, lib. a.) - B.C. 585 One at Athens (Thucydides, lib. iv.) - 424 Total one ; three days' supplication de- creed at Rome (Liiiy) ■ - 188 One general at the death of Jesus Christ (Josephus) - - - A. D. 33 One at Rome, causing a total darkness at noon-day (Livy) ■ - - 291 One observed at Constantinople - 968 In France, when it was dark at noon- day (Du Fresnoy) ■ June 29, 1033 EDU J DICTIONARY OF DATES 305 ECLIPSES, continued. Remarkable one, central and annular I Asain, in Asia Minor (Polybius) • 219 in the interior of Europe - Sept. 7, 1820 One at Rome, predicted by" (i. Sulpitius OP THE MOON. Gallus {Livy, lib. xliv.) - - 168 The first, observed by the Chaldeans at \ One terrified the Roman troops and Babylon (PioZfi'TO?/, Zi6. iv.) - e.g. 7211 quelled their revolt (Taczhis) a.d. 14 A total one, observed at Sardis (,Thu- cydides, lib. vii.) - - - 413 | The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B. c. The Egyptians say they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of the sun, and 832 of the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 b. c. EDEN, GARDEN of. The question about the site of Eden has greatly agi- tated theologians ; some place it near Damascus^others in Armenia, some in Caucasus, others at Hillah, near Babylon, others in Arabia, and some in Abyssinia. The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon : and a learned Swede asserts that it was in Sudermania ! Several authorities concur in placing it in a peninsula formed by the main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below the confluence of the lesser rivers, which emptied themselves into it, about 27° N. lat., now swallowed up by the Persian Gulf, an event which may have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348 b. c. The country of Eden extended into Armenia. — Cahnct. The Almighty constructed Eden with a view to beauty, as well as usefulness ; not only every plant there was good for food, but such also as were pleasant to the eye, were jDlanted there. — Genesis ii. 8, 9. EDGEHILL, Battle of, also called Edgehill Fight, between the Royalists and the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the" civil war ; Charles I. was personally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. Oct. 23, 1642. EDICT OF NANTES. This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was re- voked by Louis XIV., Oct. 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to France 800 000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50,000 industrious artisans. Some tliousands, who brought with them the art of manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where their descendants yet remain : others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they excelled ; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. — An- derson's Orig. of English Commerce. EDILES. These were Roman magistrates, like our mayors, and there were two ediles at a time. They had the superintendence and care of public and private works and buildings, baths, aqueducts, bridges, roads, &c. ; they also took cognizance of weights and measures, and regulated the mar- kets for provisions ; they examined comedies before they were acted, and treated the people with games and shows at their own expense. The duties of ediles have suggested similar offices in our own polity, and served in many instances as models for our magistracy. — Pardon. EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland, and one of the first and finest cities of the empire. It derives its name— in ancient records. Dun Edin, signifying the '' hill of Edin"— from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northumbria, who, having greatly extended his dominions, erected it for the protection of his newly-acquired territories from the incursions of the Scots and Picts, a. d. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 b. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance, standing at the Avest end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and before the use of great guns, was a fortification of considerable strength. 306 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ EGY EDUCATION IN U. S. See Colleges and Schools. American Institute of In- struction organized at Boston. Aug. 19, 1830. Literaiy Convention at New York, Oct. 20, 1830. EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. A grant of 30,000^. for national education, pro- posed in parliament by Lord John Russell and passed, 275 to 273, July 9, and the House of Lords went in a body to ask the Queen to rescind the grant, July 11, 1839. EGALITE. Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, the infamous duke of Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the abolition of monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death ol Louis XVI. his relative; but this did not save him from a like doom. He was guillotined Nov. 6, 1793. EGYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs or kings commenced with Mizraira, the son of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 b. c. The kingdom lasted 1663 years ; it was conquered by Cambyses, 525 b. c. In a. d. 639, this country was wrest- ed from the eastern emperor Heraclius, by Omar, calif of the Saracens. The famous Saladin established the dominion of the Mamelukes, in 1171. Selim I., emperor of the Turks, took Egj'pt in 1517, and it was governed by Beys till 1799, when a great part of the country was conquered by the French, under Bonaparte. In 1801, the invaders were dispossessed by the British, and the government was restored to the Turks. — See Turkey, for modern events. See Tabular Views, in this vol. page 5 ct scq. Mizraim builds Memphis iBlalr) b. c. 2188 Egypt made four kingdoms, viz. : Up- per Egypt, Lower Egypt, This, and Memphis (Abbe Lenglet, Blair) - 2126 Athotes invents hieroglyphics - - 2122 Busiris builds Thebes (Usher) - 2111 Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes mto Asia, conquers Bactria, and causes his exploits to be repre- sented in sculpture and painting ( Usher, Lenglet) - - - 2100 The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt and hold it 260 years ( Usher) ■ 2080 The lake of Moeris constructed - 1938 The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt to avoid the famine in Canaan " - 1921 Syphoas introduces the use of the com- mon letters ( Usher) - ■ - 1891 Memnon invents the Egyptian letters (Blair, Lenglet) - - - 1822 Amenophis I. is acknowledged the kingof all Egypt (ie«g-to) - - 1821 .Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt as a slave (Lenglet) - - - 1728 He interprets the king's dreams - 1715 His father and brethren settle here - 1706 Sesostris reigns ; he extends his do- minion by conquest over Arabia, Persia, Lidia, and Asia Jlinor (I^eng- lety 1618 Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) 1615 Rampses, who imposed on his sub- jects the building of walls and pyra- mids, and other labors, dies (Lenglet) 1492 Amenophis I. is overwhelmed in the Red Sea, with all his army (Lenglet, Blair) 1492 Reign of Egyptus, from whom the country, hitherto called Mizraim, is now called Egypt (Blair) - B. c. ' Reign of Thuo^-is (the Proteus of the Greeks) who had the faculty of as- suming whatever form he pleased, as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water, fire - - - - - ■ [These fictions were probably intend- ed to mark the profound policy of this king, who was eminent for his wisdom, by which his dominion flourished. — Blair. ] Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages Judea, and carries off the sacred ves- sels of the Temple The dynasty of kings called Taniies begins with Petubastes (Blair) The dynasty of Saites (Blair) Sebacbn invades Egypt, subdues the king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to be roasted aWve (Usher) Psarametichus the Powerful reigns - He invests Azoth, which holds out for 19 years, the longest siege in the an- nals of antiquity (CTsAe?-) Necho begins the famous canal be- tween the Arabic gulf and the Medi- terranean sea (Blair) This canal abandoned, after costmg the lives of 120,000 men (Herodotus) Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes Apries ( Usher) Apnes taken prisoner and strangled in nis palace (Diod. Siculus) - The philosopher Pythagoras comes from Samos into Egypt, and is in- structed in the mysteries of Egyp- tian theology ( Usher) 825 781 737 660 581 571 535 * The epoch of the reign of Sesostris is very uncertain ; Blair makes it to fall 133 years later. As to the achievements of "this monarch, they are supposed to Jiave been the labors of several kings, «ttril3uted by th ; Egyptian priests to Sesostris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted. ELE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 307 EGYPT, continued. The line of the Pharaohs ends in the murder of Psaranienitus by Camby- ses (Blair) ■ - B. c. 526 Dreadful excesses of Cambyses; he puts the children of the grandees, male and I'emale, to death, and makes the country a waste (Herodotus) - 524 He sends an army of 50,000 men across the desert to destroy the temple of Jupiter Ammon, but they all perish in the burning sands (Justin) - 524 Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again subdued by Xerws (Blair) - - 487 A revolt under Inarus (Btair) ■ • 463 Successful revolt under Amyrt»us, who is proclaimed king (Lenglet) ■ 414 Egypt again reduced by Persia, and its temples pillaged (C7sA 67-) - - 350 Alexander the Great enters Egypt, wrests it from the Persians, and builds Alexandria (Bte/r) - - 332 Philadelphus completes the Pharos of Alexandria (Blair) - - - 283 The Septuagint version of the Old Tes- tament made about this time - 283 The famous library of Alexandria also dates about this period (Blair) ■ 283 Ambassadors first sent to Rome - 269 reign" - - ' - - ' - 46 Ptolemy Euergetes overruns Syria, and returns laden with rich spoils, and 2500 statues and vessels of gold and silver, which Cambyses had taken from the Egyptian temples (Blair) ■ ' ■ - - 246 Egypt - '- - - - 40 Reign of Philometer and Physcon - 151 At the death of Philometer, his brother Physcon marries his queen, and on the day of his nuptials murders the infant son of Philometer in its moth- er's arms - - - - 145 ince • - - - " - 30 He repudiates his wife, and marries her daughter by his brother (Blair) 130 ELECTORS. Those for members of parliament for counties were obliged to have forty shillings a year in land, 39 Henry VL, 1460. — Ruffhead's Statutes. Among the recent acts relating to elections are the following : act depriving excise and custom-house officers, and contractors with government, of their votes. 1782. In the U. S., the qualifications vary in the different states. ELECTORS OF GERMANY. Originally, all the members of the Germanic body made choice of their head ; but amidst the violence and anarchy which prevailed for several centuries in the empire, seven princes who possessed the greatest power assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the em- peror. — Dr. Robcrtso'ii. _^ An eighth elector was made, in 1648; and a ninth in favor of the duke "of Hanover, in 1692. The number was reduced to eight, in 1777; and was increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. The electorship ceased on the dissolution of the German empire, and when the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804, 1806. — See Germany. ELECTRICITY. That of amber was known to Thales, 600 b. c. Electricity was imperfectly discovered a. d. 1467. It was found in various substances by Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, in 1600 ; he first obtained the knowledge of its power, of conductors and non-conductors, in 1606. Ottoguerick found that two globes of brimstone contained electric matter, 1647. The electric shock was discovered at Leyden, 1745, and hence the operation is termed the "Leyden phial." Electric matter was first found to contain caloric, or fire, and that it would fire spirits, 1756. The identity of electricity and lightning His subjects, wearied with his cruel- ties and crimes, demolish his stat- ues, set fire to his palace, and he flies from their fury (Blair) b. c. He murders his son by his new queen ; also his son by her mother, sending the head and limbs of the latter as a present to the parent on a feast day Yet, defeating the Egyptian army, he recovers his throne ; and dies Pestilence from the putrefaction of vast swarms of locusts ; 800,000 per- sons perish in Egypt - Revolt in Upper Egypt ; the famous city of Thebes destroyed after a siege of three years (Diod. Sictdus) Aiiletes dying, leaves his kingdom to his eldest son, Ptolemy, and the fa- mous Cleopatra (Blair) During a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleojiatra, Alexandria is be- sieged by Ceesar, and the famous library nearly destroyed by fire (Blair) Ceesar defeats the king, who, in cross- ing the Nile, is drowned ; and the younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra reign . - - . - Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14 years of age) and reigns alone She appears before Mark Antony, to answer for this crime. Fascinated by her beauty, he follows her into Egypt Antony defeated by Octavius Caesar at the battle of Actium (Blair) Octavius enters Egypt; Antony and Cleopatra kill themselves ; and the kingdom becomes a Roman prov- ince ..... 308 THE WOULd's progress. [ EM« was proved by Dr. Franklin, about this period. The electricity of the Au« rora Borealis was discovered by means of the electric kite, in 1769. ELECTRO-GALVANISM. It owes its origin to the discoveries of Dr. L. Gal- vani, an eminent Italian philosopher, in 1789. Volta pursued the inquiries of this good man (for he was alike distinguished by his virtues and genius), and discovered the mode of combining the metals; constructed what is very properly called the Voltaic pile; and extended the whole science into a system which should rather be called Voltaism than Galvanism. ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism were discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen, in 1807. This analogy was established in 1819, and was contirmed by subsequent experiments in England, France, Germany, the United States and other countries EI.ECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Experiments in electricity, having more or less bearing upon its ])ractical use in telegraphic communication, were made by Wincklcr, at L('ipsie,17-1(); La Monnier, in Paris ; Watson, in London, 1747; Loraiiu! ill 1784: Bt'taucour, at Madrid, 1798. Galvani's discovery of •■Galvanism,'' at Bo.miga 17'--ll. Prof. Volta's " Voltaic Battery," at Pavia, 1801; S.)eniiuerriiig, at Hiuiich, 1807. The practical use of Galvanism in telegraphs, as propliL'.sied by John Redman Coxe, of Phila., in 1816. Great advance made by Prof. Ocr.'sted at Copenliagen, in 1819. The electro-mag- netic agency lirst fully develojjed and applied by Prof Morse, 1832, patented 1840. The first t'jlcg-i-apli by this agencj' in the United SLutes, was between Washington and Baliimure, in 1844. Cooke & Wheatsone's patent in En- gland, 1840. Bains patent in England, first, 1842; applied in United States in 1849. Houses in 1848. The telegraphic lines in the United States, in Jan. 1850 extended 6,079 miles. — See Supplement. ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. The his- tory of the Maccabees informs us, that " to every elephant they appointed 1000 men, armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse ; and rrpon the elephants were strong towers of wood," &c. The elephants in the army of Antiochus were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulber- ries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England, was one of enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry lU., in 1238. — Baker s Chron. ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed by the Athenians and other nations : these mysteries were the most celebra- ted of all the religious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted by Eumol- pus, 1356 B. c. They were so superstitiously observed, that if any one revealed them, it was sujjposed that he had called divine vengeance upon him, and he was put to death. The mysteries were introduced from Eleusis into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last abolished by Theo- dosius the Great, a. d. 389. ELGIN MARBLES. These admirable works of ancient art were derived chiefly from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens, of which temple they formed part of the frieze and pediment, built by Phi- dias about 500 B. c. Lord Elgin began the collection of these marbles during his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; they were purchased of him by the British government for 36,O0OZ., and placed in the British Museum, in 1816. EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believed that their souls; after many thousand years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter were preseiwed entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the dead. The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead has been the admiration and wonder of modern times. They rendered the body not only incorruptible, EMP ] DICTIONARY -OF DATES. 309 but it retained its full proportion of size, symmetry of features, and personal likeness. They called the embalmed bodies mmmnies, some of which, buried 3000 years ago, are perfect to this day. The art of such embalming is now lost. When Nicodemus came with Joseph of Arimathea, to pay the last duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes to embalm his body. — John xix. 38. EMBARGO IN ENGLAND. This power is invested in the crown, but it is rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude to war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those for the preven- tion of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the detention of all Russian. Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. EMBARGO IN THE UNITED STATES. Embargo on all essels in the ports of the United States, passed by Congress with reference lo the quarrel with Great Britain after the attack on the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Re- pealed and non-intercourse act passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90 days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812. EMBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian church in the third century, to implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and fasting. Ember Days, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which penitents sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four times in each year were appointed for these acts of devotion, so as to answer to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. EMBROIDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrygians ; but we learn from Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particu- larly excelled in this decorative species of needle-work. Of this art very early mention is made in the Scriptures. — Exodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23. An ancient existing specimen of beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapes- try, worked by Matilda, the queen of William I. of England. See Bayeux Tapestry. EMERALD. The precious stone of a green color is found in the East and in Peru; inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Peru ; but there is a gen- uine emerald in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II., who died in 1513, and Peru was not conquered till 1545 ; hence it is inferred that this emerald was brought from Africa, or the East. EMIGRATION. Of late years emigrations from Britain have been considera- ble. In the ten years ending 1830, the emigrations to the North American colonies, West Indies, Capo of Good Hope, New South Wales, Swan River, Van Dieraen's Land, &c. were, according to official returns, 154,291. In the decennial period to 1840, the emigrations advanced to 277,696, exclusively of the vast numbers settling in the United States of America. The num- ber of emigrants to the United States in one year ending Se^jt. 30, 1848, were registered as born in Great Britain and Ireland - 148,212 Denmark - 210 Germany - 58,018 Switzerland - - - 3i<5 France - - 7,748 Other countries or unknown - - 3,043 Sweden and Norway 903 EMIR. A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliplis. This rank was first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet by hisrlaugliter Fatima. about i.d. 650. — Ricaut. To the emirs only was originally giv<;n the privilege of wearing the green turban. It is also given to high officers (another title being joined). EMPALEMENT. This barbarous and dreadful mode of putting criiiiiutils Lo 310 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ENG death is mentioned by Juvenal, and was often inflicted in Rome, particularly by the monster Nero. The victim doomed to empalement is spitted through the body on a stake fixed upright ; and this punishment is still used in Turkey and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers were sometimes staked in this manner, previously to being buried, in England. — Southern. Wil- liams (who committed suicide) the murderer of the Marr family, in Rat- clitfe Highway, London, Dec. 8, 1811, was staked in his ignominious grave. This practice has since been abolished there. See Burying Alive. EMPEROR. Originally a title of honor at Rome, conferred on victorious ge- nerals, who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustus C83sar was the first Roman emperor, 27 b. c. Valens was the first emperor of the Eastern empire, a. d. 364. Charlemagne was the first emperor of Germany, crowned by Leo III. a. d. 800. Ottoman I., founder of the Turk- ish empire, was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. The Czar of Russia was the first emperor of that country, 1722. Don Pedro IV. of Portugal was the first emperor of Brazil, in 1825. EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians who contended that all hy- pothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was useless, and that experience and observation alone were the foundation of the art of medicine. The sect of Empirics was instituted by Acron of Agrigentum, about 473 b. c. ENAMELLING. The origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It was practised by the Egyptians and other early nations ; and was known in England in the times of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel which belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was made by his order, in his reign, about a. d. 887. ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, known to the ancients. This very beautiful art, after having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bachelier, a. d. 1749. ENCYCLOPAEDIA. The first work to which this designation was expressly given, was that of Abulfarius, an Arabian writer, in the thirteenth century. Many were published as early as the fifteenth century, but none alphabet- ically. Chambers' Dictionary was the first of the circle of arts and sciences, in England, first published in 1728. The gi-eat French work, Encyclopedie Methodique, to which Voltaire, Diderot, D'Alembert, and other savans contri- buted, Avas published in l~9!2ctseq., in 200 quarto volumes. The British En- cyclopedia, printed in Philadelphia in 1798, by Thomas Dobson, was the fii'st in the United States. The Edinburgh Encyclopedia, edited by Sir David Brewster, was published, 1810 et seq., and republished in the United States. Rees' Cyclopedia republished in the United States in 1822. The cost of the 7th edition of Encychipcdia Brilannica. edited by Professor Napier, and published by A. &C. Black Edinburgh in 1840 etc., was stated to have been £126,000. of which i;23 000 were paid to the contributors. This was jDro- bably the most costly inidevtaking of the kind ever achieved by private enter- prise. The Encyclopedia Mctropolitcona was commenced in 1815 and finished in 1845. Both of these works comprised articles by the most distinguished writers in Great Britain. The German Conversations Lexicon, published 1796-1830, and upon the basis of this the Encyclopedia Americana was com- menced in Philadeli^hia in 1829-30, Penny Cycl. (Knight's) finished 1844. ENGINEERS. This name is of modern date, as engineers were formerly called Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as trench-master in 1622. The chief engineer was called camp- master-general in 1634. Captain Thomas Ruddliad the rank of chief engineer to the king, about 1650. The corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It has a ENG J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 31 1 colonel-in-cliief, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty colonels. The Association of civil engineers was established in 1828. The Bureau of Topographical Engineers of th& U. S. Army, established at Washington. ENGLAND. See Britain.. So named by order of Egbert, first king of Eng- land, in a general council held at Winchester, a. d. 829. This appellative had been used as far back as a. d. 688, biit had never been, until then, rati- fied by any assembly of the nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of Saxons, and land, the Saxon for country. For English history and succession of Sovereigns, see Tabular Views, beginning on p. 75 in this volume. England and Wales were united a. d. 1283, and Scotland was united to both in 1707, and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated with these countries by the Act of Legislative Union, January 1, 1801, and the whole called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. ENGLAND, NEW. See New England'. RNGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Languages. From the High Dutch or Teutonic sprung (among others) the English language, now one of the most copious and beautiful of Europe. Law pleadings were made in En- glish by order of Edward III. instead of the French language, which had been continued from the time of the Conqueror, a. d. 1362. The English tongue and English apparel were oi'dered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henrj' VIII. 1536. The English was ordered to beused in all lawsuits, and the Latin disused. May 1731. ENGRAVING. The engraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest an- tiquity. The earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal rings, and there still exist many antiqiie engravings equal to later produc- tions of similar artists. Engraving from plates and wood is chiefly of mo- dern invention, having its origin about the middle of the fifteenth century. Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The art of engraving, in various styles, has made great progress in the United States during the last ten years. ENGRAVING on COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their appearance about a. d. 1450. and were first produced in Germany. Masso, surnamed Fiuiguerra, was the first Italian artist in this way, 1450. The earliest date known of a cojiper- plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses for working the plates were invented in 1545, and many improvements of it followed. Of the art of etching on copper by means of aquafortis, Fj-ancis Mazzouli, or Parmagiano, is the reputed inventor, about a. d. 1532. — De Piles. ENGRAVING, LrrHOORAPHic. This is a new branch of the art, and Alois Sennefelder may be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced on the Continent in 1798. and became more known as polj'autography in 1808. It was introduced into general use in England by Mr. Ackermann of London in 1817. ENGRAVING, Mezzotinto. The art was discovered by Siegen, and was im- proved by prince Rupert in 1648; Sir Christopher Wren further Improved it in 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful efi:ect is produced was invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non. about 1662 ; he com- municated his invention to Le Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. Chiaro-oscnro en- graving originated with the Germans, and was first practised by Mair. one of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zincography, if-c. ENGRAVING on STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, Avhich, aftei it has been hardened will multiply copper plates and fine impressions, in- 312 THE world's progress, [ EPl definitely, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of Philadelphia, in 1819. ENGRAVING on WOOD, took its rise from the brief mahlers, or manufacturers of playing-cards, about a. d. 1400 ; and from this sprung the invention of printing, first attempted by means of wooden types not movable. See Printing. The art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to Reuss, a German ; it was greatly improved by Durer and Lucas Van Leyden in 1497 ; and was brought to perfection in England by Bewick, his brother, and pupils, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., 1789. et. seq. The earliest wood en- graving which has reached our times is one representing St. Christophei/ carrying the infant Jesus over the sea ; it bears date a. d. 1423. ENTOMOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as rank- ing as a science until the ai-rangement of Linnaeus, a. d. 1739. The London Entomological Society was instituted in 1806 ; it is directed chiefly to the study of insects found in Great Britain ; and inquires into the best methods of destroying noxious insects, and making known such as are useful. ENVOYS. They enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors. Envoys Extraordinary are of modern date. — Wicquefoi-t. The court of France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the royal carriages, a. d. 1639. EPHESTJS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure wa? one of the seven wonders Of the world ; it was 425 feet long and 200 broad, and cost 220 years of labor. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings contributed to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Erostratus, solely to perpetuate his memory. 356 b. c. — Pliny. It rose from its ruins, and was richer and more splendid than before ; but it was again burnt a. d. 260. — Univ. Hist. EPHORI. Powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to con- trol the roj'al power, 760 b. c. They were five in number, and acting as censors in the state, they could check and restrain the authority of the kings, and even imprison them. If they were guilty of irregularities. EPIC POETRY. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the first epic poems. See Homer. EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the. founder of it, about 300 b. c. and taught that the greatest good consists in a happiness, springing not from sensual gratifications or vicious pleasures, but from virtue, and consisting in the peace and harmony of the soul with itself His disciples had all things in common ; and the pleasantness of his system, and its ease and luxury, made him many followers. EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the ancients on their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin epigrammatist, who flourished about a. d. 83, is allowed to have excelled all others, ancient or modern, in the tasteful and pointed epigram. The follow- ing Latin epigram on the miracle of our Saviour in turning water into wine at Cana (John iii.) is a beautiful example: — " Videt et erubuit lympha pudica Deum." And Dr. Johnson has declared that the subjoined English epigram, by Di*. Doddridge, on the words Dum vtvimus vivamus, is the finest specimen in our language : — " Live while we live !" the epicure will say, " And tasle the pleasures of the prejent day." " Live while we live !" the hoary preacher cries, " And give to God each moment as it flies." Lord ! in my view let both united be, We live in pleasure when we live to thee. — Dndihidse. era] dictionary of dates. 313 EPIRUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhus. Its early history is very obscure, and it is only during the reign of this sovereign, who was the last, that it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neopto- lemus) settled in Epirus after the Trojan war, 1170 b. c. He was killed in the temple of Delphi, about 1165 e. c. ■ Reign of the great Pyrrhus - u. c. 306 He enters into a league against Deme- trius : the battle of Berasa - - 294 Expedition into Italy ; he gains his first battle against the Romans - - 280 He gains another great battle - - 279 His conquest of Sicily - - - 278 His last battle with the Romans - 274 He takes Macedon from Antigonus - 274 Expedition against Sparta - b. c. 272 He enters Argos, and is killed by a tile, thrown at him from a house-top by a woman .... 272 Philip unites Epirus to Macedon - 220 Its conquest by the Romans - - 167 Annexed to the Ottoman empire a. d. 1466 EPISCOPACY. The government, by its bishops, of the Christian church. It may be said to have been instituted a. d. 33, when Peter sat in the bishop's chair at Rome. — Butler. Episcopacy commenced in England in the second century ; in Ireland about the same time ; and in Scotland in the fourth cen- tury ; but historians dispute with theologians upon this point. See Bishops. In Scotland, episcopacy was finally abolished at the period of the revolution, 1688-9. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared about the year 500. — Burnet. EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the United States. Episcopacy established in New- York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of the Protestant Episcoi5al Church in America were bishop White of Penn- sylvania and Provost of New- York, consecrated in London, 1787. First Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and Ohio consecrated at New- York, Nov. 2, 1832. EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, by the Athenians, the Ro- mans, and most of the nations of antiquity ; their date is referred in Eng- land to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the ancients arose the epigram. — Boileau. EPITHALAMIUM. Tisias, the lyric poet, was the first writer of a nuptial complimentary song, or epithalamium. He received the name of Stesicho- rus from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, 536 b. c. — _Bossuet. EPOCHAS. These are periods in history which are agreed upon and acknow- ledged by the respective historians and chronologers, and which serve to regulate the date of events. The following are the epochas thus particu- larly adopted. — See Eras. Creation - - - • b. c. 4004 Deluge 2348 Calling of Abraham - . - 1921 Argonautic ejcpedition - • - 1225 Destruction of Troy - - -1184 Isl Olympiad - - - - 776 EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets were discovered by Ptolemy, a. d. 130. When the sun in his progress through the ecliptic comes to the equinoctial circle, the daj'^ and night are equal all over the globe : this occurs twice in the year ; once in the first point of Aries, which is called the vernal equinox ; next in the first point of Libra, which is the autumnal equinox. — Blair. EQUITY, COURTS of. To determine causes according to the rule of equity and conscience, rather than according to strict law, a. d. 1067.— See ChaTi- cerij. ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order; a few only need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonasser, after which 14 Building of Rome - - B. c. 753 Nabonassar - 747 The Seleucidae - - 312 The battle of Actium - 38 The Christian era - A.D. 1 Diocletian - 284 314 THE wokld's progress. [ emb the astronomical obsen-ations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb. 26, 747. The era of the Seleucidse (used by the Maccabees) commenced 312 B. c. The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date from the year 776 B. c. ; but they subsequently reckoned by Indictions, the first beginning A. D. 313 : these, among chronologers, are still used. — See Indictions. The Ro- mans reckoned from the building of their city, 753 b. c. ; and afterwards from the 16th year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic. The disci- ples of Mahomet began their Hegira from the flight of their prophet from Mecca, which occurred a. d. 622. KRAS OP THE CREATION and REDEMPTION. The Jews and Christians have had divers epochas ; but in historical computation of time are chiefly used the most extraordinary epochs, which are two, the Creation of the World, and the appearance of our Redeemer, which last the Christians have made their era. They did not adopt it, however, until the sixth century, when it was introduced by Denys the Little, a Scythian, who became abbot of a monastery near Rome : he was the first who computed time from the birth of Christ, and fixed that great event according to the vulgar era. — Cassiodorus Chron. This computation began in Italy, a. d. 525, and in Eng- land in 816. It is the only one now in general iise, and is that observed in this work. — See Creation, and Christian Era. ES(;!URIAL. The palace of the kings of Spain, one. of the largest and most magnificent in the world. It was commenced by Philip II. in the year 1562 ; and the fii-st expenditure of its erection was 6,000,000 of ducats. It forms a vast square of polished stone, and paved with marble. It may give some notion of the surprising grandeur of this palace to observe, that, according to the computation of Francisco de los Santos, it would take up more than four days to go through all its rooms and apartments, the length of the way being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is above 120 English miles. Alvarez de Colmenar also asserts, that there are 14,000 doors, and 11,000 windows belonging to this edifice. ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armor-bearers to, or attendants on, a knight. — Bloiuiit. In England the king created esquires by putting about their necks the collar of S S, and bestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. A British queen is recorded as having married the armigcruvi, or esquire, of her deceased husband. The distinction of esquire was first given to persons of fortune not attendant upon knights, a.d. 1345. — Stowe. MeyricWs Ancknt Armor. ETHER. It was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first dis- covered by Kunkel, in 1681 ; and muriatic ether was first made from the chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by count Lauraguais, same year ; and hydriodic ether was first prepared by Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. Boullay. Ether is said to have been first applied to the purpose of causing insensibility to pain by Br. Horace Wells, of Connecticut, in 1846. This, however, is disputed, for about the same time Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, well known as a geologist and chemist, suggested the use of ether in surgery ; but to Dr. Morton, of Boston, probably belongs the credit of first demonstrating, by actual experi- ment, the use of etlier in dentistry and surgery, as an annihilator of pain. It was used in siirgical cases, in that year, by Drs. J. C. Warren, Channing. and Morton, of Boston, who afterwards published the results of their experi- ments. The practice was first copied in Europe by Dr. Robertson, of Edin- burgh, and Dr. Booth, of London, the same year. The sulphuric ether is inhaled from an apparatus with flexible tube, &c. Etherization was first used in operative midwifery, in the United States, May, 1847. The substance eve] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 3 IS called chloroform, originally discovered by Soubeiran, in 1831, was also first employed for similar purposes in 1847, by professor Simpson, of Edinburgh. ETHICS. The doctrine and system of morality ; a science which is scarcely more inculcated by religion and virtue, than it is influenced by manners and government: the Chinese, who are said to have been acquainted with astronomy at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, were so refined in the earliest ages, that they studied ethics, we are told, a thousand years before that event ; and hence they must have lived at that time under not only civilized and enlightened, but refined and moral governments. K I'NA, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops ; and it is called by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus as happening 1693 b. c, and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring, 734, 477, and 425 b. c. There were e-uptions, 125, 121, and 43 B. 0. — Livy. Eruptions a. d. 40, 253, and 420. — Carrera. One in 1012. — Geoffrey de Viterbo. Awful one which overwhelmed Catania, when 15,00C ■ inhabitants perished in the burning ruins, 1169. Eruptions eaually awful and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1586, 1587, 1564, and in 1669; when tens of thousands of persons perished in the streams oif lava which rolled over the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in May 1830, when several villages were destroyed, and showers of lava reached even to Rome. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte destroyed, Nov. 18, 1832. EUCLID, Elements of. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished there about 300 b. c. The Elements are not wholly his, for many of the invalu- able truths and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others ; but Euclid was the first who reduced them to regular order, and who probably interwove many theo- rems of his own. to render the whole a complete and connected system of geometry. The Elements were first printed at Basil, by Simon Grynseus, in A. D. 1533. EUNUCHS. This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian and Assyrian nations; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in courts. The first princess who was waited upon by eimuchs in her cham- ber, was Semiramis, queen of Assyria and Babjdon, about 2007 b. c. — Leng- let. Numbers of this class of persons are in the quality of attendants on the ladies of the Seraglio in Turkey. EUSTATIA, ST. This island was settled by the Dutch in 1632 : it was taken by the French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; and again by the British forces, under admiral Rodney and general Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It was recovered by ths French under the marquis de Bouill^, Nov. 26, same year; and was again captured by the British in 1801, and 1810; but re- stored in 1814. EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their Gospels in a. d. 44 ; Luke in 55 ; and John in 97. In 95, John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil at Rome, whence, being taken out imhurt, he was banished to the Isle of Patmos, and there, in the year 96, he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100. — Butler. At the council of Nice in 325, there were 200 varied versions of the adopted Evangelists. EVESHAM, Battle of, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., and Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, in \vhich the barons were defeated, and the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain. Henry III. at one period of the battle was on the point of being cleft down by a soldier who did not know his rank, but was saved by his timely exclamation, '• Do not 316 THE world's progress. [exe kill me, soldier, I am Henry of Winchester, thy king !" This victory broke up the treasonable conspiracy of the barons ; fought August 4, 1265. EXCHANGE. One called Collegium Mercatorum, existed at Rome, 493 b. c. The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are mag- nificent. The exchange of London was founded by sir Thomas Gresham, June 7, 1566, and was called Royal, by Elizabeth, on her paying it a visit in Jan. 1571. Destroyed by fire in 1666 and in 1838 : rebuilt and v pened in 1844. EXCHANGE (Merchants') in NEW YORK. The present building, on the site of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1836, was commenced in 1836, and finished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost Sl,800,000. That of Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting i.(f officers whose functions are financial or judicial : the chancellor of the exchequer is the first of these, and he formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Fauconbridge, bishop of Lon- don, in the reign of Hemy III., about 1221. The exchequer stopped pay- ment from Jan. to May the 24th, Charles II. IQIS.—Stowe. The English and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816. EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long Parlia- ment ; was continued under Cromwell and Charles II. ; and was organized as at present in the Walpole administration. It was first collected and an office opened in 1643, and was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions to support the parliament forces against Charles I. The excise office was built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The officers of excise and customs were deprived of their votes for members of parliament in 1782. See jReveniie. AMOUNT OF THE EXCISE REVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 1744 Great Britain - - £3,754,072 I 1830 United Kingdom . - £18,644,385 1786 Ditto - - - 5,.540.114 1834 Ditto - - 16,877,292 1808 Ditto - - - 19,867,914 1837 Ditto - - - 14,518,142 1820 Ditto - - - 26,364,702 1840 Ditto - - - 12,607,766 1827 United Kingdom - - 20,995,324 | 1845 Ditto - - - 13,585,583 EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict from Chris- tian communion. It was originally instituted for preserving the jjurity of the church ; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an en- gine for promoting their own power. Some suppose excommunication to be of Hindoo origin in the Pariah caste, and that it was adopted by the Jews (who had three degrees of it), and from these latter by the Christian churches. The Greek and Roman priests and even the Druids had similar punishments in aid of their respective religions. — Phillips. EXCOMMUNICATION by the POPES. The Catholic church excommuni- cates by bell, book, and candle. — See Bell, Book, and Candle. The popes have carried their authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose sovereigns. Gregory VII. was the first pope who assumed this extravagant power. He excommunicated Henry IV. emperor of Germanj', in 1077, ab- solving his subjects from their allegiance ; and on the emperor's death, "his excommunicated body" was five years above ground, no one daring to bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II. 's reign ; and king John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. in 1208, when all England lay under an interdict for six years. The citizens of Dublin were excommunicated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fire to queen Elizabeth accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary indul- gences were offered to all who should assist in deposing her. EXECUTIONS. See Crime. In the reign of Henry VIII. (thirty-eight years) EXP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 317 In tlie year 1841 - 1 In the year 1842 • 2 In the year 1843 - 1 it is shown that no less a number than 72,000 criminals were executed.-— Stowe. In the ten j^ears between 1820 and 1830, there were executed in Eng- land alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became less bloody, the number of executions proportionally decreased. In the three years ending 1820, the executions in England and Wales amounted to 312 ; in the three years ending 1830, they were reduced to 178 ; and in the three years ending 1840, they had decreased to 62. — Pari. Returns. EXECUTIONS IN LOKDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. In the year 1820 - 43 I In the year 18.35 - nil I In the year 1838 - nil I In the year 1825 - 17 In the year ia36 - nil In the year 1839 - 2 In the^ear 1830 - 6 | In the year 1837 - 2 | In the year 1840 - 1 | EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. S.), consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of war ; Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief^ Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller, vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads, Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. At- tack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July 1841. The Vincennes (flag-ship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. Imp. 8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the ex- pedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS op the United States from 1791. Exports. 69,691.669 64,974;382 72,160,281 74,699,030 75,986,657 99,535,388 77,595,322 82,324,827 72,264,686 72,358,671 73,849,508 81,310,583 87,176,943 90,140,433 104,336,973 121,693,577 128,663,040 117,419,376 113,717,404 162,092,132 104,805,891 121,851,803 104,691,534 84,346,480' lll,200,046t 114,646,606t 113,488,516t 158,648,622t 154,032,131t fc of trade, turned the scale so much in favor of English merchandise, that by a balance of trade taken in his time, the exported commodities amounted to 294,000^., and the imported to only 38,000Z. VALUE OP EXPOETS PROM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OP THE WORLD, VIZ : — . . — _ ._.- _ .... .£102,180,517 - 100,260,101 - 117,877,278 - 131,564,503 - 134,509,116 Years. Imports. Exports. Years. Imports. 1791 ■ S-52,200,000 $19,012,041 1820 74,450.000 1792 31,500,000 - 20,753,098 1821 - 62,585,724 1793 - 31,100,000 - 26,109,572 1822- 83,241,541 1794 34,600,000 . 33,026.233 1823 - 77,579,267 1795. - 69.756,268 - 47,989,472 1824 80,549,007 1796 81,436,164 - 67,064,097 1825 - 96,340,075 1797 - 75,379,406 - 56,850,206 1826 84,974,477 1798 68,551,700 - 61,527,097 1827 - 79,484,068 1799 - 79,')68,148 - 78,665,522 1828 88,509,824 1800 91,252,768 - 70,971,780 1829 - 74,492,527 1801 - 111,363,511 - 94,115,925 1830 70,876,920 1802 76,333,333 - 72,483,160 1831 - 103,191,134 1803 - 64,666»666 . 55,800,033 1832 • 101,025,266 1804 85,000,000 . 77,699,074 1833 - 108.118,311 1805- - 120,000,000 - 95,566,021 1834 12&;521,332 1806 129,000,000 - 101,536,963 1835 - 149,895,742 1807 - 138,500,000 - 108,343,150 1836 189,980,035 1808 56,990,000 - 22,439,960 1837 - 140,989,217 1809 - 59,400,000 - 52,203,231 1838 108,486,616 1810 85,400,000 - 66,757,974 1839 - 121,028,416 1811 - 53,400,000 - 61,316,831 1840 131,571,950 1812 77,030,000 - 38,527,236 1841 - 127,946,177 1813 - 22,005,000 - 27,855,997 1842 100,162,087 1814 12,965,000 - 6,927,441 1843 - 64,753,799* 1815 - 113,041,274 - 52,557,753 1844 108,435,0351 1816 147,103,000 ■ 81,920,452 1845 - 117,254,564t 1817 - 99,250,000 - 87,671,569 1846 121,691,797t 1818 121,750,000 - 93,281,133 1847 - 146.545,638t 1819 - 87,125,000 - 70,142,521 1848 154,977,876t EXPORTS, Great Britain. Edward III , by b is encouragen. enf In 1700 - - £6,097,120 In 1820 - -£51,733,113 In 1842 In 1750 - 10,130,991 In 1830 - - 66,735,445 In 1843 In 1775 - - 16,326,363 In 1835 - - 78,376,732 In l&M In 1800 - 38,120,120 In 1840 - - 97,402.726 In 1845 In 1810 - - 45,869.839 In 1841 - - 102,705,372 In 1846 Only nine months of 1843. t For the year ending June 30. 318 THE world's progress. [fal The amounts above given relate to the exports of the United Kingdom of British and Irish produce onlj'. The total exports, including foreign and colonial produce, were, according to official returns, as follows : In 1841 - -i; 116,479,678 I In 1843 - -£113,844,259 I In 1845 - -£145,961,749 In 1842 - - 116,903,668 | In 1844 - - 131,833,391 | In 1846 - - 150,879,986 In the year ending 5th January 1846, the amount of imports into the United Kingdom was 85,281,958^; and the balance of trade in favor of Eng- land, deducting this sum from her exports, was 65,598,028Z. But even this great balance has been exceeded in recent years, as, for instance, the year immediately preceding, when it mounted to upwards of seventy millions. — Brit. Revenue Returns. EYLAU, Battle of, between the French and Russians, one of the most bloody of Napoleon's wars : it terminated in favor of Napoleon, who com- manded in person ; but both armies by this and other recent battles were so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the Russians on the Pregel : the loss to the victor was 15,000 men, and the Russian loss in slain alone was 20,000. Feb. 8, 1807. FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from faba, a bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse : the}' were said to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and were once so numerous that they took upon themselves to wage war against the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the Cremera, in which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain, b. c. 477. There only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages. FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest extant, and as beautiful as any made since." — Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collectionof fables extant is of east- ern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient, in the world. — Sir WiUiam Jones. The well-known ^Esop's fables (which see), were AVi'itten about 540 years b. c. — Plutarch. FACTIONS. Among the Romans, factions were parties that fought on cha- riots in the cirque, and who were distinguished by their different colors, a green, blue, red, and white, to which Domitian added two others, one in coats embroidered with gold, a second wearing scarlet, about a. d. 90, Both the emperors and people had generally greater inclination for some parti- cular color than the rest ; but upon a quarrel happening in Justinian's reign, between the blue and green, when 40,000 were killed on both sides, the name of faction was abolished. With us, faction means a party or sect in religious or civil matters, and is always taken in an ill sense. FAIRS AND WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and were first instituted in England by Alfred, a. d. 886. — Spelman. They were established by order of Gregory VII. in 1708, and termed Fericc, at which the monks celebrated the festival of their patron saint ; the vast resort of people occasioned a great de- mand for goods, wares, &c. They were called wakes from the people making merry during the vigil, or eve. Fairs were established in France and Eng- land by Charlemagne and William the Conqueror, about a. d. 800 in the first, and 1071 in the latter kingdom. The fairs of Beaucaire, Falaise. and Leipsic, are the most famous iu Europe. FALKIRK, Battle op, between the English under Edward I. a.nd the Scuts, commanded by the heroic Wallace, in which 40,000 of the latter were slain ; PEU'j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 319 the whole Scotch army was broken up, and was chased off the field with dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298. FAMINES, AND SEASONS of REMARKABLE SCARCITY. The famine of the seven years in Egypt began 1708 b. c. — Uslier ; Blair. In a famine that raged at Rome thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber, 436 B. c. Livy. Awful famine in Egypt - a. D. 42 At Rome, attended by plague - - 262 In Britain, so grievous that people ate the bark of trees - - - 272 In Scotland, and thousands die - - 306 In England, where 40,000 perish - 310 Awful one in Phrygia - - - 370 So dreadful in Italy, that parents ate their children {Dufresnoy) • • 450 In England, Wales, and Scotland - 739 Again, when thousands starve • - 823 4gain, which lasts four year's - - 954 Youred the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, and vermin - - - a.d. 13)5 One in England and France (Rapm) ■ 1353 Agam, one so great, that bread was made from fern roots (Stowe) - 1438 Awful one in France ( Voltaire) - 16'.i:! One general in Great Britain - - 1743 One which devastates Bcagal - - 1771 At the Cape de Verds, where 16,000 per- sons perish .... 1775 One grievously felt in France - - 17S9 One severely felt in England • - 1795 Awful one throughout Europe - - 1016 ; Again, throughout the kingdom - - 1801 In England and France ; this famine At Drontheim, owing to Sweden jiler- leads to a pestilential fever, which cepting the supplies - - - 1813 lasts from 1193 to - - - 1195 Scarcity of food, severely felt by the Another famine in England - - 1251 Irish poor, 1814, 1816, 1822, and - 1845-6 Again, so dreadful, that the people de- I FAN, The use of the fan was known to the ancients: Cape hoc flabellum d ventulum hide sicfacito. — Terence. The modern custom among the ladies was borrowed from the East. Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false hair, ^vere first devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to England from France. — Stowe. The fan was used by females to hide their faces in church. — Pardon. FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows which were exhibited bj^ charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. These were introduced into our theatres in a ludicrous and more refined form ; and they are now only shorter, but often superior to the pieces called comedies. See article Drama. FASTING, AND FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations from the remotest antiquity. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other stated times, and on particular occasions, begun in the Christian church, to appease the anger of God, in the second century, a. d. 138. Retained as a pious practice by the reformed churches. — Eusebius. FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. The feast of the Tabernacles was instituted by Moses in the wilderness, 1490 b. c, but was celebrated with the greatest magnificence for fourteen days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solo- mon, 1005 B. c — Josephus. In the Christian church, those of Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost or Whitsuntide, were first ordered to be observed by all Christians, a. d. 68. Rogation days were appointed in 469. Jubilees in the Romish church were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300. See Jubilees. For fixed festivals observed in the church of England, as set- tled at the Reformation, el seq., see Book of Common Prayer. FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa. a feasi; which was held therein in behalf of the manes of diseased persons, when sacrifices were performed, and the last offices were paid to the shades of the dead. This month, with January, was added to the year, which had pre- viously but ten months, by Numa, 713 b. c. See Calendar, and Year. FERRARA. A citv in the papal dominions, evacuated by the Austrians, ex- cept the citadel, Dec. 23, 1847. FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit or service to the lord or owner of it, was introduced into England by the Saxons, about a. d. 600, The 320 Tits M^OKLd'S PKOGRESb. [ FIR slavery of this tenure was increased under William I. in 1068. This was done by dividing the kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain persons, requiring them to furnish the king with money, and a stated num- ber of soldiers. These laws were discountenanced in France by Louis XI. in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited by Henry VII. 1495. Abol- ished by statute 12 Charles II. 1663. The feudal system was introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008 ; and was finally abolished in that kingdom 20 George II. 1746. — LUtleton ; Ruffkead ; Bloxkstone. FEUILLANS. Members of a society formed in Paris to counteract the intrigues and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan convent, where their meetings were held, early in the revolution. A body of Jacobins invested the building, burst into theu- hall, and obliged them to separate, Dec. 25, 1791. FEZ. The ancient Mauritania, founded by Edrus, a Barbary farmer, about A. D. 696. It soon afterwards became the capital of all the western IMv rocco States. Leo Africanus describes the Mauritani as containing more than seven hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the twelfth century. FICTION LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a means of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became checks to each other. — Hume. Memorable declaration of Lord Mansfield, in the court of King's Bench, emphatically Tittered, that " no fiction op law SHALL EVER SO FAR PREVAIL AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH OP THE FACT, AS TO PREVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 21, 1784. This constitutional maxim is now a rule of law. FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Cbildebert I., A. D. 511. They were introduced into Italy by the Lombards. Into Spain, before the invasion of the Moors, a. d. 710. Into England by the Saxons (see PeiodalLaios). Into Scotland, directly from England, by Malcolm II., 1008. FIELD OP THE CLOTH op GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet Francis I. of France, at Ardres, a small to^vn near Calais in France, May 31, 1520. The nobility of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with such emulation and profuse expense, as procured to the place of interview (an open plain) the name of The Field of the Cloth of Gold. Many of the king's attendants involved themselves in great debts on this occasion, and were not able, by the penury of the rest of their lives, to repair the vain splendor of a few days. A painting of the embarkation, and another of the interview, are at Windsor Castle. — Butler. FIFTH MONARCHY-MEN. Fanatical levellers who arose in the time of "" Cromwell, and who supposed the period of the Millennium to be just at hand, when Jesus should descend from heaven and erect the fifth universal monarchy. They actually proceeded to elect Jesus Christ king at London ! Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. FIGURES. Arithmetical figures (nine digits and zero), and the method of computing by them, were brought into Europe from Arabia, about a. d. 900. They were first known in England about the year 1253, previously to which time the numbering by letters was in use there. See Arithmetic. FIRE. It is said to haye been first produced by striking flints together. The poets suppose that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the founder of the sect of the Magi, or worshippers of Fire, since known by the appellation of Guebres, still numerous in the coun- tries of the East, 2115 e. c— Justin ; Pli7iy. Heraclitus maintained that the world was created from fire, and he deemed it to be a god omnipotent, and FIR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 3^1 taught this theory about 506 b. c. — No^w. Diet. In the Scriptures God is said often to have appeared in, or encompassed with fire — as to Moses in the burning bush, on mount Sinai ; and to the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and St. John. The wrath of God is described by a consuming fire, and the angels, as his ministers, are compared to it. See the Bible. FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, a. d. 1378; they were brought to England about 1388. Fire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ire- land in 1489, when six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the earl of Kildare, who was then chief-governor. Muskets were first used at the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The Spaniards were the first nation who armed the foot soldier with these weapons. — Ulloa. Voltaire states, that the Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement at sea against the Genoese, in 1377 ; but our historians affirm, that the English had guns at the battle of Cressy, in 1346 ; and the year following at the siege of Calais. See Artillery. FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although ftae forcing pump, of which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The fire-engine, to force water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about the year 1663; it was improved materially in 1752, and from that time to the present. The fire-watch, or fire-guard of London, was instituted November 1791. The fire brigade was established in London in 1833. FIRE-SHIPS. They wei-e first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585.. The first use of them in the English navy was by Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, after- wards earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. — Rapin. FIRE-WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages : they Avere invented in Europe at Florence, about a. d. 1360 ; and were first exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris, ' in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Loiiis XVI., the pas- sages being stopped up occasioned such a crowd, that the people, seized with .a panic, trampled upon one another till they lay in heaps ; a scaffold erected over the river also broke down, and hundreds were drowned ; more than 1000 persons perished on this occasion, June 21, 1770. Madame Blanchard ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night, in a balloon surrounded by fire- works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, and dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Balloon. FIRES. Some of the most noted and destructive in North America. In New York, destroying 600 wareliou- i New York, destroying 302 stores and ses and f roperty to amount of S20, 000,000 ■ - - Dec. Iti, 1835 At Washington, destroying the General Post OOice and Parent OfBce, with 10,000 valuable models, drawings, &c. - - - Dec. 15, 1836 At Charleston, S. C. ; 145 acres and 1,158 buildings destroyed - April 27, 1S38 New York ; 46 buildings ; loss. $10,- (J00,000 - - - • Sept, 6, 1839 Philadelphia ; 52 buildings ; loss, !8i5O0,OO0 - - - Oct. 4, 1839 Pittsburgh, Pa. 1,000 buildings, and property valued about .$6,000,000 ■ April 10, 1845 Quebec, Canada; 1,500 houses burnt, immen.se loss of property, and se- veral lives. May 2S, 1845. Another, burning 1,300 dwellings ; in all, two dwelling-liouses, and property worth $6,000,000—4 lives lost - .July 19, 1845 St. .John's, Newfoundland ; nearly the whole town destroyed — 6,000 people made houseless - - .June 12, 1846 Quebec Theatre Royal ; 47 persons burned to death - - June 14, 1846 Nantucket ; 300 buildings, valued $800,000 - - - July 13, 1846 Dupont's powder mills, Md., exploded, 18 persons killed - April 14, 1847 At Albany ; 600 buildings, besides steamboats &c., 24 acres burned over, loss, $3,000,000 - Aug. 17, 1849 At Brooklyn, N. Y., 200 houses, value, $750,000 - - - Sept. 9, 1848 At St. Louis; 23 steamboats and 15 blocks of houses destroyed, loss about $3,000,000 - - May 17, 1849 thirds of the city - June 28, 1845 ' At Philadelphia, 300 houses July 9, 1850 14* 322 THE world's progress. [ FLa FIRE OF LONDON, the GREAT. Destroyed in the space of four clays eighty- nine churches, including St. Paul's ; the city gates, the Royal Exchange, the Custom House, Guildhall, Sion College, and many other public buildings, besides 13,200 houses, laying waste 400 streets. This conflagration happened (not without strong suspicion of treason), Sept. 2, 1666, and continued three days and nights, and was at last only extinguished by the blowing up of houses. — Hume; Rapin; Carte. FIRST FRUITS. Primitia among the Hebrews. They were offerings wliich made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First fruits were instituted by pope Clement V., in a. d. 1306; and were collected in England in 1316. The first year's income of every church benefice in Eng- land was given to the popes till the 27th of Henry VIII., 1535, when the first fruits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and his succes- sors. — Carte. Granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes of the poor clergy, by queen Anne, Feb. 1704. Consolidation of the offices of First Fruits, Tenths, and queen Anne's Bounty, by Statute 1 Vict., April 1838. FLAGELLANTS, Sect op. They established themselves at Peroxise, a. d. 1260. They maintained that there was no remission of sins without flagel- lation, and publicty lashed themselves, while in procession, preceded by the cross, until tlie blood flowed from their naked backs. Their leader, Conrad Schmidt, was burnt, 1414. FLANDERS. The country of the ancient Belgse ; conquered by Julius Cjesar, 47 B. c. It passed into the hands of France, a. d. 412. It was governed by its carls subject to that crown, from 864 to 1369. It then came into the house of Austria by marriage ; but was yielded to Spain in 1556. Flanders shook off the Spanish yoke in 1572; and in 1725, by the treaty of Vienna, it was annexed to the German empire. — Priestley. Flanders was overrim by the French in 1792 and 1794, and was declared part of their Republic. It was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, and was erected into the kingdom of Belgium in 1831. — See Belgium. FLAX. The flax seed was first planted in England in a. d. 1533. For many ages the core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand. A mallet was next used ; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750. See article Hemp. FLODDEN FIELD, Battle of, between the English and Scots. James IV. of Scotland, having taken part with Louis XII. of France, against Henry VIII. of England, this battle was one of the consequences of his unfortunate policy ; and James, and most of his chief nobles, and upwards of 10,000 of his army were slain, while the English, who were commanded by the earl of Surry, lost only persons of small note. Henry VIII. was at the time besieging Terouenne, near St. Omer ; fought Sept, 9, 1513. FLORENCE. It is said to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla, and en- larged by the Roman Triumviri. It was destroyed by Totila, and was re- built by Charlemagne. This citj^ is truly the seat of the arts. In its pal- aces, university, academies, churches, and libraries, are to be found the rarest works of sculpture and painting in the Avorld. The Florentine acad- emy, and the Accademia delta Crusca, were instituted to enrich the literature and improve the language of Tuscany ; the latter is so named because it rejects like bran all words not purely Tuscan. Florence was taken by the French in July 1796, and again in March, 1799 ; and was restored in 1814. FLORIDA, now one of the United States, was discovered by Sebastian Cabot sailing under the English flag, in 1497. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adven- FI^O ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 523 tiirer from Hispaniola, explored the country in 1512 and 1516. In 1539, Hernando de Soto, who had been an officer under Pizarro, overran the penin- sula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut off a few years after. In 1763 Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in exchange for Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and ceded it to the United States in 1819. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. First war with the Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when general Jackson subdued them. Another protracted and expensive warfare there commenced and continued until 1842. General Jessup, general Taylor, and others, were engaged in it. The Seminole chief, Osceola, was captured, 1837. Population in 1880, 34,723 ; in 1840, 54,477 including 25,717 slaves. FLORIN. A coin first made bj'' the Florentines. A floren was issued by Ed- ward III, which was current in England at the value of 6s., in 1337. — Cam- den. This English coin Avas called floren after the Florentine coin, because the latter was of the best gold. — Ashe. The florin cf Gemaany is in value 2s. 4:d. ; that of Spain 4s. 4J^. ; that of Palermo and Sicily 2s. 6^. ; that of Holland 2s.—Ayliffe. FLOWERS. The most delightful and fragrant among the ornaments of our gardens are of foreign production. The modern taste for flowers canle, it is said, from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for the first time in the sixteenth century ; at least many of the productions of our gardens were conveyed by that channel. — Beckmann. With what good- ness does God provide for our happiness and enjoyments, by making even the most remote countries contribute towards them ! — Sturm. From the reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth, our present common flowers were, for the most part, introduced into England. The art of preserving flowers in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the effects of frost in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented in America, by George Morris, in 1792. Among the flowers, the periods of whose introduction to English garden.^ have been traced, Haydn gives the following : — FLOWERS, PLANTS, y Scripture to admit, neither are we required to deny, the supposition that the matter without form and void, out of which this globe of eartli was framed, may have consisted of the wrecks and relics of more ancient worlds created and destroyed by the same Almighty power which called our world into being, and will one day cause it to pass away. Thus while the Bible reveals to us the moral history and destiny of our race, and teaches us tliat man and other living things have been placed but a few thousand years 3^4 THE world's progress. [ GEB upon the earth, the physical monuments of our globe bear witness to tHe same truth ; and as astronomy unfolds to us myriads of worlds, not spoken of in the sacred records, geology in like manner proves, not by arguments dra-vvn from analogy, but by the incontrovertible evidence of physical phe- nomena, that there were former conditions of our planet, separated from each other by vast intei'vals of time, during which this world was teeming with life, ere man, and the animals which are his contemporaries, had been called into being. — Dr. Mantell and Bishop Blomfield. GEOMETRY. Its origin is ascribed to the Egyptians ; the annual inundations of the Nile having given rise to it by carrying away the landmarks, and the boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry into Greece about 600 B. c. Euclid's Elements were compiled about 280 b. c. The doctrine of curves originally attracted the attention of geometricians from the conic sections, which were introduced by Plato about 390 b, c. The conchoid curve was invented by Nicomedes, 220 b. c. The sciencvi of geometry was taught in Europe in the thirteenth century. Books on the subject of geo- metry and astronomy were destroyed in England, being regarded as infected with magic, 7 Edward VI., 1552. — Stoioe. GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy in France ; general Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known by the name of Georges, and others, arrested at Paris, charged with a conspi- racy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII., Feb. 23, 1804. The conspirators were tried June 9, when seventeen were sentenced to death, and many to imprisonment. Moreau was suffered to leave France, and was escorted from the temple to embark for America, June 22. In 1813 he received his mortal wound before Dresden, which see. GEORGIA, one of the United States, was granted by George II. to Gen. Ogle- thorpe, who, with forty followers, founded Savannah, Feb. 1, 1733. Savan- nah taken by the Britisli in the revolutionary war, Dec. 29, 1778 ; the town and State evacuated by them in July 1782. The State unanimously adopted tlie Federal Constitution, Jan. 2, 1788. Population in 1790, 82.584 ; in 1840, 691,392, including 280,944 slaves. Staple commodities, cotton and rice. GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. Napoleon had determined that the German, or Holy Roman Empire, as it was called, should no longer exist ; but that instead thereof a confederation of states should be formed ; and this ar- rangement was adopted in 1815. by the allied sovei-eigns ; and Germany is now governed b.y a diet consisting of seventeen voices, and in case any alteration be requisite in the constitution, they are then to take a new divi- sion, and the general assembly then to be formed is to contain sixty-five, divided according to the relative consequence of the states. See Addenda. GERMANY. From Germanni, warlike men. First mentioned by the Roman historians about 211 b. c. : it was anciently divided into several independent states until 25 b. c, when the Germans withstood the attempt of the Romans to subdue them, although tliey conquered some parts; but by the repeated efforts of the Germans they were entirely expelled, about a.d. 290. In 432, the Huns, driven from China, conquered the greatest part of this extensive coimtry ; but it was not totally subdued till Charlemange, the first emperor, became master of the whole, a. d. 802. Charlemagne crowned emperor of the Charles HI. was the first sovereign who West atllome - - a. d. 800 ; added " in the year of oui' Lord" to He adds a second head to the eagle, to : his reign .... 87£ denote that the empires of Rome and | The German princes assert their inde- Germany are united in him - - 802 j pendence, and Conrad reigns - 912 Louis (£)e6ore«a/ce) separates Germany [The electoral character assumed about freni France - - - - 814 I this time. See Eleclots.] - - 912 GEE, ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 335 GERINIANY, continued. Reign of Henry I. (king) surnamed the Fowler ; he vanquishes the Huns, Danes, Vandals, and Bohemians Otho I. extends liis dominions, and is crowned emperor by the pope Henry III. conquei-s Bohemia, wasting it with tire and sword Peter the Hermit leads the crusaders through Germany, where they mas- sacre tlie Jews - - - . Henry IV. excommunicated by pope Pascal I. (Hildebrand) about Disputes relating to ecclesiastical in- vestitures, with the pope The Guelph and Ghibeline teuds begin Conrad III. leads a large army to The holy wars, where it is destroyed by the treachery of the Greeks - Teutonic order of knighthood Reign of Rodolph, count ofHapsburgh, chosen by the electors The famous edict, called the Golden Bull, by Charles IV. - Sigismond, king of Bohemia, elected emperor. He betrays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who are burned alive (see Bohemia) - Sigismond being driven from the throne, Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds. (In his family the crown resides for three centuries) The Pragmatic sanction {which see) - Tiie empire divided into circles Era of the Reformation (iyM?/je;0 AlDdication of Charles V. War of the two parties, the Evangelic union under Frederick, elector pala- tine, and the Catholic league, under the duke of Bavaria Battle of Prague, which lost the elector palatine the crown Treaty of Westphalia - - , - John Sobieski, king of Poland, defeats the Turks in many battles, and obliges them to raise the siege of Vienna The peace of Carlowiiz The Pragmatic sanction {ichich see) - The reign of Charles VI. is chiefly occu- pied with wars against the Turks, and in establishing the Pragmatic sanc- tion, in favor of the succession of his daughter, Maria Theresa, married to the duke of Lorraine - 1711 to Francis I., Duke of Lorraine, marries the heiress of Austria, the celebrated Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary ; and is elected emperor Joseph II. extends his dominions by the dismemberment of Poland Again, by the final partition of that de- voted kingdom [Li the ruinous wars between Germany and France, the emperor loses the Netherlands, all his territories west of the Rhine, and his estates in Italy, 1793, et seq.'\ Francis I. assumes the title of empe- ror of Austria - - Aug. 11, Dissolution of the German empire'; for- mation of the Confederation of the Rhine - - - July 12, General agitation among the iieo|)le. 919 962 1042 1095 1106 1122 1140 1147 1190 1273 1356 1414 1438 1439 1512 1517 1550 1620 1648 1683 1699 1722 1745 1772 1795 ISM and demands for reform granted in various degrees by sovereigns of Prussia, Bavaria, &c. ; and by those of the smaller principalities of Ger- many • - Feb. and March, 1848 A federal union of the German States demanded by Prussia March, 1848 Congress of deputies at Frankfort — Mit- ter-Meyer, President March 31, 1848 German Parliament meets at Frank- fort - - - May 18, 1818 The archduke, John of Austria, elected by the parliament as lord-lieutenant of the Empire- - June 29, 1843 He is installed at Frankfort, and names his ministers - - July 15, 1848 Great excitement in German)^ on ac- count of the execution at Vienna of Robert Blum, a Leipsic publisher, for aiding the insurrection Nov. " 1848 814. 840. 855. 875. 878. 879. 912. 912. 919. 936. 973. 983. 1002. 1024. 1039. 10.55. 1077. lOSO. 1105. 1125. 11.38. 1152. 1191. 1198. 1208. 1211. 1245. 1246. 1273. 1291. 1298. 1308. 1314. 1347. 1378 1399. 1400. 1410. 1437. 1440. EMPERORS Cr- GBMANY. Charlemagne the Great. Louis the Debonnaire. Lothaire. Louis II. Charles II., the Bald ; poisoned. Louis III., the Stammerer. Charles III., the Gross. Arnould. Louis IV. Oiho, duke of Saxony ; he refused the dignity on account of his age. Conrad, duke of Franconia. Henry I., the Fowler. Otho I., the Great. Otho II,, the Bloody. Otho III., the Red ; poisoned. Henry II., duke of Bavaria ; the Holy and Lame. Conrad II., the Salique. Henry III., the Black. Henry IV. ; deposed. Rodolphus; killed in battle. Henry IV. ; re-instated. Henry V. Lothaire II. Conrad III. Frederick Barbarossa ; drowned ia Bo- hemia. Henry VI., the Sharp. Philip ; killed at Bamberg. - Otho IV; deposed. Frederic II. ; deposed. Henry VII ; killed. William ; killed in battle. Rodolphus, count of Hapsburg, the first of the Austrian family. Adolphus ; deposed. Albert I. ; killed by his nephew. Henry VIII. ; poisoned by a priest, in the consecrated wafer. Louis IV., of Bavaria ; killed by a fall from his horse. Charles IV., of Luxembourg. Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia. Frederick, Dukeof Brunswick. Rupert, palatine of the Rhine. Sigismond, king of Hungary. Albert II., duke of Austria and king of Bohemia. Frederick III., archduke of Austria. 336 GERMANY, continued. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ GIB 1493. Maximilian I. ; lie married the heiress of Burgundy. 1519. Charles V., king of Spain. 1558. Ferdinand!., king of Hungary. 1564. Maximilian II. 1576. Rodolphus II. 1612. Matthias I. 1619. Ferdinand II., king of Hungary. 1637. Ferdinand III., ditto. 1658. Leopold L, ditto 1705. Joseph II., ditto, and of Bohemia. 1711. Charles VL 1742. Charles VII. 1745. Francis!.; husband of Maria Theresa queen of Hungary and Bohemia. 1765. Joseph II. 1790. Leopold II. 1792. Francis II. ; he takes the title of era peror of Austria only, in 1806. 1806. Confederation of the Rhine (which see). )815. Germanic Confederation. 1835. Ferdinand I., of Austria. (See Tabular Views in this vol., beginning p. 76 ; see, also, Austria, Bavaria, Prussia, Wurteinburg, &c.) There are about 20 German principalities with territories equal to English counties. The free towns are Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort on the Maine (one of the greatest trading places in Europe), and Lubeck, which was the head of the famous Hanseatic League, formed in that city in 1164. GHENT. Anciently the capital of the Nervii. Prince John, third son of Ed- ward III. of England, was born here, and hence named John of Gaunt. Pacification of Ghent, November 8, 1576. Ghent was taken by the duke of Marlborough in a. d. 1706, and several times taken and retaken by the con- tending armies during the late wars. The peace of Ghent between Great Britain and the United States, was signed here, December 24, 1814. GIANTS. The emperor Maximus was eight feet and a half in height; he was also of great bulk, and used the bracelet of his wife as a ring for his thumb, and his shoe was longer by a foot than that of an ordinary man. — Zuinglius. " The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was one named Gabara, who in the days of Claudius the late emperor was brought out of Arabia. He Avas nine feet nine inches high." — Pliny. John Middleton, of Hale, in Lancashire, born in 1578, was nine feet three inches high. Patrick Cotter, the celebrated Irish giant, born in 1761, was eight feet seven inches in height ; his hand, from the commencement of the palm to the extremity of the middle finger, measured twelve inches, and his shoe was seventeen inch- es long; he died in September 1806, in his 46th year. Giants' bones 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet high, were once reported to have been found ; but there is now no doubt that they were organic remains of colossal quadrupeds. GIBRALTAR. A fortress, whose immense strength excites wonder and admi- ration, and renders it impregnable : it is the ancient Calpe, which, with Abyla on the opposite shore of Africa, obtained the name of the Pillars of Hercules. The height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 English feet : it was taken by the Saracens under Tarik ( Gibel- Tarik, Mountain of Tarik, whence its present name) in x. d. 712. In the year 1462 the king of Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors ; and the English, under sir George Rooke, the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, sir John Leake, and admiral Byng, bravely won it, July 24, 1704. It was surrendered, after a dreadful cannon- ade, to the British, by the governor, the marquis de Salines ; and it has since continued an appendage to the British crown. Gibraltar attacked by the British on the 21st July, and taken on the 24th, a. d. 1704 Besieged by the Spanish and French : they lose 10,000 men, and the victori- ous English but 400 - Oct. 11, 1704 The Spaniards agam attack Gibraltar, and are repulsed with great loss - 1720 They again attack it with a force of 20,000 men, and lose 5000, while the loss of the English is only 300 - 1727 Memorable siege of the Spaniards and French, whose prodigious arma- ments* (the greatest ever brought against a fortress) were wholly over- thrown. The siege continued from July 1779, to Feb. - - 1783 * The army amounted to 40,000 men. The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troops of France. 1000 pieces of "artillery were l)roLight lo bear against the fortre.ss, besiiles which, there GLE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 337 GILDING. First practised at Rome, about 145 b. c. The capitol was the first building on which this enrichment was bestowed. — Pliny. Of gold leaf for gilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole ounce. — Pliny. It consequently was more like our plating. — Trusler. A single grain ot gold may now be stretched out under the hammer into a leaf that Avill cover a hoii.se. — Dr. Halley. Gilding with leaf gold on bole ammo- niac was first introduced by Margaritone, in 1273. The art of gilding on wood, previously known, was improved in 1680. GISORS, Battle of, in France, between the armies of France and England, in which the former was signally defeated by Richard I., whose parole for the day was '• Dieiict mon ciroii" — " God and my right;" and from this time it ■ "was made the motto to the royal arms of England, a. d. 1198. GI ADIATORS. They were originally malefactors who fought for their lives, or captives who fought for their freedom. They exhibited at the funeral ceremonies of the Romans, 263 b. c, probably following the Greek custom of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors the prisoners taken in battle. Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 b. c. When Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebra- tion of his triumph for 123 days, a. d. 103. Their combats on public thea- tres were suppressed in the East by Constantino the Great, a. d. 325. Fi- nally suppressed by Theodorick, in the year 500. — Lenglet. GLASGOW. Erected into a burgh in a. d. 1180. Its charter was obtained from James II., in 1451, at which period the university was foimded. Its earliest commerce was in salmon, about 1420. GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass by Hermes. The discovery of glass took place in Syria. — Pliny. Glass- houses were erected in Tyre, where glass was a staple manufacture for many ages. This article is mentioned among the Romans in the time of Tiberius ; and we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows were formed of glass before a. d. 79. Italy had the first glass windows, next France, whence they came to England. Used for windows in private houses in the reign of Henry II., 1177, but imported. — Andersoii. The manufacture was established in England at Crutched-friars, and in the Savoy, in 1557.— Stowe. It was improved in 1635. and was brought to great perfection in the reign of William III. The duties on glass in England were entirely remit- ted, 1845. GLASS, Painting on. This was a very early art. It was practised at Marseilles in a beautiful style, about a. d. 1500. It is said the art existed in England towards the 12th centurj^. It reached to a state of great perfection about 1530. GLENCOE, Massacre or. This was the horrible massacre of the unoffending and unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for not surrendering in time to king William's proclamation. About 38 men were brutally slain ; and v/omen and children, their wives and offspring, were turned out naked were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying 212 guns; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun. and mortar boats; while small craft for disembarking the forces covered the bay. For weeks together, 6000sitells were daily thrown into the town; and on a single occasion, 8000 barrels of gunpowder were ex- jjended by the enemy. Yet in one night, their floating batteries were destroyed with red-hot balls, and their whole line of works annihilated by a sortie from the garrison, commanded by general Elliot, Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy's lo.ss in munitions of war, on this night alone, was estimated at upwards of 2,600,000/. sterlins:. But their L'nuid itel'eat by a gatrison of only 7i}0(3 British, occurred Sept. 1-3, 1782. 15 338 ~ THE world's progress. [ GOB in a dark and freezing night, and perished by cold and hunger : this black ' deed was perpetrated by the earl of Argyle's regiment, May 9, 1691. GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principal circles of the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, wei-e taught, and an ecHpse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B. c. Pythagoras demonstrated from the varying altitudes of the stars by change of place, that the earth must be round ; that thera might be an- tipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the morning and evening star ; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres — the sphere of the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the sphere of fire, the spheres of the moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the sphere of the stars, about 506 b. c. Aristarchus, of Samos, main- tained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about the sun ; which doctrine Avas held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the phi- losopher had nearly lost his life to his theory, 280 b. c. The first voyage round the globe was performed by Picaro, commanding a ship of Magel- lan's squadron, 1520-4. The first English navigator who performed the same enterprise was sir Francis Drake, 1577. — See CircumnavigatioJi, and Earth. GLORY, Tlie glory or nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, angels, and holy men, and the circle of rays on images, were adopted from the Cjesars and their flatterers, by whom they were used in the first century. The doxology of the prayer Gloria Patri was ordained in the church of Rome, and was called doxology because it began with dS^a, glory, a. d. 382. GLOVES. They were in use in very early times. In the middle ages, the giving of a glove was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing lands and dignities ; and two bishops were put in possession of their sees bj' each receiving a glove, A D. 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of London was in- corporated in 1556. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in 1580, and are presented to judges at maiden assizes to this day. GNOSTICS. Ancient heretics, who were famous from the first rise of Christianity. The tenets of this sect were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, by the Priscillianists ; but the name, which was once glorious, at length became in- famous. The Gnostics were not so much a particular sect of heretics, as a complication of many sects ; and were so called, because they pretended to extraordinarj' illuminations and knowledge, one main branch of Avhich con- sisted in their pretended genealogies or attributes of the Deity, in which they diflered among themselves as much as they did from others. GOBELIN-TAPESTRY. Tapestry so called from a noted house at Paris, in the suburb of St. Marcel, formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, Avhereof the chief, called Giles Gobelin, Avho lived in the reign of Francis I., is said to have found the secret of dyeing scarlet, which was from him called the scarlet of the Gobelins ; the house and river that runs by it also took the same name. This house Avas purchased hj Louis XIV. for a manufactory of all manner of curious works for adorning the royal palaces, under the direc- tion of Mons. Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for Avhich were drawn by the celebrated Le Brun. by appointment of the king, a. d. 1666. — Du Pres- noy. GODFATHERS and GODMOTHERS. The Jcavs had godfathers in the cir- cumcision of their sons. In the Christian church sponsion in baptism arose in the desire of assuring that the child should be of the religion of Christ. It Avas first ordained to be used, according to some, by pope Alexander ; according to others, by Sixtns, and others refer it to Telesphorus, about a. d. GOO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 331 130. In Catholic countries they ha\ o g-odfatliers and godmothers in the baptism of their bells. GOLD. The purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it has, from the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver : in its pure state it is twenty-four carats ; that used in our coin is twenty-two carats, and two parts of copper. In the early ages no metals were used but those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. The smelting of ores was a comparatively late invention, and ascribed both to ol)servations on volcanoes and to the burning of forests. GOLD MINES. Gold is found in various parts of ' the earth, but is most abundant in Africa, Japan, and South America, in which last gold was dis- covered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which time to 1731, they imported into Europe 6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, ex- clusively of what were unregistered. In 1730, a piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal to sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), was. found near La Paz, a town of Peru. Gold was discovered in Malacca, in 1731 ; in New Andulasia in 1785 ; in Ceylon in 1800 ; in Virginia 1829 ; in North Carolina 1824 ; South Carolina 1829 ; in Georgia 1830 : in Cali- fornia, April 1848. GOLD AND SILVER. Quantity produced in forty years from 1790 to 1830, as stated in the Mining Journal : Gold. Silver. Mexico £6,436,453 = £139,818,032 Chili ........ 2,768,488 = 1,&22,924 Buenos Ayres 4,021,895 = 27,182,673 Russia 3,703,743 = 1,502,981 £17,003,579 = £170,326,610 The mines of North and South America had, in 1840, sent to Europe 3^ times more gold, and 12 times more silver, than those of the other hemis- phere. The gold mines in Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia, discovered 1824-30, had produced altogether up to 1835, S'4,377,500. Those of California, discovered in the spring of 1848, had produced up to Feb. 1850, at least 25 millions of dollars in value, a considerable part of which was sent to Europe. The amount of California gold coined at the U. S. mint in 1849 was about 86,000,000. The total annual production of gold in the world was estimated in 1840 at about 36 tons, proportioned thus : North and South America 11, Europe and Asiatic Russia 6^, Indian Archipelago, 4|, Africa 14. See Coin. GOLDEN FLEECE. Jason, the Argonaut, sailed with his companions from lolchos to Colchis to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and to re- cover his treasures, which the perfidious ^Stes, Idngof Colchis, had seized, after murdering their owner. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis, was adorned with the figure of a ram on the poop ; which gave occasion to the poets to pretend tliat the journey of Jason was for the re- covery of the golden fleece, 1263 b. c. (iOLDEN NUMBER. The cj'cle of nineteen years, or number which shows the years of the moon's cj'cle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens, , ab<'ut 432 b. c— Pliny. To find the golden number or year of the Lunar cjxle, add one to the date and divide by nineteen, then the quotient is the number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the Golden number, GOOD FRIDAY. From the earliest records of Christianity, this day has been held as a solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour on Friday, April 3. a. d. 33. Its appellation of good appears to be peculiar to the Church of England : our Saxon forefathers denominated it Lona- Fri- 340 THK world's progress. [ GOV day, on account of the great length of the offices observed, and fastings en- joined on this day. GORDIAN KNOT. The knot made of the thongs that served as harness to the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, who was afterwards king of Phrygia. Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the oracle declared should be emperor of Persia. Alexander the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, this "conqueror of the world" interpreted the ora- cle, 330 B. c. GORDON'S "NO POPERY" MOB: occasioned by the zeal of lord George Gordon. It consisted of 40.000 persons who assembled in St. George's Fields, under the name of the Protestant Association, to carry up a peti^L-n to parliament for the repeal of the act which granted certain indulgences to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised, could not be dispersed, but proceeded to the most daring outrages, pillaging, burning, and jiulling down the chapels and private houses of the Catholics first, but afterwards of several other persons ; breaking open prisons, setting the prisoners free, even at- tempting the Bank of England, and in a word totally overcc ming the civil power for nearly six daj^s. At length, by the aid of armed associations of the citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties, then embodied and marched to London, the riot was quelled. It com- menced June 2 ; and on the 8d, the Catholic chapels, and numerous private mansions, were destroyed, the bank attempted, and the jails opened; among these were the King's Bench, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons ; on the 5th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. In the end, 210 of the rioters were killed, and 248 were wounded, of whom 75 died afterwards in the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George was tried the year after for high treason, but acquitted, June 2 to 7, 1780. — Annual Reg ister. GOSPELS. St. Mark wrote his gospel a. d. 44 ; St. Matthew in the same year ; St. Luke in 55 ; and St. John in 96-7. The gospel of Matthew was found buried in the tomb of St. Barbus, and was conveyed to Constantinople in 485. — Butler. John wrote his gospel at Ephesus two years after he was thrown into a caldron of burning oil, from which he was taken out unhurt, and b-anished to the isle of Patmos. — Idem. The gospel is the glad tidings of the actual coming of the Messiah, and hence the evangelical history of Christ. — Hammond. Dr. Robert Bray was the author of the first plan for propagating the gospel in foreign parts. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Countries, incorporated in 1701. GOSPELLERS. The name which was given to the followers of Wickliffe, who first attempted the reformation of the Church from the errors of popery : it was affixed to them by the Roman Catholics in derision, on account of their professing to follow and preach only the gospel, a. d. 1377. — Bishop Burnet. GOTHS. A warlike nation that inhabited the space between the Caspian, Pontus, Euxine, and Baltic seas. They attacked the Roman empire a. d. 251. They were defeated by Claudius, and 320,000 slain, a. d. 269. After the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained their dominion till a. d. 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses, Justinian's general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a king- dom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens. GOVERNMENT, cost of, in EUROPE and the UNITED STATES. In an elaborate article in the American Almanac, 1847. this result is reached, viz. : GR^ ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 341 in the United States : aggregate of national expenditure, lor each in- habitant - - - - $0 97 Aggregate of State expenditure, for each inhabitant - - - 50 Aggregate of town or city expendi- ture, for each inhabitant - - 92 Total cost of Government in the United States, per head - - $2 39 or 147,800,000 if the population is 20 millions. In England, according to Blaccul- loch, the average is equal, per head, to - In France, according to Chevalier, in 1S33, the cost was about 1,250 millions of francs, or 40 francs per head — say - - . - Thus, France pays about three times, and Great Britain five times as much for Government as the United States. (See Administra- tions of the United States.) $12 32 $7 50 GRACE AT MEAT. The table was considered by the ancient Greeks as the altar of friendship, and held sacred itpon that .account. They would not partake of anj^ meat until they had first offered part of it, as the first fruits, to their gods ; and hence came the short jjrayer said before and after meat in all Christian countries from the earliest times. — Lenglet. GRAMMARIANS, or CRITICS. Anciently, the most eminent men in litera- ture were denominated grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed at Rome so early as 276 b. c. — Blair. Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Ci- cero, Messala, Julius Cassar, Nicias, .^lius Donatus, Remmius Palemon, Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenieus, and other distinguished men, Avere of this class. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to be the only purely grammati- cal orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's said, " We threw our whole grammatical mind upon it and could not dis- cover one error." GRANARIES. The Romans formed granaries in seasons of plenty, to secure foo'd for the poorer citizens ; and all who wanted it were provided with corn from these reservoirs, in necessitous times, at the cost of the public trea- sury. There were three hundred and twenty-seven granaries at Rome. — Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two store-houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads, thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by the great in- crease of inhabitants, 7 James I., 1610. — Stowe. GRANICUS, Battle of, in which Alexander the Great signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian troops crossed the GraniciTS in the face of the Persian army, although the former did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000 horse, while the Persian amiy amounted to 600,000 foot, and 20,000 horse. — Justin. Yet the victors lost in this great battle but fifty-five foot soldiers, and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken by storm, and numerous other great towns submitted to the conqueror, 334 B. c. — Bossuet. GRATES. The hearths of the early Britons were fixed in the centre of their halls. The fire-place originally was perhaps nothing more than a large stone depressed below the level of the ground to receive the ashes. There were arched hearths among the Anglo-Saxons ; and chafing dishes were most in use until the general introduction of chimneys, about a. d, 1200. See Chimneys. GRAVITATION. This, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the Greeks, and also by Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters, about A. D. 88. Kepler enlarged upon it, about a. d. -1615; and Hook pub- lished it as a system. The principles of gravity were proved by Galileo, at Florence, about 1633; and they were subsequently adopted by Newton, about 1687. GRiECIA MAGNA. That part of Italy where the Greeks planted colonies 342 THE world's progress. [gre but its boundaries are very uncertain. Some say that it extended to the southern parts of Italy ; and others suppose that Magna Grgecia compre- hended only Campania and Lucania. To these is added Sicily, which was likewise peopled by the Greek colonists. — Lemprkre. GREECE. The first inhabitants of this justly celebrated country of the an- cient world, were the progeny of Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece was so called from a very ancient king named Grascus ; and another king named Hellen, gave his subjects the appellation of Hellenists. Homer calls the inhabitants, indifterentiy, Myrmidions, Hellenists, and Achains. For ancient Grecian history, see Tabular Views, p. 5 et seq. Sicyon founded (Eusebius) - b. c. 2089 Uranus arrives in Greece {Lejiglet) - 2042 Revolt of the Titans - - - * ' War of the Giants - - - * ' Kingdom of Argos begun (Eusebius)- 1856 Reign of Ogyges in BffiOtia (idem) - 179G Sacrifices to the gods iirst introduced in Greece by Plioroneus - - - 1773 According to some authors, Sicyon was now begun (Lenglet) - - - 1773 Deluge oi Ogyges (which see) - - 17(J4 A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under Oinotrus : the country first called Qi!nortria, afterwards Magna Groicia (Eusebius) ■ - - 1710 Chronology of the Arundelian marbles commences (Eusebius) - - 1582 Cecrops comes into Attica (idem) - 1556 The Areopagus instituted - - 1506 Deluge of Deucalion (Eusebius) - 1503 Reign of Hellen (z'dewi) - - -14.59 Caclinus, with the Phcenician letters, settles in Boeotia - - - 1493 Lelex, lirst king of Laconia, afterwards called Sparta - - - - 1490 Arrival of Danaus, with the first ship ever seen in Greece - - -1485 He gets possession of Argos. His fifty daughters - ... 1475 First Olympic games celebrated at Elis, by the Idcbi Daclyli (Eusebius) ■ 1453 Iron discovered by the Idc&i Dactyli - 1400 Corinth rebuilt, and so named - - 1384 Ceres arrives in Greece, and teaches the art of making bread - - 1383 The Isthmii.i games instituted - - 1-326 Mycenae created out of Argos - -1313 Argonautic expedition (tohich see) ■ 1263 . The Pythian games by Adrastus • 1263 War of the seven Greek captains - 1225 The Amazonian war ; these martial fe- males penetrate into Greece - - 1213 Rape of Helen by Theseus - -1213 Rape of Helen by Paris - -1198 Commencement of the Trojan war - 1193 Troy taken and destroyed on the night of the 7th of the month Tliargelion (27th May, or Uth .lune) - - llSl ^neas sets sail, winters in Thrace, and arrives in Italy - - - 1181 Migration of the ^olian colonies, who build Smyrna, &c. • - - 1124 Settlement of the lonians from Greece in Asia Minor . - - - 1044 The first laws of navigation originate with the Rhodians - - - 916 Homer flourishes about this time (Arundelian Marbles) - - 907 Olympic games revived at Elis - 884 The first Messenian war ^ - b. 0. 743 The second Messenian war * - - 685 The capture of Ira - - - 670 The Messenians emigrate to Sicily, and give their own name Messene to Zan- cle (now called Messina) - - 668 Sea-fight, the first on record, between the Corinthians and the inhabitants of Corcyra - - - - 664 Byzantium built by the Argives - 658 Sybaris, in Magna Grsecia, destroyed, 100,000 Crotonians under Milo defeat 300,000 Sybarians - - - 508 Sardis taken and burnt, which occa- sions the Persian invasion - - 504 Thrace and Macedonia conquered - 496 Battle of Marathon (icAzcA see) - - 490 Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked 480 at Thermopylce by I.eonidas - Battle of Salamis (w/ucA see) - - 480 Mardonius defeix'^d at Plataea - ■ - 479 Battle of Eutyraedon ... 476 The third Messenian war - - 465 Athens begins to tyrannize over the other states of Greece - - 459 Peloponnesus overrun by Pericles - 455 The first sacred war - - - 448 Herodotus reads his history ir: the Council at Athens ... 445 The sea-fight at Cnidus - - - 394 Battle of Mantinea - - - 633 Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes all the cities of the Phoceans - 348 Battle of Ch^ronea - - - 338 Alexander, the son of Philip, enters Greece ; subdues the Athenians, and destroys the city of Thebes - - 335 Commencement of the Macedonian or Grecian Monarchy - - - 331 Alexander goes to Susa, and sits on the throne of Darius - - - 330 Alaric invades Greece - - a. d. 395 The empire under Nicephorus com- menced .... gii Greece mastered by the Latins - - 1204 Re-conquered .... 1261 Invaded by the Turks - - - 1.350 Its final overthrow. See Easter?i Ein- pire 13.53 [This country, so long illustrious for the military exploits, the learning, and arts of its people, became of late years the scene of desperate con- flicts with the Turks, in order to re- gain its independence, and the coun- cils of the great powers of Europe were friendly to the design.] Great struggle for indepondeuce • 1770 gre] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 34a GREECE, co'ritinued. The firet decided movement in tliese lat- ter times, by ilie Servians - a. d, 1800 Tlie Servians defeat ilie Turks at Nyssa April 2, 1807 100,000 Turks, under Chourshid Pasha, overrun the country, committing the most dreadful excesses - - 1813 Insurrection in Moldavia and Walla- chia, in which the Greeks join - 1821 Proclamation of prince Alexander to shake off the Turkish yoke March, 1821 The Greek patriarch put to death at Constantinople - April 23, 1821 10,000 Christians perish in Cyprus, al- though not engaged in the revolt - 1821 Massacre of the inhabitants of Bucha- rest; even the women and children not spared . - . . 1821 Independence of Greece formally pro- claimed - - Jan. 27, 1822 Siege of Corinth - - - Felj. 1822 Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; most horrible massacre recorded m modern history* - April 23, 1822 Victories of the Greeks at I^arissa, Thermopylae, and Saloiiica, - July 8, 1822 National Congress at Argos - April 10, 1823 Victories of Marco Botzans - June, 1823 Lord Byron lands in Greece, to devote himself to its cause - August. 1823 Lamented death ol' Lord Byron, at Mis- solonghi - - April 19, 1824 Signal defeat of the Capitan Pacha, at Samos - - August 16, 1824 The Provisional Government of Greece instituted - - Oct. 12, 1824 The Greek fleet defeats that of the Ca- pitan Pacha - - June 2, 1825 The Provisional Government of Greece invites the protection of Englanct July 24, 1825 Siege of Missolonghi : the besieging Turks are defeated in a formidable attack upon it - August 1, 1826 The Greeks disperse the Ottoman fleet Jan. 28, 1826 Ibrahim Pacha takes Mistolonghi by assault - - April 23, 1826 The Greeks land near Salonica ; battle with Omer Pacha - June 1, 182G Ibrahim Pacha signally defeated by the Mainotes - August 8 and 9, 1826 Redschid Pacha takes Athens, Aug. 15, 1826 Tieaty of London, between Great Bri- ■ tain, Russia, and France, on behalf of Greece, signed - July 6, 18-7 Battle of Navarino '^which see) ; the Turkish fleet destroyed - Oct. 20, 18-7 Count Capo d'Istria arrives as Presi- dent of Greece - - Jan. 18. 18-ti The Panhellenion or Grand Council of State established - Feb. 2, 1828 National Bank founded • Feb. 14, 1S2S Greece divided into departments, viz. Argolis, Achaia, Elis, Upper Messe- nia. Lower Messenia, Laconia, and Arcadia, and the islands formed also into departments - April 26, 1328 Final evacuation of the Morea by the ■* Turks - - - Oct. 30, 1828 Missolonghi surrenders - May 17, 1829 Greek National Assembly commences its sittings at Argos - July 23, 1829 The Porte acknowledges the indeperjc^- ence of Greece - - April 25, 1830 Prince Leopold finally declines the so- vereignty - - May 21, 1S30 Count Capo d'Istria, Preside'nt of Greece, assassinated by the brother and son of Mavromichaelis, a Mainote chief, whom he had imprisoned Oct. 9, 1831 The assassins put to death Oct. 29, 1831 Otho I. elected king of Greece, Jan. 25, 1833 Colocotroni's conspiracy - Oct. 27, 1833 A bloodless revolution at Athens, to en- force ministerial responsibility and national representation, is consum- mated - ■ - Sept. 14, 1843 The king accepts the new constitution March 16, 1844 [See Athens, Macedon, Sparta, Thrace, and other states of Greece.] GREEK CHURCH. A difference arose in the eighth centurj^ between the eastern and western churches, which in the course of two centuries and a half terminated in a separation : this cliurch is called Greek in contradis- tinction from the latter, or Roman church. The Greek church claims prior- ity as using the language in which the Gospel was first promulgated, and many of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of the Roman Catho- lics ; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope. It is the established reli- gion of Russia. GREEK FIRE. A composition of combustible matter invented by one Calli- nicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in SjTia, in the seventh century, * The slaughter lasted 10 days ; 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the fire which raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the ground. 7000 Greeks, who had fled to the mountains, were induced to surrender by a promise of amnesty, guar- anteed by the consuls of England, France and Austria, yet even they were, every man of tfiem, butchered ! The only exception made dining the massacre was in favor of the young and more beautiful women and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved for the markets. The narrative of plun- del', violation, and crime, while the mfidel army was let loose upon the captured cilv. is too long and too shocking for transcription here. 344 THE world's PKOGnESS. ( \JtVA in order to destroy the Saracens' ships, which was effected by the general of the emperor Pogonat's fleet, and 80,000 men were killed. The property of this fire was to burn briskest in water, to difituse itself on all sides, ac- cording to the impi'ession given it. Nothing but oil, or a mixture of vine- gar, urine, and sand, could quench it. It was blown out of long tubes of copper, and shot out of cross-bows, and other spring instruments. The in- vention was kept a secret for many years by the court of Constantinople ; but it is now lost. GREEK LANGUAGE. The Greek language was first studied in Europe about A. D. 1450 — in France, 1473. William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned English professor of this language, travelled to acquire its true pronuncia- tion, and introduced it at Oxford, where he had the honcr to teach Ei'asmus, 1490. — Wood's Athen. Oxon. GREENLAND. Discovered by some Norwegians from Iceland, about a p. 980, and thus named on account of its superior verdure compared with the latter country. It was visited by Frobisher, in 1576. The first ship from England to Greenland was sent for the Avhale fishery by the Muscovy Company, 2 James I. 1604. In a voyage performed in 1630, eight men were left behind by accident, and suffered incredible hardships till the following year, when the company's ships brought them home. — Tindal. The Greenland Fishing Company was incorporated in 1693. GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore and sir Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamstead-hill, so called from the great astronomer of that name, who was the first astro- nomer-royal here. The English began to compute the longitude from the meridian of this place, 1675 ; some make the date 1679. This observatory contains a transept circle by Troughton ; a transit instrument of eight feet by Bird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith sector. The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet re- flector ; and among other fine instruments and objects is a famous camera obscura. GREGORIAN CALENDAR. Ordained to be adopted by pope Gregory- XIIL, from whom it derives its name, a.d. 1582 ; and introduced into the Catholic states of Europe in that year ; into most other states in 1710 ; and adopted by England in 1752. To the time of Gregory, the deficiency in the Julian ca- lendar had amounted to ten days ; and in the year 1752 it had amounted to eleven days. See Calendar, and Ne%o Style. GRENADA. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 715 ; it was the last kingdom pos- sessed by them, and was not annexed to the crown of Castile until 1491 ; the capital of this province is magnificent. New Grenada M'as conquered by the Spaniards in 1536. Grenada, in the West Indies, was settled by the French, 1650 ; it was taken from them by the English in 1762, and waa ceded to England in 1763. The French possessed themselves of it again,in 1779 ; but it was restored to the English at the peace of 1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops, and caused an insurrection in this island, which was not finally quelled till June, 1796. GROCERS. One of the oldest trades in England. The word anciently meant " ingrossers or monopolizers," as appears by a statute, 37 Edward III. The Grocers' Company is one of the twelve chief companies of the city of Lon- don, incorporated in 1429. GUADALOUPE. Discovered by Columbus, a. d. 1493.' It was colonized by the French in 1635. Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810 ; and in order to allure GUY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 345 the Swedes into the coalition against France, gave them this island. It was, howevei", by the consent of Sweden, restored to France in 1814. GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES. These were party names, and are said to have been derived from Hiewelf and Hiegiblin, the names of towns. The desig- nation began in Italy, a. d. 1139, and distinguished the contending armies during the civil wars in Germany; the Guelplis were for the pope, and the Ghibelines were for the emperor. Guelph is the name of the present royal family of England. — See Brunswick. The Guelphic order of knighthood was instituted for the kingdom of Hanover, by the prince regent, afterwards George IV., in 1816. GUILLOTINE. An engine for decapitation, which has made an otherwise obscure name immortal. A similar instrument, but of ruder form, may be seen in an engraving accompanying the Symbolicts Questiones of Achilles Bocchius, 4to, 1555 (see the Travels of Father Labat in Italy) ; it is there called the Mo.nnaia. In Scotland, also at Halifax, England (see Halifax ; Maiden), soon after it was in use, and served to behead its introducer, the regent Morton. Dr. Guillotin, about 1785, recommended its use in France, from motives of humanity, as a substitute for the more cruel gibbet, and his name was applied to it, at first from mere waggishness. Its unwilling god- father was imprisoned during the revolutionary troubles, and ran some hazard of being subjected to its deadly operation ; but he (contrary to a prevailing opinion) escaped, a.nd lived to become one of the founders of the Academy of Medicine at Paris. He died May 26, 1814, aged seventy-six, enjoying to the last the esteem of all who knew him, for his mild virtues. GUINEAS. An English gold coin, so named from their having been first coined of gold brought from the coast of Guinea, a. d. 1673. They were then valued at oOs. and were worth that sum in 1696. They were reduced in currency from 225. to 21s. by parliament in 1717. Broad pieces were coined into giiineas in 1732. The original guineas bore the impression of an elephant, on account of their having been coined of this African gold. (xUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Ber- tholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Bruns- wick, in Germany, about a. d. 1320. But many writers maintain that it was known much earlier in various parts of the Avorld. Some say that the Chi- nese possessed the art a number of centuries before. Its composition, moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own famous Roger Bacon, in his treatise De Nullitate Magice, which was published at Oxford, in 1216. GUNPOWDER PLOT in ENGLAND. The memorable conspiracy known by this name, for springing a mine under the houses of parliament, and des- troying the three estates of the realm — king, lords, and commons — there assembled, was discovered on Nov. 5, 1605. This diabolical scheme was projected by Robert Catesby, and many high persons were leagued in the enterprise G aj'- Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of Lords, preparing the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of the family of Northumberland) were killed ; sir Everard Digby, Rockwood, Winter. Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, died by the hands of the executioner, as did Guy Faux. January 31. 1606. The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in which the conspirators lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained in the late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted into oflices. GUY'S HOSPITAL. This celebrated London hospital is indebted for its origin to Thomas Guy, an eminent and wealthy bookseller, who, after having be- stowed immense sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder of another hospital. At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the erection of the present building, and lived to see it neai'ly completed. It 15* 346 THE world's progress. [hao cost him 18,793<., in addition to whicli he left to endow it, the immense sum of 219,499/. A splendid bequest, amounting to 200,000/. was made to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide additional accommodation for 100 patients ; his will was proved Sept. 24, 1829. GYMNASIUM, a place among the Greeks, where all the public exercises were performed, and where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, but also philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrest- ling and boxing, the athletes were often naked, whence the word Gymna- sium — gumnos, 7iudus. They anointed themselves with oil to brace their limbs, and to render their bodies slipperj^, and more difficult to be grasped. The first modern treatise on the subject of Gymnastics was published in Germany in 1793. London society formed, 1826. ■3iTSIES, OR EGYPTIANS. A strange commonwealth of wanderers and pecu- liar race of people, who made their appearance first in Germany, about a. d. 1517, having quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the des- cendants of a great body of Egyptians who revolted from the Turkish yoke, and being defeated, dispersed in small parties all over the world, while their supposed skill in the black art gave them an universal recej.tion in ^hat age of credulity and superstition. Although expelled from France in 1560, and from most countries soon after, thej' are yet found in every part of Europe, as well as in Asia and Africa. Having recovered their footing, they have con- trived to maintain it to this day. In England an act was made against their itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons Avere ex- ecuted at one assizes for having associated with gypsies for about a month, contrary to the statute. The gypsey settlement at Norwood, near London, was broken up, and tliey were treated as vagrants, May 1797. There were in Spain alone, previously to the j^ear 1800, more than 120.000 gypsies, and many communities of them yet exist in England; and notwithstanding their intercourse with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners, customs, visage, and appearance, wholly unchanged. H. HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' TFHi of Right, passed for the security and liberty of individuals. May 27, 1679. This act is next in importance to Magna Charta, for so long as the statute remains in force, no subject of En- gland can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention is shown to be justified by the law. Tlie Habeas Corpus Act can alone be sus- pended by the authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and when the emergency is extreme. In such a case, the nation parts with a portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned. — BlacksLone. HACKNEY COACHES are of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cob- horse {liaquenee) was let out on hire for short journej^s: these were latterly harnessed (to accommodate several wayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle called cochc-tb-haquenee : hence the name. The legend tliat traces their ori- gin to Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error. They were first licensed in 1662, and subjected to regulations, 6 William and Mary, 1694. — Survey of London. The number plying in London fixed at 1000, and their fares raised., 1771. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin; but the aristocratic taste of Englishmen suggested the propriety of obliging the driver to be seated on the outside of the vehicle. HAGUE. Once called the finest village in Europe : the place of meeting of the States-General, and residence of the former earls of H'.illand, the princes of HAM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 347 Holland, &c. Here the States, in 1588, abrogated the authority of Philip n. of Spain, and held a conference in 1610, upon the live articles of the re- monstrants, which occasioned the synod of Dort. Treaty of the Hague, entered into with a view to preserve the equilibrium of the North, signed by England, France, and Holland, May 21, 1659. De Witt was torn in pieces here, August 20, 1672. The French took possession of the Hague in Janu- ary, 1795; favored by a hard frost, they marched into Holland, where the inhabitants and troops declared in their favor, a general revolution ensued, and the stadtholder and his family were compelled to leave the country and escape to England. The Hague was evacuated in November 1813, shortly , after the battle of Leipsic, and the stadtholder returned to his dominions and arrived here in December, that year. Treaty of Commerce bfltween England and Holland, December 16, 1837. HAIR. By the northern nations, and in Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and hence the appellation Gallia comata; and cutting off the hair was inflicted as a punishment among them. The royal family of France had it as a par- ticular mark and privilege of the kings and princes of the blood, to wear long hair, artfully dressed and curled. The clerical tonsure is of apostolic institution. — -Isidorus Hispalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, a. d. 155. Long hair was out of fashion during the Protectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Round-heads. It was again out of fashion in 1795 ; and very short hair was the mode in 1801. Hair-powder came into use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax was laid upon persons rising it in England, which yielded 20.000Z. per annum, HALCYON DAYS, in antiquity, implied seven days before and as many after the winter solstice, because the halcyon laid her eggs at this time of the year, and the weather during her incubation was always calm. The phrase was afterwards employed to express any season of transient prosperity, or of brief tranquillity, the septem placidi dies of human life. — Butler. HALLIDON HILL, Battle of, near Berwick, between the English and Scots, in which the latter were defeated with the loss of 13,000 slain, while a com- paratively small number of the English suffered, reign of Edward III., July 19, 1333. After this victory, Edward placed Edward Baliol on the throne of Scotland. — Robertson. HALIFAX, Yorkshire. Here prevailed a remarkable law. The woollen ma-' nufacture being very great, and prodigious quantities of cloths, kerseys, shalloons, &c. being continually on the tenters and liable to be stolen, -the town, at its first incorporation, was empowered to punish capitally any crim- inal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny, by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the offender in a moment; but king James I. in tlie year 1620, took this power away : and the town is now under the ordinary course of justice. See Maiden. HALLELUJAH and AMEN. Hebrew expressions frequently used in the Jewish hymns : from the Jewish they came into the Christian church. The meaning of the first is Praise the Lord, and of the second So be it. They were first introduced by Haggai, the prophet, about 584 b. c. ; and their intro- duction from the Jewish into the Christian church is ascribed to St. JeromC; one of the primitive Latin fathers, about a. d. 390. — Cave's Hist. Lit. HAMBURGH. The company of Hambro' merchants was incorporated in 1296. France declared v>-ar upon Hamburgh for its treachery in giving up Napper Tandy, (see Nappe rTamly.) October 1799. British property sequestrated, March 1801. Hamburgh"'taken by the French after the battle of Jena in 1806. Incorporated with France, January 1810. Evacuated by the French on the advance of the Russians into Germanj^ in 1813 ; and restored to its 348 THE world's progress. [ HAP independence by the allied sovereigns, May 1814. Awful fire here, which destroyed numerous churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con- tinued for three days, May 4, 1842. HAMPTON-COURT PALACE. Built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the manor-house of the knights-hospitallers. In 1526, the cardinal presented it to his royal master, Henry VIII. Here Edward VI. was born, and his mother, Jane Seymour, died ; and Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and others of our sovereigns, resided. Most of the old apartments were pulled down, and the grand inner court built, by William III. in 1694. In this palace was held, in 1604, the celebrated conference between the Presbyterians and the members of the Established Church, which led to a new translation of the Bible. See Conference. HANGED, DRAWN, and QUARTERED. The first infliction of this barbar- ous punishment took place upon a pirate, named William Marise, a noble- man's son, 25 Henry III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of execution were hanged, cut down alive instantly, then stripped naked, and their bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 25 Henry VI. 1447. — Stov;e. The punishment of death by hanging has been abolished in nu- merous cases by various statutes. See Death, punishment of. Hanging in chains was abolished 4 William IV., 1834. HANOVER. This country had no great rank, although a duchy, until George I. got possession of Zell, Saxe, Bremen, Verden, and other duchies and principalities. Hanover became the ninth electorate, a. d. 1692. It was seized by Prussia, April 3, 1801 ; was occupied by the French, June 5, 1803 ; and annexed to Westphalia, March 1, 1810. Regained to England by the crown prince of Sweden, November 6, 1813, and erected into a kingdom, Oct. 13, 1814. The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant governor, in November, 1816. Visited by George IV. in October, 1821. Ernest, duke of Cumberland, succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837 ; he granted freedom of the press and other concessions, March 17, 1848. HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION, established by law, June 12, 1701, when an act passed limiting the succession of the crown of England, after the demise of William III. and of queen Anne (without issue), to the princess Sophia, of Hanover and the heirs of her body, being protestants, she being the granddaughter of James I. George I. the son of Ernest Augustus, duke of Brunswick Luneburgh elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, ascended the throne, to the exclusion of the exiled family of the Stuarts, Aiigust 1, 1714. HANSE TOWNS. A commercial union called the Hanseatic league, was formed by a number of port towns in Germany, in support of each other against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : this association began in 1164, and the league was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of towns situate on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but its strength and reputation in- creasing, there was scarce any trading city in Europe but desired to be admitted into it, and in process of time it consisted of sixty-six cities. They grew so formidable as to proclaim war on Waldemar, king of Denmark, about the year 1348, and against Erick in 1428, with forty ships, and 12 000 regular troops besides seamen. This gave umbrage to several princes, who ordered the merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their effects, and so broke up the greatest part and strength of the association. In 1630, the only toAvns of note of this once powerful league retaining the name, were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. HAPSBURGH, House op. One of the most illustrious families in Europe. Hapsburgh was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence, near Schintznach. This castle was the cradle, as it were, of the house of Austria, HAS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 349 whose ancestors may be traced back to the beginning of the 13th century, when Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, was elevated to the empire of Germany and archduchy of Austria, a. d. 1273. See Germany. HARLEQUIN. This term is derived from a famous and droll comedian, who so much frequented Mr. Harley's house, that his friends and acquaintance used to call him Harlequhw, httle Harley.— ilfcmaore. Originally the name implied a merry andrew, or buffoon ; but it now means an expert dancer at a play-house. H ARLOTS. "Women who were called by synonyma conveying the meaning of harlot, were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The celebra- ted Lais of Corinth, a beautiful courtesan, but remarkable for her vicious amours, was assassinated in the temple of Venus, by the women of Thes- saly, in order to prevent her corrupting the fidelity of their husbands, about 350 B. c. It is affirmed that the mother of William I., of England, a fur- rier's daughter of Falaise, whose name was Arlotta, was of so infamous a character, that our odious term harlot is derived from her name. — Dr. John- son. In England, harlots were obliged to wear striped hoods of party ?olors, and their garments the wrong side outwards, by statute 27 Edward III.. 1352. HARMONIC STRINGS. Pythagoras is said to have invented harmonic strings, in consequence of hearing four blacksmiths working with hammers in har- mony, whose weights he found to be six, eight, nine, and twelve ; or rather by squares, as thirtj^-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred and forty- four. The harmonica, or musical glasses, airs from the tones of them were first formed by an Irish gentleman named P'uckeridge. — Franklin. The in- vention was improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760. HARP. It is traced to the earliest nations. David played on the harp before Saul. — 1 Sam. xvi. 23. The lyre of the Greeks is the harp of the moderns. The Romans had their harp ; so had the Jews, but it had very few strings. The Cirabri or English Saxons had this instrument. The cele- brated Welch harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more ancient harps, with wire. HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. Harrison's first instrument was invented in 1735 ; his second in 1739 ; his third in 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured him the reward of 20,000^., advertised 13th Anne by the Board of Longi- tude, was produced a few years after. His celebrated time-piece was per- fected in 1772. HARTFORD CONVENTION. The celebrated convention of delegates from the New England States opposed to the war and to the administration of ]\Iadison, met Dec. 15, 1814. HASTINGS, Battle of, one of the most memorable and bloody, and in which more than thirty thoi;sand were slain, fought between Harold II. of Eng- land, and William, duke of Normandy, in which the former lost his life and kingdom. William, hence surnamed the Conqueror, was soon after crowned king of England, and introduced a memorable epoch, known as the Con- quest, in the annals of the country, Oct. 14, 1066. HASTINGS, WARREN, Trial op. Mr. Hastings, governor-general of India, tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors, but acquitted, although he had committed many acts during his government which, it was thought, ought to have led to a different result. Among other charges against him, Avas liis acceptance of a present of 100,000Z. from the nabob of Oude, and this was not a solitary instance of his irregular means of accumulating wealth. The trial lasted seven years and three month?. 350 THE world's progress. [ HEG 1788-95. Shei-idan's celebrated speech, on the impeachment of Mr. Has- tings, attracted universal admiration. HATS. See article Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, a. d. 1404. They are mentioned in history at the period when Charles VII. made his trium- phal entry into Rouen, in 1449. He wore a hat lined with red velvet, and surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. It is ft-om this reign that the use of hats and caps is to be dated, which henceforward began to take place of the chaperoons and hoods that had been worn before in France. Hats were first manufactured in England by Spaniards, in 1510 : before this time both men and women wore close-knit woollen caps. — Stowe. Verj' high crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers ; and high crowns were again introduced in 1788. A stamp-duty was laid upon hats in Eng- land in 1784, and again in 1796 ; it was repealed in 1811. IIaVRE-DE-GRACE. This place was defended for the Huguenots by the English, in 1562. It has been bombarded several times by the British navy, ^ in 1759, in 1794. in 1795 and in 1798. Declared to be in a state of blockade, Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts to burn the shipping here failed, August 7, 1804. HAYTI, OR H.iiTi, the Indian name of St. Domingo, discovered by Columbus .n 1492. Before the Spania,rds finallj' conquered it, they are said to have de- stroyed in battle or cold blood, 8.000 000 of its inhabitants, including women and children. Toussaint established an independent republic in St. Domingo, July 22, 1801. He surrendered to the French, May 7, 1802. Des- salines made a proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 1804. See St. Dooningo. Dessalines was crowned king, by the title of Jac- ques I., Oct. 8, 1804. He died Sept. 21, 1805. Henry Christophe, a man of color, became president in Feb. 1807, and was crowned emperor by the title of Henry I., in March 1811 ; while Petion ruled as president at Port-au-Prince. Numerous black nobility and prelates were created same year. Petion died, and Boyer Avas elected in his room, in May 1818. Christophe committed suicide in Oct. 1820. Independence declared at St. Domingo, in Dec. 1821. Decree of the king of France confirming it, A\)\'\\ 1825. Souloque elected president, March 2, 1847 ; proclaimed emperor of Hayti, August 24, 1849. HEBRIDES, NEW, discovered by the navigator Quiros, a. d. 1606. Bourgain- ville visited them in 17C8, and found that the land was not connected, but composed of islands, which he called the Great Cyclades. Cook, in 1774, ascertained the extent and situation of the whole group, and gave them the name they now bear. HECATOMB. This was a sacrifice among the ancients of a hundred oxen ; biit it was more particularly observed by the Lacedemonians when they possessed a himdred capital cities. In the course of time this sac- rifice was reduced to tv.-enty-three oxen; and in the end, to lessen the expense, goats and lambs were substituted for oxen. — Potter. HECLA. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred a. d. 1004. About twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson. The most dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic mountain occurred in 1783. See Iceland. HEGIRA, Era op thk, dates from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, v.'hicii event took place in the night of Thursday the 15th July, a. d. 622 ; the era commences on the following day, viz : — the 16th of July. Many chronologists have computed this era from the 15th July; but Cantemir has givon examples proving that, in most ancient times, the 16th was the first day of the era ; and there is now no doubt it is so. See Mahovieiisvi and Medina. DOR, J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 351 HEIDELBERG, and HEIDELBERG TUN. Heidelberg, in Germany, on the river Neckar, was formerly the capital of the Palatinate : the protestant electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a bloody war ensued, in which the famous castle was ruined, and the elector removed his residence to Mann- heim. Here was the celebrated Heildelberg Tun, which held 800 hogsheads, and was formerly kept full of the best Rhenish wine. The University of Heidelberg, one of the most celebrated in Europe, was founded in 1346, contained in 1840, 622 students. HELEN, Rape of, which caused the Trojan war, 1204 b. c. Helen was the most beautiful woman in the world, and even in her childhood was so very lovely, that Theseus stole her away in her tenth year. From him, however, she was released, yet innocent, by her brothers; and after her return to the court of Sparta she was eagerly sought in marriage by the princes of Greece, and Ulysses persuaded the suitors to bind themselves on oath to abide by the iminfluenced choice of Helen, and to defend her person and character from that time. The princes took the oath, and Helen then made choice of Menelaus. Paris coming soon after to the court of this king, abused his hospitality by corrupting the fidelity of Helen : carrying her away, though not an unwilling captive, to Asia Minor. At Troy, the father of Paris, Priam, received her in his palace without difficulty ; and Menelaus, assembling the princes of Greece, reminded them of their oath : and the siege and destruc- tion of Troy followed, 1184 b. c. Paris was previously married, his wife being ffinone, who lived with him in happiness on Mount Ida ; and at his death by one of the arrows of Hercules, then in the possession of Philoc- tetes, he desired in his dying moments to be carried to QHnone, whom he had so basely deserted ; but he expired on the way. The nymph, however, still mindful of their former happiness, threw herself upon the body, bathed it with her tears, and then plunged a dagger in her heart. HELENA, St. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, on the festival of St. Helena, a. d. 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and Dutch, until 1673, when Charles II. on Dec. 12, assigned it to the company once more. St. Helena M'as luade the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 16, 1815, and it became the scene of his death, May 5, 1821. HELIGOLAND. This island formerly belonged to the Danes, from whom it was taken by the British, Sept. 5, 1807, and formed a dep6t for British mer- chandise intended for the Continent during the Avar. Confirmed to England by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, the same treaty by which Norway was ceded to Sweden. Though a mere rock, this is an important possession of the British crown. HELIOMETER. a valuable scientific instrument for measuring the stars, in- vented by M. Bouguer, in 1774. The helioscope was invented by Christo- pher Scheiner in 1625. HELMETS. They were Avorn, it is said, by the most savage tribes. Among the Romans the helmet was provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above the eyes, and a bever to lower for eating; the helmet of the Greeks was round, and that of the Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a. plain round helmet; and after this monarch's reign most of the English kings had crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306. — Gwillini. HELOTS. The people of Helos, against Avhom the Spartans bore desperate 352 THE world's progress. [hek resentment for refusing to pay tribute, 883 b. c. The Spartans, not satisfied with the ruin of their city, reduced tlae Helots to the most debasing slavery ; and to complete their infamy, they called all the slaves of the state, and the prisoners of war, by the degrading name of HelotcB, and further exposed them to every species of contempt and ridicule, 669 b. c. But in the Pelo- ponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were reward- ed with their liberty, 431 b. c. But this act of justice did not last long ; and the sudden disapi>earance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to the Lacedemonians. — Herodotus. HEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed to be sown for fishing-nets, a. d. 1533. Bounties were paid to encourage its cultivation in 1783 ; and every exertion should be made bj^ the government and legislature to accomplish such a national good. In 1785 there were im- ported from Russia in British ships, 17,695 tons of hemp and flax. — Sir John Sinclair. The annual importations of these articles now amount to about 100,000 tons. More than 180,000 lbs. of rough hemp are used in the cordage of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails. HEPTARCHY. The Heptarchy (or government of seven kings) in England was gradually formed from a. d. 455, when Hengist became the king of Kent, and that kingdom was erected. The Heptarchy terminated in a. d. 828, when Egbert reduced the other kingdoms, and became sole monarch of England. For the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, see Britain. HERACLID^^, The, or the retm-n of the Heraclidse into the Peloponnesus : a famous epoch in chronology that constitutes the beginning of profane his- torj', all the time preceding that period being accounted fabulous. This return happened 100 j^ears after they were expelled, and eighty years after the destruction of Troy, 1104 b. c. HERALDRY. Signs and marks of honor were made use of in the first ages of tlie world. — Nisbct. The Phrygians had a sow ; the Thracians, Mars ; the Romans, an eagle: the Goths, a bear; the Flemings, a bull; the Saxons, a horse ; ahd the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis, which see. Hei'aldry, as digested into an art, and subjected to rules, may be ascribed in the first instance to Charlemagne, about the year 800 ; and in the next, to Frederick Barbarossa, about the year 1152 ; it began and grew with the feudal law. — Sir George Mackenzie. It was at length methodized and perfected bv the crusades and tournaments, the former commencing in 1095. HERCTJL ANEUM. An ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, a. d. 79. Herculaneum was buried under streams of lava, and successive eruptions laid it still deeper under the surface. All traces of them were lost until a. d. 1711, from which year manj^ curiosities, works of art, and monuments and memorials of civil- ized life have been discovered to the present time. 150 volumes of MSS. were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and many antiquities were purchased by sir William Hamilton, and re-purchased by the trustees of the British museum, where they are deposited ; but the principal antiquities are preserved in the museum of Portici. HE.RETICS. Formerly the term heresy denoted a particular sect ; now here- tics are those who propagate their private opinions in opposition to the Ca- tholic church.— i?a-co?i. Tens of thousands of them have suffered death by torture in Roman Catholic countries. — Burnet. See Inquisition. Simon Magus was the first heretic; he came to Rome a. d. 41. Thirty heretics came from Germany to England to propagate their opinions, and were HIG J DICTIONARY OF UATKS. 353 branded in the forehead, wliipped, and thrust naked into the streets in the depth of winter, wliere, none daring to relieve them, they died of hun- ger and cold, 1160.— Speed. In the reign of Henry VIII. to be in possession of Tindal's Bible constituted heresy. The laws against heretics were re- pealed, 25 Henry VIH., 1534-5. HERMITS. The name first given to those that retired to desert places, to avoid persecution, where they gave themselves up to prayers, fasting, and meditation. They were also caUed anchorets ; and commonly lodged in dark caves, where their food was such roots as nature bestowed freely with- out culture. From these came the monks, and almost all the sorts of reli- gious assemblies that Hve in monasteries. In the seventh persecution of the Christians, one Paul, to avoid the enemies of his faith, retired into Thebais, and became the first example of a monastic life, about a. d. 250. HERO AND LEANDER: their amour. The fidelity of these lovers was so great, and their attachment to each other so strong, that Leander in the night frequently swam across the Hellespont, from Abydos to Sestos, to have secret interviews with Hero, a beautiful priestess of Venus, she -Ji- recting his course by a burning flambeaux. After many stolen interviews, Leander was drowned in a tempestuous night, and Hero threw herself from her tower, and perished in the sea, 627 s. c.—Livij, Herodotus. HERRING-FISHERY. It was largely encouraged by the Scotch so early as the ninth century. The herring statute was passed in 1357. The mode of preserving herrings by pickling was discovered about 1390, and gave rise to the herring fishery as a branch of commerce. — Anderson. The British Herring Fishery Company was instituted Sept. 2, 1750. HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, The. Herchel's seven, ten, and twenty-feet re- flectors were made about 1779. He discovers the Georgium Sidus (which see\ March 21, 1781. He discovers a volcanic mountain in the moon, in 1783 ; and about this time laid the plan of his great forty-feet telescope, which he completed in 1787, when he discovered two other volcanic moun- tains, emitting fire from their summits. In 1802, he by means of his teles- copes, was enabled to lay before the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 new nebulaj, nebulous stars, planetary nebulae, and clusters of stars which he had discovered. HESSE, House of. Its various branches derive their origin from Gerberge, daughter of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis V. of France, who was descended from Louis the Courteous. She was married to Lambert II. earl of Louvain, from whom the present landgraves of Hesse-Cassel, by Henry v., first of the family who bore the title of landgrave, are descended. There is no family in Germany more noble by their alliances than this ; and it gives place to none for the heroes and statesmen it has produced. Sis thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion being expected, in 1756. The sum of 471,000Z. three per cent, stock, was transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in the American war, at 30Z. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again hired by England, and served in Ireland during the memorable rebellion there in 1798. HIEROGLYPHICS. The first writing men used was only the single pictures and engravings of the things they would represent. — Woodvrard. Hiero- glyphic characters were invented by Athothes, 2112 b. c. — Usher. The earliest records of them were the Egyptian, the first step towards letters, and some monuments whose objects were described by exaggerated tradi- tion, or when forgotten, imagined. — Phillips. HIGH CHURCH and LOW CHURCH PARTIES. These were occasioned by 354 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [hoi the prosecution of Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's Southwark, for two seditious sermons, the object of which was to rouse the apprehensions of the people for the safety of the Churcli, and to excite hostility against the dissenters. His friends were called High Church, and his opponents Low Chui'ch, or moderate men, 8 Anne, 1710. The queen, Avho f-ivored Sa- cheverel, presented him with the valuable rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. He died in 1724. HIGH TREASON. The highest offence known to the law, and in regulating the trials for which was enacted the memorable statute, so favorable to British liberty, the 25tli of Edward HI. 1552. By this statute two living witnesses are required in cases of high treason ; and it arose in the refusal of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of Somer- set — it is that which regulates indictments for treason at the present day. By the 40th George HI. 1800, it was enacted that where there was a trial for high treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life of the sovereign, such trial should be conducted in the same manner as the case of an indictment for murder. Sec Trials. HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VII. ; and this, and sometimes Your Gra:.e, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but about the close of the reign of the latter mentioned king, the title of High- ness and " Your Grace " were absorbed in that of Majesty. HINDOO ERA, or Era of the Caliyug, began 3101 b. c. or 756 before the De- luge, in 2-348 : and the Hindoos coimt their months by the progress of the sun through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 57 b. c. : and the Saca era, A. D. 77 : they are all used by the Hindoo nations. HISTORY. Previously to the invention of letters the records of history are vague, traditionary, and erroneous. The chronicles of the Jews, the Parian Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, are the foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient history is con- sidered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, a. d. 476 ; and modern history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. There was not a professorship of modern history in either of the English universities mitil the j^ears 1724 and 1736. when Regius professor- ships were established by George I. and George II. A professorship of "history founded at Harvard College, was filled by Jared Sparks, who was succeeded by Francis Bowen, 1850. HOHENLINDEN, Battle of, between the Austrian and French armies, the latter commanded by general Moreau. The Imperialists were defeated with great loss, their l^illed and wounded amounting to 10,000 men, and their loss in prisoners to 10-000 more, November 3, 1800. HOLLAND. The original inhabitants of this country were the Batavians, who derived their origin from the Catti, a people of Germany. Having been obliged to abandon tlieir country on account of civil Avars, they came and established themselves in a morass, formed by the waters of the Rhine and the Waal, which they named Bettuive, or Batavia, from Batton, the son of their chieftain. To these have since been added a pretty large proportion of Francs and Frisians. Sovereignty fiunded by Thierry, first count'of H 'land - - a. d. 868 The county o Holland devolves to the counts of Hdinault - - - 1299 It falls to the crown of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy - - - 1436 100,000 persons arc drowned by the sea breaking in at Dort - - ■ H46 Burgundy and its dependencies become a circle of the empire - - - 1521 They fall to Spain, vdiose tyranny and religious persecution cause a revolt in Batavia - - - - 1066 The revolted states with William, prince of Orange, at their liead, en- ter into a treaty at Utrecht - ■ 1579 hol] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 355 HOLIiAND, continued. They elect William as Stadiholdnr The Stadtholder, William, is assassi- nated - - - - . - The Dutch East India company found- ed After a struggle of thirty years, the king of Spain is obliged to declare the Ba- tavians free - - - - The republic wars against Spain in the East, and in America ; the Dutch ad- miral, Peter Hen, takes several Spa- nish galleons, value 20,000,000^. ster- ling Cromwell declares war against Hol- land, and many naval battles are fought; Blake signally defeats Van Tromp . - - - - William, prince of Orange, having married Mary, daughter of James II., is called to the British throne The office of Stadtholder is made here- ditary in the Orange family Era of the civil war The French Republican army march into Holland ; the people declare in their favor - - - - Tlie Stadtholder expelled Jan. 10, He arrives in England - Jan. 21, Battle of Camperdown, Duncan sig- nally defeats the Dutch - Oct. 11, The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the line, with thirteen Imiiamen. surren- dered to the British admiral Duncan, without firing a gun - Aug. 28, A new constitution is given to the Ba- tavian republic ; the chief officer (R. J. Schimmelpennick) takes the title of Grand Pensionary - April 26, 1579 1584 1G02 1609 1747 1787 1793 1795 1795 1797 1805 . Holland erected into a kingdom, and ] Louis Bonaparte declared king I June 5, 1806 ! Louis abdicates - - July 1, 1810 Holland united to France - July 9, 1810 I Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed to its dominions Nov. 18, 1813 The prince of Orange is proclaimed so- vereign prince of the United Nether- lands - - - Dec. 6, 1813 He receives the oath of allegiance from his subjects - March 30, 1814 And takes the title of king as William I. - - - March 16, 1815 The revolution in Belgium {which see) commenced - - Aug. 25, 1830 The Belgians take the city of Antwerp Qwhicii ,-.ee) - - Oc; 27, 1830 Belgium is separated from Holji.nd, and Leopold of Cobourg is elected king - - - July 12, 1831 Holland renews the war against Bel- gium - - - Aug ?j 1831 Conference in London on the affairs of Holland and the Netherlands termi- nates, see Belgium - Nov. 15, 1831 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed in London - April 19, 1839 Abdication of William I. in favor of his son - - - Oct. 8, 1840 Death of the ex-king - Dec. 12, 1844 The king promises his assent to all re- forms passed by the chambers March 14, 1848 New constitution appears, April 17, 1848 Death of William II. - March 17, 1849 STADTHOLDEKS, ETC. A.D.1554 William the Great succeeds his cou- sin Rene, to whom the United Pro- vinces owe their foundation and glo- ry : killed by an assassin, hired by Phifip of Spain. 1584 Henry Philip William. 1618 Maurice, a consummate general. 1625 Frederick Henry. 1647 William II. 1650 William III. made stadtholder in 1672, and king of England in 1689. 1702 John William Frizo, drowned in pass- ing a ferry in Holland. 171 1 Charles Henry Frizo. 1747 William IV., first hereditary stadt- holder. 1751 William V. KINGS. 1813 William I. 1840 William II. 1849 William III., present king, (1852.) See Belgium. HOLLAND, NEW. It is not clearly ascertained when this country was first discovered. In 1605, etseq., various parts of the coast were traced by the Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. What was deemed till lately the south extremity, was discovered by Tasman, in 1642. The eastern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of, in his Britannic majesty's name, by captain Cook, in 1770. See Botayiy Bay, New South Walex, and Van Diemeii's Land. HOLY" ALLIANCE. A leagne so called between the emperors of Russia and Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound them- selves, among other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all their political transactions. This alliance was ratified at Paris, Septem- ber 26, 181-5. HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as a. d. 120.— Askc. 356 THE world's progress. [ HOP HOMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY. The misfortunes of Troy furnish the two most perfect Epic* poems in the world, written by the greatest poet that has ever lived ; about 915 b. c. The subject of the first is the wrath of Achilles ; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses after the destruction of Troy. Among the thousands of volumes burnt at Con- stantinople, A. D. 477, were the works of Homer, said to have been written in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. — Univ. Hist. The works of Homer are supposed by some to have done great injury to mankind, by inspiring the love of military glory. Alexander was said to sleep with them always on his pillow. — Darwin. HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 b. c. He that killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another that lay perdue to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was not deemed guilty. He who liilled a man taken with another's wife, sister, daughter, or concubine, or he who killed a man who, without just grounds, assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews, wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley, the offender should fly to one of the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high priest. In the primitive church, before the Christians had the civil power, wilful homicide was punished with a twentj'- years' penance. Our laws dis- tinguish between justifiable homicide and homicide in its various degrees of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See Murder. HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients, a beverage prepared with honey, such as that known as mead, and as metheglin, in England, was a luxurious drink. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days or a moon's age, after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term honey-moon, of Teutonic origin. Attila, the devastating Hun, who ravaged nearly all Eu- rope, drank, it is said, so freely of hydromel on his marriage-day, that he died in the night from suftbcation, 453 a. d. His death is. however, ascribed to another cause. See AUila. "HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE." It is said that the countess of Salis- bury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward III., took it up, and presented it to her with these words: " Honi soit qui vial y pense" " evil be to him who evil thinks." They afterwards became the motto of the Garter ; but this statement of the origin of the motto is un- supported by sufficient authority. — Goldsmith. HONOR. Honor was a virtue highly venerated by the ancients, particularly among the Romans, and temples Avere ultimatelj^ erected to Honor bj'' that people as a divinity. The first temple Avas built bj^ Scipio Africanus, about B. c. 197 ; and others were raised to her worship bj' C. Marius, about 102 B. c. These temples were so constructed that it Avas impossible to enter that to Honor Avithout going through the temple of Virtue ; and Marius ordered his edifices not to be built too much elevated or too lofty, thereby to intimate to the Avorshippers that humility AA'as the true Avay to honor. HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into England, a. d. 1524, and Averc used in brcAving ; but the physicians having represented that they Avere un- wholesome, parliament Avas petitioned against them as being a wicked AA'eed, and their use AA'as prohibited in 1528. — Anderson. At present there are betAveen fifty and sixty thousand acres, on an average, annually under the ' The epic poems of Homer and Vikgil, the GierusaJetnme of Tasso, the Paradise Lout of Milton, and the Ilenriade of Voltaire, are the noblest that exist ; and JMilton's is considered to rank next to Homer's. " Paradise Lost is not the greatest of epic poems," observe.s Dr. John- son, " only because it is not the first." — Butler. HUD ] DICTJOjSIARY OF DATES. 357 culture of hops in England. They are grown chiefly in Hereford, Kent, and Worcestershire. HORATII AND CURATII, The Combat of the, 669 b. c. The Romans and the Albans contesting for superiority,' agreed to choose three champions on each side to determine to which it belonged ; and the three Horatii, Roman knights, and the three Curatii, Albans, being elected bj^ their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated combat which, by the victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome. HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably were the first, among the Greeks at least, Avho rode upon horses, and broke them in for service in war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was ori- ginally inhabited by centaurs. And Solomon had 40.000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12.000 horsemen. — 1 Kings, iv. 26. The power of the horse is equal to that of five men. — Smeaton. A horse can perform the work of six men. — Bosstoet. The Greeks and Romans had some covering to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In .the ninth century, horses were only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced into England by William I., 1066. In England there are two millions of draught and pleasure horses, and one hundred thousand agricultural horses, which consume the produce of seven millions of acres. The horse- tax was imposed in 1784, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses in England. The existing duty upon " horses for riding " only in England, amounts to about 350,000Z. per year. See Race Horses. HOSPITALLERS. Military knights of the order of St. John, of Jerusalem, who were under religious vows ; instituted by opening a hospital for the reception of pilgrims at Jerusalem, in a. d. 1048. They became a monastic order in 1092 ; and a military order in 1118. See Malta. HOSPITALS OF LONDON. Several of these most valuable and merciful in- stitutions are of ancient date, and richly endowed. One of the most muni- ficent erections by a single individual is that of Guy's Hospital, Southwark, a London bookseller of that name having built it at the cost of 18,793Z., and endowed it, in 1724, by a bequest of 219,499Z. See Infirmaries. HOST, Elevation of the. Introduced in Roman Catholic worship, and pros- tration enjoined, in a. d. 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontifi^ who decreed a bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to the adoration of the host, which is done to this day. — Dr. A. Rees. HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 b. c, when L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. Previously to the invention of water-clocks (lohich see), 158 b. c, the time was called at Rome by public criers. The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of t\vo hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-four hours round, instead of two divisions of twelve hours each, as we do. In England, the measurement of time was alike uncertain and difficult : one expedient was by wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax-candles burning twenty-four liours : these candles were invented by Alfred, clocks and hour- glasses not being then known in England, a. d. 886. HUDSON'S BAY. Discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a North-West passage to the Pacific Ocean, a. d. 1610 ; but in fact, this part of North America may more properly be said to have been discovered by Frobisher in the reign of Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further north. The latter pas.sing the winter in this bay on his fourth voyage, was, with four others thrown by liis sailors into a boat, and left to perish. The Hudson-Bay Company obtained cliartered possessions here, in 1670. The forts were destroyed liy the Frencli in 1686 and 1782. 358 THE world's progress. [ HUH HUE AN]) CRY. The old common-law process of pursuing " with horn and with voice," from hundred to hundred, and count}'' to county, all .robbers and felons. Formerly the hundred was bound to make good all loss occa- sioned by the robberies therein committed, unless the felon were taken; but by subsequent laws it is made answerable only for damage committed by riotous assemblies. HUGUENOTS. This word is of uncertain derivation. It was used, as a term of reproach, by the French Catholics, to nickname their countrjauen of the reformed churches, or Protestants of France, and had its rise in 1560. The memorable massacre of the Huguenots of France, on the festival of St. Bartholomew, took place on Aug. 24, 1572. — See Bartholomew, St. A con- siderable number of Huguenots emigrated after that event to North Ame- rica, and settled on the Delawai-e, and in the Carolinas. HUMILIATI. A congregation of religious in the church of Rome, which was formed by some Milanese who had been imprisoned under Frederick I., 1162. This order had ninety monasteries ; but it was abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses were given to the Domini- cans and Cordeliers, in 1570. HUNGARY. The Pannonia of the ancients; and subject to the Romans, 11 B. c, and kept possession of by them until, in the fourth century of the Cliristian era, the Vandals drove them out of it. About forty years after- wards, the Vandals migrated towards Gaul, and their deserted settlements were occupied by the Goths, who in the beginning of the fifth century were expelled by the Huns, a ferocious tribe of Scythians, hekded by Attila, whose dreadful ravages obtained him the ai^pellation of "The Scourge of God." — In more recent times, the Hungarians have been much intermixed with Sclavonic nations, as Bohemians, Croats, Russians, and Vandals ; be- sides German settlers, as Austrians, Styrians, Bavarians, Franks, Swabians, Saxons, &c. Hungary was annexed to the empire of Germany under Char- lemagne, but it^^became an independent kingdom in 920. Stephen receive.? tlie title of Apostolic king from the pope - - A. D. 997 The Poles overrun Hungary - - 1061 Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under the sonsof Jenghis Khan, throughout Hungary,Bohemia,and Russia, 1226 et seq. Victories of Louis the Great in Bulga- ria, Servia, and Dalmaiia - - 1342 Louis carrie.s his arms into Italy - 1342 He dies, and the history of Hungary now presents a frightful catalogue of crimes ----- 1378 Charles Duras is murdered; Elizabeth, queen of Louis, is drowned, and king' Mary, their daughter, marries Sigis- mond, marquis of Brandcrd^arg, and causes ihe rivers of Hungary to flow with blood . . - . 1378 The unhappy Hungarians call the Turks to their assistance - - 1380 Sultan Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond in battle .... 1389 Sigismond recovers from this blow, and makes Wallaclua and Moldavia tributarv to him - - - 1390 He obtains the crown of Bohemia, and is elected emperor of Germany - 1410 Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne of Hungary, thus la,ying the founda- tion oflhe subsequent power and greatness of the house of Austria - 1437 It passes to the king of Poland - 1439 Solyman II., emperor of the Turks, in- vades Hungary, and takes Buda; battle of Mohatz (which see) - - 1520 Buda sacked a second time by the Turks, and all the inhabitants put to the sword .... ]540 Sclavonia taken by the Turks - - 1540 . Temeswar taken by them - - 1552 Transylvania seized by Solyman - 1556 The duke of Lorraine loses 30,000 men in a fruitless attempt to take Buda from the Turks - - - 1681 He at length carries Buda by storm, and delivers up the Mahometans to the fury of the soldiers - - 1686 Temeswar wrested from the Tui'ks by prince Eugene - . • . 17Ib ' The Hungarian people have nn irreconcilable aversion to the naxae of gueen ; and ooiise- qaently, whenever a female succeeds to the throne of Hungary, she reigns with the title of king. Thus, in 1.3S-% when Mary, the daughter of Cliarles Uuras, came to the crown, she was styled King Mary. flUN J DICTfONARY OF DA^tES. 359 HUNGARY, continued. Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey at the peace of Belgrade - • 1739 Temeswar incorporated with the king- dom of Hungary - - - 1778 The struggle for independence com- menced m - - - - 1SJ8 Count Lomburg, Austrian commission- er, murdered at Pesth Sept. 27, The Hungarian Diet dissolved by the emperor of Austria ; martial law proclaimed ; Jellachich, Ban of Cro- atia, appointed to the supreme gov- ernment, - - Oct. 3, 1848 Kossuth appointed by the Diet presi- dent of the defence committee and dictator - - - - Oct. 1848 [InsuiTection of Vienna, Oct. 6.] Hungarian army advances within six miles of Vienna ; Jellachich also ad- vances there, October 11; Kossuth retreats to Hungarian territory, 17th, Hungary declares itself an independent republic - - - Dec. 1848 Raab (Dec.) and Buda Pesth, entered by Windisgratz - - Jan. 5, 1849 Ukase of Russian emperor Nicholas, declaring his purpose of aiding Aus- tria against Hungary - April 26, Gorgey, commander-in-chief, surren- ders the Hungarian army to the Aus- trians at Villargos - Aug. 11, 18-49 The war ended by ihe complete subju- gation of Hungary, and the flight or execution of her leaders. See Gerinany. KINGS OP HUNGARY. A. D. 997 Stephen, duke, assumes the title of king. 1038 Peter I., deposed. 1041 Otto, killed in battle. 1044 Peter again ascends the throne ; is again deposed, and has liis eyes put out. 1047 Andrew, assassinated by his brother Bela. 1059 Bela, killed by the fall of a ruinous tower. 1063 Solomon, deposed by his son. 1073 Geiga I. 1076 St. Ladislaus. 1095 Ooloman. 1114 Stephen 11,, surnamed Thunder; turn- ed monk. 1131 Bela II. ; he had his eyes put out by his uncle Coloman, so that his queen ruled the kinadom. 1141 Geisa II. 1161 Stephen III. 1173 Bela 111. 1191 Emeric. 1200 Ladislaus 11. 1201 Andrew II. 1235 Bela IV. 1275 Stephen IV. 1278 Ladislaus III., miu-.lered. 1291 Andrew III. 1301 Wenceslaus. 1304 Otho. 1309 Charles Robert. 1342 Louis I. the Great. 1383 Mary. 1.389 Mary, and her husband Sigism ltd. 1437 Albert ; he died of a surfeit of melons. 1440 Ladislaus IV., killed in battle with the Turks. 1444 LadLslaus V. , poisoned while an infant. 1458 Matthias I., son of Huniades, late re- gent. 1490 Ladislaus VL 1516 Louis II. drowned whilst fighting the Turks. 1526 John Sepusius, deposed. 1327 Ferdinand, king ol' Bohemia. 1534 John Sepusius, again. 1539 John II. 1561 Maximilian, afterwards emperor of Germany. 1.573 Rodolphus. 1609 Matthias 11. 1618 Ferdinand II., emperor of Germany. 1625 Ferdinand HI., ditto. 1647 Ferdinand IV. 1656 Leopold, emperor of Germany. 1687 Joseph, ditto 1711 Charles VI ditto. 1740 Maria Theresa. 1780 Joseph, her son, emperor of Germany. See Germany. On the death of Charles VI., m 1740, his daughter, Maria Theresa, who had married into the house of Lorraine, was in danger of being deprived of her father's hereditary dominions by France, and also by Bavaria ; but at length overcoming all difficulties, her husband was elected emperor, and Hungary, Austria, and Bohemia are at this time governed by their descendants. See Germany. HUNS. A fierce and warlike nation, occupying eastern Tartary nearly 1200 years ; they Avere almost wholly exterminated by the Chinese, in a.d. 93, and the remnants settled on the Volga, and attacked the Roman allies on the Danube, in 376 ; but having been subsidized imder Attila, they turned their arms towards Germany. The latter country and Scythia were conquered by them, about a. d. 433. 100 000 of them were slain on the plains of Cham- pagne in_447. Tliey were detVated liv Charles the Great in several battles during eight years, and were almosi cxtiipated and soon ceased to appear a.>i 360 THE world's progress. ' [ lAJl a distinct nation after 780. When they settled in Pannonia, they gave it the name of Hungarj^, which see ; see also Attlla. HUSS, JOHN ; His Martyrdom. The clergy having instigated the pope to issue a bull against heretics, Huss, who had been zealous to promote a refor- mation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance to give an account of his doctrines. To encourage him to do so, the emperor Sigis- mund sent him a safe conduct, and engaged for his security. On the strength of this pledge he presented himself accordingly, but was soon thrown into prison, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be burned alive. He endured this dreadful death with magnanimity and resig- nation, July 6, 1415. The same luihappy fate was borne with the same fortitude and constancy of mind by Jerome op Prague, the intimate com- panion of Huss, who came to this council with the generous design of sup- porting and seconding his persecuted friend : he, too, suffered, May 30, 1416. See Cranmer, and MarLyrs. HUSSARS. This species of force originated in Poland and Hungary ; and as they were more fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are sup- posed to have taken their names from the huzzas or shout they made at their lirst onset. They were generally opijosed to the Turkish horse, "and were oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts hanging on their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather," — Pardon. HYDROMETER. The oldest mention of the Hydrometer occurs in the fifth century, and may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia; but it is not imjDrobable that Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs of it are to be found.— i?«7.:/Ma?iw. Hypatia was torn to pieces, 415 a. d., and Archimedes was killed 212 b. c. Hydraulic chemistry became a science in 1746. HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school, about 300 B. c. The pressure of fiuids was discovered by Archimedes, about 250 B. c. The forcing-pump and air-fountain were invented by Hero, about 120 B. c. Water-mills were known about the time of the birth of Christ. The science was i-evived by Galileo, about a. d. 1600. The theory of rivers was scientifically understood in 1697. The correct theory of fiuids and oscilla- tion of waves, explained by Newton, in 1714. A scientific form was given to hydrodynamics, by Bernoulli, 1738. HYMNS. Religious songs, or odes, were at first used by the heathens in praise of their false deities, and afterwards introduced both into the Jewish and Christian churches. St. Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is said to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung in Christian churches, about a. d. 431. The hymns of the Jews are usually accompanied with trumpets, drums, and cymbals. IAMBIC VERSE. lambe, an attendant of Metanira, wife of Celeus, king of Sparta, when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over Attica in quest of her daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes, stories, and poetical effusions ; and from her free and satirical verses have been called Iambics. — Apollodorus. Iambic verses were first written, about 700 B. c, by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycam- Ijes ; but after a promise of marriage, the father preferred another suitor, richer than the poet; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on tho old man's avarice, that he hanffcd himself. — Hcroiioliis. :D0 J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 361 ICE. Galileo was the first who observed ice to be lighter than the water which composed it, and hence ice floats, about 1597. Ice produced in summer by means of chemical mixtures, prepared by Mr. Walker and others, in 1782. Leslie froze water under the receiver of an air-pump by placing under it a vessel full of oil of vitriol. One part of sal-ammonia and two of common salt, with five of snow, produce a degree of cold twelve degrees below the zero of Fahrenheit. Fivp parts of muriate of lime and four of snow freeze mercury ; and mercury can be solidified by preparations of sulphuric acid, so as to bear the stroke of a hammer. See Cold. ICE TRADE, The, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, of Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to Calcutta, 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are capable of containing 141,332 tons. ICELAND. Discovered by some Norwegian chiefs who were compelled to leave their native country, a. d. 871 ; according to some accounts, it had been previouslj^ visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the Norwegians, in 874. In 1783, there occurred here the most tremendous vol- canic eruption on record ; it Avas accompanied by violent wind and rain, and a darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would fall to pieces. Three fire spouts broke out of Mount Skapta, which, after rising to a considerable height in the air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in a broken breadth of nearly 12 miles : 12 rivers were dried up ; 21 villages totally overwhelmed bj' fire or water ; and 34 others were materially injured. ICELANDIC LITERATURE, Royal Society of, in Copenhagen. Their library, containing 2000 Icelandic MSS. and many books, burnt, September 26, 1847. ICONOLOGY. The science that describes men and deities, distinguished by some peculiar characteristic, and the doctrine of picture or image reiDresen- tation. Thus, Saturn is represented as an old man with a scythe ; Jupiter with a thunderbolt, and an eagle by his side ; Neptune with a trident, in a chariot drawn by sea-horses ; Mercury, with wings on his hat and at his heels ; Bacchus, crowned with ivy ; Pallas, leaning on her a3gis ; Venus, drawn by Swans or pigeons ; Juno, riding in a cloud, &c. Heathen mytho- logy gave rise to the later worship of the sun, moon, stars, and other objects ; and to the repre.sentation of the true God in various forms; and to images. The Iconoclastic schism rent asunder the Roman Catholic church in the early part of the eighth century. See Iduls. IDES. In the Roman calendar, the ides meant the thirteenth day of each month except in March, May, July, and October, in which months it was the fifteenth day, because in these four it was six days before tlie nones, and in the other months four days. The ides of March was the daj^' on which Julius Caesar was assassinated in the senate house by Casca and other conspirators, 44 b. c. IDIOTS. It is shown by the latest returns, that exclusive of lunatics (see In- sanity), there are in England, pauper idiots, or idiots protected by national institutions, males, 8372 ; females, 3893 ; total, 7265. In England there is one lunatic or idiot in everj^ 1083 individuals ; in Wales, there is one in every 807 ; in Scotland, one in 731 ; and in Ireland, one in 812. IDOLS, AND IDOLATRY. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ni- nus, king of Assyria, 2059 b. c. — Vossius. Idols are supposed to have origi- nated in the pillar set up by Jacob, at Bethel, about 1800 b. c. — Dufresnoy. Constantino, emperor of Rome, ordered all the heathen temples to" be de- stroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, 330 a. d. — Diifresiioy. In Britain, the in 362 THE world's PE-OGEESS. [ IM1< religion of the Druids gave way to the more gross and barbarous supersti- tions of the Saxons, who had their idols, altars, and temples, and they soon overspread the country with them : they had a god for every day in the week. See Week. The idolatry of the Saxons yielded to Christianity after the coming of St. Augustin. See Christianity. ILIUM. A city was built here by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 b. c. Troy {which see), another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 b. c. ; and Ilus, his successor, called the country Ilium. This kingdom existed 296 years from the reign of Dardanus, Priam being the sixth and last king. The Trojan war was undertaken by the united states of Greece to recover Helen, whom Paris, son of Priam, had borne away from lier husband, Menelaus, king of Sparta, 1204 b. c. See Helen. More than 100,000 warriors engaged in this expedition ; and the invaders, having wasted many defenceless towns and villages, laid siege to the capital, 1193 b. c. Troy was taken after ten years' war by stratagem, and burnt to ashes by the conquerors, who put the inhabitants to the sword, or carried them off as slaves, 1184 b. c. — A^ulo- dorus. ILLINOIS. One of the United States, first settled on the Kaskaskia and Caho- kia by the French from Canada. Ceded to Great Britain at the peace of 1763. Chiefly settled by emigrants from other states since 1800. In 1789 it was part of the North-West territory. In 1809 it was made a separate terri- tory, and in 1818 admitted into the Union, being the 23d state. Population in 1810, 12,282 ; in 1830, 157,575 ; in 1840, 476,183. It is a free state and has always been so. The chief products are grain and Indian corn ; it has in- exhaustible lead-mines. New constitution adopted August 81, 1847. ILLUMINATI. These were heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they were called Alumbrados, about a. d. 1575 ; and after their suppression in Spain, they appeared in France. One of their leaders was the friar Anthony Bou- chet. The chief doctrine of this sect was, that they obtained grace, and attained perfection, by their own sublime manner of prayer. A secret society bearing this name was founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May, 1776. ILLUMINATED BOOKS and PAGES. The practice of adopting ornaments, drawings, and emblematical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of great antiquity ; and illuminated pages are, many of them, exquisitely painted. Varro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious Romans, which he embellished Avith their likenesses, about 70 b. c. — Plin. Hist. Nat. IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parlia- ment, and the first of a lord chancellor, Avas in 1386. By statute of the 12th and 13th of William and Mary, it was enacted, that no pardon under the great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment by the commons in i^arlia- ment, 1699 and 1700. Memorable impeachment of Warren Hastings, Feb. 13, 1788 ; the trial lasted seven years, ending April 25, 1795, in an acquittal. Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29, and his acquittal, June 12, 1806. Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle against the duke of York, commenced Jan. 26, and ended March 20, 1809, in his acquittal. Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains and penalties, be- fore the house of lords, commenced Aug. 16 ; Mr. Brougham entered on her majesty's defence, Oct. 3 ; and the last debate on the bill took place, Nov. 10, 1820. See Queen of George IV. IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. By the Union with Ireland, the parliament of Great Britain became Imperial ; and the first Imperial parliament, admit- ting 100 Irish members into the commons, and 28 temporal and 4 spiritual peers into the hoitse of lords, was held at Westminster, Jamiary 22, 1801. IMP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 36S The Imperial parliament is now constituted thus : in the Commons, since the passing of the Reform Bill {which see), in 1832, there are 471 English; 29 Welsh ; 105 Irish ; and 53 Scotch members — in all 658. In the Lords, 459 members, of whom 28 are temporal, and 4 spiritual representative peers of Ireland ; and 16 representative peers of Scotland. See Commons, Lords, Parliament, and Reform. IMPORTS OP MERCHANDISE m the UNITED STATES. See Exports, &c. Table, p. 317. VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD. In 1710 - jB4,753,777 I In 1800 - je30,.570,605 1 In 1830 - .£46,315,241 1750 - - 7,289,582 1810 - - 41,136,135 1840 - - 62,004,000 1775 - - 14,815,855 1 1820 - - 36,514,564 1 1845 - - 85,281,958 1 IMPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of religious, political, and other im- postors, would fill a volume ; they have been, of course, found in every country, and, have existed in every age. The following are selected from various authorities, as being among the most extraordinary : — Boleyn. She and her confederates were Aldebert, who, in the eighth century, pre- tended he had a letter from the Redeem- er, wliich fell from heaven at .lerusalem ; he seduced multitudes to follow him into woods and deserts, and to live in imitation of John the Baptist. Gonsalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be the angel Michael j he was burnt by the inquisition of Spam, in 1360. George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, styled himself the nephew of God, sent into the world to adopt children worthy of heaven; he denied the resurrection, preached against marriage, in favor of a community of women, and taught that the body only could be defiled by sin ; he had many foUowere ; died at Basle, 1556. Demetrius Griska Eutropeia, a friar, pre- tended to be the son of Basilowitz, czar of Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had put to death ; but he maintained that ano- ther child had been substituted in his place : he was supported by the arms of Poland ; his success astonished the Rus- sians, who invited him to the throne, and delivered into his hands Fedor, the reign- ing czar, and all his family, whom he cruelly put to death : his impositioii being discovered, he was assassinated in his palace, 1606. — D' AleinberV s Revolutions of Russia. Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Turks and Jews a long time at Con- stantinople and other places, by person- ating our Saviour, 1666. IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH HISTORY. Two men crucified, both pretending to be the Messiah ; and two women executed for assuming the characters of the Virgin Mary and Mary Masdalen, 5 Henry III., 1221. Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy maid of Kent, spirited up to hinder the Reforma- tion, by pretending to inspirations from heaven, fortelling that the king would have an early and violent death if "he divorced Catherine of Spain, and married Anne hanged at Tyburn, 24 Henry VIII, 1534.— Rapin. In the first year of Mary's reign, after her marriage with Philip of Spain, Elizabeth Croft, a girl of 18 years of age, was se- creted in a wall, and with a wliistle, made for the purpose, uttered many seditious speeches against the queen and the princs, and also against the mass and confession, for which she was sentenced to stand upon a scaffold at St. Paul's cross, during ser- mon-time, and make public confession of her unposture, 1553: she was called the Spirit of the Wa.\\.— Baker's Chron. William Hacket, a fanatic, personated our Saviour, and was executed for blasphemy, 34 Eliz., 1591. James Naylor, personated our Saviour ; he was convicted of blasphemy, scourged, and his tongue bored through with a hot iron on the pillory, by sentence of the House of Commons, under Cromwell's administration, 1656. Valentine Greatrakes, an Irish impostoi', who pretended to cure all diseases by stroking the patient ; his imposture de- ceived the credulous, and occasioned very warm disputes in Ireland, in 1665, and in England, where it fell into disrepute, in 1666, upon his examination belbre the Royal Society, after which we hear no more of him. Birch's Memoirs of the Roy. Society. Dr. Titus Gates. See Conspiracies. Mary Tofts, of Godalming, by pretending she bred rabbits within her, so imposed upon many persons (among others, Mr. St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they espoused her cause, 1726. The Cock-lane ghost imposture by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 1762. Johanna Southcote, Trho proclaimed her conception of the Messiah, and had a mul titude of followers ; she died in Dec. 1S14 IN THE UNITED STATES. Matthias, alias Matthews, who professed to be the Messiah, New- York. 18.30-31. Joseph Smith. See article Mormons. IMPRESSMENT of SEAMEN. Affirmed bv Sir M. Fester to be of ancient 364 THE world's progress. [ind practice. The statute 2 Richard II. speaks of impressment as a matter well known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edward III. 1355. Pressing, either for the sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the Bri- tish parliament, Dec. 1641. None can be pressed into the king's naval service above 55, nor under 18. No apprentice nor landsmen who have not served at sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of merchants' ships, first-mates of 50 tons, and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the pub- lic boards, and none except by an ofiicer with a press-warrant. INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and Gothic constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to death. This crime was made high treason by statute 8 Henry VI., 1429 ; and it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Henry VIII., 1528. [N(^EST. It has been looked upon with horror by most nations, but Persia and Egypt are exceptions. The history of the latter country abounds with in- stances of incestuous marriages among its sovereigns. Physcon married his brother's queen, then repudiated her, and married her daughter by his brother, and murdered his children by both wives, 129 b. c. See Egypt. In our own countiy, Vortigern, a king of South Britain, married his own daughter, a. d. 446. The instances are numerous in Portugal. Maria, queen of Portugal, married her uncle, the prince of Brazil, June, 1760; and the son of that incestuous marriage, Josepli, then in his sixteenth year, mar- ried his aunt, the princess Mary, Feb., 1777. The present Don Miguel of Portugal was betrothed to his niece, Donna Maria, by procuration at Vienna, in Oct. 1826, she being then only seven years of age. In England, incest was early punished with death ; and was again made capital by a law of the Commonwealth, in 1650. INCOME TAX IN ENGLAND. This is not. as some suppose, a new impost. In 1512, parliamenC granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the commons, and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with France. — Rapm. This tax was attempted in 1793, and 1799 : and again in 1802; but was abandoned. In 1803, it was revived, at the rate of 5 per cent, on all incomes above 150Z., and lower rates on smaller incomes. In 1805, it was increased to 6^ per cent. ; and in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent, embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced — In 1804, at Is. in the pound - £4,650,000 I In 1806, at 2s. in the pound - jEU, 500,000 In 1805, at Is. Zd. ditto - - 5,937,500 | And subsequently - - 16,548,935 The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c., 8,657,937^. ; from fund- ed and stock properties, 2,885 505/. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,088/. and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456/.; total, sixteen millions and a half. Repealed in March, 1816. Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tax of 21. 18s. Ad. per cent, per ann., to subsist for three years, passed June 22, 1842 ; it produced about 5,350,000/. a year. This tax was renewed for three years more, in March, 1845. INDEPENDENTS. Sects of Protestants, chiefly in England and Holland. They are such as hold the independency of the church, or that each congregation may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no absolute occa- sion for synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they affirm that one church may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to ex- communicate or censure. Their first meeting-house founded in England was that by Henry Jacobs, 1616. INDEX EXPURGATORY. A catalogue of prohibited books in the Church of Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent. ind] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 365 The index of heretical boolis, by which tlie reading of tlie Scriptures was forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull of pope Clement VIII. in 1595. It enumerated most of the celebrated works of France. Spain, Germany, and England, and which are still prohibited. — Ashe. , INDIA. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly the Ty- rians and Egj^ptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered by Alexander, 327 b. c, and subsequently the intercourse between India and the Roman empire was very great. The authentic history of Hindoostan is reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmud Gazni, a. d. 1000. — Rennel. Irruption of the Mahometans, under Mahmud Gazni - - a. d. 1000 Patna, or Afghan empire founded - 1205 Reign of Jenghis Khan, one of the most bloody conquerors of the world ; 14,000,000 of the human race perish by his sword, under the pretence of establishing the worship of one god : he died 1237 The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct of the celebrated Timour, or Tamer- lane, invade Hindostan - - 1398 Tamerlane takes the city of Delhi ; de- feats the Indian army, makes a con- quest of Hindostan, and butchers 100,000 of its people - - -1399 The passage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama - - - 1497 Conquest of the country completed by the sultan Baber, founder of the Mo- I gul empire .... 1525 Reign of the illustrious Acbar, tlie I greatest prince of Hindostan - - 1555 Reign of Aurungzebe ; his dominions extending from 10 to 35 degrees in latitude, and nearly as much m longi- tude, and his revenue amounting to 32,000,000^. sterling - - - 1660 Invasion of the Persian, Nadir Shah, or Kouli Khan .... 1738 At Delhi he orders a general massacre, and 150,000 persons perish - - 1738 He carries away treasure amounting to 125,000,000/. sterling - . 1739 Defeat of the last imperial army by the Rohillas .... 1749 [The Mogul empire now became mere- ly nominal, distinct and independent sovereignties being formel by nu- merous petty princes. The empe- rors were of no political consequence from this period. BKITISH POWER IN INDIA. Attempt made to reach India by the north-east and north-west passages - 1528 Sir Francis Drake's expeditions - 1579 Levant company make a land expedi- tion to India - - . - 1589 First adventure from England - - 1591 First charter to the London company of merchants .... I6OO Second charter to the East India com- pany 1609 Calcutta purchased - - - 1698 Capture of Calcutta by Serajah Dowla. See Calcutta. - - - . 1756 He imprisons 146 British subjects, of whom 123 perish in one night. See Blackhole. - - May 19, 1756 Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards lord Clive ; he defeats the soubah, at Plassey - - June 20, 1757 Warren Hastings becomus governor of Bengal - - - April 13, 1772 India Bill. See India Bill June 16, 1773 Supreme court established - - 1773 Pondicherry taken - Oct. 11, 1778 The strong fortress of Gualior taken by major Popham - Aug. 4, 1778 Hyder All overruns the Carnatic, and defeats the British - Sept. 10, 1780 He takes Arcot - - Oct. 31, 17S0 Lord Macartney arrives as governor of Madras - - - June 22, 1781 Hyder Ali signally defeated by Sir Eyre Coote - - - -July 1,178) Death of Hyder, and accession of his son, Tippoo Saib - Dec. 11, 1782 Trial of Warren Hastings. See Hast- ings, Trial of - Feb, 13, 1788 Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sons hostages - - March 19, 1792 Government of lord Mornington, after- wards marquis Wellesley May 17, 1798 Seringa patam stormed, and Tippoo Saib killed - - May 4, 1799 Victories of the British ; the Carnatic conquered .... igoo Victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley - I8OS Marquis Comwallis resumes the gov- ernment - - July 30, 1805 Act by which the trade to India was thrown open ; that to China remain, ing with the company July 31, 1813 Lord Amherst's government . Aug. 1, 1823 Lord William Bentinck arrives as go- vernor-general - - July 4, 1828 Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade, INDIA, continued. Cabul ; Sir Alexander Burnes and other officers murdered - Nov. 2, 1841 Lord EUenborough appointed governor- general - - - Oct. 13, 1841 Sir William Macnaghten treacherously assassinated - - Dec. 25, 1841 The British, under a convention, evacu- ate Cabul, placing Lady Sale, &c., as hostages in the hands of Akbar Khan ; a dreadful massacre ensues - Jan. 6, 1842 THE LATE WAR BETWEEN THE The Silch troops cross the Sutlej river, and attack the British post at Feroze- pore, which was held by Sir John Littler - - - Dec. 14, 1845 Battle of Aliwal ; the Sikhs defeated Jan. 28, 1846 Battle of Sobraon; the enemy defeated with immense loss in killed and 'drowned - - Feb. 10, 184G [The Sikhs lost 10,000 men ; the British 2,338 in killed and wounded.] INDIA COMPANY, the East. The first commercial intercourse of the En- glish with the East Indies, was a private adventure with three ships fitted out in 1591 ; only one of them reached India, and after a voj'age of three years, the commander, captain Lancaster, was hroug-ht home in another ship, the sailors having seized on his own ; but his information gave rise to a capital mercantile voj'age, and the Company's first charter, in Dec. 1600. Their stock then consisted of 72,000/., and they fitted out four ships, and meeting with success, have continued to trade ever since. India stock sold at 500/. for a share of lOOZ., in 1683. A new company was formed in 1698; and both were united in 1702. The India-house was built in 1726, and en- larged in 1799. Board of control instituted 1784. INDIA BILL. The bill placing the company's affairs under the control of the British government, and re-organizing the various departments in India, passed June 16, 1773. See East India BUI. Mr. Fox's celebrated bill passed in the commons, but was thrown out in the lords' house, 1783. Mr. Pitt's bill constituting the Board of Control passed August 18, 1784. Ameers of Scinde defeated by Sir Char- les Napier ; Scinde is afterwards an- nexed to the British empire - Feb. 17, 1843 Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar ; the strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gib- raltar of the East," taken - Dec. 29, 1843 Sir Henry Hardinge appointed gover- nor-general - - May 2, 1844 SIKHS AND THE BRITISH. The citadel of Lahore is occupied by the British under Sir Hugh Gough ; and the war terminates - Feb. 20, 1846 Great battle between the British under Lord Gough, and the Sikhs under Sheere Singh, at Ramluggar, Nov. 22, 1848 Moultan taken, after a long siesre, Jan. 3, 1849 Sheere Sing defeated by Lord Gough Feb. 21, 1849 The Punjaub formally annexed to the British crown - March 29, 1849 INDIA RUBBER. Also called Caoutchouc, first brought to Europe from South America, about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Several plants produce various kinds of elastic gum; but that in commerce is chiefly the juice of the Slphonia Elastica, or syringe tree. Incisions in the bark of this tree give vent to a liquid which forms India rubber. No sub- stance is yet known which is so pliable, and at the same time so exceedingly elastic ; it oozes out under the form of a vegetable milk, from incisions made in the tree, and is gathered chiefly in the time of rain, because it flows then most abundantly. — M. Macqiter. INDIANA, one of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes by the French ; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement made by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Suffered much during the war of 1812. See battle of Tippecanoe. Admitted into the Union in 1816. Population in 1800, 5,641 ; in 1820, 147,178 ; in 1840. 685,866. INDIANS, North American. The origin of the aborigines of this continent continues to be a matter of speculation among the ethnologists. They have gradually but now almost entirely disappeared before the track of the white man east of the Mississippi, and even in the far west their numbers IND ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 367 are yearly becoming smaller. King Philip's Indian war in New England, 1675. Indians joined the French against the English colonies, 1690. At- tacked bv Capt. Church, 1704; burned Deerfield, Mass., 1704; and Haver- hill, N. H., 1708 ; Indian war in South Carolina, 1715 ; again joined the French, 1754-9 ; CheroKecs subdued, 1761 ; Indians besieged Detroit, 1763. [During the revolutionary war the Indians were employed at times on both sides, but chiefly by the British.] Treaty with the Choctaws, 1786 ; with the Creeks, 1790 ; Gen. Harmer defeated by the Indians near Chillicothe, 1790 ; Gen. Butler defeated by the Indians on the Miami, 1791 ; treaty with Six Nations, &c., 1794 ; with the Delawares, 1804 ; Gov. Harrison de- feated hostile Indians on the "Wabash, May 16, 1811 ; Creek war in Florida, Gen. Jackson, 1813 ; treaty with Choctaws, Cherokees, &c., by Gen. Jack- son, 1816 ; Indian land in Ohio ceded to the United States, 1816 ; war with Seminoles, 1817 ; bill for removing the Indians west of Mississippi, passed May 27, 1832 ; war with Winnebagoes, 1832 ; Black Hawk captured, Aug. 27, 1832; Winnebagoes subdued by Gen. Scott, 1832; war against the Indians in Florida, Alabama, and Georgia, conducted by Gens. Scott, Gaines, Jessup, &c., 1835-40. In 1836 the Secretary of War reported as follows : Number of Indians emigrated from the Atlantic States to the lands provided for them west of the Mississippi - ..... 31,357 Number yet to be removed ...------ 72,131 Number of Indians of indigenous tribes, between the, Mississippi and the Rocky JMountains ...... 150,341 Total within the territory of the United States - - 352,879 Treaty with the Sioux, they relinquishing- 5,000,000 acres west of Missis- sippi for S'1;000,000, Sept. 29, 1837 ; Avith Winnebagoes, Oct. 1, 1837; Powell alias Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 50 warriors, taken prisoners in Flo- rida, Oct. 20, 1837 ; great mortality from small-pox among the Mandans, Mintarees, Blackfeet, and other Indians in Missouri territory — the Mandans tribe entirely destroyed— Nov., Dec, 1837; fight in Arkansas between the Ross and Ridge parties and Cherokees — Ross and about 40 others killed, June 28, 1839 ; 150 Chippewas treaclierously massacred by the Sioux, at a meet- ing for a treaty at the Falls of St. Anthony, July 1, 1839 ; Cayuse Indians in Oregon having attacked and murdered 15 persons, and carried off 64 pri- soners from a missionary station, are chastised by the settlers in a severe engagement, Nov. 29, 1847. [NDIGO. Before the American colonies were established, all the indigo iised in Europe came from the East Indies ; and until the discovery of a passage round the Cape of Good Hope, it was conveyed like other Indian products, partly through the Persian Gulf, and partly by land to Babylon, or through Arabia and up the Red Sea to Egypt. The real nature of indigo was so little known in Europe, that it was classed among minerals, as appears by letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the principality of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 28, 1705 ; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny call indicum, is supposed to have been our indigo. — Beckmann. The first men- tion of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581. The first brought to Europe was procured from Mexico. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina, in 1747. The quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840, was 5,831,2691b., and in 1845, it was 10,127,4881b. INDULGENCES. They were commenced by Leo. HI., about a. d. 800 ; were much used by Urban II. 1090 ; and were subsequently conferred by the Ro- man pontiffs in the twelfth century as rewards to the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 1517, Leo. X. published general indulgences throughout Euroiie, when the prac- tice led to the Reformation in Genuany, in 1517, and to the Reformation in 368 T'-iE world's progress. [ ino England, in 1584. — Boicers Lives of the Popes. Indulgences were for the pardon of sins, and were sometimes so extensive as to be for the past, pre- sent, and to come. They were written upon parchment, and sealed and signed by the pope or his delegates. — Ashe. INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Dis- eased persons, however, were carried to the temple of ^sculapius for a cure, as Christian believers were taken to churches which contained wonder- working images. Benevolent institutions for the accommodation of tra- vellers, the indigent, and sick, were first introduced with Christianity, and the first infirmaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monaste- ries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to be visited, a. d. 855. In Jerusalem the knights and brothers attended on the sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constantinople, in the 11th cen- tury. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established in infir- maries, occurs in 1437. — Beckmann. See Hospitals. INFORMERS. This tribe was once very numerous in Greece and Rome, they being countenanced by wicked princes. The emperor Titus punished in- formers by banishment, and sometimes death ; and Pliny gives praise to Trajan for the like good policy. In England, and particxilarly in London, numbers of unprincipled men obtain large gains as informers against per- sons whose slightest infractions of the law, often unconsciously committed, subject them to the power and exactions of this despised class. INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory-black, and Vitruvius and Pliny mention lamp-black ; but they had likewise various colors, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Red ink was made by them of ver- milion and various kinds of gum. Indian ink is brought from China, and must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages, most of the artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity. It is usually brought to Europe in small quadrangular cakes, and is com- posed of a fine black and animal glue. — Beckmann. INNS OF COURT. A number of inns of court were established at different periods, in some degree as colleges for teaching the law. The Temple (of which there were three societies, namely, the Inner, the Middle and the Outer) was originally founded in the Temple church, built by the knights Templars, 32 Henry II. 1185. The inner and Middle Temple were made inns of law in the reign of Edward III., about 1340 ; the Oater not until the reign of Elizabeth, about 1560. — Stowe's Survey. INOCULATION. Lady Mary Wortley Montague introduced inoculation in England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at Adrian- ople, with perfect success ; and she Avas allowed to have it tried, for the first time in England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 George I. 1721. The practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other clergy from that period until 1760.* Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr. Jenner, January 21, 1799 ; he had discovered its virtue in 1796, and had been making experiments during the intermediate three years. He was voted 10,000^. as a reward by parliament, June 2, 1802. The emperor Na- poleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly that he libe- berated Dr. Wickham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenner'g request, and subsequently the emperor liberated whole families of English, making it a * Inoculation was deemed a very precarious affair by our grandfathers. The London Daily Advertiser (Nov. 7, 1751) has this paragraph : — " We hear that the son and daughter of Thomss Davison, esq., of Blakestone, have been inoculated in tliis town (Newcastle"), and that they are both well recovered." Dr. Mead practised inoculation veiy successfully up to 1754, and Dr Dimsdale of London inoculated Catharine II., empress of Russia, in 1768. See Small Pox. INS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 369 point to refuse him nothing that he asked. Innoculation introduced in the United States by Dr. B. Waterliouse, 1800. See Small Po.-cand Vaccination. INQUISITION. Before the conversion of Constantino the Great, the bishops only examined into doctrines, and punished heresy with excommunica- tion ; but after the emperors became Christians, they ordained that such as were excommunicated should be also banished and foi-feit their estates. This continued till about the year 800, when the western bishops' power was enlarged to the authority of citing persons to their courts, both to con- vict and punish them by imprisonment, penances, or death. In the twelfth century, heresy, as it was then called, was much increased ; and the inqui- sition arose in the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses. It was instituted by pope Innocent III., in 1203 ; and Gregory IX. in a council held at Toulouse in 1229, gave it its final form, committing the management of it to the bishops ; but afterwards thinking these too indulgent, he gave the direction of his inquisition to the Dominicans. It was established in France, by St. Louis, in 1226 ; and in the four Christian kingdoms of Spain. It was established in Portugal in 1536. The last great Auto da Fe was celebrated in 1781 ; and although the i-ack and faggot are not now employed in the work of torture and death, yet the power of the Holy office is still exer- cised in encouraging vexations ; enjoining ridiculous penances and priva- tions ; prohibiting liberal institutions ; and interdicting useful books. INSANITY. In England within twenty j^ears, insanity has more than tripled. In France it is more extensive in proportion to its population than it is in most other countries. The total number of lunatics and idiots in England is as follows: lunatics 6806 — idiots 5741 — together 12,547; but allowing for defective returns, the number may be taken at 14,000 — an ave- rage of oiie to every tlwusand of the population. In Wales : lunatics 133 — idiots 763 — total 896 ; and adding for parishes that have made no returns, they may be set down at 1000 — a proportion of one to eight hundred. Scotland has 3652 insane persons — or one to about seven hundred. In Ireland the num- ber of lunatics and idiots exceeds 8000, as shown by returns, which, however, Avere not completed. — Sir Andrew Halliday. The number of insane persons and idiots in the United States, in 1840, was 17,434. There were 23 asylums capable of containing 2840 patients. Great advances have been made of late years in the treatment of insanity. The late Dr, A. Brigham of Utica, formerly of Hartford, was an able and successful philanthropist in this cause. INSOLVENCY m the UNITED STATES. In May, 1837, a ' commercial crisis' was at its height. The ' heavy' failures, in two months, in New York alone amounted to 260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans to the amount of $27,000,000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov. 1, 1836, to May 12, 1837. New York city Banks all suspended specie pay- ments May 10, 1837. The New England Banks generally, immediately after. INSOLVENCY. The first Insolvent Act in England was passed in 1649, but it was of limited operation ; a number of acts of more extensive operation were passed at varioys periods, and particularly in the reign of George III. The benefit of the act known as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England, by 50,733 insolvents, from the time of its passing in 1814, to March 1827, a period of thirteen years. Since then, the acts relating to insolvency have been several times amended. Persons not traders, or, being traders, whose debts are less than 300?., may petition the Court of Bankruptcy, and propose compositions, and have pro tern, protection from all process against his per- son and property, 6 Vict., 1842. Act amended, 8 Vict., Aug., 1844. INSURANCE ON SHIPS and MERCHANDISE. Suetonius conjectures that 16* 370 THE woe-ld's progress. [ino Claudius was the first contriver of it, a. d. 43. Insurance was in general use in Italy in 1194, and in England in 1560. Insurance policies were first used in Florence in 1523. The first law relating to insurance was enacted in 1601. Insurance of houses and goods in London began in 1667. This was the year following that of the great fire of London. An office was then set up for insuring houses and buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, one of the first and most extensive builders of the city of London. The first regular office set up in London was the Hand-in-Hand, in 1696. A duty was laid on insurances of Is. Qd. per hundred pounds insured, in 1782 : this duty was increased in 1797, and was variously altered since. The date of the first in- surance office in the United States, has not been ascertained. INSURRECTIONS in the UNITED STATES. Shay's Insurrection in Massa- chusetts (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insur- rection in Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794. See the accounts of Conspiracies, Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c. INTEREST or MONEY. It was twenty per cent, in Europe in the twelfth cen- tury. Fixed at twelve per cent, in Spain, Germany and Flanders, by Charles V. in 1560. — Robertson. Till the fifteenth century, no Christians were allow- ed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, there- fore, often banished and persecuted. Interest was first settled by law in England at ten per cent., 37 Henry VIII. , 1546. This law was repealed by Edward VI. ; but it was restored by Elizabeth. In those days the monarch could not borrow without the collateral security of the metropolis. Interest was reduced to eight ;;t'r cent., and the word first used instead of usury, 21 James I., 1624. Reduced by the Riimp-parliament to six per cent.-^ and so confirmed at the Restoration. Reduced to five per cent., 13 Anne, 1714, at which rate it remains. The rate in Ireland is six per cent. ; regulated 14 George III., 1773. All interest above the legal standard of Britain is usury, and punishable by the statute. — Blackstone. The law does not now apply to bills having onlj^ 60 days to run. See Us^iry Laios. INTEREST OP MONEY in the UNITED STATES. The rates vary in differ- ' ent States, viz: — In La. five pr. ct., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., Va., N. Ca., Tenn. Kent., Ohio, Ind., Illin., Misso., Ark., and the United States government claims, the rate is six per cent. In N. Y., S. Ca., Mich., and Wise, seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Mississ., and Flor., eight per cejii. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the whole debt, in Me., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury, and double, treble, the usury, in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void in Md., N. Ca., Geo., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. INUNDATIONS, It would be impossible to record in this volume the numerous catastrophes which class under this head; the following are among the most remarkable: — An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned more than 400 families, 738. — Fordun. Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town and liarbor of Ostend totally immersed, 1108. The present city was built above a league from the channel where the old one lies submerged. — Ilistoire de Flandre. At the Texel, which first raised the com- merce of Amsterdam, 1400. The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 villages, and 100,000 people, and formed the Zuyder Sea (see Dorl), April 17, 1446. The Severn overflovi'ed during ten days, and carried away men, women, and children, in their beds, ar.d covered ihe tops of many mountains ; the waters settled upon the lands, and were called The Great Waters for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. 14&3.— HolUnshed. A general inundation by the failure of the dikes in Holland, 1530 ; the number of drowned said to have been 400,000. At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perish- ed, 1617. An inundation at Yorkshire, when a rock opened, and poured out water to the height of a church steeple, 1686. — Vide Phil. Trans. Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants were drowned, and incredible damage was done at Hamburg. 1717. At Madrid, several of i.he Snanish nobilit-j low J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 371 INUNDATIONS, co7itvmed. and other persons of distinction perished, 1723. — Du Fresnoy. In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their lives by the torrents from the mountains, Sept. 1787. At Pest, near Presburg, the overflow of the Danube, by which 24 villages and their inhabitants were swept away, April 1811. By the overflow of the Danube, a Turkish corps of 2000 men, on a small island near Widdin, were surprised, and met instant death, Sept. 14, 1813. In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the ruin of the French army under Macdonald was accelerated by the floods ; also in Po- land 4000 lives were supposed to have been lost, same year. In Germany, 119 villages were laid under water, and great loss of life and property was sustained, in March 1816. Awful inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by the Vistula breaking through some of its dikes, by which 10,000 head of cattle and 4000 houses were destroyed, and numerous At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its iri' habitants laid under water, Feb. 1830. 10,000 houses swept away, ard &bout 1000 persons perished, at Cantor.!, ir. China, in consequence of an inundation, occasioned by incessant rains. Equal or greater ca- lamity was produced by the same cause in other parts of China, Oct. 1833. Awful inundation in France ; the Saone poured its waters into the Rhone, broka through its banks, amd covered 60,000 acres ; Lyons was inundated, in Avignon 100 houses were swept away ; 218 houses were carried away at La Guillotiere ; and upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Nismes ; the Saone had not attained such a height for 238 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4, 1810. Inundation of the Mississippi at New Or- leans, 160 squares and 1600 houses flood- ed. May 12, 1849. The inundations of the Ohio, Mississippi, &c., at different times, have caused great destruction of property, and (at times) of life. liveslost, April 9, 1829. INVOCATION OP THE VIRGIN and SAINTS. The practice of the Romish church of invoking the intei'cessiou of saints with God, particularly the prayers to the Virgin, has been traced to the time of Gregory the Great, about A. D. 593. — Ashe. The Eastern church begun (in the fifth century) by calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the di- vine ofBces ; but the Western church carried it so far as frequently to ca- nonize those they had any regard for, though the wickedness of their lives gave them no title to any such honor, to make processions, masses, litanies, prayers and oblations for and to them. IODINE. This most important substance was discovered by M. de Courtois, a manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris, in 1812; the discovery was pursued with great advantage by M. Clement, in 1813. Iodine is very active ; it is of a violet hue, easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees ; changes vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part converts water to a deep yel- low color, and starch into a purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of iodine form iodic acid. IONIAN ISLANDS. They were subject to Venice until ceded by the treaty of Campo-Forniio to France, in 1797. By a treaty between Russia and Great Britain they were placed under the protection of the latter power, November 5, 1815. A constitution was ratified by the prince regent of England for the government of these islands in 1818. The Ionian Islands are now among the free states of Europe. Corfu is the principal, and the seat of government. IONIC ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE. This order which is an improvement on the Doric, was founded by the lonians, about 1350 b. c. — VUruvius by PerrmiU. IONIC SECT OP PHILOSOPHERS. Founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 b. c. This sect dtstinguished itself for its deep and abstruse speculations, under the successors and pupils of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, Anax- imenes, Auaxagoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. IOWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French posses- sions, and was included in the vast tract of country purchased in 1803 under the general name of Louisiana. First purchase of land from the Indians in Iowa was made in 1832. Iowa separated from Wisconsin as a ter- ritory, 1838. Admitted into the Union, Dec. 1846. Poi^ulation in 1840, 43,111, J72 THE world's progress. [IRO IPSUS, Battle of, by which Seleucus is confirmed in his kicgdom by the de- feat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. On the one side were Antigo- nus and his son ; on the other Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cas- sander. The former led into the field an army of above 70,009 foot, and 10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consisted of 64,000 in- fantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Anti- gonus and his son were defeated, 301 b. c. — Plutarch. IRELAND. It is disputed by historians from what nation this country was originally peopled. It seems, however, to be satisfactorily shown that the first colonists were Phoenicians. The Partholani landed in Ireland about 2048 B.C. The descent of the Damnonii was made aboiit 1463 b. c. This was followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, from Gali- cia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171 kings. Arrival of Heremon - - b. c. 1070 A colony from Spain bring -vvith them the Phoenician letters, about - - 500 Arrival of St. Patrick - - a. ». 448 . The renowned Brian Boiroimhe ia crowned at Tara - - -1002 Battle of Clontarf, which terminates the power of the Danes • - 1039 [In the twelfth century Ireland is divi ded into five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, Leinster, Meath, Connaught, and Munster ; besides a number of petty principalities, whose sovereigns con- tinually war with each other.] Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to in- vade Ireland, on condition that he compelled every Irish family to pay a carolus to the Holy See, and held it as a fief of the church - -1157 Henry II. lands near Waterford, and re- ceives the submissions of the kings and princes of the country, settles the government upon a footing similar to that of England, and makes his son John lord of Ireland - • - 1172 Ireland wholly subdued - - - 1210 English laws and customs introduced by king Jolm - - - - 1210 Henry VIII. assttmes the title of king, instead of lord of Ireland - - 1542 sacre the Protestant settlers in Ulster, to the number of 40,000 persons, com- menced on St. Ignatius's day, Oct. 23, 1641 Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole island to Obedience between 1649 and 1656 Landing of king William HI. at Car- rickfergus - - June 14, 1690 Battle of the Boyne ; the Duke of Schomberg killed - July 1,1690 Memorable Irish rebellion commenced May 4, 1798, and was not finally sup- pressed until the next year - - 1799 Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland - - - Jan. 1, 1801 Emmett's insurrection - July 23, 1803 Roman Catholic emancipation. (See Ro7nan Catholics) - April 13, 1829 Great repeal movement; meeting at Trim. (See Repeal) ■ March 19, 1843 O'Connell's trial. (See Trials) Jan. 15, 1844 O'Connell died at Genoa, sA. 72, May 15, 1847 Famine and great distress in Ireland throughout - - - - 1847 Relieved by England, and by voluntary gifts from the^United States. Bill for suppression of crime in Ireland passed parliament - Dec. 20. 1847 Mitchell convicted of treason - May 26, 1848 Habeas Corpus act suspended, July 25, 1848 Smith O'Brien arrested, and the rebel- lion put down - - Aug. 5, 1848 The Catholics enter into a conspiracy to expel the English, and cruelly mas- IRON. It was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forests of the mount having been burnt by lightning, 1432 b. c. — Arundelian Marbles. The Greeks ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves and referred glass to the Phoenicians ; but Moses relates that iron was Avrought by Tubal-Cain. Iron furnaces among the Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of the prevailing winds. Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Daunemora is the greatest mine of Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in Sussex, in 1543. — Eij7ner's Fcedera. Iron-mills were first used for slitting iron into bars for smiths by Godfrey Bochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron was first introduced from Bohemia in 1681. There are upwards of 800,000 tons of iron produced annually in England.* For iron vessels, iron war-steamtirs, &c., see Steamers. * T'neie is iron enough in the blood of forty-two men to make a ploughshare weighing twenty- four pounds. — Anon. ita] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 373 IRON- MASK, THE MAN of the. A mj^sterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask, and closely confined, under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol, Sainte Mar- guerite, and afterwards at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and was treated with profound respect ; but his keepers had orders to dispatch him if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself always placed the dishes on his table, and stood in his presence. Some conjecture him to have been an Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constantinople, although he died ten years before the mask ; others that he was the count de Vermandois, son of Louis XIV., although he was reported to have perished in the camp before Dixmude. More believe him to have been the celebrated duke of Beaufcit, whose head is recorded to have been taken olF before Candia ; while ^till more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duke of Mon- mouth, who, in the imagination of the Londoners, at least, was executed on Tower-hill. But there are two better conjectures ; he is said to have been a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIII., his father being the duke of Buckingham ; or the twin-brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was con- cealed to prevent civil dissensions in France, which it might one day have caused. The mask died after a long imprisonment, Nov. 19, 1703. ISLAMISM. The religion of Mahomet, planned by him in a cave near Mecca, where he employed a Persian Jew, well versed in history and laws, and two Christians, to assist him. One of these latter was of the Jacobite, and the other of the Nestorian sect. With the help of these men he ft-amed his Koran, or the book which he pretended to have received at different times from heaven by the hands of the angel Gabriel. At the age of forty he publicly assumed the prophetical character, calling himself the apostle of God, A. D. 604. See Koran, Mecca, ifc. ISLE OF FRANCE. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1500 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. The French formed their establishment at Port Louis in 1715. This island, together with six French frigates and many Indiamen was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1810. They retain pos- session of it, and it is now a fixed British colony. SeeMauritius. ISMAEL, Siege of, in Bessarabia. After a long siege by the Russians, who lost 20;000 men before the place, the town was taken by storm, December 22, 1790 ; Avhen the Russian general, Suwarrow, the most merciless and sa- vage warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish garrison, consisting of 30,000 men, to the sword ; everj^ man was butchered ; and Suwarrow, not satisfied with this vengeance, delivered up Ismael to the pillage of his ferocious soldiery, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women, who were murdered in cold blood. ISSUS, Battle of. Alexander defeats Darius in this, his second great battle with him ; Darius loses 100,000 men, and his queen and family are cap- tured, 333 B. c. — Plutarch. The Persians lost 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse in the field; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 150 horse. — Diodorus Slcnlus. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse, and 61,000 of the former, and 10,000 of the latter, were left dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. — Justin. ISTHMIAN GAMES. These were combats among the Greeks, and received their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were observed, insti- tuted in honor of Melicerta, 1326 b. c. — Lenglet. They were re-instituted in honor of Neptune by Theseus, and their celebration was held so sacred and inviolable that even a public calamity could not prevent it. 1259 b. c— Arundelian Marbles. ITALY. The garden of Europe, and the nurse of arts as well as arms. It re- ceived its name from Italus, a king of the country, or from Italos, a Greek word signifying an ox. The aborigines of Italy were the progenj'- of sr4 THE WOK.LD S PROGRESS. [ JAO Meshecti, the sixth son of Japheth. In pi-ocess of time, the Gomerites oi Celts, who inhabited the greatest part of Gaul, sent several colonies into Italy, while other colonists arrived from Greece, and the country was di- vided into three grand parts, viz. — Cisalpine Gaul, the settlement of the Celts; Italia Propria, the residence 'of the first inhabitants; and Magna Grascia, the seat of the Grecian colonists. The modern inhabitants of Italy may be derived from the Goths and Lombards, who contributed so largely to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and who founded on its ruins the kingdoms of Italy and Lombardy. For Roman empire, see Tabular Vieiis. 447 553 568 596 697 774 800 Rome taken and plundered by the Visi- goths under Alaric, See Rome A. D. 410 The Huns ravage the Roman empire under Attila, " the Scourge of Gtjd" - The Western Roman empire is de- stroyed by the Heruli, whose leader, Odoacer, erects the kingdom of Italy 476 The reign of Totila, who twice pillages Rome, and reduces the inhabitants to such distress, that the ladies and peo- ple of quality are obliged to beg tor bread at the doors of the Goths - 511 to 552 The power of the Goths destroyed, and their kingdom overthrown by the ge- nerals of the Eastern empire - Narses, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards from Germany into this country . . . - The Lombards overrun Italy Venice first governed by a doge Charlemagne invades Italy - He repairs to Rome, and is crowned emperor of the West - [During the reign of Charlemagne, the pope of Rome, who had hitherto been merely a spiritual minister, finds means to assume a temporal power, not only independent of, but superior to all others.] Pope Damasius II. is the first who caus- es himself to be crowned with a tiara 1053 Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hildo- brand, pretends to universal sove- reignty, in which he is assisted by the countess Matilda, mistress of the greater part of Italy, who makes a do- nation of all her estates to the Church 1076 Disputes between the popes and empe- rors, relative to the appointment of bishops, begin about 1106, and agitate Italy and Germany during several centuries. The Venetians obtain many victories over the Eastern emperors - -1125 Tuscany becomes independent - - 1208 The duchies of Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio are created - - - 1228 Milan erected mto a duchy - - 1277 The papal seat removed for seventy years to Avignon, in France - - 1308 The cardinals not agreeing in the elec- tion 'of a pope, they set fire to the con- clave, and separate, and the papal chair is left vacant for two years - 1314 Louis Gonzaga makes himself master of Mantua, with the title of imperial vicar . - - - 1328 Lucca becomes an independent reput lie 1370 Naples conquered by Cjiarles VIII. - 1492 The republic of Venice loses all its Ita- lian provinces in a single campaign, assailed by the pope, the emperor, and the kings of Spain and France - 1509 Leo X. having exhausted all his finan- ces, opens the sale of indulgences and absolutions, which soon replenislies ■ his treasury .... 1517 Parma and Placentia made a duchy - 1545 Cosmo de Medicis made grand-duke oi' Tuscany by Pius V. • - - 1569 Pope Gregory XIII. reforms the calen- dar. See Cale7idar - - - 1582 Ambassadors from Japan to the pope. See Jeddo .... 1619 The Corsicans revolt from the Genoese, •and choose Theodore for their king. See Corsica .... 1736 Milan vested in the house af Austria by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle - 1748 Division of 'Jhe Venetian states by France and Austria - - - 1797 Italy overrun, and Pius VI. deposed by Bonaparte - ... - 1798 The Italian republic - . - 1802 Italy formed into a kingdom, and Napo- leon crowned - - - - 1805 Eugene Beauhamois made Viceroy of Italy 1805 The kingdom ceases on the overthrow of Napoleon - - - - 1814 [The various other events relating to Italy will be found under the respec- tive heads of Genoa, Lombardy, Mi- Ian,, Naples, Rome, Venice, ^c.} The population of the whole of Italy proper now aiBOunts to 23,677,000.— Alvi. de Gotha. S. Introduced into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1660. — Du Frcsnoy. JACOBINS. The name given to one of the principal parties in the French re- volution. The Jacobin club originated from a small and secret association of about forty gentlemen and men of letters, who had united to disseminate JAN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 375 political and other opinions ; the members were called Jacobins from their meeting in the hall of the Jacobin friars at Paris. The club became nu- merous and popular, and fraternal societies were instituted in all the prin- cipal to>vias of the kingdom. From its institution, one principal object was, to disciiss such political questions as seemed likely to be agitated in the national assembly, in order that the members might act in concert. They are represented as having been determined enemies of monarchy, aristo- cracy, and the Christian religion, and may be regarded as the first grand spring of the revolution. They were suppressed October 18, 1794. The religious sect called Jacobins are those of both sexes who follow the rules of St. Dominick. See Dominicans. JACOBITES. A sect among the eastern Christians, so called from Jacob Ba- radseus, a Syrian, whose heresy spread to a ^reat extent in the sixth and seventli centuries. In England existed a political party called Jacobites. They were the partisans of James II., and were so named after his expul- sion in 1688. Those who openly appeared in arms for, or who expressed their wishes to restore the abdicated family, were called Jacobites ; the dis- tinction is now entii'ely lost. JAFFA. Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa, the port whence Jonah embarked, and the place where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead. In profane history, the place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by Bona- parte in February 1799 ; and the French were driven out by tlie British in June, same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 3800 prisoners bj^ Bonaparte : but this is reasonably doubted. JAMAICA. Discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1495. It was conquered from the Spaniards by admiral Penn, and the land forces commanded by Venables in 1655 ; the expedition had been planned bj^ Oliver Cromwell against St. Domingo. An awful earthquake occurred here in 1692 ; and the island was desolated by a furious hurricane in 1722 ; and again 1734 and 1751. In June 1795, the Maroons, or original natives, who inhabit the moimtains, rose against the English, and were not quelled till March 1796. Tremendous hurricane, by which the whole island was deluged, hundreds of houses washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons drowned, October 1815. An alarming insurrection, commenced by the negro slaves, in which numerous plantations were burned, and property of immense value destroy- ed. Before they were overpowered, the governor, lord Belmore, declared, the island under martial law, Dec. 22, 1831. Awful fire here, Aug. 26, 1843. The Cholera in 1850. JANISSARIES. This order of infantry in the Turkish army was formerly reputed to be the grand seignor's foot guards. They were first raised by Amurath I. in 1361 ; and have several times deposed the sultan. Owing to an insurrection of these troops on the 14th June, 1826, when 3000 of them were killed on the spot, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman was issued declaring the abolition of the Janissaries two days afterwards. JANSENISM. Tliis sect was founded by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres, about 1625. Jansen was a prelate of piety and morals, but his "Augusti- nus" a book in which he maintained the Augustine doctrine of free grace, and recommended it as the true orthodox belief, kindled a fierce contro- versy on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Ur- ban VIII. JANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a divinity among the early Romans. See next article. January was added to the Roman calendar by Numa, 713 b. c. He placed it about the winter sol- stice, and made it the first month, because Janus was supposed to preside over the beginning of all business. This god was painted with two faces, 376 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ JEN because, as some persons have it, on the one side the first of January looked towards the new year, and on the other towards the old one. On the first day, it was customary for friends and acquaintances to make each other presents, from whence the custom of new year's gifts, still retained among us, was originally taken. JANUS, Temple op, at Rome. Was erected by Romulus, and kept open in the time of war and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice, during above 700 years, via : — under Numa, 714 b. c. and under Augustus, 5 b. c. ; and during that long period of time, the Romans were continually employed in war, JANVILLIERS, Battle of, between the French and Prussians, in which, after an obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was driven back to Chalons with considerable loss, February 14, 1814. About this period there were many battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher, and Napoleon and prince Schwartzenberg, until the capitulation of Paris, March 31, 1814. JAPAN. This island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paulo ; and was visited by the Portuguese about 1535. The Japanese are as fabulous as the Chinese in the antiquity of their empire, but the certain period begins with the hereditarj^ succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year 660 B. c. The English visited Japan in 1612. There was once a great num- ber of Christians in different parts of the empire ; but, in 1622, they under- went great persecutions, insomuch that they were all extirpated. See Jeddo. JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by theDutch, sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740, and for its cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon their nation, but upon man. The island capitulated to the British, August 8, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the hereditary prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813. Java was restored to Holland in 1814. JEDDO. The capital of Japan, containing about 1,680,000 inhabitants, a num- nearly equal to London. In 1619, ambassadors from Japan arrived at the court of Paul V. to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion, which their master had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit mis- sionaries ; but the misconduct of the Jesuits, who were endeavoring to over- turn the Japanese government, caused them to be expelled in 1622, and the inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. The emperor's palace is of indescribable magnificence ; its hall of audience is supported by many pillars of massive gold and plates of gold cover its three towers, each nine stories high. Several other costly palaces, belonging to the emperor, empress, con- cubines, and vassal kings, enrich this great eastern city. JEMMAPPES, Battle of, one of the most obstinate and bloody of modern times ; 40,000 French troops forced 28,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts, and an immense number of cannon ; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this battle, whish lasted four days. According to the most authentic accounts, the number of killed on the side of the Austrians amounted to 10,000, on that of the French to 12,000, Nov. 5, 1792. JENA, Battle of, one of the most sanguinary of modern times, between the French and Prussian armies; the one commanded by the emperor Na- poleon, and the other by the Prussian king, who was signally defeated, with the loss of 80,000 slain, and nearly as many thousands made prisoners. In JES J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 377 this battle the Prussians lost 200 field-pieces, and Napoleon advanced to Berlin, Oct. 14, 1806. JERSEY, GUERNSEY, SARK, and ALDERNEY, appendages to the duchy of Normandy, were united to the crown of England, by William the Con- queror, in 1066. Jersey was attempted by the French in 1779 and 1781. A body of French troops surprised the governor, made him prisoner, and compelled him to sign a capitulation; but major Pierson, the commander of the English troops, refusing to abide by this forced capitulation, attacked the French, and compelled them to surrender prisoners of war; but he was killed in the moment of victory, Jan. 6, 1781. JERUSALEM. Built 1800 b. c. The first and most famed Temple was found- ed by Solomon, 1015 b. c. ; and was solemnly dedicated on Friday, October 30, 1004 B. c, being one thousand years before the birth of Christ — Blair ; Usher ; Bible. Jerusalem was taken by the Israelites, 1048 b. c. and by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Razed to the ground by Titus, a. d. 70, after one of the most remarkable sieges in history. More than 1,100,000 of the Jews perished on this occasion. A citj^ was built on the ruins of the former by the emperor Adrian, a. d. 130. The walls were rebuilt by the empress Eu- doxia in 437. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614; by the Saracens in 636; and by the crusaders, when 70,000 infidels were put to the sword, 1099. A new kingdom was founded, which lasted 88 years. Taken from the Chi'istians by Saladin, in 1187; and by the Turks, who drove away the Saracens in 1217. Jerusalem was taken by the French under Bonaparte in February 1799. See Jews. JESTER. In some ancient works, a jester is described as " a witty and jocose person, kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and those of other men, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of the early English kings kept jesters, and particularly the Tudors. There was a jester at court in the reign of James I., but we hear of no licensed jester afterwards. JESUITS. The order Avas founded by Ignatius Loyola (who was canonized), a page to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and subsequently an officer of his army. Loyola having been wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in both legs, a. d. 1521, devoted himself to theology while under cure, and renounced the mi- litary for the ecclesiastical profession. His first devout exercise was to dedi- cate his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; he next made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and on his return laid the foi^ndation for his new order in France. He presented the institutes of it in 1539, to pope Paul HI. who made many objections to them ; but Ignatius adding to the three vows of chastity, povertj^, and obedience, a fourth of imjilicit submission to the holy see, the institution was confirmed by a bull, September 27, 1540, by which their number was not to exceed 60. That clog, however, was taken oflf by another bull, March 14, 1548 ; and popes Julius III., Pius V., and Gregory XHL, granted them such great privileges as rendered them pow- erful and numerous. But though Francois Xavier, and other missionaries, the first brothers of the order, carried it to the extremities of the habitable globe, it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly at Fxris. The Sorbonne issued a decree in 1554, by which they condemned the institution, as being calculated rather for the ruin than the edification of the faithful. Even in Romish countries, the intrigues and seditious writings of this order, have occasioned it to be discountenanced. The Jesuits were expelled Eng- land by proclamation, 2 James I. 1604, and Venice 1606. They were put down in France by an edict from the king, and their revenues confiscated, 1764 ; and were banished Spain 1767. Suppressed by pope Clement XIV. in 1773. Restored by Pius VII. in 1814 ; and since tolerated in other states, 378 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ JEW and e'ven where not tolerated, the body, as now in England, possesses a se- cret and extensive existence. JESUS CHRIST. Born on Monday, December 25, a. m. 4004, in the year of Rome 752 ; but this event should be dated four years before the commence- ment of the common era. See Nativity. Christ's baptism by John, and his first ministry, a. d. 30. He celebrated the last passover, and instituted the sacrament in its room, on Thursday, April 2. He was crucified on Fri- day, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon. He arose, April 5 ; ascended to heaven from Mount Olivet, on Thursday, May 14, following : and hia Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24, A. D. 33. JEWELRY. Woi-n by most of the early nations. So prodigious was the ex- travagance of the Roman ladies, that Pliny the elder says, he saw LoUia Paulina wearing ornaments which were valued at 322,916Z. sterling. Jewels were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. The manufacture was ex- tensively encouraged in England in 1685. See article Dress. JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucidas until the fifteenth century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them. They date from the creation, which thej'^ consider to have been 3760 years and three months before the commencement of our era. To redxice Jewisli time to ours, subtract 3761 years. JEWS. A people universally known both in ancient and modern times. They derive their origin from Abraham, with whom, according to the Old Testa- ment and the Jewish writers, God made a covenant, 1921 b. c. See Tabular Views, p. 6 to p. 42. JEWS, Modern HrsTORV of. Titus takes Jerusalem ; the city and temple are sacked and burnt, and 1,100,000 of the Jews perish, multi- tudes destroying themselves A. D. 70 100,000 Greeks and Romans are mur- dered by the Jews about Cyrene - 115 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects a temple to Jupiter - - - 130 More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain by the Romans, in 135 and - - 136 [They are now banished from Judea by an edict of the emperor, and are for- bidden to return, or even to look back upon their once flourishing and be- loved city, on pain of death. From this period, the Jews have been scat- tered among all other nations.] GENERAL HISTORY. Jews first arrive in England - - 1078 Thinking to invoke the divine mercy, at a solemnization of the Passover, they sacrifice a j-outh, the son of a rich tradesman at Paris, for which the criminals are executed, and all Jews banished France - - - 1080 The Jews massacred in London, on the coronation-day of Richard I., at the instigation of the priests - -1089 500 being besieged in York castle by the mob, they cut each other's throats to avoid their fury - - - 1190 Jews of both se.\es imprisoned ; their eyes or teeth plucked out, and num- bers inhumanly butchered, by king John 1204 They circumcise and attempt to cruci- fy a child at Norwich ; the offenders are condemned in a fine of 20,000 marks - ... - 1235 They crucify a child at Lincoln, for which eighteen are hanged - - 1255 700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew having forced a Christian to pay him more than 2s. per week as interest upon a loan of 20s. — Slowe - - 1262 Statute that no Jew should enjoy a free- hold, passed .... 1269 Every Jew lending money on interest compelled to wear a plate on his breast signifying that he was a usu- rer, or to quit the realm - - 1274 267 Jews hanged and quartered for clipping coin - - - - 1277 They crucify a child at Northampton, for which fifty are drawn at horses' tails and hanged - - - 1282 15,660 Jews are apprehended in one day, and are all banished England. — Rophi ----- 1287 Massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the peasantry ; 500 defend themselves in a castle, where, for want of weapons, they throw their children at their en- emies, and then destroy one another 131 A fatal distemper raging in Europe, they are suspected of having poison- ed the springs, and 1,500,000 are mas- sacred. — Lenglet. - - - 1348 500,000 Jews are banished Spam, and 150,000 from Portugal - - 1492 They are banished France - - 1494 After having been banished England 365 years, they are re-admitted by Cromwell, in virtue of a treaty with Blanasseh Ben Israel - - - 1652 JUD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 379 land, lost on the second reading, by a majority in tlie Commons, 22S against 165 - - - Blay 17, 1830 Moses Montefiore, esq., elected sheritf of London ; and knighted by the queen, being the first Jew on whom tliat honor has been conferred, Nov. 9, 1837 Ukase of the emperor of Russia, jjer- mitting the title of citizen of tlie first class to be held by any Jew who ren- ders himself worthy of it - - 1839 Owing to the disappearance of a Greek priest, a persecution of the Jews be- gan at Dan. ascus. — See Damascus Feb. 1, 1840 JEWS, continued. Statute to naturalize them in England, passed ----- 1753 This act repealed on the petition of all the cities in England - - - 1754 The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avianon are declared to be citizens of France . . - . 1790 Sitting of the great Sanhedrim, of Paris, convened by the emperor Napoleon Jan. 20, 1807 London Society for promoting Christi- anity among the Jews - - 1808 Alexander of Russia grants land on the sea of Azoph to converted Jews, Sept. 1, 1820 Bill for Jewish emancipation in Eng- | JOAN OF ARC, OR MAID OF ORLEANS. The young and celebrated heroine of France. The English under Bedford closely besieging Orleans, ,/oan of Arc pretended she had a divine commission to expel them, and Charles VII. intrusted her with the command of the French troops. She raised the siege, and entered Orleans with supplies, April 29, 1429, and the En- glish who were before the place from October 12, preceding, abandoned the enterprise, May 8, following. She captured several towns in the possession of the English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 10, 1429._ In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her conduct." She was wounded several times herself, but never killed any one, or shed any blood with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, May 25, 1431 ; and to the great disgrace of the English, was burnt for a witch five days afterwards at Rouen, in the 22d (some say 29th) year of her age. — Voltaire's Piicelle d' Orleans. JOHN DOE AND RICHARD ROE. Names, as pledges to prosecute, well known in the law. Magna Charta demanded witnesses before trial, and since the reign of Edward III. the fictitious names of John Doe and Richard Roe are put into writs, as pretended witnesses. JUBILEE. By Mosaic institution the Jews celebrate a Jubilee every fifty years. Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by pope Boniface VIII. , in the j^ear 1300. It was celebrated every fifty years by command of pope Clement VI. ; and was afterwards reduced by Urban VI. to every thirty-third year ; and Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year, at which period it is now fixed, JTJDGES. On the Norman conquest the judges had the style of Justiciarms AnglicB: these judges continued until the erection of the Courts of King's Bench and Common Pleas. The last who had the office of Justiciarius Anglice was Phillip Basset, in 1261. Judges punished for bribery, 17 Edward I. 1288, when Thomas de Weyland was banished the land; and in 1351, Wil- liam de Thorp was hanged. John de Cavendish was beheaded by the Kent- ish rebels, 1382. Tresylian, chief justice, was executed for favoring des- potism, and other judges were seized and condemned, 1388. The prince of Wales was committed by Judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the bench, 1412. Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, was beheaded, July 6, 1535. Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley taken off the bench and committed by the commons, 1641. Three impeached, 1680. Most of them dismissed for not allowing the legality of a dispensing power in the crown, 3 James II. 1687. The celebrated Judge Jefferies was committed by the lord mayor to the Tower, where he died, 1689. The independence of the judges in England was established by making their appointments patents for life, 1761. Judges were sent to India, 1773. Three additional judges, 380 THE world's progress. [ JUl one to each court, were appointed, 1784. A new judge took his seat as vice-cliancellor, May 5, 1813. JUDGES IN THE UNITED STATES. Those of the Supreme Court, eight in number, are appointed for life or during good conduct, by the President and Senate. The chief justices of the Supreme Court of the United States have been John Jay, appointed, 1789; Wilham Cushing, of Mass., 179G; Oliver Ellsworth, 1796 ; John Marshall, 1801 ; Roger B. Taney, 1836. U. S. Cir- cuit Judges were first appointed 1801. The judges of the several States are thus appointed : — By the Governor and Legislature, or Senate, or Council, in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Maryland, Louisiana, Missouri, Indiana, and Michigan. By the Legislature alone, in Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois. By the Governor alone in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Kentucky. By popular vote, in Mississippi and in New York.* The term of Office of the superior judges, is for life (or " during good behavior ") in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, Kentucky and Illinois. Until seventy jj'ears of age, in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut. Until sixty-five j'ears of age, in Missouri. For periods varying from tivo to twelve years, in New Jersey, Georgia, Ala- bama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan ; arid for one year in Rhode Island, and Vermont. They are removable — By impeachment in fourteen States. By conviction of misconduct in a court of law, in Maryland. By joint resolution of Senate, and two- thirds of As- sembly, in New York. JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the PRIVY COUNCIL, in lieu of the Court of Delegates, for appeals from the Lord Chancellors of England and Ire land in cases of lunacy — from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Court^ ■ of England, and Vice Admiralty Courts abroad — from the Courts of the Isle of Man, the Colonial Courts, &c., fixed by statute 3 and 4 William IV. 1833. JUGGERNAUT, or " Lord of the world." The first object of Hindoo venera- tion, is a celebrated idol of an irregular pjTamidical black stone, with two rich diamonds to represent eyes ; the nose and mouth are painted yermil- lion, and the visage is frightful. The number of pilgrims that visit the god is stated at 1,200,000 annually: of these a great many never return, and to the distance of fifty miles the waj^ is strewed with human bones : the temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. JUGURTHA, the War with. A memorable war against the Numidian to re- duce his kingdom, commenced 111 b. c. and continued five years. Cfficilius Metell us was first sent against him, and defeated him in two battles; and afterwards Sylla and Marius ; the latter of whom dragged him in chains to Rome to adorn his triumph. The name and wars of Jugurtha have been immortalized by the pen of Sallust. JULIAN PERIOD. A term of years produced by the multiplication of the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It consists of 7980 * The election of judges by the people, in New York, was first provided for by the new consti tution of 1846. jur] dictionary of dates. 381 years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in comput- ing time, to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mun- dane eras used at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian period, our year is found ; if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from 4714. For Julian j'ear, see Calendar and Year. JULY. The seventh month of the year, from the Latin Julius, the surname of C. Ceesar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. It was the fifth month in the Roman calendar until Numa added January and February to the year, 718 b. c. See those months severally, and article Year. JTJNE. The sixth month, but originally the fourth month of the Roman year. It had its name Junius, which some derive a Junone, and others a Juniori- bus, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons. When Numa added two months before March, this month became, as it is now, the sixth of the calendar, 713 b. c. See Year. JUNIUS'S LETTERS. Junius was the assumed name of a concealed political writer, who published his letters in the Public Advertiser, in 1769. They were written in a nervous, sarcastic, and clear style, and produced a power- ful impression, and the volume is now one of the most admired in British literature. These letters have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William Gerard Hamilton, commonly called single-speech Hamilton, John Wilkes, Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Mr. Serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Rosenhagen, John Roberts, esq., Mr. Charles Lloyd, Mr. Samuel Dyer, ge- neral Lee, Hugh Boyd, esq., and sir Philip Francis; but the matter is still hidden in obscurity. "I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall perish with me." — Junius. JUPITER. Known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans : to the for- mer, it is said 3000, Te. c. ; and correctly inserted in a chart of the heavens, made about 600 b. c, and in which 1460 stars are accurately described ; this chart is said to be in the royal library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter were discovered by Galileo, a. d. 1610; but Jansen, it is affirmed, claimed some acquaintance with them about twenty years before. JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon Hep- tarchy, mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen appointed to try causes between the English and Welsh men of property, and made responsible with their whole estates, real and personal, for false verdicts. — Lambard. But by most authorities their institution is ascribed to Alfred. In Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the great bulwark of the people's liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shaU be one-half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edward III. 1353. By the common law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal, might challenge peremptorily thirty-five, being under thi-ee juries ; but a lord of parliament, and a peer of the realm that is to be tried by his peers, cannot challenge any of his peers. JURIES, Coercion of. About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used to feed the jury empanelled in their action, and hence arose the common law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. A jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree upon a verdict ; and maybe confined without meat, drink, or candle, till they are unanimous. Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of their verdict, though they did not eat it. — Leon. Dyer. 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able "to agree, and having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the court where they were locked up, and went home, October 9, 1791.— Phillips. 382 THE world's progress. [ KIE JUSTICES OP THE PEACE. These are local magistrates, invested with ex- tensive powers in minor cases, but subject to supercession and punish- ment by the king's bench for an abuse of tlieir authority. Justices of the peace in every county first nominated by William the Conqueror, in 1076. — Stowe. In the United States the office is held by special appointment, and the tenure is different in different States ; it is usually for seven years. JUSTINIAN CODE. Wherein was written what may be termed the statute law, scattered through 2000 volumes, reduced to fifty, completed a. d. 529. To this code of laws Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes, and Novels. These compilations have since been calle(i. collectively, the body of civil law {corpics jims civilis). A digest was made in 533. — Blair. K. KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, which combines mirrors, and pro- duces a symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr. Brewster of Edinburgh ; it was first suggested in 1814, and the instrument perfected in 1817, when it found its way into every body's hands. It is in- tended to assist jewellers, glass-painters, and other ornamental artists, in the formation of patterns, of which it produces an infinite number. KAMTSCHATKA. The peninsula on the eastern coast of Asia. It was dis- covered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, a. d. 1690; and was taken possession of by Russia in 1697 ; it was not ascertained to be a peninsula until visited by Behring, in 1728. Four months, commencing at our midsummer, may be considered as the spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year being dreary winter. KENIL WORTH CASTLE. Built in 1120, but much of the pile was erected subsequently by John of Gaunt ; and its remains now form one of the most picturesque objects in the kingdom. This celebrated castle was conferred on Dudley, earl of Leicester, by queen Elizabeth, whom he afterwards en- tertained within its walls for seventeen days. His sumptuous entertainment of the queen commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily lOOOZ. a vast expenditure in those times. KENTUCKY, one of the United States, was first explored by Daniel Boone, an enterprising hunter, in 1770. First white settlement near Lexington, 1775. Was a part of Virginia until 1782, when it was made a separate district. Ad mitted into the Union 1792. Population in 1790, 73,677; in 1810, 406,511 , in 1830, 688,844; in 1840, 779,828, including 182,258 slaves. KEYS. The invention of them is ascribed to Theodore, of Samos, by Pliny, about 730 b. c. But this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of Troy, 1193 b. c. Keys were originally made of wood, and the earliest form was a simple crook similar to the common picklock now in use. The ancient keys now to be found in the cabinets of the curious are mostly of bronze. The late Francis Douce, esq., had some of remarkable shapes, the shaft ter- minating on one side by the works, on the other by a ring. Keys of this description were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned again upon divorce or separation. ivIEL, Treaty or. Between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, signed Jan- uary 14, 1814. By this treaty Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously the Norwegians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent a deputation to England, to interest that country in their favor. The ruission was fruitless. On the contrary, the English blockaded the ports of Norway, and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwegians fought some brave actions, but they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and the diet elect'i'^ the king of Sweden to be their king. KIN j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 383 KING. The Latin Rex, the Scythian Reis, the Spanish Rey, the French Roi, all come from the Hebrew Rosch, chief, or head. Nimrod Avas the first founder of a kingdom, 2245 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. Misraim built cities in Egj"pt, and was the first who assumed the title of king- in that division of the earth. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 b. c. Most of the Grecian states were governed by kings ; and kings first ruled in Rome. The Egyptians understood the only just principle of government, namely, to make the peo- ple happy ; and although among them the monarchy was hereditary, the sovereign was as muchbound by the laws as his meanest subject: there was a peculiar code for his direction in the most minute particulars of pubhc and private life. The king's hour of rising, the portion of time he should devote each day to the services of religon, the administration of justice, the quality of his food, and the rank of persons by whom he was served, were all i^rescribed. KING OF ENGLAND. The style " kirg of England," was first used by Egbert A. D. 828; but the title Rex gentis Angloriim, king of the English nation, existed during the Heptarchy. See Britain. The plural phraseology of we, lis, our, was first adopted by king John, in 1207. The title of " king of Ire- land," by British sovereigns, was not assumed until . 542, when Henry VHI. changed" lord of Ireland into king. The style " Great Britain " was adopted at the union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne, 1707 ; and of the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " at the union of these countries, Jan- uary 1, 1801, when the royal style and title was appointed to run thus : — "Georgius Tertms, Dei G-ratia Britaimiaruin Rex, Fidei Defensor," "George the third, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith." KING OF THE FRENCH. Decreed by the National Assembly that the title ol " king of France" should be changed in the person of Louis XVI. to that ol " king of the French," October 16, 1789. The royal title was abolished in 1792; but restored in the Bourbon family, in 1814. Louis-Philippe I. was invited to the monarchy under the style of the " king of the French," August 9, 1830. See France. KING OF HUNGARY. The averseness of the Hungarian people to the term queen, has led to the custom among them, that whenever a female succeeds to the throne, she shall be called king. Thus it will be seen in the annals of Hungary, that the daughter of Louis I. reigned as king Mary, in 1383. See Hungary. KING OP THE ROMANS. The emperors of Germany, in order that their eldest sons might be chosen their successors, in their own lifetime politically ob- tained them the title of "king of the Romans," this people being compre- hended in that sovereignty. The first emperor so elected was Henry IV., in 1055. Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was induced to go to Germany, where he disbursed vast sums imder the promise of being elected next emperor; he obtained the title of "king of the Romans," but failed in succeeding to the Imperial crown. The style " king of Rome " was revived by Bonaparte, who conferred it on his son, upon his birth, in April, 1811 ; but the title ceased with the extinction of the dynasty of Napoleon, April 5, 1814. KING'S BENCH, Court of, in England. Obtained its name from the khig sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the judicature belongs in his absence, on a low bench at his feet. The jurisdic- tion of this court extends all over England, and is not so subject to control as othei-s, because the law presunu-s the king to be here in person. The name of this court has been altered to that of Qn.cen's Bench, since the 384 THE world's progress. [ KNl accession of Victoria, in June, 1837, as is ttie case with all institutions in immediate connection with, or dependent upon the sovereign. KING'S EVIL. Supposed to be cured by the touch of the kings of England. The first who touched for it was Edward the Confessor, 1058. This vulgar credulity had in the age of Charles II. arisen to such a height, that in four- teen years, 92,107 persons were touched ; and, according to Wiseman, the king's physician, they were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne officially an- nounced in the London Gazette, March 12, 1712, her royal intention to touch publicly for the cure of the evil ; and touching for it continued a custom un- til it was wisely discouraged, and ultimately dropped by George I., 1714. KING'S SPEECH. The first royal speech from the throne was delivered by Henry I., in 1107. A late celebrated writer, after remarking with his accus- tomed harshness upon Mr. Canning, who had just then (April 1827) become chief of a new administration, said — " Canning being now minister, of one thing, and one thing only, we are certain, we shall have no more grammati- cal blunders in king's speeches ; these things will still be written in the same meagre way, in point of matter, as before ; but we shall have them in a perspicuous and pure style."-^Colibett. KINGDOMS. The origin of kingdoms may be referred to Belus, supposed to have been the Nimrod of Holy Writ ; he was the founder of the Babylonian monarchy, 2245 b. c. — Usher. Menes, or Misral'm, makes his son Atholas, surnaraed the first Mercury, king of Upper Egypt ; and another son, Tose- thrus, he establishes at Memphis, 2188 b. c. — Blair. Ninus founds the As- syrian monarchy, 2059 b. c. — Lenglet. KISSING. Kissing the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing was a mode of salutation among the Jews, as we may collect from Judas approaching his master with a kiss ; it was also customary in Rome. Kiss- ing the poi:)e's foot took its rise from the custom of kneeling to sovereigns, and began with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the eighth century. From kneeling to sovereigns came also the ceremony of a vassal kneeling to his lord in homage, first practised, a.d. 709. KIT-KAT CLUB. A society which consisted of about thirty noblemen and gentlemen of distinguished abilities, instituted in 1703, fur the purpose of promoting the Protestant succession in the house of Hanover, which they eflfected by spirited publications as well as other measures. Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth were members, and made several epigrams upon the toasts of the club. The club took its name from one Christoi^her Kat, a pastry-cook, who lived near the tavern where they met, in King-street, Westminster, and who served them with pastry. — Bowyer's Life of Queen Anne. KNIGHT. The origin of this title as a military honor is said to be derived from the siege of Troy, but this solely depends upon a passage or two in Homer. With certainty we may trace the distinction to the Romans, who. after their union with the Sabines, created three centuries of knights, about 750 B. c. — Livij. KiNIGHT-ERRANTRY. Took its rise in the combats of the Celtic nations, particularly the judicial combats, and much prevailed in Spain, France, and Germany. Tilts and tournaments commenced with the return of the cru- saders from the holy wars, and for about 300 years they were the chief amusements of courts, and the successful combatants acquired knighthood, and the favor of .the ladies. When public combats declined, the knights travelled in search of adventures, to correct injustice, and fight in the cause of the fair ; and the consequent follies gave rise to the novel of Don Quixote. KNIGHTHOOD. Was conferred in England by the priest at the altar, after KNl] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 385 confession and consecration of tlie sword, during tlie Saxon Heptarchy. The first knight made by tlie sovereign with the sword of state was Athel- stan, on whom Alfred bestoAved this new dignity, a. d. 900. — Spelmmi. The custom of ecclesiastics conferring the honor of knighthood was suppressed in a synod held at Westminster in 1100. — Ashmole's Institutes. All persons having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be knighted, or pay a fine, 38 Henry HI. l2^L~Salmon. KNIGHTHOOD in EUROPE. As a system, under the denomination of chi- valry, knighthood is to be dated from the eleventh century. On the de- cline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe being reduced to a state of anarch j^, the proprietor of everj' manor became a petty sovereign ; his man- sion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, and called a castle. Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the women and treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich fiefs associated to repres these marauders, and to make property secure, and to protect the ladies ; binding themselves to these duties by a solemn vow, and the sanction of a religious cei'emony. The first knights being men of the highest rank and largest possessions, adriisBion into the order was deemed a great honor. MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND Alcantara, instituted - - a. d. Alexander Nevskoi, Russia Amaranta, Sweden - - "Angelic Knights, Greece - - • Annunciada, Mantua Annunciation, Savoy Argonauts, Naples ... Avis, Portugal - - - - Band, Spairi .... Bannerets, England, 13G0. Kenewed. See Bannerets - - - - Batii, England, 1399. Renewed. See Bath ..... Bear, Switzerland - - - - Black Eagle, Prussia, instituted by Frederick I. - Blood of Christ, Mantua - - - Brotherly Love, instituted Burgundian Cross - - - - Calatrava, Castile, instituled by San- cho III. - . . - - Carpet, England - - - - Catharine, Russia Chase, instituted by the duke of Wir- temberg - - - - - Christ, Livonia - - . - Christ, Portugal - - - - Christian Charity, France Cincinnatus, America Conception of the Virgin Concord, Prussia, instituted by Chris- tian Ernest, elector of Brandenburgh Crescent, Naples - - - - Crown Royal, France - Daneburgh, Denmark, instituted by Waldemar II., 1219 ; revived by Christian V. - - - - Death's Head, Female Order, by the widow -Louisa Elizabetlr of Saxe Mersburgh . . . . Dove of Castile - - - - Dragon, Hungary Ear of Corn, Brittany - - - Elephant, Denmark, by Christian I. - Ermine, France - - - - Garter, England • - - - i: 1700 1615 456 1618 1355 1382 1147 1232 1485 1725 1213 1701 1608 1708 1535 1150 1553 1698 1719 1203 1319 1590 1783 1619 1660 1448 802 1671 1709 1379 1439 1050 1478 14.50 1360 Revived - HONORARY ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 1160 Generosity, Brandenburgh Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by Philip, surnamed the Good Golden Lion, Hesse-Cassel Golden Shield and Thistle Golden Spur, by Pius IV. Guelphic, Hanover - Holy Ghost, France, 1468. Holy Ghost, Rome Holy Trinity - Hospitallers (which see) Januarius, Naples - .Jerusalem. See Malta - .lesus, France Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John XXII., 1415. Reformed by Paul V. Knot, Naples . . . - La Calza, Venice - - - - Legion of Honor, France, instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte - Lily of Arragon - - - - Liiy of Navarre - - . - Loreito, Lady of - - - - ftlalta. See Malta. Martyrs, Palestine - - - - Maria-Theresa, Order of Ladies, Spain Mauritians, Savoy Merit, instituted by the landgrave of Hesse Cassel • - - - Merit, Prussia ... - Noble Passion, Germany - Oak of Navarre, Spain - Passion of Jesus Christ, France Pius, founded by Pius IV. - Porcupine, France Red Eagle, Prussia - - - - Redemption, instituted - Rosary, Spain - - - - Round Table, England — See Knights of the Romid Table - St. Andrew, Russia (tradition ascribes to this saint the introduction of Chris tianity into Muscovy) St. Andrew, Scotland, 809 ; renewed 14.52 ; and again by James VI. St. Anihnny, Ethiopia r 1685 1429 1785 1370 1559 1816 1559 1198 1211 1092 1738 1048 1206 1610 1351 1400 1802 1403 1048 1587 1531 1319 1792 1430 17S5 1740 1704 722 1382 1.559 1393 1792 1212 1172 528 - 1698 1605 357 386 THE world's progress. [kni KNIGHTHOOD in EUROPE, continued. ■ 1382 - - 1250 - 1163 ■ - 1698 - 1267 St. Anthony, Hainault - St. Blaze, Aeon St. Catharine, Palestine - St. Catharine, Russia St. Denis, France St. George, Austria - - - - 1470 St. George, Carinthia - - • 1279 St. George, Defender of the Immacu- late Conception, Bavaria - • 1729 St. George, England; instituted by Ed- ward 111. See Garter - - 1349 St. George; tutelary saint of Genoa, by Frederick III. - - -' -1460 St. George, Rome - - - 1496 St. George, Russia - - - - 1782 St. George, Spain - • - 1318 St. George, Venice - - - - 1200 St. Hubert, Germany, by the duke of Juliers and Cleves - - - 1447 St. James, Holland - • - - 1290 St. James, Portugal - - - 1310 St. James, Spain - • - - 1030 St. Jerome, Germany - - -11.54 St. John of Aeon - - - -1370 St. John of Jerusalem - - -1048 St. John of Malta - - - - 1522 St. John of Rhodes - • - 1300 St. Julian, of Alcantara - - - 1176 St. Lazarus, and St. Maurice, by Eman- uel Philibert, duke of Savoy - -1572 St. Louis, France - - - - 1693 St. Mark, Venice, 830 ; renewed • 1562 St. Mary the Glorious - - - 1233 St. Mary de Merced, Spain •■ - 1218 St. Michael, France - - - - 1469 St. Michael, Germanj - St. Patrick, Ireland - St. Paul, Rome - St. Peter, Rome St. Rupert, Germany, by ths archbish- op ol Saltzburgh St. Sepulchre, Palestine St. Stephen, by Casimir de Medicis, grand-duke of Tuscany St. Thomas of Aeon • Saviour, Greece - - June 1 Seraphiuis, Sweden - - - Ship and C re -cent, France Sincerity, instituted by the elector of Saxony - - . . Slaves of Virtue, Germany Swan, Cleves Sword, Cyprus - Sword, Sweden, 1523 ; revived Templars. — See Templars- Teste Morte, Wurtemburg - Teutonic, 1190 ; renewed in Prussia Thistle of Bourbon Thistle of Scotland, 812 ; revived - Trinitarians, Spain Truxillo, Spain United Ladies for the honor of tiie Cross, in Germany Virgin Mary - Virgin of Mount Carmel, France Warfare of Christ, Poland - Warfare of Christ, Russia Wing of St. Michael, Portugal Wladimir, Russia 1613 1783 1540 1520 1701 1092 1561 1370 1833 1334 1269 1690 1662 960 1195 1772 1118 1652 1522 1370 1540 1594 1227 1666 1233 1607 1705 1325 1165 1682 KNIGHTS, Female. The title of knight, which was given to men of superior worth, ability, and fortune, in former times, was sometimes given to women also. As an instance, it was conferred on the women who preserved the city of Tortosa from falling into the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their stout resistance and vigorous attack of the besiegers, by which means the Moors were forced to raise the siege. Large immunities and favors were granted to them and their descendants for their heroism on this occasion. KNIGHTS OF THE ROUND TABLE. Instituted by king Arthur, about a. d. 528. — Asset's Life of Alfred. This ancient order was revived by Edward III. at Windsor," upon New Year's day, 1344. The king, with a view to the recovery of France, which descended to him in right of his mother, became anxious to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupon projecting and setting up king Arthur's Round Table, he proclaimed a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners of quality and courage to the exercise. He published his royal letters of protection, for the safe coming and return of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at those jousts and tournaments. — Beatson. KNIGHTS OF THii; SHIRE. Tiie barons, or tenants in chief, or freeholders by Doomsday-book, were 700 in mimber, but being split into small parts, wer(! greater and lesser, all of whom were entitled to sit in parliament ; but tht; fatter, or lesser barons, were allowed to choose two representatives, hence called knights of the shire, a. d. 1307. KNIGHTS TEMPLARS. A religious and military order, instituted a. d. 1118. They came to England early in Stephen's reign, and settled at the Temple in London ; and at other places in the reign of Henry II. All the knights were arrested in France in one day, being charged with great crimes, and possessing great riches ; fifty-nine of them were burnt alive at Paris in Oct., LAB "I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 38» 1307. Those ia England were all seized the same j'^ear. Their order was abolished by Philip the Fair of France, at the council of Vienne, in 1312 ; and many thousands were subsequently massacred, their wealth being given to the knights of Malta. See Malta. KNIVES. First made in England in 1563. They were the earliest branch of cutlerj"-, and were first manufactured by one Mathews, of Fleet-Bridge, Lon- don, 5th Eliz., 1563. — Chamberlain's England, edit. 1683. See Forks. KORAN, OR ALKORAN of MAHOMET, written about a. d. 610. Its general aim was, to unite the professions of Idolatry and the Jews and Christians in the worship of one God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), under certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience to Mahomet as the pro- phet. It was written in the Koreish Arabic, and this language, which cer- tainly possessed every fine quality, was said to be that of paradise. Maho- met asserted that the Koran was revealed to iim, during a period of twenty- three years, by the angel Gabriel. The style of this volume is beautiful, fluent, and concise, and %vhere the majesty and attributes of God are de- scribed, it is sublime and magnificent. Mahomet admitted the divine mis- sion both of Moses and Jesus Christ. — Dr. Jortin. The leading artkjle of faith which this impostor preached, is compounded of an eternal truth, and a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet is the apostle of God. — Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in 1143 ; and into English and other European languages about 1763, et seq. It is a rhapsody of 3000 verses, divided into 114 sections. See Alcoran; Islamisni; Mecca; Makometism, <^c. L. LA HOGUE, Battle of, between the English and Dutch combined fleets, under admirals Russel and Rooke, and the French fleet commanded bj' admiral Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a splendid victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight more, forcing the rest to fly, and thus pi'eventing a threatened descent upon England, May 19, 1692. LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. It was commenced in 1785, when Perouse sailed from France for the Pacific, with the Boussole and Astrolabe under his com- mand. The last direct intelligence received from him was from Botany Bay, in March 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search of Perouse, but no certain information was had until captain Dillon, of the East India ship Research, ascertained that the French ships had been cast a.way on two diiFerent islands of the New Hebrides — a fate authenticated by various articles of the wreck of these vessels, which capt. Dillon brought with him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 years afterwards. LA VENDEE, War of. The French Royalists here took to arms, and were successful in a number of battles with the Republican armies, fought be- tween July 12, 1793, and January 1, 1794, when they experienced a severe reverse. Numerous other engagements were fought, with various success, until this war terminated, Jan. 10, 1800. LABYRINTH. Thei-e were four most famous in history : the first was built by Dtedalus, in the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 b. c. ; the second in Egypt in the isle of Moeris, by Psammeticus, king of that place, 683 b. c. ; and the fourth in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of the Hetruriffi, about 520 b. c. — Pliny. The beauty and art of the labyrinth of Egypt were almost beyond belief; it had 12 halls and 3000 chambers, with pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with sculpture. — Herodotus. The labvrintli of Woodstock i.s famou.s from its connection with the storv of 388 THE world's progress. [ LAM Fair Rosamond, mistress of Hemy 11. ; there is a ciirious Maze at Hampton Court that is much visited. LACE. Mention is made of it as being of very delicate texture in France and Flanders in 1320 ; and line laces were much in use for ruffles and frills for the men, and headdresses for the women, in the fifteenth century. Lace was general in the court costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, Valencien- nes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine lace. An ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four pounds in London, and its value when manufactured has been increased to forty pounds, ten times the price of standard gold. LACED^MON. See Sparta. Lelez begins the kingdom of Lelegia, in Laco- nia, 1516 b. c. Eurotas gives his daughter Sparta in marriage to Laced^^ mon, and makes him partner on the throne, 1490 b. c. The city of Sparta was built about this time, and hence the name by which the country is most known. The Lacedsemon republic became famous in history after 700 b. c. particularly by the conquest of Athens. It was made a Roman province 71 B. c. The territory now belongs to the Turks. — Thucydides ; Priestley. LADIES. The mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out to the poor weekly Avith their own hands certain quantities of bread, and were therefore called Lef-days — two Saxon words signifying bread-giver, and the words were at length corrupted, and the mistress is called to this day Lady, that is, Lff-day. The introduction of ladies to court, was first to that of Louis XII. of France in 1499. As a title of honor, the title of lady properlj'' belongs only to the daugliters of earls, and all of higher rank ; but custom has made it a term of complaisance for the wives of knights, and all women of eminence or gentility. See Lord. LADRONE ISLES. Discovered by Magellan, in 1520 ; they are eleven in num- ber ; at the island of Guam he first touched. Here, some of the natives having stolen some of his goods, and showing a great disposition to theft, he named the islands the Ladrones, or Islands of Thieves, which they are called to this day. LADY DAY. This festival, the 25th March, was instituted about a. d. 350, according to some authorities, and not before the sevehth century accord- ing to others. On this day, the 25th of March, the angel Gabriel brought to the Virgin Mary the message concerning her son Jesus ; hence it is called the Annunciation, and is celebrated in the Catholic church as one of its chief feasts ; and in the Reformed church also, on account of the con- nection between the circumstance commemorated and the Incarnation. In England, before the alteration of the style, the new year began on the 25th of March. LA FAYETTE'S first visit to the United States, to aid the cause of American independence ; he arrived at Charleston, April 25, 1777, being then nineteen years old. He raiied a corps at his own expense ; was wounded at Brandy- wine ; employed in Rhode Island, 1778 ; visited France, promoting new re- inforcements for the United States, and returned 1779. His triumphal reception in the United States on a visit of pleasure, Aug. 13, 1824 ; re- ceived from Congress the sum of $200,000 and a township of land in reward for his sei'vices ; returned to France in the frigate Brandywine, September 7, 1825. LAMPS. See Lanterns. Lamps are mentioned in all the early ages ; they were in use in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The earthen lamp which Epic- tetus the philosopher had in his study sold, after his death, for 3000 drachmas, a. d. 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred. Lamps were in general use through the streets of London up to the close LAN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 389 of the 18tli century, as were flambeaux which were carried by link-boys. London streets were first lighted by oil-lamps in 1681 ; and with gas lamps in 1814. The domestic lamp is now of elegant manufacture ; of this kind is the Argaud lamp, brought into general use in England in 1785, et seq. See Safely Lamp. LANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS. On a system of education by means of mutual instruction, propagated by Joseph Lancaster and Dr. Bell ; they were not much patronized till about 1808, when Lancaster's system attracted general attention, notwithstanding the prejudices that existed against the founder, who had been laboring to introduce schools upon his economic plan from 1798. They became general in 1818, and there are now some hundreds of them in England, and in London more than forty. They were founded in Senegal, and were extensively instituted in Russia, in 1819. LAND. "Was let generally in England for Is. per acre, 36 Hemy VIII. 1544. The whole rental of the kingdom was about 6,000,OOOZ. in 1600. It was about 14,000,000Z. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of 10 per cent, on an estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 50 millions, the rent of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 4Q millions ; but in this estimate v/ere exempted much land and the inferior class of houses. See Incmne Tax. The rental of the United Kingdom has been recently estimated in parliament at 127 millions, but authorities vary much on the amount. See Public Lands, U. S. LANDGRAVE. This is from land, and grave a count, a German title of do- minion, which appears to have commenced in the eleventh century ; it be- came the title of the house of Hesse Cassel, about the year 1300 ; and the rank was subsequently assumed by the branches of Hesse Homburg, Hesse Philipstal, Hesse Darmstadt, &c. See Hesse. LANGSIDE, Battle op ; between the forces of the regent of Scotland, the earl of Murraj^, and the army of Mai-y queen of Scots, in which the latter suffered a complete defeat. May 15, 1568. Immediatelj^ after this last fatal battle, the unfortunate Mai-y fled to England, and landed at Workington, in Cumberland, on May 16; and was soon afterwards imprisoned by Elizabeth. LANGUAGE. Language must either have been revealed originally from hea- ven, or it is the fruit of human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek and Roman writers ; the former opinion by the gi-eat majority of the Jews and Christians,and the pro- foundest philosophers of France and England. It has been affirmed that Hebrew was the language spoken by Adam : but others deny this, and say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, are only dialects of the original, which has for many ages been lost and unknown. Psammeticus the Powerful, desiring to know the most ancient people and language on the earth, caused two children to be kept from all knowledge of the use of speech, until they were tAvo years old : they were then brought into his presence, and they both pronounced the sound b'eccos, the Phoenician term for bread. He there- fore gave the Phoenician the precedence, in point of antiquity, to all other nations, 647 b. c. — Herodohcs, Pohjan., Slrabo. LANGUAGES. Of the Hebrew, the Chaldee and Syriac are dialects. The original European ones are thirteen, viz : Greek, Latin, Dutch, Sclavonian, spoken in the east ; Welsh, Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish, Albanian, in the mountains of Epirus, Tartarian, the old Illyrian, the Jazj^gian, remain- ing yet in Liburnia; the Chaucin, in the north of Hungary; and the Finnic, in East Friesland. Arabic is the mother tongue of Africa. From the Latin sprung the Italian, French and Spanish; and from the Spanish the Portu- guese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. From the High , Dutch, or Teutonic, sprang the Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, 390 THE world's PUOGR.ESS. [ laT &c. There are 3664 known languages now used in the world. Of these, 937 are Asiatic ; 587 European ; 276 African; and 1624 American languages and dialects. — Professor Adelimg. LANTERNS. In general use from a very early date. Those of scraped horn were invented in England, it is said by Alfred, and it is supposed that horn was used for window-lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's reign, A. D. 872-901. — Stowc's Chron. London was lighted by suspended lanterns, with glass sides, a. d. 1415. The pellucid laminae of the ox horn has served for ages for the sides of lanterns instead of glass, and for many uses aro preferred. See article. Lamps. LAOCOON. This exquisite work of art, executed in marble, is universally allowed to be the triumph of Grecian sculpture. It was modelled by Ages- ander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus. all of Rhodes, and of great eminenco as statuaries ; and in all ages, and by all nations, this beautiful group is allowed to be the greatest victory of art that has ever been achieved by human hands. LATERAN, COUNCILS or the. They were held in the Basilica of the La- teran, at Rome. Of these, councils there were five : by the first, the right of investitures was settled between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry v., 1122 ; by the second council was secured the temporalities of ecclesias- tics, 1189 ; the third was to denounce schismatics, 1179 ; the fourth on church affairs, attended by 400 bishops and 1000 abbots ; and the fifth was the famous council of Julius II., 1512. liATHE, for turning ivory, wood, iron, and other substances, so as to shape them to the views of the artist, was originally an instrument of rude construction, invented by Talus, a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 b. c. Pliny ascribes the invention to Theodore of Samos. Modern lathe engines frequently cost thousands of pounds. LATIN LANGUAGE. One of the thirteen original languages of Europe, and from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. It is named after the Latini, and the Latini from Latinus, their king. A vast portion of our most beautiful and expressive words are derived from the Latin. It ceased to be spoken in Italy, about a. d. 681 ; and was first taught in England by Adel- mus, brother of Ina, in the seventh century. During six or seven hundred years the Latin tongue prevailed in all public proceedings from the Tweed to the Euphrates, and from the Danube to Mount Atlas, and has been more or less retained even to this day. In England it was ordered to be discon- tinued in conveyancing, and in courts of law, in 1731. LATITUDE. First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 170 b. c. It is the extent of the earth, or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator to either pole. Maupertuis, in latitude 66.20, measured a degree of latitude, and made it 69.493 ; he measured it in 1737. Swanberg, in 1803, made it 69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68.732 ; and Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 68.743. Mudge, in England, made it 69.148. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69.12 ; and Biot, 68.769 ; while a recent measure in Spain makes it but 68.63 — less than at the equator ; and contradicts all the others, proving the earth to be a pro- late spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernouilli, Euler, and others, while it has more generally been regarded as an oblate spheroid. LATIUM. Now the city of Romania ; built by Latinus, king of Janiculum, who gave his name to the country, calling his subjects Latines, 904 b. c. Laurentum was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavinium under -^Zneas, and Alba under Ascanius. The Latins, though originally known only among their neighbors, soon rose in rank when Romulus had founded the city of Rome in their country. LAW J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 39. LATTER-DAY SAINTS. A new sect, whose principles are variously repre- sented. By some we are told that their tenets do not vary much from those •of the Church of England, the Scriptures, without mysticism, being the foundation of them. By others it is said that they assume the power of curing the sick, resisting the operations of the deadliest poisons, and work- ing miracles of several kinds ; and maintain that this is the last generation of men. They have appeared in Hertfordshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire ; and an address was published by them at Manchester, in May, 1840. Great numbers of these fanatics have lately emigrated to the United States. LAWS. ANCIENT. The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos, 1807 B. c, were the first Attic laws, reduced to a system by Draco, for the Athe- nians, 623 B. c. ; but the latter code was afterwards superseded by that of Solon, 578 b. c. The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made 884 b. c. ; they remained in full force for 700 years, and are calculated to raise our admira- tion, as well by their singularity, as by the eftect they had in forming a race of men totally different from all others living in civilized society. The Roman laws were founded on those of Phoroneus. The Gregorian and Hermogin'an codes were published in a. d. 290. The Theodosian code in 435. The Jus- tinian code, in 529, and the digest, in 533. — Blair. See Civil Law. LAWS, BRITISH. The British laws of earliest date were translated into the Saxon, in a. d. 590. The Saxon laws of Ina were published in 709. Alfred's code of laws, which is the foundation of the common law of England, was compiled in 887, but in use previously. Edward the Confessor promulgated his laws, in 1065. Stephen's charter of genei-al liberties, 1136; Henry II. 's confirmation of it, 1154 and 1175. The maritime laws of Richard I., 1194. See article Oleron. Magna Charta, by king John, 1215. Its confirmation by Henry III., 1216, ei scq. See Magna Charta and Forests, Charter of the. Celebrated declaration made by the lord chief justice of the King's Bench, "That no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth of the' fact as to prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784. — Lord Mansfield. LAW'S BUBBLE. The most ruinous speculation of modern times. The pro- jector, John Law, of Edinburgh, raised himself to the dignity of comptroller- general of the finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for esta- blishing a bank, an East India, and a Mississippi company, by the profits of which the national debt of France was to be paid off". He first offered his plan to Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was not powerful enough to ruin himself The French ministry accepted it in 1710 ; and in 1716, he opened a bank in his own name, under the protection of the duke of Orleans, regent of France ; and most of the people of property of every rank in that kingdom, seduced by the i)rospect of immense gains, subscribed both in the bank and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared a Royal bank, and the shares rose to upwards of twenty-fold the original value, so that in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times the amount of all the current specie in France. But the following year this great fabric of false credit fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French government, ruining tens of thousands of families. It is remarkable that the same des- perate game Avas played by the South Sea directors in England, in the same fatal year, 1720. — Hist, of France, Nouv. Diet. liAWYERS. The pleaders of the bar, called barristers, are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. or in his reign, 1291. Serjeants, the highest- members of the bar, are alone permitted to plead in the court of Common Pleas. The first king's counsel luxler the degree of serjeant was sir Francis Bacon, in 1604. There are about 1200 barristers in England: and the num- ber of lawyers in England and Wales, counting London and country attor- neys, solicitors, &c., is about 14,000. A list of 19,527 practising lawyers in the United States, was published in NcAv-York, 1850. 392 THE world's puogkess. [lea LEAD. Is found in various countries, and is abundant in various i^arts of Bri- tain, and in some places richlj^ mixed with silver ore. The famous Clydes- dale mines were discovered in 1513. The lead mines of Cumberland lind Derbyshire yield about 15.000 tons per annum. The finest sort of black lead, that most fit for pencils, is produced only at Borrowdale, but there in great quantities. Leaden pipes for the convevance of water were brought into use in 1236. LEAGUES, POLITICAL and RELIGIOUS. The League of the Public Good, was one between the dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, and other princes against Louis XI. of France, in 1464. The League of Cambray was entered into in 1508. The Holy League against Louis XII., 1510. The League of Smalcald, 1529. The League of the Beggars (the Protestants so called, though Catholics joined the league) to oppose the institution of the Inquisition in Flanders, 1560. The League, so denominated by way of emi- nence, to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of France, Avho was then of the reformed religion, was commenced in 1576. The League of Wurtzburg, 1610. League against the emperor, 1626. Solemn League and Covenant in Scotland, against the episcopal government of the church, and the regal authority, 13 Charles I., 1638. League of Augsburg, 1686. LEAP-YEAR, or BISSEXTILE. The Leap-year originated with the astrono- mers of Julius Cffisar, 45 b. c. They fixed the solar year at 365 days 6 hours, comprising, as they thought, the period from one vernal equinox to another ; the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four years, forming a day, the fourth j'ear was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added was called intercalary, and was added to February. See Bissextile. This almost perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed through- out the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIIL, in 1582, when the calendar was altered to its present state. See Calendar. The difference between 365 days 6 hours, and 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 decimals, which last is the true length of the astronomical year, in the course of years caused 1700 and 1808 not to be leap-years, nor will 1900 be a leap-year; but the year 2000 will be one. See Julian Year., Gregorian CaleJidar, (^-c. LEARNING and the ARTS. These were carried to their height among the Greeks during the fourth century b. c. ; and with the Romans with the com- mencement of the Christian era. On the death of Augustus they declined until the refugees from Greece caused them to revive in Itaty, about a. d. 1250. Learning had been found so to obstruct the tyranny of the emperors, that mathematicians and philosophers were, by several decrees, banished from Rome, A. D. 16, and 89, et scq. After the dark ages, came Brunetto, Latini, and numerous enlightened men; and Leo X., about 1513, gave vast encou- ragement to literature and the arts. The illustrisus Medici family greatly promoted learning in Italy, about 1550. — Fontana. And about this time literature began to flourish in France, Germany, and England. The reign of Anne has been called by some the "golden," by others, the "Augustan age " of English hterature. LEATHER. It was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs of manufactured hides were used for ropes, harness, &c., by all ancient nations. The Gordian knot was made of leather thongs, 330 b. c. The ancients un- derstood the art of tanning leather, and it was practised early in England, and great improvements made in it up to 1795. Leather is converted into many uses: a leathern cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired three times, and foimd to answer, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. The duty on leather produced annually in England, 450,000Z., and in Ireland, about 50,OOOZ. It was abohsh- ed in both countries. May 29, 1830. LEP j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 393 LEGHORN. Livorno. This city suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741, It was entered by the French army in the revolutionary war, July 17, 1796, but the immense amount of British property then there had been previously removed. Leghorn was evacuated by the French in 1799, and was retaken the following year. It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Ital- ian allied forces, in Dec. 1813. r^EGION. The Legio was a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, and was first formed by Romulus, under whom it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, about 750 b. c. When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 b. c, the legion consisted of 5000 soldiers ; and under Marius, in 88 b. c. it was 6200 soldiers, besides 700 horse. There were ten and sometimes as many as eighteen legions kept at Rome. Augustus maintained a standing army of twenty-five legions, about 5 B. c; and the peace-establishment of Adrian W3S thirty of these formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was protected by three legions, A legion was divided into 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 6 centuries, with a vexillum, or standard guarded by 10 men. LEGION OP HONOR. A military order in France, embracing all distinctions in the army, and including in its incorporation civil officers, and all such individuals as have eminently distinguished themselves for services to the state, military deeds, and for public virtue ; instituted by Napoleon Bona- parte, when first consul. May 18, 1802. On the restoration of the Bourbon family, Louis XVIII. confirmed this order, April 1814. LEIPSIC. Famous for its university and its fair. Here Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, Sept. 7, 1631. The siege of Leip- sic was sustained in 1637. Leipsic was taken lay the Prussian army, 1756. In the same year, the Austrians laid siege to Liepsic in vain, but they took it two years afterwards, though they did not retain it long. In the late wars it has frequently fallen into adverse hands. See next article. LEIPSIC, Battle op. One of the greatest, most sanguinary, and decisive of modern times, between the French army, commanded by Napoleon, on the one side, and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies on the other ; the former 160,000, and the latter 240,000 strong. This great battle was lost by the French, chiefly owing to 17 German battalions, their Saxon allies, turiung upon them in the heat of the engagement. 80,000 men perished in the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of artillery, and many standards. The victory of the allies was followed by the capture, next day, of Leipsic, and of the rear-guard of the French army. The king of Saxonj' and his family were also made prisoners ; and the em- peror of Austria and Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Swe- den, entered Leipsic immediately after the battle, Oct. 16 and 18, 1813. LENT. The quadragesimal fast observed in the Catholic church, from Ash- Wednesday {which see) to Easter-day, and supposed to be of apostolic institu- tion. The primitive Christains did not commence their Lent until the Sunday which is now called the first Sunday of Lent : and the four days beginning were added by pope Felix III., in the year 487, in order that the number of fasting days should amount to forty. Lent was first observed in England by command of Ercombcrt, king of Kent, in 640. Baker's Chron. LEPANTO, Battle of. The great naval engagement between the combined fleets of Spain. Venice, and Pius V., and the whole maritime force of the Turks. Don John of Austria commanded the Christian fleet, which consist- ed of 206 galleys, and 30,000 men, while the Turks had 250 galleys, of which, after a dreadful conflict, they saved but 100, losing 30,000 men in killed and prisoners ; and thus was prostrated for a time the naval power of Turkey, Oct. 7, Ibll.—Voltain. 17=^ 394 THE world's iPROGRESS. [ LEX LETTERS. Those of the alphabet were invented by Memnon, the Egyptian, 1822 B. c. — Usher, Blair. The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbreviated by other nations to A. The letters, both in the ancient and modern languages, so vary in number and sound, that a volume might be written in describing the alphabets which are known. See Alphabet. LETTERS OP MARQUE and REPRISAL. These are licenses, first issued in England by Edward L, for the seizure of the enemy's vessels, and for repri- sal and retaliation upon the enemy on the sea. — Rymer's Fadera. They were first granted in 1295. — Baker^s Chron. They are usually granted in time of war to private armed ships, and do great mischief to the commerce of belligerent nations. — Poioel. LETTERS DE CACHET. These instruments of oppression were so much in use by the French government previously to the Revolution, that one of the earliest acts of the National Assembly was to denounce them, and decree their abolition, and the abolition of arbitrary imprisonment, Nov. 1, 1789. — Hist, of the French Revol. tiEUCTRA, B.iTTLE OF. One of the most famous of ancient history, fought at the village of Leuctra, between Platsea and Thespia, between the Thebans, under Epaminondas, and the superior force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, the victory being with the former. In this battle, 4000 Spartans, with their ■ king, were slain, and not more than 300 Thebans ; July 8, 371 b. c. From this day the Spartans lost their preponderance in Greece, which they had maintained for about 500 years, and it passed to the Thebans. — Plutarch. LEVELLERS. Men whose purpose is to destroy superiority, and bring all things to a level or equality. — Collier. There were various associations of this kind. The most extraordinary was that of which Muncer and Storck were the chiefs. These two began by pulling down all the images in the churches which Luther had left standing ; and then, finding an army in their followers, they became levellers, and Muncer openly taught that all distinc- tions of rank were usurpations on the rights of mankind. At the head of 40,000 men, he wrote to the sovereign princes in Germany and to the ma- gistrates of cities to resign their authority ; and on his march to enforce these principles of equality and reformation, his followers ravaged the coun- try. The landgrave of Hesse at length defeated him ; 7000 of the enthusi- asts fell in battle, and the rest, with their leader, fied ; he was taken and be- headed at Mulhausen, in 1525. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. At the period of the French Revolution some knots of persons styled levellers appeared in England. LEWES, Battle oi . Between Henry III., king of England, and Montfort, earl of Leicester, and the rebellious barons, fought May 14, 1264. In this battle the royal army was overthrown, and the king, his brother, Richard king of the Romans, his son, and prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., were taken prisoners. One division of four of Montfort's army, a body of Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, who pursuing the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. From this time Montfort used his power so despotically as to be in the end the cause of his own de- struction. See Evesham. LEXICOGRAPHY. Morrison mentions a standard dictionary in the Chinese language of 40,000 hieroglyphic characters, as having been compiled 1100 B. c. Numerous dictionaries appeared in Europe about the close of the fif- teenth and beginning of the sixteenth century. Calipini's dictionary ap- peared about A. D. 1500. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published in 1759. See article, Dlciionary. LEXINGTON, Battle of. .This battle claims distinction as being the first fought between Great Britain and the United States of America, in the war LIB ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 395 of independence. The British troops, under Major Pitcairn, sent from Bos- ton to destroy the American stores at Lexington, were attacked by the Americans and 273 of tliem were killed and wounded, April 19, 1775. LEYDEN, Siege of. A memorable siege sustained against the armies of Spain, and during which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence, a. d, 1574. In commemoration of this long siege, a university was founded, ce- lebrated for its colleges and medicinal garden, and valuable library, 1575. The university was almost destroyed by the catastrophe of a vessel laden with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, and demolishing a large part of the town, and killing numbers of people, Jan. 1807. LIBEL. By the laws of Rome (those of the XII. Tables), libels which affected the reputation of another, were made capital offences. In the British law, whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion or esteem of the world, is deemed a libel. "The greater the truth, the greater the libel," the well-known law maxim of a high authority, is now disputed. Among the most remarkable cases of libel were, viz. : Lord George Gor- don's libel on the queen of France, for whicli he was sentenced to imprison- ment for five years and fined 500^., Jan. 28, 1788. The Times' libel on the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., Feb. 1790. The Morning Post's libel on lady Elizabeth Lambert, damages 4000^. July 9, 1792. Peltier's libel on Napoleon Bonaparte, in L'Ambigu, of which he was found giiilty, Feb. 21, 1803. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, punishing the of- fender by banishment for the second offence, passed in England, 1820. Act regulating the law of libel in England, July 1830. By statute in New York and Massachusetts, the truth may be a justification, if the publication was made with good motives and for justifiable ends. LIBERIA. Colony in West Africa, founded by colored people sent out by American Colonization Society, 1822 ; Jehudi Ashmun was the first super- intendent of the colony ; new Constitution — Roberts elected president — Oct. 5, 1847 ; ratification of a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, Au- gust 1, 1849. LIBERTINES. A sect distinguished by its monstroiis doctrines. Its heads were persons named Quintin and Corin. They maintained that whatever was done by men was done by the Spirit of God, and that there was no sin but to those who thought so ; that to live without any doubt or scruple was to return to the state of innocency ; that the soul died with the body ; that heaven was a dream, and hell a phantom ; religion a mere state trick; with many other monstrous opinions. This sect arose in a. d. 1525 ; and the term libertine has been held in a bad sense ever since. LIBRARY. The first public library of Avhich we have any certain account in aistory was founded at Athens, by Pisistratus, 544 b. c. The second of any note Avas founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 b. c. It was nearly de- stroyed when Julius Caesar set fire to Alexandria, 47 b. c. 400,000 valuable books in MS. are said to have been lost by this catastrophe. — Blair. The first private library was the property of Aristotle, 834 b. c. — Strabo. The first library at Rome was instituted 167 b. c. : it was brought from Ma- cedonia. The library of Apellicon was sent to Rome, by Sylla, from Athens, 86 B. c. This library was enriched by the original manuscripts of Aristotle's works. A library was founded at Constantinople by Constantine the Great, about A. D. 335 ; it was destroyed in 477. A second library was formed from the remains of tlie first, at Alexandria, by Ptolemy's successors, con- ststing of 700,000 volumes, whicli was totally destroyed by the Saracens, who heated the water of their baths for six months, by burning books instead of wood, by command of Omar, caliph of the Saracens, in 642. — Nouv, Diet. Hist. Pope Gregoiy I. ordered that, the library of the Palatine 396 THE world's progress. [ LIE Apollo should be committed to the flames, under the notion of confining the clergy to the attention of the Scriptures. From that time, all ancient learn- ing which was not sanctioned by the authority of the church, has been emphatically distinguished as profane in opposition to sacred. The early Chinese literature suffered a similar misfortune to that of the west in the destruction of the Alexandrian library ; their emperor, Chee-whang-tee, ordered all writings to be destroyed, that every thing might begin anew as from his reign ; and books and records were afterwards recovered by suc- ceeding emperors with great difficulty. LIBRARIES IN EUROPE. There are in Europe 883 public libraries, contain- ing over 10,000 volumes each. The number of books which are thus pub- licly accessible are in this proportion, viz. : in Saxony, for every 100 inhabit; ants, there are 417 books ; in Denmark, 412 ; in Bavaria, 339 ; in Tuscany; 261 ; in Prussia, 200 ; in Austria 167 ; in France, 129 ; in Belgium, 95 ; in Great Britain, 53. The first public library in Europe, before the inventiop of printing is said to have been founded by Richard de Bury, chancellor of England, as early as 1341. The first in Italy was founded by Nicholas Niccoli, one of the great restorers of learning ; at his death he left his li- brary for the use of the public, a. d. 1436. It was enlarged by Cosmo de Medici. The first permanent libraries were, Turin Univ., 1436 ; Vienna, (imperial,) 1440; Vatican, 1465; &c. See table, below. In the following tables, the libraries containing less than 10,000 volumes each (of which there are, in France alone, at least seventy or eighty,) are not taken Into the accoiint: France has 107 Public Li- braries, containing 4,000,000 vols. Belgium has 14 do. ' 538,000 " Prussia " 44 do. 2,400,000 " Austria " 48 do. 2,400,000 " Saxony has 6 containing Bavaria " 17 do. Denmark " 5 do. Tuscany " 9 do. G. Britain " 33 do. 554.000 vols 1,267,000 " 645,000 " 411,000 " 1,771,493 " Taking the capital cities we find the following results :- Paris has 9 Public braries, containing Brussels has 2 do. 2 do. 3 do. 2 do. Berlin Vienna Milan 1,474,000 vols. 143,500 " 530,000 " 453,000 " 230,000 " Dresden has 4 containing Munich " 2 do. ■ Copenhagen " 3 do. Florence " 6 do. London " 4 do. 340,500 vols. 800,000 " 557,000 " 318,000 " 490,500 " Arranging follows :— these libraries according to their extent, they would stand as Foiinded. Vols. 1595 824,000 Paris (1) National Lib., Munich, Royal Lib., 1550 60O;0OO Petersburg Imperial Lib., 446,000 London, British Museum, 1753 435,000 Copenhagen, Royal Lib., 1550 412,000 Berlin, Royal Lib., 1650 410,000 Vienna, Imperial Lib., 1440 313,000 Dresden, Royal Lib., 1656 300,000 Madrid National Lib., 1712 200,000 Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Lib., 1604 200,000 Stuttgard, Royal Lib., 1765 187,000 Paris (2) Arsenal Lib., 1781 180,000 The chief University Libraries may be ranked in the followin. Founded. Vo!s. Gottingen, University Lib., 1736 360,000 Breslau, University Lib., 1811 " ■ ■ "■ 1597 1562 Milan, Brerea Lib., Paris (3), St. Genevieve, Darmstadt, Grand Ducal, Florence, Magliabecchian, Naples, Royal Lib., Brussels, Royal Lib., Rome (1), Casanate Lib. Hague, Royal Lib., Paris (4), Mazarine Lib., Rome (2), Vatican Lib., Parma, Ducal Lib., Founded. Vols. 1797 170,000 250,000 Oxford, Bodleian Lib., ' 1597 220,000 Tubingen, University Lib., 1562 200,000 Munich, University Lib., 200,000 Heidelburg. University lib., 1703 200,000 Cambridge,' Public Lib., 1484 166,724 Bologna, University Lib., 1690 1.50,000 Prague, University Lib., 1777 130,000 1624 1760 1714 18.39 1760 1C61 1465 1760 ; order: — Founded. Vols. 1777 115,000 150,000 1.50,000 150,000 150,000 133,500 120,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 Vienna, University Lib., Leipsic, University Lib., 1.544 il2,00t5 Copenhagen, University Lib., 1730 1 10,000 Turin, University Lib., 1436 110,000 Louvaine University Lib. , 1639 105,000 Dublin, Trinity College Lib., 104,239 Upsal, University Lib., 1621 100,000 Erlangen, University Lib., 1743 100,000 Edinburgh, Univ. Lib., 1582 90,354 LIB J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 39r undec I. Vols. Founded. 1753 435,000 Royal Institution, London, 1598 220,000 London Institution, 1484 166,724 London Library, 1682 148,000 Sion College, «&c. 1601 104,239 The largest Libraries in Great Britain are those of the Vol's 1 British Museum, London, 2 Bodleian, Oxford, 3 University, Cambridge, 4 Advocates, Edinburgh, 5 Trinity College, Dublin, LIBRARIES IN THE UNITED STATES. The number of volumes in the chief public and college libraries of the United States ."n 1849, was stated to be 1,294,000. The number of libraries is 182. Of these, 43 contain over 10,000 volumes each; 9 over 20,000; and only 2 over 50,000. In 1849 the precedence of the largest as to numbers stood thus : Vols. 1 Harvard College, including Divin- ity and Law Schools - - 72,000 2 Philadelphia and Loganian Library 60,000 3 Boston Athenasum - - - 50,000 4 Library of Congress - - - 50,000 5 New York Society Library - - 32,000 The Astor Librarj^ is scarcely yet opened, and the building is not yet erected. The Smithsonian Institute at Washington has not yet commenced collecting its library. The number of volumes in the School District libraries of the State of New York, in 1849, was 1,338,848. There are 10,621 school dis- tricts, and 1,785 incorporated or private schools. The mercantile libraries, chiefly for merchants' clerks, in the large cities, are of comparatively recent date and of great utility. That in New York was founded in 1820, and contains 32,000 volumes ; in Boston, founded 1820, contains 7,637 volumes ; in Philadelphia, founded 1822, contains 12 200 volumes. There are similar ones in Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Troy, &c. The public libraries containing over 5000 volumes, were distributed (accord- ing to evidence in the British Museum Report in 1849) thus : Vols. 6 Mercantile Library, New York 7 Georgetown College, D. C. 8 Brovm University 9 New Y'ork State Library - 10 Yale College - 11 Astor Library, New York - Vols. ■ 32,000 -25,000 - 24,000 - 24,000 - 21,000 - 20,000 1 Alabama, has 1 Public Library, 6,000 2 Columbia, Dist. of has 2, 53,000 3 Connecticut. " 6, 81,449 4 Georgia, " 1, 13,000 5 Kentucky, " 1. 7,000 6 Louisiana, " 1, 5,500 7 Maine, 3, 38,860 8 Maryland, " 1, 12,000 D Massachusetts, " 14, 200.000 10 Missouri, " 2, 14;300 11 New Hampshire , " 2, 22,500 Vols. Brought up. 34, 454,366 12 New Jersey, has 3. 28,500 13 New Y^ork, ' 12, 157,411 14 North Carolina, ' 1, 10,000 15 Ohio, ' 1, 30,497 16 Pennsylvania, ' 14, 159,200 17 Rhode Island, ' 3. 37,185 18 South Carolina, ' 2, 30,000 19 Tennessee, ' 2, 16,000 20 Vermont, ' 2, 16,254 21 Virsinia, ' 4, 41,000 34, 454,366 Total - - - 81, 980,134 The above estimate is perhaps below the mark, and does not include school, parish and town libraries, which are numerous, but of moderate extent. The city of Paris alone has 1,474,000 volumes, in large public libraries ; i. e. half as many again as the whole of the United States. See Pari. Rep. Brit. Mus. ; Prof. Jeioett's Rep. Smithsonian List. ; G. Livermorein N. Amer. Rev., July 1850, cf-c. LIEGE. Formerly called, on account of the number of its churches and con- vents, " the paradise of priests, the purgatory of men, and the hell of wo- men." In the time of Louis XI. of France, a. d. 1461, Liege was a large and wealthy place, and the prince bishop was a prelate of almost sovereign power. Taken by the English under the duke of Marlborough, in 1702 ; and by the French and other powers, at various times, up to 1796, when it was annexed to France. Liee-e was incorporated with the Netherlands, in 1814. 398 THE world's progress. I LIS LIGHT-HOUSES. They were erected by all the ancient commercial i)eople, and called Tors, or pillars, as those of Hercules, near Gibraltar ; that of Pharos, at Alexandria, 550 feet high, and visible forty-two miles ; the Pharos of Messina; the Colossus of Rhodes. &.c. There are forty-two round the coasts of England, fifteen on the east coast, thirteen in the English channel, and fourteen in the Irish channel. There are seventeen on the Scottish coasts, and twenty-six on the Irish coasts. LIGURIAN REPUBLIC. Founded in June, 1802, upon the ruins of that of Genoa. The doge of this new republic was solemnlj^ invested at Geaoa, August 10, 1802. The Ligurian repubUc was incorporated with France, it having demanded a union with the latter country, May 25, 1805. It merged into the kingdom of Italy. LIMA. See America and Columbia. In 1524, Pizarro, marching through Peru, was struck with the beauty of the valley of Rimac, and there he founded a city, and gave it the name of Ciudad de los Reyes, or City of the Kings. This Spanish name it retains in all legal deeds, but it is better known as Lima. Awful earthquakes occurred here, since solemnly commemorated by annual festivals, a. d. 1586, 1630, 1687, and October 28, 1746. In the last it was almost totally destroyed, as well as Callao, which sec. LINEN. A fabric of very remote antiquity. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in ves- tures of fine linen. — Gen. xli. 42. This article was first manufactured in England by Flemish weavers, under the protection of Henry III., 1253. Before this period woollen shirts were generally worn. A company of linen weavers established itself in London, in 1368 ; and the art of staining linen became known in 1579. A colony of Scots in the reign of James I., and other Presbyterians who fled from persecution in that country in the suc- ceeding inglorious reigns, planted themselves in the northeast part of Ire- land, and there established the linen manufacture. It was liberally encou- raged by the lord dej^uty Wentworth, in 1634. Hemp, flax, linen, thread, and yarn, from Ireland, were permitted to be exported duty free, 1696. This law gave rise to the subsequently improved state of the manufacture there. The Irish Linen Board was established in 1711 ; the Linen-hall, Dub- lin, was opened, 1728 ; the board was abolished in 1828. Dunfermline in Fifeshire, Dundee in Angusshire, and Barnsley in Yorkshire, are, in Great Britain, chief seats of the linen manufacture. LINN^AN SYSTEM. The system of Botany of the eminent Linne, a Swede, or, as his name is Latinized, Linnajus, was commenced about 1725-30; and his first great work was a dictionary of 7300 plants arranged in classes, orders and genera ; he classed the plants according to the number and situ- ation of the sexual parts, and made the flower and fruit the test of his vari- ous genera. The Linntean Society in London was instituted in 1788, and was incorporated March 26, 1802. LISBON. The Moors are said to have given the name of Lisboa to this city when they conquered it, a. d. 716. It was made the capital of Portugal by Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon was almost destroyed by an earthquake, November 1, 1755. See Earthquakes. It became a point of the late war, and the court fled to the Brazils, November, 1807, in which month (the SOtli) the French army under Junot entered Lisbon, and held possession of it until the battle of Vimeira, in which they wei'e defeated by the British, under sir Arthur Wellesley, August 21, 1808. Insurrection at Lisbon, August 21, 1831. Mas- sacre at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Portugal. LISLE, Siege OF. Lisle was besieged by the duke of Marlborough and the allies ; and though its immense fortifications were deemed impregnable, it was taken after a three months' siege, in 1708. It was restored by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, in consideration of the demolition of the fortifications LIV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 399 of Dunkirk : this siege is reckoned one of the most famous of modern his- tory. In the Revolutionary war, Lisle sustained a severe bombardment from the Austrians, who were obliged to raise the siege, Oct. 7, 1792. LITANIES. They were first used in processions and other devotions, about A. D. 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were first introduced by pope Greg- ory I., in or about 595. — Newton on the Prophecies. The first English litany was commanded to be used in the Reformed Churches by Henry VIII., in 1543. — Collier's Ecc. Hist. LITERARY PROPERTY, in England. See Copyright. The statute of queen Anne, 1709-10, securing literary property, was confirmed by a memorable decision at the bar of the House of Lords, and the claim of perpetual copy- right was overruled Feb. 22, 1774. The statute declared the author to have an exclusive right for 14 years, and if at the end of that term he were living, the right to again return to him for the same term of years. The later acts extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that time, then to the remainder of his life. By the 5th and 6th of Victoria, the right is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years after his death ; but if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is still to endure for 42 years, for which term also any work published after the author's death is to continue the property of the owners of the manuscript ; act passed July 1, 1842. The Dramatic Authors' Protection act, passed June 10, 1833. The International Copyright bill, passed July 81, 1888 ; this act secures protec- tion in England to works of authors of auj'' country which concedes the same protection to English authors. LITERARY SOCIETIES, CLUB, FUND, &c. The various societies connected with litei-ature in London, will be found in their respective places through the volume. The celebrated Literary Club was instituted by Dr. Johnson, and included many of the illustrious men in literature of the age, 1765. The Literary Fund, in Lincoln's-Inn Fields, Avas founded in 1790, to relieve authors and literary men who by age or infirmities are reduced to poverty : this society was incorporated in 1818. The Royal Society of Literature was established Sept. 15, 1825. LITHOGRAPHY. The invention of it is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, whose first essays were executed about 1796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was announced in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It became par- tially known in England in 1801 et seq., but its general introduction may be referred to Mr. Ackermann, of London, about 1817. Sennefelder died in 1841. LTTURGY. In the ancient Greek and Roman churches the word Liturgy was restrained to signify the mass only. The present English Liturgy was first composed, and was approved and confirmed by parliament, in 1547-8. The ofiices for morning and evening prayer were then put into nearly the same form in which we now have them, but other parts were difierent. Upon the solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy was reviewed and altered to very nearly its present state, 1551. It was first read in Ireland, in the Eng- lish language in 1550. and in Scotland, where it occasioned a tumult, in 1637. Again altered in 1661. The liturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, Grindall, Cox, and Pil- kington, and dean May, and secretary Smith. LIVERIES. In England they originated with our ancestors, who clothed their vassals in uniform, thereby to distinguish families ; they were originally a single article of dress, or a particular color used on a part of some one gar- ment ; and in the end they became rich suits and gaudy trappings. — Ashe. LIVERPOOL. This town, which within the last century has, by a progressivo 400 THE world's PKOGRESS. [ LOG increase in extent, population, and commercial importance, obtained the first rank after the metropolis, in England, is supposed to be noticed in Domes- day-book under the name Esmedune, or, Sniedune. In other ancient records its various appellations are, Lithcrpul, and Lq/rpul, signifying probably, in the ancient dialect of the county, the lower pool ; though some have deduced its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, called the "Liver," or from a sea-weed of that name ; it was but a small fishing place, until, in 1172, its favorable situation, and the convenience of its port, attracted the notice of Henry II., who made it the place of rendezvous and embarkation of his troops for the conquest of Ireland. In 1843, the number of ships which entered the port of Liverpool was as follows ; British, 2,615, of the aggregate burthen of 691,707 tons; foreign, 1,014, burthen, 417,621 tons. The amount of duties paid at the custom-house for the year ending 5th Jan- uary, 1844, was £4,121,522.— Par/. Ret. LLOYD'S, London. The coffee-house in connection with the Roj'-al Exchange, and held previously to the late fire (see Exchange) on the northern side of that building. Lloyd's was established in 1772, and is the resort of eminent merchants, underwriters, insurance brokers, &c. ; and here are effected insurances for all the world on ships and merchandise. The books kei^t here contain an account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and are remarkable for their early intelligence of maritime affairs. liOADSTONE. One of the most wonderful productions of the earth. Its virtues were but indistinctly known to the ancients, yet its attractive qua- lity had been taken notice of from very remote times. —Stur7?iius. Aristotle assures us that Thales made mention of it, and Hippocrates speaks of it under the name of stone that attracts iron, and Pliny was struck with its attractive power. The polar attraction of the loadstone was, it is said, known in France before a. d. 1180 ; but this honor is accorded to Roger Bacon about 1267. The Italians discovered that it could communicate its virtues to steel or iron ; and Flavio Giojo of Amalfi, was the inventor of the mariner's compass. See Compass. LOANS. Those for the service of the crown of England were generally bor- rowed at Antwerp until after the reign of Elizabeth. In 155'J, that queen borrowed 200,000/. of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform her own coin, and sir Thomas Gresham and the city of London joined in the secu- rit}^ — Rapi7i. The amount of the English loans, during four late memo- rable periods, was, viz : Seven years' war from 1755 to 1763 - - jESS, 100,000 American y^x IVom 1776 to 1784 - - - 75.500,000 French revolutionary war from 1793 to 1802 - - 168,500,000 War against Bonaparte " from 1S03 to 1814 - - - 206,300,000 Besides the property tax. In 1813, were raised two loans of twenty-one millions and twenty-two millions ; and it deserves to be recorded that a subscription loan to carry on the war against France was filled up in Lon- don in fifteen hours and twentj' minutes, to the amount of eighteen mil- lions, Dec. 5, 1796. LOCHLEVEN CASTLE, Kinross. Built on an island in the celebrated lake of Loch Leven, in 1257, and was a royal residence when Alexander III. and his queen were forcibly taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged by the English in 1301, and again in 1335. Patrick Graham, first archbishop of St. Andrew's, was imprisoned and died within its walls, 1447. The earl of Northumberland was confined in it in 1569. It is, however, chiefly re- markable as the place of the unfortunate qiieen Mary's imprisonment, in 1567, and of her escape, on Sunday, May 2, 1568. In this castle Mary was compelled to sign her abdication of the throne of Scotland, of which an interesting account is given by sir Walter Scott, in Thr. Abbot ; and of which LOM J DICTIONARY OF DATliS. 401 also, some new and affectiLg- particiijars ave given by Mr. Tytler, in the 7th vohime of his History of ScoUand, published in August, 1840. LOCKS. Those of the Egj'^ptians, Greeks, and Romans, were clumsy con- trivances. Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange mentions locks and padlocks as early as a. d. 1381. The French are ac- counted the worst locksmiths in Europe and the English the best. Bra- mah's celebrated patent locks Avere registered in 1784. Locks have been made at Wolverhampton in suits of eight, ten, or more, of exquisite Avork- manship, all with different keys, so that none of them can open any but its own lock, yet a master key will open all. Sec Keys. LOCUSTS. The visits of these animals in Eastern countries have frequently superinduced pestilence and death, and many instances are recorded of these consequences. Owing to the putrefaction of vast swarms in Egypt and Lybia, upwards of 800,000 persons perished, 128 b. c. The country of Palestine was infested with such swarms that they darkened the air, and after devouring the fruits of the earth thej^ died, and their intolerable stench caused a pestilential fever, a. d. 406. A similar catastrophe occurred in France in 873. A remarkable swarm of locusts settled upon the ground about London, and consumed the vegetables ; great numbers fell in the streets, and were preserved by the curious ; they resembled grasshoppers, but were three times the siz?, and their colors more variegated, Aug. 4, 1748. They infested Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, and Warsaw in June 1816. LODI, Battle of the Bridge of. One of the great earlj^ achievements in Italy of Bonaparte. He commanded the French army, which was opposed to the Austrians commanded by general Beaulieu, and obtained a brilliant and decisive victory after a bloody engagement in which several thousands of the Imperialists perished on the field, and many thousands were made prisoners. May 10, 1796. The conqueror pursued his advantage with won- derful rapidity, as after this battle all Lombardy lay open to his army, and the republican flag floated in Milan a few days afterwards. LOG-LINE, used in navigation, a. d. 1570 ; and first mentioned by Bourne in 1577. The log-line is divided into spaces of fifty feet, and the way which the ship makes is measured by a half-minute sand glass, which bears nearly the same proportion to an hour that fifty feet bear to a mile : the line used in the royal navy is forty-eight feet. LOGARITHMS, so useful in mathematics, are the indexes of the ratio of numbers one to another. They were invented by baron Merchiston, an eminent Scotchman (sir John Napier) in 1614. The method of computing by means of marked pieces of ivory was discovered about the same time, and hence called Napier^s bones. The invention was afterwards completed by Mr. Briggs, at Oxford. LOLLARDS. The name given to the first reformers of the Roman Catholic religion in England, and a reproachful appellation of the followers of Wick- liffe. — Chaucer. The original sect was founded by Walter Lollard in 1315 ; he was burned for heresy' at Cologne in 1322. After his death the disciples of Wickliffe were called Lollards. The first martyr in England on account of religious opinions was William Sawtree, the parish ptriest of St. Osith, London, Feb. 19, 1401, reign of Henry IV. The Lollards were proscribed by the English parliament in 1416, and about 1414, numbers of them, or persons to whom the name was given, were burnt alive. — Moreri; Carte. LOMBARD MERCHANTS. In England they were understood to be com- posed of natives of some one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, or Venice. — Anderson on Commerce. Lombard usurers were sent to England 402 THE world's PllOGR,ESS. [ LOC by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, communities, and private persons, Avho were not able to pay down the tenths which were collected throughout the kingdom with great rigor that year, 13 Henry III., 1229. They had offices in Lombard-street, which great banking street is called after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused their expulsion from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. LOMBARDY. The Lombards were a detachment of Alemanni from the marches of Brandenburgh, famous for their braverj'. They were invited into Italy by Justinian, to serve against the Goths. To reward their ser- vices, the emperor gave them part of Upper Pannonia, a. d. 548. The] passed into Italy, and their chief was proclaimed king by his army at Milan, in 570. The kingdom of Lombardy supported itself and iiade considerable conquests till 772, when Charlemagne took Desiderius, the last king, ami annexed his territories to the German empire. — La Combe. See Milan, &c. LONDON. The greatest and richest city in the world. Some will have it that a city existed on the spot 1107 j'cars before the birth of Christ, and 351 years before the foundation of Rome. It was the capital of the Trinobantes 54 B. c. and long previously the royal seat of their kings. In a.d. 61, it was known to the Romans as Lundiuium. Lundinium or Colonia Augusta was the chief residence of merchants at that period, and the great mart of trade and commerce, though not dignified with the name of a colony. — Tacitus. It is said, but not trulj^, to have derived its name from Lud, an old British king, who was buried near where Ludgate formerl}^ stood ; but its name is from Llijn-Din, the -'town on the lake." See Fires, Plague, &c. LONGEVITY. In Great Britain the instances of it are remarkable, thougli rare. Golour M'Crain, of the Isle of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is said to have kept 180 Christmasses in his own house, and died in the reign of Charles I., being the oldest man on any thing approaching to authentic re- cord for upwards of 3000 years. — Grcig. Thomas Parr, a laboring man of Shropshire, was brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and considered the wonder of his time, being then in his 153d year, and in per- fect health ; but the journey and change of air and diet killed him, Nov. 15, the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried in Bolton chui'ch-j^ard, Dec. 6, in that year, aged 169 years. There are some extraordinary instances of great age in Russia ; and at Dantzic a man is said to have died at 184 ; and another to be living in Wallachia, aged 186 years. In Holy Writ, Methuselah is stated to have lived 969 years, the greatest age of any on record, according to the reckoning before the Flood ; but the length of the years of that time is not ascertained ; hence there is no fixed principle to determine the real ages of that epoch. LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus at Nice, who fixed the first degree in the Canaries, 162 b. c. Harrison made a time-keej^er in a. d. 1759, which in two voyages was found to correct the longitude within the limits required by the act of parliament, 12th Anne, 1714 ; and in 1763, he applied for the reward of 20,000Z. offered by that act, which he received. The celebrated Le Roi of Paris, in 1776, invented a watch that keeps time better; and the chronometers of Arnold, Eai-nshaw, and Breguet bring the longitude al- most to the truth. Philosophers have sought the longitude in vain ; but Newton has said it will yet be discovered by a fool. LOOKING-GLASSES. Made only at Venice in 1300. They were made in England, by Venetian artists, some of whom took up their abode in Lam- beth, in 1673. — Salmon. The French excelled in their manufacture of them in the last century ; but the English have brought their factories to great perfection of late years, and now make looking-glasses to cover, in a single plate, the -walls of large rooms. LOT I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 403 LOOM-ENGINE. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought into use in London from Holland, in or about the year 1676, since when the general principal of the loom has been infinitely varied by mechanical in- genuity. There are about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, and 75,000 power-looms, each bBing equal to three hand looms, making twenty-two yards each per day. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807. LORD. In the Old and New Testament, Lord is a particular appellation for the supreme majesty of God and Christ, and in that sense cannot be ap- plied to tiny other being. With us, it is a tei"m of nobility. — See Lords and Baron. The word lord is abbreviated from two syllables : it was originally Hlaford, which, by dropping the aspirate became Laford, and afterwards by contraction Lord. "The etymology of this word," a writer observes, "is worth observing, for it was composed of hlaf, a loaf of bread, and/wrf, to give or afford ; so that Hlaford, now Lord, implies a giver of bread ; be- cause in those ages, such great men kept extraordinary houses, and fed the poor ; for which reason they were called givers of bread." — See Ladies. The nickname of " My Lord," given by vulgar people to hunchbacked persons, is from the Greek word lordos, crooked. — Haydn. LORDS. The now recognized nobility of England take their creation from the 1st of William the Conqueror, 1066, when William Fitzosborne, the first peer, was made earl of Hereford ; Walter Devereux made earl of Salisbury ; Copsi, earl of Northumberland; Henry de Ferrei'S made earl of Derby, and Gerbodus (a Fleming) made earl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were made in this sovereign's reign. Peers of England are free from all arrests for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors. Therefoi'e a peer can- not be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies against his per- son; but execution may be taken upon his lands ^nd goods. For the same reason, they are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriff's turns; or, in case of a riot, from attending the posse comitatus. See Baron; Earl; Marquess, &c. LORDS, House of. The peers of England were summoned ad consulenduvi, to consult, in early reigns, and were summoned by writ 6 and 7 John, 1205. The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation until some ages after the conquest. — Hume. Deputies from certain boroughs were returned to meet the barons and the clergy in 1258. — Goldsmith. And writs are extant of the date of Jan. 23, 1265 ; but several historians maintain that the first regular parliament of the three estates, as now constituted, was held 22 Edward I., 1293-4. The house of lords includes the spiritual as well as temporal peers of England. The bishops are supposed to hold cer- tain ancient baroni'^s under the king, in right whereof they have seats in this house. The teuij)oral lords consist of the several degrees of nobility : some sit bj^ descent, as do all ancient peers ; some by creation, as all new- made peers ; and others by election, since the union with Scotland in 1707, and with Ireland in 1801. Scotland elects 16 representative peers, and Ire- land 4 spiritual lords by rotation in sessions, and 28 temporal peers for life. The house of lords now consists of 3 princes, 20 dukes, 21 marquesses, 115 earls, 22 viscounts, 201 barons, 16 Scotch lords, 28 Irish lords, 26 English prelates, and 4 Irish bishops — in all 456 peers. LOTTERY, STATE. The first mentioned in English history began drawing at the western door of St. Paul's cathedral, January 11, 1569, and continued day and knight until May 6 following. Its profits were for repairing the fortifications on the coast of England, and the prizes were pieces of plate. The first lottery mentioned for sums of money took place in 1630. Lotte- ries were established in 1693, and for more than 130 years yielded a large annual revenue to the crown. The Irish state lottery was drawn in Dublia 404 THE AVOJtLU's niOGRESS. [ hVT in 1780. All lotteries were suppressed in France bj^ a decree of the national convention, Iv ov. 15, 1793. They were abolished in England, 1826 ; and an act was passed imposing a penalty of 501. for advertising'tbreign or any lotteries in the British newspapers, 1836. Abolished in Bavaria by unanimous vote of the deputies, Oct. 19, 1847. They have long been abolished in New Eng- land ; in New York they were prohibited about 1830. In nearly all the states thei-e is a penalty against lotteries not specially authorized by the legislatures. I/JUISIANA, One of the United States. First explored by the French, and received its name in 1682, from M. La Salle, in honor of Louis 'XIV., and a settlement was attempted in 1684, but failed. In 1699, a more successful attempt was made by M. Iberville, who entered the Miss., and founded a colony. His efforts were folowed up by one Crozat, a man of wealth, who held the exclusive trade of the country for a number of years. About the year 1717, he transferred his interest in the province to a chartered company, at the head of which was the notorious John Law, whose national bank and Mississippi speculation involved the ruin of half the French nobility. In 1731; the company resigned the concern to the crown, who, in 1762, ceded the whole of Louisiana to Spain. In 1800, Spain reconveyed the province to the French, of whom it was purchased by the United States, in 1803, for il5,000,000. The purchase included the territory of the United States ^Y. of the Mississippi. In 1812, the present State of Louisiana formed a constitu- tion, and was admitted into the Union. Population in 1810, 76.556 ; in 1820, 153,407; in 1830, 215,575; in 1840, 352,411, including 168,452 slaves. LOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris was a roj^al residence in the reign of Dagobert, a. d. 628 ; but Francis I. laid the foundation of what is now called the Old Louvre, 1522. Here were deposited the finest collection of paintings, of statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief of them were brought from Italy during the triumph of Bonaparte's arms, but most of them have since been restored to the rightful possessors. LUCCA, The Ddchy of, adjoining Tuscan}^. On the fall of the Lombard, king- dom, A. D. 774, it was annexed to the German empire. In 1815 it was occupied by the Austrians and granted to Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles IV. of Spain. The duke retires to Massa, but returns and yields to his people's demand for reforms, Sept. 3, 1847 : appointed a regency and again fled, Sept. 15. The duchy sold by the duke to Tuscany for an annuity of $215,- 000, until he should succeed to the duchy of Parma, on the death of Maria Louisa, j^resent duchess, Oct. 10, 1847. LUCIA, St. First settled by the French in 1650. Taken by the British several tirfies in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the French ne^-roes, April 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent, Grenada, Domi- nica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucie, wei-e taken by the British. St. Lucia was restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was again siezed on by Eng- land the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 18l4. See Colonies. LUNEVILLE, Peace of, concluded between the French republic and the em- peror of Germany, confirming the cessions made by the treaty of Campo Formio, stipulating that the Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form the boundary of France, and recognizing the independence of the Batavian, Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, Feb. 9, 1801. LUSTRUM. An expiatory sacrifice made for the whole body of the Roman people, at the end of every five years, after the census had been taken, 572 B. c. Every five years were called a lustrum ; and ten, fifteen, or twenty years were commonly expressed by two, three, or four lustra. LTJTHERANISM. Sprung up in Germany in 1517, in which year Leo X. pub- lished his indulgences for money ; and Iccelius, a Dominican friar, who waa LYC j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 405 deputed with others of his order to collect in Saxony, carried his zeal to such a height as to declare his commission unbounded ; that no crime could be committed too great to be pardoned : and that by purchasing indulgences, not only past sins, but those which were intended, were to be forgiven. Against these practices Luther openly preached Avith wonderful success, and thus began the Reformation in Germany. — Melchior Adam, in Vita Lutheri. LUTZEN, Battle of, between the French army commanded by Napoleon on the one side, and the combined armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded by general Wittgenstein, fought Maj^ 2, 1813. This sanguinary battle opened the campaign of that year ; and though each of the adversaries claimed the victorJ^ it was manifestly on the side of France ; but in this engagement marshal Duroc was mortally wounded. The battles of Bautzen and Wurt- zen immediately followed (May 20 and 26), both in favor of Napoleon, when the allies were compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to, and afterwards prolonged, but unfortunately for the French emperor it did not produce peace. LUTZENGEN, or LUTZEN, Battle op ; Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, against the emperor. In this sanguinary and memorable battle, Gustavus, the most illustrious hero of his time, and the chief support of the Protest- ant religion in Germany, and in alliance with Charles L of England, was foully killed in the moment of victory, Nov. 6, 1632. This is also called the battle of Lippstadt. LUXEMBURG. Considered the strongest fortress in the world. It was taken and pillaged by the French in 1543 ; was taken by the Spaniards in 1544 ; by the French in 1684 ; and restored to Spain in 1697. It was again taken by the French in 1701 ; and afterwards given to the Dutch as a barrier town, and ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. These are among the chief occurrences. Luxemburg withstood several sieges in the last century ; it surrendered to the French after a long and memorable siege, June 7, 1795. The garrison, on their capitulation, took an oath not to serve against the re- public of France until exchanged, and were conducted to the right side of the Rhine immediately after. LUXURY. The instances of extravagance and luxirry are numerous in the his- tory of almost all countries, ancient and modern, and many laws have been enforced to repress them. Horace mentions fowls dressed in Falernian wine, muscles and oysters from the Lucrine lake and Circean promontory, and black game from the Umbrian forests. — Lardner. Lucullus, at Rome, was distinguished for the immoderate expenses of his meals ; his halls were named from the different gods ; and when Cicero and Porapey attempted to surprise him, they were amazed by the costliness of a supper which had been prepared upon the word of Lucullus, who merely ordered his attendants to serve it in the hall of Apollo : this feast for three persons casually met, would have sufficed for three hundred nobles specially invited. In England, luxurj^ was restricted by a law wherein the prelates and nobility were con- fined to two courses every meal, and two kinds of food in every course, except on gi-eat festivals. The law also prohibited all who did not enjoy a free estate of lOOZ. per annmn, from wearing furs (see Furs), skins, or siik : and the use of foreign cloth was confined to the royal family alone ; to all others it was prohibited, a. d. 1337. An edict was issued by Charles VI. o[ France, Avhich said, " Let no man presume to treat with more than a soup and two dishes," 1340. LYCEUM The Lyceum took its name from its having been originally a tem- ple of Apollo Lyceus ; or rather, a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, son of Apollo. The Lyceum was a celebrated spot near the banks of the llis- sus in Attica where Aristotle taught philosophy ; anrl as he generally tauglit 406 THE world's progress. [lyr his pupils while he walked, hence they were called peripatetics, and his phi- losophy was called from this place, the philosophy of the Lyceum, 342 b. c. — Stanley. LYDIA. A very ancient kingdom under a long dynasty of kings, the last of whom was Croesus, whose riches became a proverb : he was conquered by Cyrus, 548 b. c. The coinage of money of gold and silver (together with many other useful inventions, and the encouragement of commerce) is as- cribed to the Lydians. A number of illustrious men flourished here. — Hero- dotus. Argon, a descendant of Hercules, reigns in Lydia. — Herod. - b. c. 1223 The kingdom of Lydia, properly so called, begins under Ardysus L — Blair 797 Alyattes reigns .... 761 Meles commences his rule - - - 747 Reign of Candaules . - - 735 Gyges, first of the race called Mermna- dse, J3uts Candaules to death, marries his queen, usurps ihe throne, and makes great conquests Ardysus II. reigns ; the Cimbri besiege Sardis, the capital of Lydia The Milesian war commenced under Gyges, is continued by Sadyattes, who reigns .... Reign of Alyattes n. Battle upon the river Halys between the Lydians and Medes, intercepted by an almost toial eclipse of the sun, which superstitiously occasions a conclu- sion of the war. — Blair - May 2S, [This eclipse had been predicted many years before by Thales, of Miletus. — 718 585 CrcEsus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the throne, and becomes celebrated for his victories and conquests - b. c. 562 Ephesus falls into his hands ; the loni- ans, Cohans, and other parts of Asia Minor are subjected to his dominion - 551 All the nations west of the Halys are conquered, and that river becomes the boundary of the kingdom.Blair ■ 550 Crcesus, dreading the power of Cyrus, whose conquests had reached to the borders of I^ydia, crosses the Halys to attack the Medes, with an army of 420,000 men and 60,000 horse . 548 He is defeated by Cyrus, pursued, be- sieged in his capital, and taken - 548 The conqueror orders Crossus to be bui'ned alive, and the pile is already on fire, when he calls on the name of Solon in agony of mindj and Cyrus hearing him pronounce it, spares his life - 548 Lydia, the kingdom of the "richest of mankind," is made a province of the Persian empire . . - 548 Blair.] .^sop, the Phrygian fabulist, Alcman, the first Greek poet who wrote in a style of gallantry, Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anacreon of Teos, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c., flourished in Lydia. The country remain- ed subject to the Persian empire until the latter was conquered by Alexan- der, about 330 b. c. It next became part of the new kingdom of Pergamus, founded by Philasterus, the eunuch ; Attains afterwards bequeathed it to the Romans, and finally the Turks conquered it from the Eastern Empire, a. d. 132Q.— Priestley. LYONS. Founded by L. Plancus, 43 b. c. The city was reduced to ashes in a single night by lightning, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. Two gen- eral councils were held here in the 13th and 14th ci-ntiiries. The silk man- ufacture commenced in tlie reign of Francis I., 1515. Lyons was besieged in 1793 by the convention army of GO 000 men, and surrendered Oct. 7, when awful scenes of blood and rapine followed. The National Convention decreed the deiuolition of the city, Oct. 12, same year. It capitulated to the Austrians, March 1814, and July 1815. An insurrection among the artisans, which led to great popular excesses for many days, broke out, Nov. 21, 1831. Dreadful riots, April 15, 1834. A dreadful inundation occurred at Lyons, Nov 4, 1840. See Itiundatio7is. i-YRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian Mercury, who, according to Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon it with method, and accompanied it with poetry. The invention of the primitive lyre with three strings, is due to the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpander added several strings to the lyre, making the number seven, 673 b. c. Phrynis, a musician of Mitylene, added two more making nine, 438 b. c. MAC ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 407 M. MACEDON. The first kingdom was founded by Caramis, about 814 e. c. It was an inconsiderable country, sometimes under the protection of Athens, sometimes of Thebes, and sometimes of Sparta, until the reign of Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, who by his wisdom as a politician, and exploits as a general, made it a powerful kingdom, and paved the way to his son's greatness. Macedon had twenty-one kings, from Caranus to Alexan- der inclusive: after the conqueror's death, when his dominions were divid- ed among his generals, Cassander seized Macedon, and established a new kingdom. See Tabular Views, p. 15 to p. 37. Reign of Caranus - - B.C. Reign of Perdiccas I. • • • Reign of Argaeus I. • - - Reign of Pliilip I - - - - Reign of .3Eropas ; he conquers the lUy- rians - - . - - Reign of Amyntas - • - - Reign of Alexander I. - Reign of Perdiccas II. - - - Archelaus, natural son of Perdiccas, murders the legitimate heirs of his father, and seizes the throne - He is surnamed the " Patron of Learn- 602 547 497 454 413 - 411 399 399 398 397 392 390 371 370 366 360 360 He is mvtrdered by a favorite to whom he promised liis daughter in marriage, yet gave her to another Reign of Amyntas II. - - - He is driven from the throne - Recovers his crown, and puts Pausanias to death .... The lUyrians enter l\Iacedonia, expsl Amyntas, and put Argseus, brother of Pausanias, on the throne Amyntas again recovers his kingdom - Reign of Alexander II. - He is assassinated - • - - Reign of Perdiccas 111. - He IS killed in battle Reign of Philip II. and institution of the Macedonian phalanx - Philip gains the battle of Methon over the Athenians - . - - He defeats the Illyrians in a desperate engagement - - ■ • He takes Amphipolis, and receives an arrow in his right eye. See Archery 358 He conquers Thrace and Illyria - 356 Birth of Alexander the Great - • 356 Philip adds to his conquests - - 348 Close of the first sacred war - - 348 lUyricum overrun by the army of Philip 344 Thrace made tributary to Macedon - 343 Aristotle appointed tutor to the young prince Alexander - - ■ 343 War against the Athenians - - 341 Philip besieges Byzantium - - 341 Battle of Chaeronea; Philip conquers. See Chai'onea - - - . 338 Philip is assassinated by Pausanias, at Egffia, during the celebration of games in honor of his daughter's nuptials - Alexander III., surnamed the Great, succeeds his father He enters Greece - - - - The Greeks appoint him general of iheir armies against the Persians - Tlie Thebans revolt ; he levels Thebe.-: 814 1 to the ground ; the house of Pindar is 729 I alone left standing 678 I The Almighty iavors Alexander with a 640 vision, in which the high-priest of the Jews appears to him, exhorting him to pass into Asia. See Jeuis He passes into Asia, and gains his first battle over Dariu;. See Granicus, Battle of ■ ■ - - Sardis surrenders to the conqueror ; Ha- licarnassus is taken, and numerous cities in Asia Minor . Memnon ravages the Cyclades ; Darius takes the field with 460,000 infantry and 100,000 cavalry - Battle of Issus {lohich see) - Alexander, in liis way to Egypt, lays siege to Tyre, which is destroyed after seven months .... Damascus is taken, and the vast trea- sures of Darius come into the posses- sion of the victor Gaza surrenders - - - - Alexander enters Jerusalem ; and Egypt conquered Alexandria founded - • - • Great battle of Arbela, the third and last between Alexander and Darius ; the Persian army totally defeated. See Arbela .... Alexander proclaimed master of Asia ; he enters Babylon in triumph 360 3.59 336 135 335 334 333 333 332 332 332 332 332 GEBCIAN OR MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. .Alexander sits on the throne of Darius, at Susa - . - Parthia and Hyrcania are overrun by Alexander - - - - - Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits him, attended by a retinue of 300 wo^ men. See Amazons' - He puts his i'riend Parmenio to death, on a charge of conspiracy, supposed to be false .... Alexander makes more conquests His expedition to India ; Porus, king uf India, is defeated and taken ; and the country as far as the Ganges is over- run ..... Calisihenes is put to the torture for re- fusing to render divine homage to Alexander - - - - - Subjection of the Cosseans Death of Alexander His conquests are divided among his generals . . . . His remains are transported to Alexan- dria, and buried by Ptolemy 331 331 330 329 - 329 329 328 32i 326 326 323 32W 40)8 THE world's TROGRESS. [ MAD MACEDON, continued. The Greeks defeated by sea and land near Cranon (lohich see) - b. c. 322 Thebes rebuilt by Cassander - - 315 Seleucus recovers Babylon - - 312 Cassander puts Roxana and her son to death, and usurps the throne - 311 Battle of Ipsus (which see) - - - 301 New division of the empire - - 301 Reign of Antigonus Gonatus - B.C. 277 Pyrrhus invades Macedon, defeats An- tigonus, and is proclaimed king - 274 Pyrrhus slain ; Antisonus restored - 272 Antigonus takes Athens - - - 268 The Gauls again invade Macedon - 268 Revolt of the Parthians - - 250 Reign of Demetrius II. - - - 242 Reign of Philip, his son " - - 2-32 His Vf-Ax against the Rhodians - - 202 Philip is defeated by the Romans - 198 He is totally subdued - - - 196 The reign of Perseus - - - 179 Perseus defeated by the Romans - 171 MACEDON II. Death of Cassander - - - - 298 Reign of Alexander and Antipater - 298 Demetrius mi;rders Alexander, and seizes the erown of Macedon - - 294 Irruption of the Gauls - - - 279 The consul ^inilius Paulu,s enters Macedon, and pronounces it a Roman province. Perseus and liis sons are made prisoners, 168 b. c, and next year walk in chains before the chariot of Emilias in his triumph for the conquest of Macedon. The country is finally conquered \>y the Turks under Amuratli II. iu A. D. 1429. Pnestley. MACHIAVELIAN PRINCIPLES. These are principles laid down by Nicho- las Machiavel, of Florence, in his Practice of Politics, and The Prince. By some they are stigmatized as " the most pernicious maxims of government, founded on the vilest policy ;" and bj' others as " sound doctrines, notwith- standing the prejudice erroneousl.v raised against them." The work appeared in 1517 ; and was translated into English in 1761.* MADAGASCAR. One of the largest islands iu the world, discovered by Lo- renzo Almeida A. d. 1506. In the centre of the island is said to exist a race of dwarfs, with a strange peculiaritj' of form ; but this rests on the unsup- ported statement of a French traveller who was in possession of a preserved pigmy which he had brought from Madagascar. A paper describing the pigmy was presented to the Royal Society by an eminent physician, in 1809. MADEIRA. So called on account of its woods ; it was discovered, it is said, by Mr. Macham, an English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from England for an illicit amor. He was driven here by a storm, and his mistress, a French lady, dying, lie made a canoe, and carried the news of his discovery to Pedro, king of Arragon, which occasioned the report that the island was discovered by a Portuguese, a. d. 1345. But it is maintained that the Por- tuguese did not visit this island until 1419, nor did they colonize it until 1431. It was taken possession of by the British in July 1801. And again, by admi- ral Hood and general (now viscount) Beresford, Dec. 24, 1807, and retained in trust for the royal family of Portugal, which had just then emigrated to the Brazils. It was subsequently restored to the Portuguese crown. MADRAS. Colonized by the English and Fort George built by permission of the king of Golconda, 17 James I., 1620. Madras was taken by the French in 1746. and was restored in 1749, immediately after the peace of Aix-la- Chapelle. MADRID. Mentioned in history as a castle belonging to the Moors. It was sacked a. d. 1109. It was made the seat of the Spanish court in 1516. The Escurial was built in 1557, et seq. The old palace was burnt down in 1734. The French took possession of this city in March 1808, after the royal family had retired into France ; and on May 2, the citizens rose up in arms to * Tlie writings of this celebrated politician countenanced (another commentator sa)|s) "the doing of any act to compass or bring about those things which are neither honorable nor just, whereby ambitious sovereigns or evil "ministers may accomplish what their extravagant desires proiT pt ihem t'l, :ii iho expense oftheir subjects' peace, or their rnimti-y's safely."— jF'erg-wsow. mag] dictionary of dates. 409 expel them, when a dreadful conflict and carnage took place. Joseph Bona- parte entered Madrid as king of Spain, July 20, 1808; but soon retired. Retaken by the French Dec. 2, same year ; and retained till Aug. 12, 1812, jvhen Madrid was entered bjs the British army. Ferdinand VII. was restored May 14, 1814. Madrid was the scene of various occurrences during the late civil war, for which see Spain. MAESTRICHT. This city revolted from Spain 1570, and was taken by the prince of Parma in 1579. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it after a memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648. Lewis XIV. took it in 1673 ; Wilham prince of Orange invested it in vain, in 1676 ; but, in 1678, it was restored to the Dutch. In 1748, it was besieged by the French, who were permitted to take possession of the city on condition of its being restored at the peace then negotiating. At the commencement of 1793, Maes- tricht was unsuccessfully attacked by the French, but they became masters of it toward the end of the following year. In 1814, it was delivered up to the allied forces. MAGDALENS and MAGDALENETI^S. Communities of nuns and women, the latter class consisting chiefly ot penitent courtesans. The convent of N9,ples was endowed by queen Sancha a. d. 1324. That at Metz was institu- ted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. The Magdalen at Rome was endowed by pope Leo X., in 1515; and Clement VIII. settled a revenue on the nuns, and further ordained that the effects of all public prostitutes who died without will should fall to them, and that those who made wills should not have their bequests sanctioned by the law unless thej' bequeathed a part of their effects to the Magdalen institution, which part was to be at least one-fifth, 1594. The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded in 1758, principally under the direction of Dr. Dodd. In New- York a similar institution called "a Home for the friendless," was founded, 1846. MAGELLAN, Straits of. 'They were passed by Ferdinand Magellan (Fer- nando de Magelhaens) a Portuguese, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by the emperor Charles V., in 1519. The first voyage round the world was undertaken by this illustrious navigator ; and his vessel performed the en- terprise although the commander perished. The Spaniards had a fort here, since called cape Famine, because the garrison had all perished for want of food. MAGI, OR WORSHIPPERS OF FIRE. The prime object of the adoration of the Persians was the invisible and incomprehensible God, whom, not know- ing, they worshipped as the principle of all good, and they paid particular homage to fire, as the emblem of his power and purity. They built no altars nor temples, as they deemed it absurd to pretend to confine an omnipresent ■ God within walls ; accordingly their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and their offerings were made upon the earth. The Magi were their priests, and their skill in astronomy rendered the secrets of nature familiar to them, so that the term Magi was at length applied to all learned men, till they were finally confounded with the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the reformer of the sect of the Magi : he flourished 1080 b. c. — Dio F'resnoij. MAGIC LANTERN. This was the invention of the illustrious Roger Bacon. England's great philosopher, about a. d. 1260. Bacon first invented the con- vex magnifying glasses in 1252 ; and he afterwards, in his many experiments, applied them to this use. MAGNA CHARTA. The great charter of English liberty may be said to have been derived from Edward the Confessor, continued by Henry I. and his successors, Stephen, Henry II.. and John. But the Charter more particiilarly meant, was a body of laws, the great cliarter of our rights granted by John. 18 410 THE world's progress. ■ [maJ and signed at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 15, 1215. The barons took arms to enforce this sacred possession, which was many times confirmed, and as frequently violated, by Henry III. This last king's grand charter was granted in the 9th year of his reign, 1224, and was assured by Edward I. It is remarked, that when Henry III. granted it, he swore on the word and faith of a king, a Christian, and a knight, to observe it. For tliis grant a fifteenth of all moveable goods were given to the king, whether they were temporals or spirituals ; yet sir Edward Coke says tliat even in his days it liad been confirmed above thirty times. MAGNET. Sturmius, in his Epistola, dated at Altorf, 1682, observes that the attractive qiiality of the magnet has been taken notice of from time im- memorial ; but, that it was our coimtrjonan, Roger Bacon, of Ilchester, in Somersetsliire (he died the 17th June, 1294), who first discovered its pro- perty of pointing to the north pole. The Italians discovered that it could communicate its virtue to steel or iron. The variation not being always the same was taken notice of by Hevelius, Petil, and others. Flavio Gioja, of Naples, invented or improved the mariner's compass, in 1302. The impor- tant discovery of the inclination or dip of the magnetic needle was made about 1576 (published 1580) by Robert Norman, of London. Dr. Gilbert's experiment was made in 1600. Artificial magnets were invented, or rather improved, in 1751. A magnetic clock, invented by Dr. Locke, of Ohio, an- nounced at Washington, Jan. 5, 1849. MAHOMETISM. See Alcoran and Koran. The creed of Mahomet was pro- mulgated A. D. 604, by Mahomet, styled by some writers as a renowned general and politician ; and by others as a successful impostor and tyrant. Mahomet asserted that the Koran was revealed to him by the angel Gabriel during a period of twenty-three years. It was Avritten in the Koreish Ara- bic, which he asserted was the language of Paradise, and it is considered as possessing every fine qualitj'' of a language. It has 1000 terms for sword, 500 for lion, 200 for serpent, and 80 for honey. It is spoken and wi'itten in various parts of Asia and Africa. Mahomet died in 631, of the effects, it is said, of a slow poison, given to him in a piece of mutton three years before, by a Jew, who took this method to discover if he was a true prophet, and immortal, as he had declared himself to be. — Prideatix. MAIL-COACHES in ENGLAND. Were first set up at Bristol in 1784; and were extended to other routes in 1785, at the end of which year they be- came general in England. This plan for the conveyance of letters was the invention of Mr. Palmer of Bath ; the mails had been previously conveyed l)y carts with a single horse, or by boys on horseback. MAINE, cue of the United States; first permanent settlement in, at Bu'stol. The district was granted in 1635 to sir Ferdinand Gorges, who appointed a governor and counciV It was purchased of the heirs of Gorges in 1652 by the State of Massachusetts, for $5,334 ; annexed to Massachusetts, under charter from William & Mary, in 1691 : became a separate State in 1820. Population in 1790 was 96,540 ; in 1810, 228,705 ; in 1840, 501,793. MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emjDeror and imperial family were ad- dressed by this title, which was previously given to their great officers of state. Popes also had the title of majesty. The emperors of Germany took the title, and endeavored to keep it and the closed crown to themselves. It was first given to Louis XL of France, in 1461. — Voltaire. Upon Charles V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 1519, the kings of Spain took the style of Majesty. Francis I. of France, at the interview with Henry VIII. of England on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as Your Majesty, 1520. — See Field of the Cloth of Gold. James I. coupled this titlo with the term '' Sacred," and " Most Excellent Majesty." See Titles. man] dictionary of dates. 41 'i MAJORCA AND MINORCA. For occurrences relating to these islands, see Minorca. MALPLAQUET, Battle of. The allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene, against the arms of France commanded by marshal Villars. The armies consisted on each side of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers, and the victory was with the allies ; but this action was attended with great slaugh- ter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 men, which loss was but ill repaid by the capture of Mons ; fought Sept. 11, 1709. MALTA, Knights of. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some merchants of Melphis, trading to the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph of Egypt to build a house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and whom they received with zeal and charity, a. d. 1048. They afterwards founded a hospital for the sick, from whence they were called Hospitallers. This foundation v/as laid in a. d. 1104, in the reign of Baldwin, and they now became a military order in 1118, into which many persons of quality entered, and changed their name into knights. After the Christians had lost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights retired to Margett, and then to Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290 ; then they followed John, king of Cyprus, who gave them Limisson in his domi- nions, where they staid till 1310, and that same year they took Rhodes, under the grand master Foulques de Vallaret, and next year defended it under the duke of Savoy, against an army of Saracens ; since when, his successors have used F. E. R. T. for their device, that is, Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit, or, he kept Rhodes by his valor ; from this they were called knights of Rhodes ; but Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 1522, they re- tired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the city of Viterbo for their retreat; and in 1530, the emperor Charles V. gave them the isle of Malta. The emperor Paul of Russia declared himself grand-master of the order in June, 1799. MALTA. The memorable siege by the Turks, who were obliged to abandon the enterprise after the loss of 30,000 men, 1566. The island was taken by general Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, June 12, 1798. He found in it 1200 cannons, 200.000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the line, a frigate, four galleys, and 40.000 muskets : besides an immense treasure collected by superstition ; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he set at li- berty. Malta was blockaded by the British from the autumn of 1798, and was taken by major-general Pigot, Sept. 5, 1800 ; but, at the peace of Amiens, it was stipulated that it should be restored to the knights. The British, however, retained possession, and the war recommenced between the two nations : but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was gua- ranteed to Great Britain. MAMELUKES. The name of a dynasty which reigned a considerable time in Egypt. They were originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, and were es- tablished by the sultan" Saladin as a kind of bodj^-guard, a. d. 1246. They advanced one of their own corps to the throne, and continued to do so until Egypt became a Turkish province in 1517, when the beys took them into pay, and filled up their ranks with renegades from various countries. On the conquest of EgJT)t by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia. Assisted by the Arnauts, who were introduced into the country in the way, the Mamelukes once more wrested Egypt from the Turkish government In 1811 they were decoyed into the power of the Turkish pacha, and slain MANNHEIM. First built in a. d. 1606 ; and became the court residence in 1719; but the extinction of the palatinate family in 1777 causcl the re- 412 THE WOKLD's PROGRESS. [" MAK moval of the court to Municli. Battle of Mannheim, between the armies of the allies and the French, fought May 30, 1793. Mannheim surrendered to the French, under command of general Pichegru, Sept. 20, 1795. On the 25th of the same month, the Austrians under general Wurmser, de- feated the French near the city. Several battles were fought with va- rious success in the neighborhood during the late wars. Kotzebue, the popular dramatist, was assassinated at Mannheim, by a student of Wurtz- burg, named Sandt, April 2, 1819. MANICHEANS. An ancient sect, founded by Manes, which began to infest the East, about a. d. 277. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and particularly into Persia. A rich widow, whose servant Manes had been, ieft him a store of wealth, after which he assumed the title of apostle, or envoy of Jesus Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete or cum- forter that Christ had promised to send. He maintained two principles, the one good, and the other bad ; the first he called light, which did nothing but good, and the second he called darkness, which did nothing but evil. Several other sects sprung from the Manicheans. Manes was put to death by Sapor, king of Pei\«ia, in 290. His otFence against this prince was, his having dismissed tlie physicians of the court, pretending he could cui-e one of the royal family by his prayers, instead of which the patient died in his arms. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. MANILLA. Capital of the Philippine Isles ; a great mart of Spanish com- merce. 3000 persons perished here by an earthquake in 1645. Manilla was taken by the English in 1757 ; and again in Oct. 17G2, by storm. The cap- tors humanely suflered the archbishop to ransom it for about a million ster- ling ; but gi'eat part of the ransom never was paid. Since the establish- ment of a free trade in the Spanish colonies, which took place in 1788, tho usual Acapulco ships and other government traders have been discontinued ; and the commerce to the Manillas and other j^arts, is carried on in private bottoms by free companies of merchants. — Butler. MANTINEA, Battle op, between Eparainondas, at the head of the Thebans, and the combined forces of Lacedfemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia. The Theban general was killed in the engagement, and from that time Tliebes lost its power and consequence among the Grecian states, 363 e. c. — Sirabo. MANTUA. Virgil was born at a village near this city. Mantua surrendered to the French, Jan 7, 1797, after a siege of eight months ; and it was at- tacked by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799, to which it sur- rendered after a short siege. In 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the French again obtained possession of it; but thej' delivered it up to the Austrians in 1814. MAPS AND CHARTS. They were invented by Anaximander, the Milesian philosopher, a disciple of Thales, and the earliest philosophical astronomer on record, 5"'0 b. c. He was also the first who constructed spheres. A ce- lestial chart was, it is said, constructed in China, in the sixth century. — Freret. And sea-charts were first brought to England, by Bartholomew Columbus, to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a westei'n continent, A. D. 1489. The earliest map of England was drawn by George Lily in 1520. Mercator's chart, in which the world was taken as a plane, was invented in 1556. A map of the moon's surface was first drawn at Dantzic, in 1647. See Charts. MARATHON, Battle of. One of the most extraordinary in ancient history. The Greeks were only 10,000 strong, and the Persians amounted to 500,000. The former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistocles, who defeated the Persians, leaving 200,000 dead upon the field. Among the MAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 413 number of the slain was Hippias, the instigator of the war ; the remainder of the Persian army were forced to re-embark for Asia, Sept. 28, 490 b. c. MARBLE. Dipsenus and Scyllis, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who sculptured marble, and polished their works ; all statues previously to their time being of wood, 568 b. c. — Pliny. Marble afterwards came into use for statues, and the columns and . ornaments of fine buildings, and the edifices and monuments of Rome, Avere constructed of, or ornamented with, fine " marble. The ruins of Palmyra prove that its magnificent structures, which were chiefly of white marble, were far more extensive and splendid than those of even Rome itself. These latter v/ere discovered by some English travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. See Palmyra. MARCH. This was the first month of the year, imtil Numa added January and Februarj", 713 b. c. Romulus, who divided the j'ear into months, gave to this month the name of his supposed father Mars ; though Ovid observes, that the people of Italy had the month of March before the time of Romu- lus, but that they placed it \e.vY diflferently in the calendar. The year for- merly commenced on the 25th day of this month. See Year. MARENGO, Battle of. In this ever-memorable engagement the French army was commanded by Bonaparte, against the Austrians, and after prodigies of valbr, his arm}' was retreating, when the timely arrival of general Dessaix (who was afterwards mortally Avounded in this battle) turned the fortunes of the day. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful: the Austrians lost 6000 in killed, 12,000 in prisoners, and 45 pieces of cannon; and though the French boasted tliat the loss on their side did not much exceed 3000 men, it was afterwards known to be vastly more, June 14, 1800. By a treaty be- tween the Austrian general Melas and the conqueror, Bonaparte, signed on the next day, twelve of the strongest fortresses in Italy were put into pos- session of the latter: and he became, in fact, the master of Italy. MARESCHAL, or MARSHAL. In France, marshals were the ancient esquires of the king ; and by their first institution they had the command of the van- guard, to observe the enemy, and to choose proper places for its encamp- ment. Till the time of Francis I., in a. d. 1515, there were but two French marshals, who had 500 livres per annum in war, but no stipend in time of peace. The rank afterwards became of the highest military importance, the number was without limit, and the command supreme. During the em- pire of Napoleon, the marshals of France filled the world with their renown. See Marshal, Field. MARIGNAN, Battle of, near Milan, in Italy, one of the most furious engage- ments of modern times. In this sanguinary conflict, which happened be- tween the heroic Swiss and the French under Francis the First, upwards of twenty thousand men were slain ; the former, after losing all their bravest troops, were compelled to retire, September 13, 1515. MARINER'S COMPASS. The Chinese ascribe the invention of the compass to their emperor Hong-Ti, who they say was a grandson of Noah ; and some of . their historians refer the invention of it to a later date, 1115 b. c. See Com- pass. The honor of its discovery, though much disputed, is generally given to Flavio de Gioja, or Giovia, a native of Amalfi, an ancient commercial city of Naples, a. d. 1302. The variation of the needle was first discovered by Columbus in his voyages of discovery, 1492 ; and it was observed in London in 1580. The dipping-needle was invented by Robert Norman, a compass- maker of Ratcliffe, in that year. MARQUE, Letters of. Instruments authorizing the subjects of one prince to make i-eprisals upon, and capture the ships, property, and subjects of another prince or country. Some such instruments are said to have been first used 414 THE world's progress. [ UAh by the Venetian government. The first letters of marque granted in Eng- land were in the reign of Edward I., against the Portuguese, a. d. 1295. — Rymer's Fcedera. MARQUESS. This dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Reve, and by the Germans Markgrave, took its original from Mark or March, which, in the language of the northern nations, is a limit or bound, and their office was to guard or govern the frontiers of a province. It has the next place of honor to a duke, and was introduced several years after that title had been established, in England. The first on whom it was conferred, was the great favorite of king Richard II., Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, who was created marquess of Dublin, and by him placed in parliament between the dukes and earls, a. d. 1385. Alexander Stewart, second son of James HI. of Scotland, was made marquess of that kingdom, as marquess of Ormond, in 1480. MARRIAGE. The first institution of this union between man and woman for life, with certain ceremonies of a binding and solemn nature, is ascribed to Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 b. c. — Eusebiiis Pref. to Chron. The prevail- ing ceremony in most countries was that of a man leading home his bride, after a solemn contract with her friends. To render this contract the more sacred, it was made the work of the priest, instead of being that of a civil magistrate adopted by several civilized nations. The celebration of mar- riage in churches was ordained by pope Innocent III., about a. d. 1199. Marriage was forbidden in Lent, a. d. 364. It was forbidden to bishops in 692, and to priests in 1015; and these latter were obliged to take the vow of celibacy in 1073. Marriages were solemnized by justices of the peace under an act of the Commons in Oliver Cromwell's administration, 1658. A tax was laid on marriages, viz. : on the marriage of a duke 50Z., of a com- mon person 2s. 6(^., the 8th of William III., 1695. Marriages were again taxed in 1784. MARRIAGES BY SALE. Among the Babylonians at a cei'tain time every year, the marriageable females were assembled, and disposed of to the best bid- der, by the public crier. The richest citizens purchased such as pleased them at a high price ; and the money thus obtained was used to portion off those females to whom nature had been less liberal of personal charms. When the beauties were disposed of, the crier put iq) the more ordinary lots, beginning with the most ill-favored among those that remained, announcing a premium to the purchaser of each : the bidders were to name a sum below the given premium, at which they would be willing to take the maid ; and he who bid lowest was declared the purchaser. By these means every female was provided for. This custom originated with Atossa, daughter of Belo- chus, about 1433 b. c. MARSEILLES. Is supposed to have been founded by the Phoceans, about 600 B. c. — Univ. Hist. Cicero styled it the Athens of Gaul. It was taken by Julius Caesar after a long and terrible siege ; and it was sacked by the Saracens, a. d. 473. Marseilles became a republic in 1214. It was subjected to the counts of Provence in 1251 ; and was again united to the crown of France in 1482. In 1649 the plague raged with great violence in Marseilles, and with still greater in 1720, M'hen it carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants. MARSHALS, FIELD, in the British army. The rank is of modern date, and was preceded by that of cajitain-general, and that also of commander-in- chief The duke of Marlborough was captain-general, 1702. The first mil- itary chiefs bearing the rank of marshal were those of France. George II. first conferred the rank upon John, duke of Argyle, and George, earl of Ork- ney in 1736. See Mareschal. MARSTON MOOR, Battle of. This battle was the beginning of the misfor- tunes and disgrace of the unfortunate Charles I. of England. The Scots and mar] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 415 parliamentarian army had joined, and were besieging Yorlc, when prince Ru- pert, joined by the marquis of Newcastle, determined to raise the siege. Both sides drew up on Marston Moor, to the number of fifty thousand, and the victory seemed long undecided between them. Rupert, who command- ed the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, who now first came into notice, at the head of a body of troops whom he had taken care to levy and discipline. Cromwell was victorious ; he pushed his opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second en- gagement and a second victory. The prince's whole train of artillery was taken, and the royalists never afterwards recovered the blow; fought July 3, 1644. MARTINIQUE. This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, ami the Grenadines, were taken by the British from the French in February 1762. They were restored to France at the peace of the following year. They were again taken March 16, 1794; were restored at the peace of Amiens in 1802 ; and were again captured February 23, 1809. A revolution took place in this island in favor of Napoleon, but it was finally suppressed by the British, June 1, 1815 ; and Martinique reverted to its French masters at the late general peace, 1815. MARTYRS. The Christian Church, Catholic and Protestant, has abounded in martyrs, and history is filled with accounts of their wonderful constancy to their faith. The festivals of the martyrs are, many of them, of very ancient date, and took their rise about the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyr- dom A. D. 168. England has had its Christian martyrs ; and the accounts of those who sufifered for their adherence to the Protestant religion would fill volumes. The following documents in connection with the fate of Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, are of melancholy interest. They are taken from a *' Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner, and Sitpper, and the charge thereof, for Cran- nv.r, Latimer, and Ridley," kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were In the custody of those officers, previously to their being burnt alive : — 1st. octoeek, 1.554— DtKNER. Item, a post - - - - £0 1 4 Bread and ale - - - .£0 2 Item, 2 chains - - - - 3 4 Oysters - - - - - 1 Item, 2 staples - - - 6 Butter - - - - 2 Item, 4 laborers - - - 2 8 Eggs 2 Lyng- .,----008 JB I 5 8 A piece of fresh Saltnon - - 10 [They were burnt on October the 16tli, 1555.] Wme - - - - 3 Cheese ajid pears - - - 2 charge for the burning of the body OP CRANMER. The three dinners - - j£0 2 6 For 100 of woodfasgotsfor theiire For 100 and >^ of furze TO BURN LATIMER AND RIDLEY. For the Carriage of them For 3 load of wood faggots to burn For two laborers Latimer and Ridley - - 12 Item, 1 load of furze faggots - - 3 4 jBO 12 8 Item, for the carriage of these 4 He was burnt on March the 21st, in 1556.] loads 2 6 MARTYRS, Era of . This is also called the era of Diocletian, and was used by the writers of ecclesiastical history until the Christian era was introduced in the sixth century ; and it still continued to be the era of some nations, particularly the Abyssinians and Copts. It commences from the day upon which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor, August 29, a. d. 284 ; and the persecutions of the Christians in his reign caused it to be so called. MARYLAND, one of the middle United States, was originally included in the pa- tent of Virginia, granted imder charter to Calvert, lord Baltimore, in 1632 ; named in honor of Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. ; first colony were Catholics who settled at St. Mary's, on the Potomac, 1634 ; free toleration of all religions and creeds granted b^'' lord Baltimore ; Constitution settled 416 TJ!E world's PROGREbS. [MAS in 1650, and again in 1776 ; the State bore an active part in the revolution ; adopted the Federal Constitution April 28, 1788, by 63 to 12. Population in 1790 was 819,728 ; in 1810, 380,546; in 1840, 469,232, including 89,485 slaves. Maryland resumed the payment of interest on her debt, March, 1847. MASKS. Poppsea, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to guard her complexion from the sun. But theatrical masks were in use among the Greeks and Romans, Horace attributes them to ^schylus ; yet Aristotle says the real inventor and time of their introduction were un- known. Modern masks and muffs, fans, and false hair for the women, were devised by the harlots of Italy, and brought to England from France in 1572. — Stowe's Chron. MASQUERADES. They were in fashion in the court of Edward III. 1340; and in the reign of Charles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among the citizens. The bishops preached against them, and made such representa- tions as occasioned their suppression, 9 George I. 1723. [No less than six masquerades were subscribed for in a month at this time.] They were re- vived, and carried to shameful excess by connivance of the government, and in direct violation of the laws, and tickets of admission to a masque- rade at Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at twenty-tive guineas each, 1776. — Mortimer. MASS. In the Romish church, mass is the ofSce or prayers used at the cele- bration of the eucharist, and is in general believed to be a representation of the passion of our Saviour. Hence every part of the service is supposed to allude to the particular circumstances of his passion and death. The ge- neral division of masses consists in high and low : tlie first is that sung by the choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub- deacon ; low masses are those in which the prayers are barely rehearsed without singing. Mass was iSrst celebrated in Latin, about a. d. 894. Its celebration was lirst introduced into Englaud in the seventh century. Pros- tration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 1201. MASSACHUSETTS, one of the United States. First settled at Plymouth by a colony of EngUsh Puritans from Holland, who landed Dec. 22, 1620. This Avas called the Plymouth colony. The Massachusetts colony at Salem and Charlestown, in 1628, and Boston, 1630. These colonies united in 1692. The American revolution originated here, at Boston and vicinity, and this State bore an important and honorable part in the contest. See Boston, Bunker Hill, Lexington, tf-c. Present State Constitution formed in 1780 ; revised and altered in 1820 ; slavery abolished in 1783 ; Shay's rebellion in this State in 1786 ; Federal Constitution adopted Feb. 6, 1788, by 187 against 168. Population in 1721, 94,000 ; in 1790, 388,727 ; in 1810, 472,040 ; in 1820, 523,287 ; in 1840, 737,699. MASSACRES. Ancient and modern history abound with events which class under this head ; and perhaps the most frightful and unprovoked enormities of this kind have been perpetrated by opposing Christian sects, one upon another, in vindication of the Christian religion ! The following are among the most remarkable massacres recorded by various authors : — BEFORE CHRIST. A dreadful slaughter of the Teutonos and Of all the Carthagenians in Sicily, which ; Ambrones, near Aix, by Marius, the Re- took place 397 b. o. man general, 200,000 being left dead on 2000 Tyrians crucified, and 8000 put to the \ the spot, 102, b. c. sword for not surrendering Tyre to Alex- ander, 331 B. c. The Jews of Antioch fall upon the other in- habitants, and massacre 1(X),000 of them, for refusing to surrender their arms to De- The Romans, throughout Asia, women and children not excepted, cruelly massacred in one day, by order of Mithridates, king of Pontus, SSb. c. A great number of Roman senators massa- metriusNicanor, tyrant of Syria, 1.54 B.C. cred by Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius. MAS ] DICTIONARY OF DATEb. 417 MASSACRES, conlimicd. Many patricians dispatch themselves to avoid their horrid butcheries, 86 b. c. Again, under Sylla, and Catiline, his minis- ter of vengeance, 82 and 79 b. c. At Prseneste, Octavianus Ccesar ordered 300 Roman senators and other persons of dis- tinction, to he sacrificed to the manes of Julius Caesar, 41 b. c. AFTER CHRIST. At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 of Jews were put to the sword, A. d. 70. The Jews, headed by one Andrae, put to death 100,000 Greeks and Romans, m and near Cyrene, a.d. 11.5. Cassius, a Roman general under the empe- ror M. Aurelius, put to death 400,000 of the inhabitants of Seleucia, a. d. 167. At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens are massacred, by an order of Antoninus, A. D. 213. The emperor Probus put to death 700,000 of the inhabitants upon his reduction of Gaul, A. D. 277. Of eighty Christian fathers, by order of the emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia ; they were put into a ship which was set on fire, and then driven out to sea, a. d. 370. Of Tliessalonica, when 7000 persons, invited into the circus, were put to the sword, by order of Theodosius, a. d. 390. Belisarius put to death above 30,000 citizens of Constantinople for a revolt, to which they were impelled by the tyranny and ex- actions of two rapacious ministers set over them, A.D. 552. Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by order of Andronicus, a. d. 1184. Of the Albigenses and VValdenses, com- menced of ^\ailoui5e, A. D. 1209. Tens of thousands perished by means of the sword and gibbet. The Sicilians massacre the French through- out the whole island of Sicily, without distinction of sex or age, on Easter-day, the first bell for vespers being the signal. This horrid affair is known in history by the name of the Sicilian vespers, a. d. 1282. — Du Fresnoy. A general massacre of the Jews at Verdun, iy the peasants, who, from a pretended prophecy, conceived the Holy Land was to be recovered from the infidels by them. 500 of these Jews took shelter in a castle, and defended themselves to the last ex- tremity, when, for want of weapons, they threw their cliillren at the enemy,-and then killed each oiher, a. d. 1317. At Paris, of several thousand persons, at the instance of John, duke of Burgundy, a. d. 1418. Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order of Christian IL, a. d. 1520. Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants throughout the kingdom of France, attend- ed with circumstances of the most horrid treachery and cruelty. It began at Paris, m the night of the festival of St. Bartholo- mew, Aug 24, 1572, by secret orders from Charles IX., king of France, at the insti- gation of tlie queen dowager, Catherine de 18* Medicis, his mother. It is styled in his- tory, the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. Of the Christians in Croatia, by the Turks, when 65,000 were slain, a. d. 1592. Of Protestants, at Thorn, put to death under a pretended legal sentence of the chancel- lor of Poland, for being concerned in a tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic procession, a. d. 1724. All the Protestant powers in Europe interceded to have this unjust sentence revoked, but una^'ailingly. At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the natives, October 1740, under the pretext of an intended irsurrection. At the taking of Ismael "ly the Russians, 30,000 old and young were slain, Decem- ber, 1790. — See Ismael. In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 1804, and many thou- sands perished. Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the French, May 2, 1808. Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel of Cairo, March 1, 1811. Massacre at Nismes, perpetrated by the Catholics, May 1815. Massacre of vast numbers of the inhabitants of Cadiz, by the soldiery, whose ferocious disorders continue for some days, March 6, 1820. MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. Of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain. May 1, A. D. 474. Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by Ethelfrid, king of Northumber- land, A. D. 580. Of the Danes in the southern counties of England, in the night of November 13, 1002, and the 23d Etlielred II. At London it was most bloody, the churches being nc sanctuary. Amongst the rest was Gunildc., sister of Swein, king of Denmark, left in hostage for the performance of a treaty but newly concluded. — Baker's Chronicle. Of the Jews in England. Some few press- ing into Westminster Hall at Richard I.'s coronation, were put to death by the peo- ple ; and a false alarm being given that the king had ordered a general massacre of them, the people in many parts of Eng- land, from an aversion to them, slew all they met. In York, 500, who had taken shelter in the castle, killed themselves, rather than tall into the hands of the mul- titude, A. D. 1189. Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen's Wood, Ireland (see Cullen's Wood), A. D. 1209. Of the English factory at Amboyna, in order to dispossess its members of the Spice Is- lands, A. D. 1623. Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in O'Neill's rebellion, Oct. 23, l(i41. Up- wards of 30,000 British were killed in the commencement of t/iis rebellion. — Sir William Petty. In the first two or three days of it, forty or fifty thousand of the Protestants were destroyed. — Lord Clar- endon. Before the rebellion was enl ifely 418 THE world's progress. [mai death by pikes, perpetrated by the iiisur- gent Irish, at the barn of Scullabogue, Ire- land, in 1798. — Sir Richard Musgrave. Massacre of 64 American prisoners at Dart- moor, England, (disowned by British Gov- ernment.) April 6, 1815. MASSACRES, coniiimea. suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were mas- sacred. — Sir W. Temple. Of the unoflending ftlacdonalds of Glencoe, May 9, 1691.— See Gle?icoe. Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly Protestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to MASTER OP THE CEREMONIES. An ofHcer in several of the principal courts of Europe. Following the usage in other countries, a master of the ceremonies was instituted in England for the more honorable reception of the ambassadors and persons of qualitj^ at court, 1 James I. 1603.— JBakej-. MASTER IN CHANCERY. Owing to the extreme ignorance of Sir Christo- pher Hatton, lord Chancellor of England, the first reference in i. cause was made to a master, a. d. 1588 ; and the masters have been since chosen from among the most learned equity members of the bar. !y[ASTER OP THE ROLLS in ENGLAND. An equity judge, so called from his having the custody of all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and recognizances, ^vhich being made into rolls of parchment, gave occasion for that name. .MATHEMATICS. With the ancients they meant all sorts of learning and discipline ; but even then, as now, in a more particular manner, mathema- tics were restrained to those arts that more immediately related to num- bers and quantity. They were first taught to the Jews, and by them to ths Egyptians, so early as 1950 b. c. — Josephus de Antiq. Jwd. MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning of the day in the Catholic church. Emphatically, the French Matins im- ply the massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. The Matins of Moscoiv, the massacre of prince Demetrius, and all the Poles his adherents, at sis o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1600. MAURITIUS. The Isle of France was discovered by the Portuguese, a. d. 1500 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after prince Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of Good Hope they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled until the French landed, and gave it the name of one of the finest provinces in France. This island was taken by the British in 1810, and confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 1814. MAUSOLEUJM. Artemisia, sister and wife of Mausolus, married her own bro- ther, famous for his personal beauty. She was so fond of her husband, that at his death she drank in her liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, and erected to his memory a monument, which, for its grandeur and mag- nificence, was called one of the seven wonders of the world. This monu- ment she called Mausoleum, a name which has been given to all monuments of unusual splendor. She invited all the literary men of her age, and pro- posed rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her husband. The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 b, c. MAY. The fifth month of the year, and the confine of spring and summer, received its name, say some, from Romulus, who gave it this appellation in respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated ma- jores; though others supposed ii, was so called from Maia, the mother of Mercury, to whom they offered sacrifices on the first day of it. Numa Pompili'us, by adding January and February to the year, made this month the fifth, wliich before was the third, 713 b. c. MAY-DAY. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of Egeria on May-day. May-day has also been inimemorially observed in MEC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 419 England as a rural festival ; and high poles, denominated May-poles, are in many places i^rofusely decorated with garlands wreathed in honor of the day. The late benevolent Mrs. Montague gave, for many years, on May- day, an entertainment at her house in Portman-square, to that unfortunate class the chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled with the good English fare of roast-beef and jjlum-pudding, and a dance succeeded. Upon their departure, each guest received the donation of a shilling from the mistress of the feast. MAYNOOTH COLLEGE, Ireland. Founded by act of parliament, and en- dowed by a yearly grant voted for its support, and the education of stu- dents who are designed for the priesthood of the Roman Catholic church in Ireland, 35 Geo. III., 1795. It contains 500 students. Permanent endow- ment of this college, at the instance of government, to which 30,000^. for the enlargement of the buildings, and 26,000Z. annually, were granted by parliament, June, 1845. This endowment occasioned much excitement and controversy in England. MAYOR. The office of mayor arose out of the immunities granted to free cities by the emperors, and in some towns they had considerable power. Maj'or of the palace was a high office in France. In this quality Charles Martel ruled with despotic sway, a. d. 735, et seq., imder the last kings of the Merovingian dynasty ; his father had previously held this office, and had it made hereditary in his family. Mayors are the chief magistrates of corporate towns, before whose institution in England, towns were generally governed by portreeves. The office of mayor may be properlj^ said to date from the reign of Richard I. MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. They were invented by Phidion of Argos, 869 B. c. — Arund. Marbles. They became general in most countries soon after- wards ; and were very early known in England. Standards of weights and measures were provided for the whole kingdom by the sheriffs of London, 8 Richard L, a. d. 1197. Standards were again fixed in England, 1257. They were equalized for the United Kingdom in 1825. MECCA. This city is famous as being the birthplace of Mahomet, a. d. 571. The temple is a gorgeous structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one of the neighboring hills is a cave, where it is pretended Mahomet usually retired to perform his devotions ; and where the greatest part of the Koran was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, a. d. 604. Two miles from the town is the hill where they say Abraham went to offer up Isaac, 1871 B. c. MECHANICS. The time when the simple mechanical powers were first in- troduced is so uncertain, and perhaps so little known, that they have been ascribed to the Grecian and other deities of the heathen mythology — for instance, the axe, the wedge, wimble, &c., are said to be the invention of Daedalus. We know nothing of the machinery by which the immense masses of stone which are found in some of the ancient edifices were moved and elevated. The first writing on mechanics, was by Aristotle, about - - b. c. The Statera Romana invented The fundamental property of the lever and other inptvuments was demon- strated by Archimedes The iiand-mill, or quern, was very early in use ; the Romans Ibuiid one in Yorkshire . . . . Cattle mills, inolcz jumentaricB, were also ill use by the Romans, and in parts of Europe The water-mill was probably invented in Asia ; the first that was described was near one of the dwellings of Mithridates - - b. c. 70 A water-mill is said to have been erect- ed on the river Tiber, at Rome - 50 Floating mills on the Tiber - a. d. 536 Tide-mills were, many of them, in use in Venice about - - - 1078 Wind-mills were in very general use in the twelfth century - - • * * 420 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [men Application of mechani cs to astronomy, . parallelogism of forces, laws of mo- tion, &c., Newton - - - 1679 Problem of the catenary with tlie ana- lysis, Dr. Gregory - - - 1697 Spirit level (and many other inven- tions), by Dr. Hooke, from 1660 to - 1702 The Mechanics' Institute in London was formed in - - - - 1823 Mechanics' Institute in New York formed - - - - - 1833 MECHANICS, contimted. Saw-mills are said to have been in use at Augsburg - - - A. D. 1332 Theory of the inclined plane investi- gated by Cardan, about - - 1540 Work on statics, by Stevinus - - 1586 Theory of falling bodies, Galileo - 1638 Theory of oscillation, Huygens • 1647 Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren - 1662 Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, Roemer .... 1675 Percussion and animal mechanics, Bo- relli ; he died - - - - 1679 Mechanics' institutions are now very numerous in the United States and in England. MEDIA. In ancient times Media was a province of the Assyrian empire. It revolted from Arbaces 820 b. c, and afterwards became an independent kingdom, and conquered Persia ; but Cyrus having vanquished Darius the Mede, 536 b. c, Media was from that time united to the Persian empire, and shared its fate. — Blair; Priestley. Revolt of the Medes—B/air - B.C. 820 Cyrus made king of Persia - B.C. 559 The country was subjected to the As- Astyages deposed by Cyrus - - 550 - - - 766 647 625 585 585 Cyrus made king of Persia - B.C. Astyages deposed by Cyrus Croisus king of Lydia defeated, and his throne seized by Cyrus Cyrus takes Babylon ; puts Belshazzar to death; and makes Astyages (or Darius, the Mede) viceroy By the death of Astyages, Cj'rus be- comes master of all Persia ; and this era is properly the commencement of the Persian empire. — Lenglet 48 533 357 Syrians. — Idem Phraortes reigns ; he conquers Persia, Armenia, and other countries Battle of Rages ; the Assyrians defeat the Medes. — Blair War with the Lydians ; the hostile ar- mies meet; but an eclipse of the sun so alarms them, they conclude peace without striking a blow - The reign of Astyages. — Blair- The Medes were a brave people, but they degenerated, and introduced lux- ury into Persia. They admitted polygamy, and a man was deemed infamous who had less than seven wives, as was also a woman who could not boast of at least five husbands. — Aspin. MEDICAL LITERATURE in the UNITED STATES. The Medical Repo- sitory, commenced at New York, 1797, was the first work of the kind. It was conducted by Dr. S. L. Mitchill. MEDICINE. The art of preparing simples was brought into Europe from the East, about a. d. 1150. In the early stages of the r)ractice, the preparation was principally confined to ecclesiastics in Europe generally, until the close of the fifteenth century, or the beginning of the sixteenth. The practice of me- dicine is now one of the highest sciences, and in most countries is in the hands of the most learned and distinguished men ; and various statutes have been enacted to discourage pretenders to the healing art. MEDINA, IN Arabia Deserta, famous for the tomb of Mahomet, contained in a large mosque, closed with rich curtains and lighted by a vast number of rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here Mahomet was protected when he fled from Mecca, July 16, a. d. 622. This flight gave rise to the remarkable epocha in chronology called the Hegira, a word that, in Arabic, denotes, to flee, or quit one's country or friends. MEMORY. That faculty of the mind or soul whereby past things are repre- sented to us as if they were present. — Pardon. Simonides, grandson of Simonides the elder, of Cos, poet and historian, obtained a prize at Olympia, for teaching artificial memory, of which he was the inventor, 477 b. c. — Arundelian Marbles. The science of mnemonics was made known in Ger- many in 1.807. Sec Mnemonics. MENDICANT FRIARS. The term was applied to several orders of religious RIES ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 421. who commenced their ahiis-begging in the thirteenth century, in the ponti- ficate of Innocent III. They were confined by a general council, held by Gregory X. at Lj^ons, in 1272, to the following four orders — Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and other orders subsequently branched from them. MENSURATION. The art of measuring geometrical superficies and solids is of very early date. The various properties of conic sections were dis- covered by Archimedes, to whom the chief advancement in mensuration may be attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c., about 218 B. c. MERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to have been a Mr. Wright, who made several voyages ; and in his absence Merca- tor j)ublished the charts in his own name, 1556. — Pardon. They are, how- ever, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's own ingenuity. In these charts the meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at right an- gles, and are both represented by straight lines, enlarging the degrees of latitude as they recede from the equator. MERCHANT — from mercans. The name given to high commercial citizens who trade abroad. The merchants of London and Amsterdam were accounted the most enterprising and richest in the Avorld. An attempt was made by queen Anne's ministry to exclude merchants from sitting in the House of Commons, in 1711 ; but it failed. The Merchant Adventurer's society (see Adventurers. Merchant) was established by the duke of Brabant, in 1296 ; it extended to England in Edward III.'s reign ; and was formed into an En- glish corporation in 1564. — Haydn. MERCURY. This substance was known to the ancients, and has been found in vast qantities in various countries. The mines in Carniola in Germany are the most productive in Europe, and have yielded in some years 1200 tons ; they were discovered by accident in 1497. The anti-venereal virtues of mercury were found by James Carpus, an Italian surgeon, a. d. 1512. — Noiov. Diet. The compound termed calomel was first mentioned by Crol- lius early in the seventeenth century; the first directions for its preparation were given by Beguin, 1608. It was given to patients under inoculation for the small-pox in 1745. Pallas congealed mercury by artificial cold in 1762. Its malleable qualities were discovered by M. Orbelin, of Vienna, 1785, MERRY ANDREW. The name was first given to a droll and eccentric phy- sician, wlrose name was Andrew Borde, who lived in the reign of Henry VIIL, and who, on some occasions, on account of his facetious manners and good humor, appeared at court, 1547. He used to attend markets and fairs, and harangue the people, by whom he was called Merry Andrew. The name is now given to a buffoon, a zany, or jack-pudding. — L' Estrange. Johnson. MESSALTANS. A sect whose religious error consisted in adhering to the letter of the gospel, interpreting the words to justify and excuse their worst pro- pensities and vices. Amongst other absurdities they refused to work, quoting this passage, "Labor not ibr the food that perisheth;" about a. d. 310.— Baronius, Annal. MESSENIA, now Maura-Matra, a country of the Peloponnesus. This kingdom was commenced by Pohcaon, 1499 b. c. It is celebrated for its long and san- guinary wars against Sparta {sqq next article), and once contained a hundred cities, most of whose names even are now unlmown. Messenia joined the Achaean league 216 b. c. MESSENIAN WARS, The celebrated wars between Lacedemon and Messenia. The first began 748 b. c, and was occasioned by violence having been offered 422 THE world's progress. [ MET to some Spartan women who had assembled in a temple of deTotion common to both nations; the king of Sparta being killed in his efforts to defend the females. This dreadful war raged for nineteen years, and at one period made so great a carnage, that the Spartan army sent orders home for all the un- married women to prostitute themselves to recruit the population. In the end Ithome was taken, and the Messenians became slaves to the conquerors. The second war was commenced 685 b. c. to throw off the galling Spartan yoke, and lasted fourteen years, ending in the defeat of the Messenians Avho fled to Sicily. The third took place 465 e. c, it endured ten years, when the whole nation abandoned the Peloponnesus. MESSINA, IN Sicily. So named by the Messinese, who seized this city, then called Zancle, 671 b. c. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire, but fell to the Saracens a. d. 829. — Priestley. In the eleventh century Roger the Norman took it by surprise, and delivered it from the Mahometan op- pression. Great Messinian conspiracy, 1282. The memorable revolt took place 1672. Almost ruined by an earthquake 1693; and nearly depopulated by a plague in 1743. In 1780 Messina suffered much by an earthquake ; and in Feb. and March, 1783, Avas half destroyed by the same calamity; since which it has been handsomely rebuilt. METALLURGY. In the fourth chapter of Genesis, Tubal Cain is mentioned as " an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." The seven metals are mentioned by Moses and Homer. Virgil mentions the melting of steel in furnaces. The Phoenicians had an extraordinary skill in working me- tals. METAPHYSICS. This term, literally denoting "after physics," originated with Aristotle. What may be denoted the modern metaphysics, cannot be traced farther back tJian the fifteenth century — the iieriod when an extraor- dinary impulse was- given in Europe to the human mind, and commonly called the revival of learning. METEMPSYCHOSIS. A doctrine supposing the transmigration of the soul from one body to another. The first belief in it is ascribed to the Egyptians, who would eat no animal food, lest they should devour the body into which the soul of a deceased friend had passed. They had also an idea, that so long as the body of the deceased was kept entire, the soul would not trans- migrate ; which accounts for the extraordinary pains they were at in em- balming the dead ; a doctrine of Pythagoras, 528 b. c. METHODISTS. A large and increasing body of religionists, whose tenets, dis- cipline, and designs, are often misunderstood, and of course misrepresented. "Our end," says Mr. Benson, in his Apology, " is not to form a sect, or to bring people to this or the other speculative opinion, mode of worship, or form of church-government, but simply to make them Christians — Christians in heart and life, in temper, word, and Avork — such as lived in the early days of Christianity, and such as we conceive may still live." The methodists may be said to have appeared formally, if not originally at Oxford a. d. 1729 ; the reverend John Wesley being the first who there introduced me- thodism. John and Charles Wesley, and Mr. Whitfield, commenced their career by teaching in 1734. The term appears to have been brought forward in the days of Puritanism, being suggested by the Latin appellative Metho- dist(E, given to a college of physicians in ancient Rome, in consequence ot the strict regimen under which they placed their patients. The methodist missions were commenced and superintended by Mr. Wesley and Dr. Coke in 1769, when two missionaries were sent out to North America. But these missions were not reduced to a sj'stem, nor were societies regularly organiz- ed for their support, until 1817. MID ] ' DICTIONARY OF DaTES. 423 MEXICO. Discov<;red in a. d. 1518. It was conquered by the Spaniards under Cortes, M'hose name is infamous on account of his cruelties to the vanquished, A. D. 1521. The mint of Mexico, tlie richest in the* world, was begun in 1535. This country, like other states in the new world, has recovered its in- dependence. Iturbide made emperor. May, 1822. Mexican constitution proclaimed by the president Vittoria, Oct. 1823. Iturbide shot July 19, 1824. Treaty of commerce with Great Britain ratified, April 1825. Titles suppressed. May 1826. The expulsion of the Spaniards decreed, March, 1829. Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, Sept. 26, same year. Mexican revolution ; the president Guerrero deposed Dec. 23, same year. The independence of Mexico, previously recognized by the great European powers, also recognized by the emperor of Brazil, June 1830. Civil war between Bustamente and Santa Anna, 1832. Santa Anna elected president, March 1834. Declaration of war against France, Nov. 30, 1838. Castle of San Juan de Ulloa taken by the French, Nov. 27, 1838. This war terminated, March 9, 1839. Civil war with change of leaders at various times. Santa Anna displaced Bustamente again, Oct. 6, 1841. Insurrection of general Pa- redes against Santa Anna, Nov. 5, 1844, succeeds without bloodshed, and Herrera made president, Dec, 1844. Paredes overturns Herrera, Dec. 1845. War with the United States, 1846 : Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, May 8, 1846 ; and subsequently at Matamoras. Santa Fe captured, Aug. 23, and Monterey, Sept. 24, 1846. Mexican congress authorized their govern- ment to raise $15,000,000 for the war against the United States, upon the mortgage or sale of church property, Jan. 8, 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, Feb. 22, 1847. Vera Cruz surrendered to general Scott, March 29, 1847. Battle of Cerro Gordo, Api'il 18. General Paredes landed at Vera Cruz in disguise, Aug. 14, 1847. Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, Aug. 20, 1847 ; of Chepultepec, Sept. 12. Surrender of city of Mexico to American general Scott, Sept. 14, 1847. Treaty of peace with the United States, rati- fied at Queretaro, May 30, 1848. Paredes excites a revolt at Guanaxuato, June 15. Mexico evacuated by the American troops. June 12. Herrera be- comes president, July 6. Bustamente defeats Paredes, July 18. Vera Cruz surrendered by the United States, Aug. 1. See War of the United States and Mexico. Signor de la Rosa first Mexican minister to the United States after the war, presented his credentials, Dec. 2, 1848. MEZZOTINTO. A peculiar manner of engraving representing figures on cop- per, received its name from its resemblance to painting. The invention of it is generally ascribed to prince Rupert, a. d. 1648; but baron Heinikin states that colonel de Siegen engraved a large and admirable print of Amelia Eliza- beth of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643. See Engraving. MICHIGAN, one of the United States, first settled by the French at Detroit in 1647. Many of the Hurons, a native tribe in this region, were converted to the Catholic faith by the Jesuits. The territorry ceded to England by the peace of 1763; made a separate territory of the United States, in 1805; admitted into the Union as a State in 1836. During the war of 1812-13 the territory was gained for a time bv the British, but it was recovered by gen- eral Harrison. Population in 1810', was 4.528 ; in 1820, 9,048 ; in 1830, 81,639; in 1840, 212,267. MICROSCOPES. Invented neai-ly at the same time in Italy and Holland, a. d 1621. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of re- fraction was discovered, about 1624. The honor of this invention is awarded to Drebel and Torricelli. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In Eng;lajid, great improvements were made in the microscope by Henry Baker, F. R. S.. who wrote two treatises upon it, about 1763. — fiiog. Diet. MIDWIFERY. Women were the only practitioners of this art among the He- 424 THE would's progress. " [Mil brews and Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 460 B. c. is styled by some the father of midwifery, as well as of physic* ]t ad- vanced under Celsus, who flourished a. d. 37, and of Galen, who lived a. d, 131. In England midwifery became a science about the period of the insti- tution of the College of Physicians, K) Henry VII., 1518. The celebrated Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; and after his example the calling in of men in all difficult cases followed. Astruc affirms that the epoch of the employment of men-midwives goes no farther back than the first lying-in of Madame de la Vallifere, mistress of Louis XIV., 1663. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted with great secrecy to the house. The same surgeon was employed in the subsequent labors of this lady, and he being very successful, men-midwives after came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to them. MILAN. The capital of this celebrated dukedom, the ancient Liguria, is re- puted to have been built by the Gauls about 408 b. c. It submitted to the Romans 222 b. c. ; was formed into a republic a. d. 1221 ; and lastly was governed by dukes from a. d. 1395, imtil 1505, when it was conquered by Louis XII. John Galeazzo was the first who took the title of duke of Milan, about 1390. The French were expelled from Milan, by Charles V. of Ger- many, about 1525 ; and this emperor gave it to his son, Philip II. Milan was given to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spain, 1748. Seized by the French, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians in 1799 ; but regained by the French Maj^ 31^ the next year. This city was made the capital of the late kingdom of Italy, and Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned with the Iron cro^\m at Milan, May 26, 1805. The celebrated Milan decree of Napoleon against all Continental intercourse with England, declaring England in a state of blockade, was issued from this city, Dec. 17, 1807. Put under military occupation in consequence of disturbances, Sept. 8, 1847. Collision of the Milanese with the Austrian soldiers, Jan. 1, 1848 ; followed by conciliations. Martial law i^roclaimed in Lombardy, Feb. 1848 ; the gov- ernment threatens the jDcople with the fate of the Poles. The people revolt- ed and expelled the Austrians, and Charles Albert of Sardinia entered Milan in the popular cause, March 23, 1848. A vote taken in Lombardy on proposed union with Piedmont: — 561,002 in favor of it; 681 for postponing it till the end of the war, June 9, 1848. Vicenza surrenders to the Austri- ans under Radetsky, June 10. The duke of Genoa repulses the Austrians at Rivoli, July 1. Milan capitulates to the Austrians, Aug. 4, 1848. MILITARY OR MARTIAL LAW. This is a law built on no settled principle, but entirely arbitrarj'. and in truth, no law; but sometimes indulged, rather than allowed, as law. — Su- MaU/iew Hale. Martial law was several times proclaimed in Great Britain during rebellions. It was almost general through- out Ireland in 1798. The last proclamation of martial law was in that coun- try, July 26, 1803. Paris was under martial law for several weeks after the insurrection of June, 1848. MILITIA. The standing national militia of Great Britain is traced by most historians to king Alfred, who, by his prudent discipline, made all his sub- jects soldiers, a. d. 872 to 901. The feudal niilitary tenures became involved in this force. The first commission of arraj'' to raise a militia in England was in 1422. In the United States the laws relating to the militia and the * Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to learn medicine. She was taught by HierO' pholus, her lather, the art of Midwifery, and when employed, always discovered her sex to hei patients. This brought her into so much practice, that the males of her profession, who were now out of employment, accused her, before tlie Areopagu.?, of corruption. She confessed her se.-c to the judges, and a law was made to empower all free-born women to leam midwifery. — Hyg.fa. 274. MIN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 425 appointment of officers are different in the different States. See Encyclo- pedia Americana. Tlie aggregate militia force of the United States, as re- ported in 1848, was 1,888.538, but as the returns in some instances were for former years, the number jirobably reached, in 1850, at least to 2,100,000. As the regular army has always been small (in time of peace about 8000) the republic has relied chiefly on the militia in time of war. MILKY WAY. Ancient poets and philosophers speak of the galaxy as the road by which heroes went to heaven. The Greeks supposed that Juno ac- cidentally gave suck to Mercury when an infant, or to the infant Hercules, who, while she slept, was laid by her side ; but perceiving who he was, she threw him from her, and the heavens were thus marked by the wasted milk. Democritus was the first who taught that the via lactea was occasioned by a confused multitude of stars, about 428 b. c. MILLENNIUM. This doctrine supposed that the' world would end at the ex- piration of the seven thousandth year from the creation ; and that during the last thousand years Christ and the saints would reign upon earth. It was generally inculcated as early as the second and third centuries. It was propagated by Papias, Justin-Martyr, and many others. The Millennium was grounded upon a doubtful text in the Apocalypse, to the effect that our blessed Saviour should reign with the faithful upon earth after the resurrec- tion, before the final completion of beatitude. — Burnet. MILLINER. Defined bj' Shakspeare and Johnson as a seller of ribands and dresses for women, a very ancient occupation ; the term is supposed to be derived from Milan. There are men-milliners in England, and the adoption of such a trade by the male sex has been strongly and justlj" censured. In 1810, men-milliners and other classes of an epicene character were very strongly censured in the Society of Arts. Young females are employed at all seasons, and in all weathers, to carry bandboxes through the streets, ex- posed to the insolence of libertines, and the perils of vicious example, while the perfumed coxcomb [" He was perfumed like a milliner." — Shakspeare.'] measures ribands safely at home, or folds gauzes, and lisps the while in lady phrases to females of distinction.* — Butler. MILLS. The earliest instrument for grinding manna and corn, was the mortar. Moses forbade them to be taken in pawn, because that, he says, would be like taking a man's life to pledge. The hand-mill was in use among the Britons previously to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced the water-mill. See article Mechanics. MINES. Those of Great Britain are very numerous, rich, and of various kinds. Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of Eng- land. The earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced, occurs 4*7 Henry III., 1262. — Ending. It related to mines containing gold, together with copper, in Devonshire. In the United States, iron, coal, lime, and salt exist in great abundance, in various States : lead mines in Mis- souri are very productive. Gold mines have been found in Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia, but their supply is but moderate. See Coal, Cop- per, Tin, Gold, c^c. MINNESOTA. A territory of the United States lying between 40° 80' north lat.. and between 91° 10' and 102° west long., inhabited chiefly by the Sioux. Indians. First explored by the French ; began to be settled by emigrants from the United States about 1845-6. * I look upon a man-milliner not only as one of the most unworthy members of society, but as one of the most injurious. When I hear one of these persons haransumg upon the merits of muslin, or the becoming color of a riband, anger will mingle itself with tlie leeUng of contempt ; for the employment that degrades this man might have preserved a woman from prostitution. — Dr. SoiUhey. 426 THE world's progress. [ MIS MINORCA. This island and Majorca were called by the Greeks, Balearides. Minorca was captured by lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake in August 1708, and was confirmed to the British bj- the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in June 1756. Admiral Byng fell a victim to the exasperation of the public mind, and to the safety of ministers, for not relieving it with a force greatly inferior to that of the enemy. See Byng. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1763. Besieged by the Spaniards, and taken, Feb. 5, 1782. It was again captured by the British, without the loss of a man, Nov. 15, 1798 ; but was given up at the peace of 1802. MINSTRELS. They were originally pipers appointed by lords of manors to divert their copyholders while at work. They owed their origin to the glee- men or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till about a. d. 1560. John of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the reign of Henry VIII. they intruded Avithout ceremony into all companies, even at the houses of the nobilit}^ In Elizabeth's reign they had, however, sunk into neglect. MINT OF THE UNITED STATES established at Philadelphia, 1792. Branch at New Orleans, 1838 ; at Charlotte, N.C., 1837; atDahlonega, 1838. SeeCoining. MIRRORS, In ancient times mirrors were made of metal ; and from a passage in the Mosaic writings we learn tliat the mirrors used by the Jewish women were made of brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced bj^ Praxiteles, 328 B. c. See Looking Glasses. MISS. In the seventeenth century, the epithet Miss applied to females was considered a term of reproach. Miss Cross who is i^articularly noticed in Hayne's epilogue to Farquhar's Love in a Bottle, about 1782, was the first actress announced as Miss. — GaWs Lives of the Players. MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominick, St. Francis, St. Augustin, &c., had missions to the Levant and to America. The Jesuits had missions to China {ivhich see), and to most other parts of the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was a Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV., in 1706. But the Moravian Brethren may be said to have led the way to the new Christian missions, about 1732. The London Missionary Society held their first meeting, Nov. 4, 1794 ; and it has since been the parent of many benevolent institutions. The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, formed 1810 ; first mission at Bombay, 1813 ; at Ceylon, 1816 ; to Choctaws, 1817 ; Che- rokees, 1820. The Board has an annual income from voluntary contribu- tions of about S200,000. The statistics of its operations in various parts of the world are given in its annual reports. The contributions of this Board and its missionaries to the fund of geographical and ethnographical science, to say nothing of religion and civilization, have been very important. The missions of the Baptists. Episcopalians, Methodists, &c., are also nu- merous. American Baptist Board of Missions, founded 1814. Board of Missions of General Assembly (Presbyterian), 1818. Methodist Mission- ary Society, 1819. American Home Missionary Society, 1826. See Benevo- lent Societies. MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States. First settled by the French at Nat- chez, and claimed as part of Louisiana, 1716. Colony destroyed by the Indians. The country ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1753. Part of it belonged to Georgia, and the southern part to Florida. The territory, together with Alabama, constituted the ■■ Mississippi Territory" until 1817, when it was admitted into the Union as a State. Population in 1816, 45,929 : in 1830, 136,806; in 1840, 375.651, including 195,211 slaves. MOG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 427 MISSOURI, one of the United States. Was included wdth Louisiana in the purchase from the French in 1803. Town of St. Louis settled by the French in 1764:, but was little more than a trading post until 1804, when the terri- torial government was formed. Missouri admitted into the Union as a State in 1821, after a long debate on slavery, ending in the Missouri Compromise, which prohibits slavery north and west of Arkansas, but tolerates it in Mis- souri. Population in 1810, 19,833 ; in 1830, 140,074 ; in 1840, 383,702, includ- ing 58,240 slaves. MISSISSIPPI TRADE. This trade was begun in November, 1716. The cele- brated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was commenced about that period, exploded in 1720 ; at which time, the nominal capital is said to have amounted to 100,000,000^. See Law's Bubble. MITHRIDATE. A physical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed to be the oldest compound kno^vn to us at the present day. It was invented by Mithridates II. the king of Pontus, about 70 b. c. It was formerly thought to be a great antidote against poison ; but though it is now out of date for that purpose, it is still used as an opiate, and is one of the capital medicines of our shops. MITHRIDATIC WAR. Caused by the massacre of 100.000 Romans, 86 b. c. and remarkable for its duration, its many battles, the devastation of human life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of Asia, crying out as he rode, " I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He ultimately dispatched him, by ordering melted gold to be poured down his throat, which was done in derision of his avarice, 85 b. c. — Lenglet. MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre is of very ancient use, having been worn by the high-priest among the Jews. Among the primitive Christians, young women who professed a state of virginity, and solemnly consecrated thereto, wore a purple or golden mitre. The pope has four mitres, which according to the solemnity to be performed, or festival day it is worn on, is more or less magnificent. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, but at the council of Lyons, in 1245, they were appointed to Avear hats, which remains to this day. MNEMONICS. Artificial memory had its professors in the ancient world. The art of assisting memory, by getting by heart, was introduced by Simon- ides the younger, 477 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics have been elaborately treated ; and the Memoria Teclmica of Dr. Grey is an esteemed work on the subject. The science of mnemonics, as we now have it, was announced in Germany, in 1806-7 ; but it had been previously no- ticed in the London monthly periodicals. MODENA. Erected into a duchy in 1451. The duke was expelled by the French, 1796. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The archduke Fran- cis of Este was restored in 1814. Insurrection here, Feb. 5, 1831. The archduke escaped ; but the Austrian troops soon afterwards entered and restored the deposed authorities. The people revolt and imprison the duke, March 20, 1848. The troops of Tuscany occupy Modena, March 24 ; Provi- sional government appointed, April 9, 1848. MOGULS. They deduce their origin from Japhet, son of Noah. His son, Turk, they say, was the first king or khan of those nations afterwards known as Turks, Tartars, and Moguls. The first conqueror of the Mogul empire was Jenghis Khan, a Tartarian prince, who died a. d. 1236. Timour Beg became Great Mogul by conquest, 1399. Khouli Khan, the famous sophi of Persia, considerably diminished the power of the moguls, carried away immense treasures from Delhi, and since that event many of the nabobs have made themselves independent. See India. 428 THE world's PROGilESS. [ MO^ MONARCHY. The most ancient was that of the Assj-rians, founded soon after the Deluge. See Assyria. Historians reckon four grand, or ahnost universal raonarchies, — the Assj^rian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman. Set them respectively. MONASTERIES. The first founded was, according to some authorities, in a. D. 270 ; and according to others, in a. d. 305. The suppression of monastic houses has been frequent, even in Catholic countries ; and many religious communities have bowed to the variable notions of mankind regarding re- ligion, and to the altered state of the world. Constantine IV., among other persecutors, commanded a vast number of friars and nuns to appear at Ephesus : he there ordered them to change their black habits for white, and to destroy their images. They explained that this, on account of the vows they had taken, was impossible ; whereupon he directed that their eyes should be put out, and that they should be banished, forfeiting their various monasteries, which he sold for the uses of the state. When St. Austin arrived in England a. d. 596, Ethelbert of Kent pave him an idol temple without the walls of his capital, as a burial-place for him and his successors, which Avas converted into the first monastery. Various monastic houses were suppressed in England in various reigns ; and a vast number in 1515. But the general dissolution took place in the reign of Henry VHI. 1534-9. The abbey lands were afterwards granted to numerous courtiers, whose descendants enjoy them to this day. MONEY. It is mentioned as a medium of commerce in the 23d chapter of Ge- nesis, when Abraljam purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the year of the world 2139. In profane historJ^ the coinage of money is ascribed to the Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it having been coined in the temple of Juno-Moneta, 269 b. c. Money was made of diflerent ores, and even of leather and other articles, both in an- cient and modern times. It was made of pasteboard, by the Hollanders so late as 1574. Silver has increased more than thirty times its value since the Norman conquest, viz. a pound in that age was three times the quantity" that it is at present, and twelve times its value in purchasing any commo- dity. See articles, Coin ; Gold ; Silver ; Copper ; Mint, (^c. MONK. The first is^aid to have been Paul of Thebais, who fled into the de- serts to avoid the Decian persecution about a. d. 250. St. Anthony is sup- posed by other authorities to have been the first example of a regular luonastic life, a. d. 305, soon after which time monks began to associate. St. Athanasius introduced the monastic life into Rome in 341. See Abbeys. MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II. was banished England for a conspiracy in 1683. He invaded England at Lyme, June 11, 1685. He was proclaimed king at Taunton on the 20th of the same month. Was defeated at Bridgewater, July 5 ; and was beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15, 1685. The county of Monmouth, from which he was named, was made an English county by Henry VIII. about 1535. MONOPOLIES. Commercial monopolies reached to such a height in England, that parliament petitioned against them, and they were in consequence mostly abolished about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. They were further suppressed, as being contrary to law, 19 James I.;^ 1622 ; and were totally abolished, and it was decreed that none should be in future created, as was previously the custom, by royal patent, 16 Charles I., 1G40. — Ander- son's History of Commerce. MONTANISTS. A sect founded by Montanus, of Ardaba, in Mysia, an extra- MOR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 429 ordinary enthusiast, about a. d. 171. He was reputed to have the gift of prophecy, and proclaimed himself the comforter promised by Christ, con- demned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of mar- riage, forbade to avoid martyrdom, and ordered a severe fast of three lents ; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, be- fore the close of the second century. — Cave's Hist. Lit. MONTREAL. Surrendered to the English by the French in 1760. It was taken by the Provincials in the American war of Independence, November 12, 1775, and was retaken by the British, June 15, 1776. The church, Je- suits' college, prison, and many buildings burnt down, June 6, 1803. Great military aftray, Sept. 29, 1833. Riot about the " Rebellion Losses " Act ; the parliament house burnt by the mob, 1819. MOON. The full moon was held favorable .for any undertaking by the Spar- tans, and the Greeks generally looked upon full moons, or the times of conjunction of the sun or moon, as seasons most favorable to marriage. Opacity of the moon, and true causes of lunar eclipses, was taught by Thales, 640 b. c. Posidonius accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, 79 b. c. — Diog. Laert. A map of the moon was first taken at Dant- zic, A. D. 1647. The strength of moon-light at the full moon is 90,000 times less than the light of the sun. — Dr. Smith. It is 300,000 times less. — Bouguer. MOORS. They first invaded Spain, a.d. 173. — Univ. Hist. The Saracens in Spain beset by the Christians, called in the assistance of the Moors, who seized the dominions they came to protect, and subdued the Saracens, a. d. 1091. Alphonsus I. of Nav.srre, defeated them in many battles, 1118, et seq. The Moors began the kingdom of Granada, being their last refuge from the power of the Christians, 1238. Alphonsus XI. of Leon and Castile, slew 200,000 Moors in one battle ; three leagues roimd the country was covered with the dead, 1327. The power of this people was overthrown by Ferdi- nand v., who conquered Granada, 1492. Philip III. banished them to the number of 900,000, confiscating their property, 1610. — Priestleij. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of our duty and felicity, the science of ethics, or art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates is universally re- gai'ded as the fother of moral philosophy, about 430 b. c. And Grotius is esteemed by many writers as the father of moral philosophy in modern times, about a. d. 1023. — Bate, i^c. MORAVIANS. United Brethren. A sect which took its rise in Moravia, in, it is said, the fifteenth centur}^, which some doubt ; while the Brethren say that their sect is derived from the Greek church in the ninth century. They appeared in England about 1737, introduced by count Zinzendorf, "who died at Chelsea, in June 1760. They settled at Bethlehem, Penn., 1741. In order to the conversion of the heathen world, these persevering brethren formed settlements also in Greenland, the Cape, East and West Indies, and other climes. The Moravians led the way to the Scriptural missions now so general. MORGARTEN, Battle or, the most memorable, as well as extraordinary and glorious in the annals of Switzerland; 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrian.-f. commanded by the duke Leopold, whom they completely defeated. They seized upon the heights of Morgarten, Avhich overlooked the defile througli which the enemy Vv'as to enter their territory from Zug, and thus achie\-e(l their victory, Nov. 15, 1315. MORMONS. Tlie pretended revelation of the Mormon Scriptures to ",Ioe Smith " is said to have been made in the state of New York, about 1835. Surrender of :i body of 700 Mormons xmder arms, with their leaders Joe 430 THE world's PROGRES-S. [ Mxn» Smith, Rigdon, &c., to the Missouri miUtia, under Gen. Atchinson, Oct. 28, 1838. Joe Smith and his brother murdered in jail by a mob, June 27, 1844. The Mormon temple at Nauvoo, Illinois, sold to the Icarians, or Socialists, and the Mormons emigrated to Desseret and California, 1348-9. AIOROCCO. Anciently Mauritania. From its early possession by the RomaniJ it underwent various revolutions. About a. d. 1116, AbdalJah, a leader of a sect of Mahometans, founded a dynasty which ended in the last sovereign's defeat in Spain. About this pei'iod, 1202, Fez and other provinces shook off their dependence; but the descendants of Mahomet, about 1650, subdaed them, and formed the empire of Morocco. Hostilities with France provoked by Abdel-Kader, the heroic and indomitable ameer of Algiers, commence May, 1844; Tangier bombarded, Aug. 6, 1844; peace concluded, and the French forces evacuate Mogador, Sept. 16, 1844. Abdel-Kader taken prisoner by the French and carried to France, 1846. MORTARS, A short gun with an extraordinary large bore, and close chamber, used for throwing bombs, first made in England in 1543. The celebrated mortar left by Soult in Spain, was fixed in St. James's park in August, 1816. MOSCOW. One of the largest cities in Europe. It was founded in 1156 ; was taken by Tamerlane 1382 ; and subsequently it fell into the hands of the Tartars, whose last attack upon it was in 1571, when they set it on fire. This city was entered by the French, Sept, 14, 1812, and the Russian governor, Rostochin, ordered that it should be set on fire in five hundred places at once. In this memorable conflagration, 11,840 houses wei-e biirnt to the ground, besides palaces and churches. The French, thus deprived of quar- ters, evacuated Moscow Oct 19, and it was re-entered by the Russians Oct. 22, following. This city has been since rebuilt. MOSKWA, Battle op, between the French and Russians. See Borodino. MOSS-TROOPERS. These \vere a desperate sort of plunderers, secreting themselves in the mosses on the borders of Scotland, defiling women, and perpetrating the most savage euormities, as well as minor mischiefs, extirpa- ted A. D. 1609. MOST CHRISTIAN KING. The title given to Louis XI. by pope Paul II., 1469. It has been justlj' remarked, that never was the title or name of Christian given to a prince more unworthily bestowed, or less deserved. MOTTOES, ROYAL. Dicu ct man Droit was first used by Richard I., a. d. 1193. The Bohemian crest, viz. three ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich Men, "I serve," was adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy, the king of Bohemia being slain in the battle, 1346. Honi soit qui mat y jiense, was made the motto of the Garter. 1349-50. Je mainticndrai, "I will maintain,'" was adopted by William III., 1688. And Semper cadcm was or- dered by queen Anne to be used as her motto. MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. The practice of the Israelites was, neither to wash nor anoint themselves during the time of mourning. The exhibition of grief for a friend lasted for seven days ; and upon extraordinary occasion? it lasted a month. The Greeks and Romans also exhibited their grief for the dead by many public abstinences. The ordinary color for mourning in Europe is black ; in China it is white ; in Turkey, violet ; in Ethiopia, brown ; and it was white in Spain, until a. d. 1498. — Herrera. MUNSTER, Treaty op, between France, the Emperor, and Sweden; Spstin continuing the w^ar against the former kingdom. By this peace, the principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognized. Signed at Munster. Oct. 24, 1648. Mas J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 43'I MURDER. The highest offence against the law of nature. A court of Ephetse was estabHshed by Demophoon for the trial of murder, 1179 b. c. The Per- sians did not punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the Heptarchy, murder was punished by fines only. So late as Henry VIH.'s time, the crime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers were allowed benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated murder, or petit treason, vaay happen in three ways ; by a servant killing his master ; a wife her husband ; and an ecclesiastical person his superior, statute 25 Edward 111., 1350. The enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful com- mission has been excepted from mercy by our sovereigns in every instance The act whereby the murderer should be executed on the day next but one after his conviction, was repealed 7 William IV., July 1836. — Haydn. MUSEUM. Originally a quarter of the palace of Alexandria, like the Pryta- neum of Athens, where learned men of extraordinary merit were maintained by the public, because of their considerable services to the commonwealth. The foundation of this establishment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus. who here placed his library, about 284 b. c. See British Museum, ^c. MUSIC. Luci'etius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds, in hollow reeds. Franckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers of Tubal Cain. Cameleon Pontique and others to the singing of birds. And Zarlino to the sound of water. It is, however, agreed .that music was first reduced to rules by Jubal, 1800 b. c. The flute, and harmony or concord in music was invented by Hyagnis, 1506. — Arnold. Marbles, Vocal choruses of men are first mentioned 556 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. Pythagoras maintained that the motions of tlie twelve spheres miist produce delightful sounds inaudible to mortal ears, which he called " the music of the spheres." St. Cecilia, a Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angel was enticed from the celestial regions by the fascinating charms of her melody : and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed suflicient author- ity to make her the patroness of music and musicians. She died in the third century. F.USIC AL NOTES. The first six are said to have been invented by Guide Aretin, a Benedictine monk of Arezzo. a. d. 1025. — Blair. The notes at present used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint was brought to perfection by Palestrina about 1515. Gaffurius of Lodi read lectures on musical composi- tion in the sixteenth century, and they effected great improvement in the science. The Itahan style of composition was introduced into these countries about 1616. MUSICAL INSTITUTIONS, England. The Ancient Academy of Music was in- stituted in 1710. It originated with numerous eminent performers and gen- tlemen to promote the study of vocal harmony. The Madrigal Society was established in 1741. and o|her musical societies followed. The Royal Society of Music arose from the principal nobility and gentry uniting to promote the performance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. Royal Academy of Mu- sic established 1822. MUSKETS. They were first used at the siege of Arras in 1414. The Spanish historians state that Spain was the first power that armed the foot-soldier with these weapons. They were used at the siege of Rhegen in 1521. In- troduced generally into the English army, and bows and arrows laid aside, 12 Henry VIII. 1521.— C«rfc. It was the duke of Alva Avho first brought the musket into use in the Low countries, 1569. — Branstone. MUSLIN. A fine cloth, made wholly of cotton. According to some, it is so called as not being bare but having a downy nap on its surface resembling moss, which the French call mous.se. According to others, it was first brought 432 THE world's progress. [myt from Mousol, in India, whence the name. Muslins were first worn in Eng- land in 1670. — Anderson. They were manufactured in great perfection in England in 1778. MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute when, being arraigned for treason or felony, he either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. An- ciently, a mute was taken back to prison, placed in a dark dungeon, naked, on his back, on the bare ground, and a great weight of iron placed upon his body ; in this situation he was fed with three morsels of bad bread one day, and three draughts of stagnant water the next, and so on alternately until he died. For a very memorable instance of this punishment in a. d. 1605, see article Pressing to Death. By statute 12 George III. judgment is awarded against mutes, in the same manner as if they were convicted or confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778. Another on a charge of burglary, at Wells, 1792. At Shrewsbury a man tried and convicted notwithstanding, Aug. 21, 1^0\.— Phillips. MUTINY ON BOARD U. S. Brig SOMERS, commander A. S. Mackenzie: mid- shipman Spencer and two seamen hung, Dec. 1. 1842. MUTINY or the BOUNTY, April 28, 1789. For particulars see Bounty. MYCALE, Battle op, fought September 22, 479 b. c, between the Greeks and Persians ; being the identical day on which Mardonius was defeated and slain at Platea. The Persians consisted of about 100,000 men, who had just returned from an unsuccessful expedition of Xerxes in Greece. They were completely defeated, some thousands of them slaughtered, their camp burnt, and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their troops and sailed back to Sa- mos with an immense bootJ^ MYCENAE. A division of the kingdom of the Argives. It stood about fifty stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Heraclidse. Perseus removes from Argos to Mycenas, and reigns, 1313 b. c. Mycense destroyed by the Argives, 568 b. c. MYSTERIES. They originated in Egypt, the land of idolatry, and were an in- stitution of the priesthood to extend their own influence ; so that all max- ims in morality, tenets in theology, and dogmas in philosophy, were wrapt up in a veil of allegory and mystery. From the Egyptian mysteries of Isis and Osiris sprung those of Bacchus and Ceres among the Greeks. The Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 b. c. The laws were — 1. To honor parents ; 2. To honor the gods with the fruits of the earth ; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes the civil- ization of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries. They were abolished by the emperor Theodosius, a. d. 389. MYTHOLOGY. Fable usurped the place of historical truth as soon as the authentic tradition concerning the Creation had been lost or adulterated ; and persons who had rendered themselves renowned as kings or leaders in this life, and whose achievements had dazzled the benighted understanding of men living in a state of nature, were sxipposed to be more than mortal, and therefore after death the multitude were easily taught to reverence them with divine honors. The Egyptians and Babylonians, after forgetting the in- visible and true God, worshipped positive objects, as the sun and moon ; and then transferred their adoration to the operations of nature and the passions of their own minds, which they embodied under s.ymbolical representations, and ultimately worshipped the symbols themselves. Thoth is supposed to have introduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 b. c. ; and Cadmus, the worship of tlie Egyptian and Phosnician deities, among the Greeks, 1493 nap] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 433 N. NAEONASSER, Era of. This era received its name from the celebrated prince of Babylon, and began Feb. 26, 747 b. c. To find the Julian year on which the year of Nabonasser begins, subtract the year, if before Christ, from 747; if after Christ, add to it 748. NAMES. Originally every person had but one name. Plato recommended it to parents to give happy names to their children ; and the Pythagoreans taught that the minds, actions, and successes of men were according to their names, genius, and fate. The popes changed their names at their exalta- tion to the pontificate, ," a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whose name till then was Swine-snout, a. d. 687." — Platina. Onuphrius refers it to John Xn., 956 ; and gives as a reason, that it was done in imitation of Sts. Peter and Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. In France it was usual to change the name given at baptism, as was done in the case of two sons of Henry II. of France. The}'^ were christened Alexander and Hercules ; but at their confirmation, these names were changed to Henry and Francis. It is usual for the religious at their entrance into monasteries to assume new names, to show they are about to lead a new life, and have renounced the world, their family, and themselves. See Surnames. NAJVIUR. Ceded to the house of Austria by the peace of Utrecht. It was garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town to the United Provinces in 1715. Namur M'as taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 1781, the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792, it was again taken by the French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year ; but they regained possession of it in 1794. The French, however, delivered it up to the Allies, in 1814. NANTES, Edict of. See Edict. NAPLES The continental division of the kingdom of the two Sicilies. Naples was a part of the Roman territory at a very early period. In the fifth cen- tury it became a prey to the Goths, and afterwards to the Lombards ; and the Saracens, Normans, and French, also successively had possession of this country. The Goths having become masters of I Naples and of Sicily, are expelled by Belisarius, general of the Eastern empire - - - a. d. 537 ; The Lombards next get possession of Naples, and are dispossessed by Char- lemagne .... 800 Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of France, obtains the crown from the pope, to the exclusion of the rightful heir, Conradin, who is be- headed, aged sixteen years - - 1266 The French becoming hated by the Si- cilians, a general massacre of the in- vaders takes place, one Frenchman only escaping. See Sicilian Vespers March 30, 1282 Peter of Arragon reigns - - - 1282 The two crowns disjoined - - 1303 Charles Durazzo, becoming king of Hungary, is murdered there by order of the queen regent, in her presence - 1386 For this murder she is taken out of her carriage, and drowned in the river Boseth - - - - . 1386 Sicily again unhed to Naples, and the i kings ever sinro called kins of the I Two Sicilies . . ~: - U42 ' 19 Taken from the French and annexed to SiJain 1504 The tyranny of the Spaniards leads to an insurrection, excited by Masaniello, a fisherman, who in fifteen days raises an army of 200,000 men - -1647 This insurrection subsides, and Masa- niello is murdered - - - 1647 Attempt of the duke of Guise to possess the crown - - - 1647 The kingdom completely conquered by prince Eugene - - - 1707 Discovery of the ruins of Herculaneum. See Hercidcmewn - - - 1711 Naples ceded to the emperor by the treat); of Radstadt, 1714 ; Sicily - 1720 Both kingdoms are recovered by the crown of Spain - - - 1734 And Charles, the son of Philip of Spain, reigns - - - - - 1735 Reign of Ferdinand IV. - - - 1759 His flight on the approach of the French republicans - - Jan. 14, 1799 Nelson appears, Naples is retaken, and the king restored - - July 13, 1799 It is again taken by the French, April 7, 1801 Dreadful earthquake felt throughout 434 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [NAT NAPLES, continued. the kingdom, and thousands perish July 26, 1805 Treaty oifensive and defensive between France and Naples - Oct. 8, 1805 Ferdinand is again driven from Naples, and Joseph Bonaparte is crowned king - - - Feb. 6, 1806 Jcseph abdicates for the crown of Spain June 1, 1808 The crown is transferred to Joachim Murat - - - July 1, iSOS Naples is surrendered to a British fleet, and Ferdinand re-enters - June 17, 1815 Execution of Joachim Murat - Oct. 15, 1815 Revolutionary movement, headed by general Pepe - - July 15, 1820 Suppression of the Carbonari Sept 16, 1820 Reign of Francis I. - - -1826 And of Ferdinand 11. - Nov. 8, 1830 Commencement of the dispute relative to the sulphur monopoly (which is afterwards amicably adjusted) March 15, 1S40 Demonstration in favor of Pius IX. and reform, iired upon at Naples, and ar- rests made - - Dec. 15, 1847 Sanguinary disorders at Messina Jan. 4, 1848 Rebellion at Palermo, &c. - Jan. 12, 1848 Palermo bombarded - Jan. 13-19, 1848 The king signed a constiti.i:ion Jan. 28, 1848 Rlessina expelled the Neapohtan gar- rison - - - -Feb. 22, 1&18 The parliament of Sicily declares that island independent ; Messina bom- barded by the Neapolitan fleet Ap. 3, 1848 The national guard raises barricades at Naples - - - May 14, 1848 The people put down by the king's troops ; 144(3 killed - May 15, 1845 The Sicilian parliament elects the duke of Genoa as king of Sicily - July 10, 1848 Messina bombarded and taken by the Neapolitan troops - Sept. 2, 1848 New constitution conceded to Sicily March 6, 1849 Cataniabombarded and reduced Apr. 5, 1849 iVARVA, Battle of, in which Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated by the renowned Charles XII. of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year. The army of Peter is said to have amounted to 100,000 men, while the Swedish army did not much exceed 20,000 : fought Nov. 30, 1700. NASEBY, Battle op, between Charles I. and the parliament army under Fair- fax and Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was commanded by lord Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marmaduke Langdale the left, and the king himself headed the body of reserve. The victory was with the parliament forces, and was decisive of the fate of the unfortu- nate Charles, who was obliged to abandon the field to his enemies, losing all his cannon and baggage, and 5000 of his army were made prisoners, June 14, 1645. NATIONAL DEBT op ENGLAND. The first mention of parliamentary secu- rity for a debt of the nation, occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present national debt commenced in the reign of William III. It had amounted, in the year 1697, to about five millions sterling, and the debt was then thought to be of alarming magnitude. In 1702, On the accession of queen Anne, the debt amounted to - - - - ^14,000,000 In 1714, On the accession of Geo. I. it amounted to - 54,000,000 In 1749, Geo. II. ; after the Spa- nist war, it amounted to 78,000,000 In 1763, George HI. : end of the 7 years' war, it amounted to . . - - 139,000,000 In 1786, Three years after the Ame- rican war, it amounted to 268,000,000 In 1798, The civil and foreign war, it amounted to - ■ 462,000,000 NATIONAL DEBT op the UNITED STATES, at different times. In 1791 the debt was - - - $75,463,476 In 1830 the debt was - - S4S,565'406 In 1800 " " - ■ - - 82,976,294 In 1835 " " - - - .37,733 In 1810 " " - . - 53,173,217 In 1839 » « . . 11,983,733 In 1815 " " - - - • 99.833,660 In 1845 " ■' - - - 16.801,647 In 1816 " " - - - 127,334,934 In 1848 " " ,- - 65,804,450 In 1820 " " - - - - 91,015,566 NATURALIZATION. It is defined to be " the making a foreigner or alien a denizen or freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it were, In 1802, Close of the French Re- volutionary wax-, it a- mounted to - .£571,000,000 In 1814, Close of the war against Bonaparte - - - 865,000,000 In 1817, When the Irish and Eng- lish exchequers were consolidated - - 848 282,477 In 1830, Total amount of the funded and unfunded debt - . - - 840,184,022 Li 1840. Total amount of ditto - 789,578,000 In 1845; Funded debt - - - 768,789,241 NAV j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 43i both a subject and a native of a king or countrj'^, that by nature he did not belong to." The first act of naturalization in England passed in 1437 ; and various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns from that time, several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the natural- ization of the Jews passed in 1753, but it was repealed in the following year, on the petition of all the cities in England. See United States. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY of FRANCE. Upon the proposition of the abbe Si^yes, the states of France constituted themselves into the National Assem- bly, June 16, 1789. On the 20th, the hall of this new assembly was shut by order of the king ; upon which the deputies of the Tiers Etat repaired to the Jeit de Paume, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until they had digested a constitution for France. On the 2d they met at the church of St. Louis. This assembly dissolved itself, Sept. 21, 1792. See next article. NATIONAL CONVENTION of FRANCE. Constituted in the hall of the Tuileries, Sept. 17, and formally opened, Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gr^oire, at the head of the National Assembly, repaired thither and announced that that assembly had ceased its functions. It was then decreed, "That the citizens named by the French people to form the National Convention, being met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, declare, that the National Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a a new constitution was organized, and the Executive Directory was installed at the Little Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1795. See Directory. NATIONAL GALLERY, London. The foundation of this great institution was the purchase, by the British government, for the public service; of the Angerstein collection of pictures, whose number did not much exceed forty. They were purchased of Mr. Angerstein's executors, in Jan. 1822 ; and the first exhibition of them took place in Pall Mall, in May 1824. Sir G. Beau- mont, Mr. Howell Carr, and many other gentlemen, as well as the British Institution, contributed many fine pictures ; and the collection has been augmented by numerous later gifts, and recent purchases. The present edi- fice in Trafalgar-square was designed by Mr. Wilkins, and was completed and opened in 1837. NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the first upon record, 1263 b. c. — Dio Frcsnoy. The first sea-fight on record is that between the Corinthians and Corcyreans, 664 b. c. — Blair. The fol- lowing are among the most celebrated naval engagements to be found on the page of history. at Cnidos ; Pisander, the Athenian admiral, is killed ; and the maritime power of the Lacedemonians de- stroyed. — Tliucydides - - 394 The Roman fleet employed in the siege of Lilybasum, burned by the Cartha- ginians ----- 249 The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by tlie consul Lutatius - - - 2-12 The Roman fleets vanciuished by Han- nibal, the Carthasinian general ; 800 galleys taken, an9 16,00U prisoners; second Punic war - - - 209 At Actium, between the fleets of Octa- viantis Cassar and Marc Antony. This battle decides the fate of the latter, 300 of his galleys going over to Caasar, by which he is totally defeated - 31 BEFORE CHRIST. First sea-fight on record, in which the Corinthians conquer the Corcyreans 064 The Athenian fleet under Themistocles, with 380 sail, defeat the Persian, con- sisting of 2000, at the straits of Sa- lamis 480 Again, at the mouth of the river Eury- medon ; Cymon, the Athenian admi- ral, vanquishes the Persian fleet and army, in one day. — Ilerodolus - 470 The Lacedemonian fleet taken by Alci- biades, the Athenian - - - 410 The Spartan general, Lysander, totally defeats the Athenian fleet under Co- non ; by this victoiy he puts an end to the maritime power of Athens - 407 The Persians engage Conon to com- mand their fleet, with which he en- tirely vanquishes the Lacedemonian fleet, and takes fifty sail out of ninety 400 The Persian fleet conquer the Spartan ANNO DOMINI. The emperor, Claudius II. defeats the Goths, and sinks 2000 of their ships. — Da Fresnoij ... - IJfiS 436 THE world's progress [nav NAVAL BATTLES, continued. The fleets belonging to Spain, Venice, and Pius V. defeat the Turkish fleet in the Gulf of Lepanto. The Chris- tian fleet consisted of 206 galleys, and 30,000 men. The Turks, out of 250 § alleys, saved only 100; and lost 0,000 men in killed and prisoners. — Voltaire . . . . 157 x Bay of Gibraltar; Dutch and Spani- ards. This was a bloody conflict and decisive victory, and settled for a time the superiority of the Dutch, Apr. 25, 1607 NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY. Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail of Danish pirates on the Dorset and Hampsliire coast. — Asset's Life of Alfred - - ■ - '- 897 Near Sluys ; Edward III. defeated the French fleet of 400 sail, which were all sunk. 30,000 French were killed in this engagement - - - 1340 The English and Flemings ; the latter signally defeated - - - 1371 English and French, in which the latter power loses 80 ships - - - 1389 Near Milford Haven ; the English take 14, and destroy 15 French ships - 1405 Off Barfleur ; the duke of Bedford takes 500 French ships - - - 1416 In the Downs ; the French fleet caj)- tured by the earl of Warwick - 1459 Bay of Biscay ; Enfrlish and French, the latter defeated' - - - 1512 Sir Edward Howard defeats the French under Prejeant - - - 1513 In the Channel ; the British defeat the French fleet with great loss - - 1545 The Spanish Armada driven from the English Channel to the road of Calais, by a running fight, the Spaniards los- mg 15 ships and 5000 men ; they are again defeated, and obliged to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, when their fleet is dispersed in a storm, and they lose 17 more ships, and 5000 more men. See Armada - July 19, 1588 Dover Straits; between the Dutch ad- miral, Van Tromp, and admiral Blake. The Dutch surprise the Eng- lish in the Downs, SO sail engaging 40 English, six of which are taTvenor destroyed ; and the Dutch admiral 'sails in triumph through the channel, with a broom at his mast-head, to de- note that he had swept the English from the seas - - June 29, 1652 In the Downs; same admirals, and nearly same loss Sept. 23, Oct. 28, and Nov. 29, 1652 The English gain a victory over the Dutch fleet off Portsmouth, taking and destroying 11 men of war and 30 merchantmen. Van Tromp was the Dutch, and Blake the Enslish admiral Feb. 10, 1653 Again, near Portland, between the Eng- lish and Dutch ; the latter defeated Feb. 18, 1653 Again, off the North Foreland. The Dutch and English fleets consisted of near 100 men-of-war each. Van Tromp commanded the Dutch: Blake, Monk, and Deane, the English Six ' Dutch ships were taken ; 11 were sunk, and the rest ran into Calais road - - - June 2, 1653 Again, on the coast of Holland; the Dutch lost 30 men-of-war, and ad- miral Tromp was killed - July 31, 1653 At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 2,000,000 pieces of eight, were taken by the English - - Sept. 1656 The Spanish fleet vanquished, and then burnt in the harbor of Santa Cruz, by Blake - - - April, 1657 English and French ; 130 of the Bor- deaux fleet destroyed by the duke of York - - - r>ec. 4, 1664 The duke of York, (afterwards James II.) defeats the Dutch fleet off Har- wich ; the Dutch admiral blown up with all his crew : 18 capital ships taken, 14 destroyed - June 3, 1665 The earl of Sandwich took 12 men of war and 2 India ships Sept. 4, 1665 A contest between the Dutch and En- glish fleets lor victory, maintained lor lour days. The English lose 9, and the Dutch 15 ships, June I to 4, 166G Decisive engagement at the mouth of the Thames, when the English gain a glorious victory, the Dutch lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals killed, and 4000 officers and seamen. Fought July 26, 1666 The English fleet of 16 sail, defeat the French of 30, near Martinico - - 1667 Coast of Holland ; by Prince Rupert, May 28, June 4, and Aug. 11, D'Etrees and Ruyter defeated - - - 1673 Several actions to the disadvantage of the Dutch. They agree lo strike to the English colors in the British seas, 25 Charles 11. - - - - 1673 Off Tangiers, battle between the En- glish and Moors, which lasted 11 days 1679 Off Beachy-head ; the English and Dutch are defeated by the French, June 30, 1690 The English and Dutch combined fleets gain a signal victory over the French fleet, near Cape La Hogue ; 21 of their largest men-of-war were destroyed. — See La Hogue - May 19, 1692 Off St. Vincent ; the English and Dutch squadrons, under admiral Rooke, de- feated by the French - June 16, 1693 Off Carthagena, between admiral Ben- bow and the French fleet, command- ed by admiral Du Casse, fought Aug. 19, 1702 The English and Dutch fleets, under sir George Rooke, defeat the French fleet (having the Spanish galleons in convoy) in the port of Vigo. They take 9 out of 13 galleons, laden chief- ly with silver, and six men-of-war ; the other 4 galleons, and 14 men-of- war, destroyed, fought Oct. 12, 1702 Off the Lizard, when the English fleet was defeated - - Oct. 9, 1707 NAV] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 437 NAVAL BATTLES, continued. In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake took sixty French vessels laden with provisions - - May 2i, IT^OS The Spanish fleet of 27 sail totally de- feated by sir George Byng, in the Faro of Messina - - Aug. II, 1718 Bloody battle off Toulon ; Matthews and Lestock against the fleets of France and Spain. Here the brave captain Cornwall fell ; and the vic- tory was lost by a misunderstanding between the English admirals. — Na- val Hist. .... 1744 Off Cape Finistere, the French fleet taken by admiral Anson May 3, 1747 Li the East Indies ; the French retired to Pondicherry - - - 1747 Off Ushant, when admiral Hawke took seven men-of-war of the French Oct. 14, 1747 Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet commanded by Conflans, in Uuiberon Bay ; and thus prevents a projected invasion of England, fought Nov. 20, 1759 Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a fleet of merchantmen - - Oct. 9, 1762 Near Cape St. Vincent, between admi- ral Rodney and admiral Don Lan- gara, the latter defeated and taken prisoner, losing 8 ships Jan. 8, 1780 At St. Jago ; Mons. Suflrein defeated by commodore Johnston April lb, 1781 Admiral Rodney defeated the French ■ going to attack Jamaica, took 10 ships of the line, (1 sunk, and 3 blown up) and sent the French admiral, count de Grasse, prisoner to England April 12, 1782 The British totally defeated the fleets of France and Spain, in the bay of Gibraltar.— See Gibraltar Sept. 13, 1782 Cape St. Vincent ; the Spanish fleet de- feated by Sir J. Jervis, and 4 line of battle ships taken - Feb. 14, 1797 Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; admiral Nelson loses his right arm ; July 24, 1797 Camperdown; the Dutch signally de- feated by admiral Duncan, and 15 ships of war, with the admiral (De Wmter), taken - Oct. 1 1, 1797 Nile ; Toulon fleet defeated by sir Ho- ratio Nelson, at Aboukir ; 9 ships of NAVAL BATTLES of the UNITED STATES. the line taken , 2 burnt, 2 escaped, Aug. 1, 1798 Gibraltar bay ; engagement between the French and British fleets ; the Hannibal of 7i guns \ost July 6, 1801 Ofl'Cadiz ; sir James Saumarez obtains a victory over the French and Span- ish fleets; 1 ship captuied, fought July 12, 1801 Sir Robert Calder with 15 sail, takes 2 ships (both Spanish) out of 20 sail of the French and Spanish combined fleets, off FeiTol - July 22, 1805 Off Trafalgar; memorable battle, in which lord Nelson defeated the fleets of France and Spain, and in which lie received his mortal wound. — (See Trafalgar) - • Oct. 21, 1805 Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, captures 4 French ships of the line, off Cape Ortegal - Nov. 4, 1805 In the West Indies ; the French defeat- ed by sir T. Duckworth ; 3 sail of the Ime taken, 2 driven on shore Feb. 6, 1806 Sir John Borlase Warren captures the French fleet under command of ad- miral Linois - - March 13, 1806 Admiral Duckworth effects the passage of the Dardanelles. See Dardanelles., Feb. 19, 1807 Copenhagen fleet of 18 ships of the line, 15 frigates, and 31 other vessels, sur- renders to lord Cathcart and admiral Gambler. (See Copenhagen) Sept 7, 1807 The Russian fleet of several sail, in the Tagus, surrenders to the British, Sept. 3, 180S Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth. See Algiers - - Aug. 27, 1816 Navarino ; the British, French, and Russian squadrons, defeat and anni- hilate the Turkish navy. See Nava- rino - - - Oct. 20, 1827 Action between the British ships Vol- age and Hyacinth, and 29 (Jhinese war junks, wltich were defeated Nov. 3, 1839 Bombardment and fall of Acre. The British stjuadron under admiral Stop- ford achieved this triumph with tri- fling loss, while the Egyptians lost 2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 prisoners. See Syria • Nov. 3, 1810 Paul Jones, in the Providence priva- teer, takes 16 prizes - - - 1776 His descent on Whitehaven - April 1778 He captures the British frigate Serapis Sept. 23, 1779 Frigate Philadelphia taken by the Tri- politans .... ]803 — recaptured by Decatur - - Feb. 1, 1804 Tripoli bombarded by commodore Pre- ble - - - - Aug. 1804 Frigate Chesapeake fired upon by the British ship Leopard, for refusing to be searched .... lg07 Frigate President, vs. British sloop IJttle Belt - - May 16, 1811 I Constitution captures British frigate Guerrriere - ■ Aug. 13, 18i2 Captain Elliott captures two British frigates on lake Erie - - Oct. 8, 1812 Sloop Wasp captures British sloop Fro- lic, Oct. 18 ; both vessels captured by British 74, Poictiers - Oct. 20, 1812 Frigate United States, captain Decatur, captures British frigate Macedonian 1312 Constitution, captain Bainbridge, cap- tures British frigate Java Oct. 29, 1812 Hornet, captain Lawrence, captures British ship Peacock, captain Peake, Feb. 23, 1813 438 THE world's progress. [nav NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. continued. [Delaware and Cliesapeake bays block- aded by British.] Frigate Chesapeake surrendered to the Britifh frigate Shannon June 1, 1813 Sloop Argus, captured by British sloop Pelican - - - Aug. 14, 1813 Bng E.';terprise captures the British brig Boxer - - - Aug. 1813 Fleet on lake Erie, commodore Perry, captures the British fleet Sept. 10, 1813 jjiOtiUa, commodore Chauncey, cap- tuies British flotilla on lake Ontario, Oct. 5, 1813 Frigate Essex, commodore Porter, cap- tured by frigate Phrebe and sloop Cherub - - • March 28, 1S14 Sloop Frolic, commodore Bainbridge, surrendered to British frigate Or- pheus - - - April 21, 1814 Sloop Peacock, captain Warrington, captures British brig Epervier April 29, 1§14 Sloop Wasp, captain Blakeley, cap- tures British brig Reindeer, June 28, 1814 Flotilla, commodore Macdonough, vic- torious over the British on lake Cham- plain - - - Sept. 11, 1814 Frigate President, surrendered to the British frigate Endymion Jan. 15, 1815 Frigate Constitution captures British brigs Cyane and Levant, ofl" Maderia Feb. 1815 Sloop Hornet, commodore Biddle, cap- tures British brig Penguin, off Brazil, Feb. 23, 18 .5 U. S. naval force under commodore Conner bombards Vera Cruz (jointly with the land force under general Scott) 1847 NAVARINO, Battle op, between the combined fleets of England, France, and Russia, under command of admiral Codrington, and the Turkish navy, in which the latter was almost wholly annihilated. More than thirty ships, many of them four-deckers, were blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks themselves, to prevent their falling into the hands of their enemies, Oct. 20, 1827. The species of policy which led to this attack upon Turkey, was that of Mr. Canning's administration. This destruction of the Turkish naval power was characterized, bj^ the illustrious duke of Wellington, as being an "untoward event," a memorable phrase, applied to it to this day. NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phoenicians, about 1500 b. c. The first laws of navigation originated with the Rhodians, 916 b. c. The first account we have of any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians sailing round Africa, 604 b. c. — Blair. On the destruction of Thebes by Alexander the Great, 335 b. c, its commerce passed to Alexandria, and subsequently the Romans became the chief masters of commerce. It passed successively from the Venetians, Genoese, and Hanse Towns, to the Portuguese and Span- iards ; and from these to the English and Dutch. Plane charts and mariner's compass used about - - - a. d. 1420 Variation of the compass discovered by Columbus - - - - 1492 That the oblique rhumb lines are spi- rals, discovered by Nonius - - 1537 First treatise on navigation - - - 1545 The log first mentioned by Bourne - 1577 Mercator's chart - - - - 1599 Davis's quadrant, or backstaff, for measuring angles, about - - 1600 Logarithmic tables applied to naviga- tion by Gunter - - a. d. 1620 Middle latitude sailing introduced - - 1623 Mensuration of a degree, Norwood - 1631 Hadley's quadrant - - - 1731 Harrison's time-keeper used - - 1764 Nautical almanac first published - 1767 Barlow's theory of the deviation of the compass - - - - - 1820 See Compass, Latitude, Longitude, S^c. NAVIGATION, INLAND, of the United States. An oflacial report of TJ. S. Engineers in 1842 states the number of miles of the rivers west of the Alle- ghanies, navigable for steamboats, 16,674 miles ; entire length of lake coast, of which 2000 belong to British possessions, 5000 miles. The steamboat tonnage of the western rivers in 1846 was 249.055 tons. Aggregate value of commerce on the western rivers, $183,609,725. Estimated amount of lake tonnage, ^61,914,910. [For tonnage of ocean shipping at diifFerent periods, see Shipping.'] NAVIGATION, INLAND, op Great Britain. Mr. Nimmo. in his evidence be- fore the Committee on the state of Ireland, in 1824, said, "we have more inland navigation in Britain than in all the rest of the world put together." The total length of the inland navigation of England, including as well tho NAV] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 439 navigable rivers as canals, is 5300 miles. See Canals. — Haydn. This state- ment scarcely agrees with the preceding. NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws of Oleron were decreed, 6 Richard I., 1194. See Oleron. The first navigation act was passed in 1381. Another and more extensive act was passed in 1541. Act relatmg to the trade of the colonies passed in 1646 ; and several acts followed relating to navigation. The act regulating the navigation of the river Thames was passed in 1786. Naviga- tion Act, for the encouragement of British ships and seamen, passed 4 Wil- liam IV., August 1833. British and American navigation laws repealed, 1849. NAVY OP THE UNITED STATES. The first ship of war of the United States was huilt under the superintendence of the celebrated John Paul Jones, at Portsmouth, N. H., 1781; but the regular navy was commenced by Act of Congress, authorizing the building of six frigates, March 30, 1794. The Constitution launched at Boston, Constellation at Baltimore, 1797. [See Naval Battles.} NAVIES OF EUROPE and AMERICA. COMPARATIVE VIEW OP THE NAVAL FORCES OP THE POWERS OP EUROPE AND AMERICA, 1846. Relative naval power of each nation. In commission. Building, ordina- ry, &c. Total. 1 o d 6 S Vessels. Guns. Vessels. Guns. Vessels. Guns. :2; grtC Great Britain, 332 4,583 304 13,098 §636 17,681 40,000 141 France, 215 4,293 131 4,635 346 8,928 27,554 68 Russia, - 179 5,896 179 5,896 59,000 ;•« Turkey, - 62 2,636 4 24 66 2,660 26,820 9 United States, 47 1,155 30 1,190 77 2,345 8,724 5 Egypt, 35 1,148 3 312 38 1,760 1 Holland, 48 302 86 1,344 134 1,646 4 Sweden, - 330 660 50 1,196 380 1,856 2 Denmark, 95 344 12 732 108 1,076 Austria, - 74 686 74 686 Brazil, - 31 450 11 325 42 775 8 Sardinia, - 11 226 4 220 15 ■ 446 2 Spain, - 21 348 21 348 4 Two Sicilies, 17 338 17 338 . Portugal, 59 Mexico 23 42 -- 1 23 42 ■■ COMPARATIVE VIEW OP THE COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OP DIFFERENT NATIONS. Nations, in the order of their commercial importance. United Kingdom of Great Britain, United States .... France, Norway and Sweden - Holland, Russia, Two Sicilies, .... Austria, Turkey, Sardinia. Denmark, .... Portugal, Spain, Brazil, Mexico, No. of vessels in commerce and fisheries. 23,898 19,666 13,782 5,450 1,528 Not known. 9,174 6,199 2,220 3,502 3,036 798 2,700 Unknown. Unknown. Tonnage. 3,007,581 2,416,999 839,608 471,772 241,676 239,000 213,198 208,551 182,000 167,360 153,408 80,525 80,000 Unknown. Unknown. No. of guns to each 100,000 tons of com- merce. 97 1.063 '224 6a3 2,466 158 321 1,461 265 709 440 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. r NEM NAVY OF ENGLAND. Tlie first fleet of galleys, like those of the Danes, was built by Alfred, a. d. 897. The number of galleys had increased under Edgar to 350, about a. d. 965. A formidable fleet was equipped by the pub- lic contribution of every town in England, in the reign of Ethelred II., 1007, et seq., Avhen it rendezvoused at Sandwich to be ready to oppose the Danes. From this period fleets were occasionally furnished by the maritime towns, and the Cinque ports, and were usually commanded by the king, or an ad- miral under him : such was the fleet of Edward III. at the siege of Calais in 1347 ; it consisted of 40 ships, badly equipped, under no public fixed regu- lations. The date of the commencement of the Royal or British navy, may therefore be placed 4 Henry VIII. 1512, when the first Navy-oflQce was ap- pointed, with commissioners to manage naval afiairs, and a number of stout ships of war began to be permanently kept on foot by the crown. — Gibson'' s Camden. In the time of Henry VIII. the navy consisted of 1 ship of 1200 tons, 2 of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller ; the largest was called the Great Harry. Elizabeth's fleet at the time of the Spanish Armada, in 1588, consisted of only 28 vessels, none larger than frigates. James I. added «lO ships of 1400 tons each, and 64 guns, the largest then ever buii.*;. — Gibson's Continuation of Camden. ACCOUNT OP THE PROGRESSIVE INCREASE OP THE ROYAL NAVY OP ENGLAND, PROM HENRY VIU'S REIGN TO THE CLOSE OP THE LAST WAR, 1814. Yr. Ships. Tons. Men voted Navy estim. Yr. Ships. Tons. Men voted Navy estim. 1521 16 7,260 no account. 1760 412 321,134 70,000 .£3,227,143 1578 21 10,506 6,700 no account. 1793 498 433,226 45,000 5,525,331 1603 42 17,055 8,346 no account. 1800 767 668,744 135,000 12,422,837 1658 157 57,000 21,910 no account. 1808 869 892,800 143,800 17,496,047 1638 173 101,892 42,000 no account. 1814 901 966,000 146,000 18,786,509 [1702 272 159,020 40,000 il, 056,9 15 In 1814, Great Britairi had 901 ships, of which 177 were of the line ; and in 1830, she had 621 ships, some of 140 guns each, and down to surveying ves- sels of 2 guns only. Of these 148 sail were employed on foreign and home service. On Jan. 1, 1841, the total number of ships of all sizes in commis- sion was 183. NAVY OF FRANCE. It is first mentioned in history a. d. 728, when, like that of England at an early period, it consisted of Galleys ; in this year the French defeated the Frison fleet. It was considerably improved under Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about 1697. The French navy was in perhaps its highest splendor about 1781 ; but it became gr&atly reduced in the late wars against England. NEBRASKA. A territory of the United States as yet (1850) unorganized, oc- cupying 400,000 square miles, the entire space between the Missouri and White Earth Rivers on the east, the Rocky Mountains on the west, the 49th parallel lat. on the north, and the Kansas and Arkansas rivers on the south. First traversed by Lewis and Clarke's expedition, in 1805, and partly ex- plored by Fremont, on his way to Oregon, in 1842. NEEDLES. They make a considerable article of commerce, as weU as of home trade in England, German and Hungarian steel is of most repute for nee- dles. The first that were made in England were fabricated in Cheapside, London, in the time of the sanguinary Mary, by a negro from Spain ; but, as he would not impart the secret, it was lost at his death, and not recovered again till 1566, in the reign of Elizabeth, when Elias Growse, a German, taught the art to the English, who have since brought it to the highest degree of perfection. — Stoioe. The family of the Greenings, ancestors of lord Dorchester, established a needle manufactory in Bucks, about this time. — Anderson. NEMEAN GAMES. So called from Nemsea, where they were celebrated. new] dictionary of dates. 441 They were originally instituted by the Argives in honor of Archemorus, who died by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some time after renewed them. They were one of the four great and solemn games which were obsei-yed in Greece. The Argives, Corinthians, and the inhabitants of Cle- onaa, generally presided by turns at the celebration, in which were exhibited foot and horse-races, chariot-races, boxing, -svi-estling, and contests of every kind, both gymnical and equestrian. The conqueror was rewarded with a crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley, in memory of the adventure of Archemorus. whom his nurse laid down on a sprig of that plant. They were celebrated every third, or according to others, every fifth year, or more properly on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 b. c- He?-odotus. NEPTUNE. The new planet predicted by Le Verrier ; discovered by Dr. Galle of Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846. NESTORIANS. A sect of Christians, the followers of Nestorius, some time ^ bishop of Constantinople, who, by the general strain of church historians, * is represented as a heretic, for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary was -the mother of Jesus Christ as man, yet she was not the mother of God, for that no human creature could participate that to another, which she had not herself; that God was united to Christ under one person, but remained as distinct in nature and essence as though he had never been united at all ; that such union made no alteration in the human nature, but that he was subject to the same passions of love and hatred, pleasure and pain, &c., as other men have, only that they were better regulated, and more properly applied than in ordinary men. The generality of Christians in the Levant go under this name ; they administer the sacrament with leavened bread, and in both kinds, permit their priests to marry, and iise neither confirma- tion nor auricular confession, &c. Nestorius died a. d. 439. — Du Pin. NETHERLANDS. They were attached to the Roman Empire under the name of Belgia, until its decline in the fifth century. For several ages this coun- try formed part of the kingdom of Austrasia. In the twelfth century it was governed by its own counts and earls ; and afterwards fell to the dukes of Burgundy, and next to the house of Austria. The seventeen provinces were united into one state, in 1549. For the late history of the Netherlands see Holland and Belgium. NEVIS. An English colony, first planted by the English in 1628. This island was taken by the French, Feb. 14, 1782, but was restored to the Enghsh at the general "peace in the next year. The capital of this island (one of the Caribbees) is Charleston. See Colonies. NEW ENGLAND. The confederation of the northeastern colonies of America under this name, for mutual defence, 1643. Sir E. Andros, the tyrannical go- vernor of New England, 1686. The New England States are Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. See these resj^ectively. NEW HAMPSHIRE. One of the United States ; was first granted to Ferdi- nando Gorges in 1662 ; first settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. It came voluntarily under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641 ; but was made a separate province by an act of Charles I. in 1679. It was several times afterwards connected with Massachusetts until 1741, since which it has remained a separate State. Constitution formed in 1784, and amended, 1792. Population in 1790 was 141,885 ; in 1800, 138,858 ; in 1830, 269,328 ; in 1840, 284,574. NEW HOLLAND. The largest known land that does not bear the name of a continent. When this vast island was first discovered is uncertain. In the beginning of the seventeenth century the north and west coasts were tracer^ 19* 442 THE world's progress. [ kew by the Dutcli ; and what was deemed, till lately, the south extremity, waa discovered by Tasman, in 1642. Captain Cook, in 1770, explored the east and north-east from 38° south, and ascertained its separation from New Guinea ; and, in 1773, captain Furneaux, by connecting Tasman's discove- ries with Cook's, completed the circuit. But the supposed south extremity, which Tasman distinguished by the name of Van Diemen's Land, was found, in 1798, to be an island, separated from New Holland by a channel forty leagues wide, named from the discoverer, Bass Strait. Diflerent parts of the coast have been called by the names of the discoverers, &c. The east- ern coast, called New South Wales, Avas taken possession of in the name of George III. of England, by captain Cook, and now forms a part of the Bri- tish dominions. See Neio South Wales. sJ'EW JERSEY. One of the United States ; first settled by the Dutch from New York, at Bergen, 1614-20. A colony of Swedes and Finns, on the De- laware, 1627. The province included with New York in the grant by Charles II. to the duke of York in 1664; granted by the duke to lord Berkley and sir George Cartaret, who established a government in 1695. Subdued by the Dutch in 1672, but surrendered bj^ them, 1674 ; purchased by a company of English emigrants, who formed the first English settlement at Salem, 1674 ; government surrendered to the crown (in consequence of difli- culty about titles, &c.) and accepted by queen Anne, 1702 ; continued under royal instead of proprietary government iintil 1776. This State sufifered much in the revolution, and acted an important part. Adopted the Federal Constitution by unanimous vote in 1787. Population in 1732, 47,000; in 1790, 184,189 ; in 1830, 320,779 ; in 1840, 373,306. NEW MEXICO, according to Spanish and Mexican authorities, extends from about 32° to 42°, N. latitude, and from 23° to about 33° long. W. of Wash- ington— an area of about 200,000 squai'e miles. The country taken posses- sion of for Spain, by Juan de Onate, sent by count de Monterey, viceroy of Mexico, in 1594. A great massacre of the Spaniards in their pueblos or fort, by the Indians, 1680, when the governor retreated from Santa F6, and founded Paso del Norte. The whole country reconqxiered by the Spaniards after a war of ten years ; but a deadly hatred has since continued between the races. New Mexico ceded to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. A large part of it is claimed by Texas, and the boundary is yet (July 1850) undecided. NEW SOUTH WALES. See New Holland. The eastern coast of New Hol- land was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook, for England, in 1770. It was at the recommendation of this illustrious navigator that the design of a convict colony here was first formed. Governor Phillips, the first governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts, January 20, 1788 : but he subsequently preferred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the capital. NEW STYLE. Ordered to be used in England in 1751 ; and the next year eleven days were left out of the calendar — the third of September, 1752, being reckoned as the fourteenth — so as to make it agree with the Grego- rian Calendar, ■whick see, and also article Calendar. In the year a. d. 200, there was no difference of styles ; but there had arisen a difference of ele- ven days between the old and the new style, the latter being so much be- forehand with the former ; so that when a person using the old style dates the 1st of May, those who employ the new, reckon the 12th. From this variation in the computation of time, we may easily account for the differ- ence of many dates concerning historical fiicts and biographical notices. NEW YEAR'S DAY. Its institution as a feast, or day of rejoicing, is the oldest on authentic record transmitted doAvn to our times, and still observed. NEW DICTIONARY OF DATES. 443 The feast was instituted by Numa, and was dedicated to Janus (who pre- sided over the new year), January 1, 713 b. c. On this day, the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine ; and all the mechanics began something of their art or trade ; the men of letters did the same as to books, poems, &c. ; and the consuls, though cho- sen before, took the chair and entered upon their office this day. After the government was in the hands of the emperors, the consuls marched on New-year's day to the capitol, attended by a crowd, all in new clothes, when two white bulls never yoked were sacrificed to Jupiter Capitolinus. A great deal of incense and other perfumes were spent in the temple ; the flamens, together with the consuls, during this religious solemnity (offered their vows for the prosperity of the empire and the emperor, after having taken an oath of allegiance, and confirmed all public acts done by him the preceding year. On this day the Romans laid aside all old grudges and ill humor, and took care not to speak so much as one ominous or untoward word. The first of January is more observed as a feast-day in Scotland than it is in England. In many parts of the United States, but chiefly in New York, this is observed as a holiday, the ladies receiving complimentary visits from the other sex. This custom is derived from the Dutch ; but is also observed in Paris. NEW-YEAR'S GIFTS. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New- Year's gifts among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, who having consi- dered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of the new year, authorized the custom afterwards, and gave these gifts the name of Strense, 747 b. c. In the reign of Augustus, the populace, gentry, and senators used to send him new-year's gifts, and if he was not in town, they carried them to the capitol. From the Romans this custom went to the Greeks, and from the heathens to the Christians, who very early came into the practice of making presents to the magistrates. Some of the fa- thers wrote verj' strenuously against the practice, upon accoimt of the immo- ralities committed under that cover and ijrotection ; but since the govern- ments of the several nations in Europe became Christian, the ciistom is still retained as a token of friendship, love, and respect. It is well observed in the United States. NEW YORK. One of the United States. The river Hudson and the island of Manhattan, Avliere New York city now stands, were discovered by Henry Hudson, an Englishman, in the service of the Dutch, 1609. First permanently settled on Manhattan island by the Dutch in 1621 ; surrendered to the En- glish, under Ricliavd Nichols, for the duke of York, in 1664 ; confirmed to England bj'' the peace of Breda, 1667 ; retaken by a Dutch expedition in 1673 ; restored to the duke of York with a new patent, 1674 ; fii'st legisla- tive assembly, 1683 ; Jacob Leisler's revolution, 1689 ; episcopacy esta- blished by law, 1693 ; negro conspiracy, 1741 ; colony took an active part in French war, 1756, and the Avar of Independence ; city captured by English, 1776 ; who evacuated it Nov. 25, 1783 ; State adopted the Federal Constitution by 80 to 35, 1788; adopted new State Constitution, 1846. Population in 1732, 65,000 ; in 1790, 340,820 ; in 1810, 959,049 ; in 1820, 1,372.812 ; in 1840, 2,428,921. F'EW YORK. City op. Founded by the Dutch, 1614 ; fort built by them at S. point of the island, 1623 ; surrendered to the English, 1664 ; assessed value of all the property in the town in 1668, Avas i;78,231 ; city taken by the British, 1776 ; eA'acuated, Nov. 25, 1783 ; meeting of first United States Congress here, 1785; Washington inaugurated President of the United States, at the City Hall in Wall-street. April 30, 1789 ; yellow fever pre- vailed here in 1795 and 1805 ; cholera in 1832, 1834, and 1849. Great fire in 444 THE world's progress. [ NEW the business part of the city, swept over 40 acres, and destroyed property valued at about $20,000,000, Dec. 16, 1835 ; another in same neighborhood, 1845 ; the wliole district rebuilt and improved shortly after ; celebration of the completion of Croton Aqueduct, Oct. 14, 1842. Population in 1790, 83,131 ; in 1810, 96,373 ; in 1830, 202,589 ; in 1840, 312,710. NEW ORLEANS, City op. Founded by the French in 1717 ; conveyed to the Spanish, 1762 ; recovered by the French, 1800 ; purchased by the United States in the purchase of Louisiana, 1803. The battle of, between the Americans under Gen. Jackson, and the British under Packenham, in which the latter were defeated with loss of 3,000 killed and wounded, the Americans losing only 7 killed and 6 wounded, Jan. 8, 1815. Population in 1810, was 17,242; in 1830, 46,310; in 1840, 102,193, including 23,448 slaves. NEWCASTLE, ENGLAND. The first coal port in the world. The coal-mines were discovered here about a. d. 1234. The first charter which was granted to the townsmen for digging coal was by Henry III. in 1289 ; but in 1306, the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in London, by royal proclamation, chiefly because it injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which were then growing about that city ; but this interdiction did not long conti- nue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this place for more than 500 years. NEWFOUNDLAND, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Privia Vista. June 24, a. d. 1494. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert, 1583. In the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the English in the fishery. There were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from Portugal, 150 fi'om France, and only 15, but of larger size, from England, in 1577. — Hackluyt. But the English fishery in some years afterwards had in- creased so much that the ports of Devonshire alone employed 150 ships, and sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 1625. Nearly 1000 English fa- milies reside here all the year ; and in the iishing season, beginning in May and ending in September, more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland, which may be esteemed as one of our finest nurseries for seamen. New- foundland has recently obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation. A bishopric was established here in 1839. Appalling fire at St. John's ; a great portion of the town destroyed; the loss estimated at £1,000.000 sterling, June 9, 1846. NEWS. The origin of this word has been variously defined. News is a fresh accoiint of any thing. — Sidney. It is something not heard before. — L' Es- trange. News is an account of the transactions of the present time.s. — Addi- son. The word "news" is not, as many imagine, derived from the adjective new. In former times (between the years 1595 and 1730) it was a prevalent practice to put over the periodical publications of the day the initial letters of the cardinal points of the compass, thus ; — importing that these papers contained intelligence from the four quarters of the globe ; and from this practice is derived the term Newspaper. NEWSPAPERS. The first published in England, which might truly be consi- dered as a vehicle of general information, was established by sir Roger L'Estrange, in 1663 ; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer, and continued nearly three years, when it ceased on the appearance of the Gazette. A publication, with few claims however to the character of a newspaper, had NEW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 445 previously appeared; it was called the English Mermry* and came out un- der the authority of queen Elizabeth, so early as 1588, the period of the Spanish armada. An early copy of this paper is dated July 23, in that year. In the reign of James I., 1622, appeared the London Weekly Courant, and in the year 1643 (the period of the civil war) were printed a variety of pub- lications, certainly in no respect entitled to the name of newspapers, of which the following were the titles : — The Parliament's Scout's Discovery, or Certain Information. The Mercuriics Civicus, or London's In- telligencer. The Country's Complaint, ^c. England's Memorable Accidents. The Kingdom's Intelligencer. The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Par- liament. T)ie Mercurius Aulicus. The Scotch Intelligencer. The Parliament's Scout. The Weekly Account. Mercurius Britannicus. A paper called the London Gazette was pubUshed August 22, 1642. The London Gazette of the existing series, was published first at Oxford, the court being there on account of the plague, Nov. 7, 1665, and afterwards at London, Feb. 5, 1666. See Gazette. The printing of newspapers and pamphlets was prohibited 31 Charles I., 1680. — Salmon's Chron. Newspa- pers were first stamped in 1713. No. of the stamps issued : — In 1753 - - - 7,411,757 1 In 1810 - - - 20,172,837 In 1760 - - - 9,404,790 In 1820 - - -24,862,186 In 1774 - - - 12,300,000 In 1825 - - - 26,950,693 Li 1790 - - - 14,035,639 In 1830 - - - 30,158,741 InlS35 ■ • -32,874,652 In 1840 - . - 49,033,384 In 1843 • - - 56,443,977 In 1849 - . - 76,569,335 In 1800 - - - 16,084,905 i The total number of newspapers published in the United Kingdom in 1849 was 603, viz : 160 in London, 232 in the English provinces, 117 in Ireland, and 94 in Scotland. The number of advertisements inserted in the London newspapers in 1849 was 886,108, paying a gross duty of i;66,458 25. ; in the English provincial newspapers, 834,729, yielding to the crown a revenue of ^62,604 13s. 6rf. ; in the Irish papers, 220,524, paying ^11,026 4s., and in the Scotch papers, 2,40911, paying in duty ^18,075 16s. %d. NEWSPAPERS, &c. in the United States. The first was the " Boston News Letter" in 1704, which was continued till 1774 ; the second was the Boston Gazette, 1719; the third the American Weekly Mercury, at Philadelphia, started one day after the last. First New York Gazette, in 1725 ; first newspaper in the Carolinas at Charle'ston, 1731-2 ; first Rhode Island Ga- zette, at Newport, 1732 ; first Virginia Gazette, at Williamsburgh, in 1736. In 1775. there were in all the colonies 37 newspapers ; in 1810, in the United States, 356 ; in 1828, 802 ; in 1839, 1555. See Periodical Lit. NEWSPAPERS IN France. The first was the Gazette de Prance, established by Renaudot, in 1631, and continued with few interruptions till 1827-, when it ceased and another paper assumed its name. The Moniteur, commenced 1789, has been since 1800 the ofiicial journal of the Government. The Con- stitutionelle and the Journal des Debats have long had the largest circula- tion. There were 374 newspapers published in France in 1832. See Peri- odical Lit. NEWSPAPERS, Irish. The first Irish newspaper was Pue's Occurrences, pub- lished in 1700 : Faulknefs Journal was established by George Faulkner, " a man celebrated for the goodness of his heart, and the weakness of his head," 1728. — Supplement to Swift. The oldest of the existing Dublin newspapers, , * The full title is, " No. !)0, The English Mercurie, published by authoritie, for the preveu^ica of false reports, imprinted by Christopher Barker, her highness's printer, No. 50." It describes the armament called the Spanish Armada, giving " A journal! of what passed since the 21st of liua month, between her Majestie's fleet and thai of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admirall to the Lordes of council." I It is said by Mr. Watts of the British Museum (1850), that this paper was a forgery, and trjat >s first English paper was the Weekley Newes, published by Nathaniel Butler in 1622.] 446 THE world's PE.0GRES». [ NIT is the Freeman^s Journal, founded by the patriot. Dr. Lucas, about the year 1755. — Westminster Review, Jan. 1830. The Limerick Chronicle, the oldest of the provincial prints, was established in 1768. — Idem. NEY, MARSHAL, his Execution. Ney was the duke of Elchingen, and prince of the Moskwa, and one of the most valiant and skilful of the marshals of France. After the abdication of Napoleon, 5th April, 1814, he took the oath of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return to France from Elba, he marched against him ; but his troops deserting, he regarded the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's way to Paris. March 13, 1815. Ney led the attack of the French at Waterloo, where he fought in the midst of the slain, his clothes filled with bullet-holes, and five horses having been shot under him, until night and defeat obliged him to fly. But though he was included in the decree of July 24, 1816, which guar- anteed the safety of all Frenchmen, he was afterwards sought out, and taken in the castle of a friend at Urillac, where he lay concealed, and brought to trial before the Chamber of Peers. The 12th article of the capitulation of Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was quoted in his favor, yet he was sentenced to death, and met his fate with the fortitude which such a hero could hardly fail to evince, Aug. 16, 1815. NICENE CREED. A summary of the Christian faith, composed at Nice by the first general council held there in the palace of Constantino the Great. In this celebrated council, which assembled a. d. 325, the Arians were con- demned. It was attended by 318 bishops from divers parts, who both set- tled the doctrine of the Trinity, and the time for observing Easter. NILE, Battle op the. One of the greatest in British naval history, between the Toulon and British fleets, the latter commanded by lord, then sir Hora- tio Nelson. This engagement took place near Rosetta, at the mouth of the celebrated river Nile ; nine of the French line-of-battle ships were taken, two were burnt, and two escaped, August 1, 1798. This is sometimes called the battle of Aboukir ; it obtained the conqueror a peerage, by the title of baron Nelson of the Nile ; his exclamation upon commencing the battle was, " Victory or Westminster-abbey !" NILE. SOURCE of the. This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon, in about ten degrees of N. lat., and in a known course of 1250 miles receives no tributary streams. The travels of Bruce were undertaken to discover the source of the Nile ; he set out from England in June, 1768 ; on the 14th of Nov. 1770, he obtained the great object of his wishes, and returned home in 1773. This river c'erflows regularly every year, from the 15th of June to the 17th of September, when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to the land ; and it must rise 16 cubits to insure that fertility. In 1829, the inundation of the Nile rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 80,000 people were drowned, and immense property lost. NIMEGUEN, Treaty of. This was the celebrated treaty of peace between France and the United Provinces, 1678. Nimeguen is distinguished in his- tory for other treaties of peace. The French were successful against the British under the duke of York, before Nimeguen, Oct. 28, 1794 : but were defeated by the British, with the loss of 500 killed, Nov. 8, following. NITRIC ACID, formerly called aquafortis, first obtained in a separate state by Raymond Lully, an alchemist, about a. d. 1287 ; but we are indebted to Cav- endish, Priestley, and Lavoisier, for our present knowledge of its properties. Mr. Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid, in 1785. Nitrous acid, neai'ly similar to nitric, was discovered by Scheele, in 1771. Nitrous gas Avas accidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous Oxide Gas was discov- ered by Dr. Priestley, in 1776. nor] dictionary of dates. 447 NOBILITY. The origin of nobility is referred to the Goths, who, after they had seized a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles of honor, to distinguish them from the common people. The right of peerage seems to have been at first territorial. Patents to persons having no estates were first granted to Philip the Fair of France, a. d. 1095. George Neville, duke of Bedford (son of John, marquess of Montague), ennobled in 1470, was de- graded from the peerage by parliament, on account of his irtter want of property, 19 Edward IV. 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained in June 1773. See the various orders of nobility through the volume; see also Peerage. NOBILITY OF FRANCE. The French nobility preceded that of England, and continued through a long line, and various races of kings, until the period of the memorable revolution. The National Assembly decreed that hered- itary nobility could not exist in a free state ; that the titles of dukes, counts, niarquisses, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be abolished ; that all citizens take tlieir family names ; liveries, and armorial bearings, shall also be abolished, June 18, 1790. The records of the nobility, 600 vol- umes, were burned at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV., June 25, 1792. A new nobility was created by the emperor Napoleon, 1808. The hereditary peerage was abolished in that kingdom, December 27, 1831. See Prance NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into confon/i- ists and non-conformists ; or, as they are commonly denominated, churchmen and dissenters. The former are those who conform to that mode of worshij:) and form of church-government which are established and supported by the state ; the latter are those who meet for divine worship in places of their own. The first place of meeting of the latter, in England, was established at Wandsworth, near London, November 20, 1572. The name of non-con- formists was taken by the Puritans, after the Act of Uniformity had passed, August 24, A. D. 1662, when 2000 ministers of the established religion re- signed, not choosing to conform to the Thirty-nine Articles. NON-JURORS, IN ENGLAND. Persons who suppose that James II. was un- justly deposed, and who, upon that account, refused to swear allegiance to the familj^ that succeeded him. Among this class of persons were several of the bishops, who were deprived in, 1690. Non-jurors were subjected to a double taxation, and were obliged to register their estates. May 1723. NOOTKA SOUND. Discovered by captain Cook in 1778. It was settled by the British in 1786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed a settlement to supply the Chinese market with furs ; but the Spaniards, in 1789, captured two English vessels, and took possession of the settlement. The British ministry made their demand for reparation, and the affair was amicably terminated by a convention, and a free commerce was confirmed to England in 1790. NORFOLK ISLAND. A penal colony of England. It was discovered in 1774, by captain Cook, who found it uninhabited, except by birds. The settle- ment was made by a detachment from Port Jackson, in 1788, in Sydney bay, on the south side of the island. This has latterly been made the severest penal colony of Great Britain. NORMANDY. Anciently Neustria. From the beginning of the ninth cen- tury this countrj' was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, called Northmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles the Simple of France -ceded the duchy to their leader Rollo, a. d. 905 to 912, and from its conquerors it received its present name. Rollo was the first duke, and held it as a fief of the crowm of France, and several of his suc- cessors after him, till William, the seventh duke, conquered England, in 448 THE world's progress. [nob 1066, from which time it became a province of England, till it was lost in the reign of king John, 1204, and reunited to the crown of France. The English, however, still keep possession of the islands on the coast, of which Jersey and Guernsey are the principal. NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discover a northwest passage was made by a Portuguese named Cortereal, about a. d. 1500. It was attempted by the English in 1553 ; and the project was greatly encouraged by queen Elizabeth, in 1585, in which year a company was associated in London, and was called the " Fellowship for the Discovery of the Northwest Passage." The following voyages with this design, were undertaken, under British navigators, in the years respectively stated : — Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to find a north- west passage to China, sailed from the Thames* May 20, 1553 Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find a north-west passage to China - 1576 Captain Davis's expedition to find a north-west passage - - - 1585 Barentz's expedition - - - 1594 Weymouih and Knight's - - 1602 Hudson's voyages ; the last undertalien (See Hudson's Bay.")- - - 1610 Sir Thomas Button's - - - 1612 Baffin's. — See Baffin's Bay ■ - 1616 Foxe's expedition - - - - 1631 [A number of enterprises undertaken by various countries, followed.] Middletoii's expedition - - - 1742 Moore's and Smith's - - - - 1746 Heame's land expedition - - 1769 Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mul- grave, his expedition - - - 1773 Captain Cook in the Resolution and Discovery - • ■ July 1776 Mackenzie's expedition - - - 1789 Captain Duncan's voyage - - 1790 The Discovery, captain Vancouver, re- turned from a voyage of survey and discovery on the north-west coast of America - - Sept. 24, 1795 Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition - Oct. 1815 Captain Buchan's and lieut. Franklin's expedition in the Dorothea and Trent 1818 Captain Ross and lieut. Parry, in the Isabella and Alexander - - 1818 Lieuts. Parry and Liddon in the Hecla and Griper - - May 4, 1819 They return to Leith - Nov. 3, 1820 Capts. Parry and Lyon, in the Fury and Hecla - - - May 8, 1821 Capt. Parry's third expedition with the Hecla - - - May 8, 1824 Capts. Franklin and Lyon, after having attempted a land expedition, again sail from Liverpool - Feb. 16, 1825 Captain Parry, again in the Hecla, sails from Deptford - March 25, 1827 And returns - - - Oct. 6, 1827 Capt. Ross arrived at Hull, on his re- turn from his arctic expediti ""n, after an absence of "bur years, arid when all hope of las return had been near- ly abandoned - - Oct. 18, 1833 Capt. Back and his companions arrived at Liverpool from then- perilous Arc- tic Land Expedition, after having visited the Great Fish River, and ex- amined its course to the Polar Seas Sept. 8, 1835 Captain Back sailed from Chatham in command of His Majesty's ship Ter- ror, on an exploring adventure to Wager River. [Captain Back, in the month of Dec. 1835, was award- ed, by the Geographical Society, the king's annual premium for his polar discoveries and enterprise June 21, 1836 Dease and Simpson traverse the inter- vening space between the discover- ies of Ross and Parry, and establish that there is a north-west passage Oct. 1839 Sir John Franklin and capt. Crozier in the Erebus and Terror leave Eng- land - - - May 24, 1845 Capt. Ross returned from an unsuccess- ful expedition in search of Franklin 1819 Another expedition (one sent out by lady Franklin) in search of sir John Franklin, consisting of two vessels, sailed froin England, April-May 185C Still another, consisting of two vessels, tlie Advance and Rescue, liberally purchased for the purpose by Henry Grinnell, a New York merchant, and manned at Government cost from the U. S. navy, under command of lieut. de Haven, sailed from New York May 1850 NORTH CAROLINA, one of the UNITED STATES. First permanent settle- ment at Albemarle, by emigrants from Virginia, who fled from religious per- * The gallant sir Hugh Willoughby took his departure from Radcliife, on his fatal voyage for discovering the north-east passage to China. "Re. sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where the court then resided. Mutual honors were paid on both sides. The council and courtiers appeared at the windows, ana the people covered the shores. The young king, Edward VI., alone lost the noble and novel sight, for he then lay on his deatli-bed ; so that the principal object of the parade was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice, and frozen to death, on the coast oi hwp\a.nA. — Hackluyt. nul] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 449: secution, about 1660. The district granted to loTd Clarendon, who induced, the celebrated John Locke to prepare a constitution for it, 1663. The chief magistrate was called the palatine, and there was an hereditary nobility. This constitution abolished, as defective, 1693. The two Carolinas purchas- ed by the crown for £17,500, and divided into North and South, in 1720. NORWAY. Until the ninth century, Norway was divided into petty principali- ties, and was little known to the rest of Europe except by the piratical ex- cursions of its natives. It was converted to Christianity in a. d. 1000. The city of Bergen was founded in 1069. The kingdom was united to Denmark in 1378 ; and the three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden -^vere united, in 1439. Pomerania and Rugen were annexed to Denmark in ex- change for Norway, in 1814, and on Nov. 4, in that year, Charles XIII. was proclaimed king by the National Diet assembled at Christiana. The two countries of Sweden and Norway have since then been termed the Scandi- navian Peninsula, of which Bernadotte was crowned king by the title of Charles XIV., Feb. 5, 1818. See Sweden. NOTABLES of FRANCE. An assembly of the notable^ of France was con- vened by Calonne, the minister of Louis XVI. , in 1788. The deranged state of the king's finances induced him to convoke the notables, who assembled Nov. 6, when Calonne opened his plan, but any reform militated too much against private interest to be adopted. Calonne not being able to do any good, was dismissed, and soon after retired to England : and Louis, having lost his confidential minister, Mons. de Vergennes, by death, called Mons. de Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. In the end, the States General were called, and from this assembly sprang the National Assembly, which see. The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. The Spanish notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by him commanding their attendance,) at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. See Spain. NOTARIES PUBLIC. They were first appointed by the primitive fathers of the Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs, in the first century. — Du Fresno)/. This oflice was afterwards changed to a commercial employment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to establish their authenticity in any other country. NOVA SCOTIA. Settled in a. d. 1622, by the Scotch, under sir William Alex- ander, in the reign of James I. of England, from whom it received the name of Nova Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than once changed rulers and proprietors, nor was it confirmed to England till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. It was taken in 1745, and 1758 ; but was again confirmed to England in 1760. Nova Scotia was divided into two provinces, in 1784 ; and was erected into a bishopric in August, 1787. See Baronets. NOVEMBER. This was ancienly the ninth month of the year (whence its name), but when Numa added the months of January and February, 713 B. c, the Romans had it for the eleventh, as it is now. The Roman senators (for whose mean servilities even Tiberius, it is said, often blushed) wished to call this month in which he was born, hj his name, in imitation of Julius C^sar, and Augustus ; but this the emperor absolutely refused, saying, " What will you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen Csesars 1 " NOVI, Battle of, in which the French army commanded bj' Joubert was de- feated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799. Among 10,000 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several other distinguished oflScers. A second battle fought here between the Aus- trian and French armies, when the latter were signally defeated, January 8, 1800. NULLIFICATION of the LAWS op the UNITED STATES. The right 450 THK world's progress. [ OAT . claimed by South Carolina, and various threats held out by the legislature of that State, in 1832. Proclamation of president Jackson against the Nullifiers, Dec. 10. A "State Rights" convention at Columbia, S. C, same day. Calhoun resigned the office of vice-president of the United States, Dec. 28, 1832. Nullification nullified by South Co-rolina convention in consequence of Mr. Clay's compromise tariif, March 11, 1834. NUMANTINE WAR, and SIEGE. The celebrated war of Numantia with the Romans was commenced solely on account of the latter having given refuge to the Sigidians, their own allies, who had been defeated by the Romans, 141 B. c. — Liinj. It continued for fourteen years ; and though Numantia was unprotected by walls or towers, it bravely withstood the siege. The inhabitants obtained some advantages over the Roman forces till Scipio Af- ricanus was empowered to finish the war, and to see the destruction of Nu- mantia. He began the siege with an army of 60,000 men, and was bravely opposed by the besieged, who were not more than 4000 men able to bear arms. Both armies behaved with uncommon valor, and the courage of the Numantines was soon changed into despair and fury. Their provisions be- gan to fail, and they fed uj^on the flesh of their horses, and afterwards on that of their dead companions, and at last were obliged to draw lots to kill and devour one another ; and at length they set fire to their houses, and all destroyed themselves, b. c. 133, so that not even one remained to adorn the triumph of the conqueror. NUNCIO. A spiritual envoy from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. In early times they and legates ruled the courts of several of the sovereigns of Germany, France, and even England. The pope deputed a nuncio to the Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission to an audience by James IL, 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolu- tion. NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of St. Anthony retired at the close of the third century. The first founded in France, near Poitiers, by St. Marcellina, sister to St. Martin, a. d. 360. — Du Fresnoy. The first in England was at Folkstoue, in Kent, by Eardbald, king of Kent, 630. — Dugdale's Monasticon Anglicanum. See articles Abbeys and Monasteries. The liuns were expelled from their convents in Germany, in Julv, 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan., 1790. " 0. GATES TITUS, his PLOT. This Oates was a wicked man, at one time chap- lain of a ship of war. Being dismissed the service for his immoral conduct, he became a lecturer in London ; and, in conjunction with Dr. Tongue, in- vented a pretended plot to assassinate Charles II., of which several persons, Catholics, were accused, and upon false testimony, convicted and executed, A. D. 1678. Oates was afterwards tried for perjury, (in the reign of James II.) and being found guilty, he was fined, put in the pillory, publicly whip- ped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, 1685 ; but was pardoned, and a pension granted him, 1689. OATHS. The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduced by the Saxons into England, a. d. 600. — Rapin. That administered to a judge was settled 1344. Of supremacy, first administered to British sub- jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Heniy VIII., 1535. Of allegiance, first framed and administered 3 James I., 1605. — Stowe's Chron. Of abjuration, being an obligation to maintain the government of king, lords, and com- mons, the Church of England, and toleration of Protestant dissenters, and OGY ] DICTIONAKY OF DATES. 4S1 abjuring all Roman Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 William III. 1701. Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as a. d. 528 ; and the words " So help me God and all saints," concluded an oath until 1550. OATHS, Ancient. The Greeks and Romans looked upon the infringement of an oath with still greater abhorrence than Christians ; they permitted oaths to be taken upon every object in which the person who swore had a decided and sincere belief, upon all kinds of animals, fruits, and vegetables, the stars, the sun, the moon, and other things, without rendering the oaths less binding than if they had been sworn by Jupiter. Jaques Lydius has left us a long catalogue of the numerous objects by which the ancients swore. It was usual with them to swear by what they held most dear ; as, for instance, by their own heads, by that of their friend, or by those per- sons whom they loved most tenderly. The most sacred oath far above any other was by the eyes of their mistress, by her kisses, by her hair. — Ovid, (^'C. OBELISK. The first mentioned in history Avas that of Rameses, king of Egypt, about 1485 b. c. The Arabians call them Pharaoh's needles, and the Egyptian priests the lingers of the sun ; they differed very much as to their costliness, magnitude and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome ; one was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martins, on the pavement of which was a horizontal dial, that marked the hour, about 14 B. c. OBSERVATORIES. The first is supposed to have been on the top of the temple of Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was another, and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter: that at Benares was at least as ancient as these. The first in authentic history was at Alexandria, about 300 b. c. The first in modei-n times was at Cassel, 1561. The Roj'al Observatory at Greenwich was founded by Charles 11. a. d. 1675 ; and from the meridian of Greenwich all English astronomers make their calculations. First modem meridional instrument, by Copernicus- - - A. D. 1540 First observatory at Cassel - - - 1561 Tycho Brahe's, at Uranibourg - - 1576 Astronomical tower at Copenhagen - 1657 Royal (French) ... - 1667 Royal Observatory at Greenwich - - 1675 Observatory at Nuremberg - - 1678 At Uu-echt 1690 OCTOBER. The eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, and the tentL in the year of Numa, 713 b. c. From this time October has still retained its first name, in spite of all the different appellations which the senate and Roman emperors would have given it. The senate ordered it to be called Fmist'mus, in honor of Faustina, wife of Antoninus the emperor ; Commodus would have had it called Jiwicius ; and Domitian Do'initianus. October was sacred to Mars. ODES are nearly as old as the lyre ; they were at first extempore compositions accompanying this instrument, and sung in honor of the gods. Perha,ps the most beautiful and sublime odes ever written, as well as the oldest, are those of the royal prophet Isaiah, on the fall of Babylon, composed about " 757 B. c. The celebrated odes of Anacreon were composed about 532 b. c. ; and from his time this species of writing became usual, Anciently odes were divided into Strophe, Antistrophe, and Epode. This species of writing is that of our court poets at this day, OGYGES, DELUGE of. The Deluge so called, from which Attica lay waste 200 years, occurred 1764 b. c. Many authorities suppose this to be no other Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direc tion .... 1711 At Bologna .... 1714 At Petersburg 1725 Oxford, Dr. Radcliffe 1772 Dublin, Dr. Andrews ■ 1783 Cambridge, England 1824 Cambridge, Mass. New Haven . . - - Cincinnati 452 THE wokld's TROGCESS. [ OMU than the universal deluge ; but accoi'ding to some writers, if it at aU oc- curred, it arose in the overflowing of one of the great rivers of the country. See Deluge. OHIO. One of the United States. First permanently settled at Marietta, April 1788 ; second settlement was Symmes's purchase, 6 miles below Cincin- nati, 1789 ; third by French emigrants at GaUipolis, 1791 ; fourth by New Englanders, -at Cleveland and Comeant, 1796. First territorial legislature met at Cincinnati, 1799. The "Western Reserve, under jurisdiction of Con- necticut, was sold by that State for the benefit of her " School fund " in 1800. Ohio formed her State Constitution and was admitted into the Union, 1802. Population in 1790, was 3,000; in 1800, 45,365; in 1810, 230,760; in 1830, 937,637; in 1840, 1,519,467- OIL. It was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 B. c. It was the staple commodity of Attica, and a jar full was the prize at the Panathenaean games. It was the custom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons appointed to high oflSces, as the priests and kings, Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. x. 1 ; xvi. 13. The anointing with this liquid seems also to have been reckoned a necessary ingredient in a festival dress. Ruth iii. 3. The fact that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to chemists ; and after the process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and Mar- tineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale. OLBERS. The asteroid of this name was discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802. OLYMPIADS. The Greeks computed time by the celebrated era of the Olym- piads, which date from the year 776 b. c, being the year in which Coroebus was successful at the Olympic games. This era differed from all others in being reckoned by periods of four years instead of single years. Each pe- riod of four years was called an Olympiad, and in marking a date, the year and Olympiad were both mentioned. The second Olympiad began in 772 ; the third, in 768 ; the fourth, in 764 ; the fifth, in 760 ; the 10th in 740, &c. OLYMPIC GAMES. These games, so famous among the Greeks, were insti- tuted in honor of Jupiter. They were holden at the beginning of every fifth year, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, now the Morea, to exercise their youth in five kinds of combats. Those who were conquerors in these games were highly honored by their coun- trymen. The prize contended for was a crown made of a peculiar kind of wild olive, appropriated to this use. The games were instituted by Pelops, 1307 B. c. They are also ascribed to an ancient Hercules; and were revived by Iphytus among the Greeks, 884 b. g. — Dufresnoy. OMENS. See Augury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having drawn prognostications from omens, 1497 b. c. Alexander the Great is said to have had these superstitions ; and also Mithridates the Great, cele- brated for his wars with the Romans, his victories, his conquest of twenty- four nations, and his misfortunes. At the birth of this latter there were seen, for seventy days together, two large comets, whose splendor eclipsed that of the noonday sun, occupying so vast a space as the fourth pait of the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mithri- dates throughout his life, so much had superstition combined with nature to render him great, 135 b. c. — Justin. OMNIBUSES. These vehicles, of which there are nearly 4000 in the Londou circuit, were introduced there by an enterprising coach proprietor named Shillibeer, and first licensed at Somerset house in July, 1829. They pro- bably originated in Paris, where they are now also very numerous. In New OPT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 45S York, Boston, &c., they were common as early as 1830. There were 465 licensed in New York in 1849. OPERA. Octavio Rinuccini, of Florence, Avas the inventor of operas, or of the custom of giving musical representations of coriiedy, tragedy, and other dramatic pieces. Emelio de Cavalero, however, disputed this honor with him, A. D. 1590. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. Among the Venetians, opera was the chief glory of their carnival. About the year 1669, the abbot Perrin ob- tained a grant from Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672, was acted Pomona. Sir William Davenant introduced a species of opera in London, in 1684. The first regularly performed opera Avas at York-build- ings, in 1692. The first at Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of Handel were performed in 1735, and they became general in several of the theatres a few years after. Among the favorite performances of this kind was Gay's Beggar's Opera, first performed in 1727. It ran for sixty-three successive nights, but so often offended the persons in power, that the lord-chamberlain refused to license for performance a second part of it, entitled "Polly." This resentment induced Gay's friends to come forward on its publication ' with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 1200Z., whereas the Beggar's Opera had gained him only 400Z. — Life of Gaij. OPORTO. By nature one of the most impregnable cities in Europe ; the great mart of Portuguese wine known as "Port." A chartered company for the regulation of the Port-wine trade was established here in a. d. 1756. See article Wines. The French under marshal Soult were surprised here by lord WelHngton. and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. The Mi- guelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with conside- rable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. See Portugal. OPTICS. As a science, optics date their origin a little prior to the time of Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished early in the twelfth cen- tury. It has advanced rapidly since the time of Halley, and is now one of our most flourishing as well as useful sciences. lenses known at Athens at - B. c. 424 Burnin least - - - - B. c. Two of the leading principles known to the Platonists - - - - 300 First treatise on, by Euclid, ahout - 280 The magnifying power of convex glass- es and concave mirrors, and thepris- matic colors produced by angular glass, mentioned bySeneca, aboutA.D. 50 Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy • - 120 Greatly improved by Alhazen - - 1108 Hints lor spectacles and telescopes giv- en by Roger Bacon about - - 1280 Spectacles (said to have been) invented by Salvinus Armatus, of Pisa, before 1300 Camera obscw'a said to have been in- vented by Baptista Porta - - 1560 Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges, about - - - • - 1571 Telescope made by Jansen (who is said also to have invented the micro- scope), about ... - 1609 [The same instrument constructed by Galileo, without using the produc- tion of .lansen] Astronomical telescope suggested by Kepler 1611 Microscope, according to Huygens, in- vented by Drebbel, about - - 1621 [.Tansen and Galileo have also been stated to be the inventors.] Cassegrainian reflector - - - 1621 Law of refraction discovered by Snell- ius, about - - - a. d. 1624 Reflecting telescope, .lames Gregory - 1663 ■ Newton - - 1666 Motion and velocity of light discovered by Roemer, and after him by Cassini 1667 [Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 millions of miles in sixteen minutes.] Double refraction explained by Bartho- linus - • - ■ ■ 1669 Newton's discoveries - - - 1674 Telescopes with a single lens, by Tschirnhausen, about - - - 1690 Polarization of light, Huygens, about - 1692 Structure ol'the eye explained by Petit, about 1700 Achromatic telescope constructed by Mr. Hall (but not made public) in - 1733 Constructed by Dollond, most likely without any knowledge of Hall's - l/"";? Herschel's great reflecting telescope. erected at Slough - - - - 17S0 Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaston) - 1807 Ramage's reflecting telescope erected at Greenwich - - • - 1820 i.PTlC NERVES. The discoverer of the optic nerves is reputed to have been N. Varole, a sureeon and physician of Bologna, about a. d. 1588.— A'^okj; Did. 454 THE world's progress. [ ORD ORACLES. The most ancient oracle was that of Dodona ; but the most fa- mous was the oracle of Delphi, 1263 b. c. See Delphi. The heathen oracles were always delivered in such dubious expressions or terms, that let what would happen to the inquirer, it might be accommodated or explained to mean the event that came to pass. Among the Jews there were several sorts of oracles ; as firs*, those that were delivered viva voce, as when God spoke to Moses ; secondly, prophetical dreams, as those of Joseph ; thirdly, visions, as when a prophet in an ecstasy, being properly neither asleep nor awake, had supernatural revelations ; fourthly, when they were accompanied with the ephod or the pectoral worn by the high priest, who was indued with the gift of foretelling future things, upon extraordinary occasions ; fifthly, by consulting the prophets or messengers sent by God. At the be- ginning of Christianity, prophecy appears to have been very common ; but it immediately afterwards ceased. — Lempriere; Pardon. ORANGE, House of. This illustrious house is as ancient as any in Europe, and makes a most distinguished figure in history. Otho I., count of Nas- sau, received the provinces of Guelderland and Zutphen with his two wives, and they continued several hundred years in the family. Otho II. count of Nassau Dilembourg, who died in 1369, got a great accession of territories in the Low Countries by his wife Abelais, daughter and heiress of Godfrey count of Vianden ; and his grandson Gilbert, having married Jane, daughter and heiress of Philip, baron of Leek and Breda, added these to his other domains in 1404. The title of prince of Orange came first into the Nassau family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons with the count of Nassau in 1530. William prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England, landed at Torbay, with an army, Nov. 5, 1688, and was crowned with his queen, the princess Mary, daughter of James II., April 11, 1689. ORATORIOS. Their origin is ascribed to St. Philip Neri. The first oratorio in London was performed in Lincoln's-Inn theatre, in Portugal-street, in 1732. ORCHARDS. As objects of farming or field culture, orchards do not appear to have been adopted until about the beginning of the seventeenth century, although they had doubtlessly existed in Great Britain for many ages pre- viously, as appendages to wealthy religious- establishments. — Loudo7i. ORDEAL. The ordeal was known among the Greeks. With us it is a term signifying the judiciary determination of accusations for criminal offences by fire and water. It was introduced into England with other superstitions taken from the codes of the Germans. That by fire was confined to the upper classes of the people, that of Water, to bondsmen and rustics. Hence the expression of going through fire and water to serve another. Women accused of incontinency formerlj' rmderwent the ordeal, to prove their in- nocence. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would put himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this day, or upon God only ; and then it was called the judgment of God, pre- suming he would deliver the innocent. The accused were to pass bare- footed and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughshares, or were to carry burning-irons in their hands ; and accordingly as they escaped, they were judged innocent or guilty, acquitted or condemned.* The ordeal was used from Edward the Confessor's time to that of Henry III. It was abol- ' Tlie water ordeal was performetl in either hot or cold : in cold water, the parties suspected were adjudged innocent, if their bodies were home up by the water, contrary to the course of nature ; in hot water, they were to put their bare arms or less into scalding water, whicb if they brought out without hurt," they were taken to be innocent of the crii .e. ORR. ] DICTlOiMARY OF DATES. 45S ished by a royal proclamation, 46 Henry III., 1261. — Laiv Diet. Rymefs Fmdera. ORDINATION. In the ancient churcli there was no such thing as a vague and absolute ordination ; but every one ordained had a church whereof he was to be clerk or priest. In the twelfth century, thej'' grew more remiss, and ordained without any title or benefice. The church of Rome is episcopal ; and the Church of England so far acknowledges the validity of the ordina- tion of that church, that a Catholic priest is only required to abjui-e its pe- culiar distinctions, and he can officiate without re-ordination. OREGON. Territory of the United States, on the N. W. coast of America. First visited by the Spaniards under Juan de Fuca, 1592 ; by sir Francis Drake, 1578 ; by Vancouver, 1792. The Columbia river discovered and en- tered hy Capt. Gray, of merchant ship Columbia, of Boston, United States, May 7, 1792 ; overland expedition of Lewis and Clarke, sent out by Jefferson, 1804-5-6. Missouri Fur Company established at St. Louis, 1808 ; Pacific Fur Company (J. J. Astor) at New York. 1810 ; Astoria founded it the mouth of the Columbia, by Aster's colony, 1811 : sold to the N. W. Company, 1813 : occupied by the British imtil restored by treaty of Ghent, 1815 ; operations of the Hudson's Bay Company (English) commenced 1821 ; the territory divi- ded at the 49th parrallel of lat., leaving all north of that line, with the whole of Vancouver's island to Great Britain, remainder to the United States, by Mr. McLane's treaty, signed at London, ratified by the Senate, 41 to 14, June 18, 1846. Population at that time about 20,000. Territorial government esta- blished by the U. S. Congress, Aug. 2-13, 1848. ORGANS. The invention of the organ is attributed to Archimedes, about 220 B. c. ; but the fact does not rest on sufficient authority. It is also at- tributed to one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 b. c. The organ was brought to Europe from the Greek empire, and was first applied to religious devotions, in churches, in a. d. 658. — Bcllannine. Organs were used in the Western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. — Ammcmius. It is affirmed tliat the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I., 815, when one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jerome mentions an organ with twelve pairs of bellows, which might have been heard a mile ofl"; and another at Jerusalem which might have been heard on the Mount of Olives. The organ at Haerlem is one of the largest in Europe ; it has 60 stops, and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 100 stops, and 5-300 pipes. The organ at Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. ORGANS IN England. That at York-minster is the largest ; and the organ in the Music-hall, Bu-mingham, the next; both equal, perhaps, to that atHarlaem. ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES. These islands were ceded by Denmark to Scotland in a. d. 889, and were confirmed to James III., for a sum of money, in 1468. The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades ; and united with Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch counties. The bishoj^ric of Orkney was founded by St. Servanus early in the fifth century, some affirm by St. Colm. It ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 1689. ORLEANS, Siege of, by the English, under John Talbot, earl of Salisbury, Oct. 12, 1428. The city was bravelj' defended by Gaucour, the more so as its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VI., king of France ; and it was relieved and the siege raised, by the intrepidity and heroism of Joan of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 29, 1429. Siege of Orleans, when the duke of Guise was killed, 1563. ORRERY. The employment of jilanetary machines to illustrate and explain 456 THE world's progress. [ov> the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been coeval with the construction of the clepsydrEe and other horological automata. Ptolemy devised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his system about a. d. 130. The planetary clock of Finee, was begun a. d. 1553. The planetarium of De Rheita was formed about 1650. The Orrery, so called, Avas invented by Charles, earl of Orrery; but perhaps with more justice it is ascribed to Mr. Rowley of Lichfield, whom his lordship patronized, 1670. This Orrery has been greatly improved of late years. OSTEND. This town is famous for the Icng siege it sustained against the Spa- niards, from July 1601 to September 1601, when it surrendered by an honor- able capitulation. On the death of Charles 11. of Spain the French .seized Ostend ; but, in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it ivas retaken by the allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In the war of 1756, the French garrisoned this town for the empress-queen Maria Theresa. In, 1792, the French once more took Ostend, which they evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794. OSTRACISM. From the Greek word Ostracon, an oyster ; a mode of proscrip- tion at Athens, where a plurality of ten voices condemned to ten years' banishment those who were either too rich, or had too much authority, for fear they might set up for tyrants over their native country, but without any confiscation of their goods or estate. This custom is said to have been first introduced by the tyrant Hippias ; by others it is ascribed to Clys- thenes, about 510 b. c. The people wrote the names of those whom they most suspected upon small shells ; these they put into an urn or box, and presented it to the senate. ■ Upon a scrutinj'', he whose name was oftenest written was sentenced by the council to be banished, ab aris etfocis. But this law at last was abused, and they who deserved best of the common- wealth fell under the popular resentment, as Aristides noted for his justice, "Miltiades for his victories, &c. It was abolished by ironically i^roscribing Hyperbolas, a mean person. OTAHEITE, OR Tahiti. Discovered in 1767, by Wallis, who called it George the Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768, to observe the transit of Venus ; sailed round the whole island in a boat, and staid three months : it was visited twice afterward by that celebrated navigator. See Cook. Omai, a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and carried back bj' him, in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the district of Mataivai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare com- pelled to place herself imder the protection of France, Sept. 9, 1843. She retracts, and Otaheite and the neighboring island are taken possession of by admiral Dupetit-Thonars in the name of the French king, Nov. 1843. Sei- zure of Mr. Pritchard, the English consul, March 5, 1844. OTTERBURN, Battle op, fought in 1388, between the EngHsh under the earl of Northumberland and his two sons, and the Scots under sir William Dou- glas, who was slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur ; but the Scots ob- tained the victory, and the two Percies were made prisoners. On this battle the ballad of Chevy Chase is founded. — Wahiiighmn. O'lTOMAN EMPIRE. The sovereignty of the Turks, founded by Othman L on the ruin of the empii-e of the eastern Greeks, a. d. 1293. See Turkey. OVATION. An inferior triumph which the Romans allowed the generals of their army whose victories were not considerable. He who was thus re- warded, entered the city with a myrtle crown upon his head, that tree being consecrated to Venus ; wherefore when Marcus Crassus was decreed the honor of an ovation, he particularly desired it as a favor of iha senate to be allowed a laiirel crown instead of a myrtle one. This triumph was called ovation, because the general offered a sheep when he came ta the capitol, PAI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 4S7 whereas in the great triumph he offered a bull. Publius Posthumius Tubertus was the first who was decreed an ovation, 503 b. c. OWHYHEE OR HAWAII, one of the Sandwich Islands. Discovered by captain Cook in 1778. Here this illustrious seaman fell a victim to a sudden resentment of the natives. A boat having been stolen by one of the island- ers, the captain went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a hostage till the boat was restored. The people, however, were not disposed to sub- mit to this insult ; their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Cook and some of his companions were killed, Feb. 14, 1779. OXFORD UNIVERSITY. This university is supposed by some to have been a seminary for learning before the time of Alfred, and that it owed its re- ■ vival and consequence to his liberal patronage. Others state that though the university is ascribed to Alfred, yet that no regular institution deserving the name existed even at the period of the Norman conquest. COLLEGES. bishop of Winchester ; first called St. All Souls' College, founded by Henry Mary of Winchester - - - 1375 Chichely, abp. of Canterbury A. D. 1437 Oriel College. King Edward II. BJiol. John Baliol, km., and Deborah his wife ; he was father to Baliol kin^ of the Scots ... - 1263 Brazen-nose. William Smith, bishop of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton - 1509 Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; and afterwards by Henry VIII. . - 1532 Corpus Christi. Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester .... 1516 Exeter. Walter Stapleton, earl of Ex. eter 1314 Hertford College .... 1312 Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen Elizabeth 1571 Lincoln College. Kichard Fleming, 1427 ; finished by Rotheram, bishop of Lincoln .... 1475 Magdalen. Way nflete, bishop of Win. Chester - - . . . 1458 Merton College. Walter de Merton, bishop of Rochester - . - 1274 New College. William of Wykeham, Adam de Brom, archdeacon of Stow 1334 Pembroke. Thos. Teesdale, and R. Whitwick, clerk - - . 1620 Queen's College. Robert Eglesfield, clerk, confessor to queen Philippa, consort of Edward III. . . . 1340 St. John's. Sir Thomas White . 1557 Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope . . 1554 University. Said to have been founded by king Alfred, 872; founded by Wil. liam of Durham - - .1172 Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy his wife . - . . 1612 Worcester. Sir Thomas Coke of Bent. ley in Worcestershire ; it was orig- . inally called Gloucester College . 1714 HALLS. St. Albans .... 1547 St. Edmund's - - - . 1269 St. MaiT's .... 1616 St. Mary Magdalen - - - - 1602 New Inn Hall .... 1392 OXYGEN AIR or GAS. One of the most important agents in the chemical phenomena of nature, and the processes of art, discovered by Dr. Priestley, Aug. 1774. PADLOCKS. This species of lock was invented by Bechar at Nuremberg in A. D. 1540. PAGANISM. Pagans, in the Scriptures called the heathen, idolaters and gen- tiles, are worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of be- lief, except in that of one God supreme, in which point all travellers assure us they concur, and their having gods is a demonstrative proof of that be- lief Constantino ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout the Roman empire, a. d. 331 ; and Paganism was finally overthrown in tlie reign of Theodosius the Younger, about 890. — Tillemont. PAINTING. An art, according to Plato, of the highest antiquity in Egypt. Oaymandyas (See Egypt) causes his exploits to be represented in painting 2100 B. c. — Usher. Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a method of burning the colors into wood or ivory, 335 b. g. The ancients considered Sicyon the nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said to have been the inventor of the grotesque, 332 b. c. — Pliny. The art was 20 458 THE world's progress. [ PAl introduced at Rome from Etruria. by Quintus Fabius, who on that accomit was styled Pldor, 291 b. c. — Livy* The first excellent pictures were brought from Corinth by Mummius, 146 b. c. After the death of Augustus, not a single painter of eminence appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the last, about a. d. 14. Paint, ing on canvas seems to have been known at Rome in a. d. 66. Bede, the Saxon historian, who died in 735, knew something of the art. It revived about the close of the 13th century, and Giovanni Cimabuc, of Florence, is awarded the honor of its restoration. It was at once encouraged and gen- erously patronized in Italy. John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Fkmisii school of painting in oil, 1415. — Du Fresnoy. Paulo Uccello was the lirst who studied perspec- tive. The earliest mention of the art in England, is a. d. 1523, about which time Henry VIII patronized Holbein, and invited Titian to his court. PAINTING IN THE UNITED STATES. The first practising artist of celebrity was John Watson (born in Scotland, 1685), who commenced painting por- traits in New Jersey, 1715. Nathaniel Smybert, of Edinburgh, began in Boston, 1728. Benjamin West was the first native American artist ; born in Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1708 : painted his first portrait in Lancaster, Pa., 1753. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston, 1738 ; first painted in 1760; he wastlie father of lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor of Great Britain. Chas. W. Peale (born in Maryland, 1741), Gilbert Charles Stuart (Rhode Island, 1754), John Trumbull (Connecticut, 1756), William Dunlap (New Jersey, 1766), E. G. Malbone (Rhode Island, 1777), were the next artists in succession in the United States. See Dimlap's Arts of Design, &c. PALATINE. A German dignity. William the Conqueror made his nephew, Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, 1070. Edward III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1376. See Lancaster, Duchy of. The bishoprics of Ely and Durham were also made county palatines. PALATINES AND SUABIANS. About 7000 of these poor Protestants, from the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the French, arrived in England, and were encamped on Blackheath and Camberwell common ; a brief was granted to collect alms for them. 500 families went under the protection of the government to Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limerick, where parliament granted them 24,000.^. for their support. 3000 were sent to New York and Hudson's Baj^, but not having been received kindly by the inhabitants, they went to Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encouraged bj^ the' Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German and Swiss Prote«?tants, who soon made this colony more flourishing than any other, 7 Anne, 1709. — Ariderson. PALLADIUM. The statue of Pallas, concerning which ancient authors disa- gree. Some say it fell from heaven, near the tent of Ilus, as he was build- ing Ilium ; but on its preservation depended the safety of Troy ; which the oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the palladium was found within its walls. This fatality being made known to the Greeks, they contrived to steal it away during the Trojan war, 1184 b. c, though some maintain, that it was only a statue of similar size and shape, and that the real palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by .^Eneas, il83 b.c, ' Parrhasius of Ephesus and Zeuxis were cotemporary painters. These artists once contended for pre-eminence in their profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces, the birds came to peck the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Pari-has.ius then produced his piece, and Zeuxis said, "Remove the curtain, that we may see the painting." Tire curtain itself was tln! jiainting, and Zeuxis acknowledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, '• Zeuxis has deceived ihe birds; but Parrhasius has deceived Zeuxis!" Pari-hasius dressed in a purple robe, and woru a crown of gold, calling himself king of painters, 415 e. c. — Phiinrrh. PAP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 45t and preserved by the Romans with the greatest secrecj'^ in the temple ol Vesta, and esteemed the destiny of Rome. PALM SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jurusalem, multitudes of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, took branches of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, with acclamations and hosannas, a. d. 33. In memory of this circumstance it is usual, in popish countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter ; hence called Palm Sunday. Conquerors were not only accustomed to carry palm-trees in their hands ; but the Romans, moreover, in their triumphs, sometimes wore toga ■palmata, in which the figures of the palm-trees were interwoven. PALMYRA, Ruins op, in the deserts of Syria, discovered by some English travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. The ruins of Palmyra, which are chiefly of white marble, prove it to have been more extensive and splendid than even Rome itself. It is supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilder- ness built by Solomon. Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, resisted the Roman power in the time of Aurelian, who having made himself master of the place, caused all the inhabitants to be destroyed, and gave the pillage of the city to the soldiers. The stupenduous ruins of this city were visited, in 1751, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. Mr. Bruce, on ascending a neighboring mount, was struck with the most magnificent sight which, he believes, ever mortal saw : the immense plains below were so covered with the grandest buildings (palaces and temj)les), they seemed to touch one another. PALO-ALTO, Battle op. See Battles. PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about a. d. 504. These pandects were accidentally discovered at Amalfi, a. d. 1137 ; they were removed from Pisa in 1416 ; and are now preserved in the library of Medici at Florence, as the Pandectcz Florentine. PANORAMA. This ingenious and useful species of exhibition is the invention of Robert Barker. Panoramas are bird's-eye views painted in distemper roimd the wall of a circular building, with a striking resemblance to reality. In 1788, Mr. Barker exhibited at Edinburgh a view of that city, being the flrst picture of the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in Lon- don, having adopted the name of ' Panorama,'' to attract notice, and was ultimately enabled to build commodious premises in Leicester-square for that purpose. He died 1806. The panorama of the Mississippi, by Banvard, a self-taught American artist, was a gigantic undertaking, without precedent in dimensions, completed about 1846 ; since which numerous similar works have been achieved. PANTHEON AT ROME. A temple built by Augustus Caesar, some say by Agrippa, his son-in-law, 25 b. c. It was in a round form, having niches in the wall, waere the particular image or representation of a particular god was set up ; the gates were of brass, and beams covered with gilt brass, and the roof covered with silver plate. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to the Virgin Marj^, and all the saints, by the name of St. Maiy de la Rotunda. PANTOMIMES. They were representations by gestures and attitudes among the ancients. They were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and Bathyllus, 22 b. c. ; and were then considered as the most expressive part of stage performances. — Usher. Pantomime dances were introduced about the same time. — Idem. Representation by gesture and action only, is contem- poraneous Avith our stage. PAPER. See Papyrus. Pa[)er is said to have been invented in China, 170 B.C. It was first made of cotton, about a. d. 1000; and of rags in 1319. White coarse paper was made by sir John Si^eilman, a German, at Dartford, 460 THE world's progress. [iab in England, 33 Eliz., 1590; and here the first paper-mills were erected.— Stowe. Paper for writing and printing, manufactured in England, and an act passed to encourage it, 2 William III., 1690 ; before this time we paid for these articles to France and Holland 100,000^. annually. The French refugees taught our people, who had made coarse brown paper almost ex- clusively, until they came among us. White paper was first made by us in 1690. — Anderson. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested by Louis Robert, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer. The latter brought it to England, and here, conjointly with M. Fourdrinier, he perfected the machinery. M. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for manufac- turing paper of an indefinite length, in 1807 ; it had previously been made tediously by the hand. A sheet of paper was made 13,800 feet long, and four feet wide, at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830. PAPER-HANGINGS. Stamped paper for this piirpose was first made in Spain and Holland, about a. d. 1555. Made of Velvet and floss for hanging apart- ments, about 1620. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved in this coimtry from early in the eighteenth century ; and it has now been . brought to such perfection that rich stained paper is made at twelve shil- lings for one yard, and the common kinds a dozen yards for one shilling. PAPYRUS, the reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt and India, used for writings until the discoveiy of parchment about 190 e. c. Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Per- gamus should make a library equal to that of Alexandria. A manuscript of the Antiquities of Joscphus on papyrus of inestimable value was among the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the National Library at Paris ; but it was restored in 1815. PARCHMENT. Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attains), of Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on the model of the Alexandrian, about 190 b. c. Parchment-books from this time became those most used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the world are written on the skins of goats. It should be mentioned that the Persians, and others, are said to have written all their records on skins long before Eumenes's time. PARDONS. General pardons were in-oclaimed at coronations ; first by Edward in., in 1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege suce dignitatis ; and no other person has power to remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Henry VIII., 1535. In democracies there is no power of pardoning ; hence Blackstone mentions this prerogative to be one of the greatest advan- tages of a monarchy above any other form of government. But the king cannot pardon a nuisance to prevent its being abated ; or pardon where pri- vate justice is concerned. — Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an impeach- ment ef the House of Commons. — Haydn. In the United States, the par- doning power is vested in the governors of the several states — a fractice which upsets Blackstone's tlieory. PARIAN MARBLES. The chronology of the Parian Marbles was composed 264 B. c. The Parian Marbles were discovered in the Isle of Paros, a. d. 1610. They were brought to England, and were presented to the university of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called the Arundelian Marbles, which see. PARIS. At the time of the Roman invasion, Paris was only a miserable town- ship. It began to be called the city of the Parisii, a. d. 380. Clovis fixed upon it as the capital of his states in 507. This city was several times ra- vaged by the Normans ; and in 1420 was taken by the English, who held it fifteen years. More than 50,000 persons died of famine and plague in 1438, when the hungry wolves entered the city and committed, we are told, great fAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 461 devastation. The events in connection witli this great city will be found under their respective heads. The Luxembourg, by Mary of Medicis - 1594 Hospital of Invalids - • - 1595 The Hotel Dieu founded - - - 1606 The Palais-Royal built - - - 1610 The Val-de-Grace - - - - 1645 Arch of St. Denis erected - -1672 The Palace of the Deputies - - 1722 The Militaiy School - - - 1751 The Pantheon ; St. Genevieve - - 1764 St. Denis founded - - a. d. 613 Rebuilt 1231 Church of Notre Dame built - - 1270 The Louvre built (see Louvre) - ■ 1522 Hotel de Ville .... 1.533 The Boulevards commenced - . 1536 Fountain of the Innocents - -1551 The Tuileries built (s&e Tuileries) ■ 1564 The Pont Neuf begun - ,- -1578 Fortifications of Paris, a continuous wall embracing both banks of the Seine, and detached forts, with an enceinte of 15 J leagues, were commenced in Dec. 1840. and completed March. 1846, at an expense exceeding £5,000,000 ster- ling. See France. PARK, MUNGO, his Travels. This enterprising traveller set sail on his first voyage to Africa, under the patronage of the African Society, to trace the source of the river Niger, May 22, 1795 ; and retiirned Dec. 22, 1797, after having encountered great dangers, without his journey through intertropi- cal regions having enabled him to achieve the great object of his ambition. He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, ap- pointed to a new expedition by government; but never returned. The ac- counts of his murder on th« Niger were a long time discredited ; unhappily however, thej^ were at length too well authenticated by later intelligence. It appears that Park and his party were attacked by the natives at Boussa, ■ and all killed, with the exception of one slave. PARKS. The Romans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pom- pey, and Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first great park of Avhich particular mention is made, was that of Woodstock, formed by Henry I., 1125. The parks of London ai-e in a high degree essen- tial to the health of its immense population, St. James's Park was drained by Henry VIII., 1537. It was improved, planted, and made a thoroughfare for public, use 1668. The Green Park forms a part of the ground inclosed by Henry VIII. In Hyde Park, the sheet of water called the Serpentine River, although in the form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 and 1738, by order of queen Caroline, consort of George II. This queen once inquired of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards the earl of Chatham), how much it would cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, ' ' Three crowns, your majesty." She took the hint, and the design was never afterwards enter- tained. PARLIAMENT, IMPERIAL, of GREAT BRITAIN. It derives its origin from the Saxon general assemblies, called Wittenagemots ; but their constitu- tion totally differed, as well as the title, which is more modern, and is taken from parler la ment, which in the Norman law-style signifies to speak one's mind. This at once denotes the essence of British parliaments. The name was applied to the general assemblies of the state under Louis VII. of France, about the middle of the twelfth century, but it is said not to have appeared in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edward I., a. d. 1272; and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same effect, when speaker (a. d. 1592), that this name was used even in the time of Edward the Confessor, 1041. The first summons by writ on record was di- rected to the bishop of Salisbury, 7 John, 1205. The first clear account we have of the representatives of the people forming a house of commons, was in the 43rd Henry III., 1258, when it was settled, by the statutes at Oxford, that twelve persons should be chosen to represent the commons in the three parliaments, which by the sixth statute, were to be held yearly. — Burton's Annals. The general representation by knights, citizens, and burgesses, took 462 THE WORLD'S PROGilESS. [ PAS place 49 Henry III., 1265. — Dugdale^s Summonses to Parliament, edit. 1685. The power and jurisdiction of parliament are so transcendent and absolute, that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds. It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and repealing laws. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown, as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the religion of the country, as was done in the reigns of Henry VIH., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. — Sir Edivard Coke. PARMA. Formed by the ancient Etrurians. It was made a duchy (with Pla- centia) a. d. 1545. It fell to Spain by Phillip V.'s marriage with Elizabeth Farnese, 1714. The duke of Parma Avas raised to the throne of Tuscany, with the title of king of Etruria, in Feb. 1801. Parma was afterwards uni- ted to France (with Placentia and Guastalla), and on the fall of Napoleon was conferred on Maria Louisa, the ex-empress, by the treaty of Fontaine- bleau, April 5, 1814. Battle of Parma: the confederates, England, France, and Spain, agamst the emperor; indecisive, both armies claiming the victory, June 29, 1734. Great battle of Parma, in which the French, tinder Macdon- ald, were defeated by Suwarrow, M'ith the loss of 10,000 men, and four generals, July 12, 1799. Maria Louisa died Dec. 17, 1847, and the duke of Lucca succeeds by previous compact. The new duke refuses petitions for reforms; Parma occupied by Austrian soldiers, Dec. 21, 1847. The people revolt; barricades, and slaughter, March 20. The duke appoints a regency; flees; is brought back; the duchy proclaimed to be annexed to Piedmont, March 20, 1848. The duke promises to join the league against Austria and is then liberated, April 1, 1848, but is deposed, April 9. PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in ancient Rome, such a crime not being supposed possible. About 500 j'ears after Numa's reign, L. Ostius having killed his father, the Romans first scourged the parricide ; then sewed him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and an ape, and thus cast him into the sea. The old Egyptians used to run sharp reeds into every part of the bodies of parricides ; and after having thus wounded them, threw them upon a heap of thorns, and set fire to them. In France, before the execution of the criminal, the hand was cut off. PARTHIA. The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who, being exiled, as their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania. Arsases laid the foundation of an empire which ultimately extended over all Asia, 250 b. c; and at one time the Parthians disputed the empire of the ■ivorld with the Romans, and could never be wholly subdued by that nation, who had seen no other people upon earth unconquered by their arms. The last king was Artabanus V., who being killed a. d. 229, his tei-ritories were annexed to the new kingdom of Persia, under Artaxerxes. PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Holland, for regulating the Spanish succession, was signed Oct. 11, 1698 ; and the second (between France, England, and Holland, declaring the archduke Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph Ferdinand hav- ing died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland : the first was a secret convention between Russia and Prussia, Feb, 17, 1772 ; the second, between the same powers and Austria, Arig. 5, same year; the third was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Nov. 25, 1795. There were other similar treaties relating to Poland, but not under this name. PASQUINADES. This name, which is given to humorous libels, originated in this way: — At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, a number of idle persons used to assemble to listen to the pleasant sallies of Pasquin, and to relate little anecdotes in their turn, and indulge themselves in raillery at the expense of the passers-by. After the cobbler's death in the sixteenth PAV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 463 century, the statue of a gladiator was found near his stall, to which the peo- ple gave his name, and on which the wits of the time affixed their lampoons upon the state, and their satirical effusions on their neighbors, secretly at night. Small poems, and writings of a similar kind, from this obtained the name of Pasquinades, about a. d. 1633. PASSOVER. A solemn festival of the Jews, instituted 1491 b. c, in commem- oration of their coming out of Egypt ; because the night before their de- parture, the destroying angel, who put to death the flrst-born of the Egyp- tians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews without entering them : they being marked with the blood of the lamb that was killed the evening before. and Avhich for this reason is called the Paschal Lamb. It was celebrated in the new Temple, April 18, 515 b. c. — Usher. PATAY, Battle op, in which the renowned and ill-fated Joan of Arc (the Maid of Orleans) signally defeated the English, June 10, 1429. Talbot was taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe was forced to fly. In consequence of this victorj'', Charles of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was crowned July 17, same year, Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony in full armor, and holding the sword of state. See Joan of Arc. PATENTS. Licenses and authorities granted by the king. Patents granted for titles of nobility, were first made a. d. 1344, by Edward III. They were first granted for the exclusive privilege of printing books, in 1591, about which time the property and right of inventors in arts and manufactures were secured by letters patent. PATRIARCHS. Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of dioceses. The dignity among the Jews is referred to the time of Nerva, a. d. 97. In the Christian church it was first conferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constanti- nople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The Latin church had no pa- triarchs till the 7th century. PAUL'S, ST., CATHEDRAL, London. The noblest Protestant church in the world. The best authority that exists illustrative of the origin of this church is its great restorer, sir Christopher Wren. His opinion, that there had been a church on this spot, built by the Christians in the time of the Romans, was confirmed when he searched for the foundations for his own design. He explodes the notion of there having been a temple of Diana. The first church is supposed to ha«ye been destroyed during the Dioclesian persecution, and to have been rebuilt in the reign of Constantine. This was demolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored by Sebert in 603. It was destroyed by the great conflagration in 1086, after Avhich Mauritius, then bishop of London, commenced the magnificent edifice which immediately preceded the present cathedral. St. Paul's was totally destroyed by the memorable fire of 1666 ; and the first stone of the present edifice was laid June 21, 1675, and the whole was completed in 1710-11, under the illustrious architect sir Christo- pher Wren. Length of St. Paul's, ■within - 500 feet. [ Length of St. Peter's, Kome - 669 feet. Its greatest breadth - - 22-3 Its greatest breadth within - - 442 Height from the ground - - 340 | Heiglit from tlie ground - - 432 PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved their towns with stones. The Romans in the time of Augustus had pave- ment in many of their streets ; but the Appian Way was a paved road, and was constructed 312 b. c. In England there were few paved streets before Henry VII. 's reign. London was first paved about the year 1533. Wood pavement commenced in 1839; but was generally disused in 1847. PAVIA, Battle of, between the French and Imperialists, when the former were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after fighting with heroic valor, 464 THE world's PROGRESS. f PET, and killing seven men with his own hand, vfas at last obliged to surrender himself prisoner. Francis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent of the kingdom in his absence, the melancholy news of his captivity, conceived in these dignified and expressive terms: — Tojit est perdu, madame, fors Vhonneur ; Feb. 24, 1525. Collision between the students and the Austrian soldiers, 10 killed and 40 wounded, Jan. 8, 1848. PAWNBROKERS. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges de- posited with lenders is referred, as a regular trade, to Perousa, in Italy, about A. D. 1458 ; and soon afterwards in England. The business of pawnbrokers was regulated 30 George II., 1756. Licenses were issued 24 George III., 1783. In London there are 334 pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively of London, 1127. PEARLS. The formation of the pearl has embarrassed both ancient and mo- dern naturalists to explain, and has given occasion to a number of vain and absurd hypotheses. M. Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at 80,000Z. sterling. One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip II. of the size of a pigeon's &gg, was valued at 14,400 ducats, equal to 13,996Z. A pearl spoken of by Boetius, named the Incomparable, weighed thirty carats, equal to five pennjnveights, and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in possession of the emperor of Persia was purchased of an Arab in 1638, and is valued at a sum equal to 110,400Z. PEERS. The first of the present order created in England was "William Fitz Osborn, as earl of Hereford, by William the Conqueror, in 1066. The first peer who was created by patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by Richard H.. in 1887. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl of Angus by Malcolm III., 1087. In Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of Kinsale, &c., in 1181 ; the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by Henry II. The house of lords consisted of, viz : — At the death of Charless 11. - 176 peers. I At the death of George III. - 339 peers. At the death of William III. - 192 | At the death of George IV. - 396 At the death of Anne - - 209 I At the death of William IV. - 456 At the death of George I. - 216 In 10th Victoria, 1847 - - 454 At the death of George II. - 229 | PELAGIANS. A sect founded by Pelagius, a native of Britain. The sect maintained, 1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had sinned or not, would certainly have died. 2. That the consequences of Adam's sin were confined to his own person. 3. That new-born infants are in the same condition with Adam before the fall. 4. That the law qualified men for the kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal promises with the gospel. 5. That the general resurrection of the dead does not follow in virtue of our Saviour's resurrection, &c. This sect appeared a. d. 400 at Rome, and in Carthage about 412. PELEW ISLANDS. Discovered by the Spaniards in the seventeenth century. The wreck here of the East India Company's packet Antelope, captain Wil- son, 1783. The king, Abba Thule, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince Lee Boo, his son, to England, where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after of the small-pox ; and the East India Company erected a monument over his grave in the Rotherhithe churchyard. PELOPONNESIAN WAR. The celebrated war which continued for twenty- . seven years between the Athenians and the inhabitants of Peloponnesus, with their respective allies. It is the most famous and the most interesting of all the wars which happened between the inhabitants of Greece. It began 431 b. c, and ended 404 b. c. PER ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 465 PENAL LAWS, affecting ROMAN CATHOLICS. The laws eaacted against Roman Catholics in Great Britain were very severe ; and even up to the period of passing the Emancii^ation Bill many of them remained unre- pealed. All the laws there against Roman Catholics were repealed by the Relief Bill, passed April 13, 1829. PENANCE. Called by the Jews Thejouvtha. Penance, they said, consisted in the love of God attended with good works. They made a confession upon the day of expiation, or some time before ; and had stated degrees of penance in proportion to the crimes committed. Penance was introduced into the Romish church a. d. 157. In our canon law, penance is chiefly ad- judged to the sin of fornication. PENDULUMS FOR Clocks. Affirmed to have been adapted by Galileo the younger, about a. d. 1641. Christian Huygens contested the priority of this discovery : the latter brought clocks with pendulums to perfection, 1656. — Dufresnoy. PENITENTS. There are various orders of penitents, Magdalens, Magdalen- ettes, &c. The order of Penitents of St. Magdalen "was founded at Mar- seilles, about A. D. 1272. The Penitents of the Name of Jesus was a con- gregation of religious in Spain who had led a licentious life, formed about 1550. The Penitents of Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about 1662. PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States. Granted by James II. to William Penn, of the Society of Friends, in 1681. (Previously settled by Swedes and Fins, and conquered by the Dutch in 1654.) A tract of 20,000 acres sold by Penn for .£400 to a colony which formed a settlement at Philadelphia. The colony governed by proprietors until the revolution of 1776, when the legislature purchased it, paying the proprietors £130,000 in lieu of quit- rents. Battles of Brandywine and Germantown, and other important ac- tions in this State in the war of independence. See Piiiladelplda. Federal Constitution adopted in convention, Dec. 13, 1787, by 46 to 28. Continental Congress at Philadelphia, in 1774. United States Congress, 1790 to 1800, when it was removed to Washington. Population of State in 1732, 30,000 ; 1790, 434,373 ; in 1800, 602,545 ; in 1820, 1,049,13 ; in 1840, 1,724,033. PENNY-POST. First set up in London and its suburbs by a Mr. Murray, up- holsterer, A. D. 1681. Mr. Murray afterwards assigned his interest in the undertaking to Mr. Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the King's Bench^bar in the reign of Charles II., was adjudged to belong to the duke of York as a branch of the general post, and was thereupon annexed to the revenue of the crown. — DcLaune, 1690. This institution was considera- bly improved in and round London, July 1794, et seq., and was made a two- penny-post. A penny post was first set up in Dublin in 1774. See Post- office. PENTECOST. It literally signifies the ordinal number called the fiftieth ; and in the solemn festival of the Jews, so called because it was celebrated fifty days after the feast of the Passover, Lev. xxiii. 15, It is called the feast of ^^eeks, E.vod. xxxiv. 22, because it was kept seven weeks after the Pasaover. PERFUMERY. Many of the wares coming under this name were known to the ancients, and the Scriptures abound with instances of the use of incenses and perfumes. No such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763. — Creech. A stamp tax was laid on various articles of perfumery in Eng- gland and the vendor was obliged to take out a license, in 1786. At the cor- ner of Beaufort Buildings, in the Strand, resided Lilly the perfumer, men- tioned in the Spectator. — Leigh. 20* 466 THE world's progress. [per PERIODICAL LITERATURE. See Reviews and Magazines. PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY. The philosophy taught by Aristotle, about 342 B. c. Like Plato, who taught in a shady grove called Academia, Aris- totle chose a spot of a similar character at Athens, adjacent to the same river, where there were trees and shades : this spot was denominated the Lyceum ; and as he usually walked while he instructed his pupils, his philo- sophy was called Peripatetic. PERJURY. In some countries this crime was punished with death. The early Romans at first punished it by throwing the offender headlong from the Tarpeian precipice ; but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a suppo- sition that the gods would vindicate their own honor by some remarkable judgment upon the offender. The Greeks set a mark of infamy upon them. After the empire became Christian, and if any one swore falsely upon the gospels, he was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the primitive church enjoined eleven years' penance ; and in some states the false-swearer became liable to the punishment he charged upon the innocent. In England, perjury was punished with the pillory, 1563. ^ERONNE, Treaty op. Louis XI. of France having jjlaced himself in the power of the duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign a treaty at Peronne, con- firming those of Arras and Conflans, with some other stipulations of a re- strictive and humiliating character, a. d. 1468. .'ERSECUTIONS, General, op the Christians. Historians usually reckon ten. The first under Nero, who having set fire to Rome, threw the odium of the act upon the Christians. Multitudes of them were, in consequence, massacred. Some were wrapped up in the skins of wild beasts, and torn and devoured by dogs ; others were crucified, and numbers burned alive, A. D. 64. The 2nd, under Domitian, a. d. 95. The 3rd, in the reign of Tra- jan, A. D. 100. The 4th, under Adrian, 118. The 5th, under the emperor Severus, 197. The 6th, under Maximinus, 235. The 7th, under Decius, more bloody than any preceding. They were in all places driven from their habitations, plundered and put to death by torments, the rack, and fire. The 8th, under Valerian, 257. The 9th, under Aurelian, 272. The 10th, under Dioclesian. In this persecution, which lasted ten years, houses filled with Christians were set on fire, and droves of them were bound together with ropes and cast into the sea. See Massacres. PERSECUTIONS of the JEWS. See articles Jews and Massacres. PERSECUTION op the PROTESTANTS. In Franconia, where a^ multitude of Luther's followers were massacred by William de Furstemberg, 1525. — Du Fresnoy. In England when Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, and La- timer and Ridley, prelates, and 300 Protestants, were burned alive, and great numbers perished in prison, 3 Mary, 1556. — Warner's Eccles. Hist. Of the Protestants in France, when niimbers perished ; their assemblies were pro- hibited, their places of worship pulled down, and sentence to the galleys proclaimed against all who harbored them, 1723. Executions of the Pro- testants at Thorn, when great numbers were put to death under pretence of their having been concerned in a tumult occasioned by a procession, 1724. See Massacres and Bartholomew. PERSIAN EMPIRE. The country which gave name to this celebrated empire was originalljr called Elam, and received the appellation of Persia from Per- seus, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and perhaps established a petty sovereignty. But long before his time, it was subject to independent princes. Persia was at length included in the first Assyrian monarchy ; and when that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, &c., it appertained to the kingdom of Media. Persia was partly conquered from the Greeks, and was tributary to the Parthians for nearly 500 3'ears, when PET ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 467 Artaxerxes, a common soldier, became the founder of the second Persian monarchy, a. d. 229. The sea-fight near Ciiidus - - 394 The Sidonians being besieged by the Persians, set fire to their city, and perish in the flames - - - 351 Alexander the Great enters Asia ; first battle m Phrygia, near the river Gra- nicus - - - - - 33i [For the exploits of Alexander in Per- sia, see the article Mocedon.] Murder of Darius by Bessus, who is torn in pieces - - - - 331 Alexander founds the third or Grecian monarchy .... 331 Alexander, in a moment of intoxication, at the instance of his mistress Thais, sets fire to the palace of Persepolis - 330 [The riches of this town, whose ruins, even as they exist at this day, are of indescribable magnificence, were so immense that 20,000 mules and 5000 horses were laden with the spoils.] Persia was partly reconquered Ijrom the Greeks, and remained tributary to Parthia for near five hundred years, till about - - - A. D. 250 Artaxerxes I. of this new empire, a common soldier, restores to Persia its ancient title .... 229 Reign of Sapor, conqueror and tyrant - 238 He IS assassinated - - . 273 Hormisdas reigns - - - - 273 Reign of Sapor II. (of 70 years), a cruel and successful tyrant - . ^ . 310 Persia was conquered by the Saracens 651 It fell under the dominion of Tamer- lane, by the defeat of Bajazet - 1402 Reign of Thamas Kouli Khan - . 1732 He carried the Persian arms into India, which he ravaged. See India - 1738 In 1747, Ahmed Abdalla fonnded the kingdom of Candahar. In 1779, com- petitors for the throne of Persia sprung up and caused a period of slaughter and desolation till 1794, when Mahomed Khan became sole monarch. PERU. First visited in a. d. 1513, and soon afterwards conquered by the Spa- niards, whose avarice led to the most frightful crimes. The easy conquest of this country has not its parallel in historj^ Pizarro, in 1530, and others, with one vessel, 112 men, and four horses, set out to invade South America, which, however, not succeeding, he again in 1531, embarked with three small vessels, 140 infantry, and thirtj'-sis horses ; with these, and two re- inforcements of thirty men each, he conquered the empire of Peru, and laid the foundation of that vast power which the Spaniards enjoy in the New World. Pizarro's expedition, 1524. Peru remained in subjection to the Spaniards (who murdered the Incas and all their descendants) without any attempt being made to throw oif the oppressive yoke till 1782 ; but the in- dependence of the country was completely achieved in 1826. The new Peruvian constitution was signed by the president of the Republic, March 21, 1828. PETER-PENCE. Presented by Ina, king of the West Saxons, to the pope at Rome, for the endowment of an English college there, a. d. 725. So called, because agreed to be paid on the feast of St. JPeter. The tax was levied on all families possessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of which they paid one penny. It was confirmed by Ofifli, 777, and was afterwards claimed Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of the Magi. — Justin - b. c. 2115 Zoroaster 11., Persian philosopher, ge- nerally confounded with the king of Bactria. — ZarUkus - • - 1082 Cyrus, king of Persia - - - 560 Lydia conquered by the Persians - 548 Cyrus becomes master of all Asia - 536 Cambyses conquers Egypt (which see) 525 Darius made king of Persia - - 522 Revolt of the Babylonians - . . 512 Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed - 498 Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with an army of 300,000 soldiers, to invade the Peloponnesus ... 490 The troops advance towards Athens, but are met in the plains of fliarathon, by Miltiades, at the head of 10,000 Athe- nians. — See Marathon - - 490 Xerxes enters Greece in the spring of this year, at the head of an immense force. The battle of Thermopylas - 480 Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 200,000 of his troops, and is defeated in a naval engagement off Salamis - 480 Cymon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of 250 vessels, takes several cities i'rom the Persians, and destroys their navy, consisting of 340 sail, near the island of Cyprus ... - 470 Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Mith- ridates, the eunuch - b. c. 4G5 The assassin is put to death in a horrible manner - ... - 465 Reign of Artaxerxes - - - 464 Cyprus taken from the Persians - 449 Memorable retreat of the Greeks. See article lletreat - • - - 401 468 THE world's progress. [ PHA by the popes, as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till sup- pressed by Henry VIII. — Camden. ~ PETER, THE WILD BOY. A savage creature found in the forest of Herts- wold, electorate of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting. He was found walking on his hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel, and feeding on grass and moss, November 1725. At this time he was sup- posed to be thirteen years old. The king caused him to taste of all the dishes at the royal table ; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and the bark of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. No human efforts of the many philosophic persons about the court could entirely vary his savage habits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died in Feb. 1785, at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo presented him as an instance of the hy- pothesis that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal." PETER'S CHURCH, ST., AT Rome. Originally erected by Constantine. About the middle of the 15tli century, Nicholas VI. commenced the present mag- nificent pile, which was not completed under numerous succeeding popes, until A. D. 1629. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 324 feet : the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming the most spacious hall ever constructed by human hands. See Paul's, SL PETERSBURGH. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began this city, in 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched wooden hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first house of brick ; and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the foundation of a house of the same materials. From these small beginnings rose the imperial city of Petersburgh ; and in less than nine years after the wooden hovels were erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place. Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses ; and in 1780, another fire con- sumed 11,000 houses; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in June 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 100 vessels were destroyed. The winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. See Russia. PETERSBURGH, Peace op, between Russia and Prussia, the former restoring all her conquests to the latter, signed Maj' 5, 1762. Treaty of Petersburgh, for the partition of Poland, (see article Partition Treaties,') Aug. 5, 1772. Treaty op Petersburgh, for a coalition against France, Sept. 8, 1805. Treaty of alliance, signed at St. Petersburgh, between Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to join in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive Norway, March 24, 1812. PETRARCH AND LAURA. Two of the most eminent persons of the four- teenth century, celebrated for the exquisite and refined passion of the for- mer for the latter, and the great genius and virtue of both. The chief subject of Petrarch's enchanting sonnets was the beautiful Laura. He was crowned with laurel, as a poet and writer, on Easter-day, April 8, 1341 ; and died at Arqua, near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348. PHALANX A troop of men closely embodied. — Milton. The Greek phalanx consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, and spears crossing each other. The battalion formed by Philip of Macedon was called the Macedonian phalanx, and was instituted by him 860 b. c. PHARISEES. They were a famous sect among the Jews ; so called from a He- brew word which signifies to separate or set apart, because they pretended to a greater degree of holiness and piety than the rest of the Jews. The admirable parable of the Pharisee and Publican is levelled against spiri- tual pride, and to recommend the virtue of humility. — Luke xviii. 9. PHI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 469 PHAROS AT ALEXANDRIA, called the Pharos of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and esteemed as one of the wonders of the world. It was a tower built of white marble, and could be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the top, fires were constantly kept, to direct sailors in the bay. The building of this .ower cost 800 talents, Avhich are equis^alent to above 165,100Z. English, if Attic ; or if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was this inscription upon it — " King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors ;" but Sostratus the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote the above inscription. When the mortar had decayed by time, Ptolemy's name disappeared, and the following inscription then became visible; — "Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors." About 280 b. c. PHARSALIA, Battle of, between Julius Cassar and Pompey, in which the for- mer obtained a great and memorable victory, glorious to Caesar in all its consequences. C^sar lost about 200 men, or, according to others, 1200. Pompey's loss was 15,000, or 25,000 according to others, and 24,000 of his army were made prisoners of war by the conqueror. May 12, 48 b. c. After this defeat, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, by or- der of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body thrown naked on the strand, exposed to the view of all those whose curiosity led them that way, till it was burnt by his faithful freedman Philip. PHILADELPHIA, City of. First surveyed and regulated by the English colo- ny under Penn's grant, in 1682. [The Swedes had settled on Delaware bay in 1627.] Named after a city in Asia-Minor and first laid out with a view to rival ancient Babylon in extent ; but the plan was restricted to its pre- sent limits by the charter of 1701. First or "Continental" Congress at Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1774, The Declaration of Independence adopted, July 4, 1776, in the State House, still standing in Chesnut-street. The city taken by the British, Sept. 26, 1777; evacuated by them, June 18, 1778. Conven- tion met here. May 17, 1787, and on 17th of Sept. following, agreed on a constitution for the United States. Yellow fever raged, 1793 and 1798. Congress removed to Philadelphia, 1800. United States Bank established here, 1816. United States Mint, in 1792. Girard College opened, 1846. Population in 1732, 12 000; in 1790, 42,000; in 1810, 96,664; in 1830, 167,811 ; in 1840, 220,423. PHILIPPI, Battle or, between Octavius Csesar and Marc Antony on one side, and the republican forces under Brutus and Cassius, in which the former obtained the victory. Two battles were fought : in the first, Brutus, who commanded the right wing, defeated the enemy ; but Cassius, who had care of the left, was overpowered, and he ordered his freedman to run him through the body. In the second battle, the wing which Brutus command- ed obtained a victory ; but the other was defeated, and he found himself surrounded by the soldiers of Antony. He however made his escape, and soon after fell on his sword. Both battles were fought in October, 42 b.c. — Bossuet. PHILIPPICS. This species of satire derives its name from the orations of De- mosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, and from Cicero's Orations (the second of which was called divine by Juvenal) against Marc Antony, which latter cost Cicero his life, 43 b. c. PHILIPPINE ISLES. Discovered by the Spaniards a. d. 1519. In this archi- pelago the illustrious circumnavigator Magellan, like the still more illustri- ous Cook in the Sandwich Islands, lost his life in a skirmish, in 1521. PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition to his- tory, which is only the Kno^vledge of facts ; or to mathematics, which is the 470 THE world's PROGE-ESS. [ PHI knowledge of the quantity of things ; — the hypothesis or system upon which natural effects are explained. — Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the name of philosopher (such men having previously been called sages), about 528 b. c. See Moral PhUosophij. Philosophers were expelled from Rome, and their schools suppressed, by Domitian, a. d. 83. — Univ. Hist. Philosophy has undergone four great changes: — 1. A total subserviency to priestcraft and superstition, by the Chaldeans and Egyptians. 2. A commixture of reason and poetry, by the Greeks. 3. A mechanical system, introduced by Coper- nicus and Galileo ; and, 4. A system of poetical, verbal, and imaginary caiisa- tion, taught by Newton, Lavoisier, &.c. The world, at present, are divided between the two last. PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. By this name is usually meant a powder, which some wise heads among the chemists imagined had the virtue of turning all imperfect metals into silver and gold — all metals but these being so consid- ered. Kircher observes, with truth, that the quadrature of the circle, per- petual motion, the inextinguishable lamp, and the philosopher's stone, have cracked the brains of philosophers and mathematicians for a long time, without any useful result. For a remarkable case of folly and imposition in relation to this subject, see Alchemy. PHOSPHORUS. It was discovered in the year 1667, by 13 rant, who procured it from urine ; and Scheele soon after found a method of preparing it from bones. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckell, a Saxon chemist, 1670, and by the hon. Mr. Boyle, about the same time. — Nouv. Diet. Phos- phoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to have been known ear- lier; the distinction was first pointed out by Lavoisier, in 1777. Canton's phosphorus is so called from its discoverer, 1768. Protophosphurated hy- drogen was discovered by sir Humphrey Davy in 1812. PHRENOLOGY. The science of the mind, and of animal jsropensities, a mod- ern doctrine, started by Dr. Gall, in 1803. See Craniology. Dr. Spurzheim improved the science in 1815, and it has now many professors ; and a Phre- nological Society has been established in London. PHYSIC. Reason and chance led early to the knowledge and virtues of cer- tain herbs. The sea-horse drawing blood from his bodj' by means of a reed to relieve himself from plethora, taught men the art of artificial blood-let- ting. — Pliny. In fabulous history it is mentioned thatPolydius having seen a serpent approach the wounded body of another with an herb, with which he covered it, restored the inanimate body of Glaucus in the same manner. — Hyginus. Egypt appears to have been the cradle of the healing art ; " and the priests," says Cabanus, "soon seized upon the province of medicine, and combined it with their other instruments of power." From the hands of the priests, medicine fell into those of the philosophers, who freed it from its superstitious character. Pythagoras endeavored to explain the formation of diseases, the order of their symptoms, and the action of medi- cine, about 529 b. c. Hippocrates, justly regarded as the father of medicine and the founder of the science, flourished about 422 b. c. Galen, born a. d. 131, Avas the oracle of medical science for nearly 1500 years. The discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely new system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628. PHYSICS. Well described as a science of unbounded extent, and as reaching from an atom to God himself. It is made to embrace the entire doctrine of the bodies and existences of the universe ; their phenomena, causes, and effects. Mr. Locke would include God, angels, and spirits, under this term. The origin of physics is referred to the Brachmans, magi, and Hebrew and Egyptian priests. From these it was derived to the Greek sages, particu- larly Thales, who first professed the study of nature in Greece, about 595 PIG j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 471 B. c. Hence, it descended to the Pythagoric, Platonic, and Peripatetic schools ; and from these to Italy and the rest of Europe. PHYSIOLOGY. In connection with natural philosophy, and that part of phy- sics which teaches the constitiition of the body, so far as it is in its healthy or natural state, and to that purpose endeavors to account for the reason of the sevei'al functions and operations of the several members. Sometimes it is limited to that part of medicine which particularly considers the struc- ture and constitution of human bodies, with regard to the cure of diseases. Its date is referred to the same time with physics, lohich see. PHYSIOGNOMY. This is a science by which the dispositions of mankind arc discovered, chiefly from the features of the face. The origin of the term is referred to Aristotle ; Cicero was attached to the science. It became a fashionable study from the beginning of the sixteenth century ; and in the last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern system. Lavater's researches in this pursuit arose from his having been struck with the singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at which he and Zimmerman were standing ; published 1776. PIANO-FORTE. Invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717 ; he present- ed a model of his invention to the court of Saxony ; and some time after, G. Silverman, a musical-instrument maker, began to manufacture piano-fortes with considerable success. The invention has also been ascribed to an in- strument-maker of Florence. The square piano-forte was first made by Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758. Piano-fortes were made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766 ; and have been since greatly improved bj^ others here. PICHEGRU'S, MOREAU'S, and GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy against Napoleon Bonaparte detected, and Georges and Moreau arrested at Paris, February 23, 1804. Pichegru, when captured, was con- fined in the Temple, where he was found strangled on the morning of the 6th April following. For the particulars relating to this conspiracy, see ar- ticle Georges, &c. PICQUET, The Game of, the first known game upon the cards, invented by Joquemin, and afterwards other games, for the amusement of Charles VI. of France, who was at the time in feeble health, 1390. — Mczerai. See ar- ticle Cards. PICTS. a Scythian or German colon}'-, who landed in Scotland much about the time that the Scots began to seize upon the Ebudse, or Western Isles. They afterwards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands and the isles, and the Picts in that now called the lowlands. About a. d 838 to 843, the Scots under Kenneth II. totally subdued the Picts, and seized all their kingdom, and extended the limits as far as Newcastle-upon-Tyne. PICTURES. Bularchus was the first who introduced, at least among the Greeks, the use of many colors in one picture. One of his pictures was purchase 1 by the king of Lydia for its weight in gold ; he flourished 740 b. g. See PavUing. I'IGEON, The Carrier. The courier pigeons are of very ancient use. The ancients being destitute of the convenience of posts, were accustomed when they took a long journej'-, and were desirous of sending back any news with uncommon expedition, to take some pigeons with them. When they thought proper to write to their friends, they let one of these birds loose, with let- ters fastened to its neck : the bird, once released, would never cease its flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenes announced to his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending to him at Mgina, 3 472 THE WOULD S PROGRESS. j" PH pigeon stained Avith purple. — Ovid. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded b^ means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. In modern times, the most noted were the pigeons of Aleppo, which served as couriers at Alexandretta and Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons sent from Antwerp were liberated from Lon- don at 7 o'clock in the morning ; and on the same day at noon, one of them arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second arrived ; the remainder on the following day, Nov. 23, 1819. — Phillips. PILGRIMAGES. They began to be made about the middle ages of the church, but they were most in vogue after the close of the 11th century. Many licenses were granted to captains of English ships to carry pilgrims abroad, 7 Henry VI., 1428. PILLORY. A scaffold for persons to stand on, in order to render them infa- mous, and make them a public spectacle, for every one to see and know, that they might avoid and refuse to have any commerce or dealings with them for the future. This punishment was awarded against persons con- victed of forgery, perjurj^ libelling, &c. In some cases the head was put through a hole, the hands through two others, the nose slit, the face branded with one or more letters, and one or both ears cut off. It was in use in En- gland in the reign of Henry IH., 1256. Many persons died in the pillory, by being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and putrid offal. It was abolished as a punishment in all cases except perjury, in 1815-16. The pillory was totally abolished by act 1 Victoria, June 1837. PINS. As an article of foreign commerce, pins are first mentioned in the sta- tutes A. D. 1483. Those made of brass Avire were brought from France in 1540, and were first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, queen of Heniy VIII. Before the invention of pins, both sexes used ri- bands, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks and eyes, and skewers of brass, silver, and gold. They were made in England in 1543. — SLowe. PISA, Leaning Tower of. This celebrated tower, likewise called Campanile, on account of its having been erected for the purpose of containing bells, stands in a square close to the cathedral of Pisa. It is built entirely of white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories, each adorned with a round of columns, rising one above another. It inclines so far on one side from the pei-peudicular, tliat in dropping a plummet from the top, which is 188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. Much pains have been taken by connoisseurs to prove that this was done purposely by the architect ; but it is evident that the inclination has proceeded from another cause, namely, from an accidental subsidence of the foundation on that side. PISTOLS. These are the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes on the saddle-bow, sometimes in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket, &c. — Pardon. The pistol was first used by the cavalry of England, in 1544. PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small solitary island in the Pacific Ocean, seen by Cook in 1773, and noted for being colonized by ten mutineers from the ship Bo'mity, captain Bligh, in 1789, from which time, till 1814, they (or rather their descendants) remained here unluiown. See Mutiny of the Bounty. PITT'S ADMINISTRATION. The first administration of this illustrious states- man was formed on the dismissal of the Coalition ministry {which see), Dec. 27, 1783. His second administration was formed May 12, 1804. The right honorable William Pitt was son of the great earl of Chatham. He died PLA ] DICTlONAUr OF DATES. 473 Jan. 23, 1806. Mr. Pitt was a minister of commanding powers, and still loftier pretensions : and he departed life in possession of the esteem of a large portion of his countrymen. A public funeral was decreed to his ho- nor by parliament, and a grant of .£40,000 to pay his debts. PIUS. This name was first given to the emperor Antoninus Titus, thence called Antoninus Pius, on account of his piety and virtue, a. d. 138. This name was also given to a son of Metellus, because he interested himself so warm- ly to have his father recalled from banishment. The name of Pius has also been taken by nine of the popes of Rome, the first of whom assumed it in A. D. 142. PLAGUE. "The offspring of inclement skies, and of legions of putrifying locusts." — Thomson. The first recorded general plague in all parts of the world occurred 767 b. c. Petavius, At Carthage the plague was so terrible that the people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 534 b. c. — Ha- ronius. At Rome prevailed a desolating plague, carrying off a hundred thousand persons in and round the city, 461 b. c. At Athens, whence it spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 430 b. c. Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, and destroyed 2000 persons every d^iy, 188 b. c. Pliny. At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 per- sons perish daily, a. d. 78. The same fatal disease again ravaged the Roman empire, a. d. 167. In Britain, a plague raged so formidably, and swept away such multitudes, that the living were scarcely sufljcient to bury the dead, a. d. 430. A dreadful one began in Europe in 558, ex- tended all over Asia and Africa, and it is said did not cease for many years. Univ. Hist. At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its in- habitants perished, A. D. 746. [This plague raged for three years, and was equally fatal in Calabria, Sicily, and Greece.] At Chichester in England, an epidemical disease carried off 34,000 persons, 772. — Will. Malms. In Scotland, 40,000 person,=; perished of a pestilence, a. d. 954. In London, a great mortality, a. d. 1094 ; and in Ireland, 1095. Again in London : it extended to cattle, fowls, and other domestic animals, 1111. — Holings. In Ireland : after Christmas this year, Henry II. was forced to quit the country, 1172. Again in Ireland, when a prodigious number perished, 1204. A general plague raged throughout Europe, causing a most extensive mortality. Bri- tain and Ireland suffered grievously. In London alone, 200 persons were buried daily in the Charterhouse yard. In Paris and London a dreadful mortality prevailed in 1362 and 1367; and in Ire- land, in 1370. A great pestilence in Ireland, called the fourth, destroyed a great number of the people, 1383. 30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pesti- lence in London, 1407. Again in Ireland, superinduced by a fam- ine ; great numbers died, 1466 ; and Dub- lin was wasted by a plague, 1470. An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and throughout England a plague which de- stroyed more people than the continual wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478. — Rapin ; Salmon. The awful Sudor Anglicus, or sweating sickness, very fatal at London, 1485. — Delrnme. The plague at London so dreadful that Hen- ry VII. and his court removed to Calais, 1500.— Stowe. Again, the sweating sickness (mortal in three hours). In most of the capital towns in England half the inhabitants died, and Oxford was depopulated, 9 II. VIII., Wn.—Stowe. Limerick was visited by a plague, when many thousands perished, 1522. A pestilence throughout Ireland, 1525 ; and tlie English Sweat, 1528 ; and a pestilence in Dublin, 1575. 30,578 persons perished of the plague in London alone, 1603-1604. It was also fatal in Ireland. 200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constan- tinople, in 1611. In London, a great mortality prevailed, and 35,417 persons perished, 1625. In France, a general mortality ; at Lyons 60,000 persons died, 1632. The plague, brought from Sardinia to Na- ples (being introduced by a transport with soldiers on board), raged with such vio- lence as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabit- ants in six months, 1656. Memorable plague which carried off 68,596 persons in London, 1665. [Fires were kept up night and day to purify the air for three days ; and it is thought the infection was not totally destroyed till the great conflagration of 1666.] 60,000 persons persons perished of the plague at Marseilles and neighborhood, brought in a ship from the Levant, 1720. One of the most awful plagues that ever raged, prevailed in Syria, 1760. — Abbi Mariti. 474 THE world's TROGRESS. .. [ FLA PLAGUE, continued. In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried off 80,000 of the inhabitants of Bassorah, 1773. In E^pt, more than 800,000 persons died of plague, 1792. In Barbary, 3000 died daily; and at Fez 247,000 perished, 1799. In Spain, and at Gibraltar, immense num- bers were earned off by a pestilent dis. ease in 1804 and 1805. Again, at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever, much resembling the plague, caused great mor- tality, 1828. The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) 1832, 1834, 1849. PLAGUES OP EGYPT. The refusal of the king to hearken to Moses, although he had performed many miracles to prove his divine mission, brings a display of wrath upon the land, in ten awful instances, Avhich are denominated the plagues of Egypt, 1492 b. c. In this year the king, named by some Amen- ophis, by others Cherres, is, with his whole army, overwhelmed in the Red Sea. — Usher, Blair, Lenglet. PLANTAGENET, House of. A race of fourteen English kings, from Henry IL to Richard III., killed at the battle of Bosworth {ivMch see), 1485. Anti- quaries are at a loss to account for the origin of this appellation ; and the best derivation they can find for it is, that Fulk, the first earl of Anjou, of that name, being stung with remorse for some wicked action, went on a pil- grimage to Jerusalem, as a work of atonement ; where being scourged with broom twigs, growing on the spot, he took the surname of Plantagenet, or Broom-stalk, which was retained by his posterity. PLASTER OF PARIS, for moulds, figures, statuary, &c. The method of tak- ing likenesses bj^ its use was first discovered b}' Andrea Verrochio, about A. D. 1466. This gypsum was first found at Montmartre, a village near Paris, v/hence it obtained its name. " PLAT.1EA, Battle of, between Mardonius the commander of Xerxes king of Persia, and Pausanias the Lacedfemonian, and the Athenians. The Per.sian army consisted of 300,000 men, 3000 of which scarce escaped with their lives by flight. The Grecian army, which was greatly inferior, lost but few men ; and among these, ninety-one Spartans, fifty-two Athenians, and sixteen Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in the number of the slain. The plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Persian camp was immense. Pau- sanias received a tenth of all the spoils, on account of his uncommon valor during the engagement, and the rest were rewarded each according to their respective merit. This battle was fought on the 22d September, the same day as the battle of Mycale, 479 b. c. ; and by it Greece was totally deliver- ed for ever from the contiiuial alarms to which she was exposed on account of the Persian invasions, and from that time none of the princes of Persia dared to appear with a hostile force beyond the Hellespont. PLATE. The earliest use of plate as an article of luxury cannot be precisely traced. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in public houses by statute 8 William III., 1696. The celebrated Plate Act passed in May 1756. This act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a duty upon plate passed in 1784. PLATINA. This is the heaviest of all the metals, and harder than silver and gold. The name which is given to it originated with the Spaniards, from the word Plata, signifying silver, it would seem on account of its silvery color. It was unknown in Europe until a. d. 1748, when Don Antonio Ulloa announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage to Peru. — Greig. PLATTSBURGH, on Lake Champlain, New York, Battle of; 14,000 British troops under sir George Prevost repulsed, Sept. 11, 1814. The British fleet on the lake captured by Macdonough, at same time. POE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES 475 PLAYS. Tragedy, comedy, satire, and pantomime Avere performed in Greece and Rome. Plays became a general and favorite pastime about 165 e.g.; but they were performed on occasions of festivity some ages before. The Trojan plays consisted of horse-races and exercises of the youth, under a proper head or captain, wherein the utmost dexterity was practised. The plays of Ceres were instituted to-please the ladies, who from the 12th to the 20th of April were clad in white, and, in imitation of that goddess, went with a torch in their hands as if in search of her daughter Proserpine. The plays of Flora were so offensive, that they were forced to be put down. The funeral plays were plaj^s in honor of the dead, and to satisfy their ghosts. There were numerous institutions under the name of plays. Plays were first acted in England at Clerkenwell, a. d. 1397. The first company of players that received the sanction of a patent was that of James Burbage, and others, the servants of the earl of Leicester, from queen Elizabeth, in 1574. In England plays were subjected to a censorship in 1737. See Drama. PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judicature in England, pleadings were made in the Saxon language in a. d. 786. They were made in Norman- French from the period of the Conquest in 1066; and they so continued lui- til the 36tli of Edward III. 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to oe taken in English in 1650. The Latin was used in conveyancing in the courts of law till 1731. POET LAUREAT. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office. The first record we have of poet-laureat in England is in the 35th Henry III. 1251. The laureat was then styled the king's versifier, and a hundred shil- lings were his annual stipend. — Warton; Maddox, Hist. Exch. Chaucer, on his return from abroad, assumed the title poet-laureat; and in the twelfth year of Richard II., 1889, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of wine. James L. in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100 marks; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented by letters patent of Charles I. to lOOZ. per annum, with an additional grant of one tierce of Canary Spanish wine, to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. NAMES OF PERSONS WHO FILLED THE OFFICE PROM THE EEIGN OP aUEBN ELIZABETH. Elizabeth appointed Edmund Spenser, who died - - - a. d. 1598 Samuel Daniel, died - - • 1619 Ben .Tonson, died - - - 1637 Sir William Davenant, died - -1668 John Dryden ; he was deposed at the revolution .... 1688 Thomas Shadwell, died - - - 1692 Nahum Tate, died - - a. d. 1716 The rev. Laurence Eusden, died - 1730 CoUey Gibber, died - - . - 1757 William Whitehead, died - . 1785 Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died - . 1790 Henry James Pye, died - - - 1813 Dr. Robert Southey, died . March 21, 1843 William Wordsworth, died - . 1850 POETRY. The oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest species of refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and the earliest perpetuation of thought. It existed before music in melody, and before painting in description. — HazUtt. The exact period of the in- vention of poetry is uncertain. In Scriptural history, the song of Moses on the signal deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Red Sea, is said to be the most ancient piece of poetry in the world, and is very sub- lime. — Exodus XV. Orpheus of Thrace is the earliest author, and is deemed the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world), about 1249 B. c. Homer, the oldest poet whose works have descended to us, flourished about 907 b. c— Parian Marb. Iambic verse {which see) was introduced by Archilochus, 700 b. c.—Du Fresnoy. For odes, see article Odes. We are told that poetry (or more properly the rules of poetry) was first brought to England by Aldhelme, or Adelmus, abbot of Malmsbury, about the close of the seventh century. 476 THE world's progress. Lpol POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning their husbands, which they too fatally carried into eifect. A female slave denounced 170 of them to Fabius Maximus, who ordered them to be pub- licly executed, 331 b. c. It is said that this was the first public knowledge they had of poisoning at Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- land, and was punished by boiling to deatii (of which there were some re- markable instances) 23 Henry VIII. 1532. See article Boiling to Death. POITIERS, Battle of, in France, between Edward the Black Prince and John king of France, in which the English arms triumphed. The standard of France was overthrown, and many of her distinguished nobility were slain. The French king was taken prisoner, and brought to London, through which he was led amidst an amazing concourse of spectators. Two kings, prisoners in the same court and at the same time, were considered as glo- rious achievements ; but all that England gained by them was only glory, Sept. 19, 1356.— Carte. POLAND, Anciently, the country of the Vandals, who emigrated from it to invade the Roman empire. It became a duchy imder Lechus I. a. d. 550; and a kingdom under Boleslaus a. d. 999. Poland was dismembered by the emperor of Germany, the empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, who seiz- ed the most valuable territories in 1772. It was finally partitioned, and its political existence annihilated, by the above powers, in 1795.* The king formallj^ resigned his crown at Grodno, and was afterwards removed to Pe- tersburgh, wliere he remained a kind of state prisoner till his death in 1798. With him ended the kingdom of Poland. Abdication of John Casimir - - 1669 842 IMassacre of the Protestants at Thorn -1724 Stanislaus' unhappy reign begins - 1763 He abolishes torture - - • 1770 An awful pestilence sweeps away 250,000 of the people - - - 1770 992 The evils of civil war so weaken the 1059 Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the du- cal dignity - - - a. d. [Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his reign was so prosperous that every succeeding native sovereign was call- ed a Piast.] Introduction of Christianity Red Russia added to Poland Boleslaus 11. murders the bishop of Cracow with his own hands ; his kingdom laid under an interdict by the pope, and his subjects absolved of their allegiafice - - - 1080 He flies to Hungaiy for shelter ; but is refused it by order of Gregory VII., and he at length kills himself - 1081 Uladislaus deposed - - - 1102 Premislaus assassinated- - - 1295 Louis of Hungary elected king- - 1370 War against the Teutonic knights - 1447 The Wallachians treacherously carry oir 100,000 Poles, and sell them to the Turks as slaves - . - - 1498 Splendid reign of Sigismund II. - 1548 Stephen forms a militia composed of Cossacks, a barbarous race, on whom he bestows the Ukraine - - 1575 kingdom, it falls an easy prey to the royal plunderers, the empress of Russia, emperor of Austria, and king of Prussia .... 1772 The first partition treaty Feb. 17, 1772 The public partition treaty Aug. 5, 1772 A new constitution is formed by the virtuous Stanislaus - - May 3, 1791 [The royal and imperial spoliators, on various pretexts, pour their armies into Poland, 1792, et seq.] The brave Poles, under Poniatowski and Kosciusko, several times contend successfully against superior armies, but in the end are defeated. Kosci- usko, wounded and taken, is carried prisoner to Russia - - - 1794 Stiwarrow's victories and massacres - 1794 Battle of Warsaw - Oct. 12, 1794 [Here Suwarrow subsequently butch- * An act of spoliation more unprincipled never dishonored crowned heads. For a century pre- viously, the balance of power had engaged the attention of the politicians of Europe; butin per- mitting this odious crime, such an object appears to have been totally lost sight of. Austria and Prussia had long been deadly enemies, and both hated Russia; yet they now conspired agaiast a country they were each pledged to protect, and with unexampled profligacy became leagued in a scheme of plunder consummated by the destruction of .500,000 lives ! Russia seized Lithuania, and all that part to the eastward that suited her. Austria took Gallicia, the most fertile of the provinces, lying contiguous to her own dominions ; and Prussia secured the maritime districts. The most extraordinary circumstance attending this afiair was the total inaction of the two greal powers, England and France, whose supineness in a more recent instance also is rebuked by policj as well as justice, and de]iloredby the food and brave among mankind. — Haydn. POL ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 477 POLAND, continued. era 30,000 Poles of all ages and condi- tions in cold blood.] Courland is annexed to Russia - - 1795 Stanislaus resigns his crown ; final par- tition of his kingdom - Nov. 25, 1795 Kosciusko set at liberty Dec. 25, 1796 Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburgh, Fe>i. 12, 1798 Treaty of Tilsit (ichich see) - July 7, 1807 [The central provinces form the duchy of Warsaw, between 1807 and 1813.] General Diet at Wai^saw - June, 1812 New constitution - - Nov. 1815 Polish Diet opened - - Sept. 1820 Revolution commenced at Warsaw ; the army declare in favor of the peo- ple - - - Nov, 29, 1830 The Diet declares the throne of Poland vacant - - - Jan. 25, 1831 Battle of Growchow, near Praga : the Russians lose 7000 men ; the Poles, who keep the field, 2000 Feb. 20, 1831 Battle of Ostrolenka; signal defeat of the Russians - - May 26, 1831 The Russian, Diebitsch, dies June 10, 1831 Grand Duke Constantine dies, June 27, 1831 Battle of Winsk (see Wmsk) July 14, 1831 Warsaw taken (see Warsaic} Sept. 8, 1831 [This last fatal event terminated the nemorable and glorious, but unfor- tunate struggle of the Poles.] Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, decreeing that the kingdom of Poland shall henceforth form an integral part of the Russian empire Feb. 26, 1832 A powerful insurrection ; 40,000 march on Cracow, but are defeated, Feb. 23, 1846 Cracow occupied by the Austrians^ and the treaty which had made it inde- pendent, declared abrogated, Nov. 16, 1846 Unsuccessful revolt at Cracow, Apr. 25, 1848 DUKES AND KINGS OP POLAND. k.D. 550 700 750 750 804 810 815 830 842 861 892 913 964 999 1025 1041 1058 i082 1102 1140 1146 1173 1178 1194 1200 1203 1206 1228 1279 Lechus I. His posterity held the dukedom for about 150 years. Cracus I. Cracus 11., assassinated by his brother. Lechus II., deposed. Venda, drowned herself. Premislaus. who on being elected was named Lescus or Le-ss. Lescus II., killed by the French. Lescus III. Popiel I. Popiel II. Piastus, a country peasant. Zemo Vitus. Lescus IV. Zemomislaus. Miecislaus, surnamed the Blind. Boleslans I., surnamed the Intrepid. Miecislaus II., went mad. Casimir the Pacific. Boleslaus II., killed himself Uladislaus, surnamed Huraanus. Boleslaus III., surnamed Wry-mouth. Uladislaus II., fled. Boleslaus IV., the Curled. Miecislaus III., deposed. Casimir II., surnamed the Just. Lescus v., relinquished. Miecislaus IV., whose tyranny in a few months restored Lescus V. ; but for bad conduct he was again forced to relinquish the government. Uladislaus III. ; he voluntarily retired. Lescus v., a third time, being chosen by the nobles, assassinated ; suc- ceeded by his son, an infant. Boleslaus V., the Chaste. Lescus VI., surnamed the Black, son of Conrad, brother of Lescus V., died 1289. An interregnum of five years, when the Poles chose 1295 Premislaus, great duke of Poland, as- sassinated. 1296 Uladislaus IV., surnamed Loeticus ; he refused the title of king ; deposed. 1300 Winceslaus. 1306 Uladislaus IV., again. 1333 Casimir the Great, killed by a fall from his horse, while hunting. 1370 Lewis, king of Hungary, succeeded by his daughter, 1383 Hedwigis,"who married, in 13S5 Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who em- braced the Christian religion, and took the name of Uladislaus V. ; imited Lithuania to Poland. 1434 Uladislaus VI., killed in battle. 1444 Boleslaus, duke of Massovia. 1447 Casimir IV. 1492 John Albert. 1502 Alexander, prince of Livonia. 1507SigismundI. 15^18 Sigismund II., Augustus, chose 1573 Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou, sue ceeding to the French throne. 1576 Stephen Battory, prince of Transyl- vania. 1587 Sigismund III., son to the king of Sweden. 1632 Uladislaus VIL 1648 John Casimir, abdicated. 1669 Michael Koribert Wiesnown. 1574 John Sobieski, died in 1697. An inter- regnum for a year. 1693 Frederick Augustus II., forced to re- sign. 1704 Stanislaus I., Leczinsky, forced to re- lire in 1710. 1710 Frederick Augustus II., again. 1733 Stanislaus I., again. 1733 Frederick Augustus III, 1764 StanislausAugustus resigns the crown. So late as the 13th century, the Poles retained the custom of killing old meu when past labor, and such children as were born imi^erfect. POLAR REGIONS. For voyages of discovery to the, see Norlh-xijest Pas- 478 THE world's progress. [ POM POLE STAR. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con- stellation called the lAttle Bear; its nearness to the North Pole causes it ne- ver to set to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the seaman's guide. The discovery of the Pole Star is ascribed by the Chinese to their emperor Hong Ti, the grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned and flourished 1970 b. c. — Univ. Hist. POLICE. That of London has been extended and regulated at various pe- riods. Its jurisdiction was extended 27 Elizabeth 1585, and 16 Charles I. 1640 ; and the system improved by various acts in subsequent reigns. The London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. The London police was remodelled by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel, by statute, June 19, 1829. Some advance has been made since 1840, in introducing a suitable police in New York and other large cities of the United States ; but we are yet very far behind London in this matter. Probably no city in the world, large or small, is so well provided as London with an efficient and useful police force ; a force which not only detects and prevents crime, but preserves order, quiet, and public convenience, in an admirable manner. POLITICAL ECONOMY, or improvement of the condition of mankind. A science justly viewed as the great high-road to ijublic and private happiness. Its history may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nolions. 1776. POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man M'ell versed in policy, or the well regulating and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and cun- ning man. — Pardon. The term was first used in France about a. d. 1569. — Henault. POLL-TAX. The tax so called was first levied in England a. d. 1378. The re- bellion of Wat Tyler sprung from this impost (see Tyler), 1381. It was again levied in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject was assessed by the head, viz. — a duke lOOZ., a marquis 80Z., a baronet 30^., a knight 20Z., an esquire 10^., and every single private person 12d., 1667. This grievous impost was abolished by William III. at the period of the Revolution. POLYGAMY. Most of the early nations of the world admitted polygamy. It was general among the ancient Jews, and is still so among the Turks and Persiajis. In Medea it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who took two wives ; and the practice became frequent until forbidden by Arca- dius A. D. 893. The emperor Charles V. punished this offence with death. In England, by statute 1 James 1. 1603, it was made felony, but witli bene- fit of clergy. This oflfence is now punished with transportation. See Marriages. POLYGLOT. The term is derived from t\vo Greek words denoting " many lan- guages," and it is chiefly used for the Bible so printed. The Polyglot Bible termed the Comptutensian Polyglot, in 6 vols, folio, was printed a. d. 1514-17 ; the first edition at the expense of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes. Three co- ])ies of it were printed on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483Z. for one of these copies at tlie Pinelli sale. The second Polyglot was printed at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 vols, folio, in 1569. The third was printed at Pa- ris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio, 1628-45. The fourth in London, printed by Bryan Walton, in 6 vols, folio, 1657. — Brunei. POMPEII, Ruins of. This ancient city of Campania was partly demolished by an earthquake in a. d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was swallowed up by an awful eruption of Ve.suvius, accompanied by an earthquake, on the night of the 24th of August, a. d. 79. Many of the principal citizens happen- ed at the time to be as.'^euibU'd at a theati-e where public spectacles were pop] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 479 exhibited. The ashes buried the whole city, and covered the surrounding country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries, a countryman, as he was turning up tlie ground, accidentally found a bronze figure ; and this discovery attract- ing the attention of the learned, further search brought numerous produc- tions to light, and at length the city was once more shone on by the sun. Different monarchs have contributed their aid in uncovering the buried city; the part first cleared was supposed to be the main street, a. d. 1750. I'ONDICHERRY. Formerly the capital of French India, and first settled by the French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and was beseiged by the English in 1748. It was taken by the English forces in Januarv 1761, and was restored in 1763. Pondicherry was once more cap- tured by the British, August 23, 1793 ; and finally in 1803. I'ONTUS. The early history of this country (which seems to have been but a portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from its vicinity tc the Pon- tus Eiixinus) is very obscure. Artabazes was made king of Pontus oy Darius Hystaspes. His successors were little more than satraps or lieutenants of the kings of Persia, and are scarcely known even by name. Artabazes made king of Pontus by Da- rius Hystaspes - - - B. c. 487 Reijrn of Mitliridates I. - - -383 Ariobarzanes invades Pontus - - 363 INIithridates II. recovers it ■ - - 336 Mithridates III. reians - - - 301 Ariobarzanes II. reigns - - - 266 INIithridates IV. is besieged in liis capi- tal by tlie Gauls, &c. - - - 252 Mithridates makes an unsuccessful at- tack upon the free cily of Sinope, and is obliged to raise the siege by the Rhodians - - - - 219 Reign of Pharnaces ; he takes Sinope, and makes it tlic capital of his king- dom 183 Reign of Mithridates V. - - -1.57 He IS murdered in the midst of his court 123 Mithridates VI., surnamed the Great, or Eupator, receives the diadein at 12 years of age ... - 123 Marries Laodice, his own sister - - 115 She attempts to poison him ; he puts her and her accomplices to death - 112 Mithridates makes a glorious campaign ; conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Col- chis, and other countries - - 111 He enters Cappadocia - - - 97 His war witlr Rome - • - 89 Tigranes ravages Cappadocia b. c. Mithridates enters Biihynia, and makes himself master of many Roman pro- vinces, and puts 80,000 Romans to death ..... Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chaero- nea ; 100,000 Cappadocians slain Victories and conquests of Mithridates up to this time - - . . The ileet of Mithridates defeats that un- der LueuUus, in two battles Mithridates defeated by LucuUus Mithridates defeats Fabius - But is defeated by Pompey Mithridates stabs himself, and dies Reign of Pharnaces BalUe of Zela (see Zela) ; Pharnaces defeated by Csesar Darius reigns - - - - Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns Polemon II. succeeds his lather - A. D. Mithridates VII. reigns Pontus afterwards became a Roman province, under the emperors. Ale.xis Comncnus founded a new empire of the Greeks at Trebisond, in this country, a. d. 1204, which continued till the Turks destroyed it in 1459.- 86 POOR LAWS. The poor of England till the time of Henry VIII. subsisted as the poor of Ireland do to this day, entirely upon private benevolence. By an ancient statute, 23 Edward III. 1348, it was enacted that none should give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common law, the poor were to be sustained by " parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that none should die for default of sustenance ;" and by statute 15 Richard II. impropriators were obliged to distribute a yearly sum to the poor. But no compulsory lav/ was enacted till the 27th Henry VIII., 1535. The origin of the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43d of Elizabeth, 1600. In 1580, the Poor Rates were - £188,811 1680, they amounted to - 665.562 1698, they amounted to - - 819.000 1760, they amounted to - 1,556,804 1785, they amounted to - 2.184,950 1802, they amounted to - 4,952,421 In 1815, the Poor Rates were - £5,418.845 1820, they amounted to - 7,329,594 1830, they amounted to ■ 8,111,422 1835, they amounted to - 6,.356.345 l&JO. they amounted to - 5,468.699 1845. they amounted to - 5,543,050 POPE. This title was originally given to all bishops. It was first adopted by Hy- genus, A. n. 138; and y.l. 12s. ; a shorn sheep, 55. ; two dozen of eggs, Zd. ; other articles nearly the same as fixed by tjie common- council above recited. 7 Edwai-d II. 1313. — Rot. Pari. Wine, the best sold for 2O5. per tun, 10 Richard II. 1387. Wheat being at I5. Id. the bushel in 1390, this was deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by the historians of that era. Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, and veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Henry VIII. 1533. — ^71- derson's Origin of Commerce. Milk was sold, three pints, ale-measure, for one halfpenny, 2 Eliz. 1560. — Stowe's Chronicle. PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 320 B. c. The Venedi were conquered by a i^eople called the Borussi, who in- 494 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [PRU habited the Riphtean mountains ; and from these the country was called Burussia. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, sig- nifying near, and Russia — Po-Russia, easily modified into Prussia. The Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of the Teutonic knights, and latterly, with the Poles. This people and country were little known until about a. d. 1007. St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach Christianity, but is murdered by the pagans - - - a. d. 1010 Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death by dreadful ravages - - . • * * Berlin built by a colony from the Nether- lands, in the reign of Albert the Bear - 1163 The Teutonic knights, returning from the holy wars, undertake the conquest of Prussia, and the conversion of the people - - - - . 1225 Konigsberg, lately built, made the capi- tal of Prussia .... 1286 The Teutonic knights, by their barba- rities, almost depopulate Prussia. It is repeopled by German colonists in the 13th century - - - • * * Frederick IV. of Nuremberg obtains by purchase from Sigismond, emperor of Germany, the margraviate of Bran- denburg .... 1415 [This Frederick is the head of the pre- sent reigning family.] Casimir IV." of Poland assists the na- tives against the oppression of the Teutonic knights - - - 1446 Albert of Brandenburg, grand-master of the Teutonic order, renounces the Roman Catholic religion, embraces Lutheranism, and i.s acknowledged duke of East Prussia, to be held as a fief of Poland - - - - 1525 University of Konigsberg founded by duke Albert .... 1544 The dukedom of Prussia is joined to the electorate of Brandenburg, and so continues to this day - - - 1594 John Sigismund created elector of Bran- denburg and duke of Prussia - 1603 The principality of Halberstadtandthe bisnopric of Minden transferred to the house of Brandenburg - -1648 Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia as an independent state, under Frede- rick William .... 1657 Order of Concord instituted by Christian Ernest, duke of Prussia, to distinguish the part he had taken in restoring peace to Europe - - - 1660 The foundation of the Prussian monar- chy was established between the years 1640 and - - - - 1680 Frederic III., in an assembly of the states, puts a crown upon his own head, and upon the head of his con- sort, and is proclaimed king of Prus- sia, by the title of Frederick I. - 1701 Guelders taken from the Dutch - - 1702 Frederick I. seizes NeufchatelorNeun- burgh, and Valengia, and purchases which the Prussian monarchy is made to rank among the fixst powers in Europe - - - a. d. 1740 Breslau ceded to Prussia - - -1741 Silesia, Glatz, &c., ceded - - 1742 Frederick the Great visits England - 1744 General Lacy with 15,000 Austrians, and a Russian army, march to Berlin. The city laid under contribution ; and pays 800,000 guilders, and 1,000,000 crowns, the magazines, arsenals, and foundries destroyed - - - 1760 Frederick the Great dies - Aug. 17, 1786 The Prussians take possession of Hano- ver - - - Jan. 30, 1806 Prussia jcms the allies of England against France - - Oct. 6, l«06 Fatal battle of Jena - Oct. 14, IboO [Here followed the loss of almost every corps in succession of the Prussian army, the loss of Berlin, and of every province of the monarchy except Prussia proper.] Berlin decree promulgated - Nov. 20, 1806 . Peace of Tilsit (tr/(/c/i see) - July 7, 1807 Convention of Berlin - Nov. 5, 1803 Prussia joins the aUies - March 17, 1813 Treaty of Paris - - April 11, 1814 The king promised liberty of the press March, 1817 Outbreak at Berlin : the king resists urgent demands for liberal measures, March 14, 1847 Barricades r.nd fights between troops and students - - March 15, 1847 The king goes to Potsdam - March 18, 1847 — issues decree demanding a federal union of Germany, and granting li- berty of the press - March 18, 1S17 Another bloody collision, 274 killed March 18, 1847 New ministry formed - March 18, 1847 The king grants general amnesty March 20, 1847 Agitations general throughout Prussia A free constitution granted, in a solemn convocation, by the king - April 11, 1347 The duchy of Posen reorganizecj by the king - - - March 26, 1848 Prussian diet meets at Berlin - April 3, 1848 Constitutional assembly of Prussia meets - - - May 22, 184? The arsenal at Berlin captured by the mob - - - June 16, 1848 The king prorogues the assembly at Berlin, and appoints its meeting at Brandenburg - - Nov. 9, 1818 The Burgher Guard refuses to obey the order of the king to disband. Berlin in a state of siege - Nov. 12, 1849 The assembly dissolved, and a new con- stitution promulgated - Dec. 6, 1849 the principality of Tecklenburgli - 1707 Reign of Frederick the Great, during MAEGRAVES AND ELECTORS OP BRANDENBURG, ETC. A. D. 923 Sifroi, margrave of Brandenburg. I succession of time, passed into the * * Geron, margrave of Lusatia, which, in | families of Staden, Ascani*, Bellen- PUR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 495 PRUSSIA, continued. stadt, and that of Bavaria ; till the emperor Sigismond, with the consent of the states of the empire, gave per- petual investiture to 1416 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg, made elector of Brandenburgh, 1417. 1440 Frederick II., surnamed Ferreus, or Ironside ; resigned. 1470 Albert 1., surnamed the German Achil- les. He confirmed the deed made by his predecessor, of mutual succession with the families of Saxony and Hesse ; resigned. 1476 John, surnamed the Cicero of Germany, his son. _ . 1499 Joachim I., his son. 1535 Joachim II. ; he was poisoned by a Jew. 1571 John George. 1598 Joachim Frederick. 160S John Sigismund. 1619 George William. 1640 Frederick William the Great. 1688 Frederick, who, in 1701, was made king of Prussia. KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 1701 Frederick I. 1713 Frederick William I. 1740 Frederick II., surnamed the Grjiit, 1786 Frederick William II. 1797 Frederick William III. 1840 Frederick William IV., June 7. PUBLICHOUSES in England. A power of licensing them was first granted to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel for their own emolument, A. D. 1620-1. The number of public houses in England at this period was about 13,000. In 1700 the number was 32,600 ; and in 1790, the number in Great Britain was 76,000. It is supposed that there were about 50,000 public houses, and 30,000 beer-shops in England and Wales in 1830. The number on Jan. 5, 1840, was 95,820. PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice and other mechanical instru- ments, are said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, a disciple of Pythagoras, about 516 b. c. — Univ. Hist. It has been ascertained that in a single movable pulley the power gained is doubled. In a continued com- bination the power is twice the number of puUies, less 1. — Phillips. PULTOWA, Battle of. In this memorable engagement Charles XII. of Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and obliged to take refuge at Bender, in the Turkish dominions. The vanquished monarch would have fallen into the hands of the czar after the engagement, had_ he not been saved by the personal exertions of the brave count Poniatowski, a Polish nobleman, whom Voltaire has commemorated and immortalized. This battle was lost chiefly owing to a want of concert in the generals, and to the circumstance of Charles having been dangerously wounded, just before, which obliged him to issue his commands from a litter, without being able to encourage his soldiers by his presence. Fought July 8, 1709. PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria, architect and mechanic, is said to have in- vented the pump (with other hydraulic instruments) about 224 b. c, although the invention is ascribed to Uanaus, at Lindus, 1485 b. c. They were in general use in England, a. d. 1425. The air-pump was invented by Otto Guericke in 1654, and was improved by Boyle in 1657. An inscription on the pump in front of the Royal Exchange, London, states that the well beneath was first sunk in a. d. 1282. PUNIC WARS. The first Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against Carthage 264 b. c. The ambition of Rome was the origin of this war ; it lasted twenty-three years, and ended 241 b. c. The second Punic war be- gan 218 B. c, in which year Hannibal marched a numerous army of 90,000 foot and 12,000 horse towards Italy, resolved to carry on the war to the gates of Rome. He crossed the Rhone, the Alps, and the Apennines, with uncommon celerity ; and the Roman consuls who were stationed to stop his progress were severally defeated. The battles of Trebia, of Ticinus, and of the lake of Thrasymenus, followed. This war lasted seventeen years, and ended in 201 b. g. The third Punic war began 149 b. c, and was terminated by the fall of Carthage, 146 b. c. See Carthage. PURGATORY. The middle place between the grave, or heaven, and hell, 496 THE world's progress. [ PYT where, it is believed by the Roman Catholics, the soul passes through the fire of purification before it enters the kingdom of God. The doctrine of purgatory was known about a. d. 250 ; and was introduced into the Roman church in 593. — Platina. It was introduced early in the sixth century. — Dupin. PURIFICATION. The act of cleansing, especially considered as relating to the religious performance among the Jewish women. It was ordained by the Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days after the birth of a son, and eighty days after the birth of a daughter, when she was to go to the temple and offer a lamb, pigeon, or turtle, a. d. 214. Among the Christians, the feast of purification was instituted, a. d. 542, in honor of the Virgin Mary's going to the temple, where, according to custom, she presented her son Jesus Christ, and offered two turtles for him. Pope Ser- gius I. ordered the procession with wax tapers, from whence it is called Candlemas-day. PURITANS. The name given to such persons as in the reigns of queen Eliza- beth, king James, and king Charles I., pretended to greater holiness of living and stricter discipline than any other people. They at first were members of the established church, but afterwards became separatists upon account of several ceremonies that were by the rigidness of those times se- verely insisted upon. — Bishop Sanderson. PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. The pyramids, according to Dr. Pococke and Son- nini, " so celebrated from remote antiquity, are the most illustrious monu- ments of art. It is singular that such superb piles are nowhere to be found but in Egypt ; for in every other country, pyramids are rather puerile and diminutive imitations of those in Egypt, than attempts at appropriate mag- nificence. The pyramids are situated on a rock at the foot of some high mountains which "bound the Nile." The first building of them commenced, it is supposed, about 1500 b. c. They were formerly accounted one of the seven wonders of the world. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpen- dicular height, \vith a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of the base is"? 46 feet. It occupies eleven acres of ground, and is constructed of such stupendous blocks of stone, that a more marvellous result of hu- man labor has not been found on the earth. " Virtue alone outbuilds the pyramids, " Her monuments shall stand when Egypt's fall." — Youno. PYRENEES, Battle of the, between the British army, commanded by lord Wellington, and the French, under the command of marshal Soult. The latter army was defeated with great slaughter, July 28, 1813. After the battle of Vittoria (fought June 21), Napoleon sent Soult to supersede Jour- dan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to which his abilities were inferior ; for Soult retreated into France with a loss of more than 20,00 men, having been defeated in a series of engagements from July 25 to August 2. PYRENEES, Peace of the. A peace concluded between France and Spain; by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Spain yielding Roussillon, Artois, and her rights to Alsace ; and France ceding her conquests in Catalonia, Italy, &c., and engaging not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659. PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Founded by Pythagoras, of Samos, head of the Italic sect. He first taught the doctrine of metempsychosis or transmigration of the soul from one body to another. He forbade his dis- ciples to eat flesh, as also beans, because he supposed them to have been produced from the same putrified matter from which at the creation of the world man was formed. In his theological system, Pythagoras supported that the universe was created from a shapeless heap of passive matter by JJUA J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 497 the hands of a powerful being, who himself was the mover and soul of the world. He was the inventor of the multiplication-table, and a great im- prover of geometry, while in astronomy he taught the system adopted at this day, 539 b. c. PYTHIAN GAMES. Games celebrated in honor of Apollo, near the temple of Delphi. They were first instituted, according to the more received opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory which he had obtained over the serpent Python, from which they received their name ; though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon, or Diomedes, or by Amphictyon, or, lastly, by the council of the Amphio tyons, B. c. 1263. — Arundelian Marbles. Q. QUACKERY and QUACK MEDICINES. At the first appearance that a French quack made in Paris, a boy walked before him, publishing, with a shrill voice, " My father cures all sorts of distempers ;" to which the doctor added in a grave manner, " What the child says is true." — Addisun. Qaacks sprung up with the art of medicine ; and several couniiies, particularly England and France, abound with them. In London, some of their esta- blishments are called colleges. Quack medicines were taxed in England in 1783 et seq. An inquest was held on the body of a young lady, Miss Cashiu, whose physician, St. John Long, was afterwards tried for man- slaughter ; he was found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of 250Z., Oct. 30, 1830. QUADRANT. The mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter circle. The solar quadrant was introduced about 290 b. c. The Arabian astrono- nomers under the Caliphs, in a.d. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feet 8 inches radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for mea- suring angles was produced about 1600. Hadley's quadrant, in 1731. See Navigation. QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. The celebrated treaty of Alliance betAveen Great Britain, France, and the Emperor, signed at London. This alliance, on the accession of the states of Holland, obtained the name of the Quadruple Alliance, and was for the purpo.se of guaranteeing the succession of the reigning families in Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of the Spanish monarchy. Aug. 2, 1718. QUJ?:STOR, in Roman antiquity, was an oflScer who had the management of the public treasure, instituted 484: b. c. The questorship was the firstofllce any person could bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit in the senate. At first there were only two; but afterwards the number was greatly increased. QUAKERS OR FRIENDS. Originally called Seekers, from their seeking the truth ; and afterwards Friends — a beautiful appellation, and characteristic of the relation which man, under the Christian dispensation, ought to bear towards man. — Clarkson. Justice Bennet, of Derby, gave the society the name of Quakers in 1650, because Fox (the founder) admonished him and those present with him, to tremble at the word of the Lord. This respect- able sect, excelling in morals, prudence, and industry, was commenced in England about a. d. 1650, by George Fox, who was soon joined by a num- ber of learned, ingenious, and pious men — among others, by George Keith, Wm. Penn, and Robert Barclay of Ury.* The thee and thou used by the * The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions in England and America. At Boston, where the first Friends who arrived were females, they, even females, were cruelly scourged, and their 498 THE world's progress. [ QUE Quakers originated with their founder, who published a book of instruc- tions for teachers and professors. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was enacted to be taken in all cases, in the courts below, wherein oaths are re- quired from other subjects, 8 William III. 1696. QUARANTINE. The custom first observed at Venice, a. d. 1127, whereby all merchants and others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazaretto, 40 days before they were ad- mitted into the city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; that of Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and all other nations oblige those that come from the infected places to perform qua- rantine with their ships, &c., a longer or shorter time, as may be judged most safe. QUATRE-BRAS, Battle of, between the British and allied army under the duke of Brunswick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the French under marshal Ney, fought two days before the battle of Waterloo. In this engagement the gallant duke of Brunswick fell, Jvme 16, 1815. QUEBEC. Founded by the French in 1605. It was reduced by the English, with all Canada, in 1626, but was restored in 1632. Quebec was besieged by the English, but without success, in 1711 ; but was conquered by them, after a battle memorable for the death of general Wolfe in the moment of victory, Sept. 13, 1759. This battle was fought on the Plains of Abraham. Quebec was besieged by the Americans under Gen. Montgomeiy, who was slain, December 31, 1775; and the siege was raised the next year. The public and private stores, and several wharfs, were destroyed by fire in 1815; the loss being estimated at upwards of 260,000Z. Awful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 persons, burnt to the ground, May 28, 1845. Another great fire, one month afterwards ; 1365 houses burnt, June 28, 1845. Disastrous fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost, Jan. 12, 1846. QUEEN. The first queen invested with authority as a ruling sovereign, was Semiramis, queen and empress of Assyria, 2017 b. c. She embellished the city of Babj'lon, made it her capital, and by her means it became the most magnificent and superb city in the world. The title of queen is coeval witli that of king. The Hungarians had such an aversion to the name af queen, that whenever a queen ascended the throne, she reigned with the title of king. See note to article Hungary. QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL. Caroline, the consort of George IV. of Eng- land, was subjected, when princess of Wales, to the ordeal of the Delicate Investigation, May 29, 1806. Her trial commenced Aug. 19, 1820. Illumi- nations on her acquittal, Nov. 10-12. Her death Aug. 7, 1821. Riot at her funeral, Aug. 14. QUEENS OF ENGLAND. There have been, since the conquest, besides the present sovereign, four queens of England who have reigned in their own right, not counting the empress Maude, daughter of Henry I., or the lady Jane Grey, whose quasi reign lasted only ten days. There have been thirty- four queens, the consorts of kings, exclusively of four wives of kings who cav.s cut off, yet they were unshaken in theii- constancy. In 1659, they stated in parliament that 2,000 Friends hail endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate ; and 164 Friends offered them- selves at tliis time, by name, to government, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal number in danger (from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (ont of 120 sentenced) Vifere transported to America, by an order of council, 1664. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some months, an em- bargo was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the scrvi'-e. But the Friends would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vesset, and sol- diers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed; but it was immediately captured by the Dutch, who liberated 28 of the prisoners in Holland, the rest having died of the plague in thai year. Set Plague. Of the 120 few reached America. que] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 499 died previously to their husbands ascending the tlirone. Of thirty-five ac^ tual sovereigns of England, four died unmarried, three kings and one queen. The following list includes all these royal personages : — Of William I. Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of Flanders ; she was married in 1051 ; and died 1084. William II. This sovereign died unmarried. ' Of Henry I. Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of Scotland; she was married November 11, 1100; and died May 1, 1119. Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of Lou- vaine ; she was married January 29, 1129. Survived the king. Maude oi Matilda. Di. nghter of Henry I., and rightful heir to the throne ; she was born 1101 ; was betroth- ed in 1109, at eight years of age, to Henry v., emperor of Germany, who died 1125. She married, secondly. Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, 1130. Was set aside frorn the English succession by Stephen, 1135 ; landed in England and claimed the crown, 11.39. Crowned, but was soon after defeated at Winchester, 1141. Concluded a peace with Stephen, which secured the succession to her son, Henry, 1153; died 1167. Of Stephen. Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of Boulogne ; she was married in 1128 ; and died May 3, 1151. Of Henry II. Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis VII. king of France, and heiress of Guienne and Poitou ; she was married to Henry 1152 ; and died 1204. [The Fair Rosamond was the mistress of this prince. See article Rosamond. Of Richard I. Bere7igera, daughter of the king of Na- varre ; she was married May 12, 1191. Sur- vived the king. Of John. Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; she was married in 1189. Divorced. Isabella, daughter of the count of Angou- leme ; she was the young and virgin wife of the count de la Marche ; married to John in 1200. Survived the king, on whose death she was remarried to the count de la Marche. Of Henry 111. Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- vence ; she was married January 14, 1236. Survived the king ; and died in 1292, in a mo- nastery, whither she liad retired. Of Edward I. Eleanor of Castile ; she was married in 1253 ; died of a fever, on her journey to Scot- land, at Horneby, in Lincoln.shire, 1296. Margaret, sister of the king of France ; she was married September 12, 1299. Survived the king. Of EoVfJlRD II. Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; she was married in 1308. On the death, by the gibbet, of her favorite, Mortimer, she was confined for the rest of her life in her own house at Risings, near London. — Hume. Of Edward III. Philippa, daughter of the count of Holland and Hamault ; she was married January 24, 1328 ; and died August 16, 13G9. Of Richard II. Anne, of Bohemia, sister of the emperoi Winceslaus of Germany ; she was marrieu in January 1382 ; and died August 3, 1395. /sa6eWa, daughter of Charles VI. of France; she was married Nov. 1, 1396. On the mi.j- der of her husband she returned to her fa- ther. Of Henry IV. Mary, daughter of the earl of He eford ; she died, before Henry obtained the crown, in 1.394. Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of Bretagne ; she was married in 1403. Sur- vived the king, and died in 1437. Of Henry V. Catherine, daughter of the king of France i she was married May 30, 1420. "She outliv- ed Henry, and was married to Owen Tudor, grandfather of Henry VII. Of Henry VI. Margaret, daughter of the duke of Anjou ; she was married April 22, 1445. She surviv- ed the unfortunate king, her husband, and died in 1482. Of Edward IV. Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir Richard Woodeville, and widow of sir John Grey, of Groby ; she was married March 1, 1464. Suspected of favoring the insurrection of Lambert Simnel ; and closed her life in confinement. Edward V. This prince perished in the Tower, in the 13th year of his age ; and died unma ■- ried. Of Richard IIL Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, and widow of Edward, prince of Wales! whom Richard had murdered, 1471. She is supposed to have been poisoned by Richard (having died suddenly March 6, 1485), to make way for his intended marriage with the princess Elizabeth of York. Of Henry VII. Elizabeth of York, princess of England, daughter of Edward IV. ; she was married January 18, 1486 : and died February 11 1503. 500 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [que QUEENS, continued. Of Hbney VIII. Catherine of Arragon, widow of Henry's elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales. She was man-ied June 3, 1509 ; was the mother of queen Mary ; was repudiated, and after- wards formally divorced, May 23, 1533; died January 6, 1536. Anna Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Bo- leyn, and maid of honor to Catherine. She was privately married, before Catherine was divorced, Nov. 14, 1532 ; was the mother of queen Elizabeth ; was beheaded at the Tow- er, May 19, 1536. Jane Seymour^ daughter of sir John Sey- mour, and maid of honor to Anna Boleyn. She was married May 20, 1536, the day alter Anna's execution ; was the mother of Ed- ward VI., of whom she died in childbirth, Oct. 13, 1537. Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke of Cleves. She was married January 6, 1540 ; was divorced July 10, 1540 ; and died in 1557. Catherine Hotcard, niece of the duke of Norfolk ; she was married August 8, 1540 ; and was beheaded on Tower hill February 12, 1542. Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas Parr, and widow of Nevill. lord I.atimer. She was married July 12, 15-13. Survived the king, after whosedeaih she married sir Thomas Seymour, created lord Sudley ; and died September 5, 1548. Edward VI. This prince, who ascended the throne in his tentli year, reigned six years and five months, and died unmarried. Lady Janb Grey. Daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife of lord Guildford Dudley. Proclaimed queen on the death of Edward. In ten days after- wards returned to private life ; was tried Nov. 13, 1553 ; and beheaded February 12, 1554, when but seventeen years of age. Mary. Daughter of Henry VIII. She ascended the throne July 6, 1553 ; married Philip 11. of Spain, July 25, 1554 ; and died Novem- ber 17, 1558. The king her husband died in 1598. Elizabeth. Daughter of Henry VIII. Succeeded to the crown Nov. 17, 1558 ; reigned 44 years, 4 months, and 7 days ; and died unmarried. Of James I. Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of Frederick 11. ; she was married August 20, 1589 ; and died March 1619. Of Charles I. Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. king of France ; she was married June 13, 1625. Survived the unfortunate king ; and died in France, August 10, 1669. Of CHARLE.S II. Catherine, infanta of Portugal, daughter of John IV. and sister of Alfonso VI. : she was married May 21, 1662. Survived the king, returned to Portugal, and died Dec. 21, 1705. Of James II. Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon ; she was married in Sep- tember 1660 ; and died before James ascend- ed the throne, in 1671. Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daugh- ter of Alphonzo d'Este, duke ; she was mar- ried November 21, 1673. At the revolution in 1688, she retired with James to Franco; and died at St. Germams in 1718, having sur- vived her consort seventeen yei.:'P. William and Mary. Mary, the princess of Orange, daughter i< James II.; married to William, Nov. 4, 16^ 7 ; ascended the throne Feb. 13, 1689 ; died De- cember 28, 1694. Anne. Daughter of James 11. She married George prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683 ; succeed- ed to the throne March 8, 1702 ; had thirteen children, all of whom died young ; lost her husband, October 28, 1708 ; and died August 1, 1714. Of George I. Sopliia Dorothea, daughter of the duke of Zell. She died a few weeks previously to the accession of George to the crown, June 8, 1714. Of George H. Wilhehnina Caroline Dorothea, of Bran- denburgh-Anspach ; married in 1704: and died November 20, 1737. Of George III. Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke of jNIecklenburgh-Strelitz ; married September 8, 1761 ; and died November 17, 1818. Of George IV. Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the duke of Brunswick ; she was married April 8, 1795, ; was mother of the lamented prin- cess Charlotte ; and died August 7, 1821. See article Queen Caroline. Of William IV. Adelaide Ainelia Louisa Teresa Caroline, sister of the duke of Saxe-Meinengen ; she was married July 11, 1818; and survived the king. Victoria. Alexandrina Victoria, the reigning queen, daughter of the duke of Kent ; bornlMay 24, 1819 ; succeeded to the crown June 20, 1837 ; crowned June 28, 1838. Married her cousin prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Feb- ruary 10, 1840. QUEENSTOWN; Canada. Taken by the troops of the United States of Ameri- RAC J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 501 ca, October 13, 1812 ; but retaken by the British forces, who defeated the Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the same day. QUICKSILVER. In its liquid state, it is commonly called virgin mercury. It is endowed with very extraordinaiy properties, and used to show the weight of the atmosphere, and its continual variations, &c. Its use in refining sil- ver was discovered a. d. 1540. There are mines of it in various parts, the chief of which are at Almeida in Spain, and at Udria in Carniola in Ger- many, discovered by accident in 1497. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburgh in 1759. It was congealed in England by a chemical process, without snow or ice, by Mr. Walker, in 1787. QUIETISTS. The doctrines and religious opinions of Molinus, the Spaniard, whose work, the Spiritual Guide, was the foundation of the sect of Quietists in France. His principal tenet was, that the. purity of religion coi^sisted in an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ, and the mercies of God. His doctrine was also called quietism from a kind of absolute rest and inaction in which the sect supposed the soul to be, when arrived at that state of perfection called by them unitive life. They then imagined the soul to be wholly employed in contemplating its Jod. Ma- dame de la Mothe-Guyon, who was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions and prophecies, but released thi'ough the interest of Fenelon, the celebrated archbishop of Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, she occasioned the famous controversy concerning Quietism, 1697. The sect sprang up about 1678. — Nouv. Diet. QUILLS. They are said to have been first used for pens in a. d. 553 ; but some say not before 635. Quills are for the most part plucked with great cruelty from living geese ; and all persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling, ought to pi'efer metallic pens, which came into use in 1830. — Phillips. QUITO. A presidency of Colombia {which see) celebrated as having been the scene of the measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and Spanish mathematicians, in the reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls were hurried into eternity by a dreadful earthquake at Quito, which almost overwhelmed the city, Feb. 4, 1797. R. RACES. One of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece (see Chari- ots). Horse-races were known in England in very eai-ly times. Fitz-Stephen, . who Avrote in the days of Henry II., mentions the delight taken by the citi- zens of London in the diversion. In James's reign, Croydon in the sovith, and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. Near York there were races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. — Camden. In the end of Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hj^de-park, and also Newmarket, although first used as a place for hunting. Charles II. patronized them, and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. RACKS. This engine of death, as well as of torture, for exti-acting a confes- sion from criminals, was early known in the southern countries of Europe. The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was in later times an in- strument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now teen in the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of Buckingham, the judges of England nobly i)rotested against the punish- ment proposed in the privj'- council of putting the assassin to the rack, as being contrary to the laws. 1G28. See RaviUac. 5G2 THE world's PK.0GE.ESS. [ EAl RADCLIFFE LIBRARY, Oxford. Founded under the will of Dr. John Rad- cliffe, the most eminent physician of his time. He left 4.0,0001. to the Uni- versity of Oxford for this purpose, dying Nov. 1, 1714. The first stone of the library was laid May 17, 1737 ; the edifice was completely finished in 1749, and was opened April 13, same year. R ADSTADT, Peace of, between France and the emperor, March 6, 1714. Con- gress of— commenced to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers, Dec. 9; 1797. Negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. Atro- cious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian regiment of Szeltzler, April 28, 1798. RAFTS. The Greeks knew no other way of crossing the narrow seas but on rafts or beams tied to one another, luitil the use of shipping was hrought among them by Danaus of Egypt, when he fled from his brother Rameses, 1485 B. c. — Heylin. RAILROADS. There were short roads called tram-ways in and about New- castle so early as the middle of the 17th century ; but they were made of wood, and were used for transporting coals a moderate distance from the pits to the place of shipping. They are thus mentioned in 1676 : — " The manner of the carriage is by lajing rails of timber from the colliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel ; and bulky carts are made with four roll- ers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will draw down four or five chaldrons of coals, and is an immense benefit to the coal-merchants," — Life of Lord-Keeper North. They were made of iron, a,'. Whitehaven, in 1738. The first considerable iron railroad was laid down at Colebrook Dale in 1786. The first iron railroad sanctioned by parliament (with the exception of a few undertaken by canal companies as small branches to mines) was the Surrej^ iron railway (by horses), from the Thames at Wandsworth to Croj'don, for which the act was obtained in 1801. The first great and extensive enterprise of this kind is the Liverpool and Manchester railway (by engines), commenced in October 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830. EXTENT OF RAILWAYS OPENED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, IN 1847. Miles. Miles Great JBritain and Ireland ■ 3,375 Italy - ■ 115 United States (in 1849, 6,117) - - 3,800 Denmark - - - 106 Germany (in 1849, .3,100) • • 1,.570 Cuba - 800 Holland . - - - - 200 Russia - - 52 Belgium - 1,095 British Colonies - 1,000 France - 2,200 East India - - - 500 Total length of railways opened throughout the world : — in 1847, 21,761 miles. In 1824, the first locomotive constructed travelled at the rate of 6 miles per hoiu- ; in 1829, the Rocket travelled at the rate of fifteen miles per hour ; in 1834, the Fire Fly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour ; in 1839, the North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour; and at the present moment locomotives have attained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During the same ])eriod the quantity of fuel required for generating steam has been diminished five-sixths, that is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed for one at the present moment, and other expenses are diminished in a corres- ponding ratio. — Tuck's Railways, 1847. RAILROADS in the UNITED STATES. In January 1849, the lines complet- ed reached an aggregate of In New England 1,219 miles. In New York 840 do. In other parts of the United States 4,058 do. Total .... 6,117 do. JSee Americrm Almanac, 1S50, ]>age 211, for complete list.! RAV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 503 A considerable number of miles have since been completed, including a portion of the New York and Erie; Hudson River Railroad, &c., &c. The first railway in the United States, was the Quincy and Boston, to convey granite for Bunker Hill monument, 1827. Boston and Providence Railroad, opened June 2, 1835. Boston and Lowell, June 27, and Boston and Wor- cester, July 6, same year. Utica and Schenectady, opened Aug. 1, 1836. Bal- timore to Wilmington, July 19, 1837. Providence and Stonlngton, Nov. 10, 1837. Worcester and Springfield, Mass., Oct. 1, 1839. Housatonic, Feb. 12, 1840. iiAILROADS IN FRANCE. There was a small one at mount Cenis as early as 1783; the first of any extent was the St. Etienne and Andrezieux 22 miles, commenced in 1825. Paris and Versailles commenced 1827. Horrible accident on that from Paris to Versailles, 70 persons killed by collision and fire, includ- ing the celebrated navigator D'Urville, May 8, 1842. Another on the Paris and Brussels Railway, train ran off a bridge, 14 killed and 20 wounded, July 8, 1846. RAILWAYS, BELGIUM. That between Brussels and Antwerp, the first in Belgium, opened May 3, 1836. RAMILIES, Battle of, between the English under the duke of Marlborough and the allies on the one side, and the French on the other; fought on Whitsunday, May 23, 1706. The duke achieved one of his most glorious victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other import- ant places, and parliament rewarded the victor by settling the honors which had been conferred on himself, upon the male and female issue of his daughters. RATISBON, Peace op, concluded between France and the emperor of Ger- many, and by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, October 13, 1630. It was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under ' the protection of the emperor Napoleon, August 1, 1806. RATS. The brown rat, very improperly called the Norway rat, the great pest of our dwellings, originally came to us from Persia and the Southern regions of Asia. This fact is rendered evident from the testimony of Pallas and F. Cuvier. Pallas describes the migratory nature of rats, and states that in the autumn of 1729 they arrived at Astrachan in such incredible numbers, that nothing could be done to oppose them ; they came from the western deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga arrest their progress. They only ad- vanced to the vicinity of Paris in the middle of the sixteenth century, an(/ in some parts of France are still unknown. RAVENNA, Battle of, between the French under the great Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and papal armies. De Foix gained the memorable battle, but perished in the moment of victory, and his death closed the fortunes of the French in Italy, April 11, 1512.' ■ R AVILLAC'S MURDER op HENRY IV. op FRANCE. The death of Ravil- lac is one of the most dreadful upon record. He assassinated the king. May 14, 1610; and when put to the torture, he broke out into horrid execrations. He was carried to the Greve, and tied to the rack, a wooden engine in the shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, within which was fastened the knife with which he did the murder, was first burnt at a slow fire. Then the fleshy and most delicate parts of his body were torn with red hot pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil pitch, and rosin were poured. His body was so robust tliiit lie endured this exquisite pain; and his strength resisted that of the foin- liorses by wiiieh his limbs were to be 504 THE world's progress. [ RET pulled to pieces. The executioner in consequence cut him into quarters, and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged them through the streets. REFORM IN PARLIAMENT. This subject was a chief source of agitation for many years, and during several administrations. Mr. Pitt's motion for a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, in 1782. The discus- sion on this motion was the most remarkable up to the period at which re- form was conceded. The first ministerial measure of reform was in earl Grey's administration, when it was proposed in the house of commons by lord John Russell, March 1, 1831. His bill defeated in the house of lords by 41 majority, Oct. 8. The bill of 1832 defeated by 35 majority, May 7. New peers were created May 18, and the bill was finally passed by peers (106 to 22) June 4, 1832. REFORMATION, The. The early efforts for the reformation of the church may be traced to the reign of Charlemagne, Miien Paulinus, bishop of Aqui- leia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish this object. The principal reformers were Wickliffe, Huss, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Petri, Melancthon, Erasmus, Jerome of Prague, Zisca, Browne, and Knox. The eras of the Reformation are as follows :— In Sweden {Petri) - - - a. d. 1530 In England ( TF/c/tii/fe) - - a. d. 1360 In Bohemia (Huss) .... 1405 In Germany {Luther) • ■ - - 1.'517 In Switzerland {Zuinglius) ■ • • 1519 In Denmark 1521 In France (Co/luM) - - - • -1-529 Protestants lirst so called - • - 1529 In England {Henry VIII.) - - - 1534 In Ireland {Browne) .... 1535 In England, completed {Cranmer, 1 u- cer, Fag ins, Sfc.) .... [547 In Scotland {Knox) 1560 In the Netherlands - - - . - 1562 The reformed religion was established by queen Elizabeth on her accession to the throne, 1558. George Browne, archbishop of Dublin, was the first prelate who embraced the Protestant religion in Ireland, 1585. See Lidher, Protestants, d^-c. RELIGION. Properly, that awful reverence and pure worship that is due to God, the supreme Author of all beings, though it is very often abused, and applied to superstitious adorations among Christians, and to idols and false gods among the heathens. — Pardon. Religion had its origin in most tribes and nations in tlieir ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena, benefits being ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. — Phillips. Religious ceremonies in the worship of the Supreme Being are said to have been in- troduced by Enos, 2832 e.g.. — Lenglet. See the different sects as described throughout the volume. The Established religion of England commenced with the Reformation {wkkh see), 1534. The Six Articles of Religion, for the non-observance of which many Protestants as well as Catholics suflered death, passed 1539. The Thirty-nine Articles were established first in 1552 ; they were reduced from forty-two to thirty-nine in January 1563, and receiv- ed the sanction of parliament in 1571. REPEAL or the UNION of Great Britain and Ireland. An Irish associa- tion was formed with this object under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 1829. A new and more resolved association afterwards sprung up, and in 1841, 1842, and 1843 became more violent, each successive year, in its deli- berations. Assemblies of the people were held, in the last-named year, in various parts of Ireland, some of them amounting to 150,000 persons, and called " monster meetings." A meeting to be held at Clontarf. on Oct. 8, was suppressed by government; O'Connell and his chief associates were brought to trial, Jan. 15, 1844. RETREAT of the GREEKS. Memorable retreat of 10,000 Greeks who had joined the army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Arta- "xerxes. Xenophon was selected by his brother officers to superintend the retreat of his countryman. H-,> rose superior to dang-er. and though under rev] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 505 contiuual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was enabled to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops of moun-. tains, till he could rest secure for awhile, and refresh his tired companions. This celebrated retreat was at last happily effected ; the Greeks returned home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which was performed in 215 days, after an absence of fifteen months. The whole perhaps might now be forgotten, or at least but obscurely known, if the great philosopher who planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers which he escaped, and the difficulties which he surmounted. 401 e. c. — Vossms. REVENUE, PUBLIC, of England. The revenue collected for the civil list and for all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordi- nary, £1,200,000 per annum, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles 11. Raised to ^£6,000,000, and every branch of the revenue anticipated, which was the origin of the funds and the national debt, William and Mary, 1690. — Salmon's Chron. Hist.. GENERAL VIEW OP THE PUBLIC REVENUE SINCE THE CONaUEST, BY SIR JOHN SINCLAIR. JB 800,000 400,000 450,000 500,000 600,000 ' 895,819 1,517,247 1,800,000 2,001,855 3,892,205 5,691,803 6,762,643 8,522,540 15,572.971 65.599,570 62:871,300 55,431,317 50,494,732 51,067,856 William the Conqueror William Rufus Hem-y 1. Stephen Henry 11. Richard I. ■ John Henry III. Edward I. Edward II. Edward III. Richard II. Henry IV. Henry V. Henry VI. Edward IV. Edward V. Richard III. Henry VII. - ^00,000 350,000 300,000 250,000 200,000 150,000 100,000 80,000 150,900 100,000 154,000 130,000 100,000 76,643 64j976 100,000 130,000 400,000 Henry VIII. Edward VI. - Mary .... Elizahetli ... .lames I. .... Charles I. ... Commonwealth Charles II. - - - ■ .Tames II. - William III. . - . . Anne (at the Union) - George I. . . . . George 11. ... George III., 1788 - Ditto, 1820, United Kingdom George IV., 1825, ditto - William IV., 1830, ditto - Ditto, 1835, ditto - Victoria, 1845, ditto - REVENUE OP THE United States, The, is derived chiefly from customs and sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 1790 1795 1800 1805 1810 1815 1820 $4,399,473 5,926.216 10,624;997 13,520.312 9,299;737 15,411.634 16,779,331 1325 - 1835 - 1836 1837 - 1838 1839 - 1840 1844 1845 1846 1847 «16,993,858 28,504,519 29,769.134 29,499,247 26,346,790 35,436,750 REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES. $21,-342,906 24,280,888 - 34,163,635 48.288,219 - 18,032,846 19,372,984 - 30,399,043 The first publication of the character of a re- view was the ''Journal des Savants" established at Paris, in 1665, by Denis de Sallo. It was at first published weekly, and contained analyses and cri- tiques of new works, which were so severe as to give much offence. Do Sallo died in 1669, and the journal was afterwards edited by Gallois, De la Roque, and Cousin. From 1715 to 1792, it was conducted by a society of learned men, and appeared in monthly numbers ; and the collection from 1665 to 1792 forms 111 volumes 4to. In 1792, it was discontinued ; but in 1816, it was revived, and has had a number of eminent men among its con- tributors, as De Sacy, Langl^s, R^musat, Biot, Cuvier, &c. Numerous other literary and scientific journals have been established at Paris within a few years. The Gentleman's Magazine, which first appeared in 1731, and the Monthly Review, in 1749, were the first works of the kind published in London, that obtained any great degree of permanency or celebrity. Of the journals which preceded the Gentleman's Magazine, the following are enumerated by Nichols; viz. ■■ Weekly Memorials, or an Account of Books lately set forth," 506 THE world's progress. [eev 1688-9 ; " Memoirs of Literature," 8 vols., 8vo., 1722 ; " New Memoirs of Literature," 6 vols., 1725 to 1727 ; " Present State of the Republic of Letters," 18 vols., 1728 to 1736; "Historia Literaria," 4 vols., 1730 to 1732. The Gentleman'' s Magazine was established in 1731, by Edward Cave, the first editor, who died in 1754, leaving the work in the hands of his associate, David Henry, who received as coadjutor John Nichols, in 1778, and died in 1792, having been connected with the management of the magazine more than fifty years. Mr. Nichols, who was an eminent antiquary, and author of "Literary Anecdotes," 9 vols., died in 1827, having been joint or sole editor nearly half a century. These editors were all printers by profession ; and the appellation assumed aad retained by the conductor of the work from its commencement to the present time, is Sylvanus Urban. This Mag- azine is celebrated for the early connection of Dr. Johnson with the first edi- tor, and in a notice of the life of Cave, revised in 1781, Dr. Johnson says of this magazine, that its " scheme is known wherever the English language is spoken, — that it is one of the most successful and lucrative pamphlets which literary history has upon record." A new series of this work was begun January, 1834 ; the first series having been completed in 103 volumes The Monthly Review, the earliest regular work of the kind in England, was established in 1749, by Ralph GriflSths, LL. D., who continued to conduct it 54 years, assisted by his son in the latter years of his life. This work was continued until 1844, and had many able contributors. The first series, from 1749 to 1789 inclusive, comprises 81 volumes ; Second Series, ending in 1825, 108 volumes. The Critical Beview [London] was established in 1756, by Archibald Hamil- ton, with the assistance of Dr. Smollett and other friends. From 1764 to 1785, the Rev. Joseph Robertson was a liberal contributor, having furnished upwards of 2,620 articles. This work was discontinued several years since. First Series, from 1756 to 1790, inclusive. 70 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1791 to 1803, inclusive. 39 volumes; 3d Series, from 1804 to 1811, inclusive, 24 volumes ; 4th Series, from 1812 to 1814, inclusive, 6 volumes. A 5th Series Avas begun in 1815. The British Critic [London] was established in 1793 ; and its first editors were the Rev. Messrs. Robert Nares and William Beloe: the latter of whom died in 1817; and the former in 1829, having retained his connection with the work till the completion of the 42d volume. It was at first published in monthly numbers ; but from 1827, it api)eared quarterly, under the title of " The British Critic and Theological Review," until 1843, when a new work, called the English Review, took its place. It was conducted by the mem- bers of the ecclesiastical establishment ; and maintained Tory and High Church principles. The establishment of the Edinburgh RevieiD, in 1802, formed an era in peri- odical criticism ; as this work from its commencement took a wider range and assumed a higher tone, both in literature and politics, than any preced- ing publication of the kind. It has uniformly been a strenuous asserter of Whig or reforming principles. Its editors have been the Rev. Sidney Smith (the first year), Francis Jeffrey, and (now) Macvey Napier. Among its principal writers, besides Sidney Smith and Jeffrey, are the distinguished names of Playfair, Dugald Stewart, Mackintosh, Brown, Leslie, Brougham, and Macaulay. This work soon gained a wide circulation ; and at one time, upwards of 20,000 copies were published ; but in 1832, the number was some- what less than 9000. The Quarterly Review [London] was established in 1809, and, as early as 1812, it is said to have obtained a circulation little short of 6000 copies. It may be regarded as a rivnl publication to the Edinbu.rgli Review, maintain- rev] DICTIONARY OP DATES. SOi, ing, in a manner equally uncompromising, opposite or High Tory principles. It was edited from its commencement till 1825 by William Gifford ; then by H. N. Coleridge ; and now by J. G. Lockhart. Among its writers are num- bered sir Walter Scott, Southey, and Croker. It has had many able and learned contributors, some of whom are understood to have been connected with the government. The Eclectic Review [London], a monthly Journal, was commenced in 1805. It is conducted by Protestant Dissenters, and maintains evangelical princi- ples in religion, and liberal or reforming principles in politics. It has had many able contributors, among whom are numbered Adam Clarke, Robert Hall, and John Foster. — Present editor, Josiali Conder. — First Series, from 1805 to 1813, inclusive, 10 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1814 to 1828, inclusive, 30 volumes. The 3d Series was begun in 1829. The Christian Observer [London], a monthly journal, conducted by members of the established church, was commenced in 1802, and maintains what are commonly styled evangelical principles. It has had a number of able contri- butors. The first editor, Zachary Macaulay ; the present, the Rev. Samuel Charles Wilks. — Most of the volumes of this work have bevJi republished in this country. Blackioood's Edinburgh Magazine, a monthly journal, was commenced in 1817. It is edited by Professor John Wilson, and maintains High Tory politics. The number of copies published, in 1832, was stated at upwards of 9000. The Westminster Revievj, established, in 1824, by the disciples of Jeremy Ben- tham, is a strenuous advocate for radical reform in church, state, and legis- lation. First editor, John Bowring, LL.D ; then succeeded by Mr. Mill, and by W. E Hickson. The Foreign Quarterly was united with it in 1845. The Foreign Quarterli/ Revieio [London], established in 1827, devoted to foreign literature, and conducted with ability, until 1845, when it was united to the Westminster Rcvleiu. — Amer. Almanac, &c. REVOLUTION, Era of the. This memorable revolution took place in Eng- land in 1688, and is styled by Voltaire as the era of English liberty. James II. had rendered himself hateful to his subjects by his tyranny and oppres- sion ; and soon after the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5, 1688, the throne was abdicated by James, who fled. The revolution was consummated by Wilhara III. and his queen (Mary, daiighter of James) being proclaimed, Feb. 13, and crowned April 11, 1689. REVOLUTIONS, Remarkable in Ancient History. The Assyrian empire de- stroyed, and that of the Modes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, 536 B. c. The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Per- sian, on the defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alexander the Great, 331 B. c. The Roman empire established on the ruins of the Macedonian, or Greek monarchy, by Julius Caesar, 47 b. c. The Eastern empire, founded by Constantino the Great, on the final overthrow of the Roman, a. d. 306. The empire of the Western Franks began under Charlemagne, a. d. 802. This empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire under Rodolph of Hapsburgh, the head of the house of Austria, a. d. 1273, from whom it is also called the Monarchy of the Austrians. The Eastern empire passed into the hands of the Turks, about a. d. 1293. See also the Revolutions of particular countries under their proper heads, as Rome, France, Portugal, &c. REVOLUTIONS, the most celebrated in modern history. In Poi'tugal, a. d. 1640. In England, 1688. In Poland, 1 704, 1795, and 1830. In Russia. 1730 and 1762. In Sweden, 1772 and 1809. Tn America, 1775. In France. 1789, 1830. and 1848. In Holland. 1795. In Venice. 1797. In Rome. 1798. In the Netherlands. 18.30. In Brunswick. 1830. In Brazil. 1831. Ta R.mre. 508 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [&iq Tuscany, Lombardy, Hungary,. &c., 1848-9. These last were temporary only — the former governments were restored, 1849. See these countries respec- tively. REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES in the UNITED STATES. Before the Ame- rican Revolution various attempts were made to establish religious and lite- rary journals in several places in this country, particularly Boston, New York, and Philadelphia ; but no one of them obtained a liberal support or had a long duration. The following are some of the leading literary and religious reviews and magazines : BOSTON. Founded. American Monthly Ma- gazine, (the first) es- tablished by Jeremy Gridley, continued 3 years, about - -1745 Massachusetts Maga- zine, (lasted to 1795) 1784 Monthly Anthology, Prf. Ticknor, A. H. Eve- rett, Buckminster, &c. (to 1811) - - - 1803 General Repertory and Review, (1st Amer. quarterly.^ edited at Cambridge by Andrews Norton - - 1812-13 North American Re- view, commenced by W. Tudor* - - 1815 Christian Examiner, (quarterly) Channing, Dewey, Ware, &c, - 1818 American Biblic. Repo- sitory, founded by E. Robinson, D.D., at An- dover • - - 1831 Christian Revieii},(Jio.'p- tist) quarterly - - 1835 Boston Quarterly Re- rzew, (Brownson) - 1837 New jEngland Maga- zine, Buckingham - 1833 American Quarterly Re- gister, Edwards - 18 — The Dial, (quarterly) Emerson, to 1843 - 1841 Massachusetts Quarler- NEW YORK. N. Y. Magazine and Literary Repository, (to 1792) - - 1787 Literary Review, R. C. Sands, &c. (to 1823) - 1S22 Atlantic Mag., Sands, afterwards New York Monthly Review, ■ 1824 Knickerbocker Mag., C. F. Hoffman, succeeded by Flint, and now L. G. Clark - - 1832 Democratic Review (un- til 1841 at Washington) 1837 American Monthly Ma- gazine, N. Y.,(to 1838) Herbert,Hoffman,Ben- jamin - - - 1835 N. Y. Review, (quar- terly) J. G. Cogswell, (to 1842) - - 1837 American Review, G. H. Colton - - 1844 Hunt's Merchant's Ma- gazine ■ • ■ 1839 NEW HAVEN. Christian Observer - 182- American Jour7ial of Science ^ Arts, (Silli- man's) quarterly - 1818 New Englaiider, Theol. (quarterly) - - 1&43 Church Revieic (quar- terly) - - - 1848 PHILADELPHIA. Aitkin's Pennsylvania Magazine was the most popular before the Revolution; Thos. Paine and Francis Ilopkinson, editors Amer. ilfMseum, pub. by Matthew Carey, (to 1792) - - - 1787 Literary Magazine and American Register, C. Brockden Brown, (to 1810) - - -1806 Portfolio, pub. monthly from 1809 by Jos. Den- nie ; edited by Nicho- las Biddle,]812-1G, and 1816-21 by J. E. Hall - 1801 Analectic Mag., Moses Thomas, (to 1820) - 1813 Amer. Quar. Review, Robt. Walsh, (to 1837) 182? Graham's Magazine - Lady's Book, Mrs. Hale Stryker's Arnerican Rs- gister, (quarterly) - 1847 Southern Quarterly Re- view, at Charleston, (to 1833, recommenced 1812) - - -1828 Southern Lit. Messen- ger, at Richmond, by T. W. White - - 1834 Biblical Repertory and Theological Review, Princeton, N. J. - 18— hj, Theo. Parker, &c. 1846 RHEIMS. The principal church here was built before a. d. 406 ; it was rebuilt in the twelfth century, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, the archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine. The kings of France have been successively crowned at Rheims ; probably, becouse Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, when converted from paganism, was baptized in the cathedral here, in the year 496. This city was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the war of 1814. RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium, 200 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by Photius Gallus, 87 b. c. — Idem. "We are first to consider what is. to be said ; secondly, how : thirdly, in what words ; and lastly, how it is to be ornamented." — Cicero. A regius professor of rhetoric was appointed in Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor. 'Subsequent editors:— W. Phillips, 1817; E. T. Channing, Dana, and Sparks, 1817; Edward "\verett, 1819; Jared Sparks, 1823; A. H. Everett, ia30; J. G. Palfrey, 183") ; F. Bowen, 1842. ROM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 509 RHINE, CONFEDERATION op the. See article Confederation of the Rhine. RHODE ISLAND, one of the United States ; first settled by Roger Williams and his associates, who left Massachusetts to escape religious persecution, and founded the town of Providence, in 1636. Williams obtained a patent from Plymouth Co. in 1644, inchiding Providence Plantations and Rhode Island, which had been settled 1638. New charter by Charles II., in 1663, ■\vhich has continued in force till recently, unchanged by the Revolution. Dorr's attempt to change or overturn this constitution by armed force, in June, 1842, defeated by the military force of the government. New consti- tution adopted in convention, September 1842. Constitution of the United States adopted May 29, 1790 ; this State being the last to accede to it. Poji- ulation in 1790, 58,825 ; in 1810, 76,981 ; in 1830, 97,212 ; in 1840, 108,130. RHODES. This city was peopled from Crete, as early as 916 b. c. The Rho- dians were famous navigators, masters of the sea, and institutors of a mar- itime code, which was afterwards adopted by the Romans. The republic not completed till 480 b. c. The city built 432 e.g. Its famous Colossus (which see) thrown down bj^ an earthquake, 224 b. c, and finally destroyed by the Saracen admiral Moavia, a. d. 672 — Priestley. RJALTO, AT Venice. This renowned bridge is mentioned by Shakspeare in his '■ Merchant of Venice." It was built in 1570, and consists of a single arch, but a very noble one, of marble, built across the Grand Canal, near the middle, wliere it is the narrowest : this celebrated arch is ninety feet wide on the level of the canal, and twenty- four feet high. RIGHTS, BILL of. The declaration made by the lords and commons of Eng- land to the prince and princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1689. See Bill of Rights. RIOTS. Some of the most noted in the United States : At BaUimore, office of a Newspaper oppos- ed to the war, demolished, .July, 1812. At Providence, 4 persons killed by the mili- tai7, Sept. 24, 1831. At Baltimore, about the bank of Md., several killed and wounded. Aug. 8, 1835. At New York, '-abolition riots," caused by discussions on slavery, and supposed in- tentions of abolitionists to promote " amal- gamation" between whites and blacks, July 10-12, 1&34. At Charlestown, Mass., a Catholic seminary or nunnery burnt, Aug. 11, 1834. At Philadelphia, further " abolition" riots, 40 houses destroyed, Aug. 12, 1834. At Utica, Boston, &c., same cause. 1835-6. At Cincinnati, printing-press of Mr. Bur- ney's "abolition" paper destroyed, July 30, 1836. At New York, caused by the high price ol flour ; several hundred barrels of flour des- troyed, Feb. 13, 1837. At Alton, 111., Rev. E. P. Lovejoy's anti-sla- very newspaper destroyed, and lie was killed, Nov. 7, 1837. At Philadelphia, mob opposed to the anti- slavery discussions, destroyed Pennsylva- nia Hall, &c.. May 17, 1838. In the Pennsylvania legislature, two dilferent legislatures organized, the Senate expelled from their Chamber by a mob. Militia called out and the contest settled after 4 days, Dec. 8, 1S:38. At Cincinnati, chiefly of Irishmen against abolitionists and negroes, Sept. 4, 1841. Disgraceful alfray in Pennsylvania legisla- ture ; a member stabbed by another, April 8, 1843. Another in House of Representatives of U. S.; rencontre between Weller and Shriver, Jan. 25, 1844. Riot at Philadelphia, between " native Ame- ricans" and the Irish, 30 houses and 3 churches burned, fourteen persons killed, forty wounded ; finally put down by the military. May 6-8, 1S44. The same renewed, and 40 to 50 killed and wounded by the military: 5000 troops call- ed out, July 7,1844. Outrages of "Anti-Renters," in Rensselaer County, N. Y. Commenced August 21, 1844 : renewed in December. Delaware Co., N. Y., declared by governor Wright to be in a state of insurrection. Collection of rents being resisted by rioters disguised as Indians, and an under sheriff murdered, Aug. 27, 1845. Anti-Rent riot in Columbia Co. N. Y. March 25, 1847. Riots at the Astor Place Opera House, N. Y, against Blr. Macready, the English actor 21 killed ; May 10, 1S49. Disgraceful rencontre between Foote of Mis sissippi and Benton of Missouri, in the Senate of the U. S., the first gross insult to that assembly, May, 1850. RIVER AND HARBOR CONVENTION, for promoting improvements, &c. ; as- 510 THE world's progress. [ ROM sembled at Chicago, 111., July 5. 1847. House of Representatives votes (112 to 53) that it is expedient and constitutional for the general govern- ment to promote such improvements, July 1848. ROBESPIERRE'S REIGN op TERROR. Maximilian Rolbespierre headed the populace in the Champ de Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement of the king, July 17, 1791. He was triumphant in 1793, and great numbers of eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his sanguinary administra- tion. Billaud Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tri- bune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant !" resounded through the hall ; and so great was the abhorrence of the Convention of this wicked minister, that he was immediately ordered to the place of execution and suffered death, no man deeming himself safe while Robespierre lived. ROBIN HOOD. The celebrated captain of a notorious band of robbers, who infested the forest of Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and from thence made excursions to many parts of England, in search of booty. Some historians assert ti.at this was only a name assumed by the then earl of Huntingdon, who was disgraced and banished the court by Richard I. at his accession. Robin Hood, Little John his friend and second in command, with their nu- merous followers, continued their depredations from about 1189 to 1247, when he died. — Stowe's Chron. ROCKETS, CONGREVE'S. War implements of very destructive power, -vyere invented by sir William Congreve, about 1803. The carcase rockets were first usod at Boulogne, their powers having been previously demonstrated in the presence of Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. See article Boulogne Motilla. ROMAN CATHOLICS. The progress of Christianity during the life-time of its divine founder was confined within narrow bounds : the Holy Land was alone the scene of his labors, and of his life and death. The period of the rise of the Roman Catholic religion may be dated from the establishment of Christianity by Constantine, a. d. 323. See Borne. The foundation of the papal power dates from a. d. 606, when Boniface III. assumed the title of Universal Bishop. See Pope. Pepin, king of France, invested pope Ste- phen II. with the temporal dominions of Rome and its territories, a. d. 756. The tremendous power of the Roman pontiffs was weakened by the Reform- ation, and has since been gradually yielding to the influence of the reformed doctrines, and the general diffusion of knowledge among the nations of the earth. Of 225 millions of Christians, about 160 millions are, or pass under the denomination of, Roman Catholics. — M. Balbi, ROMAN CATHOLICS in England. Laws were enacted against them in 1539. They were forbidden the British court in 1673 ; but restored to favor there in 1685. Disabled from holding offices of trust 1689 ; and excluded from the British throne same year. Obliged to register their names and estates 1717. Indulgences were granted to Roman Catholics by parliament in 1778. They were permitted to purchase land, and take it by descent, 1780. The "no-popery" riots (Gordon's) 1780. Catholic Emancipation Bill passed April 13, 1829, D. O'Connell being the first M. P. who took his seat under the act. ROMANCES. " Stories of love and arms, wherein abundance of enthusiastic flights of the imagination are introduced, giving false images of life." — Pardon. As Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, was the author of Elhiopics, in Greek, the first work in this species of writing, he is hence styled the "Father of Romances." His work has a moral tendency, and particularly inculcates the virtue of chastity. He flourished a. n. 398.- H-iiet de Origvne Fabul. Roman. BOS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 511 ROME. Once the mistress of the world, and subsequently the seat of the most extensive ecclesiastical jurisdiction ever acknowledged by mankind. Romulus is universally supposed to have laid the foundations of this cele- brated city, on the 20th of April, according to Varro, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, 3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 before the birth of Christ, 431 j'^ears after the Trojan war, and in the fourth year of the sixth Olympiad. In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on the summit of Mount Palatine"; and the founder, to give his followers the appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard as a common asylum for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, who fled from their native country to avoid the punishment which attended them. From such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and before the death of the founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations, the Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Esquiline hills, with Mount Coelius, and Quirinalis. Their numerous and successful wars led, in the course of ages, to their mastery over all mankind, and to their conquest of neari> tlie whole of the then known world. The Romans and the Albans, contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part to decide it. The three Horatii, Roman knights, and -the three Curiatu, Albans, having been elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated com- bat, which by tiie victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome, 667 b. c. — Livf. See Tabular Views, p. 15 to ]3. 63. &e. The pope refuses ; the people 753 attack the palace, and at 7 p. m. the pope yields, and grants a liberal mi- nistry - - - Nor. 16, 1848 The pope, after being a prisoner in his palace for seven days, escapes from Rome to Blola di Gaeta, in the dis- guise of a servant - Nov. 24, 1848 Roman chambers dissolved, and a con- stituent assembly convened - Dec. 29, 1348 The Roman republic proclaimed ; Maz- zini and two others triumvirs Feb. 9, 1849 Fi'ench armament against the republic reaches Civita Vecchia - April 25, 1849 French repulsed under the walls of Rome, with the loss of 600 - April 29, 1849 Rome surrenders after an attack of 29 days, and false promises on the part of the French - - July 2, 1849 Rome entered by the French under Ou- dinot. and evacuated by Garibaldi and liis force of 3,000 men - July 3, 1849 Garibaldi escapes to the Adriatic, Aug.2, 1849 Oudinot surrenders the government into the hands of three commissioners of the pope, who begin the work of reaction - - - Aug. 3, 1349 Letter of the French president, dictat- ing the basis of the restoration of the pope's temporal power, viz. : general amnesty, secularization of the admi- nistration, code Napoleon, and a libe- ral government - Aug. 18, 1849 Pope Pius IX. returned to Rome - Apr. 1850 Foundation of the city cemmenced by Romulus - - -B.C. Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, enters Italy, takes Rome, and assumes the title of king of Italy, which ends the Western empire - - a. d. Rome is recovered for Justinian, by Belisarius . . . . Retaken by the Goths Narses, Justinian's general, again re- conquers Rome Papal power established Rome revolts from the Greek emperors, and becomes free Pope Stephen II. invested with the tem- poral dominion of Rome Charlemagne acknowledged as ejinperor of the West - - - - 476 - 726 756 800 Rienzi, the last of the tribunes, rules at Rome 1347 [The popes continued in possession of the city and territories. See article Popes and Italy.] The recent struggles of Rome for free- dom commenced in - - - 1848 Mazzini's first proclamation - Oct. 29, 1848 Count Rossi, the pope's prime minis- ter, assassinated at the senate-house. The populace march to the Quirmal, and present their demands to the pope, viz. : Italian nationality, con- stituent assembly, a new ministry, ROSARY. "We owe to Dominic de Guzman, a canon of the order of St. Au- gustin, two most important blessings," says a Spanish writer, ■ the Rosary and the Holy Office," a. d. 1202. Other authors mention the Rosary as being said in 1093. ROSES, The WnrrE and Red. The intestine wars which so long devastated England, were i^rried on under the symbols of the White and the Red Rose, and were called the wars of the Roses. The partisans of the house of Lan- 512 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ RCTM caster chose the red roses as their mark of distinction, and tliose of York were denominated from the white. These wars originated with the descend- ants of Edward III. That monarch was succeeded by his grandson, Ri- chard II., who being deposed, the duke of Lancaster Avas proclaimed king, by the title of Henry IV. in prejudice to the duke of York, the right heir to the crown ; he being descended from Lionel, the second son of Edward III., wbereas the duke of Lancaster was the son of John of Gaunt, \!a&iKird son of king Edward. The accession of Henry occasioned several conspira- cies during his reign ; and the animosities which subsisted between his de- scendants and those of the duke of York afterwards filled the kingdom with civil commotions, and deluged its plains with blood, parf'cularly in the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV. First battle fought, May 22, 1455. See Albans^ St. Union of the Roses in the msfrriage of Henry VH. with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 1486 ROSICRUSIANS. A sect of hermetical philosophers, first appeared in Ger- many in 1302, and again early in the 17th century. They swore fidelity, promised secrecy, and wrote hieroglyphically ; and affirmed that the an- cient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, and Gymno- sophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine with themselves. ROUND-HEADS. During the unhappy war which brought Charles I. of Eng- land to the scaffold, the adherents of that monarch were first called Cava- litrs, and the friends of the parliament were called Round-heads. This latter term arose from those persons who thus distinguished themselves putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting their hair by the edges or brims of the bowl. See Cavaliers. ROYAL ACADEMY of ARTS in England. Instituted 1768, under the patron- age of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was appointed its first president. — Leigh. ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, London. This institution, for the recovery of persons apparently drowned, was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, He- berden. Towers, Lettsom, Hawes and Cogan, but principally by the exertions of the last three gentlemen. The society has eighteen receiving-houses in the metropolis, all of which are supplied with perfect and excellent apparatus, and designated by conspicuous boards, announcing their object. ROYAL INSTITUTION, London. This institution was formed in 1800, un- der the patronage of George III., and incorporated by royal charter as " The Royal Institution of Great Britain," for diffusing the knowledge, and facilitating the general introduction, of useful mechanical inventions and improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life. The investigations and the important discoveries of sir H. Davy, who lec- tured on chemistry here, conferred no small degree of celebrity on this establishment. A new professorship was created in 1833. ROYAL SOCIETY. The origin of this learned body is ascribed to the hon. Robert Boyle and sir Wm. Petty, who, together with the several doctors of divinity and physic, Matthew Wren and Mr. Rook, frequently met in the apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham College, Oxford ; where the society continued till 1658. Charles II., April 22, 1663, constituted them a body politic and corporate, by the appellation of the " President, Council and Fellows of the Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Knowledge." RUMP PARLIAMENT. The parliament so designated at the period of the civil war in England. Colonel Pride at the head of two regiments block- aded the house of commons, and seized in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, whom he confined ; above 160 more were excluded ; and none but the most determined of the Independents, about 60, were RUS] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 5i; permitted to enter the house. This invasion of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the admitted members were called the Rump, lQ4^.— Goldsmiih. RUSSIA. Anciently Sarmatia. It Is conjectured that the aborigines of this vast tract of country were the immediate progeny of Magog, second son of Japhet ; and that they settled here very shortly after the dispersion from Babel, where they were gradually divided into tribes, each distin- guished by a particular name, but still retaining their ancient general ap- pellation, until it was clianged by the Romans into that of Scythians. Rurick was grand-duke of JVovogorod, a. d. 882, which is the earliest au- thentic account of this country. In 981, Woladimer was the first CLristian king. Audrey I. began his reign in 1156, and laid the foundation of Mos- cow. About 1200, the Mongol Tartars conquered Russia, and held it in subjection till 1 540, when John Basilowitz restored it to independence. In tlie middle of the sixteenth century the Russians discovered and conquered Siberia. The foundation of the present monarchy laid A. D. 1474 Basil IV. carries his victorious arms in- to the East, 1509 to .... 1534 Ivan Basilowitz takes the title of czar, signifying great king, and drives the Tartars clear out of his dominions, 1534 to 1550 The navigation from England first dis- covered by Robert Chancellor - - 1554 The Tartars surprise Moscow, and slay 30,000 of the people .... 1571 The Novogorodians having intrigued with the Poles, Ivan orders the chief inhabitants to be hewn into small pie- ces before his eyes .... 1581 The race of Rurick, who had governed Russia for 700 years, becomes extinct 1593 The imposition practised by Demetrius See Impostors. - • - - - 1606 The Poles place Ladislaus, son of their own king, Sigismund II., upon the throne of Russia .... 1610 Michael Fedorowitz, of the house of Romanzov, ascends the throne - - 1613 Revolt from Polish tyranny - - • 1613 Finland ceded to Sweden. - - - 1617 Reign of Peter I. or the Great - . 1682 He visited England, and worked in the dock-yard at Depiford . . - 1697 Orders of St. Andrew, and of St, Alex- ander Nevskoi, instituted about - 1698 The Russians begin their new year from Januai'y I - . . 1700 Peter builds St. Petersburg - . 1703 Peter II. deposed, aad the crown given to Anne ofCourland - - -1730 Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I. reigns, in prejudice of Ivan VI., an infant, who is imprisoned for life . . 1741 Peter III. dethroned ami murdered ; suc- ceeded by Catheiine his wife, - 1762 THE CZARS, OR EMPERORS OP RUSSIA. A.D. 1461 .lohnlll. 1606 Chousky 1504 Demetrius; murdered. " " 1504 Basil V. 1534 John IV. 1.584 Theodore I. 1598 Bovise Godounove. 1605 Theodore II 1605 Demetrius II. , assassinated. The young prince, the rightful heir, till now immured, put to death a. n. 1763 The dismemberment of Poland com- menced by Catherine. (See Poland) 177V This perfidious robbery completed - 1795 Catherine gives her subjects a new code of laws ; abolishes torture in punish- ing criininals ; and dies - - 179C Murder of the emperor Paul, who is found dead in his chamber, March 23, 1801 Great defeat of Alexander, at Austerlitz, by Napoleon - - Dec. 2, 1805 Alexander visits England - June 6, 1814 The grand-duke Constantine renounces the right of succession - Jan. 26, 1822 The emperor Nicholas is crowned at Moscow - - - Sept. 3, 1826 Russian war against Persia . Sept. 28, 182G Nicholas invested with the order of the Garter - . - July 9, 1827 Peace concluded between Russia and the Persians - - Feb" 22, 1828 War between Russia and the Ottoman Porte declared - - April 26, 1823 [For the disastrous consequences to Turkey of this war, see 2'urkey and Battles.} The war for the independence of Poland, against Russia . . Nov. 29, 1830 This war closed with the capture of Warsaw, and the total overthrow of the Poles. See Warsaw - Sept. 8, 1831 [For the events of this last war, see ar. tide Poland.] Cracow, which had been erected into a republic, and its independence gua- ranteed by the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, is occupied by a Russian and Austrian army - Feb. 13, 1836 Failure of the Russian expedition a- gainst Khiva - - Jan. 3, 1840 Treaty of London. See Syria - July 15, I&IO 1616 Michael Fedorowitz. 1645 Alexis. 1676 Theodore III. 1682 Peter I., the Great. 1725 Catherine I. 1727 Peter II. 1730 Anne, a nuS». 22* 514 THE world's progress. [ SAC 1740 John V. ; murdered, July ir, 1762. 1741 Elizabeth. 1762 Peter III. ; deposed, and died soon af- terwards. RUSSIA, oontiiiued. 1762 Catherine II. 1796 Paul I. ; mui-dered, Feb. 23, 1901. 1801 Alexander. 1825 Nicholas, December 1. RYE-HOUSE PLOT. The real, or more probably pretended, conspiracy to assassinate Cliarles II. and bis brother the duke of York (afterwards James II.) at a place called Rye-house, on the way to London from Newmarket. This design was said to have been frustrated by the king's house at New- market accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away eight days before the i^lot was to take place, March 22, 1683. The plot was discov- ered June 12, following. The patriot Algernon Sidney, suffered death on a false charge of being concerned in this conspiracy, Dec. 7, 1683. RYSWICK, Peace of, concluded between England, France, Spix-in, and Holland, signed Sept. 20, and by the emperor of Germany, Oct. 30, 1697. S. SABBATH, The. Ordained by the Almighty. The Jews observed the seventh day in commemoration of the creation and their redemption from the bon- dage of the Egyptians ; the Christians observe the first day of the week in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the univer- sal redemption of mankind. The sabbath-day, or Sunday, ordained to be kept holy in England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon to Monday at break-of-day, 4 Canon, Edgar, a. d. 960. Act of parliament levying one shilling on every person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606. Act restraining amusements, Charles I., 1626-. Act restraining the perform- ance of servile works, and the sale of goods, except milk at certain hours, meat in i^ublic houses, and works of necessity and charitj'-, on forfeiture of five shillings, 29 Charles II. 1677. SABBATIANS. Christians, who, professing to follow the example and precepts of Christ, keep the ancient divine Sabbath of Saturday, instead of the mo- dern Romish festival of Sunday, for which this sect allege that there is not a tittle of Scriptural authority. They maintain that the Jewish Sabbath was never abrogated, nor any other appointed or instituted, and consequently that it ought to be as religiously observed by the Christians as by the Jews, 1549. SABBATICAL YEAR. A Jewish institution, 1444 b. c. Every seventh year, during which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled, and every forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, &c., that were before sold or mortgaged, retui'ned to their original families, &c. — Josephus. SABINES. The people from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away their daughters by force for wives, having made and invited them to some public sports or shows on purpose ; when the Sabines were determined to revenge this afiFront, the women became mediators to their fathers in behalf of their husbands the Romans, and settled a regular and lasting peace be- tween them, 750 b. c. SACRED WAR. The first, concerning the temple at Delphi, took place 448 b. c. The second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being attacked by the Phocoans, 356 B. 0. This latter war was terminated by Philip of Macedon taking all the cities of the Phoceans, 348 b. c. — Plutarch. SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was oflTered to God by Abel; it con- sisted of milk and the firstlings of his flock, 3875 b. c. — Josephus; Usher. Sacrifices to the gods were first introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of ST. V] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 515 Argos, 1773 b. c. The offering of human sacrifices seems to have originated with the Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into Greece, Persia, and other eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God ceased with the sacri- fice of the Redeemer, a. d. 33. SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups, which led to several maladies of the hips and legs. Saddles were in use in the third century, and are mentioned as made of leather in i* . d. 304. They were known in England about the year 600. Side-saddles for ladies were in use in 1388. Anne, the queen of Richard II., introduced them to the En- glish ladies. — Slowe. SADDTJCEES. A sect among the Jews, said to have been founded by one Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine, taught there was neither heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul was mortal, and that there was no resurrection of the body from the dead. As for their other opinions, the Sadducees agreed m general with the Sama- ritans, excepting that thej'' were partakers of all the Jewish sacrifices. This sect began about 200 b. c. — Pardon. SAFETY-LAMP. That of the illustrious sir Humphrey Davy, to prevent ac- cidents which happen in coal and other mines, introduced in 1815 ; and im- proved in 1817. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that flame, in passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be capable of igniting inflammable substances around, while flame alone ig- nites gas. It should be mentioned, that the father of all safety-lamps is Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are authenticated in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, for 1817, and in Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, same year. SAGUNTUM, Siege of. The famous and dreadful siege of Saguntum (now Morviedro in Valencia) was sustained 219 b. c. The heroic citizens, after exerting incredible acts of valor for eight months, chose to be buried in the ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt them- selves, with their houses and all their efiects, and the conqueror became master of a pile of ashes and of dead. ST. SALVADOR. The first point of land discovered in the "West Indies or America by the illustrious Christopher Columbus. It was previously called Guanahami, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for his deliverance from the dangers to which he was exposed in his voyage of discovery) named it St. Salvador, October 11, 1492. ST. SEBASTIAN'S, Siege of, by the British and allied army under lord Wel- lington. St. Sebastian, after a short siege, dmlng which it sustained a most heavy bombardment, and by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, was stormed by general (afterwards lord) Graham, and taken, August 31, 1813. ST. SOPHIA, Church of. In Constantinople, a short distance from the Sub- lime Porte, stands the ancient Christian church of St. Sophia, built by Justinian ; and since the Mahometan conquest, in 1453, used as an impe- rial mosque. It abounds in curiosities. Its length is 269 feet, and its breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the Temple of Diana, at Ephesus ; and eight of porphyry, from the Temple of the Sun, at Rome. ST. VINCENT, Battle op, between the Spanish and British fleets off the Cape. The latter was commanded by sir John Jervis (afterwards earl St. Vincent), who took four line-of-battle ships, and considerably damaged the rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14, 1797. 516 THE wofwLd's progress. [ san SALAMANCA, Battle of, between the British and allies commanded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Marshal Marmont, fought July 22, 1812. In this great and memorable battle the illustrious Wellington was victorious, though the loss of the allies was most severe, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 6000 men ; but that of the enemy was much greater. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stand of colors, and two eagles : 8000 men are believed to have been kiUed and wounded. Marmont was the seventh French Mar- shal whom lord Wellington had defeated in the course of four years. An immediate consequence of this victory was the capture of Madrid with 2500 more prisoners, and an immense quantity of stores. SALAMIS, Battle of. The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this great sea- fight, October 20, 480 b. c. Themistocles, the Greek commander, with only 380 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, which consisted of .2000 sail. After this battle, Xerxes retired from Greece, leaving behind him Mardonius, with 300,000 men, to carry on the war, and suffer more disasters. In his re- treat, he found the bridge of boats he had crossed over at the Hellespont, now the Dardanelles, destroyed by a tempest. SALIQUE, OR SALIC, LAW. By this law females are excluded from inherit- ing the crown of France. It was instituted by Pharamond, a. d. 424. Rati- fied in a council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of the French monarchy, in 511. — HenauWs France. In order to give more authority to the maxim that " the crown should never descend to a female," it was usual to derive it from a clause of the Salian code of the ancient Franks ; but this clause, if strictly examined, carries only the appearance of favoring the principle, and does not in reality bear the sense imposed upon it. SALT and SALT-MINES. Salt is either procured from rocks in the earth, from salt-springs, or from sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitska, near Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years, and yet present, it has been lately said, no appearance of being exhausted. Rock-salt was discovered about A. D. 950. Saltpetre was first made in England about 1625. The fine salt-mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670. SAMARITANS. The Samaritans are often mentioned in the Scriptures. They were the inhabitants of a province of which Samaria was the capital, and were composed of heathens and rebellious Jews ; and on having a temple built there after the form of that of Jerusalem, a lasting enmity arose be- tween the people of Judea and Samaria, so that no intercourse took place between the two countries, and the name of Samaritan became a word of re- proach, and as if it were a curse. — Lemfriere. SANCTUARIES. They had their origin in the early ages. Rome was one entire sanctuary from 751 b. c. In England, privileged places for the safety of offenders were granted by king Lucius to our churches and their pre- cincts. St. John's of Beveiiey was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons. St. Burein's, in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, a. d. 935; West- minster, by Edward the Confessor ; St. Martin's-le-Grand, 1529. Sanc- tuaries were abolished at the Reformation. Several places in London were privileged against the arrest of persons for debt. These last were sup- pressed in 1696. SANDALS. The shoe or slipper worn especially by the eastern nations. At first it was only a piece of leather like the sole of a shoe, to keep the foot from the ground, but was in tlie course of time improved to a covering of cloth, ornamented Avith all the delicacies of art, and made of the richest materials, and worn by the high priests at great solemnities, and by kings, princes, and great men as a mark of distinction. Sandals were also worn by women, as appears from the story of Judith and Holofernes, where, sar] dictionary of dates. 517 among other decorations, she is said to have put on sandals, at the sight of which he was ravished. It was usual for ladies to have slaves to carry their sandals in cases, ready to adorn their feet on occasions of state. See Shoes. S AJVDWICH ISLANDS. A group of eleven islands in the Pacific Ocean. They were discovered by captain Cook in 1778. Many voyagers report that the na- tural capacity of the natives seems in no respect below the common standard of mankind. It Avas in one of these islands that this illustrious circumna- vigator fell a victim to the sudden resentment of the natives, Feb. 14, 1779. Extraordinary progress in the civilization and improvement of the natives, eifected chiefly by the American missionaries. Tamehameha, chief of Hawaii, becomes king of the group, 18 . Rihoriho, his son, succeeds him, 1819. Idolatry abolished, 1819. Rihoriho and his queen died in Eng- land, 1824. Kanikeaouli, 20 years of age, king, 1824. Mission established by the American Board, 1820. In 1832 there were 900 schools and 50,000 pupils in the Islands. Treaty with the French, made with admiral Dupetit- Thouars, 1837. Another, enforcing the introduction of Catholic mission- aries, &c., 1839. Tamehameha III. becomes king. Dr. G. P. Jtdd, an Ame- rican, prime-minister, 18 . In 1831 there were 14 ships, 2680 tons, belong- ing to the Islands — which are important to the United States as a whaling station. See Oivhyhee. SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jurisdiction, of sev- enty, or as some say, seventy-three members. They date this senate from Numbers xi. 16. It Avas yet in being at the time of Jesus Christ, John xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon at Paris, July 23, 1806 ; and it assembled Jan. 20, 1807. SAPPHIC VERSE. The verse invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mity- lene. Sappho was equally celebrated for her poetry, her beauty, and her amorous disposition. She conceived a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth of her native country, on which account she threw herself into the sea from Mount Leucas, and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine honors, and called her the tenth muse, 594 b. c. SARACENS. A celebrated people from the deserts of Arabia, Sarra in their language signifying a desert. They were the first disciples of Mahomet ; and within 40 years after his death, in a. d. 681, they conquered a great part of Asia, Africa, and Europe. They conquered Spain in 718 et seq. ; the empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being taken by the Tartars, 1258. — Blair. There are now no people known by this name ; the descendants of those who subdued Spain are called Moors. SARAGOSSA. Anciently C^sarea Augusta ; whence, by corruption, its name. Its church- has been a place of great devotion. They tell us that the Virgin, while yet living, appeared to St. James, who was preaching the, gospel, and left him her image, which was afterwards placed in the church, with a little Jesus in its arms, ornamented with a profusion of gold and jewels, and il- luminated by a multitude of lamps. In December 1778, four hundred of the inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Saragossa taken by the French, after a most heroic defence by general Palafos, during as re- nowned a siege as is on record, February 13, 1809. SARATOGA, Burgoyne's Surrender at. Here general Burgoyne, comman- der of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans in the war of independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to the American general Gates, when 5791 men laid down their arms, October 17, 1777. SARD ANAP ALUS. The last king of Assyria. See Assyria. One of the most 518 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. r SAT infamous and sensual monarchs that ever lived. Having grown odious to his subjects, and being surrounded by hostile armies, dreading to fall into their hands, he shut himself up in his capital at Nineveh. Here he caused a vast pile of wood to be raised in a court of his palace, and heaping upon it all his gold, silver, jewels, precious and rare articles, the royal apparel, and other treasures, and inclosing his concubines and eunuchs in an apart- ment within the pile, he set all on fire, perishing himself in the flames. This is the mightiest conflagration of wealth on record. The riches thus destroyed were worth a thousand myriads of talents of gold, and ten TIMES as many talents of silver!!! about 1,400,000,OOOZ. sterling. — Athenaus, SARDINIA. The first inhabitants of Piedmont, Savoy, &c., are supposed to have been the Umbrians, Etrurians, Ligurians, and afterwards the Gauls (when they established themselves in Italy, under Brennus, &c.,) from whom this country was called Cisalpine Gaul (or Gaul on this side of the Alps, with respect to Rome) : it afterwards became a part of Lombardy, from whom it was taken by the Burgundians. The island of Sardinia has been successively possessed by the Phoenicians and Greeks, the Carthagi- nians, Romans, Saracens, and Spaniards. From settlers belonging to v. Iiich various nations the present inhabitants derive their origin. Subjugated by the Romans - B.C. 231 Taken by the Moors, about - - a.d. 728 Reduced by the Genoese - - - 1115 The pope grants Sardinia to thePisanese, who are, however, too weak to expel the Saracens 1132 Alphonsus IV. of Arragon, becomes master of Sardinia - - - -1324 Taken from the Spaniards by the Eng- lish naval forces .... 1708 Recovered by the Spaniards • - - 1717 They again lose possession • - - 1719 Ceded to the duke of Savoy, as an equi- valent for Sicily .... 1720 Victor Amadeus, having the title of king abdicates in favor of his son - a.d. 1730 Attempting to recover Sardinia, he is taken, and dies in prison - - - 17.32 [The court kept at Turin till 1706, when these dominions were overrun by the French arms, and shortly afterwards annexed to the French empire.] The king resigns his crown to his bro- ther, duke of Aoust - . June 4, 1802 Sardinia annexed to Italy, and Bona- parte crowned king of the whole. December 26; 1805 Restored to its rightful sovereign, with Genoa added to it December 1S14 King Charles Albert, having protested against Austrian encroachments in Italy, calls out an additional force of 25,000 men - - - Jan. 10, 1848 Proclaims the basis of a Constitution Feb. 8, 1848 Declares war against Austria, enters Milan with An army, to assist the po- pular cause, and drives the Austrians towards Mantua - - March 23, 1848 Takes Lodi .... April 1, *"** Forces the Austrian line near Verona, April 17, **" Takes Peschiara - - -May30, ***' Defeats the Austrians under Radetsky, at Goito •"•* Sardmian army driven from Vicenza, Verona, the Adige, &c., June-July - 1848 Retreats to Ticino after capitulation of Milan Aug. 4, **'* Followed by an armistice - - i '*" Rupture of the armistice - - March 1849 Battle of Novara ; the Sardinians under Charles Albert, totally defeated by Radetsky **** The king abdicates in favor of his son, Victor Emanuel, count of Savoy, and leaves the kingdom - March 23, **" Insurection at Genoa against the new king April 1, *'*' Genoa invested by Marmora, April 5, ***' and fully reduced - - April 11, *'** Charles Albert late king, dies at Lis- bon July 28, ••** Victor Emanuel opens the legislative chamber with a moderate speech, and is warmly greeted - Aug. 1. **** Treaty with Austria - - Aug. 6, ***' The chamber voles 100,000 livres to re- lieve the refugees fom various parts of Italy - " - - Aug. 30, *"* KINGS OF SARDINIA. A. D. 1720. Victor Amadeus, son of Charles Ema- I 1802. Victor Emanuel, nuel duke of Savoy. | 1821 . Charles Felix. 1730. Charles Emanuel I 1831. Charles Albert, April 27. 1773. Victor Amadeus Maria II. 1848. Victor Emanuel 1796. Charles Emanuel. I SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made its appearance at Rome in the writings of Lucilius. who was so celebrated in this species of composition that he has been called the inventor of it, 116 SAW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 519 B. c. — Livy. Lucilius obtained praise lavished with too liberal a hand : we may compare him to a river which rolls upon its waters precious sand, ac- companied with mire and dirt. — Horace. SATURDAY. With us this is the last or seventh day of the week ; but with the Jews it is the Sabbath. See Sabbath. It was so called from an idol worshipped on this day by the old Saxons, and according to Vertigern was named by them Saterne's-day.— Par^^ora. It is more probably from Saturn, dies Saturni. — Addison. .SATURN. Ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the ■'■' sun, and its diameter to be 89,170 miles. His satellites were discovered by I' Galileo and Simon Meyer, 1608-9-10 ; his belt, &c., by Huj'gens in 1634 ; his fifth satellite by the same in 1655; and his sixth and seventh by Herschel in 1789. Cassini was also a discoverer of the satellites of the planets. SATURNALIA. Festivals in honor of Saturn. They were instituted long before the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and equality which prevailed on earth in the golden reign of Saturn. Some, however, suppose that the Saturnalia were first ©bserved at Rome in , he reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the Sabines ; while others support that Janus first instituted them in gratitude to Saturn, from whom he had learned agriculture. Others suppose that they were first celebrated after a victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthu- mius. During these festivals no business was allowed, amusements were encouraged, distinctions ceased, and even slaves could say what they pleased to their masters with impunity. — Lenglet. SAVINGS BANKS, England. The benefit clubs among artisans, having ac- cumulated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, a plan was adopted to identify these funds with the public debt of the country, and an extra rate of interest was held out as an inducement; hence, savings banks to receive small sums, returnable with interest, on demand, were formed. Brought under parliamentary regulation in 1816. The number of savings banks considerably increased up to 1846 ; and the number of depositors in that year was, for the United Kingdom, 1,063,418 ; and the whole amount deposited, 32,661,924Z. In the United States the first savings bank in Phi- ladelphia, 1816 ; the next in Boston, 1817. They are now very numerous throughout the United States. SAVOY. It became a Roman province 118 b. c. The Alemans seized it in a. d. 395, and the Franks in 496. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 1040, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title of earl. Amadeus, earl of Savoy, solicited Sigismund to erect his domi- nions into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, February 19, 1417. Victor Amadeus, duke of' Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicily, by treaty, from Spain, which he afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of Sardinia, with the title of king, 1713-20. The French subdued this country in 1792, and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont Blanc, in 1800. SAW. Invented by Dsedalus. — Pliny. Invented by Talus. — ApoUodorus. Ta- lus, it is said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, he employed it to cut through a piece of wood, and then formed an instrument of iron^ like it. Beecher says saw-mills were invented in the seventeenth century^ but he errs. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira in 1420; at Breslau, in 1427. Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador from Miry of England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill there, 1555. In England saw-mills had at first the same fate with printing in Tur- key, the crane in Strasburg, &c. The attempts to introduce them were 520 THE woiild's progress. [sch violently opposed ; and one erected by a Dutchman in 1663 was forced to be abandoned. SAXONY. The rd^^al family of Saxony is of very ancient origin, and is allied to all the royal houses in Europe. The sovereignty still continues in the same family, notwithstanding it encountered an interruption of more than two hundred years, from 1180 to 1423. Saxony, which had been for many centuries an electorate, was formed into a kingdom in 1806, when Frederick Augustus became the first king. That sovereign was succeeded by his brother, Anthony, May 5, 1827. The present sovereign is Frederick Au- gustus II., who ascended the throne, 6th of June, 1836. Saxony became the scene of the great struggle against Napoleon in 1813. Insurrection at Dresden ; the king retires to Konigstern, May 3, 1849. Insurgents put down by the Prussian troops, May 7, 1849. SCANDALUM MAGNATUM. The name given to a special statute relating to any wrong, by words or in writing, done to high personages of the land, such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous statements, false news, or horrible messages. This law was enacted 2 Richard II,. 1378. SCEPTIC. The ancient sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho, 334 b. c. Pyrrho was in continual suspense of judgment; he doubted of everything, never made any conclusions, and when he had carefully examined a subject, and investigated all its parts, he concluded bj'' still doubting of its evidence. As he showed so much indifference in every thing, and declared that life and death were the same thing, some of his disciples asked him, Avhy he did not hurry himself out of the world"? "Because," says he, "there is no difference between life and death." Timon was one of the chief fol- lowers of this sect, which was almost extinct in the time of Cicero. — Sbrabo. SCEPTRE. This is a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the earlier ages of the world, the sceptres of kings were long walking-staves ; they afterwards were carved, and made shorter. Tarquin the Elder was the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 b. c. The French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, a. d. 481. — Lc Geiidre. SCHOOLS. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduc- tion of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in Ireland 1733. — Scnlly. In Eng- land there are now 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) for the education of the poor ; and the number of children is 998,431. The paro- chial and endowed schools of Scotland are in number (exclusively of Sunday schools) 4,836 ; and the number of children, 181,467. The number of schools in Wales is 841, and the number of children 38,164: in Ireland, 13,327 schools, and 774,000 children. In the United States the system of public schools is very generally and effectively supported. The school- fund in Maine amounts to $350,000 ; in Massachusetts, $850,000 ; in Connecticut, $2,077,641; New York, $6,491,803; New Jersey, $369,278; Delaware, $225,000; Virginia. $1,448,261; Georgia, $262,300; Alabama, $1.215,381 ; Tennessee, $1,346,068 ; Kentucky, $1,221,819 ; Ohio, $1,566.931 ; Michigan, $500,000; Indiana. $2.195 149; Missouri, $575,668; Iowa, $132,909. Total in 1849, $21,420,275. ' In the State of New York the number of District School Libraries is about 11,000. See Education, Libro.rics, &c. SCIENCE IN THE United St.\tes. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, l7-'^2. American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1780. First course of Chemical Lectures in the United States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1792. Botanic garden and Professor of SCY 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 521 Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, formed, 1845. SCILLY ISLES. They held commerce with the Phoenicians. They are men- tioned by Strabo as being ten in number. The memorable shipwreck of the British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. This brave admiral returning from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these rocks for land, and struck upon them. His ship, the Associatio7i, in which were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, Captain Hancock, and the Romneij and Firebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped, Oct. 22, 1707. Sir Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. SCOTLAND. See Caledonia. This important member of the British empire was governed by a king before the Romans visited England, and continued an independent kingdom till the death of the English queen Elizabeth, when James VI. of Scotland, the most immediate heir, was called to the throne of England, and constantly resided in the latter ; he and his suc- cessors calling themselves kings of England and Scotland, and each country having a separate parliament, till the year 1707, in the reign of queen Anne, when both kingdoms were united under the general name (..f Great Britain. See England and Scotland, Tabular Views, p. 75., et seq. SCREW. This instrument was known early to the Greeks. The pumping- screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder for raising water, invented 236 b. c, is still in use, and still bears that philosopher's name. The poAver of the screw is astonishing ; it being calculated that if the distance between the two spirals or threads of the screw be half an inch, and the length of each handle twelve inches, the circle that they describe in going roiind will be seventy-five inches, and consequently 150 times greater than half an inch, the distance between the two spirals. Therefore one man can, with the assistance of this screw, press down or raise up as much as 150 men could do without it. This power increases in proportion to the closeness of the spirals and the length of the handles. — Greig. SCULPTURE. The origin of this art cannot be traced with any certainty. Tlie invention is given by some ancient writers to the Egyptians, and by others to the Greeks. It is referred by some historians to 1020 b. c, and sculpture in marble to 872 b. c. Pausanias refers the nearest approach to perfection in the art to 560 b. c. Accoi'ding to sacred history, Bezaleel and Aholiab, who built the tabernacle in the wilderness, and made all the vessels and ornaments, were the first architects and sculptors of repute, and their excellence is recorded as the gift of God, Exodus, xxxi. Dipcenus and Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, establislied a school at Sicyon. Pliny speaks of them as being the first who sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues before their time being of wood, 568 b. c. This, however, can only be fact so far as it relates to the western world ; for in the eastern counti'ies the art was known long before. Alexander gave Lysippus the sole right of making his statues, 326 b. c. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which were so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in gold. Sculpture never found any very distinguished followers among the Romans, and in the middle ages it fell into disuse. With the revival of the sister art, painting, it revived also ; and Donato di Bardi, born at Florence, a. d. 1383, was the earliest professor among the moderns. Sculp- ture was revived, under the auspices of the Medici family, about 1460. — Abbi Lenglet. SCYTHIA. The country situate on the most northern parts of Europe and Asia, from which circumstance it is generally denominated European and 522 THE world's progress. [ SEM Asiatic. The most northern parts of Scythia were uninhabited, on account of the extreme coldness of the climate. The boundaries of Scythia were unknown to the ancients, as no traveller had penetrated beyond the vast tracts of lands which lay at the north, east, and west. The Scythians made several irruptions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, especially b. c. 624, when they remained in possession of Asia Minor for twenty-eight years ; and we find them at different periods extending their conquests in Europe, and penetrating as far as Egypt. In the first centuries after Christ they invaded the Roman empire. SEAS, So-VEREiGNTY OF THE. The claim of England is of very ancient date. Arthur was the first who assumed the sovereignty of the seas for Britain, and Alfred afterwards supported this right. The sovereignty of England over the British seas was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken by government in consequence, 8 Charles 1. 1633. The Dutch, after the death of Charles I., made some attempts to obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other parts of the North, armed, to avoid search, 1780 ; again 1800. See Armed Neutrality and Flag. SECRETARY of STATE. The first in England was lord Cromwell, a. d. 1529. Towards the close of Henry VIII.'s reign two secretaries were appointed ; and upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third, as secretary for Scotch affairs : this appointment was afterwards laid aside : but in the reign of George III. the number was again increased to three, one for the American department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act of par- liament ; and the appointments as at present subsequently took place, the secretaries being now home, foreign, and colonies. The first Secretary of State of the United States was Thomas Jefferson, appointed by Washington, Sept. 26, 1789. For his successors see Administrations. There is a Secre- tary of State in each of the States, appointed by the executive or elected by the people. SECTS. See them severally through the volume. The great vicissitude of things is the vicissitude of sects. True religion is built upon a rock ; all others are tossed upon the waves of time. — Bacon. Assuming the popula- tion of the globe to be one thousand and fifty millions, the following divi- sion, with reference to their religious worship, will appear. — M. Balbi. Jews .... 4,500.000 I Idolaters, &c., not professing the Christians - - - - 225,O0OJO00 Jewish, Christian, or Maho- Mahometans - - - 155,000,000 | metan worship . . 665,500,000 SEDAN CHAIRS. So called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first seen in England was in 1581. One was used in the reign of James I. by the duke of Buckingham, to the great indignation of the people, "who ex- claimed that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do the service of beasts. Sedan chairs came into fashion in London in 1634, when sir Fran- cis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of such covered chairs for fourteen years. They became in very general use in 1649. SEDUCTION. For this offence the laws of England have provided no other punishment than a pecuniary satisfaction to the injured family. And even this satisfaction is only obtained by one of the quaintest fictions in the world ; the father bringing his action against the seducer for the loss of his daughter's services during her pregnancy and nurturing. — Paleifs Moral Philosophy. A law for the punishment of seduction was passed by the legislature of New York in 184 . SEMPACH, Battle of, between the Swiss and Leopold, duke of Austria. The heroic Swiss, after prodigies of valor, gained a great and memorable vic- tory over the duke, who was slain, July 9, 1386. By this battle they es- sex] DIOTI0NAK.Y OF DATES. 523 tablished the liberty of their country ; and it is still annually commemo- rated with great solemnity at Sempach. SEPTEMBER. The ninth month of the year, reckoned from January, and the seventh from March, whence its name, from septimus, seventh. It became the ninth month when January and February were added to the year by Numa, 713 b. c. The Roman senate would have given this month the name of Tiberius, but that emperor opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his own name, Germanicus ; the senate under Antoninus Pius gave it that of Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his surname, Herculeus ; and the emperor Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. But these appellations are all gone into disuse. SEPTUAGINT VERSION op the BIBLE, made 277 b. c. Seventy-two trans- lators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; each pair translated the whole ; and on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or leitQY.— Justin Martyr. St. Jerome affirms they translated only the Pen- tateuch ; but St. Justin and others say they translated the whole. Pto- lemy gave the Jews about a million sterling for a copy of the T?sta; aent, and seventy translators half a million more for the translation. — Joseplms. Finished in seventy-two days. — Hewlett. SERINGAPATAM, Battles op, called also the battle of Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Saib, May 15, 1791. Battle, in which the redoubts were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, Feb. '6, 1792. After this capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed to cede one-half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees (about 3,300,000^. sterhng) to England, and to give up to lord CornwaUis his two eldest sons as hostages. In a new war the Madras army arrived be- fore Seringapatanr, April 5, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bombay army, April 14 ; and the place was stormed and carried by major-general Baird, May 4, same year. In this engagement Tippoo was killed. See India. SERPENTS. The largest, the record of which is in some degree satisfactorily attested, Avas that which disputed the passage of the army led by Regulus along the banks of the Bagrada. It was 120 feet long, and had killed many of his soldiers. It was destroyed by a battering-ram ; and its skin was afterwards seen by Pliny in the capitol at Rome.— Pliny. The American papers have frequently chi'onicled the appearance of a sea-serpent on the coast, but its existence has been generally doubted. Haydn quotes from Phillips that a sea-serpent was cast on shore on the Orkney Islands, which was fifty-five feet long, and the circumference equal to the girth of an Orkney pony, 1808. SERVANTS. In England, an act laying a duty on male servants was passed in 1775. This tax was augmented in 1781, et seq. A tax on female servants was imposed in 1785 ; but this latter act was repealed in 1792. The tax on servants yielded in 1830 about 250,000^. per annum, but in 1840 the revenue from it had fallen to 201,482^. SEVILLE. The capital of Spain until Philip II. finally established his court at Madrid, a. d. 1563. This city is the Hispalis of the Phoenicians, and the Julia of the Romans. The peace of Seville, between England, France, and Spain, and also a defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed Nov. 9, 1729. Seville surrendered to the French, Feb. 1, 1810 ; and was taken by assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aug. 27, 1812. SEXTANT. This instrument is used in the manner of a quadrant, and contains sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a circle. It is for taking the altitude of the planets, &c. Invented by the celebrated Tycho Brahe, at Augsburgh, m. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [SHl in 1550. — Vince's Astron. The Arabian astronomers under the Caliphs are ■said to have had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, about a. d. mb.—Ashe. SHEEP. They were impoliticly exported from England to Spain, and, the breed being thereby improved, produced the fine Spanish wool, which proved detrimental to our woollen manufacture, 8 Edward IV. 1467. — Anderson. Their expoi-tation prohibited on pain of fiiie and imprisonment, 1522. The number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been variously stated — by som^ at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840. SHERIFF. The ofiice of sheriff is from shire-reve, governor of a shire or county. London had its sheriffs prior to William I.^ reign ; but some say that sherifls were first nominated for every county in England by William in 1079. SHERIFFMUIR, Battle of, between the royal army under the duke of Ar- gyle, and the Scotch rebel forces who favored the Pretender (the chevalier de St. George, son of James II.), commanded by the earl of Mar; the insur- gents were defeated, and several persons of rank were taken prisoners. The battle was fought on the very day on which the rebel forces in the same cause were defeated at Preston, Nov. 12, 1715. SHIP-BUILDING. The art is attributed to the Egyptians, as the first inven- tors ; the first ship (probably a galley) being brought from Egypt to Greece by Danaus, 1485 b. c. — Blair. The first double-decked ship was built by the Tyrians, 786 b. c. — Lenglet. The first double-decked one built in Eng- land was of 1000 tons burthen, by order of Henry VII. 1509 ; it was called the Great Harry, and cost 14,000^. — Stoice. Before this time 24-gun ships Avere the largest in the navy, and these had no port-holes, the guns being on the upper decks only. Port^holes and other improvements were invented by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., about 1500. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 74- gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed with India-rubber, 1829. For beautiful models and fast sailing, the shipping of the United States — especially the packet ships and steamers sailing from New York — are not surpassed, and probably not equalled, by any in the world. See Navij and Steam Vessels. SHIPPING OF Great Britain and Ireland. Shipping was first registered in the river Thames in 1786 ; and throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle of the 18th century, the shipping of England was but half a million of tons — less than London now. In 1840, the number of shijjs in the British em- pire was 29,174 ; tonnage, 3,277,338; seamen, 205,904. These returns were exclusive of ships and boats propelled by steam. See Steam, Vessels. SHIPPING OF THE UNITED STATES. Tonnage at different periods. Years. 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 Tonnage. Years. Tonnage. . 502,146 1806 • 1,208,735 - 564,437 1807 - 1.268,548 491,780 1808 - 1,242,595 628,817 1809 - 1,350,281 747,964 1810 - 1,424,783 &31,900 1811 - 1,232,502 876,913 1812 . 1,269,997 898,328 1813 - 1,666,628 - 946,408 1814 • 1,159,209 972,492 1815 - 1,368,127 . 1,033,219 1816 - 1,372,218 892,101 1817 - 1,399,911 - 949,147 1818 - 1.225.184 . 1,042,404 1819 - i;260;751 - 1,140,369 1820 - 1.280,166 Years. 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 1&33 1834 Tonnage. Years. 1,298,958 1835 1,324,699 ia36 1,336,565 1&37 1,389,163 1838 1,423,112 1839 1,534,190 1840 1,620,608 1841 1,741,392 1842 1,260,978 1843 1,191,776 1844 1,267,846 1845 1,439,450 1846 1,601,150 1847 1,758,907 1818 1,824,940 1,892,102 1,896,685 1,995,639 2,096,478 2,180,764 2,130,744 2,092,390 2,158,602 2,280,095 2,417,002 2,ti62^84 2,839^»6 3,150,502 SHR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 525 SHIP-MONEY. It was first levied a. d. 1007, and caused great commotions. This impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634, led to the revolu- tion. He assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men; Yorkshire in two ships, of 600 tons, or 12,000^. ; Bristol in one ship of 100 tons ; Lancashire in one ship of 400 tons. The trial of the patriot Hamp- den for refusing to pay the tax, which he at first solely opposed, took place in 1638. Ship-money was included in a redress of grievances in 1641. Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince Rupert, and died June 24, 1643. SHIPWRECKS, AND DISASTERS AT SEA. See Wrecks of Shipping. SHIRTS. This now almost universal garment is said to have been first gener- ally worn in the west of Europe early in the eighth century. — Du Fresnoy. Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England until about the 38th of Henry III., 1253, when linen, but of a coarse kind (fine coming at this period from abroad), was first manufactured in England by Flemish artisans. — Sto%oe. SHOES. Among the Jews thej'' were made of leather, linen, rush, or vood. Moons were worn as ornaments in their shoes by the Jewish women. — Isaiah iii. 18. Among the Greeks shoes were of various kinds. Pythagoras would have his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of trees ; probably, that they might not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as they re- frained from the use of every thing that had life. Sandals were worn by women of distinction. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their shoes ; and Caligula wore his enriched with precious stones. The Indians, like the Egyptians, wore shoes made of the bark of the papyrus. In Eng- land the people had an extravagant way of adorning their feet; they wore the beaks or points of their shoes so long, that they encumbered themselves in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees ; the fine gentlemen fastened theirs with chains of silver, or silver gilt, and others with laces. This custom was in vogue from a. d. 1462, but was prohibited, on the for- feiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by the clergy, 7 Edward IV. 1467. See Dress. Shoes as at present worn were introduced about 1633. The buckle was not used till 1668. — Sioioe; Mortimer. SHOP-TAX, IN England. The act by which a tax was levied upon retail shops was passed in 1785 ; but it caused so great a commotion, particularly in London, that it was deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute whereb)^ shop-lifting Avas made a felony, without benefit of clergy, was passed 10 and 11 William III. 1699. This statute has been repealed. See Acts. SHREWSBURY, Battle of, between the royal army of Henry IV. and the ai'my of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), son of the duke of Northumberland, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each army con- sisted of about 12.000 men, and the engagement was most bloody. Henry was seen every where in the thickest of the fight ; while his valliant son, who was afterwards the renowned conqueror of France, fought by his side, and though wounded in the face by an arrow, still kept the field, and per- formed astonishing acts of valor. On the other side, the daring Hotspur supported the renown he had acquired in many bloody engagements, and every where sought out the king as a noble object of his vengeance. 2300 gentlemen were slain, and about 6000 private men. The death of Hotspur by an unknown hand decided the fortune of the day, and gave the victoi7 to the king, July 21, 1403.— //jw«e. [See Shakspeare's Henry IV.} SHROPSHIRE, Battle of, in which the Britons were completely subjugated, and Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, tlirough the treachery of the queen of the Briganti, a prisoner of the Romans, a. d. 51. 526 THE world's progress. [ SIC While Caractacus was being led through Rome, his eyes were dazzled by the splendors that surrounded him. " Alas !" he cried, " how is it possible that a people possessed of such magnificence at home could envy me an humble cottage in Britain 1" The emperor was affected with the British hero's misfortunes, and won by his address. He ordered him to be unchained upon the spot, and set at liberty with the rest of the captives. — Goldsmith. SHROVE TUESDAY. In the season of Lent, after the people had made con- fession, according to the discipline of the ancient church, they were per- mitted to indulge in festive amusements, although not allowed to partake of any repast beyond the- usual substitutes for flesh; and hence arose the custom yet preserved of eating pancakes and fritters at Shrovetide, the Greek Christians eating eggs, milk, &c. during the first >veek in Lent. On these days of authorized indulgence the most wanton recreations were tolerated, l^rovided a due regard was paid to the abstinence commanded by the church ; and from this origin sprang the Carnival. On Shrove Tuesday the people in every parish throughout England formerly confessed their sins ; and the parish bell for the purpose was rung at ten o'clock. In several ancient par- ishes the custom yet prevails of ringing the bell, and obtains in London the name of pancake-bell. Observed as a festival before 1430. SIBYLS. The Sibyllse were certain women inspired by heaven, who flourished in different parts of the world. Their number is unknown. Plato speaks of one, others of two, Pliny of three, ^lian of four, and Varro of ten, an opinion which is universally adopted by the learned. An Erythrean sibyl is said to have offered to Tarquin II. nine books containing the Roman desti- nies, demanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her, whereupon the sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the same price for the other six, which being still denied, she burned three more, and again demanded the same sum for those that remained ; when Tarquin, conferring with the pontiffs, was advised to buy them. Two magistrates were created to consult them on all occasions, 531 b. c. SICILY. See Naples. The ancient inhabitants of this island were the Sicani, a people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came hither from Italy, 1291: b. c. A second colony, under Siculus, arrived 80 years before the destruction of Troy, 1264 B. c. — Lsiiglet. The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here, and at last the Carthaginians became masters of the whole island, till they were dispossessed of it by the Romans in the Punic wars. Some authors suppose that Sicily was originally joined to the continent, and that it was separated from Italj'' by an earthquake, and that the straits of the Charyb- dis were formed. — Justin. ; Livij. Arrival of Ulysses.— i7o?;ter - - B.C. 1186 The Romans arrive m Sicily • B.C. 264 He puts out ihe eye of Polyphemus - 1186 I Agrigentum taken by the Romans - 282 Sy racuse founded. — Eusebius ■ - 732 | Palermo besieged by the Romans - - 254 Gela founded. — Thuct/dides ■ - - 713 Archimedes flourishes - - • 236_ Arrival of ihe Jlessenians - - - 668 ! The Romans take Syracuse, and make all Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to | Sicily a province - - - • 212 The servile war began. — Livt/ - - 135 Conquered by the Saracens - A.D. 821 [They made Palermo the capilal, and the death. — See Brazen Bull ■ ■ ■ 552 Hippocrates becomes tyranu of Gela • 496 i.avf of Petalism instituted - • 466 U sign ol Dionysius - - - - 405 H fended wiih the freedom of the philo- • staiidard of Mahomet triumphed for 200 siipher Plato, the tyrant sells him for a I years.] slave. — Stanley ... - 386 j They are di-iven out by a Norman prince, Plato ransomed by his friends - - • 386 ] Roger I., son of Tancred, who takes the Daman and Pythias flourish. — See Dainon j title of count of Sisily - - - lOSO and Pythias .... 3g6 | Roger II., son of the above-named, unites The sway of Timoleon - - - • 346 i Sicily with Naples, and is crowned Inng Usurpation of Agathocles • - . 317 j of the Two Sicilies - - -1130 Defeat of Hamilcar - - - - 309 ] Charles of Anjou, bro'her to St. Louis, king Pilla.?e of the temples of Lepari ■ 304 ' of France, conqu^iS Naples and Sicily". sie] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 527 SICILY, conthiiied. deposes the Norman princes, and makes himself king - - . a. d. 1266 The French becoming hated by the Sici- lians, a genera! massacre of the invaders takes place, one Frenchman only escap- ing. — See Sicilian Vespers - ■ 1288 Li the same year Sicily is seized by a fleet sent by the kings of Arragon, in Spain ; but Naples remains to the house of An- jou, which expires - - - 1382 Jane, the late sovereign, having left her crown to Louis, duke of Anjou, his pre- tensions are resisted by Clrarles Du- razzo, cousin of Jane, who ascends the throne - - - - - - 1386 Alphonsus, king of Arragon, takes posses- sion of Naples .... 1458 Thi kingdom of Naples and Sicily united to the Spanish monarchy - - - 1504 The tyranny of the Spaniards causes an insurrection, excited by Masaniello, a fisherman, who, in fifteen days, raises two hundred thousand men - - 1647 Henry duke of Guise, taking advantage of these commotions, procures himself to be proclaimed king ; but is, in a few days, delivered up to the Spaniards by his adherents - - - - - 1647 Ceded to Victor, duke of Savoy, by the treaty of Utrecht - - A. d. 1713 Ceded "by him to the emperor Charles VI., Sardinia being given to him as an equi- valent - - - - - 1720 The Spaniards having made themselves masters of both kingdoms, Charlesj^son of the king of Spain, ascends the throne, with the ancient title renewed, of king of the Two Sicilies - - - 1731 Order of St. .lanuarius instituted by king Charles 1739 The throne of Spain becoming vacant, Charles, who is heir, vacates the throne of the two Sicilies in favor of his brother Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty - - 17.'' 3 Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, which destroys 40,000 persons - - 1763 Naples preserved from the power of the French by the British forces under admi- ral Nelson Violent earthquake in tlie neighborhood of Naples .... The French invade Naples, depose i 'ng Ferdinand IV., and give the crown of -.he Two Sicilies to Joseph Bonaparte, bro- ther to the emperor of the French - 1806 For subsequent events, see Naples. 1799 1805 KINGS OP THE TWO SICILIES. AiwD. 1713. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy ; he resigned it to the emperor Charles VI.," in 1718, and got Sardinia in lieu of it. 1718. Charles VI. emperor. 1734. Charlesj second son to the king of Spain, resigned in 1759. 1759. Ferdinand IV., third son of the former king. 1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 1808. Joachim Murat ; he was shot, Octo jer 13, 1815. 1815. Ferdinand I. ; formerly Ferdinand IV. of Naples, and intermediately Ferdinand III. of Sicily ; now of the United King- dom of the Two Sicilies. 1826. Francis I. 1830. Ferdinand II., Nov 8. SICILIAN VESPERS. The memorable massacre of the French in Sicily, known by this name, commenced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had become hateful to the Sicilians, and a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou was already ripe, when the following occm-rence led to develop and accom- plish it. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had assembled at Pa- lermo ; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride happened to pass by with her train. She was observed by one Drochet, a Frenchman, who, advancing towards her, began to nse her rudely, under pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exasperated at this af- front, stabbed him with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city, crying out " Let the French die !" and, without distinction of rank, age, or sex, they slaughtered all of that nation they could find, to the number of 8000. Even such as had fled to the churches found no sanctuary there — the massacre became general throughout the island. SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerful, held out for nineteen years. — Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. — Herodotus. This was the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siege of Troy was the most celebrated, occupied ten years, 1184 b. c. The fol- lowing are the princii^al and most memorable sieges since the twelfth cen tnry :— Acre, 1192, 1799, by Bona- I Algiers, 1681 ; Bomb-vesseh parte ; siege raised iij'ler \ first used by a French en- 6Q days, open Irennlir-s. I ffineer named Renmi. 1S16 Algesiras, I'Sil. \ .'\lkmaei', 1,")7;<. Almeida, August 27, 1810 Amiens, 1597. Ancona, 1798. Angouleme, 1343. 628 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [SIE SIEGES, continued. Antwerp, 1576. Use of in- fernal machines, 1583, 1585 ir06, 1792, 1814. Arras, 1414. Ath, 1745. Avignon, 1226. Aisoff, 1736. Badajos, March 11, 1811. Ta- ken by escalade on the night of April 6, 1812. Bagdad, 1248. Bangalore, March 6, 1791. Barcelona, 1697, 1714. Bayonne, 1451. Beauvais, 1472. Belgrade, 1439, 1455, 1521, 1688, 1717, 1739, 1789, Bellegarde, 1793, 1794. Belle-Isle, April 7, 1761. Beraen-op-Zoom, 1583, 1622, 1747, 1814. Berwick, 1293. Besancon, 1668, 1674. Bethuue, 1710. Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. Bologna, 1512, 1796. Bommol; the invention of the covert-nay, 1794. Bonifacio, 1553. Bonn, 1587, 1689, 1703 Bordeaux, 1451, 1653. Bouchain, 1676, 1711. Boulogne, 1545. Brannau, 1744, 1S05. Breda, 1590, 1625, 1793. Brescia, 1512, 1796, 1799. Breslau, .Ian. 8, 1807. Brisac, 16.38, 1703. Brussels, 1695, 1746. Buda, 1526, 1541, 1686. Burgos, Sept. 19 to Oct. 22, 1812 ; raised. The French in their retreat blew up the works, .June 13, 1813. Cadiz, 1812. Caen, 1346, 1450. Calais, 1347, (British histo- rians affirm that cannon tcere used at Cressy, 1346, and here in 1347. First used here in 1388. — Ry- mer's FoeD.) 1558, 1.596. Calvi, 1794. Campo-Mayor,Mar. 23,1811. Candia ; the largest cannon then knoicn itiEarope used here by the Turks, 1667. Capua, 1501. Carthagena, 1706. Castillon, 1452, 1586. Ceuta, 1790. Chalons, 1 199. Charleroi, 1672, 1677, 1693, 1736, 1794. Chartres, 1568, 1591. Chaves, March 25, 1809. Cherbourg. 1450. Chincilla, Oct. 30, 1812. Ciudad Rodriffo. 1706; July 10, 1810; Jan.'l9, 1812. Colberg, 1760, 1807. Colchester, 1645. Compiegne {Joan of Are), 1430. Conde, 1676, 1792, 1794. Coni, 1691, 1744. Constantinople, 1453. Copenhagen, 1700, 1801, 1807. Corfu, 1715. Courtray. 1302, et seq. 1794. Cracow, 1772. Cremona, 1702. Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813 to Jan. 12, 1814. Dendermonde, 1667. Dole, 1668, 1674. Douay, 1710. Dover, 1216. Dresden, 1745, 1813. Drogheda, 1649. Dublin, 1500. Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. Edinburgh, 1093. Figueras. Aug. 19, 1811. Flushing; Aug. 15, 1809. Fontenoy, 1242. Frederickshal ; Charles XII. killed, 1718. Fredericfcstein, August 13, 1814. Furnes, 1675, 1744, 1793. Gaeta, 1433, 1707, 1734, 1799, July, 1806, 1815. Genoa 1747, 1800. Gerona, Dec. 10, 1809. Ghent, 1576, 1703. Gibraltar, 1704, 1779. (See Gibraltar), 1782. Glatz, 1742, 1807. Gotlingen, 1760. Graves, 1602, 1674, 1794. Gravelines, 1644 Grenada. 1491, 1492. Groningen, 1.580, 1672, 1795. Guastaila, 1702. Gueldres, 1637, 1640, 1703. Haerlem, 1572, 1573. Ham, 1411. Harlieur. 1415, 1450. Heidelberg, 16S8. Herat, June 28, 1838. Huningen, 1815. Ismael: tiie merciless Snwar- row butchered 30,000 me7t, the brave garrison, and 6000 -women, in cold blood, Dec. 22, 1790. Kehl, 1733, 1796. Landau, 1702, et seq., 1713, 1792, and 1793. Landrecis, 1.543, 1712. Laon, 991, 1594. Leipsic, 1637, et seq., 1813. Lemberg, 1704. Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1807. Leyden, 1-574. Liege, 1468, 1702. Lille, 1667, 1708, 1792. Lilo, 1747. Limerick, 1651, 1691. Londonderry, 1689. Louisboursr, 1758. Lyons, 179T3. Maestricht. 1570, 1673. Vau- ban first came into TWtice, 1676, 1743, 1794. Magdebourg, 1631, 1806. Malag^, 1487. Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. Mantua, 1734, 1797, 1799. Marseilles, 1544. Mentz, by Charles V., 1552, 1689, 1792 et seq., 1797. Melun, 1420, 1559. Menin, 1706, 1744. Mequinenza, June 8, 1810. Messina, 1282, 1719. Metz, 1552. Mezieres, 1521. Middleburgh, 1572. Mons, 1572, 1691, 1709, 1746, 1792, 1794. Mcntargis, 1427. Montauban, 1621. Montevideo, .Jan. iS08. Mothe : thePrench, taught by a Mr. Muller, an English engineer,first practised the art of throwing shells, 1634. Murviedro, Oct. 25. 1811. Namur, 1692, 1746, 1792. Naples, 1381, 1435, 1504, 1557, 1792, 1799, 1806. Nice, 1705. Nieuport, 1745, 1794. Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811. Olmutz, 1758. Orleans, 1428, 1563. Ostend, 1701, 1706, 1745. Oudenarde, 1708, 1745. Padua, 1509. Pampeluna, Oct 31, 1813. Paris, 1429, 1485, 1594. Parma 1248. Pavia, 1.525, 1655, 1796. Perpignan, 1542, 1642. Philipville,1578. Philipsburg, 1644, 1675,1688, first experiment of firing artillery a-ricochet, 1734, 1795. Plattsburg, Sept. 11, 1814. Pondicherry, 1748, 1792. Prague, 1741, 1743, 1744. Puebla, (col. Child) 1847. Quesnoy, 1794. Rennes, 1357. Rheims, 1359. Rhodes, 1522. Riga, 1700, 1710. Rochelle, 1573, 1627. Rome, 1527, 1798. Romorentin ; artillery firai used in sieges.-YoiyiJiiSE, 1256. Rosas, 1645, 1795, 1808. Rouen, 1449, 1562, 1591. Roxburgh, 1460. St. Sebastian, Sept. 8, 1813. Salamanca, June 27 " 1812 Salisbury, 1349. Saragossa, 1710, 1809. Saverne, 1675. Schweiiinitz ; first experi- vient to reduce aforlreaa sil] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 529 Thorn, 1703. Thouars, 1372,1793. Tortosa, Jan. 2, 1811. Toulon, 1707, 1793. Toulouse, 1217. Tournay, 1340, 1352, 15S1, 1667, 1709, (this was the best defence ever drawn from countermines), 1745, 1794. Treves, 1675. Tunis, 1270, 1535 Turin, 1640, 1706, 1799. Urbino, 1799. Valencia, Dec. 25, 1811. Valencienes, 1677, 1794. Vannes, 1343. Venloo, 1702, 1794. Verdun, 1792. Vera Cruz, (gen. Scott) 1847. Vienna, 1529, 1683. Wakefield, 1460. Warsaw, Sept, 8, 1831. Xativa, 1707. Xeres, 1262. Ypres, 1648, 1744, 1794. Zurich, 1544. Zutphen, 1572, 1586. SIEGES, contimied. by spring-ing globes of com- j)ression, 1762, 1807. Scio (see Greece), 1822. Seringapatam. 1799. Seville 1096, 1248. Smolensko, 1611. Soissons, 1414. Stralsund ; the method of throwing red hot balls first practised teith certainty, 1675,47:13, 1807. Tarifa, Dec. 20, 1811. Tarragona, May 1813. Temeswar, 1716. Tliionville, 1643, 1792. SIERRA LEONE. Discovered in a. d. 1460. In 178G, London swarmed with free negroes living- in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with 60 whites, mostly women of bad character and in ill health, were sent out to Sierra Leone, at the charge of government, to form a settlement, December 9, 1786. The settlement attacked by the French, September 1794 : by the natives, February 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murder- ed by the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824. SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 b. c. Known at Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate, prohibiting the use of plate of massj^ gold, and also forbidding men to debase themselves by wearing silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of silk, A. D. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, weight for weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. Silk-worms were brought from India to Europe in the sixth century. Char- lemagne sent Oifa, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, a. d. 780. The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1130, when the Sicilians not only bred the silk-worms, but spun and weaved the silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the south of France, a little before the reign of Francis I., about 1510 ; and Henry IV. propagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms throughout the kingdom, 1589. In England, silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at Keuilworth Castle. 1286. Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1584. Manufactured in England in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk in 1620. Brought to perfection by the Freneh refugees in London, at Spital- fields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the ori- ginal mill then in the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714. SILVER. It exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other ores in various mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in 1660, which was so rich that the silver of it was often cut with a chisel. In 1749, one mass of silver, weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. From a mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum at Copenhagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth 1680Z. In England silver-plate and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty and ambitious man, a. d. 709. — TyrelVs Hist, of England. Silver knives, spoons, and cups, were great luxuries in 1300. SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say ; others, by Phidon of Argos, 869 b. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius Pictor, 269 B. c. Used in Britain 25 b. c. The Saxons coined silver pennies, which were 22^ grains weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest silver coin in England. See ShUUngs, &c., and Coin. From 1816 to 1840 inclusive, 530 THE world's progress. [ SLA were coined at the Mint in London, 11,108,265Z. 15s. in silver, being a yearly average of AU.8B0l.—Parl. Ret. SIMONIANS. An ancient sect of Christians, so called from their founder " Simon Magus, or the Magician. He was the first heretic, and went to Rome about A. D. 41. His heresies were extravagant and presumptuous, yet he had many followers, a. d. 57. A sect called St. Simonians sprung up in France ; and lately attracted considerable attention in that country ; and the doctrine of Simonianism has been advocated in England, and particu- larly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon it at a meeting iu London, held Jan. 24, 1834. SINGING. See Music. The singing of psalms was a very ancien! custom both among the Jews and Christians. St. Paul mentions this practice, which ■\vas continued in all succeeding ages, with some variations as to the mode and circumstance. During the persecution of the Orthodox Christians by the empress Justina, mother of the then young Valentinian 11. a. d. 386, eC'cle- siastical music was introduced in favor of the Arians. " At this time it was first ordered that hymns should be sung after the manner of Eastern nations, that the devout might not languish and pine away with ji tedious sorrow." The practice was imitated by almost all other congregations of the world. — SL Augustin. Pope Gregory the Great refined upon the church miisic, and made it more exact and harmonious ; and that it might be ge- neral, he set up singing-schools in Rome, a. d. 602. SI RN AMES, first came up iu Greece and Egypt, and arose in great acts and distinctions ; as Soter, from Saviour ; Nicator, conqueror ; Euergetes, or Be- nefactor ; Philopater, lover of his father ; PJiUometer, lover of his mother, &c. Strato was surnamed Physicus, from his deep study of nature ; Aris- tides was called the Just ; Phocion the Good ; Plato, the Athenian Bee ; Xenophon, the Attic Muse; Aristotle, the Stagyrite; Pythagoras, the Samian Sage ; MenedaBmus, the Eretrian Bull ; Democritus, the Laughiiig Philoso- fher ; Virgil, the Mantuan Sioain, &c. Sirnames were introduced into Eng- land by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility, a. d. 1100. The old Normans used Fitz, which signifies son, as Fitzherbert. The Irish used O, for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnel. The Scottish Highlanders employed Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. The Saxons added the word son to the father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common sirnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and other Flemings, who were naturalized in the reign of Henry VI. 1435. — Bymer's Fcedera, vol. x. SLAVERY. Slavery has existed from the earliest ages. With other abomi- nable customs, the traffic in men spread from Chaldea into Egypt, Arabia, and all over the East, and at length into every known region under heaven. In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of war were treated as slaves. The Lacedemonian youth, trained up in the practice of deceiving and butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show their proficiency in stratagem and massacre ; and once, for their amusement only, they murdered 3000 in one night. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold the whole people, men, women, and children, for slaves, 385 e. c. See Helots. SLAVERY IN ROME. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a great man's hoxise, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them in their houses till, by their services or labor, they had discharged the sum they owed. C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 42 b. c. Caecilius Isidorus left to his heir 4116 slaves, 12 b. c. sla] dictionary of dates. 53, SLAVERY IN ENGLAND. Slavery was very early known ; and laws respect- ing the sale of slaves was made by Alfred. The English peasantry were so commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, that children were sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ire- land, and others to Scotland. A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a runaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, should be brought before two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the breast, and adjudged the slave of him who brought him for two years. He was to take the slave, and give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise ; and if, within that space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on the forehead or cheek, by a hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever — second desertion was made felony. Lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A beggar's child might be put apprentice, and, on running away, become a slave to his master, 1547. SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Congo and Angola was begun by the Portuguese in 1481. Volumes have been written, confined to facts alone, describing the horroi'S of this traffic. The commerce in man has brutalized a tract 15 degrees on each side the equator, and 40 degrees wide, or of four millions of square miles ; and men and women have been bred for sale to the Christian nations during the last 250 years, and wars carried on to make pri- soners for the Christian market. The Abbe Raj^nal computes that, at the time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans, "Add 1,000,000 at least moi-e, for it is about ten years since," says Mr. Cooper, who published letters on this subject in 1787. In the j^ear 1768. the slaves taken from their own continent amounted to 104,100. In 1786, the anmial number was about 100,000 ; and in 1807 (the last year of the English slave trade), it was shown by authentic documents, produced by government, that from 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africans had been torn from their country, and had either miserably perished on the passage, or been sold in the West Indies.* — Butler. Bull of pope Gregory against the slave trade, Dec. 1830. Quintuple treaty for the suppression of the slave trade, allowing mutual right of search, signed at London, by the representatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, December 20, 1841. King of Sweden abolishes slavery in the island of St. Bartholomew, Oct. 9, 1847. SLAVE TRADE op ENGLAND. Captain, afterwards sir John Hawkins, was the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a traffic of the human species. His first expedition with the object of procuring negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them for sale to the West Indies, took place in October, 1563. See Guinea. Queen Anne directed the colonial government of New York to take care " that the Almighty should " Eurojiean avarice has been glutted with the murder of 180,000,000 of our fellow-creatures, recollecting that for every one slave procured, ten are slaughtered in their own land in war, and thut a fifth die on the passage, and a third in the seasoning. — Cooper's Letters on the Slave TuADE. " But," says Butler, " this monstrous colossal crime has not been perpetrated with im- puDiry. Not only its prosecution, but its effects have in some measure called down upon us the frowns and the judgments of heaven. " By foreign wealth arii British morals changed, And Afric's sons, and India's, smile avenged." The trade was abolished in Austria in 1782. By the French convention in 1794. By the United States in 1807. By England (see above) in 1807. The Allies, at Vienna, declared against it, February 181.5. Napoleon,' in the hundred days, abolished the trade, March 29, 1815. Treaty with Spain, 1817; with the Netherlands, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826. But this horrid traffic contniuea fi be encouraged in several states. — Haydi). 532 THE world's progress. [ SMU be devoutly and duly served, according to the rites of the Church of Eng- land, and also that the Royal African Company should be encouraged, and that the colony should have a constant and sufficient supply of tnerchantahU negroes at moderate rates." In the year 1786, England employed 130 ships, and carried ofF42,000 slaves ; Bristol and Liverpool were chiefly engaged in it ; and such was the extent of British commerce in human flesh, that at the pe- riod of slave emancipation in the British plantations in 1833, the number of slaves, which had previously been considerably more, yet then amounted to 770,280. The slave-trade question was debated in the British parliament in 1787. The debate for its abolition lasted two days in April 1791. The motion of Mr. Wilberforce was lost by a majority of 88 to 83, April 3, 1798. After several other efibrts of humane and just mt;n, the question was introduced imder the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, then mi'iio- ters, March 31, 1806 ; and the trade was finally abolished by parliament. March 25, 1807. SI AVERY OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS in Europe. Many of the early navigators to Ame- rica, including Columbus himself, carried considerable numbers of the aborigines to Europe, where they were sold into slavery. Queen Isa- bella commanded the liberation of Indians held in bondage in her pos- sessions, in - - - - 1501 — but the next y^ear the slaverj of In- dians was recognized as lawful ; and the practice of selling the natives of North America into foreign bondage continued for nearly two centuries. The excellent Wintlirop enumerates Lrdians among his bequests. — Ban- croft. SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES. See Slave Trade. The first negro slaves in the English colonies of North America were brousht to Virginia in a Dutch vessel of war - - . - - 1G20 Negroes " who had been fraudulently brought from Guinea" to Massacliu- setts (the first in New England), were sent home at the public expense by the general court of that colony - 1646 Gorton and RogerWilliams made a de- cree against slavery in Rhode Island 1652 White slaves were sold in England, to be transported to Virginia : average price for 5 years' service, .£5 — while a negro was worth £25. — Bancroft - 1672 Virginia had one slave to 50 whites - 1650 The Quakers abolished slavery among themselves - . . . 1754 Resolutions against the sl.ive trade passed by the first congress 01' the colonies .... 1774 Act against the external slave trade passed by congress of tlie United States 1789 [Slavery had been already prohibited in most of the northern States in their constitutions.! Act of congress against fitting out ves- sels for slave trade - - - 1794 Act forbidding any citizen of the Uni- ted States Irom holding property in foreign slave vessels. United Slates vessels authorized to seize slavers - 1800 Act forbidding, under heavy penalties, the introduction of slaves into the United States . - - . 1807 Act declaring the slave trade piracy, punishable with death - - 1820 [Slavery has, however, been continued in thirteen of the States. See Mis- souri. ] The number of slaves in the United States in 1790 was . - - 697,697 In 1800 896,849 In 1810 1,191,364 In 1820 - - - ■ • - - 1,538,064 In 1S30 2,010,436 In 1840 2,487,:355 SLAVES, Emancipation of. Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British colonies, and for the promotion of industry among the manumitted slaves, and for the compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the ser- vices of such slaves, by the grant from parliament of 2O,00O,000Z. sterling, passed 3 and 4 William IV., Aug. 28, 1833. By the operation of this act, slavery terminated in the British iDossessions on Aug. 1, 1834, and 770,280 slaves became free. SLEEP. We are told that while Epimenides was at Athens, and was one day attending his flocks, he entered a cave, and there fell asleep. His sleep con- tinued, according to some writers, forty or forty-seven years ; Pliny says he slept fifty-seven years; and when he awoke, he found eveiy object so al- tered he knew not where he was. It is supposed that lie lived 289 years, SOD J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 533 596 B. c. We have manj, and even very late, instances of persons in these countries sleeping continuously for weeks and months. SMALL-POX. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation for the small-pox from Turkey, her own son having been inoculated with perfect success at Adrianople, a. d. 1718. She was allowed, by way of experiment, to inoculate seven capital convicts, who, on their recovery, were pardoned. Inoculation for the small-pox was encouraged under the auspices of Dr, Mead. A small-pox hospital was instituted in London, 1746, but the pie- sent building was not opened till 1756. See Inoculation and Vaccination. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Founded by will of James Smithson, a na. tural son of the duke of Northumberland, who died 1835, and left .£100,000 "to the United States of America, to found at Washington an institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Act of Congress accepting the bequest, and providing for the fulfilment of the trust, 1846. Corner stone of the building laid, May 1, 1847. SMOLENSKO, Battle of. One of the most memorable of the celebrated Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. The French in this most sanguinary engagement were three times repulsed, but they ultimately succeeded, and, on entering Smolensko, found the city, which had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins. Barclay de Tolli, the Russian commander-in-chief incurred the displeasure of the emperor Alexander, because he retreated after the battle, and KutusolF succeeded to the command, Aug. 17, 1812. SMUGGLERS in England. The customs duties were instituted originally to enable the king to aflbrd protection to trade against pirates ; and they af- terwards became a branch of the public revenue. A severe penalty against smuggling was enacted in 1736. SNUFF-TAKING. This practice took its rise in England from the captures made of vast quantities of snuff bj'' sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo in 1702. The prize of the forces having been sent home and sold, the vice soon obtained from which the revenue now draws, with tobacco, consider- ably more than 3,000,0000Z. per annum. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 196,805 lbs. were entered for home consumption ; the duty was 88,263Z. See Tobacco. SOAP. This article was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express mention of it occurs in Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be an invention of the Gauls, though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap. In remote periods clothes were cleansed by being rubbed or stamped upon in water. Nausicaa and her attendants. Homer tells us, Avashed theirs by treading iipon them with their feet in pits of water. — Odyssey, book vi. The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, before which time it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound. SOBRAON, Battle of ; India. The British army, 35,000 strong, under Sir Hugh (now lord) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The ene- my was dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; and in attempting the passage of a river by a floating bridge in their rear, the weight of the masses that crowded upon it caused it to break down, and more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or drowned. The British loss was 2383 men ; fought Feb. 10, 1846. SOCIETY ISLANDS seized by the French admiral, Dupetit Thenars, and queen Pomare deposed, Nov. 9, 1843, but the transaction was disavowed by the French government. SOCIALISM. This is the name given to the doctrine which teaches that all men have common interests, and that society ought to be, accordingly, or- 534 THE world's progress. I SOR ganized on that principle. It has been taught, more or less distinctly, in all ages and nations: by Pythagoras b. c. 466, and Plato b. c. 422, among the Greeks ; by the sect of Essenes, in the time of our Saviour, among the Jews ; by the first Christians a. d. 34 ; by several of the fathers of the Church ; by sir Thomas More, in his Utopia, a. d. 1515 ; by Campunella, A. D. 1623 ; and byBabeau, in France, a. d. ; but the principal modern teachers of it have been Charles Fouriei", whowasbornatBesangoninl772; and who published a variety of able works on the subject ; by Claude Henri St. Simon, born also in France, at Paris, in a.d. 1760 ; and by Robert Owen, of England, who first taught it publicly in London in 1834. Through the instru- mentality of their writings it has been been spread over Germany, France, England, and the United States, where socialism, in different forms, has a considerable number of disciples. In February, 1848, an attempt was made by Louis Blanc, one of the Provisional Government of Paris, to organize labor on socialist principles, but without success. A great many religious sects, such as the Moravians, the Rappites, the Zoarites, and the Shakers, adopt the doctrine of common property in their social arrangements. SOCINIANS. So called from their founders, Faustus and L^lius Socinus. They taught that Jesus was a mere man, who had no existence before he- was conceived by the Virgin ; that the Holy Ghost was not a distinct per- son ; and that the Father only is truly God. They maintained that Christ died only to give mankind a pattern of heroic virtue, and to seal his doc- trines with his death. Original sin, grace, and predestination they treated as mere chimeras. Socinianism was propagated about a. d. 1560. — Pardon. SODOM AND GOMORRAH. These cities, with all their inhabitants, destroyed by fire from heaven, 1897 b. c. — Bible, Blair, Usher. The offence of sodomy was first sown in England by the Lombards. By an old English law, the cri- minal was burnt to death, though Fleta says he should be buried alive. The crime was subject to ecclesiastical censure only at the time of Henry VIII., who made it felony without benefit of clergy, 1538. Confirmed by statute 5 Elizabeth, 1562. SOLAR SYSTEM. The system nearly as now accepted, after the investiga- tions and discoveries of many enlightened centuries and ages, was taught by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 b. c. In his system of the universe he placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits round it — a doctrine deemed chimerical and improbable, till the deep in- quiries of the philosophy of the sixteenth century proved it, by the most accurate calculations, to be true and incontestable. The system of Pytha- goras was revived by Copei-nicus, and it is hence called the Copernican system. Its truth was fully demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton, in 1695. How truly the poet says — " He who through vast immensity can pierce, See worlds on worlds compose one universe. Observe how system into system runs, What other planets circle other suns, What varied beings people every star, May tell why Heaven has made us what we are." — Pope. SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. The foundation laid, 480 years after the deliverance from Egypt, 1012 b. c. The temple solemnly dedicated, Friday, October 30, 1004 B. c, being 1000 years before the birth of the Redeemer. — Usher, Lienglct. SORCERERS and MAGICIANS. A law was enacted against their seductions, 33 Henry VIII. 1541 ; and another statute equally severe was passed 5 E'i- zabeth, 1563. The pretension to sorcery and witchcraft and the conversing with evil spirits was made capital, 1 James I., 1603. For shocking instances of the punishment of sorcerers, see Witchcraft. spa] dictionary of dates. 535 SOUDAN OR SOUJAH. The title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, which they went by in their provinces or armies. These officers afterwards made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of the Nora- dine, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt, A. D. 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym. SOUND. Fewer than thirty vibrations in a second give no sound ; and when the vibrations exceed 7520 in a second, the tones cease to be discriminated. Robesval states the velocity of sound at the rate of 560 feet in a second ; Gassendus, at 1473 ; Derham, at 1142 feet. At Paris, where cannon were fired under many varieties of weather in 1738, it was found to be 1107 feet. The fire of the British on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles on the sea. See Acoustics. SOUNDINGS AT SEA. Captain Ross, of H. M. S. CEdipus, took extraordinary soundings at sea. One of them was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, where it extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was made in latitude of 33 degrees S. and longitude 9 degrees W., about 300 mile from the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 fathoms were sounded ; the weight employed amounted to 450 lbs., 1840. SOUTH CAROLINA. One of the United States ; first settlement was made under Governor Sayle, at Port Royal, in 1670, and at Charleston 1671 ; re- ceived a colony of French refugees, exiled by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1690 ; church of England established by law, 1703 ; proprietary government in the two Carolinas superseded by one established by the peo- ple in 1719 ; the country purchased of the proprietors by the English par- liament in 1729, when the country was divided into North and South Carolina ; received colonies of Swiss, Germans, and Irish at various times. This State early resisted the claims of the mother country, and was active in the revolutionary war. Charleston and a large part of the State taken by the British in 1780 ; battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781 ; Federal Constitution adopted May 23, 1788, by 149 to 73 ; " nullification ordinance " passed Nov. 1832. Population in 1790 was 249,000 ; in 1810, 415,115 ; in 1830. 581,458 ; in 1840, 594,398, including 327,538 slaves. SOUTH SEA BUBBLE. This destructive speculation was commenced in 1710 ; and the company incorpoi-ated by statute, 1716. The bubble, which ruined thousands of families, exploded in 1720, and the directors' estates, to the value of 2,014,000/. were seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded Avith 100,OOOZ. ; but he compounded the fraud for 10,000/., and returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy persons in the king- dom had become stock-jobbers and speculators in this fatal scheme. The artifices of the directors had raised the shares, originally of 100/., to the enormous price of 1000/. See Law^s Bubble. SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA. See Impostors, &c. SPAIN. The first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tubal, fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians successively planted colonies on the coasts ; and the Romans possessed the whole coun- try. In the decline of the Roman empire, Spain was seized by the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi ; afterwards subdued by the Visigoths, who laid the foun- dation of the present monarchy. See Tabular Views, p. 65, et scq. The Vandals and Suevi wrest Spain from the Romans - - a. d. 412 The Visigoths enter Spain under their leader, Euric - - . . 472 The Saracens from Arabia invade the country - - - 713 et seq. Pelagius, a royal Visigoth, proclaimed Jfing of Asturias • - - 718 Alphonsus n. refusing to pay the Sara- cens the annual tribute of 100 virgins, war is declared ; Alphonsus is victo- rious, and obtains the appellation of " the chaste" - - a. d. 791 st sea. Inigo, first king of Navarre, &c. - 830 Ferdinand I., count of Castile, takes the title of king - - - - KGO 536 TrtE world's progress. fSPA SPAIN, continued. Union of Navarre and Castile - a. d. 1031 The kingdom of Arragon commenced under Ramirez I. - - - - 1035 Leon and Asturias united to Castile - 1037 Portugal taken from the Saracens by Henry of Bourbon - - - 1087 The Saracens, beset on all sides by the Christians, call in the aid of the Moors from Africa, who seize the dominions they came to protect, and subdue the Saracens - - - 1091 et seq The Moors defeated in several battles by Alphonsus I. of Navarre - - 1118 Twelve Moorish kings overcome in one great pitched battle - - - 1 135 University of Salamanca founded - 1200 Leon and Castile re-united - - - r2'26 Cordova, the residence of the first Moor- ish kings, taken by Ferdinand of Cas- tile and Leon - - - - 1236 The kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors, their last refuge from the power of the Christians - -1238 Reign of Alphonsus the Wise - - 1252 The crown of Navarre passes to the royal family of France - - 1276 200,000 Moors invade Spain - - 1327 They are defeated by Alphonsus XI., with great slaughter - - - 1340 The infant Don Henriquez, son of John the First of Castile, tirst had the title of prince of Asturias - - - 1388 Ferdmand IT. of Arragon marries Isa- bella of Castile ; and nearly the whole Christian dominions of Spain are uni- ted in one monarchy - - - 1474 Granada taken after a two years' siege ; and the power of the Moors finally extirpated by the valor of Ferdinand - 1492 Columbus is sent from Spain to explore the western world - - - 1492 Ferdinand conquers the greater part of the kingdom of Navarre - -1512 Accession of the house of Austria to the throne of Spain - - - 1516 Charles V. of Spain and Germany re- tires from the world . - - 1556 Philip I. commences his bloody perse- cution of the Protestants - -1561 The Escurial began building - - 1562 Portugal united to Spain - ■ - 1580 The invincible Spanish Armada de- stroyed. See Armada, and Naval Battles . . - - 1588 Philip III. banishes the Moors and their descendants, to the number of 900,000, from Spain - - - - 1610 Philip IV. loses Portugal - - 1640 Gibraltar taken by the English - -1704 Philip V. invades Naples - - 1714 Charles III. , king of the Two Sicilies, succeeds to the crown - - 1759 Battle of Cape St. Vincent - Feb. 14, 1797 Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,- 000 dollars, seized by the English Oct. 29, 1804 Battle of Trafalgar. See Trafalgar, Battle of - - Oct. 31, 1505 Sway of the prince of Peace - - 1806 Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias against his father - July 25, 1807 Treaty of Fontainebleau - Oct. 27, 1807 The French take Madrid - a. d. March, 1808 The prince of Peace dismissed by the king of Spain - March 18, IStB Abdication of Charles IV. in favor of Ferdinand - - March 19, 1803 And at liayonne,in favor of his "friend and ally,"' Napoleon, when Ferdi- nand relinquished the crown, May 1, 1808 The Frencli are massacred at Madrid, May 2, 1808 Napoleon assembles the notables at Bayonne - - May 25, 1808 Joseph Bonaparte enters Jladrid, as king of Spain - - July 12, 1808 He retires Irom the capita! - July 29, 1808 Supreme Junta installed - Sept. 1808 Madrid retaken by the French, and Jo- seph restored - - Dec. 2, 1808 The royal family of Spain imprisoned in the palace of Chambery, in Savoy, Dec. 5, 1008 [Spain now becomes the scene of the struggle called the Peninsular War, for the events of which see the arti- cles severally.] Constitution of the Cortes - May 8, 1812 Ferdinand VII. restored - May 14, 1814 Spanish revolution began - Jan. 1, 1820 Ferdinand sweare to the constitution of the Cortes - - March 8, 1820 Removal of the king to Seville, and thence to Cadiz '- March 20, 1823 The French enter Spain - April 7, 1823 They invest Cadiz - - June 25, 1823 Battle of the Trocadero - - Aug. 31, 1823 Despotism resumed ; the Cortes dis- solved; executions - Oct. 1823 Riego put to death - Nov. 27, 1823 The French evacuate Cadiz - Sept. 21, 1828 Cadiz made a free port - Feb. 24, 1829 Salique law abolished - March 25, 1830 Queen of Spain appointed regent dur- ing the king's indisposition, and a complete change made in the minis- try - - - Oct. 25, 1832 Don Carlos declares himself legitimate successor to liis brother's throne, should the king die - April 29, 1833 Death of Charles IV., and his queen assumes the title of governing queen, until Isabella II., her infant daughter, attains her majority - Sept. 29, 1833 The royalist volunteers disarmed, with some bloodshed, at Madrid - Oct. 27, 1833 Don Carlos lands at Portsmouth with his family - - June 18, 1834 He suddenly appears among his ad- herents in Spain - July 10, 1834 Tlie peers vote the perpetual exclusion of Don Carlos from the throne, Aug. 30, 1334 [Here cominences the desolating civil war, in which British auxiliaries take the side of the queen.] Espartero gains the ^battle of Bilboa, and is ennobled - - Dec. 25, 1836 General Evans retires from the com- mand of the auxiliary legion, and ar- rives in London, after having achieved various successes in Spain - June 20, 1837 Madrid is declared in a state of siese. Augfll, 18:i7 [Espartero and other Christino generals spa] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 537 SPAIN, continued. engage with the Carlists, and nume- rous conflicts take place with various success.] JNIadrid is again declared in a state of siege - - A. D. Oct. 30, 1838 The Spanish Cortes dissolved - June 1, 1839 The Carlists imder Marota desert Don Carlos - - - Aug. 25, 1839 Marota and Espartero conclude a treaty of peace - - Aug. 29, 1839 Don Carlos seeks refuge in France Sept. 13, 1839 Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to maintain the war, enters France with a body of his troops - July 7, 1840 The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Se- bastian and Passages - Aug. 25, 1840 Espartero makes his triumphal entry into Madrid - - - Oct. 5, 1840 The queen regent appoints a new min- istry, who are nominated by Espar- tero .... Oct. 5. 1810 The abdication of the queen resent of Spain - - - Oct. 12, 1840 [She subsequently leaves the kingdom ; visits France ; next settles in Sicily ; but returns.to France.] Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the papal nuncio - - Dec. 29, 1840 The Spanish cortes declare Espartero regent during the minority of the young queen - - " Apr. 12, 1841 Insurrection in favor of Christina is commenced at Pampeluna by Gen. O'Donnell's army - - Oct. 2, 1841 It spreads to Vittoria and other parts of the kingdom - - Oct. 1811 Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at Madrid, and his followers are repuls- ed, and numbers of them slain by the queen's guard - - Oct. 7, 1841 Don Diego Leon, having been seized, is shot at Madrid - - Oct. 15, 1841 Zurbano captures Bilboa - Oct. 21. 1841 Hodil, the constitutional general, enters Vittoria - - - Oct. 21, 1841 Espartero decrees the suspension of queen Christina's pension - Oct. 26, 1841 Espartero makes his triumphal entry into Madrid - - Nov. 23, 1841 An insurrection breaks out at Barce- lona ; the national guard joins the populace - - Nov. 13, 1812 Battle in the streets between the national guard and the troops : the latter lose 500 in killed and wounded, and retreat to the citadel - - Nov. 15, 1842 The troops evacuate the citadel, and retire to Montjuich - Nov. 17, 1812 The regent Espartero arrives before Barcelona, and demands its uncondi- tional surrender - - Nov. 29, 1842 Bombardment of Barcelona - Dec. 2, 1842 It capitulates - - Dec. 4, 1842 The disturbances of Malaga - May 25, 1843 The revolutionary junta is re-establish- ed ^t Barcelona - - June 11, 1843 [Corui.na, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, and numerous other towns, shortly afterwards " pronounce" against the regent Espartero.] Arrival of Gen. Narvaez at Madrid, which surrenders - - July 15, 1843 Espartero bombards Seville - July 21, 1843 The siege is raised - - July 27, 1843 [The revolution is completely success- ful, and Espartero flies to Cadiz, and embarks on board her Majesty's ship Mtdabar.] The new government deprive Espartero of his titles and rank - Au^. 16, 1843 Espartero and his suite and friends ar- rive in London - - Aug. 23, 1843 Reaction against the new govermnent breaks out at Madrid - Aug. 29, 1843 The young queen Isabella II., 13 years old, is declared by the cortes to be of age - - - ■ Nov. 8, 1843 The queen- mother. Christina, returns to Spain - ■- - March 23, 1844 Don Carlos, from Bourges, formally re- linquishes his right to the crown, in favor of his son - - May 18, 1845 Narvaez and his ministry resign, Feb. 12; they return to power, March 17 ; and again resign - - March 28, 184G The queen is publicly affianced to her cousin, don Francisco d'Assiz, duke of Cadiz - - - Aug. 27, 1846 Escape of Don Carlos and others from France - - - Sept. 14, 1846 Marriage of the queen ; and marriage also of the infanta Louisa to the duke de Montpensier - ■ Oct. 10, 1846 [The Montpensier marriage occasions the displeasure of England, and dis- turbs the friendly relations of the French and English governments.] Amnesty granted by the queen to po- litical offenders - - Oct. 18, 1846 The queen has a son born, who dies the same day - - - July 1, 1850 KINGS OP SPAIN. 548. A..D. 406. Alaricl., king of the Goths; murdered. 411. Athalsus; murdered by his soldiers. 415. Wallia. 420. Theodoric I.; killed in battle. 450. Torrismunn , assassinated by his fa- vorite. 452. Theodoric II. 466. Euric. 484. Alaric 11. ; killed in battle. 507. Geaalric; killed in battle. 511. Anialaric; killed in battle. 531. Theodat ; assassinated by a madman. 2-3* Theodisele ; murdered for female vio- lation. 549. Agila ; taken prisoner and put to death. 554. Athanagild. 507. From tfiis year to the year C87, sixteen kings reigned. 687. Egica or Egiza. 697. Vitizza. 741. Roderick; killed in battle in 714. An interregnum till 718. Pelagius. 736. Favila; killed by a boar in hunting. 538 THE world's progress. [spa SPAIN, continued. 738. Alphonsus I. ; Catholic. 757. Fioila I. ; killed by his brother Aure- lius. 768. Aurelius. 774. Silo. 783. Mauregat. 789. Veremond. 791. Alphonsus II. ; the chaste. 324. Ramiro I. ; he put 70,000 Saracens to the sword in one battle. 860. Ordogno I. 862. Alphonsus III. ; sumamed the great ; deposed by his son. 910. Garcias. 914. Ordogno n. 923. Froila II. 924. Alphonsus IV. ; abdicated. 931. Rarairo II. , killed in battle. 950. Ordogno III. 955. Ordogno IV. 956. Sanchol., the Fat; poisoned with an apple 967. Ramiro III. 982. Veremund II. ; the Gouty. 999. Alphonsus V. ; killed at the siege of Viscu. 1028. Veremund III. ; killed in battle. 1035. Ferdinand the Great, king of Leon and Castile. 10G5. Sancho II., the Strong, king of Castile ; Alphonsus in Leon and Asturias ; and Garcias in Galicia. 1072. Alphonsus VI., the Valiant; in Castile and Leon. 1109. Alphonsus VII. 1122. Alphonsus VIIL 1157. Sancho IIL, the Beloved, in Castile ; Ferdinand in Leon. 11.58. Alphonsus IX., in Castile. 1214. Henry L 1236. Ferdinand III. the Holy ; in him Cas- tile and Leon were reunited, and per- petually annexed. 1252. Alphonsus the Wise ; deposed. 1284. Sancho IV., the Brave ; Peter III. in Arragon. 1295. Ferdinand IV. 1312. Alphonsus X. ; John in Arragon. 1350. Peter the Cruel ; deposed. Reinstated by Edward the Black Prince of Eng- land; afterwards beheaded by his subjects. 1368. Henry II., the Gracious ; poisoned by a monk. 1379. John I. ; he united Biscay to Castile. 1390. Henry 111., the Sickly. 1406. John II. 14.54. Henry IV, the Impotent. 1474. Ferdinand v., the Catholic, in whom, by his marriage with Isabella, the vingdoms of Castile and Arragon were united. 1504. Philip I. of Austria, and his queen Joan. 1.506. Joan alone over both kingdoms. 1516. Charles I, and emperor of Germany, resigned both crowns, and retired to a monastery. 1555. Philip II., married Mary, queen-reg- nant of England. 1598. Philip IIL, son of the preceding; he drove the Moors from Grenada and the adjacent provinces. 1621. Philip IV., his son ; a reign of nearly continuous and unfortunate wars with the Dutch and France. 1665. Charles IL 1700. Philip v., duke of Anjou, grandson to Louis XIV. of France; resigned. 1724. Lewis I. ; who reigned only a few months. 1724. Philip V. ; again. 1745. Ferdinand VI., surnamedthe Wise ; he distinguished his reign by acts of liberality and beneficence. 17.59. Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies. 1788. Charles IV. ; abdicated in favor of hia son and successor. 1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon, of of France, also forced to resign. IS08. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napo- leon ; deposed. 1814. Ferdinand VII. ; restored ; succeeded by his daughter. 1833. Isabella II., Sept. 29 ; who came to the throne when three years of age. While nearly all the other nations of the world have been at peace, this coun- try, for the last quarter of a century, has been a prey to the most deplor- able commotions, and almost continuous and destructive civil war. From the death of Ferdinand, the intrigues of Christina, the queen-mother, and the parties in her interest, have led to successive revolutions in the state, and caused, in 18i0, her own abdication of the regency, and expulsion from the kingdom. SPANISH ARMADA ag.a.inst England. See article Armada. SPARTA. The capital of Laconia, one of the most considerable republics of the Peloponnesus, and the formidable rival of Athens. Though without walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the valor of its citizens, for eight centuries. The epoch of its foundation is much disputed. Lelex is supposed to have been the first king, 1516 b. c. From Lacedsemon the fourth king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the founders of the city, it obtained the names by which it was most known. The history of Lacedffimon may be divided into five eras, viz., 1st. Under the ancient kings, from Lelex to the settlement of the Heraclidie, comprising about four bun- SPI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 539 dred and twelve years. 2d. Under the Heraclidae as absolute monarchs, till Lycurgns instituted a senate, by which the people obtained a share in the government, including about two hundred and twenty years. 3d. From the establishment of the senate, to the introduction of ephori, or five inspectors by Theopompus, about one hundred and twenty-four years. 4th. From the appointment of the ephori, to the total abolition of royalty, about five hun- dred and forty years. 5th. From the abolition of the monarchy, to the sub- jugation of the country to the Roman power, a period of about seventy- two years, 147 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. See Tabular Views ; Greece, page 7, et seq. See also Greece. The Lacedaemonians were a nation of soldiers. They cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. All their laws, all their institutions, all their education, in a word, the very constitu- tion of their republic, Avere calcvilated to make them warriors. And never were men brought into the field more capable of enduring fatigue. They hardened their bodies by stripes, and by manly exercises, accustoming them- selves to undergo hardships, and even to die without fear or regret. The women were as courageous as the men, and celebrated with festivals the fall of their sons, when killed in battle, or coolly put them to death with their own hands, if by a shameful flight, or the loss of their arms, they brought disgrace upon their country. — Abbe Lenglet. SPECTACLES and READING-GLASSES. See Optics. Spectacles were un- known to the ancients. They are generally supposed to have been invented in the 13th century, by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about A. D. 1285. — Gen. Hist. They were invented by Roger Bacon, our own illustrious countryman, according to Dr. Plott. The hint was certainly given by Bacon about 1280. Some affirm that the real inventor was Salvi- no ; and Mr. Manni gives proofs in favor of Salvino in his Treatise on Spec- tacles. SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, and also sun-dials, were invent- ed by Anaximander, 552 b. c. The armillary sphere is said to have been in- vented by Eratosthenes about 255 b. c. The planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 b. c. It was maintained by Pythagoras that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to the ears of mortals, which he called the music of the spheres. SPINNING. The art of spinning was ascribed by the ancients to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, such was their veneration for it. Areas, king of Arca- dia, taught his subjects the art of spinning about 1500 b. c. Lucretia with her maids was found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid a visit to her from the camp. The wife of Tarquin was an excellent spinner ; and a garment made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was preserved in the tenj- ple of Fortune. Augustus Caasar usually wore no garments but such as were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was in- vented at Brunswick, about a. d. 1530. Till 1767, the spinning of cotton was performed by the hand-spinning-wheel, when Hargrave, an ingenious mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning-jenny, with eight spindles. Hargrave also erected the first carding-machine, with cylinders. Arkwright's machine for spinning by water was an extension of the principle of Har- grave's ; but he also applied a large and small roller to expand the thread, and, for this ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first, he worked his machinery by horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 1779, Crompton invented the mule, which is a further and wonderful improvement of this art. — P dllips. SPIRES. In ancient times the emperors held many diets at Spires, and it was the seat of the imperial chamber till 1689, Avhen the city was burnt by the French, and not rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick in 1697. The diet to 540 THE world's progress. [ STA condemn the reformers was held at Spires, called there by the emperor Charles V., 1529. This was the era of Protestantism. See Protestants. SPIRITS. See Distillation. No human invention has ever tended more to cor- rupt the morals, and ruin the character, constitution, and circumstances of numbers of mankind, than distillation. In all nations spirituous liquors have been considered as a proper subject of heavy taxation for the support of the state. In 1840, England made about ten millions of gallons of spirits, Scotland made about seven millions of gallons, and Ireland about nine mil- lions of gallons. In England, Ireland, and Scotland, duty was paid, in 1840, on the following quantities of spirits, viz. — Rum, 2,830,263 gallons ; brandy, 1,107,756 gallons ; Geneva, 18,640 gallons ; on other foreign spirits, 8,758 gallons ; and on British, Irish, and Scotch spirits, 25,190,843 gallons ; mak- ing in the whole nearly thirty millions of gallons, upon which the duty amounted to about eight millions of pounds sterling ! — Pari. Returns. SPITZBERGEN. Discovered in 1533, by sir Hugh Willoughby, who called it Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. In 1595, it was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be the original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from the many sharp-pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds. STAMP-DUTIES in England. The first institution of stamp-duties was by statute 5 and 6 William and Mary, June 23, 1694, when a duty was imposed upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on newspapers was commenced in 1713, and every year added to the list of articles upon which stamp-duty was made payable. The American Stamp Act, a memorable statute, one of those imposts levied by the parliament of Great Britain which produced the American Avar, and led to the independence of the United States, was passed March 22, 1765. Stamp-duties in Ireland com- menced 1774. Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 1782. The stamp- duties produced in England, in 1800, the revenue of 3,126,535Z. ; and in 1840, for the United Kingdom, 6,726,817^. See Newspapers, &c. STANDARDS. See Banners, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using the cross on standards and shields arose in the miraculous appearance of a cross to Constantine, previously to his battle with Maxentius : this fact rests on the authority of Eusebius, who states that he had received it from the em- peror himself, a. d. 312. For the celebrated French standard, see LUy. Standard or Mahomet ; on this ensign no infidel dare look. It was car- ried in procession about 1768, when several hundred Christians who igno- rantly looked iipon it, were massacred by the Turkish populace. The Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower of London, and on Bed- ford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the kingdoms, Jan. 1, 1801. STAR-CHAMBER, Court of. So called haply from its roof being garnished with stars. — Coke. This court of justice, so tremendous in the Tudor and part of the Stuart reigns, was called Star-chamber, not from the stars on its roof (which were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), but from the Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by order of Ri- chard I. No Star was allowed to be valid except found in those reposito- ries, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by Edward I. The court was instituted 2 Henry VII. 1487, for trials by a committee of the privy council. In Charles I.'s reign, it exercised its power, independent of any law, upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in their sufferings, and contributed to render government odious and con- temptible. — Golds'inilh. It was abolished 16 Charles I., 1641. Thei'e were STE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 541 from 26 to 42 judges, the lord-chancellor having the casting foice. — Gibbon. STARS. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 1200 b. c Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and that the earth moved round them (this is mentioned by Cicero, and probably gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus), about 344 a. c. Job, He- siod, and Homer, mention several of the constellations. The Royal Library at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 b. c, in which '1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of the stars dis- covered by Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Astronomy and Solar System. STA.TES-GENERAL op FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France. Pre- viously to the Revolution it had not met since a. d. 1614. The states con- sisted of three orders, the nobility, clergy, and commons. They were con- vened by Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, May 5, 1789. Here a a contest arose, whether the three orders should make three distinct houses, or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and, assuming the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to proceed to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if they refused to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to concede the point, and they all met in one hall. See National Assembly. STATIONERS. Books and paper were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the dealers were called stationers. The company of stationers of London is of great antiquity, and existed long before printing was invented ; yet it was not incorporated until 3 Philip and Mary, 1555. Their old dwelling was in Paternoster-row. — Mortimer. .STATUES. See Moulds, Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter passed for one of the wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among the ancients, 440 b. c. He had previously made a statue of Minerva at the request of Pericles, which was placed in the Parthenon. It was made with ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius raised a golden statue to his lather, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the art of taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards cast models in wax, 326 b. c. Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among the moderns. The first equestrian statute erected in Great Britain was that of Charles I. in 1678. STEAM ENGINE. This is the most important prime mover that the inge- nuity of man has yet devised. The first idea of it was suggested by the marquis of Worcester in his Century of Inventions, as "a way to drive up water by fire," A. D. 1663. It does not, however, appear that the noble in- ventor could ever interest the public in favor of this great discovery. Watt's expansion engine - - - - 1778 Papin's digester invented - a. d. 1681 Captain Savery's engine constructed lor raising water - - - 1698 Pain's engine, exhibited to the Royal Society, about - - - - 1699 Atmospheric engine by Savery and Newcomen .... 1713 First idea of steam navigation set fortli in a patent obtained by Hulls - 1736 Watt's invention of performing conden- sation in a separate vessel from tlie cylinder .... 1765 His first patent - ... 1769 His engines upon a large scale erected in manufactories, and his patent re- newed by act of parliament . .1775 Thomas Paine proposed the application of steam in America - - - . 1773 Engine made to give a rotary motion - 1778 Double acting engines proposed by Dr. Falck on Newcomen's principle - 1779 Watt's double engine, and his first pa- tent for it granted - - - . 1781 The marquess .Jouffroy constructed an engine on the SaSne - - . 1781 Fitchs' experiments in steam naviga- tion on the Delaware, (See Smith's Am. Curios.-) .... 1783-4 Oliver Evans' experiments in the same 1785-6 Rurasey's experiments in the same in Virginia 1787 W. Symington made a passage on the Forth and Clyde canal - - . . 17S0 First steam-engine erected in Dublin by Henry Jackson 1791 Jouffroy's experiments in France - ■ 179-.i 542 THE WORLD S PROaRESS. [ STE STEAM ENGINE, continued. Chancellor Livingston builds a steamer on the Hudson 1797 First experiment on the Thames - - 1801 The experiment of Mr. Symington re- peated with success - - - - 1802 Trevethick's high-pressure engine - 1802 Oliver Evans' experiments lu locomo- tive engines in Pemi. - - - 1804 WoolPs double cylinder expansion en- gine constructed . - . . 1804 Manufactories warmed by steam - 1806 Fulton started a steam-boat on the river Hudson, built by himself, and named "The North River;" engine by Boul- ton and Watt j passage to Albany in 33 Iiours : FIRST steam navigation on record - ... 1807 The next three steam-boats in the world were the Car of Neptune, - - ISOS T\\6 Paragon 1811 The Richmond 1812 all in New York. Steam power to convey coals on a rail- way, employed by Blenkinsop - - 1811 Stecim vessels first commenced plying on the Clyde (first in Europe) - 1812 Steam applied to printmg in the Timea office. See Press . . - . 1814 There were five steam vessels in Scot- land iParl. Returns) in - - - 1813 First steam vessel on the Thames brought by Mr. Dodd, from Glasgow 1815 The first steamer built in England {Pari. Returns') 1815 The Savannah steamer, of 350 tons, went from New York to Liverpool in 26 days .... July 15, 1313 First steamer in Ireland - - - 1830 Captain Johnson obtained 10,OOOZ. for making the first steam voyage to In- dia, in the Enterprise, which sailed from Falmouth - - Aug. 16, 1825 Locomotive steam carriages on rail- ways, at Liverpool - - Oct. 1829 The Railway opened (see Liverpool) ■ 1830 The Great Western arrives from Bris- tol at New York, and the Sirius from Cork, same day, being their first voy- age, in 18 days - - June 17, 1838 War steamers built in England - - 1838 First steamer of the Cunard line was the Bi"itannia to Boston ; after a pas- sage of 14 ds. 8 hrs., arrived July 18, ISIO STEAM BOATS in the UNITED STATES. In 1838 returns from 23 States gave an aggregate of 700 vessels — whole tonnage, 153,600 tons ; but these retui'ns were not complete. The increase from 1838 to 1850 was very great : probably there are, in 1850, at least 1500 vessels, with an aggregate of 300,000 tons. The first American ocean steamer of any note was the Washington, which made her first passage to Southampton in June 1847. The whole number of steam-boats, locomotive and stationarj' engines, in the United States, in 1838, was 3,010. STEAM VESSELS op the BRITISH EMPIRE. STEAM VESSELS BELONGING TO THE BRITISH EMPIRE AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS; Year. England. iScotland. Ireland. Dependencies. Total. 1814 - 5 1 6 1815 - . 3 5 2 10 1820 - 17 14 3 9 43 1825 - -112 36 3 17 168 1830 - - 203 61 31 20 315 1835 -344 85 68 48 645 1815 - - 694 139 79 89 1001 STEEL-YARD. A most ancient instrument, the same that is translated 6a- lance in the Pentateuci The Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men- tioned in 815 B. c. STENOGRAPHY. The art of wi-iting in short-hand is said to have been prac- tised by most of the ancient nations. It is said to have followed from the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. It is also attributed to the poet Ennius, improved upon by Tyro, Cicero's freed-man, and still more by Seneca. The Ars Scribendl Characteris, printed about a. d. 1412, is the oldest system ex- tant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1590. There are now numerous systems of it, many of them of easy acquirement and great simplicity. STEREOMETRY. The instrument by which is compassed the art of taking the contents of vessels of liquids by gauging, invented about a. d. 1350. — Anderson. STEREOTYPE. See Printing. It is said that stereotyping was known in 1711 ; but this is doubted. It is said to have been suggested by Wm. Ged STO J DICTION.iRY OF DATES. 543 of Edinburgh, 1735. — Nichols. This species of printing is ascribed by others to Mr. Tilloch, 1779. The invention of it is also attribiited to Fran- cis Ambrose Didot, of Paris, about that year. — Ferguson. But stereotype printing was in use in Holland, in the last century ; and a quarto Bible and Dutch folio Bible were printed there. — Phillips. Stereotyping was intro- duced into London, by Wilson, in 1804. — Idem. STEREOTYPING. The foregoing is from Haydn. But this art is said to have been invented by Cadwallader Golden of New York, who sent the details of his plan in 1779 to Dr. Franklin, then in Paris. Franklin communicated the plan to Didot, the famous printer, and Herbau, a German, who had been an assist- ant of Didot, took it up in opposition to Didot. It is affirmed, on good au- thority, that Herbau's method of stereotjqDing is i^recisely similar to that which Golden invented. Stereotj'ping was first actually practised in New York in 1813, when John Watts stereotyped the Larger Gatechism. In June 1815 the Bruces of New York stereotj^ped a duodecimo Bible. — Dr. J. W. Francis. STOGKINGS. Those of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547- In 1560, queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stock- ings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones any more. — Huwell. He adds, " Henry VIII. wore ordinarily cloth hose, except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockings ; for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented with a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; and the present was then much taken notice of — Idem. Others relate that Wil- liam Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant, a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, ingeniously made a pair like them, which he presented to the earl of Pembroke, the first of the kind made in England, 1564. — Stowe. STOGKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, and was introduced into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have had its rise in 1694. The number of stockholders in 1840 amounted to 337,481. By a return of the average price of the public funds by the com- missioners for the reduction of the national, debt, it appears that Consols averaged in the year — 1780 - £63 13 6 1795 - £74 8 6 1810 - £67 16 3 1825 - £90 8 1785 - - 68 6 6 1800 - -66 3 3 1815 - -58 13 9 1830 - -89 15 7 1790 - 71 2 6 1805 - 58 14 1820 - 68 12 1840 - 89 17 6 See Public Debt. STOIGS. Disciples of Zeno, the cynic philosopher; they obtained the name of stoics because they listened to his instructions and harangues in a porch or portico at Athens, called in Greek Stoa. Zeno taught that man's su- preme happiness consisted in living according and agreeable to nature and reason, and that God was the soul of the world. The Pharisees aflected the same stiffness, patience, apathy, austerity, and insensibility, which this sect is famous for. — Stanley. STONE. Stone buildings were introduced into England, a. d. 670. ' A stone bridge was built at Bow in 1087, and is accounted the first ; but a bridge exists at Growland, which is said to have been built in 860. See Bridges. The first stone building in Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Building. Stone china-ware was made by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced into England, 1776. Stone paper was made in 1796. STONEHENGE. Among the most celebrated monuments of British antiquity. Said to have been erected on the counsel of Merlin by Aurelius Ambrosius, in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered by Hengist, the Saxon, a. d^ 544 THE world's progress. [STO 475. — Geoffrey of Monmouth. Erected as a sepulchral monument of Am- brosius, a. d. 500. — Polydore Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in which the Druids oflSciated.— I>r. Stukeley. Tlie Britons had annual meet- ings at Abury and Stonehenge, where laws were made, and justice adminis- tered, and heinous crimes punished, by bui'ning alive in wicker-baskets. STORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memo- rable. In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, a. d. 944. One in several parts of England, the sky being very dark, the wind coming from the S.W. ; many churches were destroyed ; and in London 500 houses fell, October 5, 1091. One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais, and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against the barons, perished, 1215. — Holinshed. It thundered 15 days successively, with tem- pests of rain and wind, a.d. 12:33. A storm with violent lightnings ; one flash passed through a chamber where Edward 1. and his queen were conversing, did them no damage, but killed two of their attend- ants: 1285. — Hoveden. A violent storm of hail near Chartres, in France, which fell on the army of Edward III., then on its march. The hail was so large that the army and horses suffered very much, and Edward was obliged to conclude a peace, 1339. — Matt. Paris. When Richard II. 's queen came from Bohe- mia, on setting foot on shore an awful storm arose, and her ship and a number of others were dashed to pieces in the har bor, Jan. 1382. — Ilolins/ied. Richai-d's second queen also brought a storm with her to the English coasts, in which the king's baggage was lost, and many ships cast away, 1389. — Idem. A hurricane throughout Europe, which did very considerable damage ; more remark- ed in England, happening Sept. 3, 1G58, the day that Cromwell died. — Mortimer. A storm on the eastern coasts of England ; 200 colliers and coasters lost, with most of their crews, 1696. The storm called the "Great Storm," one of the most terrible that ever raged in Eng- land. The devastation on land was im- mense ; and in the harbors, and on the coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives was still greater, Nov. 26, 1703.* A snow stoi'm in Sweden, wlien 7000 Swedes, it is said, perished upon the mountains, in their march to attack Dronthcim, a. d. 1719. One in India, when many hundreds of ves- sels were cast away, a fleet of Iirdiamen, greatly damaged, and some ships lost, and 30,000 persons perished, Oct. 11, 1737. A dreadful hurricane at the Havana ; many public edifices and 4048 houses were de- stroyed, and 1000 inhabitants perished, Oct. 25, 1768. — Annual Register. An awful storm in the north of England, in which many vessels were destroyed, and 4 Dublin packets foundered, Oct. 29, 1775. At Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 7000 of the inhabitants, April 22, 1782. One hundred and thirty-one villages and farms laid waste in France, 1785. A dreadful hurricane, which ravaged the . Leeward Islands, from 20th to 22d Sept. 1819. At the Island of St. Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. At Gibraltar, where more than a hundred vessels were destroyed, Feb. 18, 1828. Awful hurricane on the western coast of . England, and in Ireland. The storm raged through Cheshire, Staffordshire, and War- wickshire ; 20 persons were killed in Li- verpool, by the falling of biuldings, and 100 were drowned in the neighborhood; the coast and harbors were covered with wrecks ; the value of two of the vessels lost being nearly half a million sterling. In Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other places, more than 200 houses were blown down, and as inany more were burnt, the wind spreading the fires. Dublin sufler- ed dreadfully ; London and its neighbor- hood scarcely sustained any damage, Jan. 6-7, 1839. Hurricane at Havana, 92 vessels sunk, 1275 houses destroyed, and 1038 injured, Oct. 10-11, 1846. Hurricane at Antigua, St. Thomas, &c. Aug. 21. 1848, STOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of * The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,000.000?. sterling. The number of per- sons drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Twelve men-of-war, with more than ISOO men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Trees were torn up by the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed, and in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winstanley, and the persons who were with him. The bi- shop of Bath and Wells and his lady were killed in bed in their palace, in Somersetshire. Multi- tudes of cattle were also lost; in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned. sugJ dictionary of dates. 545 the room, the roof being open. Apartments were warmed too by port- able braziers. See Chinnieys. STRASBURG. The attempt at insurrection in the city of Strasburg, by Louis- Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the deceased emperor, aided by two offi- cers and some privates, which was instantly suppressed by the arrest of the parties. The prince was afterwards shipped off to America by the French government, Oct. 29, 1836. This enthusiast made another attempt, by a descent at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840. See France: STRATTON-HILL, Battle op, in Devonshire, between the royal army and the forces of the parliament, headed by the poet Waller ; in this battle the victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed and wounded, and Waller was obliged to fly to Bristol ; fought May 16, 1643. STUCCO-WORK. The art was known to the ancients, and was much prized by them, particiilarly by the Romans, who excelled in it. — Abbe Lenglet. It was revived by D'Udine about a. d. 1550; and is now exquisitely per- formed in Italy and France, and is advancing rapidly to perfection in England. STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Cassar's ordering leap-j'ear to be but once in four years, and the month Sextillis to be called Augustus, 8b.c. Again at Rome, by taking twelve daj^s off the calendar, a. d. 1582. See Calendar. Introduced into most of the other states of Europe, 1710. Act passed to change the style in England from the Julian to the Gregorian, 1751. It took effect Sept. 3, 1752. See New Style and Year. STYLE, ROYAL, of the KINGS of ENGLAND. See articles Majesty and Titles. SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, par- ticularly in wool ; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account of the war with France, 1340. — Anderson. Subsidies raised upon the subjects of England for the last time by James I., 1624, but they were contained in a bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. England granted subsidies to fo- reign powers in several wars, particularly in the war against the revolution- ists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One of the most remarkable of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was ratified at Vienna, between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be vigorouslj prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting powers should enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia, Russia, the Porte, and other powers, were afterwards given by England, to the amount of many tens of millions sterling. — Phillips. SUB-TREASURY. Bill providing for the safe keeping of the moneys belonging to the United States, passed the Senate by 24 to l8, Jan. 23, 1840 ; repealed Aug. 9, 1841. Re-enacted in a new form, 184-. SUCCESSION, ACT op. The memorable act to exclude Roman Catholics from ascending the throne of Great Britain was passed in 1689 ; and the crown of England was settled upon the present royal family by the act of June 12, 1701. SUCCESSION, The WAR of. This celebrated war, alike distinguished by the glorious achievements of the duke of Marlborough and its barren and unprofitable results, arose m the question whether an Austrian or a French prince, grandson of Louis XIV., should succeed to the throne of Spain. Our court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the allies withdrew, one after another, and the French prince succeeded ; 1702 to 1713. See Utrecht, Peace of. SUGAR, Saccharum officinaruvi. Sugar is supposed to have been known to the 546 THE world's progress. [ SUI. ancient Jews. Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 325 B. c. — Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance with Pompey used the juice of the cane as a common beverage. — Lucan. The best sugar was produced in India. — Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen. — Encyclop. Brought into Europe from Asia, a. d. 625. In large quantities, 1150. It was attempted to be cultivated in Italy; but not succeeding, the Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about 1510. — Robertson's History of Charles V* SUGAR-REFINING. The art of refining sugar was made known to the Eu- ropeans by a Venetian, a. d. 1503. It was hrst practised in England in 1659. though some authorities say that we had the art among us a few years sooner. Sugar was first taxed by name, 1 James 11., 1685. — Anderson ; Mor- timer. See Beet Root. SUICIDE. The first instance of it (passing that of Samson) recorded in Jewish history is that of Saul, 1055 b. c. — ApoUodoriis. The Greek and Roman philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from the rest of the bodJ^ In the earlj^ part of the Roman history, the only in- stance recorded occurs ia the reign of Tarquin I., when the soldiers, tliink- ing themselves disgraced by being ordered to make common sewers, des- troyed themselves, 606 b. c. Instances afterwards occurred, however, of illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 45 b. c. In the Catholic church, in the sixth century, it was ordained that no commemoration should bo made in the Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This- ecclesias- tical law continued till the Reformation, when it was admitted into the statute law of England by the authority of parliament, with the confiscation of land and goods. A FEW OP THE MOST MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OP SUICIDE IN ENGLAND, &C. Of Mr. Simpson, the traveller July 24, 1840 or I(ml James Beresford - April 27, 18-11 Of the earl of Mimster - March 20. 18=12 Of Laman Blanchard - - Feb. 25; 1845 Of col. Gurvvood - - Dec. 29, 1845 Of Haydon, the eminent painter June 22, ]8'15 Suicide of gen. Pichegru - April 7, 1804 Of marshal Berthier - - June 1, 1815 OfSamuel Whitbred, esq. • Sept. 6, 1815 Of sir Samuel Romilly - - Nov. 2, 1818 Of Christophe, king oi" Hayti Oct. 8, 1820 Of marquess of Londonderry Aug. 12,1822 Of hon. colonel Stanhope - Jan. 26, 1825 There have been only three instances of self-destruction by fire ; that of the philosopher Empedocles, who threw himself into the crater of Mount Etna ; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw himself, in 1820, into the crater of Vesuvius ; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch relates that an unaccount- able passion for suicide seized the Milesian virgins, from which thej'- could not be prevented bj' the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a decree being issued that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should be drawn naked through the streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordi- nary frenzy. In England, the body was buried in cross-roads, a stake being previously driven through it, until the statute 4 George IV., 1823. SULTAN. A Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying Jang of kings, and given to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the Turkish princes Angrolipex and Musgad, about a. d. 1055. — Vatticr. It * About the year 1 138 the sugar-cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence to Madeira., and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at vchat date su^ar was introduced into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. Whittaker, in the History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an earlier instance, in 1497. A manuscript ;ettei-, from sir Edward Wotton to lord Cobham, dated Calais, 6th March, 1546, advertises him that sir Edward had taken up for his lordship, 25 sugar loaves at six shillings a loaf, " whiche is eighte penco a pounde." In 1840, the imports of sugar into the United Kingdom were nearly 5,000,000 cwts., "if which nearly four millions were for home consumption; and the duty amounted to about five •nillion:; and a half sterling. SUP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 547 was first given, according to others, to the emperor Mahmoud, in the fourth century of the Hegira. SUMMATRA, Island of. The Malays at Qualla Battoo having committed piracies on American vessels, the town was destroyed by the United States frigate Potomac, and 150 Malays killed, Feb. 6, 1832. SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws to restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c. Those of Zaleucus ordained that no Avoman should go attended by more than one maid in the street, unless she were drunk ; and that she should not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed to act unchastely, 450 B. c. — Diog. Laert. This law checked luxury. The Lex Orchia among the Romans limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the dishes at an entertainment ; and it also enforced that during supper, which was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors of every house should be left open. The English sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Ed- ward III. and Henrj^ VIII. See Dress, Luxury, &c. SUN. Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about 529 B. c. The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the stability of the sun, about 280 b. c. Numerous theories were ventured during fifteen centuries, and astronomy lay neglected until about a. d. 1200, when it was brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system, was made kno'svn in 1530. See Copernican System and Solar System. Ga- lileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. Macute were first discovered byChr. Scheiner, 1611. Transit of Mercury observed by Gassendi. By the observations of Dr. Halley on a spot which darkened the sun's disk in July and August, 1676, he established the certainty of its motion round its own axis. Parallax of the sun. Dr. Halley, 1702. A ma- cula, three times the size of the earth, passed the sun's centre, April 21, 1766, and frequently since. Herschel measured two spots whose length taken together exceeded 50,000 miles, April 19, 1779. SUN-DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c— Pliny, 1, 2. The first erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, when the time was divided into hours, 298 b. c. Sun-dials were first set up in churches, a. d. 613.-^ Abbe Lenglet. SUNDAY, OR LORD'S DAY. Sunday was the day on which, anciently, di- vine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among Christians it is called the Lord's daj^, on account of our Saviour's rising from the dead on that day, which, according to the Jewish account, was the next day after the sabbath. The apostles transferred that religious rest observed by the Jews on the sabbath to this day. The first civil law for its proper observance ■was made by Constantino, a.d. 321. — E-usebius. The council of Orleans prohibited country labor, 338. The Book of Innocent Simday Sports, au- thorizing certain sports and pastimes after divine service on Sundays, pub- lished in England 14 James I. in 1617, was violently opposed by the clergy and puritans. Its sanction by the unfortunate Charles I. was a primary cause of the civil war which ended in his death. This book was burnt by the hangman, and the sports suppressed by order of parliament. — Ra.pin. Sunday schools were established in England first by Mr. Raikes in 1780. Act of parliament closing all the post-offices on Sunday passed May 1850. SUPREMACY OVER the CHURCH. The supremacy of the king over the church as well as sovereignty over the state, whereby the king was made head of the church of England, was established in 1534, when Henry VHI. shook olF the yoke of Rome, and settled the supremacy in himself Our kings have from that time had the title of supreme head of the church con- ferred upon them by parliament. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and §48 THE world's PKOGRESS. [ SWB the ex-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) were, among numerous others, beheaded for denying the king's supremacy, 1535. — Haydn. SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made a separate study from philosophy, &c., about 410 b. c. Hippocrates mentions the ambe, the ancient instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones. Celsus flourished about a. d. 17 ; Galen, 170 ; -S^tius, 500 ; Paulus ^gineta in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 900 ; and in the 16th century sprung up a new era in the science ; between these periods surgery was confined to ignorant priests or barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the illustrious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. In England surgeons and doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving on juries, 1513, at which period there were only thirteen in London. SURGEONS, College of. The first charter for surgeons was granted by Hen- ry VIII., 1540. Formerly bai'bers and surgeons were united, until it was enacted that "no person using any shaving or barbery in London shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, excepting only the drawing of teeth." The surgeons obtained another charter in 1745 ; and a new charter in 1800. SURPLICES. First worn by the Pagan priests. First used in churches, a. d. 316, and generally introduced by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, Can. 58. The garb prescribed by Stat. 2 Edward VI., 1547 ; and again 1 Elizabeth, 1558 ; and 13 and 14 Charles IL, 1662. SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The greatest and oldest in the world is in China, near King-tung ; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. In these realms chain suspen- sion bridges are of recent construction. The bridge over the Menai Strait is the most surprising Avork, every way considered, of modern times. SUTTEES, OR THE BURNING of WIDOWS. This custom began in India from one of the wives of " Bramah, the son of God," sacrificing herself at his death, that she might attend him in heaven. So many as seventeen widows have burned themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 700 have thus perished, until lately, in each year. Mr. Holwell was present at many of these sacrifices. On February 4. 1743, he saw a young and beautiful creature, only seventeen years of age, the mother of two children, thus sacrifice herself, with a fortitude and courage that astonished every witness of the scene. — HolwcU. The English government in India have dis- couraged these s-lf-immolations, while yet avoiding any undue interference with the religion and prejudices of the natives. Suttees were abolished by English colonial law, Dec. 7, 1829 ; but they have since occasionally, though rarely, taken place. SWEARING ON THE GOSPEL. First used a. d. 528. Introduced in judicial proceedings about 600. — Rapin. Frofane Swearing made punishable by fine ; a laborer or servant forfeiting Is., others 2s. for the first offence ; for the second offence, 4s. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 William III., 1695. See Oaths. SWEDEN. The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modem inhabi- tants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory on the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been masters of the country. Gylf reigns in Sweden - - - B.C. 57 1 barbarians, falls upon the North of During this reign, Odin, sumamed the Europe, making vasts conquests . •*•• Divine, at the head of a swarm ol | SWE j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 549 SWEDEN, contbmed. Ynge, founder of the family of the Yn- lingars, reigns - - - B.C. 32 [Tlie early histoiy of the kingdom is altogether involved in fables and ob- scurity.] Olif the Infant is baptized, and intro- duces Christianity among his people, about . - . . A.D. 1000 Gothland, so celebrated for its warlike people and invasions of other coim- tries, is annexed to Sweden - - 1132 Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Ru- gen, and destroys the Pagan temples 1168 Stockholm founded - - - 1260 Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular form of government - - - 1279 Tlie crown of Sweden, which had been hereditary, is made elective ; and Steenchel Magnus, surnamed Smeek, or the Foolish, king of Norway, is elected 1318 Waldemar lays Gothland waste - - 1361 The crown niade elective - - 1320 Albert of Mecklenburg reigns - -1365 Sweden united to the crowiiof Denmark and Norway, under Margaret - 1394 University of Upsal founded - - t476 Christian II., " tlie Nero of the North," massacres all the Svvedisli nobility, to fix his despotism - - - 1520 The Swedes delivered from the Danish yoke by the valor of Guslavus Vasa 1523 He makes the crown hereditary, and introduces the reformed religion - 1544 The titles of count and baron introduced by Eric XIV. . - - . 1561 .The conquests of Gustavus Adolphus, between 1612 and - - - 1617 He is slain at Lutzen - - - 1633 Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark - 1648 Abdicatiori of Christina - - - 1654 Charles X. overruns Poland - - 1657 Arts and sciences begin to flourish - 1660 Charles XII., '' the madman of the North," begins his reign - - 1699 He makes himself absolute abolishes the senate - - . • » > • KINGS OP A 1) 825 Regnard Lobrock. * * ' "Reigns uncertain.] 906 Eric, the Victor. 994 Olaf, or Olif Sckotkong. 1026 Edmund Jacobson. 1035 Edmund, or Amaod III. 1041 Haquin. 1056 Stenkell, or Steenchel. 1060 Ingo I. ; assassinated by his brother. 1064 Halstan. 1080 Philip. 1100 Ingo II. ; died in a monastery. 1130 Ragwald ; murdered by the Visigoths. 1133 Magnus I. ; assassinated in Scania. 1144 Suercher II. 1150 EricX. ; beheaded by rebels. 1162 Charles VII. ; made prisoner by Ca- nute, who reigns. 1168 Canute, son of Eric X. 1192 Suercher III., son of Charles ; killed in battle. 1211 Eric XI. 1220 John 1. Battle of Pultowa, where Charlea is defeated by the czar of Russia. See Pultowa - - - A.D. 1709 He escapes to Bender, where after three years' protection, he is made prison- er by the Turks - - - 1713 He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, and fighting numerous battles, he is at length killed at the siege of Frede- rickshall - - - Dec. 11, 1718 Queen Ulrica Eleanor abolishes despot- K government - - - . 1719 Royal Academy founded by Linne, af- terwards called Linnffius - - 1741 Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home, who are beheaded - - - 1756 Despotism re-established ■ - 1772 Order of the Sword instituted - - 1772 Assassination of Gustavus III. by . cunt Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 16 : he expired the 29th - - - 1792 The regicide was dreadfully scourged with whips of iron thongs three suc- cessive days ; his right hand was cut off, then his head, and his body im- paled - - - May 18, 1792 Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the go- vernment assumed by his uncle, the duke of Stidermania - March 13, 1809 Sweden cedes Finland to the czar of Russia - - - Sept. 17, 1809 Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte Corvo, is chosen the crown prince of Sweden - - Aug. 21, 1810 Gustavus IV. arrived in London, Nov. 12, 1810 Swedish Pomerania seized by Napo- leon Bonaparte - - Jan. 9, 1812 Alliance with England - July 12, 1812 Sweden joins the grand alliance against Napoleon - - March 13, 1813 Norway is ceded to Sweden by the trea- ty of Kiel - - Jan. 14, 1814 Bernadotte ascends the throne of Swe- den as Charles John XIV. - Feb. 5, 1818 Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and Sweden - May 19, 1826 SWEDEN. 1223 Eric XII. 12.50 Waldemar. 1276 Magnus II. 1290 Birger II. 1318 Magnus^IlI. ; dethroned by his subjects 1365 Albert. 1397 Margaret. 1411 EricXIII. ; abdicated. 1441 Christopher. 1448 Charles VIII. 1458 Christian I. 1497 John II. 1520 Christian II. 1528 Gustavus I., Vasa. 1556 Eric XIV. ; died in prison. 1569 John III. 1592 Sigismond I., king ot Poland. 1606 Charles IX. 1611 Gustavus Adolphus II. 1632 Christina ; resigned her crown to 1654 Charles X., Gustavus duke of Deux Fonts. 1660 Charles XI. 550 THE world's progress. I.SWU 1771 GustavusIII., Adolphus. 1792 Gustavus Adolphus IV. 1809 Charles XIII. 1818 Charles .John XIV., Beruadotte, Feb. 5. 1844 Oscar, his son, March 8. SWEDEN, continued. 1699 Charles XII.; killed at the siege of Frederickshall. 1718 Ulrica Eleanora ; resigned when her husband was elected. 1720 Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. 1751 AdoJphus Frederick, duke of Holstein. SWEDENBORGIANS. A sect of mystics, so called from the learned but ec- centric Emanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish nobleman. He considered the New Jerusalem, foretold in the Apocalypse, to be a church now about to be es- tablished, in which will be known the true nature of God and of man, of the Word, of heaven and of hell — concerning all which subjects error and ignorance now prevail, and in which church this knowledge will bear its ])roper fruits — love to the Lord and to one's neighbor, and purity of life. His first work on theology was published in 1743 ; his sect rose about 1760, but it did not spread in England until 1782. His doctrines have a conside- rable number of respectable advocates in the United States. SWITZERLAND. The ancient Helvetians were a Gaulish people, conquered by Julius Caesar, and afterwards subject to the Burgundians and Germans. Many Franks also settled here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habitation in Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman general Marius ; after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 b. c. This canton has given name to the whole confederacy. The Helvetiann converted to Christian- ity by Irish missionaries - a. d. 612 Helvetia ravaged by the Huns - - 909 Becomes subject to Germany - - 1032 Fribourg built by Berthold IV. - - 1179 Tyranny of Geszler, which occasions the memorable revolt under the pa- triot William Tell. - - 1306 Swiss independence - Nov. 7, 1307 A malignant fever carries off, in the can- ton of Basle, 11,000 souls - - 1314 Form of government made perpetual - 1315 Lucerne joins the confederacy - • 1335 The canton of Zurich joins, and be- comes head of the league - - 13o0 Berne, Glaris, and Zug'join - - 1351 The Grisons league (see Caddee) ■ 1400 Second league of the Grisons - - 1424 The third league of the Grisons - 1436 Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay of France, under Louis XI. - -1480 Union of Fribourg and Soleure - 14S1 Maximilian I. emperor, acnowledges Swiss independence - - - 1499 Scharfhausen joins the union - -1501 The Swiss confederacy acknowledged by France and other powers - 1516 The Reformation begins at Basle ; the bishop compelled to retire - - 1519 The Grison leagues join the Swiss con- federacy as allies - - - 1514 Appenzel joins ihe other cantons - 1597 Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by surprise, scales the walls, and penetrates the town ; but in the end is defeated - - - 1602 [This circumstance gives rise to an an- nual festival commemorative of their escape from tyranny.] Independence of Switzerland recognized by the treaty of Westphalia (see Wes/phalia, Peace of } - a. D. 1648 [From this period until the French Re- volution the canton enjoyed tranquil- Jity, disturbed only by the changes arising out of their various constitu- tions.] Alliance with France - May 25, 1777 Domestic sti'ife in Geneva, between the aristocratic and democratic parties; France interferes - - - 1781 1000 fugitive Genevans seek an asylum in Ireland (see Geneva) ■ • 1782 Swiss guards ordered to quit France - 1792 Helvetic confederatioia dissolved; its subjugation by France - - 1798 The number of cantons increased to 19 : the federal government restored; and a landamman appointed by France, May 12, 1802 Uri, Schweitz, and Undervvald separate from the republic - July 13, 1802 Switzerland joins France with 6,000 men - - - Aug. 24, 1811 The Allies entered Switzerland in the spring of 1814. The number of can- tons increased to 22, and the indepen- dence of Switzerland secured by the treaty of Vienna - - - 1815 Federal diet opened - Oct. 16, 1847 — passes resolves against the Sonder- bund, and troops of Uri attack canton Tessino - - Nov. 4, 1847 Forces of the diet attack Friburg, Nov. 10, and take Lucerne - Nov. 24, 1847 Neufchatel declares independence, Feb. 29, 1848 SWORDS. 1879 E. They were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese, c. — UiiU-. Hisl. The sword is one of th< earliest implements syr] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 551 of war. The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broad- sword and scimitar' are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at an English king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus steel swords are the most prized ; and next, the sword of Ferrara steel. The Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter from a celebrated artificer, named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrew Pcrraras. The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 1724. SYCAMORE-TREE. This tree is called by some the Egyptian Fig-tree. The date of its being planted in England is not known, but it was very early. In Mrs. Jamieson's Memoirs of Female Sovereigns, we are told that Mary queen of Scots brought over from France a little sycamore-tree, which she planted in the gardens of Holyrood, and that from this little tree have sprung all the beautifal groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. SYDNEY, New South Wales. Founded by governor Philip, on a cove of Port Jackson, in 1788. as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally intended for Botany Bay ; but now the principal seat of the government of the colony. It was denominated S3^dney in compliment to lord Sydney. The town is now becoming considerable in extent and population ; and it has a legislative council, which was tirst held July 13, 1829. See New South Wales; Convicts, C^c. SYNAGOGUE. Authors are not agreed as to the time when the Jews first had synagogues. Some refer it to the time of the ceremonial law, and others to the times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 syna- gogues. There are in London six synagogues. SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by Christian princes ; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his legates usuallj' ijresiding (see Councils). National, were those of one nation only. The first of this kind held in England was at Hertford, a. d. 673 : the last was held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but by royal authority, 25 Henry VIII. , 1533. SYNOD OF DORT. The famous, or general assembly of Dort in Holland, to which deputies were sent from England and all the reformed churches in Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon the points of justification and grace, 1618. — Aitzema. SYRACUSE. Founded by Archias, 732 b. c.—Eusebius. 749 b. c— Univ. Hist. Taken by Marcellus, when Archimedes, the illustrious mathematician, v/as slain, 212 b. c. (see Sicily). Syracuse was destroyed by an earthquake, with many thousands of its inhabitants, January 1693. Again nearly destroyed, Aug. 6, 1757. SYRIA. Of the early history of ancient Syria, a few particulars are gleaned from Scripture ; and it otherwise aftbrds nothing peculiar, being involved in the histories of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires {which see). The capital of Syria was originally Damascus ; but after the battle of Ipsus, Seleucus (the chief of the Seleucidte) founded the celebrated city of Antioch. Seleucus, surnamed Nicator, i. e. Con- queror, enters Babylon - - B.C. 312 jEra of tlie Seleucidce (2t)AicA see) • 312 Great Battle of Ipsus, defeat and death ofAntieonus • - - - 301 City of Antioch founded ■ - 299 Aniiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in love with his faihe.s' queen, Straton- ice, he pines away nearly to death ; but the secret being discovered, she is divorced by the father and married by tlie son.' - - - e.g. 297 * This is related as one of ihe most stranse events connected with the early history of physia Erasistratus, the illustrious lather of anaioiny (jointly with Ilerophilu.s), had observed, than when- 552 THE world's progress. [SYR SYRIA, continued. Battle of Cyropsedion • -B.C. Seleucus i3 foully assassinated by Ce- raunus. — Lenglet. Antlochus defeats the Gauls, and takes the name of Soier, or Saviour Reign of Antiochus II. , surnamed by the Milesi^s Theos, or God ! Seleucus 11. makes a treaty of alliance with Smyrna and Magnesia' - Reign of Seleucus III., surnamed Ce- raunus, or Thunder - Battle of Raphia, in which Antiochus III. is signally defeated Antiochus' conquest of Judea - War with the Romans begins - Reign of Antiochus IV., who assumes the title of Theos-Epqyhanes, or the Illustrious God! He sends Appolonius into Judea ; Jeru- salem is taken; the temple pillaged; 40,000 inhabitants destroyed ; and 40.000 more sold as slaves Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Seleucus with her own hand Reign of her son Antiochus Grypus, whom she attempts to poison ; but he compels his mother to swallow the deadly draught herself Reign of Cyzicenus at Damascus, and of Grypus at Antioch Defeat of Tigranes by Pompey, who en- ters Syria, and dethrones Aniiochus Asiatichus, about Conquest of Syria - - a.d. 970 [This conquest is made by the Fatimite caliphs who rule in Egypt.] Revolt of the emirs of Damascus - 1067 The emirs of Aleppo revolt - - 106S The Crusades from Europe commence (see article Crusades') - - 1095 [The Christians ultimately conquer that part of Syria called the Holy Land. — See Jerusalem.'] Noureddin conquers Syria - a.d. 1166 Saladin puts an end to the power of the Fatimite dynasty - - - 1171 The Tartars overrun all Syria - - 1259 Recovered by the sultans of Egypt, who expel the Crusaders - - - 1291 Syria overrun by Tamerlane - - 1400 Conquered by the Turks under Selim - 1517 After the conquest by Selim, Syria con- tinued in possession of the Turks till the invasion of Esypt by the French, July 1, 1793 Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with great loss - - - Aug. 6, 1798 He overruns the country, and takes Ga- za and Jaffa .... 1793 Siege of Acre - March 6 to May 27, 1799 Bonaparte returns to France from E- gypt .... Aug. 23, 1799 Egypt is evacuated by the French army Sept. 10, 1801 Mehemet Ali attacks and captures A"ve, and overruns the whole of Syria, I83i-32 Ibrahain Pacha, his son, defeats the ar- my of the grand signior - July 30, 1832 [Numerous battles and conflicts follow with various success.] Ibrahim Pacha defeats the Turkish ar- my, making 10,000 prisoners, June 25, 1839 The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria and places itself at the disposal of Mehemet Ali - - -Julyl4, ia39 The Five Powers propose to the Porte to negotiate with Mehemet Ali, July 16, ia39 Death of the celebrated lady Hester Stanhope - - - June 23, 1840 Treatv of London (not signed by offend- ed France) - - - July 15, laiO Capttu-eofSidon - Sept. 27, 1840 Fall of Beyrout (see Beyrout) Oct. IC 1840 Fall of Acre (see Acre) - Nov. 3, 1840 After much expostulation with the sultan, the four powers, England, Aus- tria, Russia, and Prussia, prevail upon hini to make the pachalic of Egypt hereditary -u the family of Mehemet Ali, who surrenders to the Turkish fleet, and whose troops evacuate Syria. A treaty to that effect signed at London, between the representatives of those powers, July 13, 1841. This result conciliates France, and promises peace in the East, and its continu- ance among the great powers of Europe. ever the queen appeared, the young prince her step-son blushed, a tremor overspread his frame, his pulse quickened, and his voice grew weak. She was of his own age, and of exceeding beauty. On discovering the true cause of his patient's disorder, Erasistratus adopted an expedient which was the foundation of his great fame. He informed the king that his heir must die, as he languished under a hopeless passion. '"Who," asked Seleucus, " is the object of his love 7" '■'■My wife" answered the physician. " Then resign her to him," said the king. "But if," said Erasistratus " it were the^2(eerehe loved, would you, Seleucus, yield up the idol of your affections to another?' " Yes," replied Seleucus, " I would readily relinquish both my queen and kingdom to save my son's life." " Then be at ease," Erasistratus rejoined, " for the object of his" love is Stra lonice !" — Biog. Diet, ' This treaty was engraved on a marble column, now in the court of the Theatre of Oxfora. I was presented to Oxford by the carl of Arunde' in the reign of Charles II. thr] dictionary of dates. 553 T. TAHITI. The French, or abbreviated name for Otaheite. See Otaheite. TALAVERA, Battle of, between the united British and Spanish armies under sir Arthur Wellesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and the French army, amounting- to 47,000, commanded by marshals Victor and Sebastiani, July 27 and 28, 1809. TALMUD. There are two books of the doctrine of the religion and morality of the Jews, — the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. The one composed by the Rabbi Juda Hakkadosh, about the close of the second century; the second, being commentaries, &c., by succeeding rabbis, were collected by Ben Eliezer, about the sixth century. Abridged by Maimon- ides in the twelfth century. TAMERLANE. The conqueror of Persia, India and Egypt, and plunderer of Bagdad, Delhi, and Cairo. He subdued the renowned warrior Bajazet, sul- tan of the Turks, whom he exposed in a large iron cage, the fate the latter had destined for his adversary if he had been the victor. Bajazet dashed his head against the bars of this prison, and killed himself, 1403. — Chalcon- dila's Hist. Turk. TANNING. Was early practised by various nations. The use of tan was in- troduced into these countries from Holland by William III. for raising orange-trees, It was discontinued until about 1719, when ananas were first brought into England. Since then, tan has been in general use in garden- ing. Great improvements were made in tanning in 1795, et seq. TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence its original workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. — CHiicciardini. Manufactured in France under Henry IV., by artists in- vited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by WiUiam Sheldon ; and the first manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir Francis Crane, 17 James I., 1619. — Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early instances of making tapestry are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also in Scripture ; so that the Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Bayeux Tapestry. TARENTUM, War of. The war which the people of Tarentum supported against the Romans, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epii-us, and which is greatly celebrated in history. This war, which had been undertaken b, c. 281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had ofiered to their ships when near their harbors, was terminated after ten years ; 300,000 pri- soners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome. TARTARY. This name is given to several nations of the East. The Tartar race was known and celebrated in antiquity under the name of Scythians. It was during the decline of the Roman empire that these tribes began per- manently to forsake their own plains, in search of more fertile regions ; and the first of these ravagers whose terror and fame reached the frontier of Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern race of Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Jenghis Khan, a. d. 1206. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all Central Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it was split into parts in a few reigns. Tiniur, or Tamerlane, again conquered Persia, again broke the power -of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and founded a dynasty in India, which formed the most splendid court in Asia, till the close of the eighteenth century. TAVERNS. In England, were places of entertainment, under various names, 24 554 THE world's progress. [tea in ancient times. Taverns, as so called, may be traced to the 13th century. "In the raigne of king Edward the Third only th^-ee taverns yvere allowed in London : one in Chepe, one in Walbroke, and the other in Lombard- street." — Sir Henry Spelman. The Boar's Head, in Eastcheap, existed in the reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the residence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of sir John Falstaff' s merriment. — Shakspeare, Henry IV. Of little less antiquity is the White Hart, Bishopsgate, estab- lished in 1480 : this house was rebuilt in 1829. Taverns were restrained by an act of Edward VI., 1552, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 in Westminster, 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Taverns were licensed in 1752. TAXES. The first levied on the people was by Solon, the first Athenian legis- lator, 540 B. c. The first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, about 55Z. English money. The next was by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, which was a land-tax by assessment, and deemed so odious that his subjects styled him, by way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 b. c. — D'Eon's His- toire des Finances. Taxes in specie were first introduced into England by William I., 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily; yet siibsidies in kind, as in wool, corn, leather, and other products of the country, continued till the accession of Richard 11. , 1377. — Camde^i. First taxation of the British colonies in America, 1764 ; produced active resistance, 1765 ; stamp act repealed, 1766 : re-enacted 1767. See Income, Revenue, Cost of Govern- ment, &c. TE DEUM. A kind of hymn or song of thanksgiving used in the church, beginning with the words Te De^im laudanms — We praise thee, God. It is generally supposed to be the composition of Augustin and Ambrose, about A. D. 390; and is sung in the Romish church with extraordinary pomp and solemnity on some happy event, such as a national thanksgiving for a great victory or for a bounteous harvest. TEA. First kno^vn in Europe, being brought from India by the Dutch, 1610. Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and lord Arlington, from Holland ; and being admired by persons of rank, it was imported from thence, and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till our East India Company took up the trade. — Anderson. Green tea began to be used in 1715. The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767. This tax occasioned the de- struction of 17 chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, November 1773, and was one of the causes of the Revolutionary war. TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND OR CHARGED WITH DUTY IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. lbs. 24,133,000 I 1825. - lbs. 27,803,668 25,414,000 I 1830. - - 30,544,404 - 26,368,000 1835. - - 44,360,550 25,662,474 | 1840. - - 38,068,555 In England, the duty derived on tea is now about 4,000,OOOZ. annually. Millions of pounds weight of sloe, liquorice, and ash-tree leaves, are every year mixed with Chinese teas in England. — Report of the House of Coinmons, 1818. The consumption of the whole civilized world, exclusively of Eng- land, is about 22,000,000 of pounds, while the annual consumption in Great Britain is 30,000.000. — Evidence in the Honse of Commons, 1830. The first tea-sale in London on the abolition of the exclusive privilege of the East India Company, Aug. 19, 1834. The value of teas imported into the United States for one year, ending July 1, 1847, was ^4.278.463 ; while that of coffee was $9,102,872. 1726. lbs. 700,000 1805. 1766. - 7,000,000 1810. 1792. - 13,185,000 1815. 1800. - 23,723,000 1820. TEM ] DICTIONAKY OF DATES. 55L TEA-TREE. Thea Bohea. Brouglit to England from China, about 1768. The finest tea-plant known in England was raised in Kew Gardens ; but the first that ever flourished in Europe was one belonging to the duke of Nor- thumberland at Sion. TELEGRAPHS. They were early in use. Polybius calls the different in- struments used by the ancients for communicating information pyrsics, because the signals were always made by fire. The most ingenious of the moderns had not thought of such a machine as a telegraph until 1663, when the plan was suggested by the marquis of Worcester. The first idea of a telegraph on the modern construction was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs about this period. It was not till 1793 that the instrument was applied to useful purposes : M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French. Two erected over the admiralty-office, London, 1796. The Semaphore was erected there 1816. The naval signals, by telegraph, enable 400 previously- concerted sentences to be transmitted from ^hip to ship, ty varying the combinations of two revolving crosses; and also to spell any particular words, letter by letter. See Electric Telegraph. TELESCOPES. This invention is noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571. Roger Bacon, about A. D. 1250, described telescopes and . microscopes ex- actly, and yet neither were made till one Metius, at Alkamaer, and Jansen, of Middleburgh, made them about the same time ; the latter from an ac- cidental discovery made by his children, 1590 — 1609. Galileo imitated their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of which magnified a thousand times. With these he discovered Jupiter's moons and the phases of Venus. Telescopes became very popular, and were improved by Zucclii, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton ; and finally by Martin, Hall, Dolland, and Herschel. Achromatic telescopes were made by More Hall, about 1723. A telescope was made in London for the observa- tory of Madrid, which cost 11.000^. in 1802; but the Herschel telescope, made 1789 — 1795, is superior : it has the great speculum 48 inches in dia- meter, BJ inches thick, weighs 2118 lbs., and magnifies 6400 times. See Herschel Telescope. TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. It is to the credit of the American people that the first great public movement in behalf of temperance was made in this country. Temperance societies began to be formed in 1825-6. One of the most prominent of the first promoters of the reform was the Rev. Dr. Hewitt of Connecticut, who was worthily styled the Apostle of Temperance. The exertions of this and other energetic advocates of temperance and total abstinence have effected a wonderful change for the better in the general habits of the people. Several thousand temperance societies, under various names, have been formed, and a large number of vessels now sail from various ports of the United States, the crews of which are unsupplied with spirituous liquors of any kind. The movement has spread to some extent in Europe, but by far the most successful of its promoters has been the Rev. Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman in Ireland, who has administered the "total abstinence" pledge to about two millions of his countrymen. He commenced his ministry in this cause in 1880. In Ger- many there were 300 temperance societies in 1846. TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in A. D. 1118 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. The templars were numerous in several countries, and came to England in 1185. The order was sup- pressed by the council of Vienna, and its revenues were bestowed upon other orders, in 1312. Numbers of the order were burnt alive and hanged, and it suft' red great persecutions throughout Eiirope, particularly in France 656 THE world's progress. [tew in the reign of Philip of Valois, 1342. They were several times suppressed in England, and finally in 1340. TEMPLE, London. Thus called, because it was anciently the dwelling house of the Knights Templars. At the suppression of that order, it was purchased by the professors of the common law, and converted into inns. They are called the Inner and Middle Temple. TEMPLES. They originated in the sepulchres built for the dead. — Busebius. The Egyptians were the first who erected temples to the gods. — Herodotus. The first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. — ApoUonius. For tem- ple of Belus, see Babel. The temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon, 1012 B. c. Fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Rebuilt, 536 b. c. Pillaged by Antiochus, 170 b. c. Rebuilt by Herod, 18 b. c. Destroyed by Titus, a -... 70. — The temple of Apollo, at Delphos, first a cottage with boughs, built of stone by Trophorius, about 1200 b. c. Burnt by the Pisistratidfe, 548 b.c. A new temple raised by the family of the Alcm;Bonid«, about 518 b. c. — Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; plamned by Ctesiphon, 544 B. c. Fired by Erostratus, to perpetuate his name, 856 b. c. To rebuild it, employed 220 years. Destroyed by the Goths, a. d. 260. — The Temple of Piety was built by Aciiius, on the spot where once a woman had fed w,)ch her milk her aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded from all aliments. — Val. Max. Temple of Theseus, built 480 years b. c, is at this day the most perfect ancient edifice in the world. — ^The heathen temples were destroyed throughout the Roman empire by Constantino the Great, a. d. 331. See Heathen Temples. TENNESSEE. One of the United States ; was originally included in the char- ter of North Carolina by Charles II. in 1664 ; first settlement on Wetangp river, 1757 ; attacked, and 200 men, women, and children massacred by the Indians in 1760 ; the Indians chastised next j^ear, but continued frequent contests with the colonists for several years. The territory ceded by North Carolina to the United States in 1790 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 1796. Population in 1790, 35,691; in 1810, 261,727; in 1830, 681.904; in 1840, 829,210, including 183,059 slaves. TEST ACT. The statute of Charles II., directing all officers, civil and mili- tary, under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of the Church of England, and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, &c., was enacted March 1673 ; repealed, 1828. TEUTONI, OR TEUTONES. A people of Germany, who with the Cimbri made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. They were at last defeated by the consul Marius, and an infinite number made prisoners, 101 b. c. See Cimbri. TEUTONIC ORDER. The order of military knights established in the Holy Land towards the close of the twelfth century. The institution arose in the humanity of the Teutones to the sick and wounded of the Christian army under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan when before Acre. The order was confirmed by a bull of pope Cselestine lU., a.d. 1191. See Prussia, &c. TEWKSBURY, Battle of, in which Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lancastrians. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., and her son, were taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, where king Henry expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being, as is generally supposed, murdered by the duke of Gloucester, aftei-- wards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475, hj the French king, Lewis XL, for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses of York and Lancaster, Mav 4, 1471. See Roses. the] dictionary of dates. 557 TEXAS. One of the United States ; first settled by the Spaniards at San Fran- cisco in 1690 ; made one of the federal States of Mexico, in conjunction with the adjacent State of Coahuila, on the formation of the Mexican re- public — an unpopular Union to the Texans, and productive of the first dis- agreement with the central government ; colonization of Texas by emigrants from the United States, commenced 1821 ; war with Mexico for indepen- dence commenced 1833, and ended by the defeat and capture of the Mexican president, Santa Anna, at San Jacinto, 21st April, 1836, which secured the independence of Texas ; admitted into the Union as a State (the 28th), after active opposition with reference to the exclusion of slavery, Feb. 20, 1845. Population at that time about 200,000. [The first treaty for its an- nexation was I'cjected by the United States Senate, 35 to 16, June 8, 1844.] THAMES TUNNEL. Projected by Mr. Brunei, to form a communication between the two sides of the river, at Rotherhithe and Wapping, the most extraordinary construction of ancient or modern times. The shaft was begun in 1825. At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft the first irruption took place, May 18, 1827. The second irruption, by which six workmen perished, Jan. 12, 1828. The length of the tunnel is 1300 feet ; its width is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway, including footpath, about 14 feet ; thickness of earth beneath the crown of the tunnel and the bed of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened throughout for foot ]3assengers, March 25, 1843. THANE. A title much in use anciently, and which sometimes signified a nobleman, sometimes a freeman, and sometimes a magistrate ; but most properly, an officer under the king. The Saxons had a nobility called thanes, and the Scots also. The title was abolished in England at the Con- quest, upon the introduction of the feudal system. Abolished in Scotland by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 b. c, was the first erected. Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 b. c. Theatres were afterwards numerous, and were ei-ected in most cities of Italy. There was a theatre at Pompeii where most of the inhabitants of the town were assembled on the night of August 24, a. d. 79, when an eruption of Vesu- vius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by Balthazar Sienna, a. d. 1533. The first royal license for a theatre in England was in 1574, to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside. See Globe. But long before that time, miracle plays were represented in the fields. The prices of ad- mission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were, gallery, 2d. ; lords' room, Is. — Dickens. The first play-bill was dated Aj^ril 8, 1663, and issued frcca Drury-lane; it runs thus: " By his Majestie, his company of Comedians at the New Theatre in Drury Lane, will be acted a comedy called the Humov- rovs Lievtenant." After detailing the characters, it concludes thus : "The play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened in 1695. The first attempt at theatrical performances in the United States was the acting of Otway's Orphan, in Boston, in 1750 ; but all such exhibi- tions were immediatelj^ afterwards prohibited there. A strolling company acted in a sail-loft in New York in 1758. The first regular theatre was in New York in 1793 ; the second in Boston ; and the third in Philadelphia soon after. Dunlap's History of the American Theatre was j)ublished in New York, 1832. See Drama, Plays, &c. THEBES. The ancient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, called also Heca- tompylos, on accoimt of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. In the time of its splendor, it extended above twenty-three miles, and upon any emergency could send into the field, by each of its hundred 558 THE wokld's progress. [thr gates, 20,000 flgliting men and 200 chariots. Thebes was ruined by Cam, byses. king of Persia, and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvenal. — Plutarch. Also Thebes, the capital of the country successively called Aonia, Messapia. Ogygia, Hyantis, and Bceotia. See Baotia. Thebes was called Cadmeis, from Cadmus, the founder of the city. It rose to a cele- brated republic, styled the Theban, about 820 b. c. It was dismantled by the Romans, 145 b. c. — Livy ; Thiocydides. THEFT. This offence was punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By death at Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominal- ly punished theft with death, if above 12d. value ; but the criminal could redeem his life by a ransom. In the 9th of Henry I. this power of redemp- tion was taken away, 1108. The laws against theft, until lately, were very severe in England ; they were revised by Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) Peel's acts, 9 and 10 George IV. IHEISTS. The sect so called came in with the Restoration, about 1660. and they taught a union with all men who believed in one God, but who reject- ed public worship and exterior forms of religion. They maintained that their religion was better because older and more simple than that which waa given by God to the Hebrews. THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. The first in the United States was that at Ando- ver, founded 1808. THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several scientific person all about the same time. Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, A. D. 1609. — Boerhaave. Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. — Fulgenho. Invent- ed by Sanctorio in 1610. — Borelli. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented about 1726 ; and the scale called Reaumur's soon after, 1730. The mode of construction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years subsequently. THERMOPYL^, Battle op. Leonidas at the head of 300 Spartans, at the defile of Thermopylae, withstands the whole force of the Persians during three days, when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a se- cret path up the mountains, brings them to the rear of the Greeks, who, thus placed between two assailants, devote themselves to the good of their country, and perish gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. Of 300 heroes who engaged in this conflict with hundreds of thousands of the Per- sians, one man only returned home, and he was received with reproaches and insults for having fled from a battle in which his brave companions, with their royal leader, had fallen. Twenty thousand Persians perished by the hands of the Spartans, Aug. 7, 480 b. c. — Vossius de Grcec. Hist. THESSALY. This country is much celebrated in classical history, as being the seat of many of the adventures described by the poets. The first king of whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from whom his subjects were called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to all Greece. From Thessaly the most powerful tribes of Greece derived their origin, as the Acha;ans, the ^tolians, the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The two most remarkable events in the early history of this country, are the deluge of Deucalion, 1508 b. c, and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263. See them severally. THRACE. So called from Thrax, the son of Mars. Conquered by Philip and Alexander, and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 385 b. c. ; and it so remained till the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, .168 b. c. By- zantium was the capital of Thrace, on the ruins of which C'-iistantinople was built. The Turks took the country under Mahomet II., a.d. 1453. — Priestley. TIM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 559 THRASHING-MACHINES. The flail was the only instrument formerly in use. The Romans used a machine called the triiulum, a sledge loaded with stones or iron, drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first machine attempted in modern times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 1732 ; Miekles, in 1776. THRASYMENUS, Battle of. A most bloody e"ngagement between the Car- thaginians under Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 b. c. No less than 15,000 Romans were left dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners ; or, according to Livy, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of Hannibal was about 1500 men. And about 10,000 Romans made their es- cape, all covered with wounds. — Livy ; Polybius. THUMB-SCREW. An inhuman instrument which was commonly used in the first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England also. The Rev. Wm. Carstairs was the last who suflered by it before the privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly resisted. After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was given him as a present by the council. King William expressed a desire to see it, and tried it on, bidding the doctor to turn the screw ; but at the third turn he cried out, " Hold ! hold! doctor ; another turn would make me confess any thing." rHTJRSDAY. The fifth day of the week, derived from Thor, a deified hero worshipped by the ancient inhabitants of the northern nations, particularly by the Scandinavianis and Celts. The authority of this deity extended over the winds and seasons, and especially over thunder and lightning. He is said to have been the most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day, which was consecrated to Thor, still retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, and Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English. Thursday, or Thors-day, has been rendered into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day. TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posi- donius of Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, about 79 B. c. ; and Ciesar speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic War. The theory of the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, A. D. 1598 ; but the honor of a complete explanation of them was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of phenomena to prove universal gravitation, about 1683. TILSIT, Peace of. The memorable treaty concluded between France and Rus- sia, when Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his terri- tories, and Russia recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and the ele- vation of Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, and ratified July 19 following. TILTS AND TOURNAMENTS. Were greatly in vogue in England in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding many edicts against them, and anathemas from Rome, they were not abolished till the reign of Henry IV., about A. D. 1400. — Rapin. They first took their rise in Italy upon the suppression of the gladiators in the fifth century. They were suppressed in France in 1560. — Voltaire's Gen. Hist. TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for the British navy, in war, is 60,000 loads, or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which thirty-five will stand on an acre ; in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship consumes 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of trees, the produce of fifty-seven acres in a century. Hence the whole navy consumes 102,600 acres, and 1026 per annum. — Allnut. England imports about 800,000 loads of timber annually, exclusively of masts, yards, staves, lathwood, &.C., together with about 8,000,- 000 of deals and deal-ends. — Pari. Ret. 560 THE world's phogress. [tob TIME-MEASURE. That of Scipio Nasica was invented 159 b. c. Early au- thors inform us that Alfred's time-keeper was six large wax tapers, each twelve inches long ; but as they burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he in- vented a lantern made of wood, and thin plates of ox-horns, glass being a great rarity, a. d. 887. The ancients had three time-measures : hour-glasses, sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom. See Clocks, Watches, &c. TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this article for more than 1100 years before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave them commercial importance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tin- mines appear to have been neglected ; but after the coming in of the Nor- mans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of Cornwall, paz'- ticularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. ; a charter and various immuni- ties were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framed the stannary laws, laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall. Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, with which he invested his son, Edward the Black Prince, 1535. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the ciown of England, if eldest sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin-mines were discovered in Germany, which lessened the value of those in England, till then the only tin-mines in Europe, a. d. 1240. — Anderson. Discovered in Barbary 1640 ; in India, 1740 ; in New Spain, 1782. England exports at present, on an average, 1500 tons of unwrought tin, besides manufactured tin and tin-plates, of the value of 400,000;. TITHES AND TENTHS. Were first given by Moses to the tribe of Levi, 1490 B. 0. — Joseplm.s. For the first 800 years of the Christian church they were given purel}^ as alms, and were voluntary. — Wickllffe. "I will not put the title of the clergy to tithes upon any divine right, though such a right certainly commenced, and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish the- ocracy." — Blackstone. The first mention of them in any English written law, is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly enjoining tithes, a. d. 786. Ofla, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of all his kingdom', to expiate for the death of Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, whom he had caused to be basely murdered, a. d. 794. — Burn's Eccles. Law. Tithes were first granted to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold, A. D. 844. — Henry's Hist, of Eng. They were established in France by Charlemagne, about 800. — Henault. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran councils, 1215. — Rainaldi. TITLES, ROYAL. The following is the succession in which the royal titles swelled in England. Henry IV. had the title of " Grace" and " My liege" conferred upon him, 1399. The title of "Excellent Grace" was conferred upon Henry VI., 1422. Edward IV. had that of " Most High and Mighty Prince," 1461. Henry VII. had the title " Highness," 1485 ; and Henry VIIL had the same title, and sometimes " Grace," 1509, et seq. But these two last were absorbed in the title of " Majesty," being that with which Francis I. of France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520. — See Field of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled " Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to " Majesty" the present " Sacred/' or " Most Excellent Majesty." " Majesty" was the style of the emperors of Germany ; the first king to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France, about 1463. TOBACCO, Nicotiana Tabacum. This plant received its name from Tabacco, a province of Yucatan, New Spain. Some say from the island of Tobago, one of the Caribees ; others, from Tabasco, in the gulf of Florida. It was first observed at St. Domingo, a. d. 1496 ; and was used freely by the Span- TOP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 661 iards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first carried to England, 7 Elizabeth, 1565, by sir John Hawkins ; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake are also mentioned as having first introduced it there. It was manufactured only for exportation for some years. — Stowe's Chron. In 1584 a proclama- tion was issued against it. King James I. issued his famous Counter-Blast against Tobacco in 16 . The star-chamber ordered the duties to be 65. lO^^. per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited in England by Charles 11. An act laying a duty on the importation was passed, 1684. The cultivation was allowed in Ireland 1779. The tax was increased, and put under the excise, 1789. — Anderson; Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in Ire- land passed 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be purchased in order to its being destroyed, 1832. The quantity consumed in England m 1791 was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen millions of pounds. — Chan, of the Ex. In 1840, the quantity had reached to forty millions of pounds. — Pari. Ret. In the United States, tobacco is grown chiefly in Maryland and Virginia ; but to some extent in all t'ae southern states. The value of the croj) exported in 1848 was S7,551,122. Tobacco is produced also in France, in India, &c. ; that of the United States is considered the best in flavor, but that of Cuba is preferred for smoking. Several works have been published on the evil effects and bad taste of this weed. TOBAGO. Settled by the Dutch, a. d. i 642. Taken by the English, 1672 ; re- taken, 1674. In 1748 it was declared a neutral island ; but in 1768 it was ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasso in 1781, and confirmed to them in 1788. Again taken by the English, April 14, 1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was once more taken by the British under general Grinfield, July 1, 1803, and was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris in 1814. TOLERATION ACT. To WiUiam III. is due the honor and wisdom of the first toleration act known in the history of this country, passed in 1689. The •dissenters have ever since enjoyed the benefits of this act without interi'up- tion, though their liberties were greatly endangered in the latter end of queen Anne's reign. TOLLS. They were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, a. d. 1109. They were first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341. Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for every wagon that passed through a certain manor. Toll-gates or turnpikes were used in 1663. TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE. An ancient duty levied on wine and other goods, commenced in England about 21 Edward III., 1846. The first granted to the kings of England for life, 5 Edward IV., 1465. Cunmgham's Hist. T^axes. TONTINES. Loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, so called from the inventor Laurence Ton ti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's government, by amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, a. d. 1653. — Vol- taire. The late celebrated Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a lOOZ. share in a tontine company ; and being the last survivor of the share- holders, his share produced him 8000Z. per annum. He died worth 2,115,- 244Z., aged 103 years, June 19, H'i8.— Haydn. TOPLITZ, Battle of. A battle was fought at Toplitz between the Austrians and Prussians, in which the latter were defeated, 1762. Battle of Toplitz, August 30, 1813. Here the allied sovereigns had their head-quarters a considerable time in this latter year. Treaty of Toplitz, being a triple 24* 562 THE world's progress. [too alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept. 9, 1813. Ti'eaty of Toplitz, between Austria and Great Britain, Oct. 3, same year, TORTURE. It has disgraced humanity in the earliest ages in every country. It was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It was used early in the Catholic church against heretics. Occasionally used in England so late as the 1st Elizabeth, 1558 ; and in Scotland until 1690. The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, by order of Louis XVI., in 1780, although it had not been practised there some time before. Ordered to be discontinued in Sweden by GustaTtis III., 1786. It yet continues in other countries. TORY. Various authors have differently described this term. It is said to be derived from an Irish word, originally signifying a savage, or rather a col • lector of tithes and taxes. — Encyclop. The names of Cavaliers and Round- heads, which existed in the time of Charles I. were changed, some tell us, into those of Tories and Whigs. The Tories were those who vindicated the divine right of kings, and held high notions of their prerogatives ; while " the Whigs " denoted a friend to civil and religious liberty. — Ashe. The name of Tory was given by the country party to the court party, com- paring them to Popish robbers ; and arose out of the Meal-tub plot (which see), in 1679. The terms are defined by extreme politicians, as of two par- ties in the aristocracy : the Whigs, Avho would curb the power of the crown ; and the Tories, who would curb the power of the people. — Phillips. In our revolutionary war the term was applied to the royalists ; but, oddly enough, at the time of president Jackson, it was given to the ultra democratic party, while the other great party called themselves WJiigs. See Whigs. TOULON, France. In 1706 this town was bombarded by the allies, both by land and sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to a heap of ruins, and several ships burned ; but they were at last obliged to raise the siege. It surrendered, August 23, 1793, to the British admiral, lord Hood, who took possession both of the to^vn and shipping in the name of Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitu- tion of 1789. A conflict took place between the English and French forces, when the latter were i-epulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. Toulon was evacuated by the British, Dec. 19, same year, when great cruelties were exercised towards inhabitants as were supposed to be favorable to the British. TOULOUSE, France. Founded about 615 b. c. A dreadful tribunal was es- tablished here to extirpate heretics, a. d. 1229. The troubadours, or rheto- I'icians of Toulouse, had their origin about a. d. 850, and consisted of a frater- nity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to the Italian and French poetry. See Troubadours. 'OULOUSE, Battle op. The final battle between the British Peninsular army under lord Wellington and the French — one of the most bloody that had been fought from the time lord Wellington had received the command of the troops in Portugal. The French were commanded by marshal Soult, whom the victorious British hero forced to retreat, after twelve hours fight- ing, from seven o'clock in the morning until seven at night, the British forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. The loss of the allies in killed and wounded was between four and five thousand men ; that of the French exceeded 10,000. At the period of this battle Bonaparte had abdicated the throne of France ; but neither of the commanders was aware of that feet, or the close of the war at Paris. Fought April 10, 1814. TOURNAMENTS or JOUSTS. Some authors refer them to Trojan origin, such as Ascanius instituted among the Romans. The tournament is a mar- tial sport or exercise which the ancient cavaliers used to perform, to show TOW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 563 tlieir bravery and address. It is derived from the French word tourner, " to turn round," because, to be expert in these exercises, much agility, both of horse and man, was necessary. They wei-e much practised a. d. 890; and were regulated and countenanced by Henry I., emperor, about 919. The Lateran council published an article against their continuance in 1136. One was held in Smithfield so late as the 12th century, when the taste for them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in a tilt with the count de Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused the king's death in a few days, June 29, 1559. Tournaments were from this event abolished in France, and with them " the age of chivalry is fled." A magnificent and costly feast and splendid tournament took place at Eglinton castle, August 29, 1839, and the following week : many of the visitors assumed the characters of ancient knights, lady Seymour being the " Queen of Beauty," as fairest of the female throng. But this fes- tivity is not likely to lead to a revival of the old tournament. TOUENAY. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison in it, as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French under ge- neral Labourdonnaj-e, Nov. 11, 1792. Battle near Tournay, by the Austrians and British on one side, and the French on the other, the former victorious, May- 8, 1793. Another battle was fought between the British and French, when the latter were repulsed, at Rousalaer, losing 200 men and three field- pieces. May 6, 1794. TOURS, Battle of. One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that which most established his fame, gained over the Saracens near Tours, and from which he acquired the name of Martel, signifying hammer. We are told that but for this timely victory of Charles Martel, all Europe, as well as Asia and Africa, must have become Mahomedan; October 10, A. D. 732. TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of Shinar {Genesis xi.), 2247 b. c. See Babel. The Tower of the Winds at Athens, built 550 b. c. The Tower of Pharos (see Pharos), 280 b. c. Tow- ers were built early in England ; and the round towers in Ireland may be reckoned among the most ancient curiosities. They were the only struc- tures of stone found in Ireland before the first arrival of the English, except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. These towers were tall, hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, high above the ground, and covered with conical roofs of the same materials. Of these productions of old Irish masonry, fifty-six still remain, from 50 to 130 feet high. TOWER OP LONDON. Anciently a royal palace, and consisted of no more than what is now called the White Tower, which appears to have been first marked out by William the Conqueror, a. d. 1076, commenced in 1078, and completed by his son William Rufus, who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls, and a broad, deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it, and king Edward III. built the church. In 1638 the White Tower was re- built ; and since the restoration of king Charles E. it has been thoroughly repaired, and a great number of additional buildings made to it. Here are the Armory, Jewel-office, and various other divisions and buildings of peculiar interest ; and here were many executions of illustrious persons, and many murders See England. TOWTON, Battle of. This great battle is supposed to be the most fierce and bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. It was fought between the houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter 664 THE world's progress. [ TRA of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 of his subjects fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner and confined in the Tower ; his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders : fought March 29, 1461. TRAFALGAR, Battle of, the greatest naval victory ever obtained by Eng- land, fought by the British, under command of the immortal Nelson, against the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve and two Spanish admirals. The enemy's force was eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line ;. that of the British twenty-seven ships. After a bloody and protracted fight, admiral Villenexive and the other ad- mirals Avere taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. But the hero of England lost his life in this memorable battle ; and admiral Collingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and his last signal on going into the engagement, was " England expects every man to do his duty." Oct. 21, 1805. TRAGEDY. That of Alcestis was the first represented by Thespis, the first tragic poet at Athens, 536 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. Prizes instituted, and the first gained bj^ .lEschylus, 486 b. c. — Ibid. Another prize carried by Sopho- cles, 470 B. c. — Ibid. Another by Euripides, 442 b. c. — Ibid. Another by Astydamus, 377 b. c. — Ibid. See Drama ; Plays; Theatres. TRAJAN'S PILLAR. Erected a. d. 114, by the directions of the emperor Trajan, and executed by ApoUodorus. This column, which still exists at Rome, was built in the large square called the Forum Romanum ; it is 140 feet high, of the Tuscan order, and commemorates the victories of the emperor. TRANSFUSION of the BLOOD. It began to be practised in the fifteenth century, and was successful in France, where Louis XL, when dj'ing, went farther still, and drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of pro- longing life, A. D. 1483. — HenauU. After trials of the efficacy of transfusion upon animals, M. Denis revived the practice in Paris, where, out of five persons upon whom he operated, two died, and the magistracy prohibited the expei'iment upon human bodies afterwards, 1668. Lower, an English physician, who died in 1691, practised in this way. — Friend's Hist, of Phys. Transfusion again attempted in France, in 1797 ; and recently in Gi'eat Bri- tain, but seldom with success. See article Blood. TRANSPORTATION of FELONS in ENGLAND. The first criminals were ordered for transportation instead of execution, a. d. 1590 ; but banishment for lighter offences than those adjudged death was much earlier. England is reproached abroad for transporting persons whose offences are compara- tively venial. John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to trans- portation for stealing a few quires of paper, Nov. 1, 1771. — Phillips. More recently, the reverend Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chesterfield, was transported for forging a frank, (10^. postage) Sept. 9, 1818. The first transportation of felons to Botany Bay was in May 1787 ; thej'- arrived at the settlement in January 1788. Returning from transportation was punished with death until 1834, when an act passed making the offence punishable by transportation for life. TR ANSUBSTANTIATION. This doctrine was first introduced by a friar, about A. D. 840. It became a confirmed article of Christian faith about 1000. It was opposed in England about 1019 ; but the English church admitted the doctrine before 1066. Belief in it as necessary to salvation was finally es- tablished by the coiincil of Placentia, 1095. The word " transubstantiation" was first used by Peter of Blois about 1165. John Huss, in subseq\ient times, was the first opposer of this doctrine ; he was burnt by order of the council of Constance, a. d. 1415. — Caves Hist. Lit. TRE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 565 TRAPPISTS, OR MONKS of LA TRAPPE. A French order ia the depart- ment of Orne, famed in the days of superstition for their austerity of dis- ciphne, and for keeping a perpetual silence. This order was charged with rebellion and conspiracy in France, and 64 English and Irish Trappists were shipped by the French government at Painbceuf, Nov. 19, and were landed from the Hebe French frigate at Cork, Nov. 30, 1831. They have established themselves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford ; but do not maintain there the extreme rigor of their order. TRAVELLING ABROAD. See article Absentees. In order to discourage English subjects from travelling to foreign countries and spending money there, a tax was levied (but of very inadequate amount) by way of license for going abroad, and paid to the crown, 10 Charles I., 1685. — Rapin. TREAD-MILL. An invention of the Chinese, and used in China to raise water for the irrigation of the fields. The tread-mill lately introduced into the prisons of Great Britain is of a more complicated construction. It is the invention of Mr. Cubitt of Ipswich. The first was erected at Brixton jail, 1817. This punishment has not been introduced in the United States. TREASON. See High Treason. It was punished in England only by banish- ment till after Henry I. — Baker^s Chronicle. Ascertained by law, Edward III., 1349. Trials regulated, and two witnesses required to convict, 1695. The laws relating to treason are numerous, and formerly the punishment was dreadful — hanging, quartering, beheading, &c., and even burning alive. Mr. Martin brought in a bill for the abolitioii of burning alive for treason, which passed both houses in 1788. Petty treason may happen three ways : a wife's murder of her husband ; a servant's murder of his master ; and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior — so declared by statute 25 Edward III., 1350. TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made by England with any foreign nation was entered into a. d. 1217. The first commercial treaty Avas with the Flemings, 1 Edward, 1272 ; the second with Portugal and Spain, 1308. — Anderson. The chief treaties of the principal civilized nations of Europe will be found described in their respective places : the following forms an index to them. See Conventions ; Coalitions; Leagues, &c. Abo, peace of - - 1743 Aix-la-Chapelle - - 1668 Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of - 1748 Akermann, peace of - - 1826 Alt Radstadt - 1706 America, peace with - - 1783 Amiens, peace of - 1802 Armed Neutrality - - - 1800 Arras, treaty of - 1435 Arras, ditto - - - 1482 Augsburgh, league of • - 1686 Baden, peace of - - 1714 Barrier treaty • - 1715 Basle, peace of - - 1795 Bassein, India - - 1802 Bayonne, treaty of - - -1808 Belgium, treaty of London - 1839 Belgrade, peace of - - - 1739 Berlin, peace of - 1742 Berlin decree - - 1806 Berlin convention - 1808 Breda, peace of - - 1667 Bretigny, peace of - 1360 Bucharest, treaty of - - 1812 Cambray, league of - - 1508 Cambray, peace of - - 1529 Campo-Formio, treaty of - 1797 Carlowitz, peace of - -1699 Carlsbad, congress of - Cateau-Cambresis, peace of Chaumont, treaty of Chunar, India Cintra, convention of - Closterseven, convention of Coalition, first, against France Coalition, second, ditto Coalition, third, ditto - Coalition, fourth, ditto Coalition, fifth, ditto Coalition, sixth, ditto Concordat Conflans, treaty of Constantinople, peace of Constantinople, treaty of • Copenhagen, peace of Cressy Dresden Family compact Fontainebleau, peace of Fontainebleau, treaty of Fontainebleau, concordat at Friedwald, treaty of Fuessen, peace of Ghent, pacification of Ghent, peace o<" America) 1819 1559 1814 1781 1803 1757 1792 1799 1805 1806 1809 1813 1801 1465 1712 1833 1660 1544 1745 1761 1679 1785 1813 1551 1745 1576 1814 1356 566 THE world's progress. [raa TREATIES, contimved. Grand Alliance -1689 Greece, treaty of London - - - 1829 Hague, treaty of the - 1659 Hague, treaty of the - - 1669 Halle, treaty of - 1610 Hamburgh, peace of - ■ 1762 Hanover treaty - ■ 1725 Holland, peace with - - 1784 Holy Alliance - -1815 Hubertsberg, peace of - - 1763 Interim - - 1548 Kiel, treaty of - - 1814 Laybach, congress of - - 1721 League . - 1576 Leipsic, alliance of - 1631 Leoben, peace of - - 1797 Lisbon, peace of -1668 I/Ondon, treaty of (Greece) - - 1829 London, convention of (Turkey -1840 Lubeck, peace of - - - 1629 Limeville, peace of -1801 Madrid, treaty of - - 1526 Methuen treaty - -1703 Milan decree . - 1807 Munster, peace of -1648 Nantes, edict of - - 1598 Naumberg, treaty of - 1554 Nice, treaty of - - 1518 Nimeguen, peace of - 1678 Noyon, treaty of - ■ 1516 Nuremberg, treaty of - - 1532 Olivia, peace of - - 1660 Paris, peace of (see Paris) -1763 Paris, treaty of - - 1796 Paris, peace of (Sweden) -1810 Paris, capitulation of - - 1814 Paris, treaty of - - 1814 Paris, peace of - - 1815 Paris, treaty of - - 1817 Partition, first treaty - - 1698 Partition, second treaty - - 1700 Passarowitz, peace of - - 1718 Passau, treaty of -1552 Petersburgh, peace of - - 1762 Petersburgh, treaty of - -1772 Petersburgh, treaty of - .- 1805 Petersburgh, treaty of - - 1810 Peterswalden, convention of - - 1813 Pilnitz, convention --f - -1791 Poland, partition of - - - 1795 Pragmatic Sanction -1439 Pragmatic Sanction - - 1713 Prague, peace of ■ 1653 Presburg, peace of - - ■ 1805 Public good, league for the - 1464 TREATIES OF the UNITED STATES, Pyrenees, treaty of the Quadruple Alliance Radstadt, peace of - Radstadt, congress of - Ratisbon, peace of - Ratisbon, treaty of • - Religion, peace of - Rhine, Confederation of the Ryswick, peace of - St. Germam's, peace of St. Germain-en-Laye St. Ildefonso, alliance of Spain France - - . . Seville, peace of Siorod, peace of - Smalcald, league of - Spain, pacification of (London) Stettin, peace of - Stockholm - Stockholm, peace of Stockholm, treaty of - Stockholm, treaty of Teineswar, truce of Teschen, peace of - Teusin, peace of Tilsit, peace of Tolentino, treaty of Toplitz, treaty of - Triple Alliance - Triple Alliance of the Hague Troppau, congress of - Troyes, treaty of Turkmauchay, peace of Ulm, peace of Utretht, union of Utrecht, peace of - Valencay, treaty of Verona, congress of Versailles, peace of Vienna, treaty of Vienna, treaty of alliance Vienna, definitive peace Vienna, peace of 1762 I Vienna, treaty of, March 23 Vienna, treaty of, May 31 Vienna, treaty of, June 4 - Vossem, peace of Warsaw, treaty of - Warsaw, alliance of Westmin.ster, peace of Westminster (with Holland) Westphalia, peace of Wilna, treaty of - Worms, edict of Wurtzburg, treaty of - Some of the most important with ■ 1659 •1718 • 1714 •1797 •1630 ■ 1806 1.555 1806 1697 1570 1679 1795 1792 1613 1529 -1834 - 1570 -1630 ■ 1719 ■ 1724 ■ 1813 • 1664 ■1779 • 1.595 ■ 1807 •1793 •1813 •1717 1668 • 1820 ■ 1420 •1838 • 1620 •1579 •1713 •1813 1822 • 1783 • 1725 .1731 .1737 .1809 1815 1815 • 1815 • 1673 •1768 ■ 1683 1674 1716 1648 1561 1521 1610 Alliance with France - Feb. 6, 1779 Treaty of Paris (independence secured) Sept. 3, 1783 Treat)' of commerce with Prussia - 1785 Treaty with Morocco - - - 1787 Treaty of commerce with Great Britain (Jay's) 1794 Treaty with the Six Nations and other Indian tribes - - - - 1794 Treaty with Spain, by Pinckney ; and Algiers, by Humphries - - - 1795 Treaty with Tunis; with Prussia (by J. a. Adams) - - - - 1799 Treaty with France, by Ellsworth, Pa- trick; Henry, &c. Sept. 30, 1800 Treaty with Great Britain, by Monroe and Pinckney — rejected by the Ame- rican government Treaty of Ghent, with Great Britain, signed by J. Q,. Adams, Gallatin, and H. Clay, for the l j.ited States, clos- ing the " war of 1812," tut leavmg the orierinal dispute much as before - Ratified by the United States, Feb. 17, Treaty with the Choctaws and Chero- kees . - . . . Treaty with the republic of Colombia - Treaty with the Creeks, Osages, &c. - Treaty with Great Britain, indemnify- ing American citizens for spoliations 180C 1814 1815 1816 1325 1925 TRi] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 567 Gushing ; ratified by the senate Jan. 16, 1845 Treaty of peace with Mexico, signed at Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1848 ; ratified by the senate (with modifica- tions) ; ratified at Queretaro by Ame- rican commissioners Sevier and Clif- ford, and Mexican minister Rosas May 30, 1848 Treaty with Great Britain, respecting Nicaragua, on the Isthmus between North and South America; signed at Washington by Sir H. L. Bulwer and J. M. Clayton - June, 1850 Elms, in Switzerland, 335 years. Cedars on Lebanon, 800 years. Olives, in the Garden of Olives, Jerusalem, 800 years. Banian, in Hindostan, 3,000 years. Cypresses, at Grenada, 800 years. [For proofs and details see the article re- ferred to.] TREATIES, contimied. during the war with Napoleon Nov. 13, 1826 Treaty with Brazil - March 18, 1829 Treaty with Turkey - May 7, 1830 Treaty with Mexico (commercial) Ap.5, 1831 Treaty with do. - - April 5, 1832 Treaty with Naples - Oct. 14, 1832 Treaty with Russia (commercial) Dec. 18, 1832 Treaty with Great Britain, respecting the N. E. boundary, signed at Wash- ington by Lord Ashburton and Mr. Webster ; ratified by the senate (39 to 9) - - - Aug. 20, 1842 Treaty with China, negotiated by C. TREES, Age of. Among others mentioned in an article in the American Al manac for 1838, p. 102, are, The Wallace oak at EUerslie, Scotland, 700 years. (Some oaks are supposd to have lived 1,500 years.) Oak on estate of James Wads worth, Gene- seo. New York, 500 years. Yew trees at Fountam's Abbey, England, 1,200 years ; and in Scotland, said to be 2,500 years. i TRENT, Council of. This celebrated council is reckoned in the Catholic church as the eighteenth or last general council. Its decisions are impli- citly received as the standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that church. The first council assembled a. d. 1545, and continued (but with interrup- tions) under pope Paul III., Julius III., and Pius IV., to 1563, when the last council was held. TRIALS. Alfred is said to have been the contriver of trial by jury ; but there is good evidence of such trials long before his time. In a cause tried at Hawarden, nearly a hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a list of the twelve jurors ; confirmed, too, by the fact that the descendants of one of them, of the name of Corbyn, of the Gate, still preserve their name and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate. — Phillips. TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE. Tribuni Plebis. Magistrates of Rome, first chosen from among the commons to represent the people, 492 b. c, at the time the people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retired to Mons Sa- cer. The first two were C. Licinius, and L. Albinus ; but their number was soon after raised to five, and 87 years after to ten, which remained fixed. Their office was annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th of the ides of December, that day was ever after chosen for the election. TRINIDAD. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the French took it from the English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the line, and a military force under command of sir Ralph Abercrombie, to whom the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797 ; they captured two, and burnt three Spanish ships of war in the harbor. This possession was confirmed to Eng- land by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes occurred Jan. 4, 1832. See Colonies. TRINITY AND TRINITARIANS. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by all Christian sects except those called Unitarians {which see). Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the second century, the first who used the term Trinity, to express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. His Defence of Christianity was edited by Gesner, at Zm-ich, in 1546. — Waikins. 568 THE world's progress. [ TRO An order of the Trinity was founded, a. d. 1198, by John de Matha and Felix de Valois. The Trinity fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, was insti- tuted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. An act to exempt from penal- ties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity was passed in England in 1813. TRIPLE ALLIANCE. This celebrated treaty of alliance was ratified between the States-General and England, against France, for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was known as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28, 1668. TRIUMPHS. The triumph was a solemn honor done generals of armies after they had won great victories, by receiving them into the town with great magnificence and public acclamations. Among the Romans there were two sorts — the great, that was called simply the triumph ; and the little, styled the ovation. They also distinguish triumphs into land and sea triumphs, accordingly as the battles were fought. See Ovation. TRIUMVIRI. Three magistrates appointed ec^ually to govern the Roman state with absolute power. These oflScers gave a fatal blow to the expiring inde- pendence of the Roman people, and became celebrated for their difierent pursuits, their ambition, and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate, B. c. 60, was in the hands of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the expiration of their ofiice kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvi- rate, B. c. 43, was under Augustus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Augustus disagreed with his colleagues, and after he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in Rome. The triumvirate was in full force at Rome for about 12 years. See RoTtie. TROUBADOURS or JONGLEURS. They first appeared in the ninth century, and were so encouraged by the patronage of the court of Poitou, and by several powerful princes, that thej' spread in process of time throughout Europe. They cultivated poetry and music, and refinement followed in their steps, greatly improving the taste and temper of the times. To the troubadours we owe Latin and French poetry. TROY. The history of Troas, or Phrygia Minor, is at best but obscure, and more particularly so in times prior to the reign of Dardanus, who came hither from Italy (or Crete) about the year 1506 b. c, and married the daughter of Teucer, prince of the country, Avhom he succeeded. Dardanus built a city, and named it, after himself, Dardania : Troas, the second in succession from Dardanus, changed the name to Troy ; and Ilus, his succes- sor, converted it into Ilium. Arrival of Soamander in Phrygia Mi- • War of Hercules and Laodemon B.C. 1224 noY.— Blair ■ - B.C. 1546 ' Reign of Priam or Podarces - -1224 Teucer succeeds his father - 1502 Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, Dardanus succeeds Teucer, and builds ; son of Priam, 20 years before the the city of Dardania Reign of Ericthonius Reign of Troas, from whom the peo- ple are called Trojans The rape of Ganymede Ilus, son of Troas, reigns Reign of I.aomedon Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia; He sione delivered from the sea-monster. — Blair, Usher sacking of Troy. — Homer's Iliad, 1449 i book xxiv., line 964, Pope's edit. - 1204 I Commencement of the invasion of the 1374 ! Greeks to recover Helen - - 1193 1.341 I Troy taken and burned in the night of 1314 ; the 11th of .lune, i. e. 23d of the 1260 , month Thargelion. — Parian Mar- bles. 408 years before the first Olympiad. — ApoVodorus ■ - 1184 1225 I ^neas arrives in Italy. — Lenglet - 1183 Some time after the destruction of old Troy, a new city was built, about thirty stadia distant from the old site ; but though it bore the same name, and received ample donations from Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expe- TUN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 569 dition, it never rose to much importance, and in the age of Strabo was nearly in ruins. — Priestley. TROY WEIGHT. The Romans left their ounce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in Britain. — Arbuthnot. The present ounce of this weight was brought from Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, a. d. 1095. It was first adopted at Troj'es, a city of France, whence the name ; and is used to weigh gold, silver and precious stones. The troy weight, Scots, was es- tablished by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618. TROYES, Treaty of, between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should inherit the crown. May 24, 1420. The French were driven from Troyes by the allied armies, Feb. 7 ; it was retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23 ; and was finally reoccupied by the allies, March 4, 1814. TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trum- pet to the Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egj='ptians. It was in use in the time of Homer, but not at the time of the Trojan war. First torches, then shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were the signals of primitive wars. — ■ Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the Great in 335 b. c. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time of Offa, king of Mercia, a. d. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by Kircher in 1652. Made by Salland, 1654. Pliilosophically explained by Moreland, 1671. TUESDAY. The third day of the week, so called, as it is supposed, from Tit- isco, or Tltv, a Saxon deity, that was particularly worshipped on this day. Tuesday, in Latin Dies Martis, was called the third day among the Jews. See Week Days. rUILERIES, Paris. One of the royal palaces of that city, commenced by Catharine de Medici, after the plans of Philibert de Lorme, a. d. 1564 ; con- tinued by Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was the scene of great events during the three memorable revolutions, ^particularly those of 1789 and 1848. TULIPS. They came to England from Vienna, a. d. 1578, and have always been among our most esteemed flowers. They became an object of com- merce in the 16th century ; and it is recorded in the register of the city of Alcmaer, in Holland, that in the year 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins ; and in particular, that one of ' them, called the viceroy, sold for- 4203 guilders ! The States at last put a stop to this extravagant and ruinous passion for flowers. The tulip-tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, was carried to England from America, about 1663. TUNBRIDGE-WELLS. The celebrated springs here were first discovered by Dudley lord North, who had retired into the neighborhood in the last stage of consumption, and became perfectly restored to health by the use of its waters, a. d. 1606. TUNIS AND TRIPOLI. The former stands near where Carthage was built. The territories of both formed part of the celebrated Carthaginian state, and were entirely destroyed by the Romans after the third Punic war, 148 b. c. Besieged by Louis IX. of France, 1270. It remained under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, under Solyman the Magnificent. Barbarossa was expelled by Charles V. ; but the country was recovered by the Turks, under Selim II. Taken, with great slaughter, by the emperor Charles V., when 10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was first appointed in 1570. Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the bey refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1656. 57C THE world's progress. [Tua TURBAN. The head-dress of many of the Eastern nations, consisting of two parts, a cap and a sash, the latter artfully wreathed about the head. The sash of the Turk's turban is white linen ; that of the Persians, red woollen. These are the distinguishing marks of their different religions. Sophi, king of Persia, being of the sect of Ali, was the first who assumed the red color, to distinguish himself from the Turks, who are of the sect of Omar. TURIN. The French besieged this city in 1706 ; but prince Eugene defeated their army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 1798, the French republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were driven out by the Austrians and Russians ; but shortly afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered to the French. In 1814, it was delivered up to the allies, when they restor- ed it to the king of Sardinia. TURKEY. The Turks themselves were originally a tribe of Tartars ; but by reason of the number of people whom they conquered, and with whom they became incorporated, the modern Turks must be regarded as a mixture of many races of men. Birlh of Mahomet the prophet, at Mecca (see Mecca) - ■ - ad. .571 His imposture commenced (see Malio- metanisvi) .... 604 The Koran written (see Koran) - 610 Flight to Medina (sea Medina) - 622 .Slra of the Hegira (see Hegira) - C22 Death of Mahomet - - - 631 Holy wars beghi (see Crusades) • 1095 The Turkish empire fii-st formed under Othman at Bythinia - - . 1298 The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and take Adrianople - - - 1360 Amurath I. institutes the Janizaries, a guard composed of Christian slaves hred Mahometans - - - 1362 Bajazet I. overruns the provinces of the Eastern empire - - 1389, et seq. He lays siege to Constantinople ; but is at length taken by Tamerlane (see Tamerlane) .... 1403 The Turks invading Hungary, are re- pelled by Huniades . - - 1450 Constantinople taken by the Turks un- der Mahomet II,, which ends the Eastern Roman empire - - 1453 Greece made subject to the Mahome- tans (see Greece) - - - 1458 The Turks penetrate into Italy, and take Otranto, which diffuses terror throughout Europe - - - 1480 Selim I. raised to the throne by the Ja- nizaries ; he murders his father, bro- thers, and their sons - - - 1512 He takes the islands of the Arcliipelago from the Christians - - - 1514 He overruns Syria - - - 1515 Adds Egypt to his empire - - 1516 Solyman II. takes Belgrade - - 1521 Rhodes taken froin the knights of St. John, who go to Malta - - 1522 Solyman II., with 2.50,000 men, is repuls- ed before Vienna - - - 1529 Cyprus taken from the Venetians - 1571 Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an end to the fears of Eiu-ope from Turk- ish power (see Lepanlo) - - 1571 Amurath II. ascends the throne ; stran- gles his five brothers • - - 1574 [Dreadful persecutions of the Christians during this reign] The Turks driven out of Persia by the famous Schah Abbas - - a. d. 1585 Bloody reign of Mahomet HI. - - 1595 Great fire in Constantinople - - 1606 Reign of Amurath IV., who strangles his father and four brothers - - 1624 The Turks defeat the Persians, and take the city of Bagdad - - - 1639 The island of Candia, or Crete, taken after a 25 years' siege - - 1669 Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV., but relieved by John of Poland - - 1683 Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman - 1687 Peace of Carlovitz - - - 1699 Mustapha III. deposed ... 1703 The Morea retaken by the Turks - 1715 Belgrade taken from Austria; and Rus- sia relinquishes AzotT - - 1739 Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; the English and Russian fleets defeat the Turkish - - - - 1770 The Crimea falls to Russia - Jan. 1783 [This ends the disastrous war with Rus- sia and Austria (begun in 1787), the Turks having lost more than 200,000 men. — Ashe^] War against Russia - - Dec. 30, 1806 Passage and repassage of the Darda- nelles efl^ected by the British fleet, but with great loss (see Dardanelles) Feb. 19, 1807 The sultan Selim is deposed and mur- dered, and Mustapha IV. called to the throne - . May 29, IGCT Treaty of Bucharest iwhich see) May 28, ■ 812 A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, re- turning from Mecca, destroyed by a pestilential wind in the deserts of Arabia ; 20 only were saved Aug. 9, 1812 Subjection of the Wachabees - .1819 Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares himself independent - - - 1820 Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia March 6, 1821 The Greek Patriarch put to death at Constantinople - . April 23, 1821 TUE. J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 571 TURKEY, continue i. Horrible massa :re at Scio ; the most dreadful in modern history (see note to Greece) - ■ - April 23, 1822 Sea-fight near Mitylene - Oct. 6, 1824 New Mahometan army announced to be organized - - - May 29, 1826 Insurrection of the Janizaries at Con- stantinople - - - June 14, 1826 Firman of the s jLtan abolishing the Ja- nizaries .... 1826 Fire at Consta- itinople ; 6000 houses re- duced to ashes - - August 30, 1826 Battle of Navarino; the Turkish fleet destroyed by the fleets of England, France, and Russia (see Navarino) Oct. 20. 1827 Banishment of 132 French, ] 20 English, and 85 Russian settlers, from the Turkish empire - January 5, 1828 War with Russia - - AprirSo, 1828 The emperor Nicholas takes the field against the Turks - May 20, 1828 The Russian emperor arrives before Varna .... Aug. 5, 1828 Battle of Akhalzic - - Aug. 24, 1828 Fortress of Bajazet taken - Sept. 9, 1828 The sultan leaves his capital for the camp, bearing with him the sacred standard - - - Sept. 26, 1828 Dardanelles blockaded - Oct. 1, 1828 Suii-ender of Varna - - Oct. 15, 1828 Russians retreat from before Schumla, October 16, 1828 Surrender of the castle of the Morea to the French - - - Oct. 30, 1828 Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians Nov. 10, 1828 Victory of the Russians at Kulertsaa near Schumla - - June 11, 1829 Adrianople is entered by the Russian troops - - - Aug. 20, 1829 Armistice between the Russian and Turkish armies - - Aug. 29, 1&49 Treaty of peace - - Sept. 14, 1829 Treaty with the U. States - May 7, 1830 St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pa- cha son of Mehemet Ali - July 2, 1832 He defeats the army of tl. e sultan in Sy- ria, with great loss - - July 30. 1832 A series of successes brings the ar; ny of Ibrahim Pacha within eighty leagues of Constantinople, and the sultan has recourse to the aid of Russia - Jan. 1833 A Russian force enters the Turkish ca- pital .... April 3, 1833 Treaty with Russia, offensive ijid de- fensive - - • July S, 1&33 Office of grand vizier abolished by the sultan - - - March 30, 1838 Insurrection in Wallachia June 18, 1848 Mehemet Ali dies at Alexandria Aug. 2, 1849 1296 Ossraan, or Ottoman I. 1325 Orcham, his youngest son. 1359 Amurath I., his son; assassinated. 1388 Bajazet 1., his son ; died in prison. 1397 Isa Belis ; killed by his brotiier. 1403 Solyman ; killed by his brother. 1410 Musa ; strangled by his brother. 1413 Mahomet I. ; succeeded by his son. 1421 Amurath II. ; succeeded by his son. 1451 Mahomet II. ; left the empire to his two sons. 1481 C(? -tacus, his grandson ; succeeded by his father. 1481 Xemin; obliged to abdicate in favor of his brother. 1481 Bajazet II. ; deposed by his son. 1520 Solyman, the Magnificent. 1566 Selim II. ; succeeded by his son. 1512 Selim ; succeeded by his son. 1574 Amurath III. ; succeeded by his son. 1595 Mahomet III. . succeeded by his son. 1604 Achmet ; succeeded by his brother. 1617 Mustaphal.; succeeded by his nephew, 1617 Osman I. ; strangled by the Janizaries, TtJEKISH EMPEROES. and his uncle restored. 1622 Mustapha I. ; again deposed and suc- ceeded by his grandson. 1623 Amurath IV., succeeded by his brother. 1640 Ibrahim, strangled by the Janizaries, succeeded by his son. 1655 Mahomet IV., deposed; succeeded by his brother. 1687 Solyman III. ; succeeded by his bro- ther. 1691 Achmet II. ; succeeded by his nephew. 1695 Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet IV., deposed and succeeded by his brother. 1703 Achmet III. ; deposed. 1730 Mahomet v.; succeeded by his brother. 1754 Osman II. ; succeeded by his brother. 1757 Mustapha III. ; succeeded by his bro- ther. 1774 Abelhamet, or Achmet IV. 1789 Selim III. 1807 Mustapha IV. 1808 Mah. Khan II. 1839 Abdul-Medjid, June 27. TURKEYS AND GUINEA FOWLS. First brought to England a. d. 1524, and to France in 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were, consequent- ly, unknown to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact by vari- ous particulars in the history of these birds ; evincing that they are natives neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa ; a circumstance since placed beyond controversy, by the researches of Mr. Beckmann. Wild turkeys are met with in flocks of some thousands in parts of the new world, and except be- ing larger do not differ from om-s. — Smyth. TURNING. According to Pliny this art Avas known to the ancients, by whom articles of wood, ivory, iron, and gold were formed. The precious vases, S72 THE world's progress. [ TYR enriched with figures in half relief, which at this day adorn the cahinets of the antiquary and curious, were produced by turning. The lathes made for turnery in England are, many of them, wonderful in their machinery ; and in some of our dock-yards, blocks and other materials for our ships of war are now produced by almost instantaneous processes, from rough pieces of oak, by the machinery of Mr. Brunei. TURNPIBIES. See Tolls. Turnpike-gates for exacting tolls, which were other- wise previously collected, were set up in the reign of Charles II., 1663. — Chalmers. The statutes relating to turnpike-roads are very numerous. TUSCANY. This country was created into a dukedom, a. d. 1530. It came into the Austrian family in 1737. It was seized by the French in March 1799. Ferdinand IV., the grand duke, was dispossessed by France, and his dominions given to Louis, son of the king of Spain, with the title of king of Etruria, February 26, 1801. He died June 80, 1803 ; and soon after- wards this state was transformed into an appendage to the crown of Italy ; but was restored to Austria in 1814. The present grand- iuke Leopold 11. (cousin to the emperor), ascended June 18, 1824. Disturbances and i-evolutions of 1847-8 began at Leghorn - - Sept. 2, 1847 Grand-duke grants a national militia. The grand-duke granted a liberal con- stitution - - - - Feb. 1848 Insurrection at Leghorn - Sept. 5, 1848 The grand-duke flees from Florence The chambers meet. Provisional government proclaimed, Feb. 9, iai9 Leghorn attacked and carried by Tus- can troops - - - May 10, 1849 Tlie grand-duke re-enters Florence and resumes his authority - July 27, 1849 TWELFTH-DAY. The church-festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles. See Epiphany. The custom of drawing king and queen on this daj^ was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on the tabernacle, or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece of money in the middle of a cake, which whoever found, was saluted as king. TYLER, WAT, his Insurrection. It arose in the opposition of the people to the poll-tax, which was levied in 1378. Owing to the indecent rudeness of one of the collectors to Tyler's daughter, with a view to prove her of suffi- cient age (fifteen) to pay the tax (Tyler striking him dead for the ofience), the provoked populace gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley at Smithfleld, where the latter addressed the king in a somewhat menacing manner, now and again lifting up his sword." His insolence raised the indignation of the mayor, Walworth, who stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of the knights attending the king dispatched him. The death of their leader awed the multitude, to whom Richard promised a charted, and they dis- persed, 1381. TYRE. This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built 1257 B. c. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 b. c, and they retired from before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 b. c. Taken by Nebu- chadnezzar, 572 B. c, and the city demolished, when the Tyreans removed to an opposite island, and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken by Alexander with much difficulty, and only after he had joined the island to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 b. c. — Strabo. Two of the most atrocious acts in the history of human crimes were the tiege and destruction of Tyre by Alexander, and of Jerusalem by Titus. Histories which laud such monsters ought to be consigned to the flames. — Phillips. 17RE, Era of. Began on the 19th of October, 125 b. c, with the month Hy- perberetteus. The month was the same as those used in the Grecian era, and the year is similar to the Julian j^ear. To reduce this era to ours, sub- dot] dictionary of dates. 575 tract 124 ; and ii tlie given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and the remainder will be the year before Christ. U. UBIQUARIANS. A sect of Lutherans which arose and spread through Ger- many and other countries, and who believed the natural body of Christ to be every where present. This sect arose under Brentius, about a. d. 1540. UKRAINE. The name signifies a frontier. By a treaty between Russia and Poland, these states divided the Ukraine in 1693. Poland having the west side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. But the whole country (the bor- ders of Poland, Russia, and Little Tartary) was assigned to Russia by the treaty of Partition in 1795. ULM, Peace op, by which Fredrick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it previously), July 3, 1620. Ulm was taken by the French in 1776. Great battle between the French and Austrians, in which the latter, imdcr gen- eral Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss, by marshal Ney, whose vic- tory was consummated by the surrender of Ulm, and 36,000 men, the flower of the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 19, 1805. From this time the ruin of the confederates, and grandeur and power of Napoleon, had their date. UMBRELLA. Described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to carry in a person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrel- las are very ancient : it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis, that umbrel- las were used at very remote periods by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who visited the southern parts of Arabia, informs us that he saw a great prince of that country returning from a mosque, preceded by some hundreds of soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his numerous family caused a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old china-ware in our pan- tries and cupboards show the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said that the first person who used an umbrella in the streets of London was the benevolent Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786.* UNCTION, EXTREME. Unction was frequent among the Jews. At their feasts, and other times of rejoicing, they anointed sometimes their whole body, and at other times their head or feet only : their kings and high priests were anointed at their inauguration ; they also anointed the vessels of the temple to consecrate them. None of the emperors, it is said, were anointed before Justinian, Aug. 1, a. d. 527. As a religious rite, extreme unction was in common use, a. d. 550. St. Asaph was the first who received unction from the pope, 590. — Bayle. It is administered in dying cases as extreme unction. See Anointing. UNIFORMS. Militar} imiforms were first used in France, " in a regular man- * For a long while it was not usual for men to carry them without incurring the hrand of effe- minacy. At first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary occasions — lent as a coach or chair in a heavy shower, but not commonly carried by the walkers. The Female Tattler advertises " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, in fear of rain, borrowed the umbrella from Wilks's Coffee-house, shall the next time be welcome to the maid's pattens." As late as 1778, one John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, informs us, that he had " a fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spain ; but he could not with any comfort to himself use it, the people calling out ' Frenchman ! why don't you get a coach V " The fact was, the hackney-coachmen and chairmen, joining with the true esprit de corps, were clamorous against this portentous rival. The footman in 1778, gives us some farther information. "At this time, there were no umbrellas worn in London, except in noblemen's and gentlemen's houses, where there was a large one hung in the hall to hold over a lady if it rained, between the door and her carriage." This man's sister was compelled to quit his arm one day from the abuse he drew down on himself and his umbrella. But he adds, that "he persisted for three month.s, till they took notice of this novelty. Foreigners began to use theirs, and then tlie English. Now it is become a great trade-in London." — Neic Monthly Magazine. 574 THE world's progress, [ JNl ner," by Louis XIV., 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards adopted. For an account of naval uniforms, see Naval Unifor-ms. UNIFORMITY, Act of. An Act of Uniformity passed 1 Elizabeth, 1559. But the statute known as the Act of Uniformity was passed 13 and 14 Charles IT., 1661, 2. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form of worship, and same book ol common i^rayer. This act caused upwards of 2000 conscientious ministers to quit the Church of England, and take their lot among the dissenters, who thereby received so large an addition to their numbers that they may be considered as the fathers of the dissenting interest. I'NION OF THE CROWNS. The crowns of England and Scotland were united by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 24, 1603. The legislative union of the two kingdoms was attempted in 1604, but the project failed. It was again attempted, but again failed, in 1670. In the reign of Anne it was once more tried, and in the end with better suc- cess. Commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwith- standing great opposition made by the Tories, every article in the union was approved by a great majority, first in the House of Commons, and af- terwards by the peers, July 22, 1706, and ratified by the Scottish parlia- ment, Jan. 16, 1707. It became a law. May 1, same year. UNION WITH IRELAND. The Union of Great Britain and Ireland, propos- ed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 1799. The act passed in the British parliament, July 2, 1800. UNITARIANS. This sect began a. d. 1550. The Unitarians believe in and woi'ship only one self-existent God, in opposition to those who, besides the Father, worship his Son Jesus. They arose under Servetus. This learned man, excited by the discussions of the reformers, began to read the Scrip- tures, and conducted his researches with so free a spirit, that he printed a tract in disparagement of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. In 1533, proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy : and refusing to retract his opinions, he was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried into execution, October 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those ana- tomists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation of the blood, before Harvey established that doctrine. In the United States, especially in New England, the Unitarians form a large, intelligent, and in- fluential portion of the community. The celebrated philanthropist and eloquent writer, Dr. W. E. Channing, was a Unitarian. UNITED KINGDOM of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. The British realm was so named, on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when a new imperial standard was hoisted on the Tower of London and Castle of Dub- lin. See Union. UNITED PROVINCES, the SEVEN. Established by throwing off the Span- ish yoke, a. d. 1579. The revolted states, with William, prince of Orange, at their head, after long deliberations at the Hague, published an edict ex- cluding king Philip from any sovereignty, right, or authority over the Ne- therlands. Tlie deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Overyssell, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, Jan. 28, 1579 ; signed a treaty for their mutual defence ; appointed the prince of Orange as tlieir stadtholder ; and formed the alliance ever since known as the " Union of Utrecht," the basis of the commonwealth so renowned by the appellation of tlie '■ Seven United Provinces." Their independence was acknowledged in 1607. United to France in 1796. Louis Bonaparte was crowned king bythe authority of Napoleon, June 5. 18^",;. Louis abdicated. UNl] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 575 July 1, 1810. Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed Nov. 18, 1813. Belgium separated from Holland, and Leopold of Sase- Coburg elected king, July 12, 1831. See Holland and Bdgmm. UNITED STATES of AMERICA. See America; and the separate States, 3Iaine, &c. The first colonial Congress, for the redress of grievances, con. sisting of delegates from the several colonies, met at New York, June 7, 1765. The Continental Congress at Philadelphia adojjts Declaration of Rights, 1774 ; revolutionary war commenced at Lexington, April 19, 1775. See War. Declaration of Independence adopted by the Congress, July 4, 1776. The title of " United States " adopted by Congress, Sept. 9, 1776, Independence acknowledged by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris, Sept. 23, 1783. Constitution adopted Sept. 17, 1787. War against Great Britain declared by Congress, June 19, 1812. Treaty of peace signed at Ghent, Dec. 3, 1814. War with Mexico commenced April, 1846. Treaty of peace signed May 30, 1848. See Wars of the United States, &c. ; also Naval Battles ; also Administrations, Exports, National Debt, Treaties, Po- pulation, &c. [The various occurrences in the history of the United States are given more at large under that head in the Tabular Views in this vol., page 122, et. seq.'\ UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe in the final salvation of all men. Sects of Universalists existed in various countries and ages. The learned and celebrated Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermons to have adopted the opinion of this universal salvation. — Johnson. Certain it is, about 1691, he entertained a design for forming a new book of homilies ; and a sermon which he preached before the queen (Mary) against the absolute eternity of hell torments, involved this doctrine. UNIVERSITIES. They sprang from the convents of regular clergy, and from the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome. The most ancient uni- versities in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and Bologna. The British universities were vested with the lands of ex-Catho- lics, and permitted to send members to Parliament by James I. The fol- lowing are the principal universities in Europe : Aberdeen founded Abo, Finland Aix, 1409 ; re-established Alba Julia, Transylvania - Altorf, Franconia Andrew's, St., Scotland Angers, chiefly law Anjou, 1349 ; enlarged Avignon. France Bamberg .... Baale, Switzerland Berlin - ' - Besancon, Burgundy Bologna, Italy Bruges, French Flanders Caen, Normandy Cambridge, began, 626 — according t others, 900. See Cambridge. Cambridge, New England, projected Cologne, in Germany, re-founded Compostella, Spain Coirabra, Portugal Copenhagen. 1497 ; enlarged Cordova, Spain - Cracow, Poland, 700 ; enlarged Dijon, France Dillingin, Sv^abia - Dole, Burgundy - Douay, French Flanders - Dresden, Si.xony - 1494 Dublin - . . . -1591 - 1640 Edinburgh, founded by .lames VI. -1582 -1603 Erfurt, Thuringia ; enlarged -1390 -1629 Florence, Italy ; enlarged -1438 -1581 Frankfort-on-the-Oder -1506 -1411 Fribourg, Germany -1460 -1398 Geneva -1365 -1364 Glasgow - - - - -1450 -1388 Gottingen - -1734 -1585 Granada, Spain - -1537 -1458 Gripswald - -1547 - 1812 Groningen, Friesland - -1614 -1540 Halle, Saxony -1694 - 423 Heidelberg - - .- ■ 1346 - 1665 Ingoldstadt, Bavaria -1573 -1417 Jena, or Sala, Thuringia -1548 Kiel, Holsteiu -1665 King's College, London -1829 - 16.30 Konigsberg, Prussia -1544 -1389 Leips'ic, Saxony - - • -1409 -1517 Leyden, Holland ■ - 1575 -1391 Lima, in Peru - -1614 -1539 Lisbon, 1290 ; removed to Coimbr 1 - 1391 - 968 London University -1826 - 1402 Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; enlargec - 1427 - 1722 Lyons, France - - 830 -1565 Mechlin, Flanders - - - 1440 - 1426 Mentz .... -1482 • \mz Montpelier - -1195 - 1694 Moscow - - - • ■1754 576 THE world's progress. [UXR Saltzburg 1623 Saragossa, Arragon 1474 Seville 1631 Sienna 1387 Siguenza, Spain 1517 Sorbonne, Paris 1253 Strasburg 1538 Toledo, Spain 1518 Treves, Germany .... 1473 Tubingen, Wirtemberg - - • - 1477 Turin 1405 llpsal, Sweden 1477 Uirecht, Holland 1636 Valence, Dauphine 1475 Valencia in the thirteenth century. Valladolid 1346 Venice - 1592 Vienna 1236 Wirtemberg - - .... 1502 Wittenberg ... . . ^02 Wurtzburg . . - - 1403 UNIVERSITIES, continued. Munster 1491 Naples 1216 Orleans, France 1312 Oxford (see Oxford) - - - - 886 Paderborn 1592 Padua, Italy 1179 Palenza, 1209 ; removed to Salamanca 1249 Paris, 792; renovated - - - -1100 Parma 1599 Pavia, 791 ; enlarged .... 1361 Perpignan 1349 Perugia, Italy 1307 Petersburgh 1747 Pisa, 1339; enlarged ■ • • -1552 Poictiers - - " 1430 Prague 1348 Rheims, 1145; enlarged - - - -1560 Rome Sapienza - . - - - - 1303 Rostock, Mecklenburgh - - - - 1419 Salamanca 1240 Salerno 1233 UNIVERSITIES in UNITED STATES. See Colleges. UNKNOWN TONGUE. A disturbance in the Rev. Mr. IrvinjL,s chapel, in London, occasioned by a Miss Hall interrupting a discourse on prophecy, by holding forth in what was denominated the " Unknown Tongue." She was removed to the vestry. On the same evening, a Mr. Taplin rose, and commenced, with the permission of Mr. Irving, a violent harangue in the same unknown language. A scene of most alarming confusion ensued, the whole congregation rising from their seats in affright, and the females screaming, while Mr. Irving listened with the most profound attention to the ravings of the inspired teacher, October 16, 1831. From this period, much of the same mummery, followed by a translation into English rhap- sody, was played ofi'; and large crowds assembled, not on Sundays only, but as early as six o'clock on the mornings of week-days also, some to be edi- fied by prophetic spirits, and some to laugh at the ravings of fanatics. — Ann. Register. URANUS. This planet, with its satellites, was discovered by Herschel, by whom it was called the Georgian planet, in honor of his majesty George III. The name of Herschel is also given to it, in compliment to its illustrious discoverer, by the astronomers of Great Britain ; but by foreigners it is asually called Uranus. It is about twice as distant from the sun as the planet Saturn; and was discovered on the 13th March, 1781. USURY. Forbidden by parliament, 1341. Two shillings per week were given for the loan of twenty, in 1260. This was at the rate of 43Z. 6s. 8d. per annum for 100^., which was restrained by an act, 1275, against the Jews. Until the fifteenth century no Christians were allowed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, therefore, often banished and persecuted (see Jews). Bj^the 37th of Henry VIII.. the rate of interest was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute confirmed by the 13th Eliza- beth, 1570. Reduced to 8 per cent., 21 James I., 1623, when the word in- terest was first used for the Avord usury. Reduced to 5 per cent., 13 Anne, 1714. See Interest. f JTRECHT, Treaty of, &c. The Union of the Seven United Provinces began here (see United Provinces), a.d. 1579. The celebrated Treaty of Utrecht, which terminated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of Great Britain and France, as well as of all the other allies, except the minis- ters of the empire. The most important stipulations of this treaty were the security of the Protestant succession in England, the disuniting the VAL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 577 French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the British colonies and plantations in America, and a full satisfaction for the claims of the allies, April 11, 1713. Utrecht surrendered to the Prussians, May 9, 1787 ; and was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1795. VACCINE INOCULATION. Variola vacdiia, discovered by Dr. Jenner. He made the first experiment in vaccination, by transferring the fus from the pustule of a milk-maid, who had caught the cow-pox from the cows, to a healthy child, in May 1796. Dr. Jenner subsequently published the result to the world, and the cure became general in 1799. The cure was intro-. duced Jan. 21, in that year. The genuine cow-pox appears, in the form of vesicles, on the teats of the cow. Dr. Jenner received 10,000Z. for the dis- covery from parliament in 1802 ; and the first national institution for the promotion of the cure, called the Royal Jennerian Institution was founded Jan. 19, 1803. Vaccination was practised throughout all Europe previously to 1816. VAGRANTS. After being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return to the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 22 Henry VIII., 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted, to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right ear, 27 Henry VIII., 1535 ; and a third time convicted, death. By 1 Edward III., a vagabond to be marked with a V. and be a slave for two years. Vagrants were punished by whipping, jailing, boring the ears, and death for a second offence, 14 Elizabeth, 1571. The milder statutes were those of 17 George 11. ; 32, 35, and 59 George III. The laws against vagrancy are still very severe in England, and operate unequally as respects the character of the offender. VALENCIA. Its university was founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and was revived in 1470. Valencia was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, but was soon lost again. It was taken from the Spaniards by the French, under Suchet, with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and im- mense stores, Jan. 9, 1812. VALENCIENNES, Siege op. This city was besieged from May 23 to July 14, when the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke of York, 1793. It was retaken, together with Conde, by the French, on capitulation, the garrison and 1100 emigrants made prisoaers, with immense stores, viz. — 300 pieces of cannon, one million pounds of gunpowder, eight millions of florins in specie, six millions of livres, 1000 head of cattle, and vast quantities of other provisions, Aug. 30, 1794. VALENCAY, Treaty of, between Napoleon of France and Ferdinand VII. of Spain, whereby the latter was put in full possession of that kingdom, on agreeing to maintain its integrity. This celebrated treaty was signed De- cember 8, 1813. VALENTINE'S DAY. The practice of "choosing a Valentine," as it is called, on this day, is too well known to need explanation. The origin of the custom has been miich controverted ; it is indisputably of very ancient date. Valentine was a presbyter of the church, who suffered martyr- dom under Claudius II. at Rome, a. d. 271. It is said that on this day the birds choose their mates ; whence, probably, came the custom of young people choosing Valentines or particular friends on the feast of Valentine. VALENTINIANS. This sect of enthusiastics were followers of the opinions of one Valentine, a priest, who, upon being disappointed of a bishopric 25 578 THE world's progress. [vew forsook the Christian faith, and published that there were thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which he called ^ones, or Ages. He taught in the second century, and piibhshed a gospel and psalms : to these his followers added several other errors, declaring there was no ob- ligation to suSer martyrdom ; some declared against baptism, and others practised it in a peculiar manner, and all indulged themselves in licen- tiousness. VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipman under captain Cook ; and a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence of any navigable communication between the Nortli Pacific and North Atlantic oceans being determined on, he was appointed to command it. He sailed in 1790, and returned September 21, 1795. He compiled an account of this voyage of survey of the Northwest coast of America, and died in 1798. VANDALS. The Vandal nations began their ravages in Germ Any and Gaul, A. D. 406-414. Their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411. They invaded and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, under Genseric, who took Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were driven out, and attacked in turn by the Saracen Moors. The Vandalii oven-an a vast portion of Europe and spread devastation wherever they appeared. VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. This country Avas discovered by Tasman in 1633. It was visited by Furneaux in 1773 ; by captain Cook in 1777 ; and was deemed the south extremity of New Holland until 1799. A British settle- ment was established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Der- went, and named Hobart Town, which is the seat of government, 1804. VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Villanage. Vassalage was introduced by the Saxons, and its slavery increased under William I. Under the Nor- man princes there were vassal boors and free boors ; those who were sold with the land, and those who were free to choose an employer. To this day the distinction prevails in some countries, and particularly in Russia, where the vassal boors are divided into classes ; as boors belonging to the sover- eign ; mining boors, who are sold with the property ; and private boors, who belong to the nobility, and perform the labor on their estates. In ELgland, a vassal did homage to a lord on account of land, &c., held of him in fee. Vassalage was abolished in Hungary in October 1785 ; in Holstein, in May 1797 ; and Courland, in Sept. 1818. VATICAN. Tlie magnificent palace of the pope at Rome, adjoining St. Peter's, said to contain 7000 rooms. In this .palace, the library, founded a. d. 1448, is noted for its collection of MSS., but the number of books is compara- tively moderate. See libraries. The phrase " thunders of the Yatican," was first used by Voltaire, 1748. VENEZUELA. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; and this induced them to give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state declared in a congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, in July 1814. It sep- arated from the federal union and declared itself sole and independent in 1830. See Colombia. VENI, VIDI, VICJ. — "I came, I saw, I conquered." This well-known sen- tence formed the whole of Caesar's dispatch to the Roman senate when he vanquished Pharnaces, king of Cimmerian Bosphorus, 47 b. c. See Zela, Battle of. VENICE. So called from the Venetii who inhabited its site, when it was made a kingdom by the Gauls. \\\\o conquered it about 356 b. c. Marcellus con- VEa DICTIONARY OF DATES. 57& qnered it for the Roman republic, and slew tlie Gaulish king, 221 b. c. The islands on which the city is built began to be inhabited, a. d. 421, by Ital- ians, who fled here as a jjlace of safety from the Goths, and other barbar- ous nations, when they ravaged Italy. The first house was erected on the morass by Entinopus, by whom the people of Padua were assisted in build- ing the eighty houses which first formed the city. — Priestley. Venice was first governed by a doge (Anafesto Paululio), a. d. 697. The republic was not completely founded until 803. The city reduced to ashes, 1101. The ceremony of the doges of Venice marrying the Adriatic was instituted by pope Alexander III. in 1173. Venice carried on a vast commerce until the discovery of America, and a passage to the East Indies by the Cape, gave it another direction, about 1500. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the ter- ritory to the north and west of the Adige were ceded to Austria, and the rest was annexed to what the French then styled the Cisalpine Republic, 1797. This disposition was altered by the treaty of Presburg, and the whole country annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1805. Venice returned under the power of Austria in 1814. The city declared a free port, Jan. 24, 1830. Venice, after a gallant resistance, capi- tulates to Marshal Radetzky, and is again in the power of Austria, Aug. 22, 1&13 Venice declares herself an independent republic - - Aug. 18, I84S Provisional government decrees an as- sembly with full powers to be elected by universal suffrage, 1 to every 1,500 inhabitants - - Dec. 29, 1848 VENTRILOQUISM. Persons who had this art were by the Latins called Ven- triloqui, and by the Greeks, Engasti-imythoi, i. e. people that speak out of their bellies, or who have the art of throwing out the voice in an extraordi- nary manner. Exhibitors of this kind have appeared in England in various ages, but some of extraordinary capabilities in their art exhibited in the last century. Mr. Thomas King is said to have been the first man whose experimental philosophy, shown in this line, excited great wonder, about 1716. One of the most accomplished professors of ventriloquism that ever appeared in France or England, was M. Alexandre, about 1822. VRNUS. This planet's transit over the sun, it was ascertained by Horrox, in 1633, would take place Nov. 24, 1639. He was the first who predicted, or rather calculated this passage, from which he deduced many useful obser- vations. Maskelyne was sent to St. Helena to observe her transit, in Jan. 1761. Captain Cook made his first voyage, in the Endeavor, to Otaheita, to observe a transit of Venus, in 1769. See note to article Cook's Voyages. The diurnal rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1712. This planet will not be again so brilliant as in 1769 to our globe until 1874. VERMONT, one of the United States, first settled by colonists from Massachu- setts. 1723. The territory was claimed by New Hampshire, from 1741 to 1764 : claimed also by New- York, and granted to that colony by parliament in 1664. Owing to these conflicting claims, the state was not admitted into the confederacy during the Revolution, but it still performed its part in that struggle. The British defeated at Bennington by gen. Stark, in 1777. Claims of New- York withdrawn on payment of S30,000, in 1790. The state admitted into the Union. 1791. Population in 1790, was 85.589; in 1810, 217,895 ; in 1830, 280,679 ; in 1840, 291,948. V'ERSAILLES, Palace of. In the reign of Louis XIII., Versailles was only a small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit ; and here this prince built a hunting-seat in 1630. Louis XIV., in 1687, enlarged it into a magnificent palace, which was finished in 1708. and was the usual residence of the kings of France till 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it to Paris. Louis Philipj)e appropriated the whole of the immense building 580 THE world's progress. [ve* to a grand national museum of paintings and statues, dedicated a tous lei gloires de France ; and freely opened to the public. VERSAILLES, Peace op. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Bri- tain and the United States, signed at Paris ; when the latter power was ad- mitted to be sovereign and independent. On the same day, the definitive treaty was signed at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain, Sept. 3, 1783. In pursuance of the treaty of Versailles, Pondicherry and Carical, with the former possessions in Bengal, were restored to France. Trincomalle at the same time restored to the Dutch. VERSE, BLANK. Blank verse and the heroic couplet, now in general use for grave or elevated themes, are both of comparatively modern date. Surrey translated part of Virgil's JEneid into blank verse, which is the first compo.«' tion of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English language ; and the other measure was but little affected till the reign of Charles II. The verse previously used in our grave compositions was the stanza of eight lines, the ottava rima, as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his Faery Queen), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso, the Italian language being at that time in high repute. Boccaccio first introduced it into Italy in his heroic poem L,a Tcselde, having copied it from the old French chansons. — JMetropoUtan. Trissino is said to have been the first introducer of blank verse among the moderns, about 1508. — Vossius. See Poetry. VESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bre- men, on March 28, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude. — Annual Register. VESTALS. Priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who took care of the perpetual fire, consecrated to her worship. This office was very ancient, as the mother of Romulus was one of the vestals. -lEneas is supposed to have first chosen the Vestals. Numa, in 710 e. c, first appointed four, to which number Tar- quin added two. They were always chosen by the monarchs ; but after the expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was intrusted with the care of them. As they were to be virgins, they were chosen young, from the age of six to ten; and if there was not a sufficient number that presented themselves as candidates for the office, twenty virgins were selected; and they upon whom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses. The vestal Minutia was buried alive for violating her virgin vow, 337 b. c. The vestal Sextilia was buried alive for incontinence, 274 b. c. ; and the ves- tal Cornelia Maximiliana on the same charge, a. d. 92. — Bibliotheqiie Uni- verselle. TESUViUS, MOFNT. The dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, when it emitted such a qnantitj'' of flame and smoke that the air was darkened, and the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were ovei'whelmed by the burning lava, A. D. 79. More than 250,000 persons perished by the destruction of those cities ; the sun's light was totally obscured for two days throughout Naples ; great quantities of ashes and sulphureous smoke were carried not only to Rome, but also beyond the Mediterranean into Africa ; birds were suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the ground, and the fishes perished in the neighboring waters, which were made hot and infected by it : this eruption proved fatal to Plinj'- the naturalist. Herculaneum was discovered in 1737, and many curious articles have been dug from the ruins since that time ; but every thing combustible had the marks of having been burned by fire. Numei'ous eruptions have occurred, causing great devastation and loss of lives. In 1631 the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, and a great part of the surrounding country, were destroyed. One of the most dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly, Nov. 24, 1759. The violent burst in 1767 was the thirtv-fourth from the the time of Titus, when VIE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. • 581 Pompeii was buried. One in 1794 was most destructive : tlie lava flowed over 5000 acres of rich vinej'ards and cultivated lands, and the town oi Torre del Greco was a second time burned ; the top of the mountain fell in, and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. There have been several eruptions since. VETOES OP THE PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. The power of can- celling acts of Congress by executive veto, was exercised as follows : — by Washington, twice; Madison, four times; Monroe, once; Jackson, five times ; Tyler, three times ; Polk, twice. Bill relating to steam-vessels in the navy vetoed by president Tyler, and afterwards passed by vote of two thirds of both houses, and became a law : the first instance of the kind, February 20, 1845. River and Harbor bill, vetoed by president Polk, August 3, 1846. French Spoliation Indemnity bill, by the same, Aug. 8, 1846. VIENNA. The former capital of the German empire, and from 1806 the ca- pital of the Austrian dominions onlj^ Vienna was made an imperial city in 1136, and was walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I. of England. 40,000Z., in 1194. Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the Magnificent, with an army of 300,000 men : but he was forced to raise the siege with the loss of 70.000 of his best troops, 1529. Again besieged in 1683, when the siege was raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, who totallj' defeated the Turkish army of 100,000, which had cannonaded the city from July 24 to the beginning of November. Vienna was taken by the French, under prince Murat, Nov. 14, 1805 ; and evacuated January 12, following. They again captured it. May 13, 1809 ; but restored it once more on the conclusion of peace between the two countries, Oct. 14, same year. Conference of the ministers of the allies and France, September 28, 1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2, 1814. See Austria and Hungary. See next articles. VIENNA, Treaty op, with Spain. The celebrated treaty signed between the emperor of Germany and the king of Spain, by which they confirmed to each other such parts of the Spanish dominions as they were respectively possessed of, and by a private treat}' the emperor engaged to employ a force to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing the Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Prag- matic Sanction, April 30, 1725. VIENNA, Treaty of Alliance, between the emperor of Germany, the king of Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was gua- ranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated (Spain acceded to the treaty on the 22d of July) ; signed March 16, 1731. VIENNA, Treaty of with France. A definitive treaty of peace between the emperor of Germany and king of France, by which the latter power agreed to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France ; signed Nov. 18, 1738. ViENNA, Peace op, between Napoleon of France and Francis (II. of Germany) I. of Austria. Bj this treaty Austria ceded to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, and other territories, which were shortly afterwards declared to be united to France under the title of the Illyrian Provinces, and engaging to adhere to the prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Russia, October 14, 1809. VIENNA, Treaties op. The treaty of Vienna between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, confirming the principles on which they had acted by the treaty of Chaumont, March 1, 1814; signed March 23, 1815. The treaty of Vienna between the king of the Low Countries on the one part, and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, on the other, agreeing to 582 • THE world's progress. f VIN the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in the house of Orange, May 31, 1815. The treaty of Vienna : Denmark cedes Swedish Pomerania and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg, June 4, 1815. The federative constitution of Germany signed at Vienna, June 8, 1815. VILLAIN. The name of a vassal under the Norman princes, his hard labor being the tenure by which he lived upon the land. Of and pertaining to the vill or lordship ; was a servant during life, and was devisable as chat- tels in the feudal times. Queen Elizabeth gave the principal blow to this kind of severe service, by ordering her bondsmen of the western counties to be made free at easy rates, a. d. 1574. — Sto2ve's Chroii. VIMEIRA, Battle op,, between the British, under sir Arthtr WeUesley, and the whole of the French and Spanish forces in Portugal, under marshal Junot, duke of Abrantes, whom the British signally defeated, August 21, 1808. For this victory the British hero and the officers and soldiers under his command were voted the thanks of parliament, the first of many si- milar honors that marked sir Arthur's (now duke of Wellington's) triumph- ant career. VINCENT'S, St. This was long a neutral island ; but at the peace of 1763, the French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English. The latter, soon after, engaged in a war against the Caribs, on the windward side of the island, who were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. The consequence of this was, that in 1779 they greatly contributed to the reduction of this island by the French, who, however, restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insurrection, which was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of the Scouffrier mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. VINE. The vine was kno'wn to Noah. A colony of vine-dressers from Phocea, in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in tillage, vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 b. c. Some think the vines are aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew sponta- neously on the Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The vine was carried into Champagne, and part of Germany, a. d. 279. The vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira in 1420. It was planted in England in 1552 ; and in the gardens of Hampton-court palace is an old and celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in Europe. See Grapes, and Wi7ie.* VINEGAR. Known nearly as soon as wine. The ancients had several kinds of vinegar, which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accus- tomed to take it in their marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich ci- tizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for his reapers, into which they might dip their bread, and kindly invitmg Ruth to share with them in their repast : hence we may infer that the harvesters, at that period, partook of this liquid for their refreshment ; a custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy. It is conjectured that the vinegar which the Roman soldiers offered to our Saviour at his crucifixion was that which they used for their own drinking. * The following is a tradition in relation to the vine : — When Adam planted the first vine, an.l left it, Satan approached it, and said, "Lovely plant! I will cherish thee ;" and thereupon taking three animals, a lamb, a lion, and a hog, he slayed them at the root of the tree, and their blood has been imbibed by the fruit to this day. Thus, if you take one goblet of wine, yoti are cheered by its influence, yet are mild and docile as the lamb; if you take two goblets, you become furious, and rave and bellow like the lion ; and if you drink of the third goblet, your reason sink&. and, like tha hog, you wallow in the mire. — Ashe. VUt,] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 583 There was, however, a kind of potent vinegar, which was not proper for drinking till diluted. VIOL AND VIOLIN. As the lyre of the Greeks was the harp of the moderns, so the viol and vielle of the middle ages became the modern violin. The viol was of various sizes formerly, as it is at present, and was anciently very much in use for chamber airs and songs. That of three strings was intro- duced into Europe by the jugglers of the thirteenth century. The violin was invented towards the close of the same century. — Abbe Lengiet. The fiddle, however, is mentioned as early as a. d. 1200, in the legendary life of St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles II. VIRGIN. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin churches, in honor of the miraculous ascent of Mary into heaven, according to their belief, August 15, a. d. 45. The Presentation of the Virgin, is a feast celebrated November 21, said to have been instituted among the Greeks in the eleventh century; its institution in the West is ascribed to Gregory XI., 1372. A distinguished writer says : " The Indian incarnate god Chrishna, the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the royal race, and was sought to be destroyed in his infancy, about 900 years b. c. It appears that he passed his life in working miracles and preaching, and was so humble as to wash his friends' feet ; at length dying, but rising from the dead, he ascended into heaven in the presence of a multitude. The Cingalese relate nearly the same things of their Budda." — Sir William Jonci. VIRGINIA, daughter of the centurion L. Virginius. Appius Claudius, the decemvir, became enamored of her, and attempted to remove her from the place where she resided. She was claimed by one of his favorites as the daughter of a slave, and Appius, in the capacity and with the authority of judge, had pronounced the sentence, and delivered her into the hands of his friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent proceedings, arrived from the camp. The father demanded to see his daughter, and when this re- quest was granted, he snatched a knife and plunged it into Virginia's breast, exclaiming, " This is all, my daughter ! I can give thee, to preserve thee from the lust of a tyrant." No sooner was the blow given than Virginius ran to the camp with the bloody knife in his hand. The soldiers were as- tonished and incensed, not against the murderer, but the tyrant, and they immediately marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but he destroyed him- self in prison, and prevented the esecution of the law. Spurius Oppius, another of the decemvirs, who had not opposed the tyrant's views, killed himself also ; and Marcus Claudius, the favorite of Appius, was put to death, and the decemviral power abolished, 449 b. c. VIRGINIA. One of the United States; sometimes called the " Old Dominion," having been settled, April, 1607, at Jamestown, on James river — the first white settlement in the United States. Named Virginia in honor of queen Elizabeth, who had granted the country to Sir Walter Raleigh. A settle- ment attempted by Raleigh but failed, and the grant was vacated on his attainder and execution. The country granted by James I. to two compa- nies, the London and the Plymouth. Jamestown settled by the former, and named in honor of their royal patron. The colony suffered much from the Indians, and by various disasters ; proved loyal during the English revolu- tion; was the first to proclaim Charles II. on his restoration; established the Church of England by law, 1662 ; took an early and prominent part in the struggle for independence. Surrender of the British army under Corn- wallis, at Yorktown, October 19, 1782. Constitution of the United States adopted June 25, 1788, by 89 to 79. Virginia has given birth to six presi- dents of the United States, viz : Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, 584 THE world's progress. [ lO Harrison, and Taylor ; and also, Patrick Henry, John Marshall, and : jdny distinguished patriots. Population in 1790 was 747,610 ; in 1810, 974,622 ; in 1830, 1,211,272 ; in 1840, 1,239,737, including 448,937 slaves. VTSIER OR VIZIER, GRAND. An officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointed in 1370. Formerly this officer governed the whole empire immediately under the grand seignior ; he is sometimes called the grand seignior's lieu- tenant, or vicar of the empire ; at his creation, the prince's seal is put into his hand, upon which is engraven the emperor's name, which he places in his bosom, and carries away with him. — Knolles. VITTORIA, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories recorded in the annals of England, obtained by Wellington over the French army com- manded by Jerome Bonaparte and marshal Jourdan, June 21, 1818. Mar- shal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, all his baggage, provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, Wellington toti. Jourdan's only remaining gun ! VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth's surface, there are above 200 volcanoes, which have been active in modern times. The eruptions of Mount Etna are recorded as early as 734 b. c. by authentic historians. See Etna. The first eruption of Vesuvius was in a. d. 79. See Vesuvius. The first eruption of Hecla is said to have occurred a. d. 1004. For an ac- count of the awful eruption of this volcano in 1783. see Iceland. In Mexico, a plain was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height by the burning lava from a volcano in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro broke out, Sept. 13, 1777, which threw out an immense quantity of red water, that discolored the sea for several leagues. A new volcano appeared in one of the Azore islands. May 1, 1808. VOLUNTEERS. This species of force armed in England, in apprehension of the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794. Besides their large army, and 85,000 men voted for the sea, England subsidized 40,000 Germans, raised the militia to 100,000 men, and armed the citizens as volunteers. Between the years 1798 and 1804, when this force was of greatest amount, it numbered 410,000 men, of which 70,000 were Irish. The English volun- teers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 on Jan. 1, 1804. In the United States, on the breaking out of the Mexican war. Congress authorized the enlistment of 50,000 volunteers. A much larger number responded, but less than 30,000 were actually needed or enrolled. VOYAGES. The first great voyage, or voyage properly so called, was by order of Necho, pharoah of Egypt, when some Phcenician pilots sailed from Egypt down the Arabic Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good Hope, entei-ed the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along the north of Africa, and at length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of about three years, 604 b. c. — Blair, Herodotus. The first voyage round the world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine Is- land in a skirmish) in 1519-20. The era of voyages of discovery was the end of the eighteenth century. See Circumn&vigators, and Norsk- Wesi- Passage. \ W. WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of sundry workmen in England were first fixed by act of parHament, 25 Edward III., 1350. Haymakers had but one penny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tylera, and other coverers of hou.ses, had not more than Zd. per day (about 9^. of our money) ; and their wal] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 585 servants, l^d. — Vinefs Statutes. By the the 23d Henry VI., 1441, the wages of a baiiift' of husbandry was 23s. M. per annum, and clothing of the price of 6s. with meat and drink; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20s., clothing 4s. ; common servant of husbandry, 15s., clothing 40^. ; woman-servant, 10s., clothing 4s. By the 11th Henry VII., 1495, there was a like rate of wages, only with a little advance ; as, for instance, a free mason, master carpenter, rough mason, bricklayer, master tyler, plumber, glazier, carver, or joiner, was allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take &d. a day, without meat and drink ; or with meat and drink M. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate \d. A master having under him sis men was allowed Id. a day extra. The following were the WAGES OP HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. Year. s. d. Year. In 1350 per diem. 1 In 1688 per diem In 1460 ditto 2 In 1716 ditto In 1568 ditto 4 In 1740 ditto In 1632 ditto 6 In 1760 ditto s. d. Year. s. d. S In 1788 per diem. I 4 9 In 1794 ditto 1 6 10 In ISOO ditto 2 1 In 1840 ditto 3 WAGRAM, Battle of, between the Austrian and French armies, in which the latter was completely victorious, and the former entirely overthrown. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful ; 20,000 Austrians were taken i y the French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia, July 5, 1809. This battle led to an armistice, signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24, to a treaty of peace, by which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France, and the kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her expense. The em- peror was obliged also to yield a part of his plunder of Poland in Gallicia to Russia. The emperor also acknowledged Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain. WAKEFIELD, Battle of, in England, between Margaret, the queen of Henry VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists fell upon the field. The death of the duke, who aspired to the crown, seemed to fix the good fortune of Margaret; but the earl of Warwick es- poused the cause of his son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., and the civil war that was continued from that time devastated all England. This battle was fought December 31, 1460. WAKES. Every church at its consecration received the name of some par- ticular saint; this practice existed among the Romans and Britons, and was continued among the Saxons. — Wliitaker. Women were hired among the ancient Romans to weep at funerals : they were called Carina. The Irish howl originated from this Roman outcry at the decease of their friends. They hoped thus to awaken the soul, which they supposed might lie inactive. WALDENSES. The persecution of this sect in the beginning of the thirteenth century led to the establishment of the Holy Office or Inquisition. Pope Innocent III. had commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies of the Waldenses in Narbonne and Provence; but the Catholic bishops were at first jealous of this mission, armed as it was with great power, and the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates, a. d. 1203-4. One of the monks, the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf, having been as- sassinated, the aspiring pontiff called on all the neighboring powers to ma .'ch into the heretical district. All obstinate heretics were placed at the disposal of Simon de Montfort, commander of this crusade, and the whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses M^ere ordered to be pursued with fire and sword. Neither sex, age, nor condition was spared ; the coun- try became a wilderness, and the towns heaps of smoking ruins. Such was the era of the Inquisition. Doiuinic de Guzman was constituted first inqui- sitor-general, 1208 586 THE WOKLD's progress [ WAN WALES. After the Roman emperor Honorius quitted Britain, Vortigern was elected king of South Britain, and he invited over the Saxons to defend his counti-y against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons perfidiously sent for reinforcements, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they made themselves masters of South Britain, and most of the ancient Britons retired to "Wales, and defended themselves against the Saxons, in its inac- cessible moimtains, about a. d. 447. In this state Wales remained uncon- quered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157 : and in 1282 Edward I. entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independency by the death of Llewellyn, the last prince. The Welsh, however, were not entirely reconciled to this revolution, till the queen happening to be brought to bed of a son at Carnarvon in 1284, Edward with great policy styled him prince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has borne almost ever since. Wales Avas united and incorporated with England by act of parliament, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. See Britam. WALES, PRINCE of. The first prince of this title was Edward, the son of Edward I., who was born in Carnarvon castle on the 25th April, 1284, Im- mediately after his birth he was presented by his father to the Welsh cnief- tains as their future sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant in his arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, " Eich Dyn," literally in English, "This is your man," but signifying, "This is your countryman and king." These words were afterwards changed, or corrupted, as some historians assert, to " Ich Dien," Avhich is the motto attached to the arms of the prince of Wales to this day. Owing to the premature death of his elder brother, this prince succeeded to the throne of England, by the title of Edward II., in 1307. — Myvijrian Archczology. Hist. Wales. For another and very different account of the origin of the motto " Ich Dkn" see the article under that head. WALLOONS. The people who fled to England from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip II. of Spain. On account of the duke's religious proscriptions, those countries revolted from Philip, 1566. — Mariana's Hist, of Spain. The Walloons were Avell received in England. A large Protestant church was given to them by queen Elizabeth, at Canterbury, and many of their posterity still remain in this part of England. — Pardon. WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, and earl of Orford) became first lord of the treasury in 1715. He resigned, on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking fund bill on the day of his resignation. Resumed as head of the ministry, on the earl of Sunderland retiring, in 1721 ; and continued as premier until 1742, Avhen his administration was finally shaken by its unpopular endeavors for some time previously to maintain peace with Spain. WANDERING JEW. The following is the strange account given of this per- sonage : — His original name was Calaphilus, Pontius Pilate's porter. When they were dragging Jesus out of the door of the Judgment-hall, he struck him on the back, saying, "Go faster, Jesus ! go faster; why dost thou lin- ger V Upon which Jesus looked on him with a frown, and said, "I am in- deed going ; but thou shalt tarry till I come." Soon after he was converted, and took the name of Joseph. He lives for ever ; but at the end of every hundred years falls into a fit or trance, upon which when he recovers, he returns to the same state of youth he was in when our Saviour suffered, being about thirty years of age. He always preserves the utmost gravity of deportment. He was never seen to smile. He perfectly remembers the death and resurrection of Christ. — Calmet's Hist, of the Bible. WAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 587 WARS. War is called by Erasmus " the malady of princes." Scriptural wri- ters date the first war as having been begun by the impious son of Cain 3563 B.C. Osymandyas of Egypt was the first warlike king ; he passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 b. c. — Usher. He is supposed by some to be the Osiris of the priests. The most famous siege recorded in the annals of antiquity was that of Troy, 1193 — 1184 b. c. The longest siege was that of Azoth, 647 b. c. The most famous sortie was that of the Platseans from their city, 428 b. c. It is computed that from the beginning of the world to the present time, no less than 6,860;000,000 of men have perished in the field of battle, being about seven times as many of the hu- man species as now inhabit our whole earth. WARS, Civil, op Great Britain. The most remarkable civil wars of Great Britain are the following : — That of a. d. 1215-16. The war of the barons against Henry III., 1565; of the usurpation of Henry IV., 1400; of the White and Red Roses, or houses of York and Lancaster, from 1452 to 1471. The war between Richard III. and Henry VII., 1485. The war against Charles I. from 1642 to 1651. The Scottish civil war under the Pretender, 1715-16 ; that under the Young Pretender, 1745. In Ireland, that under Ty- rone, 1599 ; under O'Neill, 1641 ; and that produced by the great rebellion, 1798. WARS, Foreign, of Great Britain. The wars in France, in which England was involved for nearly two centuries, arose from the dukes of Normandy being kings of England. They held Normandy as a fief of the crown of France ; and when William I. conquered England, it became an English province, but was lost in the reign of king John, 1204. The wars with France were many ; the English princes gained bloody victories at Cressy, Poictiers, and Agincourt ; but they were finally driven out of France in the reign of Henry VI., and lost Calais, by surprise, in the reign of Mary. It w-as to the English people a fortunate loss ; but the rival policy and interests of the two governments have, ever since then, caused half as many years of war as peace. See the countries respectively. Battles, &c. FOREIGN WARS OP GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE CONanEST. War with Scotland ]0G8 Peace 1092 War with Scotland, 1542 Pt ace. 1546 France, 1116 " ins Scotland, 1547 1550 Scotland, 1138 " 1139 France, 1549 1550 France, 1161 " 1186 France, 1557 1559 France, 1194 " 1195 Scotland, 1557 1560 France, 1201 " 1216 France, 1562 1564 France, 1224 " 1234 Spain, 1588 1604 France, 1294 " 1299 Spain, i6-;4 1629 Scotland, 1296 " 1323 France, 1627 1629 Scotland 1327 " 1328 a Holland, 1651 1654 France, 1339 " 1360 Spain, 1655 1660 France, 1368 " 1420 France, 1666 1668 France, 1422 " 1471 Denmark, 1666 1668 France, 1492 " same year Holland, 1666 1668 France, 1512 " 1514 Algiers, 1669 1671 France, 1.522 " 1527 Holland, 1672 1674 Scotland, 1522 " 1542 France, 1689 1697 The general peace of Ryswick between j^nglanc , Germai ly, Hollanc l,Fr ance. and Spain was sig ned by the minister 3 of these powers, at the palace of Ryswick, Sept. 20, 1697. It concluded 1 his last war. THE GREAT MODERN AND EXPENSIVE WARS OP GREAT BRITAIN, War of the Succeasioyi, commenced May 4, 1702. Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. War with Spain, Dec. 16, 1718. Peace con- cluded 1721. War; the Spanish War, Oct. 23, 1730. Peace of Ai.\'-la-ChaDeIle, April 30, 1748. War with France, ]\Iarch 31, 1744. Closed also on April 30, 1748. War ; the Seven years' tear, June 9, 1756. Peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. General peace of Feb. 10, 1763. 588 THE world's progress. [ WAK WARS, Foreign, of Great Britain — continued. War with the United States, July 14, 1774. Peace of Paris, Nov. 30, 1782. War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of Paris. Jan. 20, 1783. War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed same time, Jan 20, 1783. War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace signed Sept. 2, 1783. War of the Revolution, Feb. 1, 1793. Peac« of Amiens, March 27, 1802. War against Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. Fi- nally closed, June 18, 1815. War with the United States, June 18, 1812. Peace of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. For the wars with India and China, see three countries respectively. In the war against Bonaparte, the great powers of Europe leagued sometimes with, and sometimes against Great Britain. England spent 65 years in war, and 62 in peace, in the 127 years previous to the close of the last war in 1815. In the war of 1688, she spent 36 millions sterling ; in the war of the Spanish Succession, 62 millions ; in the Spanish war, 54 millions ; in the Seven Years' war, 112 millions ; in the American war, 136 millions ; in the war of the French Revohition,.464: millions ; and in the war against Bona- parte, 1159 millions ; thus forming a total expenditure for war, in 127 years (from the Revolution in 1688 to the downfall of Napoleon in 1815), of 2023 millions of pounds sterling. M. de Pradt estimates the loss of life sustained by the French forces in the six campaigns of the Peninsular war at six hundred thousand men. The loss sustained by the Spaniards and their allies was probably as great. During the war many districts of the Penin- sula were from time to time laid waste by the contending armies, and the inhabitants Avere victims to all the calamities and horrors thus produced. The total desti-uction of human beings in this last war must have amounted to one million two hundred thousand. WAR. Revolutionary, ending in the independence of the United States, com- menced by the battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775. See Battles. Ended by the Treaty of Paris, 1783. This war cost $135,193,700. WAR, The, op 1812, between the United States and Great Britain : First difficulty respecting the search of American vessels - - - 1806 Chesapeake United States frigate fired on 1807 Non-intercourse act passed - • 1809 United States frigate President, ent^ag- ed the British sloop-of-war Little Belt May 16, 1811 President Madison's war message to congress - - - June 1, 1812 War declared - - - June 19, 1812 Gen. II. Dearborn appointed comman- der-in-chief [See Battles and Naval Battles.] The war opposed in New England, and levies of troops refused by Mass., Conn., and R. 1. Treaty of peace ratified - Feb. 17, 1815 WAR AGAINST Algiers, to punish piracies, &c., declared by the United States, 1815. Commodores Decatur and Bainbridge captured two Algerine vessels and " conquered a peace," July 4, WAR between the UNITED STATES and MEXICO. [The annexation of Texas to the United States having been completed by the vote of the senate of Texas, Dec. 22, 1845.] American army of occupation, (3500) under Gen. Taylor took post on the Rio Grande opposite Matamoras, March 28, 1846 First collision — a reconnoitring party of 70 from American army under Col. Thornton, fired upon and taken pri- soners by the Mexicans - April 24, 1846 Gen. Taylor defeats the Mexicans at Palo Alto, loses 48 killed and 126 wounded. Mexicans, 262 killed and 355 wounded - - May 8-9, 1846 Bill passed both houses of Congress U. S., declaring that war with Mexico already existed, by act of that power, and authorizing 50,000 volunteers May 12, 1846 Monterey taken by Com. Sloaf, July 6, 1847 Santa Fe occupied by Gen. Kearney Aug. 18, 1846 Mexican ports on the Pacific blockaded by Com. Stockton - - Aug. 19, laiG Battle of Monterey, 4700 Americans under Taylor, 10,000 Mexicans under Ampudia. Monterey surrendered. A- merican loss, 120 killed 368 wounded, Mexican much greater - Sept. 21-23, 1846 WAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. m9 WAR WITH MEXICO, continioed. Stevenson's California regiment sailed from New-York - - Sept. 26, 1846 Tobasco bombarded by com. Peny, Oct. 25, 1846 Tampico occupied by com. Connor, Nov. 14, 1846 Col. Doniphan with 450 Missouri volun- teers defeated 1100 Mexicans atBari- to, the latter losing 63 killed and 150 wounded. American loss 6 wounded. Gen. Kearney defeats the " revolted " Califomians, at San Gabriel, &c. Jan. 8, 1847 Major Borland, Cassius M. Clay, Major Gaines, and 80 men, taken prisoners by the Mexicans at Encarnacion, Jan. 23, 1847 Revolt against Americans in N. Mex- . ico, American governor Bent and five others murdered - - Jan 14, 1847 15C0 N. Mexican Indians and Mexicans defeated by col. Price - Jan. 24, 1847 Battle of Buena Vista : Americans 4759 mostly volunteers, under gen. Taylor and gen. Wool ; and Mexicans 22,000 imder Santa Anna; latter defeated and loss 6000 killed and wounded ; Ameri- can loss 267 killed and 456 wounded, Feb. 22-23, 1847 Battle of Sacramento ; American col. Doniphan, 924 men, defeated 4000 Mexicans under Herriilea, latter loss 300 killed, 300 wounded and 40 pri- soners ; American loss, 1 killed and 8 wounded - - - Feb. 28, 1847 Vera Cruz surrendered to gen. Scott and com. Perry; American loss 65 killed and wounded - March 29, 1847 Alvarado surrendered to lieut. Hunter, April 2, 1847 Battle of Cerro-Gordo ; Americans 8500 under gen. Scott, defeat 12,000 Mex- icans under Santa Anna; 5 generals and 3000 men, taken prisoners by Scott: American loss 250, Mexican 350. Taspan taken by com. Perry, April 18, 1847 WARSAW. Late the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this city from Cracow, in 1556. Warsaw surrendered to Charles XII. in 1703. It has been a great prey to war of late j'ears. In the beginning of 1794, the empress of Russia put a garrison into this city, in order to compel the Poles to acquiesce in the usurpations she had in view ; but this garrison was ex- pelled by the citizens, with the loss of 2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36 pieces of cannon, April 17, 1794. The king of Prussia besieged Warsaw in July 1794, but was compelled to raise the siege in September, same year. It was taken by the Russians in the November following. See next article. Warsaw was constituted a duchy and annexed to the house of Saxony in August, 1807 ; but the duchy was overrun bj' the Russians in 1813, and soon afterwards Warsaw again became the residence of a Russian vice- roy. Tlie late Polish revolution commenced here, November 29, 1830. See Poland. WARSAW, B.iTTLEs OP. The Poles suffered a great defeat in a battle with the Russians, Oct. 10, 12, 1794 ; and Snwarrow, the Russian general, after the siege and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 Poles, of all ages and conditions, in cold blood, Nov. 8, 1794. The battle preceding the Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, American gen. Smith drives the Mexi- cans from these fortified posts towards Mexico, losing 1066 killed and wound- ed ; Mexican loss 6000 - Aug. 20, 1847 Armistice agreed upon ; broken by the Mexicans^ Hostilities recommenced Sept. 7, 1S47 Battle of Molino del Rey ; American gen. Worth carried the fortifications defended by 14,000 Mexicans under Santa Anna. American loss, 787 kil- led and wounded ; Mexican loss 3000, Sept. 8, 1847 Battle of Chepultepec, a height near -Mexico, carried by American gene- rals Worth, Quitman, and Pillow, (under gen. Scott) after a loss of 862 Sept. 12-13, 1847 This was followed by the surrender of the city of Mexico - - Sept. 14, 1817 Col. Childs with 400 men and 180O sick in hospitals besieged 28 days at Puebla, but compelled the Mexicans to raise the siege - - Oct. 12, 1847 Contribution of $600,000 levied in Mex- ico for protecting public property in the city - - - Sept. 17, 1847 City of Huamantla captured by Ame- rican gen. Lane, who defeats Santa Anna. American loss, 24 killed and wounded ; Mexican loss 150, Oct. 9, 1847 Port of Guayamas bombarded and cap- tured by American frigate Congress, and sloop Portsmouth - Oct. 20, 1847 A tax levied upon the states of Mexico, and duties &c. laid to the amount of about $3,000,000 - - Dec. 31, 1847 Gen. Scott superseded by Gen. Butler, Feb. 18, 1848 Treaty of peace ratified at Queretaro, by the Hon. A. H. Sevier and N. Clifford, for the United States, and the foreign Mexican minister, Signor De la Rosa - " - - May 30, 1848 American troops finally withdrawn from the city of Mexico, - June 12, 1848 590 THE world's PKOGRESS. [ \TA1 surrender was very bloody ; of 26,000 men, moi-e than 10,000 were killed, nearly 10,000 were made prisoners, and 2000 only escaped the fury of the merciless conqueror. Battle of Growchow, near Warsaw, in which the Rus- sians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the loss of 7000 men, Feb. 20, 1831. Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard fighting, the city capitulated, and was taken possession of by the Russians. Great part of the Polish army i-etired towards Plock and Modlin. This last battle was fought Sept. 7 and 8, 1831. WARSAW, Treaties of. The treaty of alliance of Warsaw, between Austria and Poland, against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted in raising the siege of Vienna (on the 18th of September following), signed March 31, 1683. Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, February 24, 1768. WASHINGTON. The capita, of the United States, founded in 1791, and first made the seat of government in 1800. The house of representatives was opened for the first time. May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late war by the British forces under general Ross, when the Capitol and the President's house were consumed by a general conflagration, the troops not sparing even the national library, August 24, 1814. General Ross was soon afterwards killed in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12, follow- ing. See United States. WASHINGTON, GEORGE. Born Feb. 22, 1732 ; in the expedition of Brad- dock against fort Du Quesne 1755 ; appointed commander-in-chief of the American army 1775 ; elected president of Convention for forming Consti- tution 1787 ; elected President of the United States 1789 ; again in 1793 ; died 1799. Washington monument at New York, corner-stone laid, Oct. 19, 1847. National monument to Washington, corner-stone laid July 4, 1848 ; oration by Robt. C. Winthrop. Virginia monument to Washington, corner- stone laid by President Taylor, Feb. 22, 1849. WATCHES. They are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, a. d. 1477 ; although it is affirmed that Robert, king of Scotland, had a watch about A. D. 1310. Watches were first used in astronomical observations by Purbach, 1500. Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was the first who had anything that might be called a watch, though some call it a small table-clock, 1530. Watches were first brought to England from Germany in 1577. — Hume. Spring jjocket-watches (watches properly so called) have had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke by the English, and to m.. Huy- gens by the Dutc^, Dr. Derham, in his Artificial Clockmaker, says that Dr. Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears certainly to have produced what is called the pendulum watch. The time of this invention was about 1658 ; as is manifest, among other evidences, from an inscription on one of the double-balance watches presented to Charles II., viz., " Rob. Hooke in- ven. 1658. T. Tompion fecit, 1675." Rei^eatiug watches were invented by Barlowe, 1676. Harrison's time-piece was invented in 1735 ; improved 1739, 1749, 1753. In 1759, he made the time-piece which procured him the reward of 20,000/., offered by the Board of Longitude, 1763. Watches and clocks were taxed in 1797. The tax was repealed in 1798. See Clocks. WATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic sect, looked upon water (as also did Homer, and sevei'al of the ancient philosophers) as being the original principle of every thing besides, about 594 b. c. — ■Stanley. It is the universal drink of man. The ancients usually diluted their wines with much water ; and Hesiod prescribes three measures of water to one of wine in summer. — Madame Dacier. lu the Roman cliurch water was first mixed WAT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 591 with the sacramental wine, a. d. 122. — Lenglet. " Honest M^ater is too weak to bo a sinner ; it never left a man in the mire." — Shakspeare. WATER-CLOCKS. The first instruments used to measure the lapse of time, independently of the sunshine, were clepsydrcB or water-clocks. These were most probably vessels of water, with a small hole through the bottom ; through this hole the water ran out in a certain time, possibly an hour ; after which the vessel was again filled to be emptied as before. This in- vention was a manifest improvement on the old sun-dials, whose perpendi- cular gnomon gave hours of different length at the various seasons of the year. Something similar to the hour-glass was occasionally used; and Alfred the Great, probably ignorant of these methods, adopted the burning of a taper as a measure of time. WATER-MILLS. Used for grinding corn, invented by Belisarius, the general of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, a. d. 555. The ancients parched their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were in- vented, which were turned by men and beasts with great labor ; and yet Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. WATER TOE ANA, or Wives' Poison. See article Poisoning. The poison so freely administered by Italians in the 17th century, called aqua tofana, from the name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in small flat vials. She carried on this traffic for half a century, and eluded the police ; but on being taken, confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 people. Numerous persons Avere implicated by her, and many of them were publicly executed. All Italy was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled in prison. It appeared to have been chiefly used bj^ married women who were tired of their hus- bands. Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was not sudden, and therefore not suspected. It was as clear as water, but the chemists have not agreed about its real composition. A proclamation of the pope de- scribed it as aqviafortis distilled into arsenic, and others considered it as a solution of crystallized arsenic. The secret of its preparation was conveyed to Paris, where the marchioness de Brinvilliers poisoned her father and two brothers ; and she with many others was executed, and the preparers burnt alive. — Phillips. WATERLOO, Battle of. The greatest victory ever won by British arms, and the most decisive and happy in its consequences. In this great battle the French army, with Napoleon as its chief, was signally overthrown by the British and allies under the duke of Wellington, June 18, 1815. Napoleon attacked the British, whom he expected to overwhelm by superior num- bers, but they maintained their ground, and repiilsed the enemy from about nine in the morning till seven at night, when the French line began to waver. The commander then gave orders to charge ; a total rout ensued, and Blu- cher, who oi:)portunely came up at this juncture, joined in the pursuit. On both sides the carnage was immense ; but that of the French was double the amount of the British. Napoleon quitted the wreck of his flying army, and returned to Paris, where he attempted, after the destruction of three great armies, to raise a fourth ; but finding this impossible, his abdication followed. See Bonaparte and France. WATER-SPOUl'. Whirlwinds and water-spouts proceed from the same cause, the only difference being that water-spouts pass over the water, and whirl- winds over the land. — Dr. Franklin. Two water-spouts fell on the Glatx mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful devastation to Hautenbach, and many other villages ; a prodigious number of houses were destroyed, and many persons perished, July 13, 1827. A water-spout at Glanflesk, near Kil- 592 THE world's progress. [ WED lamey, in Ireland, passed over a farm of Mr. John Macarthy, and destroyed his cottage, two other farmhouses, and other buildings, of which not a ves- tige remained. In this catastrophe seventeen persons perished. August 4, 1831. WAX. This substance came into use for candles in the twelfth century ; and wax candles were esteemed a luxury in 1300, being but little used. In China, candles of vegetable wax have been in use for centuries. See Candleberry. Wax candles are made very cheap in America, from the berry of a particu- lar species of myrtle, which yields excellent wax, of a green color. Sealing- wax was not brought into use in England until about 1556. The wax-tree, Ligusirum lucidum, was brought from China before 1794. WE. The common language of kings is 7oe, which plural style was begun with king John, a. d. 1199. — Cokeys Instib. Before this time sovereigns used the singular person in all their edicts. — Idem. The German emperors and French kings used the plural about a. d. 1200. — Henault. It is now the style royal of all monarchs. In the articles of public journals they also adopt the plu- ral, indicating that what they write proceeds from a plurality of pens. WEALTH. This is a relative term ; for as there is only a certain amount of property in a country, so the possession of a large share by one man is the poverty of others. The wealth of individuals is therefore no benefit to the country, while as to others it is the cause of their poverty. The instances of wealth in the early ages are many and most extraordinary. The mighti- est conflagration of wealth on record is that of Sardanapalus, where riches amounting to one thousand four hundred millions sterling were destroyed. — Alhenaus. Cascilius Isidorus died at Rome possessed of 4116 slaves, 3600 oxen, 200,000 head of other cattle, and three millions of our money in coin, 8 B. c. — U)iw. Hist. WEAVING. The art of weaving appears to have been practised in China from the earliest antiquity — more than a thousand years before it was known in Europe or Asia. Poets assign the art to the spider. Women originally spun, wove, and dj^ed ; and the origin of these arts is ascribed, by ancient nations, to different women as women's arts. The Egyptians ascribed it to Isis ; the Greeks, to Minerva ; and the Peruvians, to the wife of Manco Ca- pac. In most easterr. countries, the employment of weaving is still per- formed by the women. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any seam, being woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. Perhaps, says Dr. Dodd- ridge, this cirrious garment might be the work and present of some pious women Avho attended him, and ministered unto him of their substance, Luke viii. 3. The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in Calmet's Dictionary^ under the word Veslvients. WEAVING IN ENGLAND. Two weavers from Brabant settled at York, where thej'^ manufactured woollens, which, says king Edward, "may prove of great benefit to us and our subjects," 1331. Flemish dyers, cloth-drapers, linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c. settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colches- ter, Southampton, and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's perse- cution, 1567. WEDGWOOD WARE. A fine species of pottery and porcelain, produced by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Staffordshire, 1762. The manufactories for this ware employed 10,000 families in England. Previously to 1763, most of the superirr kinds of earthenwares were imported from France. WEDNESDAY. The fourth day of the week, so called from a Saxon idol, call- ed Woden, supposed to be Mars, worshipped on this day. The name given to our Wednesday by the Saxons was Woden's day, which was afterwards corrupted to Wednesda\'. See next article. WES ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 593 WEEK. The space of seven days, supposed to be first used among the Jews, who observed the sabbath every seventh day ; they had three sorts of weeks, the first the common one of seven days, the second of j'^ears, which was seven years, the third of seven times seven years, at tlie end of whicli was the jubilee. All the present English names are derived from the Saxon: — Latin. English. Saxon. Presided over by Dies Saturni, Saturday, Saterne's day, Satum. Dies Solis, Sunday, Sun's day, Tlie sun. Dies Lunae, Blonday, Moon's day, The moon. Dies Martis, Tuesday, Tiw's day. Mars. Dies Mercurii, Wednesday, Woden's day. Mercury. Dies .Tovis, Thursday, Thor's day, Jupiter. Dies Veneris, Friday, Friga's day, Venus. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. These, and the stamping of gold and silver money, were invented by Phydon, tyrant of Argos, 895 b. c. et seq. — Arunde- lian Marbles. Weights were originally taken from grains of wheat, the lowest being still called a grain. — Chalmers. The standard measure was originally kept at Winchester by the law of king Edgar, a d. 972. Stand- ards of weights and measures were provided for the whole kingdom of Eng- land by the^ sheriffs of London, 8 Richard I., 1197. A public Aveighing- machine was set up in London, and all commodities ordered to be weighed by the city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice between buyer and seller, statute 3d Edward II., 1309. — Stowe. The first statute, directing the use of avordupois weight, is that of 24 Henry VIII., 1532. — Philosophical Transactions, vol. 65, art. 3. The French adopt the metre of 3.28084, or the 10 millionth part of the distance from the Pole to the Equa- tor, as the standai'd of measure; and the kilogramme, equal to 2,255 pounds avoirdupois, as the standard of weight. WESLEYAN METHODISTS. A large body of Christians, whose sect was founded by an excellent and pious man, John Wesley. In 1730 he and his brother, with a few other students, formed themselves into a small society for the purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises. So singular an association excited considerable notice, and among other names bestowed upon the members, that of Methodists was applied to them. Mr. Wesley went to Georgia in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the Indians. On his return to England, he commenced itinerant preacher, and gathered many followers ; but the churches being shut against him, he built spacious meeting-houses in London, Bristol, and other places. For some time he was united with Mr. Whitefield ; but differences arising on account of the doctrine of election, they separated, and the Methodists were denominated according to their respective leaders. Mr. Wesley was indefatigable in his labors, and almost continually engaged in travelling over England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. His society was well organized, and he preserved his influence over it to the last. He died in London in 1791. WEST INDIES. Discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being the first land he made in the new world, and first seen by him in the night between the 11th and 12th Oct., 1492. See the Islands respectively. WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire was divided into Eastern and Western by Valentinian and Valens, of whom the former had the western portion, or Rome, properly so called, a. d. 364. Odoacer, a chief of the Heruli, entered Italy, defeated Orestes, took Rome and Ravenna, deposed Augustulus, and assumed the title of king of Italy, August 23, which ended the Western empire, 507 years after the battle of Actium, a. d. 476. See Eastern Empire. WESTMINSTER ABBEY. As regards this magnificent cathedral, the miraci* lous stories of monkish writers and of ancient historians have been que«- 594 THE world's progress. [ wm tioned by sir Christopher Wren, who was employed to survey the present edifice, and who, upon the nicest examination, found nothing to coimtenance the general belief that it was erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. His- torians, agreeably to the legend, have fixed the era of the first abbey in the sixth century, and ascribed to Sebert the honor of erecting it. This church becoming ruinous, it was splendidly rebuilt by Edward the Confessor, be- tween A. D. 1055 and 1065 ; and he stored it with monks from Exeter. Pope Nicholas II. about this time constituted it the place for the inauguration of the kings of England. The church was once more built in a magnificent and beautiful style by Henry III. In the reigns of Edward H., Edward III., and Richard II., the great cloisters, abbot's house, and the principal mo- nastic buildings were erected. The western parts of the nave and aisles were rebuilt by successive monarchs, between the years 1340 and 1483. The west front and the great window were built by those rival princes, Richard III. and Henry VII. ; and it was the latter monarch who commenced the magnificent chapel which bears his name, and the first stone of which was laid Jan. 24, 1502-3. The abbey was dissolved, and made a bishopric, 1541 ; and was finally made a collegiate church by Elizabeth, 1560. WESTMINSTER HALL. One of the most venerable remains of English ar- chitecture, first built by William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting-hall ; and here in 1099, on his return from Normandy, " he kept his feast of Whit- suntide very royallj'." Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, when the number of the guests each day the feast lasted was 10,000. — Slowe. The courts of law were established here by king John. — Idevi. Westmin- ster-hall is universally allowed to be the largest room in Europe imsupported by pillars : it is 270 feet in length, and 74 broad. The hall underwent a general repair in 1802. WESTPHALIA. This duchy belonged, in former times, to the duke of Sax- ony. On the secularization of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt ; and in 1814, was ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom of Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of Bonaparte, composed of conquests from Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to the west of the Elbe, created December 1, 1807, and Jerome appointed king. Hanover was annexed March 1, 1810. This kingdom was overturned in 1813. WESTPHALIA, Peace of, signed at Munster and at Osnaburgh, between France, the emperor, and Sweden; Spain continuing the war against France. By this peace the principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognised : Alsace given to France, and part of Pomerania and some other districts to Sweden ; the Elector Palatine restored to the Lower Pala- tinate ; the civil and political rights of the German States established ; and the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by Germany, Oc- tober 24, 1648. WHALE FISHERY of the UNITED STATES. In 1845 this trade employed 650 vessels, aggregate tonnage 200,000 tons,— cost, $20,000,000 ; manned by 17,500 olEcers and seamen. ''■ Commercial history furnishes no parallel to this whaling fleet — it is larger than those of all other nations combined.' — Speech of Mr. Grinnell. WHEAT AND FLOUR. The amount exported by the United States, from 1790 to 1838, was 10.283,471 bushels.— average, 209,666 bushels per annum. In 1845 the amount exported was valued at S-5,735,372 ; in 1846, $13,350,644. This was exclusive of Corn, Rye, &c. The amount was greatly increased by the scarcity in Europe, especially in Ireland. WHITE FRIARS. These were an order of Carmelite mendicants, who took WIL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 595 their name from Mount Carmel, lying southwest of Mount Tabor, in tha Holy Land. They pretended that Elijah and Elisha were the founders of their order, and that Pythagoras and the ancient Druids were professors of it. At first they were very rigid in their discipline, but afterwards it was moderated, and about the year 1540 divided into two sorts, one following and restoring the ancient severities, and the other the milder regimen. They had numerous monasteries throughout England : and a precinct in London without the Temple and west of Blackfriars, is called Whitefriars to this day, after a community of their order, founded there in 1245. WHITEHALL, London. Originally built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent, before the middle of the 13th century. It afterwards devolved to the arch- bishop of York, whence it received the name of York-place, and continued to be the town residence of the archbishops till purchased by Hemy VIII. of cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became the residence of the court. Queen Elizabeth, who died at Greenwich, was brought from thence to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It was on this occasion, Camden informs us, that the following quaint panegyric on her majesty was written : — " The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. More clung about the barge ; fish under water Wept outiheir eyes of pearl, and swam blind after. I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes ; For howsoe'er, thus much my thoughts have scann'd, She had come by water, had she come by land." In 1697, the whole was destroyed by an accidental fire, except the banquet- ing-house, which had been added to the palace of Whitehall by James I., according to a design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of Whitehalj Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649. George I. converted the hall into a chapel, 1723-4. The exterior of this edifice underwent repair between 1829 and 1833. WHITSUNTIDE. The festival of Whitsunday is appointed by the church to commemorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the apostles : in the pri- mitive church, the newly-baptized persons, or catechumens, used to wear white garments on Whi'sunday. This feast is movable, and sometimes falls in May and sometimes in June ; but is always exactly seven weeks after Easter. Rogation week is the week before Whitsunday; it is said to have been first instituted by the bishop of Vienne in France, and called Rogation week upon account of the many extraordinary prayers and pre- paratory petitions made for the devotion of Holy Thursday for a blessing on the fruits of the earth, and for averting the dismal effects of war and other evils. WICKLIFFITES. The followers of John WickliflTe, a professor of divinity in the university of Oxford. He was the father of the Reformation of the English church from popery, being the first who opposed the autho- rity of the pope, the jurisdiction of the bishops, and the temporalities of the church, in 1377. Wicklifie was protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's son and Richard's uncle, yet virulently persecuted by the church, and res- cued from martyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his death, Dec. 31, 1384, in his 60th jea.v.— Mortimer. WILDFIRE. An artificial fire, which burns under water. The French call it feu Grecquois, because it was discovered by the Greeks, by whom it was first used, about a. d. 660. Its invention is ascribed to Callinicus of Hclio- polis. — Nouv. Diet. See article Greek Fire. 696 THE world's progress. [ WIN WILKES' NUMBER. The designation given to the 45th number of a paper styled the North Briton, published by John Wilkes, an alderman of London. He commenced a paper warfare against the earl of Bute and his adminis- tration, and in this particular copy, printed April 23, 1763, made so free a use of royalty itself, that a general warrant was issued against him by the earl of Halifax, then secretai-y of state, and he was committed to the Tower. His warfare not only deprived him of liberty, but exposed him to two duels ; but he obtained .£1,000 damages and full costs of suit for the illegal seizure of his papers. He further experienced the vengeance of the court of King's Bench, and both houses of parliament, for the libel, and for his obscene poem "An Essay on Woman;" and was expelled the commons and out- lawed; he was, however, elected a fifth time for Middlesex in October 1774, and the same year served the ofiSce of lord mayor ; but was over- looked in a subsequent general election, and died in 1797. WILLS, LAST, AND TESTAMENTS. Wills are of very high antiquity. See Genesis, c. 48. Solon introduced them at Athens, 578 b. c. There are many regulations respecting wills in the Koran. The Romans had this power, and so had the native Mexicans ; so that it prevailed at least in three parts of the globe. Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the first person who introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 b. c. The power of bequeath- ing lands by the last will or testament of the OAvner, was confirmed to En- glish subjects, 1 Henry I., 1100 ; but with great restrictions and limitations respecting the feudal system ; which were taken off by the statute of Henry VIII., 1541. — Blackstone's Comtnentaries. The first will of a sovereign on record is stated (but in error) to be that of Richard II., 1399. Edward the Confessor made a will, 1066. WIND-MILLS. They are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to be of Roman invention ; but certainly we are indebted for the wind-mill to the Saracens. They are said to have been originally introduced into Europe by the knights of St. John, who took the hint from what they had seen in the crusades. — Baker. Wind-mills were first known in Spain, France, and Germany, in 1299. — Anderson. Wind saw-mills were invented by a Dutch- man, in 1633. when one was erected near the Strand, in London. WINDOWS. See Glass. There were windows in Pompeii, a. d. 79, as is evi- dent from its ruins. It is certain that Avindows of some kind were glazed so early as the third centurj^ if not before, though the fashion was not in- troduced until it was done by Bennet, a. d. 633. Windows of glass were used in private houses, but the glass was imported 1177. — Anderson. In England about 6000 houses now have fifty windows and upwards in each ; about 275,000 have ten windows and upwards ; and 725,000 have seven win- dows, or less than seven. The window-tax was first enacted in order to defray the expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of gold, 7 William m., 1695. WINDSOR CASTLE. A royal residence of the British sovereigns, originally built by William the Conqueror, but enlarged by Henry I. The monarchs who succeeded him likewise resided in it, till Edward III., who was born here, caused the old building, with the exception of three towers at the west end, to be taken down, and re-erected the whole castle, under the di- rection of William of Wykeham. He likewise built St. George's chapel. Instead of alluring workmen by contracts and wages, Edward assessed every county in England to send him so many masons, tilers, and carpen- ters, as if he had been levying an army. Several additions were made to this edifice by succeeding sovereigns ; the last by George IV. AVJNES. The invention of wine is given to Noah. — Abhe Lengleb. The art of WIT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 597 making wine from rice is ascribed by the Chinese to their king, Ching Noung, about 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hist. The art of making wine was brought from India by Bacchus, as other authorities have it. Hosea spealcs of the wine of Lebanon as being very fragrant. — Hosea, xiv. 7. Our Saviour changed water into wine at the marriage of Cana in Galilee. — Joh7i ii. 3, 10. " The conscious waters saw their God, and \i\.vs!D.'&."— Addison. No wine was produced in France in the time of the Romans. — Bossuet. Spirits of wine were known to the alchymists. — Idem. Concerning the ac- quaintance which our progenitors had with wine, it has been conjectured that the Phoenicians might possibly have introduced a small quantity of it ; but this liquor was very little known in our island before it was conquered by the Romans. Wine was sold in England by apothecaries as a cordial in A. D. 1300, and so continued for some time after, although there is mention of '■ wine for the king " so eaiiy as 1249 ; and we are even sent to a much earlier period for its introduction and use in Britain. In 1400 the price was twelve shillings the yjipe A hundred and fifty biitts and pipes con- demned for being adulterated, were staved and emptied into tlie channels of the streets by Rainwell, mayor of London, in the 6th of Henry VI., 1427. — Siowe's Chron. The first importation of claret wine into Ireland was on June 17, 1490. The first act for licensing sellers of wine in England passed April 25, 1661. In 1800 England imported 3,807,460 gallons of all kinds of wine. In 1815, the United Kingdom imported 4,806,528 gallons. In 1880 were imported 6,879 558 gallons ; and in the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, were imported 9,909,056 gallons, of which 7,000,486 were for home consumption. —Pari. Ret. WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, A. D. 1410. Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nuremberg in 1563. The first wire-mill in England was erected at Mortlake in 1663. — Morttmer. The astonishing ductility which is one of the distinguishing qualities of gold, is no way more conspicuous than in gilt wire. A cylinder of 48 ounces of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing only one ounce, is usually drawn into a wire two yards of which only weigh one grain ; so that 98 yards of the wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one single grain of gold covers the whole 98 yards ; and the thousandth part of a grain is above one-eighth of an inch long. — Halley. Eight grains of gold covering a cy- linder of silver are coramonh'' drawn into a wire 13,000 feet long ; yet so jjerfectly does it cover the silver, that even a microscope does not discover any appearance of the silver underneath. — Boyle. WIRTEMBERG. One of the most ancient states of Germany, and most popu- lous for its extent. The dukes were Protestant until 1772, when ihe reign- ing prince became a Catholic. Wirtemberg has been repeatedly traversed by hostile armies, particularly since the revolution of France. Moreau made his celebrated retreat Oct. 28, 1796. Tlie prince of Wirtemberg mar- ried the princess royal of England, daughter of George III., May 17, 1797. This state obtained now acquisitions in territory in 1802 and 1805. The elector assumed the title of king Dec. 12, 1805, and was proclaimed Jan. 1, . 1806. His majesty, as an ally of France, lost the flower of his army in Rus- sia, in 1812. The kingdom obtained a free constitution in 1819. The king granted hberty of the press, March 2, 1848. WISCONSIN. One of the western United States was organized out of the North West Territory, and received a territorial government in 1836 ; ad- mitted into the Union as a state Feb. 9, 1847. Population in 1830, 30,945 : cliietly emigrants from the northern and middle states. WFJ'CHCRAFT. The pimi.shnient of witchcraft was first countenanced by the 598 THE world's progress. [ WIT churcli of Rome ; and persons suspected of the crime have been subjected to the most cniel and uni-elenting punishments. In tens of thousands of cases, the victims, often innocent, were burnt alive, while others were drowned by the test applied ; for if, on being thrown into a pond, they did not sink, they were presumed witches, and either killed on the spot, or re- served for burning at the stake. Five hundred witches were burnt in Gene- va, in three months, in 1515. One thousand were burnt in the diocese of Como in a year. An incredible number in France, about 1520, when one sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates. Nine hundred were burnt in Lorraine, between 1580 and 1595. One hundred and fifty-seven were burnt at Wurtzburg, between 1627 and 1629, old and young, clerical, learned, and ignorant. At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four years, out of a popu.ittion of 600; and more than 100,000 perished, mostly by the flames, in Germany. Grandier, the parish priest of Loudun, was burnt on a charge of having be- witched a whole convent of nuns, 1634. In Bretagne, twenty poor women were put to death as witches, 1654. Disturbances commenced on charges of witchcraft in Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecutions raged dreadfully in Pennsylvania in 1683. Maria Renata was tjurnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women were charged with having bewitched, and rendered unfruitful, the lands belonging to that palatinate, and were burnt Jan. 17, 1775. — Aim. Meg. Five women were condemned to death by the Bramins, at Patna, for sorcery, and executed Dec. 16, 1802. — Idem. WITCHCRAFT and CONJURATION in ENGLAND. Absurd and wicked laws were in force against them in Great Britain in former times, by which death was the punishment, and thousands of persons suffered both by the public executioners and the hands of the people. A statute was enacted declaring all witchcraft and sorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy, 33 Henry VIII., 1541. Again, 5 Elizabeth, 1562, and 1 James, 1603. Bar- rington estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft in England in 200 years at 30,000. The English condemned and burnt the beautiful and heroic Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, as a sorceress, a. d. 1431. See Joan of Arc. • Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 1664. Three thousand were executed in England under the long parliament. Northamptonshire and Huntingdon preserved the superstition about witchcraft later than any other counties. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in 1705, while *he Spectator was in course of publication in London, and five others sevei. years afterwards. In 1716, Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged nine, were hanged at Huntingdon. In Scotland, thousands of persons were burnt in the period of about a hundred years. Among the victims were per- sons of the highest rank, while all orders in the state concurred. James I. even caused a whole assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. This king pub- lished his Dialogues of Dccmonologie first in Edinburgh, and afterwards in London.* The last sufferer in Scotland was in 1722, at Dornoch. The laws - ' All persons at court who sought the favor of James, praised his Damonologie ; and parlia- ment, to flatter him, made its twelfth law against witchcral't in 1603. By this statute deatli was iiiMicted on sorcerers in these words: "If any person shall use any invocation or conjuration of any evil or wicked spirit— shall entertain, employ, feed, or reward any evil or cursed spirit — take up Hiiy dead body to employ in witchcraft, sorcery, or enchantment — or shall practise, or shall exor cise, any sort of witchcraft, sorcery, &c., whereby any person shall be killed, wasted, consumed, phied, or lamed." This being the law of the land, no person presumed to doubt the existence ot witchcraft; hence Shakspeave gave countenance to the error, and the learned bishop Hall mentions a place where, he said, there were more witches than houses. Allaying of ghosts, driving ou' evfi spirits, and abjuring wiiches became in consequence, tor a century, a profitable employment to the clergy of all denominations.. Witch- tinders e.xisted, too. as public officers; and, besides the public executions, which disgraced every assizes, muUiiudes of accused were destroyed by popular re- sentment. — Phillips. woo ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 599 against witclicraft had lain dormant for many years, when an ignorant person, attempting to revive them, by finding a bill against a poor old woman in Snr- I'ey for the practice of witchcraft, they were repealed, 10 George II., 1736. — Viner's Abridgment. WITENA-MOT, or WITENA-GEMOT. Among our Saxon ancestors, this was the term which Avas applied to their deliberations, and which literally sig- nified the assembling of the wise men in the great council of the nation. A witena-mot was called in London, a. d. 833, to consult on the proper means to repel the Danes. This name was dropped about the period of the Norman conquest, and that of parliament adopted. See Parliament. V\''OLVES. These animals were very numerous in England. Their heads were demanded as a tribute, particularly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, A. D. 961, by which step they were totally destroyed. — Carte. Edward I. issued his mandate for the destruction of wolves in several counties of Eng- land, A. D. 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for mar^y centuries after their extirpation in England ; for there are accounts of some being found there so late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing wolves was made in the county of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which kingdom 834 wolves and cubs were killed in 1828-9. When wolves cross a river, they follow one another directly in a line, the second holding the tail of the first in its mouth, the third that of the second, and so of the rest. This figure was, on this account, chosen by the Greeks to denote the j'ear, composed of twelve months following one another, M'hich they denominated Lycabas, that is, the march of the wolves. — Abbe Pluche. WOMAN. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women seem to have been considered merely as objects of sensuality and domestic convenience, and were commonly devoted to seclusion and obscurity ; it was not until the northern nations had settled themselves in the provinces of the Roman em- pire that the female character assumed new consequence. They brought with them the respectful gallantry of the North, and a complaisance towards females which inspired generous sentiments hitherto little known to the ■ polished nations of antiquity, and which ultimately led to the institution of chivahy. England is called the paradise of women; Spain, their purgatory ; and Turkejs their hell. The following lines beautifully describe Adam's first sight of Eve : " He laid him down and slept — and from his side A woman in her magic beauty rose ; Dazzled and charmed, he called that woman ' bride.' And Iris first sleep became his last repose." — Eesser, tranilated by Bowring. The following distinguished men, though married, were unhappy in that state : Arist* tie, Socrates, Pittacus, Periander, Euripides, and Aristophanes. Among the moderns : Boccaccio, Dante, Milton, Steele, Addison, Dryden, Moliere, Racine, Sterne, Garrick, and lord Bacon. — Woman ; as she is, and as she should be. Among the most beautiful eulogies on woman is the fol- lowing, addressed to a lovely Italian nun by an English nobleman : " Die when you will, you need not wear, At heaven's court, a form more fair Than beauty at your birth has given ; Keep but the lips, the eyes we see, The voice we hear, and you will be An angel ready-made for heaven !" — Lord Herbert. WOOD-CUTS, OR WOOD-ENGRAVING. See article Engraving on Wood. The invention is ascribed by some to a gun-smith of Florence ; by others, to Reuss, a German, a.d. 1460; but it has an earlier origin, as shown in the article referred to. Brought to i)erfection by Durer and Lucas. Brought 600 THE world's progress. [ WOH to great perfection by Bewick, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., in 1789-1799; and more recently by Cruikshank, and others. WOOL. Dr. Anderson, in a memorial subjoined to the "Report of the Com- mittee of the Highland Society," proves, from indisputable records, that from the earliest times down to the reign of queen Ehzabeth, the wool of Great Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the finest in the universe ; and that even in the times of the Romans, a manu- facture of woollen cloths was established at Winchester for the use of the emperors. In later times, wool was manufactured in England, and is men- tioned in A. D. 1185, but not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving of it was introduced by John Kempe and other artisans from Flanders. This was the real origin of the English wool manufactures, Edward III., 1331. — Rymer^s Fadera. The exportation prohibited, 1337. The exportation of English wool, and the importation of Irish wool into England, prohibited, 1696. The non-exportation law repealed, 1824. WOOLLEN CLOTH. The manufacture of cloth was known, it is supposed, in all civilized countries, and in very remote ages, and probably of linen also. Woollen cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of Julius Cae- sar, and are familiarly alluded to by him. They were made in England be- fore A. D. 1200, and the manufacture became extensive in the reign of Edward III., 1331. They were then called Kendal cloth, and Halifax cloth. See preceding article. Blankets were first made in England about a. d. 1340. — Camden. No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported into England, 1463. The art of dyeing brought into England, 1608. See article Dyeing. Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made, 1614. Manufacture of fine cloth begun at Sedan, in France, under the patronage of cardinal Mazarine, 1646. British and Irish woollens prohibited in France, 1677. All persons obliged to bo buried in woollen, or the persons directing the burial otherwise to for- feit 51, 29 Charles II., 1678. The manufacture of cloth greatly improved in England by Flemish settlers, 1688. Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 11 William III., 1698. The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, ex- cept to certain ports of England, 1701. English manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne, 1712, and 2 George 1., 1715. Greater in Yorkshire in 1785, than in all England at the Revolution. — Clialmers. Q,nANT .TY and declared VALUE OP CLOTHS EXPORTED PROM GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOL- LOWING YEARS : — Quantity. Pieces - Yards - - Declared value 18(T0. 1,022,8.3.9 4,213.677 je3,914;661 1825. 1,741,933 7,798,610 £6,194,926 1830. 1,747,036 5,561,877 £4,608,592 1840. 2,143,796 8,170,642 £5,921,116 WORCESTER, Batti^k op, in the Civil War, fought between the Royalist army and the forces of the parliament, the latter commanded by Ci'omwell. A large body of Scots had marched into England with a view to reinstate Charles II., but Cromwell signally defeated them ; the streets of the city were strewed with the dead, the whole Scots army having been either killed or taken prisoners. This famous battle aff'orded Cromwell what he called his crowning m.ercy. Charles with difficulty escaped to France. Of 8000 pri- soners, most were sent to bond-service in the American colonies. September 3, 1651. WORLD. According to Julius Africanus, as quoted bj^ Gibbon, the world was created September 1, 5508 b. c. Most chronologers, however, mention the year 4004 b. c. as the period of its first existence. The Jews celebrate the 19th of September as the day of the creation, and some suppose that it was created in spring. Its globular form was first suggested by Thales of Mile- tus, about 610 B. c. The fir.'^t geographical table and map of the world was WOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 601 made by Anaximander, about 560 b. c. — Pliny. Discoveries of Pythagoras and his system, about 539 b. c. — Stanley. The magnitude of the earth cal- culated by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The system of Copernicus promulgated, A. D. 1530. Map of the world on Mercator's projection, in which the earth is taken as a plane, 1556. The notion of the magnetism of the earth started by Gilberd, 1583. Magnitude of the earth determiaed by Picart, 1669. WORMS, Diet op. The celebrated imperial diet before which Martin Luther was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. Luther was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a league from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, that when Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his danger, he answer- ed, " If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs of its houses, I would go on." Before the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and pre- lates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther appeared, April 17th, in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions, and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. But Frederick the Wise advised him to seclude himself to save his life, which he did for about ten months, and his triumph was afterwards complete. WORSHIP. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Upper Eg5Tpt, is said to have been the author of religious worship: he is supposed to be the Co'pt of the Egyptians, and the Totli or Hermes of the Greeks ; the Mercury of the Latins, and the Teutates of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 b. c. — Usher. Religious worship had an origin in most tribes and nations, in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena. Benefits were ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. This primary idea was enlarged and diversified by dreaming during imperfect sleep, or thinking while the volition was torpid, and by illusions of the senses, which led to belief in ghosts, signs, and omens, and these causes were augmented by enthusiasts. — PJiilUps. In all nations, whether civilized or barbarous, worship prevails, but is purest in Protestant states. — Sherlock. WORSHIP IN ENGLAND. In England were many forms of worship at the period of the Roman invasion. The first Saxons were idolaters, and de- dicated to their gods groves of the tallest trees and thickest forests, and there worshipped them without building any temples to them, or represent- ing them by any figures or images. Our days of the week are named after Saxon divinities — the Sun, Moon, Tuesco, Woden, Thor, Friga, and Saturn. Easter is named from their goddess Eostre ; and Christmas was from their great festival Geoli. Faul, or Fola, was their dreaded enemy ; and they be- lieved in elves and fairies, sorcery and witchcraft. The Saxon religion was afterwards mingled with the Christian ; but the former was in time wholly superseded by the latter, and in the end, the Reformation introduced our present pure and simple mode of worship. In Scotland, the benign influence of the Reformation soon put aside all other forms. The following is a re- markable document, given in M'Crie's Life of John Knox, (Blackwood, Edinburgh, 1831,) relating to the removal of images from Catholic places of worship in Scotland, at the period of the Reformation : — " To our traistfriendis, the Lairds ofArn- tiUy and Kinvaid. " Traist friends, after maist harty com- mendacion, we pray you faill not to pass incontinent to the kyrk of Diinkeld, arid tak doun the haill itnages thereof, and bring furth to the kyrkzard, and burn thaym op- pinly. And siclyk cast down the altaris, and purge the kyrk of all kynd of monu- ments of idolatrye. And this ye faill not to do, as ze will do us singular prupleseur ; 26 and so committis vow to the protection of God. From Edinburgh, the xii of August. 1560. " Faill not, bot ze tak guid heyd that nei- ther the dasks, windocks, nor durris, be ony ways hurt or broken either glassin wark or iron wark. " Ar. Ersyll, "James Stewart " RUTHVEN." G02 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [WKi WORSTED. A species of woollen fabric, being spun wool, which obtained its name from having been first spmi in a town called Worsted, in Norfolk, in which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are still exten- sively carried on, 14 Edward III., 1340. — Anderson. Worsted-stocking knave is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspeare. WRECKS OF SHIPPING. The wreckers of Cornwall are the inhabitants of a few parishes, on the rocky coast, between Mount's Bay and the Lizard. When a wreck takes place, thousands assemble with axes, hatchets, crow- bars, &c. ; and many women and children fight, by habit, for the plunder, utterly regardless of the sufferers. — Phillips. The loss of merchant and other ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters in the open sea, was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365 ships a year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyd's List, that 677 British vessels were totally lost, under various circumstances, in that year. The annual loss varies ; but it is always many hundreds. SOME OP THE MOST REMARKABLE SHIPWRECKS. Of the Thunderer, 74 guns; Stirling Castle, 64 ; Phcenix, 44 ; La Blanche, 42 ; Laurel, 28 ; Andromeda, 28 ; Deal Castle, 24 ; Scarborough, 20 ; Barbadoes, 14 ; Cameleon, 14 ; En- deavour, 14 ; and Victor, 10 guns ; British vessels of war, alllostinthe same storm, in ihe West Indies, in October, 1780 Of the Roual George, capsized in Ports- mouth harbor, England, when 1,000 persons perished - June 28, 1782 Of the steamer Home, from New York to Charleston ; 100 lives lost, Oct. 9, 1837 Of the Forfarshire steamer, from Hull to Dundee ; 38 persons drowned. Owing to the courage of Grace Dar- ling and her fether, 15 persons were saved. See Forfarshire - Sept. 5, 1838 Of the Pennsylvaiiia, Oxford, and St. Andrew, packet ships, ma great gale off Liverpool - - Jan. 6, 1839 Of the Poland from New York to Havre, struck by lightning. May 16, 1840 Of the President steamer, from New York to Liverpool, with fifty pas- sengers on board ; sailed on March 11, encountered a terrific storm two It is estimated at Lloyd's that about 170 British registered vessels are annu- ally lost ; 360 are annually rendered unfit for service ; and 1100 experience serious damage, requiring extensive repairs, exclusively of the ordinary wear and tear. WRITING. Pictures M-ere undoubtedly the first essay towards writing. The most ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us are upon hard substances, such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, and matters of public notoriety. Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have writ- ten a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of hierogly- phics, 2112 B. c. — Usher. Writing is said to have been taught to the Latins by Europa, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 b. c. — Thucydides. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought the Phcenician letters into Greece. — Vossius. The commandments were written on two tables of stone, 1491 b. c. — Usher. The Greeks and Romans used waxed table-books, and continued the use of them long after papyrus was known. See Papy- rus, Parchment, Paper. "I would check the petty vanity of those who slight good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, bj reminding days afterwards, and has never since been heard of - March 13, 1841 Of the Peacock, one of the United States exploring expedition, at the mouth of the Columbia river, Oregon, mid- day and smooth water - July 18, 1841 Of the Missouri United States steam- frigate, by fire, at Gibraltar, Aug. 27, 1843 Of the United States schooner Shark, wrecked at same place - Sept. 10, 1816 Of the Great Britain iron steam-ship. This stupendous vessel grounded in Dundrum bay, on the east coast of Ireland - - Sept. ?2, 1846 Of the United States sloop of war Bos- ton, on the Bahamas - Nov. 16, 1846 Of the United States brig Somers, cap- sized in a squall, off Vera Cruz ; 39 drowned - - Dec. 8, 1846 Of the West India mail packet Tweed ; about 90 souls perished - Feb. 19, 1847 Of the ship Ocean Mo7iarch, of Boston, burnt near Liverpool ; 170 lives lost, Aug. 24, 1848 Of the barque Charles Bartlett, run down at sea by steamer Europa ; 134 lives lost - - June 27, 1849 See Fires, and Steam Vessels. xer] dictionary of dates. 603 tliem that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the clearness and firmness, Mr. professor Person by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones by the ease and beauty, of the characters they respectively employed." — Dk. Parr. XANTHUS, SiKGE OF, by the Romans under Brutus. After a great struggle, and the endurance of great privations, the inhabitants, being no longer able to sustain themselves against the enemy, and determined not to survive the loss of their liberty, set fire to their city, destroyed their wives and chil- dren, and then themselves perished in the conflagration. The conqueror wished to spare them, but though he offered rewards to his soldiers if they brought any of the Xanthians alive into his presence, only 150 were saved, much against their will ; 42 b. c. — Plutarch. XENOPHON, Retreat of. Xenophon surnamed the Attic Muse, led in the memorable retreat of the Greeks, one of the most celebrated events in ancient history. The Greeks were mercenaries of the younger Cyrus, after whose defeat and fall at the battle of Cunaxa, they were obliged to retreat ; but Xenophon kept them in a compact body, and retreated through Asia into Thrace. The Greeks proceeded through various fierce and barbarous nations, surmounted all the obstacles and dangers that arose at every step, and accomplished their arduous enterprise, after repeated triumphs over toils, fraud, and force. This retreat is esteemed the boldest and best-con- ducted exploit on record ; 401 b. c. — Vossiux. XERXES' CAMPAIGN in GREECE. Xerxes entered Greece in the spring of 480 B. 0. with an army, which, together with the numerous retinue of servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted, according to some historians, to 5,283.220 souls. But Herodotus states the armament to have coasisted of 3000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry, and the mariners, and attendants of the camp. This multitude was stopped at Thermopylae, by the valor of 300 Spartans under Leonidas. Xerxes, aston- ished that such a handful of men should oppose his progress, ordered some of his soldiers to bring them alive into his presence ; but for three succes- sive days the most valiant of the Persian troops were defeated, and the courage of the Spartans might pei-haps have triumphed longer if a base Trachinian, named Ephialtes, had not led a detachment to the top of the mountain, and suddenly fallen upon the devoted band. The battle of Ther- mopylae {which see) was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes, Aug. 7, 480 B. c. The more he advanced, the more he experienced new disasters. His fleet was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, and he hastened back to Persia, leaving Mardpnius, the best of his generals, behind, with an army of 300,000 men. The rest that had survived the ravages of war, famine, and pestilence, followed Xerxes on his route home. XERXES' BRIDGE. The famous bridge of Xerxes across the Hellespont, the strait which joins the Archipelago and the sea of Marmora. It was formed by connecting together ships of different kinds, some long vessels of fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the number of 360 on the side towards the sea, and 318 on that of the Archipelago ; the former were placed transversely, but the latter, to diminish the strain on their cables, in the direction of the current, all secured by anchors and cables of great strength. On extended cables between the lines of shipping were laid fast- bound rafters, over these a layer of unwrought wood, and over the latter was thrown earth : on each side was a fence, tfl prevent the horses and 604 THE world's progress. [ YEA beasts of burthen from being terrified by the sea, in the passage from shore to shore. This wonderful work was completed, it is said, in one week, 480 B.C. YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the year. The Roman year was introduced by Romulus 738 b. c. ; and it was -corrected by Numa 713 b. c, and again by Julius Ctesar, 45 b. c. See Calen- dar. The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds and 6 decimals, 265 b. c. The siderial year, or return of the same star, is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 11 seconds. A consid- erable variation prevailed generally among the nations of antiquity, and still partially prevails, with regard to the commencement of the year. The Jews dated the beginning of the sacred year in the month of March ; the Athe- nians in the month of June ; the Macedonians on the 24th Sept. ; the Chris- tians of Egypt and Ethiopia on the 29th or 30tli of August ; and the Persians and Armenians on the 11th of that month. Nearly all the nations of the Christian world now commence the year on the 1st of January. Charles IX. of France, in 1654, published an arr6fc, the last article of which ordered the year for the time to come to be constantly and universally begun, and written on and from January 1. See Neio Style, &c. , ^ YEAR, LUNAR. This is the space of time which comprehends twelve lunar months, or 454 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and was in use among the Chal- deans, Persians, and ancient Jews. Once in every three years was added another lunar month, so as to make the solar and lunar year nearly agree. But though the months were lunar, the year was solar ; that is, the first month was of thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so alternately ; and the month added triennially was called the second Adar. The Jews afterwards followed the Roman manner of computation. YEAR OF OUR LORD. The first sovereign who adopted this distinction was Charles IIL, emperor of Germany: he added "In the year of our Lord " to his reign, a. d. 879. It was followed by the French kings, and afterwards by the English ; and is the mode of designating the year from the birth of the Redeemer in aU Christian countries. See Eras. YEAR, Platonic. The doctrine of the Platonic year was believed among the Chaldeans, and in the earliest ages. It is that space of time at the end whereof all the planets are to return to the same point from whence they set out, and have the same aspects and configurations one upon another. Some afiirm this return to be in 15,000 common years, others in 36,000. The ancient heathens were of opinion, that when this period was completed, the world would be renewed again, and the departed souls re-enter their bodies and go through a second course of being. YEAR, Sabbatical. This was every seventh year, atiiong the Jews. In this year the people were enjoined by the law to let the ground lie fallow and • have rest. Every seventh Sabbatical year, or every forty-ninth year was called the Jubilee Year, when was joy and rejoicing ; all debts were forgiven. and slaves set at liberty, and it was usual to return to the original families all estates and property that had been sold or mortgaged. — Hist. Jews. YEAR, Siberian, and in Lapland. The year in the northern regions of Siberia and Lapland, is described in the following calendar, as given by a recent traveller : — June 23, Snow melts. 1 July 25, Plants in flower. July 1, Snow gone. Aug. 2, Fruits ripe. July 9, Field quite green. 1 Aug. 10, Plants shed their seed. July 17, Plants at full growth ( Aug. 18, Snow. YOK, ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 605 The snow then continues upon the ground for about ten months, from Au- gust 18th of one year, to June 23d of the year following, being 309 days out of 365; so that while the three seasons of spring, summer, and autumn, are together only fifty six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks' duration in these countries. YEAR AND A DAY. A space of time, in law, that in many cases establishes and fixes a right, as in an estray, on proclamation being made, if the owner does not claim it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in the Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on another's land, if unclaim- ed for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a legal space of time. YELLOW FEVER, thS, visited the city of New York in the years 1741, 1742, 1791, 1795, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1803, 1805, 1819, and 1822. The deaths by that disease were as follows : 732 in 1795 ; 2086 in 1798 (population, 55,000) ; 670 in 1803 ; 280 in 1805 ; 23 in 1819 ; 366 in 1822. In 1805, 37,000 of the inhabitants (out of 76,000, the whole population) fled from the city. In 1804, 40 persons died with it at Brooklyn, but New York escaped. Philadelphia was nearly desolated by it in 1793, and again in 1798. 4041 persons died in 1793, and 17,000 fled from the city (population, 50,000). In 1798, the morta- lity was great, and 50,000, out of 70,000 inhabitants, fled. Several thousand died, and the greatest number of deaths in one day was 117. Baltimore sufiered from this disease in 1798, 1819, and 1821. New Orleans and Ha- vana have it annually. In several of the islands of the West Indies in 1732, 1739, and 1745. It broke out in Spain in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was very violent at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814 ; in the Mauritius, July 1815 ; at Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz, and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. The yellow fever rages more or less every year or two at Charleston, New Orleans, and other southern cities of the United States. It first appeared at Rio Janeiro in 1849-50, where it proved fatal to many thousands, YOKE. The ceremony of making prisoners pass under it, was first practised by the Samnites towards the Romans, 321 b. c. This disgrace was afterwards inflicted by the Romans upon their vanquished enemies. — Abbe Lenglei, Dufresnoy. YORK. The Eboracum of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of England. Here Severus held an imperial court, a. d. 207 ; and here also Constantius kept a court, and his son Constantine the Great was born, in 274. York was burnt by the Danes, and all the Normans slain, 1069. York received its charter from Richard H., and the city is the only one in the British kingdoms, besides London and Dublin, to whose mayors the prefix of lord has been granted. YORK, Archbishopric op, the most ancient metropolitan see in England, being, it is said, so made by king Lucius, about a. d. 180, when Christianity was first, although partially, established in England. But this establishment was overturned by the Saxons driving out the Britons. When the former were converted, pope Gregory determined that the same dignity should be restored to York, and Paulinus was made archbishop of this see, about a. d. 622. York and Durham were the only two sees in the north of England for a large space of time, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle, and Henry VIII. another at Chester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scot- tish bishops ; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew their obedience, and had archbishops of their own. Much dispute arose between the two English metropolitans about precedency, as, by pope Gre- gory's institutions, it was thought he meant, that which ever of them was 606 THE world's progress. [ ZAN first confirmed, should be superior ; appeal was made to the court of Rome by both parties, and it was determined in favor of Canterbury ; but York was allowed to style himself primate of England, while Canterbury styles himself primate of all England. York has yielded to the church of Rome eight saints, and three cardinals ; and to the civil state of England, twelve lord chancellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north. It is rated in the king's books, 39 Henry VIII., 1546, at 1609Z. 19s. 2d. per annum. — Beatson. YOE.K CATHEDRAL, England. This majestic fabric was erected at difierent periods, and on the site of former buildings, which have again and again been destroyed by fire. The first Christian church erected here, which ap- pears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, was built by Edwin, king of Northumbria, about the year 630. It was burnt for the third time in 1137, along with St. Mary's Abby, and 89 parish churches in York. Arch- bishop Roger began to build the choir in 1171, but it was by many hands, and with the contributions of many families, and of multitudes who were promised indulgences for their liberality, that this magnificent fabric was completed, about 1361. It was set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829 ; the damage estimated at 60,000/., was repaired in 1832. YORK AND LANCASTER, WARS of the HOUSES op. The first battle be- tween these houses was that of St. Albans, fought May 22, 1455. The last was that of Tewkesbury, fought May 4, 1471. In these battles the Yorkists, or WliUe Roses, were victorious against the house of Lancaster, or the Red Roses. But in the sixteen years between these two dates, more than thirty great battles were fought with difierent success, and half the country was depopulated, and nearly the whole of the nobility exterminated. See Roses. YORKTOWN. A village in Virginia, memorable for the surrender of the Bri- tish army under lord Cornwallis, consisting of 7000 men, to the Americans and their allies under Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781. This event decided the contest for independence in favor of the Americans. YUCATAN, adopted a constitution as a republic (having declared its indepen- dence of Mexico), May 16, 1841. ZAMA, Battle of, between the two greatest commanders in the world at the time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. It was won by Scipio, and was deci- sive of the fate of Carthage ; it led to an ignominious peace which was granted the year after, and closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost but 2000 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost, in killed and prisoners, more than 40,000 ; some historians make the loss greater ; B. c. 202. ZANTE. This island, with the rest of the islands now forming the Ionian re- public, was subject to Venice prior to the French Revolution ; but the whole group were ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Formio (which see), October 17, 1797. They were taken by a Russian and Turkish fleet, and were erected into an independent republic by the name of the Seven Islands, in 1799. They fell into different hands in the course of the succeeding year, and were surrendered to the French by the Russians, together with Ragusa, August 14, 1807. They submitted to the British army, October 3, 1809. In the arrangements at the congress of Vienna, in 1815, they were put under the protection of Great Britain. The treaty was rati fled at zin] dictionary of dates. 607 Paris for that purpose, between Great Britain and Russia, November 5, 1815. The new constitution was ratified by the prince regent, February 22, 1817. ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee, a. d. 535 ; he taught that water by baptism was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be baptized with fire, by the application of a red-hot iron. The sect was at one time very numerous. — Ashe. ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, you, and yours. The letter z was retained in Scotland, and was commonly written, for the letter y, so late as the reign of queen Mary, up to which period many books in the Scottish language were printed in Edinburgh with these words, a. d. 1543. ZEALAND, NEW, in the Pacific. Discovered by Tasman in 1642. He tra- versed the eastern coast, and entered a strait where, being attacked by the natives soon after he came to anchor, he did not go ashore. From the time of Tasman, the whole country, except that part of the coast which was seen by him, remained altogether unknown, and was by many supposed to make part of a southern continent, till 1770. when it was circumnavigated by captain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands, separated by the strait. The introduction of potatoes into New Zealand has saved many lives, for the natives give this root a decided preference to human flesh, under every circumstance, except that of wreaking vengeance on a chief of the foe whom they have taken in battle. Captain Cook, in 1773, planted several spots of ground on this island with European garden-seeds ; and in 1777, he found a few fine potatoes, greatly improved by change of soil. ZELA, Battle op, in which Julius Csesar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, son of Mithridates. Caesar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous dispatch to the senate of Rome, in three words: ^' Veni, vidi, vici" — "I came, I saw, I conquered," so rapidly and easily was his triumph obtained. This battle concluded the war ; Pharnaces escaped into Bosphorus, where he was slain by his lieutenant, Asander ; and Pontus was made a province of Rome, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 b. c. — Sue. Cms. ZELICHOW, Battle of, between the Polish and Russian armies, one of the most desperate and bloody battles fought by the Poles in their late struggle for the freedom of their country. The Russians, who were commanded by general Diebitch, were defeated, losing 12,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners ; and Diebitch narrowly escaped being taken in the pursuit of his flying army, April 6, 1881. ZENO, Sect o ?, founded by Zeno. This sect also took the name of Stoic, from a public portico, so called, from which the philosopher delivered his ha- rangues. It was the most famous portico in Athens, and was called by way of eminence, Eroa, the porch. See Stoics. In order to form his own school of philosophy, and to collect materials for a new system, Zeno had attended the schools of various masters, and among others he- offered himself as a disciple of Polemo. This philosopher, aware of Zeno's object, said, " I am no stranger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts. I perceive that your design is to creep slily into my garden, and steal away my fruit." He taught about 312 B. c. ZINC. The discovery of this metal, so far as the fact is known, is due to the moderns. It is said to have been long known in China, however, and is no- ticed by European Avriters as early as a. d. 1231; though the method of extracting it from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred years after. A mine of zinc was discovered on lord Ribbledale's estate. Craven, Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London shortly after 608 THE world's progress. [" ZUR the invention of lithography became known in England, in 1817. See Li- thography. ZODIAC. The obliquity of the zodiac was discovered, its twelve signs named, and their situations assigned them in the heavens, by Anaximander, about 560 B. c. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindoos, to whom it has been known from time immemorial. — Sir William Jones. The invention of geographical maps, and of sun-dials, belongs also to Anax- imander. — Pliny. ZOE, Reign of. This extraordinary woman, daughter of the emperor Con- stantine IX., married Romanus, who, in consequence, succeeded to the throne of the Eastern empire, a. d. 1028. Zoe, after intriguing with a Pa- phlagonian money-lender, caused her husband Romanus to be poisoned, and afterwards married her favorite, who ascended the throne under the name of Michael IV., 1034. Zoe adopted for her son Michael the Fifth, the trade of whose father (careening vessels) had procured him the surname of Calaphates, 1041. Zoe and her sister, Theodora, were made sole em- presses by the populace ; but after two months, Zoe, although she was sixty years of age, took for her third husband Constantine X., who succeeded to the empire in 1042. See Eastern Empire. ZOOLOGY. The animal kingdom was divided by Linnseus into six classes, viz : — Mammalia, which includes all animals that suckle their young ; Aves, or birds ; Amphibia, or amphibious animals ; Pisces, or fishes ; Insecta, or insects ; Vermes, or worms ; a. d. 1741. From this period the science of zoology has had many distinguished professors, the most illustrious of whom was the baron Cuvier, who died in Paris, May 13, 1882. The Zoological Gardens of London were opened in April 1827 ; the society was chartered March 27, 1829. ZUINGLIANS. The followers of Ulricus Zuinglius. This zealous reformer, while he officiated at Zurich, declaimed against the church of Rome and its indulgences, and effected the same separation for Switzerland from the papal dominion, which Luther had for Saxony. He procured two assem- blies to be called ; by the first he was authorized to proceed, and by the second the ceremonies of the Romish church were abolished, 1519. Zuin- glius, who began as a preacher, died in arms as a soldier : he was slain in a skirmish against the Popish opponents of his reformed doctrines, in 1531. The reformers who adhered entirely to Zuinglius were called after his name and also Sacramentarians. ZURICH. It was..admitted to be a member of the Swiss confederacy, of which this canton was made the head, a. d. 1851. Cession of Utznach, 1436. This was the first town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome, in consequence of the opposition given by Zuinglius to a Franciscan monk sent by Leo X., to publish indulgences here, 1519, et sea. A grave-digger of Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their lives, and many others were grievously injured, Sept. 4, 1776. The French were defeated here, losing 4000 men, June 4, 1799. The Imperialists were defeated by Massena, the former losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded, Sept. 24, 1799. See Switzerland. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. [i^roffi the Co7npamon to the British Almanac, with additions.] The following Chronological List of Authors is in extejision of the Catalogue fxirnished in the Companion of 1831, diflfering from it by adding to the name of each author the title of his most important production, or some word expressive of the nature of his works. In order to show the various literary character of each age the catalogue is divided into three columns : the first containing those authors who have drawn chiefly from their own sources, as poets and novelists; the second those who treat on matters of fact, as history and geography ; and the third, the philo- sophic and scientific writers. Where an author has written in different styles, his name wiU be found in the column to which his most distinguished pro- ductions appertain. The Hebrews having, almost without exception, treated on speculative subjects, the triple division does not extend to them. The dates of birth and death are appended to each name, where they could be ascertained. In other cases, the situation of the name will show nearly the time when each author has flourished. HEBREW. [The words in italics between parentheses are the familiar appellations of the preceding persons ; they are formed from the first letters of each word composing their names. For example, the Jews call Maimonides Rambam, from the four initial letters of his full name, Rabbi Moses ben Maimon. J %tn Tof, in like marmer, is called Ritba, from the words Rabbi Yom Tof bai Abraham.] 1500 Moses, 1572—1452. Phinehas, supposed author of the book Joshua. 1100 David, 1085—10815. 1000 Solomon, 1033—975. 800 Jonah, d. 761. Amos. Hosea. Joel. Obadiah. Micah. Isaiah, d. 681. Nahum. 700 Habakkuk. Zephaniah. Jeremiah. 600 Baruch. Ezekiel. Daniel. Zechariah. Haggai. 50O Ezra. Nehemiah, d. 430. Malachi. 300 Jesus, son of Sirach. 26* B. C. 100 Nechoniah ben HakUanah, 'Seplier hab- bahir,' the illustrious book. The most ancient of Rabbinical books. Cabbalistic. Jonathan, ' Targum,' or Chaldee paraphrase of the Bible. A. D. Onkelos, 'Targum.' Josephus, b. 35. 100 Akiba, d. 120. The Mishna has been in- correctly attributed to him. ShimeonbenJochai(i2asA60. The 'Zohfir,' a celebrated cabbalistic Commentary on the Pentateuch is usually attributed to him, but was composed by his dis- ciples. Jose ben Chilpheta, 'A History of the World.' Nathan of Babylon, ' Pirke aboth,' the say- ings of the fathers. Ethics. Elieser, 'Pirke Eliezer,' the sayings of Eliezer, a History of the World. Judah Hakkadosh, ' Mishna,' the oral tradi- tions of the Jews, which, with the Cemai'a or Commentary, constitutes the Babylonian Talmud. 610 THE world's progress. Raf, supposed author of the 'Siphm,' a commentary on Leviticus, and of the 'Siphre,' a commentary on Numbers and Deuteronomy. 200 Ushaya, ' Bereshith Rabba,' a Commentary on the Mishna. Author of the 'MecWlta,' a Commentary on Exodus. Jochanan, 'Talmud of Jerusalem.' 300 Rabba bar Nachmon, ' Rabboth,' Commen- taries on the Bible. 40C Rabasha, began the ' Gemara,' a Commen- tary on the Mishna. Martemar, continued the ' Gemara.' 500 Abina, completed the ' Gemara.' 800 Simeon Hejara, 'Great decisions,' jurid. Judah bar Nachman (,Riban), Compendium of the preceding. 980 Saadia Gaon, ' Philosopher's Stone,' ' Book of Faith,' ' Grammar,' &c. Sherira, ' The Book of Answers,' history. 1000 Samuel Haccohen, d. 1034. Joseph Ching, Grammarian. Judah Barzelloni, 'Rights of Women,' ju ridic. Joseph ben Gorion (Ribag), ' Compendium of Hebrew History.' Moses Aben Ezra, d. 1080. Grammarian, Isaac of Cordova, d. 1094. ' Chest of Spices.' 1100 Alphes, (/. 1103. ' Compendiimi of the Talmud.' Nathan, d. 1106. 'Talmudic and Chaldee Lexicon.' Solomon Jarchi (Rashi), Grammarian, d. 1105. ' Tongue of the Learned.' Joseph ben Meir (Ribam), d. 1141. ' Com- mentary on Talmud.' Juda the Levite, 'Sepher Cosri,' philoso- phical. Abraham Aben Ezra, very learned Com- mentaries on the Bible. Tam. d. 117. 'Sepher Hajashar,' the Book of Righteousness. Samuel ben Meir {Rashbani), d. 1171 ' Commentary on the Talmud.' Benjamin of Tudela, d. 1173. 'Travels.' Samuel, ' Book of Piety,' Ethics and Theo- logy. Isaac bar Abba, Grammarian. Moses Kimhi, Grammarian. David Kimhi (Rada/e), Grammarian. Abraham bar Dior (_Rabad), d. 1 199. Cab- balist. Abraham ben David {Rabad), Jurist. Moses ben Maimon (^Rambmn), 1131-1205. 'Yad Hazaka,' the iM-ong hand, a very celebrated Commentary on the Talmud, &c. (This author is better known by his Latinized name, Maimonides.) 1200 Abraham bar Chasdai, Ethics. Eliakim, Ceremonies. Baruch Miggarmisa, Laws, Cereinonies. Eliezer Miggarmisa, Ethics, Commentaries. Asher, Compendia of Talmud. Perez Haccohen {Haraph), Cabbalist. Moses ben Nachman {Rambari), d. 1260. 'Law of Man,' a celebrated book on Ceremonies, &c. Moses Mikkotsi, ' Great Book of Piucepts,' ' Compendium of Talmud.' Isaac ben Solomon, d. 1268. ' Proverbs and Fables.' Nissim, d. 1268. ' Book of Homilies.' Isaac ben Joseph, tf. 1270. 'Book of Precepts.' Moses Aben Tybon, Translator of Mathe- matical and Philosophical works from the Greek and Arabic. Solomon ben Adras iRashba). Theology. Meir, Meditations, on ' Maimonides.' Menachem Rekanat, d. 1290. ' Reason for the enactment of the Laws of Moses.' Bechai, ' Commentary on Pentateuch.' 1300 Shimson, d. 1312. ' Intro, to the Talmud.' Isaac Israeli, 'Foundation of the World,' Histoiy. Judah, son of Benjamin, Ritial. Mordechai, ' Compendium of Talmud.' Isaac Dura, ' On Forbidden and Permitted Food.' Aaron Haccohen, ' The Way of Life.' Jerucham, ' Book of Rectitude.' Jacob ben Asher, 'The Four Orders,' a Ritual of much authority. David Abudraham, astronomy. Levi ben Gerson QRalbag), d. 1370. ' Com- mentary on the Law.' Menachen Aben Serach, d. 1375. Ritual. Isaac ben Sheshat iRibasK), 'Questions and Answers on Various Subjects.' Moses Haccohen, ' Help of Faith.' Isaac Sprot, 'Aben Bochan,' a polemic work against Christianity. Jom Tof bar Abraham (Ritba), Commen- tary on Maimonides.' Chasdai, d. 1396. 'Light of the Lord.' Ethics and Theology. Simeon bar Zemach, ' Shield of the Fathers.' 1400 Jacob Levi, d. UZT. A Ritual. Joseph Albo, the Divine Philosopher,— ' Foundation of Faith.' Israel Germanus, ' Questions and Answer* on the Law.' Joshua Levita, ' Introd. to the Talmud.' David Vital, ' Golden Verses.' Samuel Sirsa, Grammar. Isaac ben Arama, ' Com. on the Law.' Elias Misrachi (.Ram), Arithmetic. Abarbinel, ' Commentary on the Bible.' Isaac Abuhaf, Ethics. 1500 Abraham Seba, ' Bundle of Myrrh,' a Com- mentary. Isaac tarro, ' Explanations of the Bible. Elias Levi, Grammar. Solomon ben Virga, ' History of the Jews.' Benjamin Zeef, ' Questions and Answers.' Abraham Zaccoth, ' Juchasin,' Sacred and Jewish History. Moses Iserle, Astrology. Joseph Karro, ' Com. on Maimonides.' Azarias Edomceus, History and Philology. Gadaliah, ' Cabbalistic Chain,' History and Chronology. Leo, d. 1592. ' Lion's Whelp,' Grammar. David Gans, History. 1600 Moses of Trana, ' Book of God.' 1700 Moses Mendelssohn, 1729-1785, Philosophy. AUTHORS OF THE NEW-TESTAMENT. .. D. St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John, Evangelists. St. Paul, St. Peter, St. .Tames, St. Jude, Epistlers. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — GREEK. 611 GREEK. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO, B.C. 900 Homer, ' Iliad,' ' Odyssey,' &c. Hesiod, ' Works and Days,' &c. B.C. 900 B.C. 900 700 Tyrtffius, Elegies (fragm'ts.) Arciiilochus, Satires, Ele- gies (fragments). 700 700 600 Alcaeus, Lyrics (fragments). Sappho, Lyrics (fragments). Solon, d. 558. Epimenides. Stesichorus, 633-553 Lyrics (fragments). Mimnermus, Elegies (frag- ments.) Anacreon, Lyrics. 600 600 Pythagoras, Philosophy. 500 Simonides, 556-467, Lyrics, ^scliylus, 525-456, Trage- dies. Pindar, 518-439, Odes. Bacchylides, Lyrics. Sophocles, 495-405, Trage- dies. Euripides, 480-486, Trage- dies. Aristophanes, d. 338, Come- dies. 500 Gorgias, Orations (frgts.) Hecatseus, Hist, (fragmn'ts.) Herodotus, d. 484, History. Thucydides, 471-391, Histo- ry of Peloponnesian War. Antiphon, Orations. Andorides, Orations. Lysias, 458-378, Orations. 500 Zeno of Elea, Philosohy. Ocellus Lucanus, Philoso- phy. Anaxagoras, 500-428, Philo- sophy. Socrates, 468-399, Philoso- phy. 400 Diphilus, Comedy (frgts.) Menander, 243-291, Come- dies (fragments.) 400 Ctesias, History (fragm'ts.) Xenophon, 444-359, History, Philosophy, &c. Isasus, Orations. Isocrates, 536-338, Orations. Dinarchus, Orations. Lycurgus, Orations. Demosthenes, 382-322, Ora- tions, .aischines, 389-314, Orations. 400 Hippocrates, 460-357, Medi- cme. Democritus, 450-357, Philo- sophy. Plato, 429-347, Philosophy. Aristotle, 384-322, Philoso- phy, Criticism. Theophrastus,d. 288, Ethics. Epicurus, 341-270, Philoso- phy. 300 Bion, Idyls. Moschus, Idyls. Lycophron, ' Cassandra.' Callimachus, Hymns and Epigrams. Theocritus, Idyls. Aratus, Poem on Astrono- my. Cleanthes, Hymns. Apollonius Rhodius, Argo- nautics.' 300 Manetho, History (fragm'ts.) 300 Euclid, Geometry. Zento of Citium, d. 263, Phi- losophy. Apollonius, Conic Sections. Archimedes, d. 212, ' Sphere and Cylinder,' &c. Eratosthenes, Philosophy. 612 THE world's progress. nuaiNATioK. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIBNTIFIO. 200 Nicander, Theriaca. 200 Polybius, 206-124, Universal History. ApoUodorus, ' Bibliotheca,' Mythology. 200 100 Meleager, Epigrams. 100 Conon, Mythology. Scymnus, Poetical Geogr. Dionysius Halicamassus, 'Roman Antiquities.' Dionysius Periegetes, Ge- ography? Diodorus Siculus, General History. 100 • Strabo, Geography. Pausanias, Description of Plutarch, Biography, Morals &c. Dion Chrysostom, Orations. Dioscorides, Botany and Me- dicine. Epictetns, ' Enchiridion,' Philosophy. A. S. 100 lamblichus, ' Rhodis and Si- nonides, a novel. Lucian, Dialogues. Oppian, Poems on Hunting and Fishing. Athenaeus, d. 194, ' Deipno- sophistae, anecdotes. A. D. 100 iEIian, d. 140. Varieties. Appian, History. Ptolemy, Geog., Astron. Arrian, ' Expedition of Alex- ander.' A. D. 100 Justin Martyr, d. 163, Theo- logy. Polycarp, d. 167, Theology. Galen, 103-193, Medicine. Athenagoras, d. 172, ' On the Resurrection.' Phavorinus, Lexicon. Hermogenes, d. 161, Rhe- toric. Polyaenus, Strategy. M. Aurelius Antoninus, Phi- losophy. NephEestion, ' On Metres.' Max. Tyrius, Philosophy. Julius Pollux, 'Onomasti- con,' Rhetoric. 200 200 Diogenes Laertius, d. 222, ' Lives of Philosophers.' Philostratus, d. 244, Life of Apollonius. Dion Cassias, History of Rome. Herodian, History of Rome. Porphyrius, 233-304, Life of Pythagoras, Philosophy. 200 Ammonius, Philos'jphy. Origan, d. 254, Theology Hesychius, Lexicon, lamblichus. Philosophy. Longinus, d. 273, 'On the Sublime.' aoo Achilles Tatius, ' Clitophon and Leucippe,' novel. Xenophon, 'Anthea and Ab- rocome,' iMVel. 300 Eusebius, d. 340, Ecclesias- tical History. Liabanius, Orations and Epistles. 300 Julian, d. 363, Philosophy. Athanasius, 298-371, Theo- logy. Greg. Nazianzen, 318-389, Theology. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. — GREEli. 613 UIAOIMATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO. 300 300 Ennapius, 'Lives of Philo- sophers.' Gregory Nyssseus, d. 396, Theology. Cyril, 315-386, Theology. Diophantus, Mathematics. 30C Aristaenetus, 'Erotic Let- ters.' Heliodorus, ' Theagenes & Chariclasa,' novel. Chariton, ' Chaereus and Calirrhoe,' novel. 300 300 Chrysostom, 354-407, The- ology. 400 Longus, 'Daphnis and Cnloe,' novel. Nonnus, ' Conquest of India by Bacchus.' Stobseus, ' Literary Collec- tions.' Quintus Smymseus (com- monly called) Calabar, 'Contin. of Homer.' Musffius, Poem of Hero and Leander? Eumathius, 'Ismenseus & Ismenaea,' novel. Coluthus, Poem on ' Rape of Helen.' Tryphindorus, Poem on ' Destruction of Troy.' 400 Synesius, Orations & Epis- tles. Zosimus, ' Hist, of Roman Emperors.' Socrates, 389-446, Ecclesi- astical History. Sozomen, d. 450, Ecclesias- tical History. Theodoret, d. 450, Ecclesi- astical History. 400 Nemesius, ' Nature of Man,' Philosophy. Cyril, d. 443, Homilies. Proclus, d. 445, Theology. Proclua, d. 500, Platonist. 600 500 .Stephanus, Geography. Procopius, ' Hist, of Reign of Justinian.' Olympiodorus, 'Hist, of Honorius.' Cos. Indicopleustes, Topo- graphy. Evagrius, Ecclesiast. Hist Agathias, Byzantine Hist. 500 Simplicius, ' Comments on Aristotle.' Tribonianus, Jurist. 600 600 Menan, Protector, Chron. Theophanes, Byzant.Hist. Theophylactus Simocatta, Byzantine History. 600 Philoponus, Grammarian. 700 700 700 Damascenus, d. 750, The- ology. 800 800 Nicephorus, 758-828, Hist. Syncellus, History. John Malalas, History. 800 Theodorus Studiles, 759- 826, Sermons. Photius, d. 891, 'Biblio- theca.' 900 900 Leontius, History. Genesius, History. 900 Leo VI., d. 911, ' On Chris, tian Faith.' 614 THE world's progress. IMA6IHATI0N. 1000 1100 C. Theo. Prodromus, ' Rho- danthe and Doaicles,' novel. laoo 1300 Manuel Philes, 1275-1340, Poems. Maximus Planudes, Anth- olo]Sfy. Leo Pilatus, Literature. 90O Const. Porphyrogenneta, 905-959, Hist. Selections. Sim. Metaphrastes, Lives of Saints. 1000 George Cedrenus, History. John Xiphilinus, d. 1080, Abridg. of Dion Cassius. John Scylitza, History. SPECDLAIVIVB AND SCIEMTinCL 900 1000 Theophylactus, Theology. Michael PseUus, Mathema- tics. 1100 1100 Euthymius Zygabenus, Nicephorus Bryennius, d. Theology. 1137, Byzant. Affairs. Anna Comnena, Reign of her father Alexius. Const. Manasses, History. Zonaras, History of Ro- mans, History of Jews. Will, of Tyre, 1100-1184, History. John Tzetzes, History in Verse. Cinnamus, History. 1200 Joel, History. Michael Glycas, History. George Acropolita, Hist. Nicetas Acominatus, Hist. George Pachymer, Hist. Suidas, Lexicon. Eustathias, Commentariea on Homer. Isaac Tzetzes,Commentary on Lycophron. 1200 Nicephorus Theology. Blemmidas, 1300 Theod. Metochita, d. 1312, 1300 History. Callistus Xantopulus, Ec- clesiastical History. Niceph. Gregoras, History. John Cantacuzenus, Hist. George Codinus, Hist. Michael Ducas, History. 1400 1400 Demet. Pamperes, Tales. MaruUus Tarchoniota d. 1500, Poems. 1500 Theodore Gaza, d. 1478. Origin of Turks. Laonicus Chalcondyles, History of Turks. George Phranza, History. 1500 1400 Eman. Chrysolorus, d. 1415, Grammar. Geo. Gemistius, or Pletho, d. 1450, Philosophy. Eman. Moscopulus, Notes on Hesiod. Bessarion, 1395-1472, The- ology. Geo. of Trebizond, 1396- 1468, Aristotelian. John Argyrophilus, Aristo telian. 1500 Demetrius Chalcondyles, 1453-1513, Philology. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN ARD ITALIAN. 615 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1600 1600 1600 Panagioti, d. 1763, The- ology. 1700 Kallinikus, Poems. 1700 1700 Dorotheus, Aristotelian. Nicholas Caradza, Trans- lation of Voltaire. History of the Jews. Meletius, Geography. Marcus Tharboures, Me- chanics. 1700 Riga, d. 1796, Lyrics, Nat- ural Philosophy. 1700 Ducas, Translation of Thu- cydides. 1700 Bulgaria, Mathematics. 1800 N. Piccolo, Tragedy. Christopulus, Anacreon- tics, Opera. Calvos, Lyrics. Ilarion, Translation of So- phocles. 1800 D. Philippides, d. 1827, Hist, of Wallachia, &c. Paliuris, Hist, of Greece. Perrevos, History of Suli and Parga. Gr. Demetrius, Geography. 1800 Psalidas, Metaphysics. Coray, Commentaries, Lex- icon. Cumas, Dictionary. Neophitus, Bamba, Ethics. LATIN AND ITALIAN. [The Latin ceased to be a spoken language about the sixth century, but was in almost universal use throughout Europe as the language of composition until the thirteenth century, when the modern languages began to appear. As long as the literature of the West was almost exclusively confined to Italy we have arranged all authors who wrote in Latin under the same head ; but about the sixth century they will be foxmd under those countries where their works were published, whatever the language in which they wrote.] IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECHLATIVB AND SCIENTIFIC. B. C. B. C. B. C. 200 M. A. Plautus, Comedies. 200 200 Q. Ennius, Epics (Fragts). P. Terentius, Comedies. M. P. Cato, De Re Rustica. 100 100 T. Pomponius Atticus, 110- 100 Varro, 115-28, De Re Rusti- 33, Letters. ca Lingua Latina. Vitruvius, Architecture. Verrius Flaccus, d. 4, Fasti Capitolini. T. Lucretius, h. 95, De Re- M. T. Ciftero, 107-43, Orator rum Natura. and Philosopher. Catullus, 86-10, Lyrics. Julius Caesar, 98-i6, Com- mentaries. Hirtius Pansa, Gallic War. C. Sallustius, 85-35, Jugur- thine War. Corn. Nepos, Biography. P. Virgihus, 70-19, Eneid. Q. Horatius, 65-8, Odes, Sat- ires. Propertius, 59-16, Elegies. T. Livius, 59 b. c— 19 a. d., A. Tibullus, 43 b. c— 17 History of Rome. A. D., Elegies. Ovid, 43 B. c— 17 a. d., Me- tamorph. Fasti, &c. Hyginus, Poeticon Astro- nomicon. 616 THE world's progress. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SOIBNTIK*. A. O. A. D. A. D. Vel Paterculus, 19 b. c— 30 A. D., Hist, of Rome. Pomp. Mela, Geography. Valerius Maximus, Anec- dotes of Great Men. Phaedrus, Fables. C. Celsus, De Medicina. Quintus Curtius, History of Alexander. Columella, Agriculture. Persius, 34-62, Satires. L. A, Seneca, 12-65, Philos- Lucan, 38-65, ' Pharsalia.' opher, Tragic Poet. Petronius Arbiter, d. 67, Sa- Pliny the Elder, 23-79, Nat- tyricon. Valerius Flaccus, Argonau- ral History. Quintilian Criticism. tics. Silius Italicus, ' Punic War.' Sulpicia, Satires, &c. Statius, d. 99, 'Thebais,' 'Achilleis.' Martial, 29-104, Epigrams. Juvenal, 48-128, Satires. Pliny the Younger, 61-113, Epistles. 100 100 Tacitus, Histoiy. 100 Valer, Probus, Grammar. Suetonius, Biography. Florus, History of Rome. Frontmus, Strategy. Aulus Gellius, Noctes At- Terentianus Maurus, De Ar- te Metrica. L. Apuleis, Golien Ass. ticas. C. Jul. Solinus, Polyhistor. Justin, History. Pompei. Festus, Grammar. 200 200 200 Ulpian, d. 228, Law. Tertullian, d. 220, ' Apology for Christianity.' Minutius Fellxj Dialogue in favor of Chnstianity. Julius Obsequens, ' De Pro- digiis.' Censorinua, 'De Die N»- tali.' Cyprian, d. 258, Theology. Nemesianus, Cynegetica. Jul. Calpumius, Eclogues. 300 300 El Spartianus, History. - 300 Arnobius, ' Adversus gen- Jul. Capitolinus, History. tes.' Ml. Lampridus, History. Laotantius, d. 325, Defence Vul. Galllcanus, History. of Claristianity.' Trebellius, PoUio, History. Aquilinus Juvencus, Gospel F. Vopiscus, History. M\. Donatus, Grammar. in Verse. Aurelius Victor, History. F. Matemus, Astronomy Theology. M. Victorinus, Hymns. F. Butropius, History of Ambrosius, Theology. Festus Avienus, Geographi- Rome. cal Poem. Amm. Marcellinus, History Jerom. 329^420, Version of D. M. Ausonius, Idyls. of Rome. Bible. Rufinus, d. 410, Ecclesiasti- cal History. T. Vegetius Renatus, De Re Militari. A. T. Macrobius, Satur- Augustin, 354—430, Theol- nalia. ogy. Symmachus, Epistles. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN. 617 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SOIENTIFIO 300 C. Claudianus, Poems. A. Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poems. 300 300 400 Sedulius, Poetical Life of Christ. Martianus Capella, De Nup- tius Phil, et Merc. Paulin. Pretocorius, Poem, on Martin of Tours. Sidonius Apollinaris, d. 488, Poems. Ennodius, d. 521, Christian Poems. 400 Vib. Sequester, Geography. Sulpitius, Severus, d. 420, Sacred History. Orosius, Hist, of World. Victorius, History of Church in Africa. Idacius, Chronicles to 468. 400 500 Boethius, Poet and Philo- sopher. Arator, 490-556, Acts of Apostles in Verse. 500 Cassiodorus, 481-562, His- tory. Jornandes, Hist, of Goths. Evagrius, Eccl. History. 500 Priscianus, Grammar. Fulgentius, 468-533, The- ology. Dionysius Exiguus, d. 536, Christian Era. Non. Marcellus, Grammar, 600 600 Secundus, d. 615, Histoiy of Lombards. 600 700 700 Paul Wamefrid, History of Lombards. 700 Cresconius, Collection Canons, Verses, 800 800 Erchempert, History of Lombards. Anastasius, Lives of Popes. 800 900 900 Luitprand, History of his Times. 900 1000 1000 1000 Papias, Grammar. Lanfranc, d. 1089, Theol. 1100 Donizo, Latin Poe'ry. CiuUod' Alcamo, Sicilian Poetry. 1100 Falcandus, Hist, of Sicily. 1100 Gratian, Canonist. Campanus, Mathematics. 1200 Guido of Colonna, Poetry, History. Brunetto Latina, d. 1294, ' 11 Tesora.' Guido Cavalcanti, d. 1300, Poems. John XXU., Poem on Me- dicine, 1200 Pietro dalle Vigne, d. 1249, History. Marco Polo, Travels, G. de Voragine, d. 1298, Legends of Saints. 1200 Accursius, 1182-1260, Law Thomas Aquinas, 1224- 1274, Theology. Bonaventura, Scholastic. G. Durand, Law. Pietro d'Albano, 1250-1» \ Astrology, Physics. Torregiano Rustechelli, Commentaries. 618 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO. 130C Dante, 1265-1321, La Di- 1300 1300 Mon. de Luzzi, Anatomy. vina Commedia. Am. Villanovan, d. 1313, Alchemy. Cecco d'Ascoli, d. 1327, F. Barberino, 1264-1348, Astronomy. Poems. G. Andreas, d. 1348, Ca- Petrarca, 1304-1374, Son- nons. nets, Epic, Literature. Bartolus, Law. Boccacio, 1313-1375, 'D- Decamerone.' Ferreti, 1356-1429, History of his Times. 1400 1400 Leonardo Bruni, History of 1400 Leonard of Pisa, Algebra. Florence. Nicholas Tedeschi, Law. A. Beccadelli, 1374-1471, 'Hermaphroditus.' Guarino, 1370-1460, Trans- Poggio, 1380-1459, Litera- lation of Plutarch. ture. Mich. Savonarola, d. 1462, Lorenzo Valla, 1407-1457, Medicine. Literature. Bar. Montagnana, d. 1460 D. Burchiello, Sonnets. B. Accolti, 1415-1466, His- Baraterius, Law. tory of Holy War. Gianozzo, Manetti, 1396' Flav. Blondus, 13SS-1463, 1479, Orier.talist. Historv of Venice, cfec. Paul Toscanello, d. 1482, ^n. Sylvius, 140-1464, His- Astronomy. tory, Poetry, &c. John Gobelin, History. Beccat. Panormita, 1393- Pulci, 1432-1487, 'Mor- 1471, Biography. gante Maggiore.' Bart. Platina, 1421-1481, Franc. Pliilelphus, 1398- Lives of Popes. 1481, Poetry and Ethics. F. Buonaccorsi, 1437-1496, Loren. de'Medici, d. 1492, Biography. Poetry, Literature. Pomp. Lstus, 1425-1495, Angelo Poliziano, 1454- Lives of Ca3sars, &c. 1494, Poetry, Drama. Franc. Berlinghieri, Geo- Marsilius Ficinus, 1433- graphy. Pico ie Mirandola, 1463- 1499, Translat. Plato. G. Pontano,1426-1563,Wars 1494, Metaphysics. ■ of Ferdinand I. Luca di Burgo, Mathem. Bonfinius, d. 1502, History of Hungary. 1500 1500 R. Accolti, 1455-1532, His- 1500 Ant. della Torre, d. 1512, tory. Anatomy. L. da Vinci, 1452-1520, 'Treatise on Painting.' G. Abrosi, Astronomy. 6. Ruccellai, 1475-1526, ' Le A. Acchillini, 1472-1512, Apt.' Medicine. Alexander ab Alexandro, B. Castigiione, 1478-1529, 1461-1523, Dies Geni- ' The Courtier.' tales. M- Boiardo, ' Orlando inna- morato.' Sanazar, 1458-1530, Ar- cadia. Machiavelli, 1482-1528, His- Berni, d. 1530, Satires. tory of Florence, &c. Ariosto, 1474-1533, ' Or- lando Furioso.' F. M. Molza, d. 1544, Po- Guicciardini, 1482-1540, ems. History of Italy. Bembo, 1470-1547, History Trissino, 1478-1550, 'Italy of Venice. G. Fracastoro, 148a-!533, Delivered,' Epic Trage- L. Alberti, d. 1552, History Medicine. dy. of Bologna. And. Alciato, 1492-1550, Law. . Nic. Tartaglia, Mathem. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN. 619 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1500 Hier. Vida, d. 1566, Latin 1500 1500 F. Commandido, 1509-1575, Poetry. B. Cellini, 1500-1570, Auto- Mathematics. Mic. Angelo Buonaroti, d. biography. Angelo Caninio, d. 1557, 1564, Poems. B. Varclii, 1503-1566, His- toid of nis Times. Orientalist. Giovanni della Casa, 1503- 1556, 11 Galateo, &c. G. Anguillara, b. 1517, Tra- gedy. L. Dolce, 1508-1568, Trage- dy, Epic, History. Bernardo Tasso, 1493-1575, V. Borgkni, 1515-1580, His- And. Vesalio, 1514-1564, 'Amadis.' tory. Anatomy. Greg. Giraldi, 1504-1573, G. Vasari, 1514-1578, Lives Falopius, 1523-1563, Medi- Tragedy. of Painters, &c. cine. Sperone Speroni, 1500-1588, Eustachi, d. 1576, Do. Orations. P. Manut Aldus, 1512-1574, S. Ammirato, 1531-1600, Commentaries. History of Florence. Cardano, 1501-1576, Mathe- G. Adriani, 1511-1579, His- matics. A. F. Grazzini, d. 1583, tory of Iiis Times. P. Launcelloti, 1511-1591, Comedies. B. Davanzati, 1529-1606, Law. Torq. Tasso, 1544-1595, Hist. Eng. Reformation. 'Gerusalemme Liberata.' C. Baronius, 1538-1607, Ec- G. Bagnioli, d. 1600, Tra- clesiastical Annals. gedy. P. Paruta, 1540-159S, Histo- Guarini,153S-1613,' 11 Pas- ry of Venice. Andrea Cassalpino, 1519- tor Fide' Possevini, 1533-1611, De- 1603, Botany. scription of Muscovy,&c. U. Aldrovandi, 1528-1605, P. R. Sarpi, 1552-1623, His- Natural History. tory of Coun. of Trent. Orazio Torsellino, 1545- 1609, Grammar. Ottavio Rinuccini, Opera. F. Braccilolini, 1566-1605, 'La Croce Racquistata.' Oraz.Vecchi, Comic Opera E. C. Davila, 1576-1631, G.Marini,1569-1625, Poems. Hist. Civil Wars France. C. Achillini, 1577-1640, Po- ems. A.Tassoni,1561-1635, 'Sech- chia Rapita.' 1600 G. Chiabrera, 1552-1637, 1600 G. Bentivoglio, 1579-1644, 1600 J. Fabricius, d. 1619, Com- Poems. History Civil Wars Flan- parative Anatomy. ders. Bellarmino, 1542-1621, Po- lemics. Galileo, 1564-1642, Astron. T. A. Campanella, 1568- 1693, Philosophy. L. Vanini, 1585-1619, Theo- logy. B. Castelli, d. 1644, Mathe- matics. B. Cavalieri, d. 1647, Do. Fabio Colonna, 1567-1647, Botany, &c. P. della Valle, 1586-1652, Travels. F. Strada, 1571-1649, Hist. Laur.Lippi, 1506-1664, Co- of Wars of Flanders. mic Poems. G. B. Nani, 1616-1678, His- G. Marini, Romances. tory of Venice. Oderic Rainaldi, Ecclesias- Salvator Rosa, 1615-1673, tical Annals. Satires. F.Redi, 1626-1697, Natural 0. M. Maggi, 1630-1699, Villani, Hist, of Florence. History. Poems. M. Malpighi, 1628-1694, Anatomy. 620 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECtJLATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1600 Ben. Manzina, 1646-1704, 1600 V. Viviani, 1621-1703, Ma- Art of Poetry, Satires. V. Filicaja, l&t2-1707, Po- thematics. A. Magliabecchi, 1633-1714^ ems. Literature. G. D. Cassini, 1625-1712, Mathematics, Astron. D. Guglielmini, 1655-1710, Mathematics. 1700 Aless.Guldi, 1650-1712, Ly- 1700 1700 G. Baglivi, 1668-1706, Me- rics. dicine. A. Marchetti, 1633-1714, Po- G. V. Gravina, 1564-1718, ems, Philosophy. Law. N. Forteguerra, 1674-1735, Ricciardetto. G. M. Crescembini, 1663- 1728, Poetry. L. Muratori, 1672-1750, Apostolo Zeno, 1669-1750, Annals of Itality. Operas. B. Giannone, 1680-1748, S. Maffei, 1675-1755, Tra- gedy. History of Naples. G. Cassini, 1677-1756, Astronomy. F. X. Quadrio, 1695-1756, G. Morgagni, 1681-1771, Histoiy of the Valteline. Anatomy. M. Metastasio, 1698-1782, Dramas, Operas. A. Genovesi, 1732-1769, Metaphysics. B. Buonamici, 1710-1761, F. Algarotti,, 1712-1764, History. 'Newtonianism.' G.R. Boscowich,17ll-1787, Mathematics, Philology. F. M. Zanotti, 1692-1777, C. Goldoni, 1707-1772, Co- Philosophy. medies. C. Beccaria, 1720-1795, C. 1. Frugoni, 1692-1768, 'Crimes & Punishments.' Poems. A. Fabroni, 1732-1802, Bio- G. Gozzi, 1713-1786, Sa- graphy. tires, Odes. G. Tiraboschi, 1731-1794, L. Spallanzani, 1729-1799, Hist, of Italian Literature. Natural History. L. Galvani, 1737-1798, Gal- V. Alfieri, 1749-1803, Tra- vanism. gedies. Volta, 1745-1827, Do. G. Filangieri, 1751-1798, Legislation. 1800 Pindemonte, Poems. 1800 1800 Monti. Poems. Ugo Foscolo, Drama, Po- ems. Botta, History of Italy, &c. Denina, History of Italian Scarpa, Anatomy. Revolutions. I. da Ponte, Poems, Operas. Silvio Pellico, Memoirs. Manzoni, Novels. M. Gioja, 1767-1839, Polh. Economy. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — ^BRITISH. 621 BRITISH, &c. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECITLATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. A. D. A. D. A. D. 500 500 Gildas, Conquest of Britain 500 600 Cffldmon, Saxon Poems. 60O Nennius, Origin of Britons 600 Aldhelme, d. 709, Latin Po ems. 700 700 Bede, 673—735, Eccl. Histo 700 ry of England, Alcum, d. 804, Theology, History, Poetry. 800 Alfred, 849—901, Saxon Po soo 800 J. Scot Erigena, d. 883, ' Of the Nature of Things.' ems. Translations, &c. Asser, d. 909, Life of Alfred, Histoiy of England. 900 900 Ethelwerd, History of Great Britain. 900 1000 1000 Ingulphus, 1030— 1109, His- tory of Croyland. Eadmer, Chronicle. 1000 1100 1100 Order. Vitalis, 1075-1132, History of England. Florence of Worcester, d. 1118, Chron. of England. Geoffry of Monmouth, His- noo tory of Britain. Robert Pulleyn, d. 1150, William of Malmsbury, d. Theology. 1143, Hist, of Britain. Henry of Huntingdon, Chronicles of England. Simeon of Durham, Chron- icles of England. Richard of St. Victor, d. John of Salisbury, d. 1181, 1173, Theology. ' Life of Becket,' &c, Layamon, Saxon Poetry. Ralph Glanville, Collection of Laws. • Nigellus, Speculum Stulto- G. Cambrensis, Conq. of rum. Ireland, Itin. of Wales. Walter Mapes, Satires, Wm. of Newbury, b. 1136, So.ig3. Chron. of England. Jos. of Exeter, Troj. War, War of Antioch, Epics. 1200 1200 Roger Hoveden, Chron. of England. 1200 Gervase of Canterbury, Alex. Neckham, d. 1227, History of England. Theology. Roger of Wendover, Hist. of England. Robert Grosteste, Natural Philosophy. Alexander Hales, d. 1345, Aristotelian. John Peckham, Theology. John Holiwood, d. 1268, Matthew Paris, d. 1259, Astron., Mathematics. History of England. 62S THE world's progress. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SOIENTIPIO. Robert of Glocester, Chron- William Rishanger, His- tory of England. Roger Bacon, 1214—1292 icle in verse. Chemistry, Optics, &c. T. Lermont, the Rhymer, Rich. Middleton, Theology, Sir Tristem, Romance. 1300 1300 1300 Albricus, Theology. Duns Sootus, d. 1308, Phil- osophy. Walter Burleigh, Philoso- phy. Gilb. Anglicus, Medicine. Adam Davie, Metr. Ro- Nicholas Triveth, d. 1328, R. Aungervile, 1281—1345, mance, Life of Alex. Hist. Physic, Theology. Richard of Chichester, Philobiblion. Lawrence Minot, d. 1352, Chron. of England. J. Wicliffe, 1324-1384, Historical Poems. Ralph Higden, d. 1360, Theology, Translation of Chron. of England. Bible. Henry Knighton, d. 1370, Chron. of England. Matthew of Westminster, John Barbour, 1325-1396, 'Flowers of Historv.' ' The Bruce.' John Maundeville, d. 1372, H. de Bracton, Law. R. Langlande, ' Pierce Travels. Plowman,' a Satire. John Fordun, Chron. of Geof. Chaucer, 1328-1400, Scotland. ' Canterbury Tales,' &c. John Gower, d. 1402, Ele- gies, Romances, &c. '400 1400 Andrew of Wyntoun, Chron. of Scotland. 1400 John Lydgate, 1380-1440, Poems. T. Walsingham, d. 1440, History of Normandy. Jameo I. of Scotland, 1395- John Fortescue, Laws ol 1437, 'King's auhair,' England. &c. Harry the Minstrel, 'Sir W. Wallace.' John Hardyng, Chron. of Thomas Littleton, d. 1487, England. Law. Lord Berners, Trans, of Froissart. Stephen Hawes, ' Passe- W. Caxton, Translations. tyme of Pleasure.' . John Skelton, d. 1529, Douglas of Glastonbury, Satires, Odes. Chron. of England. 1500 Wm. Dunbar, 1465-1530, 1500 R. Fabyan, d. 1512, Chron. 1500 Thos. Linacre, 1460-1524, 'Thistle and Rose.' of England and France. Philology, Medicine. Gawin Douglas, 1475-1522, Trans. Virgil. Thomas More, 1480-1535, Anth. Fitzherbert, Hus- ' Utopia.' bandry. Thomas Wyatt, d. 1541, Sonnets. T. Halls, d. 1547, Hist, of John Heywood, d. 1565, Houses of York and Lan- Thomas Elyot, Philology. Drama. caster. H. Latimer, 1475—1555, Earl of Surrey, d. 1546-7, John Leland, d. 1552, Eng- Sermons. Poems. lish Antiquities. Geo. Gascoigne, d. 1577, W. Cavendish, 1505—1557, Drama. 'Life of Wolsey.' J. Ball, 1495-1563, 'Lives Roger Ascham, 1515 — 1568, of British Writers.' ' The Schoolmaster.' Ralph Hollingshed,d. 1581, Thomas Wilson, d. 1581 Chronicles. Logic and Rhetoric. Geo. Buchanan, 1506-1582, Thomas Tusser, d. 1580, History of Scotland. Husbandry. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 623 IMAGINATION. Philip Sidney, 1554—1586, 'Arcadia.' Christ. Marlowe, d. 1593, Drama. Edm. Spenser, 1553—1598, ' Faery Queen." W. Shakspeare, 1564 — 1616, Drama. Jolm Lylie, 1550—1600, 'Euphues.' John Fletcher, 1576—1625, Drama. F. Beaumont, 1586—1615. Drama. 1600 John Owen, d. 1612, Latin Epigrams. Sir H. VVotton, 1568—1639 Poet. J. Fox, 1517—1587, Book of Martyrs. N. Fitzherbert, 1550—1612, Biography. John Stowe, 1527—1605, Chronicles, Topography. Sir T. North, Translations of Plutarch. J. Ford, b. 1586, Drama. Ben Jonson, 1574—1637, Drama. P. Massenger, 1585—1639, Drama. J. Harrington, 1561—1612, Trans. Ariosto. E. Fairfax, d. 1632, Trans. M. Drayton, 1563-1631, Poems. G. Sandys, 1577—1643, Translations, Poems. J. Daniel, 1562—1619, Poems. W. Drummond, 1585-1649, Poems. John Donne, 1573—1662, Satires, Essays. Geo. Wither, 1588-1667, James Shirley, 1594—1666, Drama. Sir J. Suckling, 1609—1841, Poems. John Denham, 1615—1668, Tragedies, Cooper's Hill! Samuel Butler, 1612—1688, Hudibras. John Milton, 1608—1674, ' Paradise Lost.' Edm. Waller, 1605—1687, Poems. A.. Cowley, 1618—1667, Poems. A.Maxwell 1620—1678, Poems. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. J. Jewel, 1522—1570, Di- vinity. R. Hooker, 1553—1600, Ec- clesiastical Polity. W. Gilbert, 1540—1603, ' On the Loadstone.' L. Andrews, 1565 — 1626, Sermons. J. Pitts, 1560—1616, Biog. of Kings, Bishops, &c. Richard Knolles, d. 1610, History of the Turks. Wm. Camden, 1551-1623, Antiquities. R. Hackluyt, 1553—1616, Naval Histories. W. Raleigh, 1552—1617, History of the World. Samuel Daniel, 1567—1619, History of England. John Hayward, d. 1627, English History. J. Speed, 1555—1629, Hist, ot Great Britain. Henry Spelman, 1562-1641, Antiquities. R. B. Cotton, 1570—1631, Antiquities. S. Purchas, 1577-1628, Collection of Voyages. Thomas Roe, 1580—1641, Travels in the East. E. (Lord) Herbert, 1581— 1648, History of Henry vm. R. Baker, d. 1645, Chron. of England. Thomas Fuller, 1608—1661, History, Biography. Clarendon, 1608-1673, His- tory of Rebellion. Thomas May, d. 1650, His- tory of Parliament. Izaak Walton, 1593—1683, Biography. B. Whitlocke, 1605—1676, History. Mrs. Hutchinson, Biogra- phy. W. Prynne, 1660—1667, History, Politics. 1600 Edward Coke, .550—1634, Law. John Napier, 1550—1617, Logarithms. Robert Buncr., 1576- 1639, 'Anat. of Melancholy.' Francis Bacon, 1560 — 1626, Philosophy, History. Wm. Harvey, 1578—1657, Circulation of Blood. John Selden, 1584—1654, Antiquities, Law, Hist. J. Harrington, 1611-1677, ' Oceana.' James Usher, 1580 — 1656, Divinity, Sermons, Hist. Thos. Hobbes, 1588—1679, Metaphysics W. Dugdale, 1605—1686, Antiquities, History. W. Chillingworth, 1602— 1644, Theology. Isaac Barrow, lOSO— 1677, Divinity, Mathematics. J. Pearson, 1612—1686, Divinity. Brian Walton, 1600—1661, Polyglot Bible Jeremy Taylor, d. 1667, Divinity. Alger. Sydney, 1617—1683, ' Discourse on Govern- ment.' Thos. Browne, 1605—1682, ' On Vulgar Errors.' Edmund Castell, d. 1685, Lexicon Heptaglotton. R. Cudworth, 1617—1688, Metaphysics.' 624 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMASINATIOM. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO. 1600 1600 1600 J. Evelyn, 1620—1706, ' Sylva.' H. More, 1614—1687, The- ology. T. Sydenham, 1624—1689, Rochester, 1648—1680, Wm. Temple, 1629-1710, Satires. History. Medicine. Roscommon, 1633—1684, W. Sherlock, d. 1689, Di- Poems. vinity. N. Lee, 1656—1691, Drama. J. Tillotson, 1630—1694, John Bunyan, 1628—1688, Sermons. 'Pilgrim's Progress.' Archbishop Leighton, John Dryden, 1631-1701, 1613—1684, Divinity. Tragedy, Satire, ' Virgil.' R. Baxter, 1615—1691, Thos. Otway, 1651—1685, 'Saint's Everlasting Tragedy. R. Brady, d. 1700, History Rest.' of England. R.Boyle, 1627— 1691, Theology, Chemistry. 1700 John Pomfret, 1667—1703, 1700 Thomas Rymer, d. 1713, 1700 ' The Choice.' Foedeca. John Ray, 162&-1705, Bot- any. Natural History. John Locke, 1632—1704, Metaphysics. R. South, 1633—1716, Di- vinity. John Philips, 1676— 1"08, ' Splendid Slulling.' Thos. Pamell, 1679-1718, S. Ockley, 1678-1720, 'The Hermit.' Oriental History. Isaac Newton, 1642—1719, Geo. Farquhar, 1678—1707, Thos. Heame, 1678—1735, ' Principia.' Comedies. History and Antiquities. J. Flamsteed, 1642—1719, John Strype, 1613—1737, Astronomy. R. Hooke, 1635—1702, Phil- Eccl. History, Biog. Gilbert Burnet, 1643—1715, osophy. 'History of his Times.' B. de Mandeville, 1670— Matthew Prior, 1664—1721, L. Echard, 1671—1730, 1733, ' Fab. of the Bees.' Poems. History of England. Edm. Halley, 1656—1742, R. Steele, d. 1729, Drama, Thos. Carte, 1686—1754, Astronomy. Essays. History of England. Hans Sloane, 1660—1753, Daniel Defoe, 1660-1731, John Potter, 1674—1747, Natural History. 'Robinson Crusoe.' Antiquities. Jos. Addison, 1672—1719, SirW. Petty, 162-3-1682, 'Spectator,' 'Cato.' Statistics. Nich. Rowe, 1673—1718, Tragedy. J. Vanbrugh, d. 1726, Com- edy. A. Clark, 1696—1742, Dl W. "Congreve, 1672—1728, vinity. Philosophy. Comedy. D. Waterland, 1683—1740, John Gay, 1688—1733, Divinity. ' Beggar's Opera,' Fab. Nathanael Hooke, d. 1763, R. Bentley, 1661—1740, M. W. Montague, 1690— History of Rome. Divinity, Philology. 1762, Letters. C. Middleton, 1683—1750, A. Baxter, 1687—1750, Met- Robert Blair, 1699—1746, Life of Cicero, &c. aphysics. ' The Grave.' Lord Bolingbroke, 1672— S. Richardson, 1689—1761, 1751, Politics, Literature. ' Clarissa,' ' Pamela,' &c. • G. Berkeley, 1684—1753. ' Metaphvsics, Ethics. P. DoddrSge, 1701-1751. Divinity. Jas. Bradley, 1692—1762, Astronomy. F. Hutcheson, 1694—1747, Moral Philosophy. D. Garrick, 1716-1779, T. Sherlock, 1678—1761, Drama. Divinity. S. Foote, 1720—1771, C. Maclaurin, 1696—1746, Drama. Mathematics. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 625 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO. 1700 R. Rodsley, 1703-1764, 1700 John Swinton, 1703—1767, 1700 Earl of Chesterfield, 1694- Drama. History, Antiquity. 1773, Letters. Jona. Swift, 1667—1745, Eph. Chambers, d. 1740, Satires, Tales, &c. Cyclopaedia. L Watts, 1674-1748, B. Hoadley, 1676—1761, Hymns. Polemics. Edw. Young, 1681—1765, Bishop Butler, 1692—1752, ' Night Thoughts.' Divinity. Alex. Pope, 1688—1744, Poetry. W. Somerville, 1692—1743, ' The Chase.' AUan Ramsay, 1696 -1758, ' The Gentle Shepherd.' Rich'd Savage, 1698—1743, Poems. Jas. Thomson, 1700-1748, J.Wesley, 1703-1791, Di- 'Seasons.' Lord Lyttleton, 1709—1778, vinity. John Dyer, 1700-1758, History, Poems, Divin- D. Hartley, 1704—1757, Poems. ity. ' Observations on Man.' H. Fielding, 1707—1754, James Granger, d. 1776, Soame Jenyns, 1704—1787, ' Tom Jones,' &c. Biog. Hist, of England. Theology. James Hammond, 1710 — W. Warburton, 1709-1779, 1742, Elegies. Theology, Criticism. Lawr. Sterne, 1713—1768, J. Jortin, 1698—1770, Di- 'Tristram Shandy.' vinity, Criticism. W. Shenstone, 1714-1763, Sam. Johnson, 1709—1784, Lord Kaimes, 1696—1782, Pastorals, &c. Lives of Poets, Diet., &c. Elements of Criticism, W. Collins, 1720-1756, Jonas Hanway, 1712-1786, R. Lowth. 1710—1787, Di- Odes. Travels in the East. vinity, Philology. H. Brooke, 1706—1783, John Blair, d. 1782, Chro- W. Blackstone, 1723—1780, ' Fool of Quality.' nology. Laws of England. M. Akenside, 1721—1770, David Hume, 1711—1776, "Junius." 'Pleasures of Imagina- History of England, tion.' Essays, &c. Thos. Gray, 1716-1771, Odes, Elegies. W. Robertson, 1721-1793, Adam Smith, 1723-1790, T. SmoUet, 1720-1771, Hist, of Charles V., U books used in Russia were written in the ancient Sclavonic tongue, which does not greatly differ from Russian, but more closely resembles the languages spoken in Servia, and in the other provinces near the Save and Danube. The first printing-office in Russia was established in 1553.] IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECtTLATIVB AND SCIENTIFIC. lOOO 1000 Nestorof Kiew, 1056—1115, Chronicles of Russia. 1000 YaroBlaf, Code of Laws. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY RUSSIAN. 643 IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1100 The Expedition of Ighor, a celebrated Poem, autlior Unknown. 1100 Theodosius,(?.1120, Annals. Sylvester, d. "1123, Chro- nicles of Russia. Simeon of Susdal, d. 1206, Chronicles of Russia. 1100 1200 1200 John of Novgorod, History of Russia. 1200 [The blank of nearly four centuries arises from the oppression of the Mongols, who held Russia from 1223 to 1477. They destroyed almost all ancient books, and repressed the rising spirit of knowledge which a close connection with the Greeks was then introducing into Russia.] 1600 Simeon of Polotsk, Poems, Spiritual Dramas. 1700 Cantemir, 1708—1744, Sati- rical Poems, Lomonosoff, 1711—1765, Poetry, History, Science. Tredianoffski, Poems. Popofski, Transl. Pope. Suraarokoff, 1718—1777, Drama. Kheraskofr, 1733—1807, 'The Russiad.' Kostroff, d. 1796, Transl. the Iliad. Petrotr, 1736—1799, Transl. the Eneid. Kniajnin, 1742—1794, Drama. J. Khemnitzer, 1744—1784, Fables. Klushin, Comedies. EphimiefF, Comedies. Ablesimoff, Operas. G. R. Derjavin, 1743—1816, Lyric Poetry. H. Bogdanovitch, 1743— 1803,' Dushenka,' Poems. Vizin, 1745—1792, Come- dies, Tales. Nicoleff, Tragedies. 1800 Maikoff, Comic Poems. Dmitrieff, Lyrics. Fables. OzerofF, d. 1816, Tragedies. P. Sumarokoff, Poems, V. A. jukofski, b. 1783, Poems. Milonoff, d. 1821, Satires. Batiushkoff, Transl. Tibul- lus. Gneditch, Transl. Iliad, Odes. Kryloff, Fables. 1500 1700 Khilkoff, History of Russia. V. Tatischeff, d. 1750, Chronicles of Russia. Cherbatoff, History. Golikotr, History. Muravieff, 1757—1816, His- tory, Didactics. Eugenius, History. Karamsin, b. 1765, History of Russia. Kachenofski, History. G. Glinka, History. Kotzebue, Voyage of Dis- coveiy. Gretch, History of Russian Literature. Timkowski, Journey China. 1500 Sudebuek, Code of Laws. 1600 Demetrius of Rostoff, Tlie- ology. Spiritual Dramas. 1700 Theophanes, Seimons. Plato, 1737—1812, Sefmona. P. S. Pallas, 1741—1811, Natural History. 1800 Shishkoff, Criticism. Augustin, Sermons. 644 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. P. Persian. T. Turkish. Those unmarked are Arabian. IMAGINATION. 60C Mahomet, Koran. Lebid, 622—757, Poems. Zohair, Poems. Kais' El Ameri, or Amrul- kais, Poems. 600 700 700 Abun Massabj Poems. Abunowas,?62— 810, Poems. Rehashi, Poems. Acu Obeid, d. 838, Fables. 800 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTir. O. 600 Muham. ben Omar, History. A.Temain, 804—84.5, Poems Bochteri, 821—882, Anthol. Abu Mohammed Abdallah, Literature. 900 Ibn Doraid, d. 931, Poems. Almotanabbi, d. 965, Poems Wahab, Travels. Abuzeid, Travels. I. Kotaibah, d. 889, History. Abu Jafar, 838—922, Hist. Honain ben Isaac, d. 874, Translations from Greek. Ahaxun, Medicine. 700 Jafar, Chemistry. Abu Hanifah, 699—767, The- ology. 800 Asmai, 740—830, Theology. Kendi, Philosophy. J. ben Serapion, Medicine. Almamon, Astronomical Tables. Bahali, d. 835, Etymology. Alfragan, Astronomy. Nasir Khosru, Metaphys. Albumazar, 805—885, Ma- thematics, Astronomy. Bochari, 810—870, ' Tha Sahih,' Traditions. Geber, Chemistry. 900 P. 1000 Ferdusi, 932—1020, 'Shah Nameh,' Epic Poem. Abul Ola, 973—1057, Poems. Said ben Batrik, 876—937, General History. Eutychius, History. Massudi, d, 957, History and Geography. Ibn Haukal, Geography. 1000 Almuyadad, History of Saracens in Sicily. 900 Albategni, Astronomy. Bases, d. 9^, Medicme. Ben Musa, Mathematics. Azophi, Astronomy. Alfarabi, d. 954, Aristo- telian Philosophy. Geuhari, d. 998, Aristo- telian Philosophy. 1000 Achmet, Treatise on Dreams. Ibn Mesua, Medicine. Avicenna, 930-1038, Philosophy, Medicine. Abulcasis, Medicine. Jelaleddin, Correction of Calendar. Arzachel, Astronomy. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. 645 IMAGINATION. PACT. SPBCtTLATIVE AND SCIENTIPIO. 1100 Tograi, d. 1119, Poems. 1100 1100 Gazali, 1058-1112, Aristo- /, telian Philosophy. Alhazin, Optics. Tabrizl, d. 1136, Commen- Hairi, 1054-1121, Moral taries. Poems. Algazel, Antiquities, &c. Alchabit, Optics, Astron. P. Felekl, d. 1181, Poems. Ben Idris, b. 1099, Geog. A Zohar, d. 1168, Medic. P. Khakani, d. 1185, Poems. P. Anwari, d. 1200, Poems. Jaafar ebn Tofail, d. 1198, 'Hai ben Yokdan,' a Novel. I. Elfaredh,d. 1234, Poems. Averroes, d. 1206, Aristo- telian Pliilosophy. 1200 1200 Bohadin, Life of Saladin. 1200 A. Baca, d. 1219, Arithm. AbdoUatif, Topography of Egypt. Abuldem, d. 1244, History. El Harawi, Travels. P. Saadi, 1193-1291, ' Gulis- tan,' 'Bostan.' Elfaragi, Poems. P. Abulfarage, 1226—1286, Universal History. Elmacin, d. 1302, History of Saracens. Fadlallah, History of Mo- guls. Caswin, d. 1274, Natural History. Beithar, d. 1246, Botany, Medicine. P. Nasireddin, 1201—1273, Astronomy. 1300 1300 Abulfeda, 1273-1333, 1300 E. Hajan, d. 1344, Gran. Geography, History. Novairi, d. 1331, Universal History. Mohammed Ibn Batuta, Travels. Ibn al Wardi, d. 1358, Geography. Abu Sharaeh, b. 1299, Hist. P. Turan Shah, d. 1377, Hist. P. Hafix, d 1395, Odes. Jafei, d. 1368, Biography. Firuzabadi, 1329—1414, ' The Camoos.' 1400 P. P. 1400 Ali Yezdi Sherifeddin, Life of Tamerlane. Makrizi, 1367-1438, Hist. Arabshah. d. 1450, Life of Timur. ' Baccai, d. 1480, Biography. Khondemir, or Mirkhond, 1400 Zeineddin Abulhassan, Dictionary. Ulug Beg, 1393—1444, Astronomy, Chronology Babacushi, d. 1481, Politics. P. Jami, d. 1486, Poems, s T. Gen. Hist, to a. d. 1474. Baber, d. 1530, Autobio- graphy. 1500 Alhassan, Description of 1500 Africa. Babacushi, d. 1566, Morals. Al Jannabi, d. 1590, Uni- versal History. 645 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. IMAGINATION. PACT. SPECULATIVE AND BCIENTIFIO. 1600 1600 Ferishta, Hist, of India. Abulgazi, 1605—1663, Hist. of Tartars. T. Haji Khalifeh, d. 1675, History. P. 1600 Nured. Shirazi, Metaph. Moham. Hossain, ' Borhani Kata,' Dictionary. 1700 P. 1700 Gholam Hussein, An- nals of Hindostan. 1700 Gholam Ali, Grammar. UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. IMAGINATION. FACT. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1600 1600 1600 Thomas Hooker, d. 1627, Sermons, &c. Wm. Hubbard, 1704, Hist. John Cotton, d. 1652, Theol. of Massachusetts. Cotton Mather, 1662-1728, Sermons, ' Magnalia,'&c. 1700 John Adams, 1705—1740, 1700 Inc. Mather, 1723, ' History 1700 Benj. Colman, d. 1747, Poems. of War with Indians.' Theology. Benj. Church, 1739-1776, Thos. Prince, d. 1757, Hist. Jona. Edwards, d. 1757, Poems. of New England. Theology. Wm. Livingston, 1723— Samuel Davies, d. 1761, 1790, Poems. Sermons. John Trumbull, 1750-1831, John Clayton, d. 1773, 'McFingal,' &c. Botany. .loel Barlow, 1755—1812, Cadwallader Golden, 1688- ' The Columbiad.' 1776, History of the Five Nations of Indians. John Blair Linn, 1777— John Bartram, d. 1777, 1804, Poems. Botany, Travels. Thos. Hutchinson, d. 1780, Jos. Bellamy, d. 1790, Hist, of Massachusetts. Theology. Benjamin Franklin, 1706— 1790,Natural Philosophy, Politics, &c. Jas. Otis, d. 1783, Politics. John Hancock, 1793, Politics. Jolin Witherspoon, d. 1794, Theolosy, Politics. Patrick Henry, d. 1796, David Rittenhouse, d. 1796, Politics. Astronomy. Samuel Adams, 1803, Jeremy Belknap, 1798, His- Politics. tory of N. riampshire, Samuel Hopkins, 1721— Amer. Biog. &c. 1803, Theology. Geo. R. Minot, 1802, ' Hist. Fisher Ames, d. 1808, of Massachusetts Bay.' Politics. Isaac Backus, 1806, Church History of N. England. 1800 Chas. B. Brown, d. 1810, 1800 Jas. Sullivan, d. 1809, Hist. 1800 Thos. Paine, 1737—1809, Novels. of Maine. . Politics, 'Age of Reason,' Robt. Treat Paine, 1773— ' Rights of Man,' &c. 1811, 'Invention of Let- David Ramsay, d. 1812, Jos. S. Buckminster, a. ters,' 'The Ruling Pas- ' Life of Washington,' 1812, Theology. Bion,' and other Poems. 'American Revolution,' Alex. Hamilton, 1757— ' Universal History.' 18W, Pontics. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY U. S. OF NORTH AMERICA. 647 IMAGINATION. 1800 Paul Allen, 1775—1826, ' Noah,' (a poem,) [Hist, of Am. Re vol.] 1800 Alexander Wilson, d. 1813, 'American Ornithology.' Hugh Williamson, d. 1818, Hist, of N. Carolina. Benj. S. Barton, d. 1815, Botany. J. G. C. Brainard, d. 1826, Poems, Wm. Wirt, 1772— ia34, 'British Spy.' Robt. C. Sands, d. 1832, Poems. J. Q. Adams, 1707—1847, Poems. Washington AUston, 1779- 1843, Painter, Poet, and Novelist. Timothy Flint, 17S0— 1840 Novels. Jas. A; Hillhouse, 1789— 1841, Poems. Wm. Leggett, 1802—1840, Poems, Miscellan., Polit. R. H. Wilde, 1789—1840, Poems, Researches on Tas90, anae, who per- fortred many extraordinary exploits by means of Medusa's head. Phcbcasia'ni, ancient gods of Greece. Pha'elon, son of Sol (Apollo) and Climene, who asked the guidance of his father's chariot for one day, as a proof of his divine descent ; but unable to manage the horses, set the world on fire, and was therefore struck by Jupiter with a thunderbolt into the river P6. PhalHica, feasts of Bacchus. Philainhnon, a skilful musician. Pailome'la, daughter of Pandion, king of Athens, who was ravished by her brother-in-law, Tereus, and was changed into a nightin- gale. Phin'eas, son of Agenor, and king of Paphla- gonia, who had his eyes torn out by Boreas, but was recompensed with the knowledge of futurity ; also a king of Thrace, turned into a stone by Perseus, by the help of Me- dusa's head. Plile^'ethon, a boiling river of hell. Phlegon, one of the four horses of Sol. Phlegiyoi, a people of Bosotia, destroyed by Neptune, on account of their piracies and other crimes. Plia'bas, the priestess of Apollo. PlKB'biis, a title of Apollo. Pha'nix, son of Amyntor, who being falsely ac- cused of having attempted the honor of one of his father's concubines, was condemned to have his eyes torn out ; but was cured by Chiron, and went with Achilles to the siege of Troy. Picum'nus, a rural god. Pilum'nus, a god of breeding womei^. Pin'dus, a mountain in Thessaly. Pi'tho, a goddess of eloquence. Ple'iades, the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione ; Mala, Electra, Taygete, Asterope, Merope, Halcyone, and Celceno ; they were changed into stars. Plu'lo, the god of hell. Plu'ius, the god of riches. Pol'lux. See Castor. Polyd'amas, a famous wrestler. Polyd'ius, a famous prophet and physician. Polyhym'nia, the muse of rhetoric. Polyphe'mus, a monstrous giant, son of Nep- tune, with but one eye in the middle of his forehead. Pomo'na, the goddess of fruits and autumn. Pose'idon, a name of Neptune. Pramesti'na, a name of Fortuna. Prces'les, a title of Jupiter and Minerva. Praxit'eles, a famous statuary. Pri'am, son of Laomedon, and father of Paris, Hector, &c. ; he was the last king of Troy. Prog'ne, wife of Tereus, king of Thrace, an I sister of Philomela ; she was turned into a swallow. Prome'theus, son of lapetus, who animated a man that he had formed of clay, with fire, which, by the assistance of Minerva, he stole from heaven, and was therefore chained by Jupiter to mount Caucasus, with a vulture continually preyins upon his liver. Propu'lcBa, a name of Hecate. Pros'erpine, the wife of Pluto. HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 655 ProHeus, a sea god, who could transform himself into any shape. Psy'che., a goddess of pleasure. Pi/t'adas, the constant friend of Orestes. Pyr'amus, and This'be, two lovers of Babylon, who killed themselves vifith the same sword, and occasioned the turning the berries of the mulberry-tree, under which they died, from white to red. Prycb'tis, one of the four horses of the sun. Pyr'rhus, son of Achilles, remarkable for his cruelty at the siege of Troy. Py'thon, a huge serpent, produced from the mud of the deluge, which Apollo killed, and in memory thereof, instituted the Py ihiau games. Puthonis'sa, the priestess of Apollo. Quad'rifrons, a title of Janus. Qui'es, a goddess of grown persons, Quieta'lis, and Quie'tzis, names of Pluto. Quinqua'tria. feasts of Pallas. S, Jiecl'us, a title of Bacchus. Rc'dux, and Re'gia, titles of Fortune. liegi'na, a. title of .luno. Rhadaman'thus, one of the three infernal judges. Rhe'a, a title of Cybele. Rhe'a-syl'via, the mother of Romulus. Robi'gus, a god of corn. Rom'idus, the first king of Rome. Ruini'na, a goddess of new-born infants. Runci'na, the goddess of weeding. Rusi'na, a rural deity. S iSaba'zia, feasts of Proserpine. Sa'lii, the 12 frantic priests of Mara. Salmone'us, a king of Eiis, struck by a thunder- bolt to hell for imitating Jupiter's thunder. Sa'lus, the goddess of health Sanc'us, a god of the Sabines Sator, and Sorri'tor, rural gods. Saturna'lia, feasts of Saturn. Satur'nus, or Sai'urn, the son of Coelus and Terra. Sat'yrs, the attendants of Bacchus, horned mon- sters, half men, half goats. Scy'ron, a famous robber of Attica. Se'ia, and Sege'iia, goddesses of corn. Sel'li, priests of Jupiter. Sen'ta, a goddess of married women. (Sera'pis. See Apis. Sile'nus, the foster-father and companion of Bac- chus, who lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass, and was drunk every day. Si'mis, a famous robber, killed by Hercules. Sis'ypkus, the son of ^olus, killed by Theseus, and doomed incessantly to roll a huge stone up a mountain in hell for his perfidy and numerous robberies. fiol, a name of Apollo. Som'nus, the god of sleep. Sphinx; a monster, born of Syphon, and Ecliidna, who destroyed herself because CEdipus solved the enigma she proposed. Sta'ta, a goddess of grown persons. Sten'tor, a Grecian, whost voice is reported to have been as strong and as loud as tne voices of 50 men together. Sthe'no, one of the three Gorgons. Styx, a river of hell. Sua'da, a nuptial goddess. Summa'nus, a name of Pluto. Sylva'nus, a god of woods and forests. Sy'rens, sea monsters T Ta'cita, a goddess of silence. TantaHus, a king of Paphlagonia, who, serv- ing up to table the limbs of his son, Pelops, to try the divinity of the gods, was plunged to the chin in a lake of hell, and doomed to everlasting thirst and hunger, as a punish- ment for his barbarity and impiety. TarUi'rus, the place of tire wicked in hell. Tau'rus, the bull, under whose form Jupiter carried away Europa. Telchi'nes, priests of Cybele. Telema'chus, the onl)^ son of Ulysses. 7'e-m'pe, a most beautiful valley in Thessaly, the resort of the gods. Ter'minus, the god of boundaries. Terpsicko're, the muse of music, &c. Ter'ror, the god of dread and fear. Tha'lia, the muse of comedy. The'mis, the daughter of Coelum and Terra, the goddess of laws, oracles, &c. Thes'pis, the first tragic poet. The' lis, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and god- dess of the sea. Thyr'sus, the rod of Bacchus. Ti'phys, the pilot of the ship Argo. Tisiph'o7ie, one of the three Furies. Ti'tan, son of CcElum and Terra, and the elder brother of Saturnus, or Saturn. Tnia'rius, a title of Jupiter. TriHon, Neptune's trumpeter. Tri' Ionia, a name of Minerva. Tro'ilus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. Troy, a city of Phrygia, famous for holding out a siege often years against the Greeks, but they at last captured and destroyed it. Tuteli'na, a goddess of corn. Ty'ro, one of the Nereids. U Ulys'ses, son of Laertes and Anticlea, and king of Ithaca, who, by his subtlety and eloquence, was eminently serviceable to the Greeks in the Trojan war. Unx'ia, a title of Juno. Ura'nia, the muse of astronomy. V Vacu'na, the goddess of idle persons. Vagita'nus, a god of little infants. Vallonia, a goddess of valleys. Veni'lia, a wife of Neptune. Ve'nus, the goddess of love, and beauty. Vergil'icE, a name of the Pleiades. Verticor'dia, a name of Venus. Vertuni'nus, the god of spring. 656 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. Ves'la, the goddess of fire. Via'les, deities of the highways. VibU'ia, the goddess of wanderers. Virgmen'sis, a nuptial goddess. Vir'go, a name of Astrea and Fortune. Virilis, and ViscaHa, titles of Fortune. Viri'placa, an inferior nuptial goddess, who re- conciled husbands to their wives; a temple, at Rome, was dedicated to her, whither the married couple repaired after a quarrel, and returned together friendly. Vitu'la, the goddess of mirth. Volu'sia, a goddess of corn. Vul'can, the god of subterraneous fire. Xan'lhus, one of the horses of Achilles, born of the harpy Celosno, a river near Troy, called also Scamander. Z Za'greus, a title of Bacchus. Zeph'yrus, son of ^olus and Aurora, w!ici pas- sionately loved the goddess Flora, and is put for the west wind. Zb'lcs, and Ca'lais, sons of Boreas and Orythia, who accompanied the Argonauts, and drove the Harpies from Thrace. Ze'tus, a son of Jupiter and Antiope, very expert m music. Ze'us, a title of Jupiter. BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. N' . B. This list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period to the present time, is not oi r.oursc intended to include every name mentioned in history, but merely the most important in iheir several departments. The names of Sovereig7is are referred to occasionally only, as full lista are given in their proper place. This list may be useful in two ways, viz : First, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in this volume ; and Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the cliief political events and contemporary public characters during the life of each person in the list. Thus : Socrates, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 B. J. Tlie tables on page 20 to 24, show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates' life. Milton was born a. d. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia ; six years after the East India Company was founded ; five years after James I. ascended the throne ; the same year that the Pi'otestant Union was formed in Germany; one year before Gustavus Adolphus became king of Sweden ; two years before Louis XIII. became king of France. He was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth; he was 17 when Charles I. suc- ceeded James, and he was 41 years old when Charles was beheaded. Among his contemporaries were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, Algernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller, Tiryden, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in England : Peter Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton, and Eliot, in America: Richelieu, Mazarine, Colbert, Ilubens, Kepler, Des Cartes, Molicre, Corneille, Racine, Pascal, on the Continent. He died a. d. 1674, nine years after the great plague in London, 14 years after Charles II. was restored, and 7 years after New- York was ceded to the English. And thus of any person mentioned in the Index — a great variety of particulars may be found at a glance, on referring to the tables. *,* No living persons are mentioned, except some of the most noted in Europe. Abbreviations. — See List in the Introduction. Bar. {Barbarian), includes several different nations, some not entirely civilized, f. is used for flourished. The dates before Christ are indicated by b. o. — all others are a. d. — In some cases the dates are necessarily left blank. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Ban. Aagesend, Svind, historian Jew. Aaron, the fi"st high-prie.st Gr. Aaron, of Alexandria, physician Eng. Abbot, George, Archbishop of Canterbury and author Arab. Abd 'el Kader, distinguished warrior Fr. Abelard, Peter, a celebrated scholastic divine . Nor. Abel, Nicholas H., mathematician Sp. Abenezva, an astron., pbilos., poet, philologist, &c. Eng. Aberdeen, Earl of, statesman and antiquary Eng. Abercromby, Sir Ralph, military commander Eng. Abernethy, John, eminent physician and medical writer Fr.~ Ablancourt, N. P. D., translator of the classics Jew. Abraham, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation Dan. Absalom (real name Axel), archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor. Ara. Abubeker, father-in-law and successor of Mahomet Syr. Abulfeda. the geographer .... Rom. Accius, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant.) Ital. Accursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic Ger. Accum., Fred , operative chemist (in Eng.) Pruss. Ackerman, Rudolph, introduced gas-lighting and lithog. in London Gr. Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war Gr. Achilles Tatius (of Alexandria), Christian bp. and author Gr. Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian Eng. Adam, Alexander, schoolmaster and author 28* BORN. DIED. . f. 1188 . B. c. 1570 1453 . f. 622 1562 1623 1805 1079 1142 1802 1119 1174 . ' 1738 1801 1764 1831 1606 1664 B. c. 1995 B. c, 1821 1128 1203 561 624 1273 1345 B. c. 171 1229 1769 1833 n 1764 1834 f. 1184 3d cent 1220 1282 1711 1809 658 THE world's PK.OGRESS. KATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Adam, Robert, an arcliitectural author Amcr. Adams, John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. U. S. Amer. , Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic Ainer. , John, patriot and statesman — 2d Pres. TJ. S. Eng. Addison, Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature Rom. Adrian, the 15th Emp. (born in Spain) Ire. Adrain, Robert^ mathematician (at New-York, &c.) Gr. jElian, the historian and rhetorician . . Gr. jEneas, son of Priam, king of Troy_ . . Gr. JEschines, of Athens, philos. — disciple of Socrates Gr. • orator Gr. ^schylus, of Athens, the great tragic writer Gr. iEsop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists Rom. ^Etius, mil. com. (defeated Atilla) Rom. Africanus. Julius, historian Gr. Agamemnon, "the king of kings" Gr. Agathius, historian and poet Swiss. Agassiz, Louis, naturalist Gr. Agesilaus II., king of Sparta ; (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greeks) Gr. Agis IV., the greatest of the Spartan kings Eng. Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible Rom. Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander Ger. Agricola, John, a divine ; — founder of the Antinomians Rom. Agrippa, military commander, governor of Judea Fr. , Cornelius, philosopher, &c. Eng. Aikin, John, M. D., an elegant writer ; editor of poets, &c. Eng. Ainswonh, grammarian and lexicographer Tartar. Akbar. Mohammed, a great Mogul sovereign, Eng. Akenside, Mark, a popular poet Swe. Akerblad, philologist Bar. Alaric I., king of the Visigoths Span. Alberoni, Julius (cardinal), statesman Ital. Alberti, an eminent writer, paint., sculp., &.C. Ger. Albertus Magnus, philosophic writer; tutor of Aquinas Bar. Alboin, the J^oiubard conqueror . . . Port. Albuquerque (the great), military commpiider Gr. AlCcBUs, of Lesbos, a lyric poet Ital. Alciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian aud author Gr. Alcibiades, a famous Athenian general and statesman . Eng. Alcuinus (founder of schools at Paris, &c.) Eng. Aldhelm, St., an eminent scholar and poet Fr. Alembert, John le Rond d', math., hist., and philosopher Bar. Alexander, the Great, founder of /.he Macedonian empire Rom.. , Severus, emperor Rus , Nevskoi, a saint and hero ;— del", of the Tartars, &c. Rus. , I., emperor (coalition against Napoleon) Gr. Alexius C'ommcnus, emperor of the East Ito.l. Alfieri, Victor, an eminent tragic poet Eng. Alfred, justly called the Great, king Ital. Algarotti, a general scholar and critic Bar Ali Bey, gov. of Egypt, —revolted against the Turks Bar. — Tepelini, pacha of jannina Scot. Alison, Archibald Rev., 'Essays on Taste' Scot. Alison, Archibald, 'History of Europe,' 'Essays' Amer. Allen, Ethan, an intrepid officer in the Revolution Amer. Allston, Washington, painter and poet Sar. Alraamon, Caliph, patron of learning Sar. Almansor, Caliph, patron of learning Span. Alphonso X., king of Castile, Leon — and author Port. . • I., Henriquez, founder of the Portuguese monarchy Span. Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous mil. com. Jew. Amaziah, king of Judah Ital. Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan— author Ital. Americus Vespucius (of Florence) — explored the S. Amer. coast Amer. Ames, Fisher, a statesman and orator Eng. Amherst, Jeffrey, lord, mil. com. in America, &c. Roin. Ammianus, Marcellinus, historian Gr. Ammonius, a peripatetic philosopher Fr. Ampere, Jean Marie, mathematician and nat. philos. Fr. Amyot, James, bp. of Auxerre— translator of Plutarch Bar. Anacharsis, a Scythian philosopher, and disciple of Solon Gr. Anacreon, a celebrated poet BORN. 1723 1767 1726 1735 1672 76 1775 160 3.C.1183 c. 393 B. c. 468 B. . c. 600 DIBD. 1794 1S48 1808 1826 1719 138 1843 f. 565 1807 40 490 40 .486 1747 1660 1555 1721 1664 1398 1205 1452 606 1492 450 b. 732 c. 3-Zt c. 400 '454 232 c. 904 361 251 1610 93 1566 94 1530 1822 1743 1605 1770 1819 411 17.52 1490 1280 574 1717 . 356 B. 209 1218 1777 1749 849 1712 1728 1744 1757 1203 1094 1508 340' 1451 1750 1717 1775 1513 c. 592 1550 c. 404 804 709 1783 c. 323 235 1262 1825 1118 1803 900 1764 1773 18-^ 1839 1789 1843 833 775 1284 1185 1532 c. 809 3.S7 1512 ISOS 1707 300 c. 24 ia36 1593 B. (!. 474 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 659 NATION, Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Fr. Pruss. Dan. Eng. Scotch. Eng. Fr. Gr. Ital. Gr. Eng. Car. Fr. Eng. Egypt. Ital. Mace. Mace. Gr. Rom. Rom. Rom. Pers. Egypt. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Ital. Fr. Eng. Gr. Scotch. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Ital. Ital. Ital. Pruss. Span. Span. Ital. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Span. Ens. Fr." Ge.-. Dutch. Eng. Amer. Ital. Fr. 423 121 86 1646 1148 1778 B. c. 183 1805 1109 1762 356 1231 301 164 319 B. C- B. C NAME AND PEOPESSION. BORN. DIED. Anastasius I., emperor of the East .... 518 Anaxagoras, a philosopher . . . . b. o. 500 b. C. 428 Anaxarchus, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great f. b. o. 340 Anaximander of Miletus, an lomc philosopher . . . 611 b. o. 547 Anaximenes " " " . . . b. o. 504 Ancelot, J. A. P. F., poet and novelist . . . 1794 Ancillon, .7. P. F., historian and statesman . . . 1767 1837 Andersen, Hans Chris., poet and novelist Anderson, Sir Edmund, a judge and author . . . 1605 , Adam, commercial writer .... 1692 1765 Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of Winchester . . , 1555 1626 Andral, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine . . . 1797 Andronicus of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, flourished . b. c. 63 Anielo, Thomas (commonly called Masiniello), a fisherman of Naples who rose to great power ..... 1623 Anna Commena, daughter of the Emperor Alexis I., historian . 1>.B3 Annet, Peter, a deistical writer ..... 1703 Annibal, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general . b. c. 247 Anquetil du Perron, a classic scholar, and author . . . 1731 Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury— a learned divine . . 1033 Anson, George, lord, celebrated naval commander . . 1697 Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions . . 251 , of Padua, a divine ..... 1195 Antigonus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great Antiochus V. ..... Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander the Great . Antislhenes, a philos.— Ibunder of the sect of Cynics, before Christ Antoninus, Pius, emperor ..... • ■ , IMarcus Aurelius, emperor — surnamed the philosopher Antony, Mark, mil. commander and statesman Anveri, a celebrated jDoet ..... Apion, a grammarian, and bitter enemy of the Jews, flourished . 80 Apollonius, surnamed Rodius, a poet . . . b. c. 194 , Pergamensis, a geometrician, fluurished . . e. c. 242 , Tyaiieus, a Pythagorean philosopher Appian, an historian, flourished .... 143 Aquinas, St. Thomas, a celebrated theologian . . . 1224 Arago, astron., nat. philos., and statesman Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for murder . 1705 Aratus, ofSicyon, mil. com. and statesman . . . b. c. 273 b. Arbuthnot, John, Dr., a poet ..... Archelaus, Ionic philosopher, flourished . . . b. c. 450 Archius, a poet, nourished . . . . b. c. 719 Archilochus, a poet, flourished . . . . b. c. 685 Archidemes, a celebrated mathematician . . b. c. 287 b. Archytas, a mathematician . . . . . b. c. 408 b. Aretino,Guido, inventor of the gamut of music . . . 995 , Leonard, an historian .... 1369 , Peter, satirist ...... 1492 Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer . . . 1799 Argensola, Lupercio, historian and poet .... 1565 , Bartholomew, historian .... 1566 Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet .... 1474 Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician and philosopher . I. b. o. 280 , grammarian and critic . . . b. c. 160 Aristides, an Athenian statesman . . . . b. , jElius, an orator and sophist . . . .129 one of the fathers of the church, flourished . . 127 ' ■ " B. c. 392 B. c. 662 Aristippus, of Cyrene, philosopher — founder of the Cyreniacs Aristomenes, a warrior and patriot, flourished Aristophanes, an Athenian comic poet Aristotle, philosopher — founder of the Peripatetics Alius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Ariaa sect -, Montanus, Benedict.— orientalist Arkwnght, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies Arlincourt, Victor, vicompto de, novelist Arminius, the deliverer of Germany , James, a celebrated divine — founder of a sect Armstrong, John, M. D., poet .... , Jolm, general, statesman, militai-y com., and historian Amaud, Daniel, troubadour .... , Francis Baculard d", dramatist and poet 161 180 30 1201 97 1274 1759 216 1735 212 360 1414 1556 1613 1631 1533 467 185 D. c. 384 B, 1527 1732 1789 1560 1709 1758 1718 C. 389 0. 381 336 1598 1792 20 1610 1779 1843 1220 1805 660 THE world's progress. NATION. Eng. Gr. Prus. Ital. Eng. Amer. Gr. Eng. Bar. Bar. Bar. Brit. Eng. Eng. Bar. Amer, Eng. Ger. Ger. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Bar. Gr. Eng. Rom. Bar. Fr. Eng. Fr. Fr. Rom. Rom. Rom. Fr. Ara. Ara. Eng. NAME AND PROFESSION. Arne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer Arnobius, a defender of Christianity Arnim, L. A. von, poet and novelist Arnold, of Brescia, a learned monk — disciple of Abelard , Tlios., D. D., theologian, historian and philologist , Benedict, major general — the traitor to his country Arrian, historian — disciple of Epictetus Arrowsmith, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy . Artaxerxes I., king of Persia , founder of the new Persian kingdom f. B Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable Arundel, Thomas H., earl of, importer of the Arundelian marbles Ascham, Roger, a learned writer Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general Ashmun, John H., jurist— professor of lav/ Asser, John, historian Ast, Geo. A. F., philologist, 'Lexicon Platonicum' Astor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York Athanasius, St., one of the fathers of the church Athenagoras, philosopher .... Athenais, Emp. of the West, and authoress (called also Eudoxia) Athenteus, a celebrated grammarian — the Greek Varro Attalus, founder of the monarchy of Pergamus — inv. of parchment , Rhodius, mathematician . . . f. b Atterbury, Francis, bp. of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy Atticus, a knight, and author (works lost) . . . B, Attila, king of the Huns, " the Scourge of God" Auber, D. F. E., famous musical composer Auckland, William, lord, statesman Audoin, J. F., zoologist ..... Augercau, duke of Castiglione, mil. com. Augustine, St., a celebrated father of the church , the Apostle of the English — 1st archbishop of Canterbury Augustulus, Romulus, the last emperor of the West Augustus, Cains Julius Cffisar Octavius — 1st emperor . i Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, poet .... Auvergne, Thenphilus — republican— military commander . Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author . Avicenna, philosopher, physician, and author Ayscough, Samuel, Compiler of Index to Shakspeare, &c. BORN. 1710 f. 303 1781 1795 f. 140 C. 250 472 1515 1800 ' 1778 1763 296 f. 177 f. 190 c. 173 1662 c. 109 B. 1784 1797 1757 354 G3 1743 DIBD. 1778 1831 1155 1842 1801 1823 c. 425 242 542 1646 1568 , c. 220 1833 909 1841 1848 371 460 B. c. 193 1731 c. 32 453 1814 1841 1816 430 604 476 14 394 1800 1197 1037 1804 B Eng Gr. Port Ame- Eng. Eng Eng. Dan. Ger. Eng. Fr. Scot. Eng. Fr. Amer. Scot. Turk. Ital. Fr.- Fr. Swe. Irish. Eng. Pruss. Eng. Turk. Fr. Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist . . . 1790 Bacchylides, lyric poet . . . . f. b. C. 450 Baccellar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet . . . 1610 Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian . . . 1724 Back, Geo., Capt. R. N., Polar navigator and author Bacon, Roger, a monk, celebrated for his scientific knowledge , Francis, lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and statesman Baden, James, one of the founders of Danish literature Bilhr, Jno. C. F., classical philologist .... Bailey, Nathan, a grammarian and lexicographer Baillet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer Baillie, Matthew, physician and anatomist Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revolution Bainbridge, Wm., naval commander Baird, Sir David, military commander Bajazet, sultan— conquered by Tamerlane Baibi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer Baldwin, who became emperor of the East Balzac, Honore de, novelist Banier, or Banner, a celebrated military commander Banim, John, novelist Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator — President Royal Society Baralier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair — usurper of Algiers Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous writer Princeton 1214 1561 1735 1798 1649 1761 1774 1736 1774 1757 Venice 1782 Tours 1799 1596 1800 1743 1721 1743 . ' 1674 1663 1806 1292 1626 1804 1742 1706 1823 1844 1793 1833 1820 1413 1206 1850 1641 1842 182U 1740 1825 1518 1729 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 661 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Amer. Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist . . Va. Amer. Barbour, P. P., statesman, and .ludge of Sup. Court . Va. Eng. Barclay, Robert, the celebrated viniiicator of the Quakers Ital. Baretti, Joseph, lexicographer — author of Travels, &c. Eng. Baring, Alex, (lord Ashburton), statesman Amer. Barlow, Joel, a statesman, and poet . . . Eng. Barnes, Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar Amer, , Daniel H., a distinguished conchologist . Dutcli, Barnereldt, John, statesman (beheaded) Amer. Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval comti ander \'r. Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct, in the revolution Eng. Barrow, Isaac, a divine, and mathematician Amer. Barry, W. T., statesman and diplomatist . . Va Fr. Barthelemy, John James, author of 'Anacharsis,' &c., . Amer Barton, Benj. Smith, M. D., a learned physician and botanist Amer. Bartram, John, an eminent botanist .... Or. Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Greek church Fr. Basnage De Beaval, James, historian Fr. Bassaiio, H. B. M., duke of, political writer and statesman . Eng. Bath, William Pulteney, earl of, statesman Eng. Bathurst, earl of, statesman — friend of Pope, &c. Fr. Batteux, Charles, rhetorician, and miscellaneous writer Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine, and author Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander .... Amer. ■ , James A., a distinguished statesman, and lawyer Ger. Bayer, Jolm, astronomer .... Ger. , Theophilus, chronologist, and historian Fr. Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher, and critic [Bayle's Dictionary] Eng. Bayly, Tlios. Haines, poet .... Eng. Beattie, James, LL.D., poet .... Fr. Beauharnois, Eugene Hortense, ex-queen of Holland Fr. Beauharnois, Eugene, son of the empress Josephine, mil. com. — vice- roy of Italy, &c. ..... Fr. Beaumarchais, P. A. C. de, an eminent dramatist Fr. Beaumont, Elie de, mineralogist and geologist Eng. Beaumont, Francis, dramatic writer . . . < Fr." Beauzee, Nicholas, an eminent grammarian Ital. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher Ital. , Marquis, professor of political economy, and author Eng. Becket, Thomas k, celebrated prelate and statesman Eng. Beckford, Wm., traveller and novelist Brit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk, and historian , Eng. Bedford, Jolm, duke of, military commander Pruss. Beer, Michael, dramatic poet (bro. of 'Meyerbeer') Ger. Beethoven, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer Ger. Bekker, Emmanuel, philologist ... Rom. Belisarius, a celebrated general and conqueror Scot. Bell, Johji, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist Scot. Bell, Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist Amer. Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author Ital. Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church Fr. Bellau, Remi, poet ..... Fr. Belleisle, Count de, military commander Ital. Bellini, Vincenzo, musical composer Eng. Beloe, Wm., a divine and critic — translator of Herodotus, &c. Fr. Belon, William, naturalist and traveller Eng. Belsham, William, historical, political, and miscellaneous writer Ital. Belzoni, the celebrated traveller in Egypt Ital. Bembo, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature Eng. Benbow, John, a gallant admiral (tal. Benedict, St., one of the originators of monasteries Ital. Xlil., pope — theological writer . , lial. ■ XIV., pope— theological writer Fr. Benezet, Anthony, philanthropist and historian (died in America) Bar. Bcnhadad, king of Syria .... Fr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet Eng. Beniham, Jeremy, political and philosophical writer Eng. Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar Fr. Beranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet . Fr. Berenger, A. T.I. M. T., statesman and jurist Ger. Berghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer Swe. Bergman, nrofessor of chemistry at Upsal BORN. 1775 1783 1648 1716 1756 1654 1547 1759 1755 1630 1785 1716 1766 1701 320 1653 1758 1682 1684 1713 1615 1476 1767 1694 1647 1797 1735 1753 1780 1732 1798 1555 1714 1716 17.35 1119 1760 672 1800 1770 1763 1781 1719 1542 1528 1684 1808 1518 1752 1470 1650 480 1649 1675 1713 1612' 1C62 1785 1797 1735 DIED. 1842 1841 1690 1789 1812 1712 1818 1619 1S18 1829 1677 1835 1795 1815 1777 379 1723 1839 1764 1775 1780 1691 1524 1815 1627 1738 1706 1839 1803 1837 1824 1799 1616 1789 1781 1793 1170 1844 735 1435 1833 1827 565 1825 1842 1790 1626 1577 1761 1835 1664 1827 1823 1542 1702 547 1728 1753 1784 B. 895 1691 1832 1742 662 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Dan. Behiing, a navigator, from whom the strait dividing Asia and America was named ..... Bel. Beriot, Chas. A. de, violinist and composer Irish. Berkely, George, bp., an eminent prelate and philosopher , Amer. , William, govenior of Virginia Fr. Berlioz, Hector, musical composer Fr. Bernadotte, .1. B. .J., elected king of Sweden, as Cliarles XIV. Fr. Bernard, Simon, engineer and mil. commander Fr. , St., preacher of crusades, and author Eng. , Edward, a divine, astronomer, and author Dutch. , John Frederick, a bookseller, editor and author Amer. , Francis, governor of ftlassachusetts Fr. Bernardin, De Sainte Pierre, author of ' Studies of Nature,' &c. Ital. Bemi, poet (poisoned) ..... Swiss. Bernoulli, James, mathematician Bar. Berosus, the Chaldean historian . . . f. i Fr. Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a ' History of the People of God,' in 11 vols. 4to. . . .... Fr. Berryer, Pierre A., statesman Fr. Berthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander Fr. BerthoUet, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist fr. Bertrand, Henri G., gen. in Napoleon's army Eng. Berwick, duke of, military commander (k. at Phillipsburg) Swe. Berzelius, John James, chemist Fr. Bessieres, duke of Istria, military commander (k. at Lutzen) Ger. Bessel, Fred. Wm., astronomer Ital. Bettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer Fr. Beudant, Francois S., mineralogist and naturalist Eng. Beveridge, William, an eminent theologian, and orientalist Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer Fr. Bezout, mathematician . . .■ . Ital. Bianchini, Francis, mathematician and author Gr. Bias, one of (lie seven sages .... Fr. Biehat, an eminent anatomist and physiologist Eng. Biddle, .John, an eminent Socinian writer Amer. , Nicholas, financier and lileratcur . . . Amer. , Nicholas, a captain in the IJ. S. navy Amer. , .Tames, commodore, in U. S. navy Fr. Bignoii, Louis E., historian Gr. Bion, pastoral poet ..... Gr. of Borysthenes, philosopher (Cyreniac) . Fr. Biot, Jean B., mathematician .... Eng. Birbeck, Geo., M. D., founder of mechanics' institutions Fr. Biron, duke of, military commander (beheaded for conspiracy) Scotch. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer Span. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in Instory and romance under the name ol' the Cid ..... Eng. Blackstone, Sir William, an eminent lawyer and author Scotch. Blair, Robert, a divine and poet Scotch. , John, a chronologi.st Scotch. , Dr. Hugh a divine and rhetorician Scotch. , James, founder of William and Maiy's college in Virginia Eng. Blake, Robert, a celebrated admiral . . Irish. Blessington, Marguerite, Countess, novelist, and literaleur Eng. Bloomiield, Roben, a poet .... Pruss. Blucher, a celebrated military commander Swe. Blumenbach, John Fred., naturalist Brit. Boadicea, the warlike queen of the Iceni . Ital. Boccacio, John, one of the great classic writers of modern Italty Ital. Boccalina, a satirist ..... Fr. Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine, and orientalist Fr. Bodin, John, a lawyer and author Ger. Baehmen, .Jacob, a fanatic and author Dutch. Boerhaave, one of the most eminent of modern physicians . Rom. Boethius, a statesman and philosopher Fr. Bohemond, a Norman adventurer _ . Ger. Boekb, Augustus, classical philologist Fr. Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet Fr. Boissard, Jean J., fabulist .... Fr. Boissy, Louis de, author of comedies Fr. , D'Angles, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist Eng. Bolmbroke, Henry St. John, lord, political and deistical writer f. 1730 1802 1684 1753 1667 1803 1764 1844 1779 18.39 1091 1153 1638 1697 175) 1779 1737 1814 1536 1654 1705 c. 268 1681 751 1790 1753 1815 1748 1822 1778 1844 1670 1734 1779 1769 1784 1718 18:)1 1787 1638 1708 1519 1605 1730 1783 1662 1729 c. 606 1771 1802 1615 1662 1786 1844 1750 1778 1783 1848 1771 1841 B. c. 300 B. c. 240 1776 1841 1561 1602 1759 1805 IWO 1099 1723 •1780 1699 1777 1782 1718 1800 1660 1743 1599 1657 1849 1766 1823 1742 1819 1752 1840 61 1313 1373 1556 1613 1509 1567 1530 1595 1575 1624 1668 1738 455 526 nil 1636 1711 1743 lasi 1694 1758 1756 1826 1678 1751 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 66c KATION NAME AND PROFESSION. Colom. Bolivar, Simon, the iieroic deliverer of his country Fr. Bonaparte, Napoleon, emp. of France Fr. ■, Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon Fr. , Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain Fr. , Lucien, prince of Canino Fr. • , Louis, ex-king of Holland Fr, , Jerome, ex-king of Westphalia Fr. , Louis Napoleon, 1st pres. Republic of France Eng. Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants . Swiss. Boimet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist Eng. Bonnycastle, John, mathematician Eng. , Charles, mathematician Amer. Boone, Daniel, the first settler of Kentucky Ger. Bopp, Francis, Sanscrit scholar Fr. Bonpland. Anne, traveller and botanist . Iial. Boresli, pliilosopher an;! mathematician . Ital. Borghesi, Bartoiomeo, count, antiquarian Ital. Borgia, Cassar, the infamous pope, Alexander VL Ital. Borromeo, cardinal, theological writer Fr. Bosc, Louis A. W., naturalist Eng. Boscawen, Edward, a brave and skilful admiral Ital. Boscovitch, mathematical and philosophical writer Fr. - Bossuet, James B., a divine and historian Fr. Bossul, Charles, mathematician Scotcli. Boston, Thomas, a divine and author Eng. Boswell, James, the biograplier of Dr. Jolmson Bottiger, ai'chaeologist and antiquarian Gr. Botzarris, Marco, a gallant leader in the modem revolution Anier. Boudinot, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist Fr. Boufflers, duke of, military commander Fr. Bourgainville, Louis A., military commander, and author Fr. Bourguer, Peter, mathematician and hydrographer Fr. Bourlainvilliers, Henry, count de, historian Eng. Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer Fr. Bourcet, Peter J. cle, an officer and topographer Fr. Bourdalouo, Louis, a noted preacher Fr. Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author Fr. Bourmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France Eng. Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet Fr. Bom'rienne, biographer of Napoleon Fr. Bousmard, M. de, a military engineer Amer. Bovi'ditch, Natli., astronomer, mathematician, &c, Eng. Bowdler, Thomas, editor Shakspeare, &c. Amer. Bowdoin, James, LL. D., philosoplier and statesman Amer. , James (son of the last), ambassador to Spain Eng. Bowring, John, statesman, poet, and linguist Fr. Boyer, jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris) Amer. Boylston, Zabdiel, an eminent pliysician Scolch. Boyd, Mark Alexander, a poet Irish. Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher Eng. Bradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematician Eng. Bradwardine, Thomas, mathematician and theologian Eng. Brady, Robert, physician and historian Amer. Bradford, William, second governor of Plymouth colony Amer. , William, attorney general of the United States Dan. Brahe, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer Ger. Brandes, Henry Wm., mathematician and astronomer Ger. , John Christian, actor and dramatist Amer. Brainard, David, missionary to the Indians Amer. , J. G. C., a poet Ger. Breitkopf, John G. E., an eminent printer and typo-founder Swe. Bremer, Fredrika, novelist Bar. Brennus, the leader of the Gauls, Scotch. Brewster, Sir David, natural philosopher Ens. Bridgewater, duke of, introducer of canals in England Eng. Briggs, Henry, mathematician Fr. Brisson, Mathurin James, naturalist Fr. Bissot, John, a revolutionist and author Fr. Broglio, due de, statesman Irifih. Brooke, Henry, miscellaneous writer Amer Brooks, John, LL. D., governor of Massachusetts Fi'. Brotier, G., a Jesuit— editor of Tacitus BORN. 1785 1769 1750 1768 1775 1778 1784 1808 1720 1730 1791 1781 1608 1538 1759 1711 1711 1627 1730 1676 1710 17S0 1740 1644 1729 1698 1658 1728 1700 1632 1616 1773 1773 1754 1727 1752 1792 1776 1680 1562 1626 1692 1588 1755 1546 1777 1735 1718 1797 1719 1802 . 390 1785 1736 1536 1723 1757 1785 1706 1752 1723 664 THE world's PKOGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Fr. Brougniait, Alex., mineralogist and geologist Fr. , Adolphe T., botanist Eng. Brougham, Henry, lord, statesman and jurist Fr. Broussais, F. J. V., medical and pliysiological writer Amer. Brown, Arthur, a distinguished scholar and barrister Amer. •, Charles Brockden, a novelist Eng. , John, D D., a miscellaneous writer Scotcli. , John, a divine and author Scotch. , Dr. Thomas, metaphysician and poet Amer. , Maj. Gen. Jacob, general in war of 1812 Amer. , James, senator, minister to France Eng. •, Robert, eminent botanist Eng. Browne, Sir Thomas, a physician and philos. writer Irish. , George, count de, an officer in the Russian serv Eng. , William George, a traveller in Africa, &c. Scotch. Bruc£, Robert, the deliverer of his country Scotch. , James, a celebrated traveller Fr. Brueys, Francis Paul, admiral Fr. Brumoy, Peter, a Jesuit and author Fr. Brune, William Mary Ann, marshal and revolutionist Fr. Brunei, Sir M. J., engineer of Thames Tunnel, &c. Fr. Brunei, Jacques Charles, ' Bibliographer's Manual' Fr. Bruno, St., founder of the Carthusian order Gei\ Brunsv/ick, Ferdinand, duke of, military commander Ger. ■ Lunenburg, Charles Wm. Fer., duke of, mil. commander Rom. Brutus, Lucius Junius, founder of the republican government Rom. — , Marcus Junius, conspirator against Ctesar Fr. Bruyere, John de la, a celebrated writer Dutch. Bruyn, Cornelius le, traveller Eng. Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary Eug. Brydges, Sir Egerton, eccentric lileraleur Fr. Buat, Nancay, Louis G., count de, a learned writer Fr. Bucer, Martin, one of the fathers of the reformation Scotch. Buohan, William, a physician and author Scotch. Buclianan, George, an eminent writer Scotch. , Claudius, a divine Eng. Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, statesinan — , George Villiers, son of the former Eng. Amer. Polish, Fr. Fr. Ger. Nor. Swiss. Eng. Eng. Pruss. Eng. Swiss. Ger. Eng. Eng. Eng. Irish. Eng. Dutch. Scotch Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer Buffiei-, Claude, a Jesuit, and miscellaneous writer Buflbn, George L. le Clerc, count of, celebrated naturalist Bugeaud, T. R,, marshal of France Buhle, J. G., hist, of philosophy, &c. Bull, Ole, famous violinist Bullinger, Henry, reforiner and author Bulwer, (now Sir Edward Lytton,) novelist and dramatist , Sir Henry L., diplomatist and pol. writer Bunsen, C. C. J., chevalier de, diploinatist and historian Bunyan, John, author of ' Pilgrim's Progress' Burckhardt, John Louis, oriental traveller — , John Charles, mathematician Burdett, Sir Francis, politician Burgess, Thomas, bp. of Salisbury, classical and theological writer Burgoyne. John, military commander and author Burke. Edmund, a great statesman and writer Burleigh, William Cecil, lord, eminent statesman Burman. Peter, critic and editor .... Burnes, Sir Alex., travels in Bokkara— ' Cabool,' &c. Scotch. Burnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian Eng. Burney, James, admiral and author Eng. , Charles, a doctor of music Scotch. Burns, Robert, a popular and national poet Amer. Burr, Col. Aaron, vice-pres. U. S. . . . Eng. Burton, Robert, author of the ' Anatomy of Rlelancholy ' Ger. Busching, Anthony Frederick, philosopher and geological writer Eng. Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman Eng. Butler, Samuel, a humorous poet Eng. , Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate and author Eng. , Samuel, bp. of Litchiield, editor of ' iEschyles,' &c. Amer. , Richanl, colonel, an officer in the revolution Ger. Buttman, Philip C, philologist .... Ger. Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Chaldaic lexicographer BOBM. DIBU. 1770 ISOl 1779 1772 1839 1805 1771 1810 1715 1766 1722 1787 1777 1820 1828 1766 1835 1781 1605 168^ 1698 1792 1814 1329 1730 1794 17.50 1798 1688 1742 1763 1815 1769 mi. 1377 1444 1721 1792 1735 1806 B. c. 505 B. 0. 42 1644 1697 1652 1715 1804 17b'2 1837 1491 1551 1729 1791 15U6 1582 1766 1805 1592 1628 1627 1688 1778 1839 1661 1737 1707 1788 1784 1763 1810 1504 1575 1803 1791 1628 1683 1784 1815 1773 1815 1770 1844 1756 1837 1792 1730 1797 1520 1598 1668 1741 1805 1841 1643 1715 1739 1820 1726 1814 1759 1796 1756 1836 1576 1639 1721 1793 .1738 1792 1612 1680 1692 1752 1774 1840 1791 1764 1829 1564 1629 JBIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 665 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Ger. Biixtorf, John, (son of the preceding) lexicographer Eng. Byng, honorable John, admiral Eng. Byron, honorable John, admiral Eng. , George Gordon, lord, a popular poet BORN. DIED, 1599 3644 1704 1757 1723 1786 1788 1824 c Ital. Cabot, Sebastian (son of John) navigator . Port. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator Span. Cabrera, don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos Fr. Cadet De Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher Ital. Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator Fr. Caille, Rene, ' Voyage k Tembouctou,' &c. Rom. Caesar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author Ital. Cajelan, Cardinal, diplomatist and author Gr. Calaber, Quintus, poet Span. Calderon de la Barca, don Pedro, dramatist Ital. Calepino, Ambrose, author of a Lexicon in 11 languages Amer. Calhoun, John C, senator of the U. S. Gr. Calippus, astronomer and mathematician Gr. Callimachus, a poet .... Gr. Callisthenes, philosopher and historian Fr. Calmet, Augustine, an erudile divine and author . - Ital. Calogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author Fr. Calonne, Charles Alex, de, minister of state Fr. Calvin, John, one of the apostles of the Reformation Amer. Calvert, Leonard, first governor of Maryland [See Baltimore Fr. Cambaceres, John J. R., distinguished revolutionist Eng. Cambridge, duke of, sixth son of George III. Eng. Camden, William, an eminent antiquaiy and historian Rom. Camillus, Marcus Furius, a distinguished dictator Port. CJamoens, I,oui3, the most eminent poet of his country Scotch. Campbell, George, a divine and author Scotch. -, John, a multifarious writer Scotch. , Thos., poet— 'Life of Petrarch,' &c. Scotch. • , Lord, jurist — ' Lives of Chancellors' Ger. Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist Fr. Campiston, John G. de, dramatist Fr. Cange, Charles Dufresne, Sieur du, historian Eng. Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet Fr. Capefigue, B. H. R., historian St>an. Capmany, Don Antonio, historian Rom. Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor Brit. Caractacus, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior Ital. Cardan, Jerom, philosopher, mathematician, and physician Fr. Cardonne, Dennis D., an eminent orientalist Eng. Carey, Henry, Earl of Monmouth, translator Amer. , Matthew, philanthropist, publisher, and politician Eng. , William, mi-ssionary to India . . Ital. Carissimi, James, musical composer Irish. Carleton, Sir Guy, military commander, and governor of Canada Ital. Carli, John Rinaldo, count de, author Eng. Carlisle, Sir Anth., physician and medical writer Span. Carlos, don, son of Philip II. (hero of Schiller's tragedy) Port. , don M. J. Scotcl . Carlyle, Thomas, historian and metaphysician Gr. Carneades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy Fr. Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist Fr. Carrel, Armand, historian and metaphysician Eng. Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translatress, &c. Amer. — — — , Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller Eng. Cartwright, Major John, parliament reformer Ger. Carus, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology . Amer. Carver, Jonathan, traveller ajid author Amer. — , John, first governor of Plymouth colony Eng. Cary, Henry F., poet — translator of ' Dante ' Span. Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian Fr. Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer I]al. Cassiodorus, Marcus Aur., statesman and historian Rom. Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspirator against Caesar Eng. Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer 1477 f. 1500 1810 1769 1821 . f. 1456 1838 B. 0. 100 B c. 44 1510 1593 . f. 250 1600 1687 1435 1.511 1782 1850 f. B. c. 330 . f. B. B. 150 B. c. 328 1672 1757 1699 1768 1734 1802 1509 1564 1676 1753 1824 1774 1850 1551 1623 B. c. 365 1517 1579 1709 1796 1775 . ' 1777 1844 1778 1722 1789 1656 1723 1610 1688 1770 1827 1799 1754 1810 188 217 (ab.) 100 1501 1576 1720 1783 1596 1661 1760 1839 1761 1822 1600 lada . 1724 1808 1720 1795 1768 1840 1545 1568 . ■ 1795 B. c. 218 B c. 128 1753 1823 ISOO ia36 1717 1306 183C . * 1740 1824 1789 1732 1780 1621 1772 1844 1474 1564 1625 1712 470 516 B. C. 42 - 1606 1^>3.5 666 THE world's progress. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Ital. Castiglione, Bulthasar, statesman and author Ilal. Catalmi, Madame, eminent vocalist Eng. Catesby, Mark, naturalist . ... Russ. Catherine II., a powerful and profligate empress Rom. Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator Fr. Catinat, Nicholas, military commander Rom. Cato, Marcus Fortius, ihe'Censor, statesman and author Rom. , Marco Porcius, 'of Utica,' statesman Rom. Catullus, Caius Valerius, poet .... Fr. Cauchy, Aug. L., mathematician Fr. Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of ' The Holy Court ' Fr. Cavaignac, Gen., military commander and statesman Eng. Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer Eng. ■ — , Thomas, navigator Etig. Caxton, William, the introducer of printing into England Pr. Cazales, James A. M. de. an eloquent orator Ft. Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer R ;m. Ceisits, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated physician Gr. , an Epicurean philosopher Rom. Censorius, a critic and grammarian Irish. Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer Span. Cervantes, Saavedra Michael, author of ' Don Quixotte ' Ital. Cesarotti, Melchior, a voluminous author Scotch. Chalmers, George, miscellaneous writer Eng. , Alex., ' General Biographical Dictionary,' &c. Scotch. , Thomas, D. T>., theologian and political economist Eng. Chambers, Sir William, an architect Fr. Champollion, the younger, ' Monuments d I'Egypte,' I 1651 1715 1743 1790 1710 1776 1724 1816 1652 1735 1763 183S 1775 1833 1701 1764 1433 1409 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 671 NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Fieldin?, Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist Ital. Fiesco,"John Louis, tiie conspirator against Doria Eng. Flavel, Jolm, an eminent nonconformist divine Fr. Flecliier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate Ger. Fleisclier. H. L., orientalist Eng. Fletcher, .John, a dramatist . Fr. Fleury, Claude, a divine and historian Fr. — , Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman Amer. Flint, Rev. Timothy, novelist and historian Fr. Florian, .John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer Ger Flligel, G. L., philologist and historian Ger. FoUen, C. T. C, theologian and philologist (in U. S.; Fr. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de, miscellaneous writer Eng. P'oote, Samuel, a comic writer and actor . , Ital. Forcellini, Giles, a Latin lexicographer Eng. Ford, John, an early dramatic writer Amer. Forsyth, John, diplomatist and statesman Eng. Fosbrooke, Rev. T. D., archjeologist (Ency. Antiq.) Eng. Foster, John, essayist .... Fr. Fouche, Joseph, duke of Otranto, a brutal revolutionist . Fr. Fourier, Charles, Ibunder of the ' social ' system Eng. Fox, John, a divine, author of the ' Book of Martyrs ' Eng. , George, the founder of the Society of Friends, or Quakers Eng, , Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and orators Irish. Francis, Sir Philip, political writer Amer. Franklin, Benjamin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman Pruss. Frederick II., the Great, king — an able general and author Ger. Freytag, G. W. F., Arabic Dictionary, &c. Eng. Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebraled navigator Fr." Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet Eng. Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist Eng. Fuller, Thomas, a divine and historian Eng. Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister Amer. Fulton, Robert, the introducer of steamboats in America Fr. Furitiere, Antony, a philologist BORN. 1707 1627 1632 1801 1576 1640 1653 1780 1755 1802 1796 1657 1721 1688 1586 1780 1770 1763 1772 1517 1624 1748 1740 1706 1712 1778 1333 1780 1608 1754 1767 1620 a Fr. Gagnier, John, an orientalist and author Fr. Gail, J. B., philologist ..... Fr. Gaillard, Gabriel Henry, miscellaneous writer and historian Amer. Gaines, Maj. Gen. E. P., military commander Gr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physician Ital. Galileo, an illustrious philosopher and astronomer Ger. Gall, John Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the science of phrenology ..... Swiss-Amer. Gallatin,""AIbert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, and ethnol Scotch. Gait, John, novelist ..... Ital. Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher — discoverer of galvanic electricity ..... Port. Gama, Vasco de, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope Ger.* Gans, Edward, jurist ..... Span. Garcia, Manuel, musical composer .... S|3an. Garcias Lasso, de la Vega, ' the Prince of Spanish poetry ' . Fr. Gamier, Cotmt Germain, jurist .... Eng. Garrick, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist Eng. Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry Prince of Wales for a misdemeanor .... Fr. Gassendi, Peter, a celebrated philosopher Amer. Gates, Horatio, a distinguished ofBcer in the revolution Eng. Gay, John, a popular poet ..... Fr. Gay-Lussac, N. F., chemist .... Ger. Gellert, Christian Furchtegott, a poet and miscellaneous writer Bar. Genghis Khan, a celebrated conqueror Fr. Genlis, Stephania Felicite, countess de, miscellaneous writer Eng. Geofl'rey ol Monmouth, an historian of the 12th century Fr. Gerando, Baron de, writer on education, &c. Rom. Germanicus, Tiberius Drusus Csesar, military commander . Fr. Gerson, John Charlier de, an ecclesiastic and author S.viss Ge-siner, Conrad, an eminent naturalist Ger. ■ — .John Matthias, a philolnijist .... A>ner GeiTy, Elbridge, a di.=ii::i;nislio:l p:iiri.M. \-ire-|")rr:.«ldeiit U. S. 1670 1755 1728 1777 131 1564 1758 1761 1779 1737 1798 1779 1503 1754 1716 1350 1592 1728 1688 1778 1715 1164 1746 1770 1363 11516 1691 672 THE world's progress. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Xtal. Giannone, Peter, an historian .... Eng. Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of English historians Amer. Gibson, Col. Jolm and Col. George, both officers in the Revolution Eng. Giffbrd, William, a critic and poet Eng. , John, an historical and political writer Eng. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in America Eng. Gill, .lohn, a divine, oriental scholar, and author Scotch. Gillies, John, ' History of Greece,' &c. Ital. Gioja, Melchioi-, writer on economical sciences Swe. Gmelin, John Frederick, a chemist Fr. Godfrey of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader in the crusades Amer. Godman, John, M. D., a distinguished naturalist, &c. Eng. Godwin, William, novelist and metapliysiciau Ger. Goetlie, a celebrated dramatist Ita). Goldoni, Charles, ' the Italian Moliere ' IrisI) Goldsmith, Oliver, a celebrated poet and miscellaneous writer Dutch. Golius, James, an orientalist and lexicographer Span. Gonsalvo of Cordova, a celebrated warrior Gr. Gorgias, an orator and sophist, f. B. C. 5th century Fr. Gourgaud, Gen., military commander under Napoleon Eng. Gower, John, one of the earliest English poets . Rom. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat Rom. Caius Sempronius Ger. GrKfe, or Grasvius, an erudite classic writer Scotch. Grahame, James, author of 'History of the United States' Scotch. Grahame, James, a poet .... Scotch. Grant, Anne (of Laggan), novelist, essayist, &c. Eng. Granville, John Carteret, earl, a statesman Ital. Gi-aiian, a monk, compiler of the canon law, f. 12th century Irish. Grattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman Dutch. Gravesande, Wm. Jacob, a geometrician and philosopher Eng. Gray, Thomas, a poet ..... Gregory Nazianzen, St., Christian writer Gregory of Nyssa, St., do. . Fr. Gregory (of Tours), St., an historian Fr. Gregory I., the Great, pope, an author Ital. Gregory VII., the Great, pope (Hiklebrand), a celebrated despot Scotch. Gregory, James, a philosopher and mathematician . Scotch- Gregory, David, do. do. Irish. Gregory, George, D. D., a miscellaneous writer Eng. Gregory, Olinihus, mathematician and religious writer . Amer. Greene, Nathaniel, maj. gen., distinguished in the Revolution Eng. Grey, lady Jane, the accomplished victim of another's ambition Eng. Grey, Earl, statesman— whig premier for William IV. Ger Griesbach, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist Amei'. Grimke, Thomas S., jurist Ger. Grimm. J. L. C, miscellaneous writer Dutch. Gronovius, James, -in erudite critic Ger. Grotefend, G. F., p. Tologist Dutch. Grotius, or De Groot, Hugh, an eminent scholar Fr. Grouchy, Emanuel, count, marshal of-France Amer. Grundyi Felix, senator of the U. S. tTenn.) Ger. Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist Ital. Guarini, John Baptist, a poet Ger. Guericke, Otto, exp. philos. — inventor of the air-pump Ital. Guicciardini, Francis, an historian Nor. Guiscard, Robert, a Norman warrior Fr. Guise, Francis of Lorraine, duke of, a celebrated warrior Fr. Guise, Charles of. Cardinal, a bigoted and ambitious statesman Fi". Guise, Henry, of Lorraine, duke of, an ambitious warrior Fr. Guizot, Francis, statesman, historian, and metaphysician Eng. Gunter, Edmund, a mathematician — inventor of the ' Gunter's scale,' &c, Swe. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, an able warrior Scotch. Guthrie, William, author of a history of England, Scotland, &c, Ger. Guttemberg, John, one of the inventors of printing . I'russ. Gutzlaff, Charles, traveller and historian of China BORN. SIBD. 1676 1758 1737 1794 1757 1826 1758 1818 1583 1697 1771 1747 1836 1767 1829 1748 1805 1100 1830 1755 1836 1749 1831 1707 1793 1731 1774 1596 1667 1443 1515 1402 B c. 133 B. c. 121 1632 1703 1765 1811 1755 1838 1690 1763 1750 1820 1683 1742 1716 1771 328 389 331 396 544 593 544 604 1085 1648 1685 1661 1710 1754 1808 1774 1841 1741 1786 1537 1554 1764 1845 1745 1812 1786 1834 1785 1645 1716 1775 1836 1583 1645 1766 1777 . 1840 1616 1664 1537 1612 1602 16S6 1482 1540 1015 10S5 1519 1563 1525 1574 1550 1588 1787 1581 1619 1594 1633 1708 1770 1400 146S Pers Ger. Hafiz, Mohammed, a poet — the Anacreon of Persia Halm. Simon Frederick, an historian 1389 1729 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 67£ WATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Ger. Halineinann, founder of ' Homoeopathy ' in medicine Ger. Hahn-IIahn, Ida, countess of, traveller and novelist Eng. Hakluyt, Richard, author of voyages, &c. of the English Eng. Hale, Sir Matthew, an eminent and incorruptible judge Eng. Halford, Sir Henry, physician and medical writer Scotch. Hall, Capt. Basil, author of Travels, &c. Eng. Hall, Rev. Robert, theologian and pulpit orator Eng. Hallam, Henry, historian Swiss. Haller, Albert Von, miscellaneous writer Eng. Halley, Edmund, an eminent astronomer and mathematician Amer. Hamilton, Alexander, a statesman — first secretary of treasury, U. S. Irish. Hamilton, Elizabeth, a talented miscellaneous writer Eng. Hamilton, Thomas, Captain, novelist, ']\Ien and Manners in America Gei". Hanmier, Von, baron, historian and orientalist Eng. Hampden, .John, a celebrated patriot Amer. Hancock. John, a distinguished patriot — president of Congress Ger. Handel, Geo. Frederick, one of the greatest musical composers Nor. Hansteen, C, mathematician and astronomer . Eng. Harley, Robert, earl of O.'cford, a celebrated statesman Sar. Haroun Al Raschid, caliph, a patron of learning Amer. Harlan, Richard, M. D., naturalist . ~ . Eng. Harris, James, compiler of the first Cyclopedia, &c. Amer. Harrison, Gen. W. H., military commander, and pres. U. S. Amer. Harvard, John, founder of Harvard College Eng. Harvey, William, discoverer of the circulation of the blood Ger. l.ase, Henry, classical antiquarian Eng. Haslam, John, writer on insanity Eng. Hastings, Warren, governor-general of British India Eng. Hastings, rnarquis of, military commander Ger. Hauser, Casper, a mysterious ' wild-boy ' Fr. Haussez. Baron, minister of Charles X. — traveller Fr. Hauy, Renatus Justus, mineralogist Eng. Hawke, Edward, lord, a brave and successful admiral Eng. Hawkesworih, Dr. John, miscellaneous writer . Eng. Hawkins, Sir John, a navigator — originator of the slave trade Ger. Haydn, -loseph, a celebrated musical composer Eng. Hayley, William, a poet and miscellaneous writer . Amer. Hayne, Robert V., governor of South Carolina, and senator of U. S; Eng. Hazlitt, William, essaj^ist and critic .... Eng. Heber, Reginald, a divine, and poet Ger. Hederich, Benjamin, a lexicographer .... Ger. Hedwig, John, a physician and botanist Ger. Heeren, A. H. L., historian ..... Ger. Hegel, G. W. F., metaphysician .... Ger. Heine, Henry, poet and literateur .... Gr. Heliodorus (of Emessa), the first romnnce writer, flourished in the 4th Ger. Helvicus, Christopher, a chronologist .... Eng. Hemans, Felicia D., poetess .... Ger. Hengstenberg, E. W., metaphysician, antirjuarian, and theologian Fr. Henry IV., an able and popular monarch . Ens. Henry," Robert, an historian ..... Amer Henry. Patrick, an orator and patriot Gr. Heniclitus, a philosopher, flourished before Christ Ger. Herder, John Godfrey, a philosophical writer Ger. Hermann, J. G. J., philologist .... Ger. Hermann, Ch. F., philologist, 'History of Philosophy,' &c. Gr. Hermogenes, a rhetorician, flourished .... Gr. Herodian, an historian .... Gr. Herodotus, the earliest of the Greek historians whose works are extant, Fr. Herold, L. G. F., musical composer Span Herrera, Anthony, an historian .... Eng. Herrick, Robert, a poet ..... Eng. Herschel, Sir William, one of the greatest of astronomers Jew. Herschell, Dr. Solomon, Chief Rabbi of the Jews in England Kng. Herschell, Sir J. F. W., astronomer and natural philosopher Eng. Hervey, James, a pious and ainiable divine and w^riter Gr. Hesiod, a poet, conteinporary of Homer, flourished Ger. Heyne, C. G., a learned critic and writer . Eng. Hickes. Georss. a theologian and philolosist Fr. Hilaire, Geof St.. naturalist . ^ . Eng Hill, viscount, military commander (Peninsula and Wnlerloo) Ens Hill, sir John. n holanisi and niiiliirarious wriier 20 BORN. DIED. 1755 1843 1805 1553 1616 1609 1676 1766 1844 nsH 1844 1764 1831 1708 1777 16.56 1741 1757 1804 1758 1816 ' 1789 1842 1774 1594 1643 1737 1793 1684 1758 17S4 1661 1724 808 1796 1843 1670 1719 1773 1841 1688 1569 1658 1789 1&12 L764 1844 -1733 18U 1754 1825 1833 1778 1742 1822 1713 1781 1715 1773 1520 1595 1732 1809 1745 1820 1791 1835 1QQ0 1783 1826 1675 1748 1730 1799 1760 1842 1770 1831 1799 century. 1581 1617 1794 1835 IS02 1553 1610 1718 1790 1736 1799 504 1744 1803 1772 1804 180 . f. 230 , B. 0. 484 1792 1833 1559 1625 1591 1738 18C2 . ■ 1760 f^2 1713 17."P B.C. 907 1729 1S12 1642 171.^ 1772 1772 184^' 1716 177.- 674 THE world's progress. VATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. .tew. Hlllel, the eUler, one of the compilers of the Talmud Amer. Hillhouse, James A., poet Gr. Hippocrates, 1 he father of medicine Eng. Hoadley, William, a celebrated prelate and author Amer. Hobart, .Tohn Henry, bishop of New Yoi-k Mng. Hobbes, Thomas, a philosopher and translator l'\-. Hoche, Lazarus, a military commander Swiss Hofei', Andrew, a Tyrolian patriot i'A'iS. Hofland, Barbara, novelist (.'er. Hoffmann, E. T. A., novelist . SmicIi. Hogg, James, 'The Ettrick Shepherd' I) n. Holberg, Louis, baron de, an historian ; ; I'.'. Holcroft, Thomas, a dramatist and miscellaneous writer Hwi. Holingshed, a chronicler (Ills' Holland, Lord, statesman and literateur lOuu'. Holland, Philemon, a translator Amer. Holmes, Abiel, D. D., ' Annals of America ' Scotch. Home, John, a divine, dramatist, and historian (ir. Homer, the " greatest of poets," [supposed to have] flourished Ens. Hone, William, author of ' Every Day Book' and political v/orks Eng. Hood, Samuel, viscount, a naval officer Eiig. Hood, Thomas, poet and humorist .... Diifch. Hoogvliet, Ai'nold, a poet F.ns. - ■ ~ - Eng. En?. Eng. Eng. Eng. Kng. Eng. Amer. Amer. Horn. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Fr. Fr. Amer. Pruss, Hook, Robert, a mathematician .... Hook, Theo. E., novelist and humorist Hooke, Nathaniel, author of a Roman History . Hooker, Sir W. J., botanist Hooker, Richard, an eminent divine Hoole, John, a poet and translator .... Hooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs Hope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer . . Hopkins, Samuel, an eminent divine and author Hopkinson, Joseph, jurist and statesman . Horace, Quintus Flaccus, an eminent poet Home, George, a learned prelate Horsley, Samuel, a prelate and mathematician . Hossack, David, M. D., medical and scientific writer Howard, John, a celebrated philanthropist Hudson, Henry, discoverer of " Hudson river" Huet, Peter Daniel, an erudite prelate and author . Hugo, Victor M., novelist, poet, and statesman Hull, Commodore Isaac, naval commander (Const, and Guer., &c.) Humboldt, F. H A., baron, traveller— geog. and nat. philosopher Scotch. Hume, David, an historian and philosopher Hunniades, John, a celebrated warrior Eng. Hunt, Leigh, poet and essayist Eng. Husklsson, Rt. hon. William, an able statesman Gef. Huss, John, the great Bohemian reformer . Iri.sh. Hutcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer Amer. Hutchinson, Thos., a distinguished gov. of Massachusetts, and historian Scotch. Hutton, James, a geologist and philosopher Eng. Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician Dutch. Huygens, Christian, a scientific author Ind. Hyder Ali, a celebrated warrior . BORK. B.C. 112 17S9 3. c. 460 1676 1776 ]r,33 1768 1765 1776 1772 1685 1744 1773 1551 1763 1724 ;. 907 1734 1778 1687 1635 1788 1.553 1717 1495 1721 1770 B. c. 65 1730 1731 1769 1726 f. 1600 1630 1802 1775 1769 1711 1769 1376 1694 1711 1726 17.37 1629 1841 1761 1830 1679 1797 ISIO 18-14 1822 1S35 1754 1809 1582 1840 1636 1S.!7 1808 1842 1816 1845 1763 1702 1S41 1763 1600 1803 1555 1831 1803 1842 B.C. S 1792 1805 1835 1790 1721 1776 1456 1S.'1 1 1416 1717 1 It^O 1797 1823 1705 1782 Gr. Ibycus, a lyric poet .... Span. Ignatius De Loyola, the founder of the .Jesuits . Ell?. Inchbald, Elizabeth, a dramatist and novelist Ainer. Inman, Henry, portrait and landscape paihter . Eii'i Ireland, W. H., author of the 'Shakspeare Forgeries' Rii2. Irving, Rev. Edward, theological writer (U\ Is£eus, an orator .... (7r. Isocrates, an orator .... Span. Iturbide, emperor of Mexico f. B. c. 550 1491 1756 1801 1792 B. c. 418 B.C. 436 1784 1821 1S40 Amer. Jackson, Gen. Andrew, military commander, Pres. U. S. Ger. Jacobi, Fred. H,, philosopher, novelist, &c. Ger, Jacobs, Fred., classical philologist 1767 1845 1743 1819 1764 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 675 KATION NAME AND PROFESSION. Fr. Jdcotot, Jean J., educational writer Dutch. Jacquin, Niciiolas Josepii, a botanist Ger. Jahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar Eng. James, G. P. R., novelist and historian Fr. Janin, Jules, literateur .... Dutch. Jansen, Cornelius, founder of a sect Fr. Jasmin, Jacques, a barber— poet Ainer. Jay, John, a distinguished patriot and statesman Amer. Jefferson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, 3d president of the Scotch. Jeffrey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic Eng. Jenner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine inoculation Eng. Jenyns, Soame, a poet and miscellaneous writer Jerome, St., one of the fathers of the church (ifi-. Jerome, of Prague, a x-eformer, companion of Huss lOiiif. Jewel, .lohn, a learned prelate and author . Kr. Joan of Arc, " the greatest of heroines" Eng. Johnson, Samuel, a divine and writer in the cause of liberty Eng. Johnson, Samuel, " the colossus of English literature" lial. Jomelli, Nicholas, a dramatic and musical composer Swiss. Jomini. Henry, baron, military writer Eng. Jones, Inigo, an eminent architect Eng. Jones, William,- a divine and author Eng. Jones, Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer Scotch Jones, John Paul, a captain in the navy of the United Slates Eng. Jonson, Benjamin, a celebrated poet and dramatist . Eng. Jortin, Dr. John, a learned theologian and author Josephine, empress of the French (born in Martinico) Jew. Josephus, a celebrated historian and warrior Fr. Joutfroy, Theo. S., metaphysician and statesman Fr. Jourdan, J. B., marshal of France Ger. Juan, or John, of Austria, don, a warrior . Jew. Jndah, Hakkadosh, a famous rabbi, and Talmudist Dan. Juel, Nicholas, a celebrated admiral Julian, Flavins Claudius, a Roman emperor and author Fr. Julien, A. J., orientalist Ger. Junge, Joachim, philosopher .... Dutch. .lunius, Adrian, a voluminous writer Fr. Junot, Andoche, duke d'Abrantes, military officer Fr. Junot, Madame, duchess d'Abrantes, biography, &c. Fr. Jussieu, A. L. de, botanist .... Gr. Justin Martyr, one of the fathers of the church Rom. Justin. Latin historian .... Rom. Juvenal, Decius Junius, the \r ^=;t vehement of satirists United States f B.C. BORN. DIED. 1770 . 1840 1727 1817 1750 1817 1801 1585 1633 1798 1745 1829 1743 1826 1773 18.50 1749 1823 1704 1787 420 1416 1.522 1571 1410 1431 1G49 1703 1709 1784 1714 1774 1775 1572 1652 172(5 1800 1746 1794 •.736 1792 .574 1637 1698 1770 1761 1814 37 95 1796 1842 1762 1833 1546 1578 129 194 1629 1697 331 363 1799 1587 1C57 1512 1575 1771 1813 1784 18-39 1748 1836 91 165 200 123 K Ger. Ger. Fr. Scotch. Ger. Russ. Eng. Eng. Scotch. Irish. Eng. Fr. Ens. Krig. Amer. (;er. Snitch. i;i-h.' Vavz. Prnss. Fr. Ger. Scot<^.■.. Eng. Kaempfer, a naturalist, traveller, and historian . Kaestner, Abraham Goihelf, a mathematician and astronomer Kalb, baron de, who generously aided the American cause Kames, Henry Home, lord, a judge and author Kant, Emanuel, metaphysician Karamsin, Nicholas M., historiographer of the empire Kean, Edmund, tragedian .... Keats, John, a poet ..... Keith, James, an officer in the Russian and Prussian service Kelly, Michael, a composer and singer Kemble, John Philip, a celebrated tragedian Kempis, Thomas i, supposed author of the " Imitation of Christ' Kennet, White, a learned prelate and author Kennicott, Benjamin, a divine and biblical critic Kent, James, jurist — chancellor of N. Y. Kepler. John, an eminent astronomer Kerr, Robert, a miscellaneous writer . King, Rufus. statesman and diplomatist Kingsborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican Antiquities Kitchinei', William, writer on cookery Klaproth, Henry J., philologist and ethnologist . Kleber, John Baptist, military officer Klopstock, " the Milton of Germany" . Knox, John, the great champion of the reformation Knox. Dr. A'icesimns a divine ;ind miscellaneous writer 1651 1716 1719 1799 1717 1780 1696 1782 1724 1804 1765 1826 1787 1833 1796 1820 1696 1758 1762 1.526 1757 1823 1380 1471 1660 n-29. 1718 n& 1763 1847 1571 1630 1814 1755 1827 1795 1S.37 1827 1784 1835 1754 1800 1721 1803 1505 1.572 3752 1821 676 THE world's progress. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Amer. Knox, Henry, militaiy officer and statesman Ger. Koch, Christopher William, an historian Fr. Kock, Charles Paul de, novelist and dramatist Polish. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, a warrior and patriot (Served in the American army during the revolution.) Ger. Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick, Fer. Von, an historian, &c. Ger. Kunth, Charles S., botanist Russ. Kutosoff, Michael L. G., field marshal onK. DIED. 1750 1806 1737 1813 1794 1746 1817 1761 1819 1788 1745 1813 Fr. Laborde, Alex. L. G., comte de, traveller, &c. . . . Fr. Lacepede, Bernard G. S. de la Ville, count de, naturalist Fr. Lacretelle, Charles, traveller and literaieur Lactantius, L. C., a father of the church ; styled the Christian Cicero Fr Lacroix, Silvestre F., mathematician Fr. Laennec, R. T. H., an eminent physician Fr La Fayette, G. M., marquis, &c., military commander and statesman Fr. La Fayette, George W., statesman Fr, Lafontaine, "an inimitable fabulist" .... Gel. La Fontaine, Aug. H. .?., author of 200 volumes, miscellaneous Fr. Lafitte, Jacques, wealthy banker and stiitesman Ital. Lagrange, Joseph Louis, an able mathematician Fr. La'Harpe, Jolin Francis de, a dramatist, critic, &c. Swiss. La Haipe, F. C, statesman and author Fr. Lalande, Joseph J. le Francis de, astronomer Fr. Lamarck, J. Li. A. P., naturalist .... Fr. Lamarque, Maxim., a general of the revolution of 1789 Fr. Lamartine, poet, historian, traveller, and statesman Eng. Lambert, A. B., botanist . . . ■ . Eng. Lamb, Chai-les, poet and essayist Fr. Lammenais, F, R., abbe de, theological and political writer Eng. Lancaster, Joseph, founder of system of Education Eng. Lander, Richard and John, travellers in Africa Fr. Landon, C. P., author of works on the fine arts Eng. Lane, Edward William, orientalist— author of Modern Egyptians, &c Ital. Langfranc, a learned archbishop of Canterbury Eng. Langton, Stephen, cardinal, and archbishop of Canterbury Eng. Lansdowne, Win. Petty, marquis of — premier Eng. Lansdowne, Heniy Petty, marquis of, Pres. of Council . Fr. Laplace, marquis Peter Simon, an eminent astronomer and geometrician Eng. Lardner, Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine Fr. Las Casas, biographer of Napoleon, &c. Nor. Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian Eng. Latimer, Hugh, a prelate— martyred for being a reformer Eng. Laud, William, a prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition Amer. Laureiis, Henry, a patriot and statesman Fr Lavalette, M. C., count de, military commander SwijB. I.avater, John Caspar, a celebrated physiognomist Fr. Lavoisier, Anthony L., a celebrated chemist Eng. Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh Fr." Lebrun, Pontius D. E., a poet Swiss. Leclerc, John, an eminent critic Amer. Ledyard, John, an intrepid and enterprising traveller Amer. Lee, Chanes, an officer in the revolution Amer. Lee, Richard Henry, president of congress . Amer. Lee, Arthur, M. D., a statesman Amer. Legare, Hugh S., jurist, statesman, and literaieur Fr. Legendre, mathematician Amer. Leggett, William, political and miscellaneous writer Ger. Leibnitz, Godfrey William, an able and learned philosopher Ens. Leicester, T. W. Coke, earl of, agriculturist Scotch. Leighton, Robert, an able prelate Eng. Leland, John, an eminent divine and author Irish. Leland, Thomas, an eminent divine and author Ens. Lempriere, John, a biographer and lexicographer . DuTch. Lennep, David J. von., jurist and poet Ital. Leo X., pope (John de Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts Ger. Leo, Henry, historian .... Gr. Leonidas I., king of Sparta — the hero of Thermopylae . Fr. Lesage, Alain Rene, a novelist and dramatist 1842 1756 1825 325 1765 1843 1781 1826 1757 .834 1621 1695 1756 1831 1768 1844 1736 1813 1739 1793 1754 1838 1732 1807 1745 1829 1770 1832 1802 1761 1842 1775 1834 1782 1771 1839 lS.3i 1820 "; 1005 1639 1228 1737 1805 1780 ian 1749 1827 1684 1768 1763 1842 1800 1470 1.5.';5 . 1573 1645 1724 1792 1769 1830 1741 1801 1743 1729 1807 1657 1736 1788 1782 17.32 1794 1740 1782 1797 1843 1753 1833 1802 1840 1646 1710 1752 1842 1613 16&1 1691 1766 1772 1785 1824 1774 1475 1521 1799 f. B. c. 491 1668 1747 BIOGIIAVHICAL INDEX. 677 HATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Scotch. Leslie^ .John, mathematician and natural philosopher Ft. Levazac, .]ohn P. B. L. cie, a grammarian Amer. Lewis, Maj. Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, &e. Eng. Lewis, Matthew Gregory, miscellaneotis writer Ger. Lichtenberg, George C, experimental philosopher Ger. Liebig, . I ustus, baron, chemist Eng. Lightloot, John, a learned divine and author Dutch. Ligne, Charles Joseph, military officer, and author Dutch. Limborch, Philip, a theologian and author Eng. Lingard, John, author of ' History of England ' . Fr. Lingueet, Simon N. H., political writer, and historian Swed. Linnseus, Charles Von, the most celebrated of naturalists Hung. Liszt, Francis, performer on piano Eng, I,ister, Thomas Henry, novelist, and biographer of Clarendon Ger. Littrow, John J., writer on matliemalics and astronomy Eng. Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of, premier Amer. Livingston, Edward, jurist, diplomatist, and statesman Amer. Livingston, William, a poet . Rom. Livius. or Livy, Titus, a celebrated historian Fr. Lobau, Count, marshal of France Eng. Locke, John, an eminent philosopher and metaphysician Scotch. Lockhart, J. G., critic and novelist — editor of ' Quarterly' Russ. Lomonozotr, Michael V., a poet and historian Irish. Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, a statesman Gr. Longinus, Dionysius Cassius, a critic and philosopher Span. Lope, De Vega Carpio, Felix, a poet and dramatist Scotch. Loudon, J. C, voluminous writer on horticulture, agricult.,and Fr. Louis, Baron, eminent surgeon Eng. Lowlh, Robert, an eminent divine and author Lucan, Marcus Annaeus, a Latin poet Gr. ■ Lucian, a celebrated writer Rom. Lucilius, the earliest Roman satirist . Rom. Lucretius, Caius Titus, an eminent poet Rom. LucuUus. a wealthy warrior Ger. Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant reformation Fr. Luxemburg, duke of, a military officer Gr. Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator Scotch. Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller Gr. Lysander, a famous Spartan general Gr. Lysias, an orator .... Eng. Lyttleton, George, lord, a poet and historian 1754 1773 1742 1803 1602 1735 1633 . 1736 1707 1811 1801 1781 1770 1764 1723 1770 1632 1794 1711 1769 f. B. C.250 1562 architect. 1783 1710 120 B. c. 148 . B. c. 95 B.C. 115 1484 1628 B. c. 898 1797 DIED. 1832 1813 1332 1818 1790 1675 1814 1712 1794 1778 1342 1828 1836 1790 17 1838 1704 1765 1822 1635 1843 1837 1787 .37 210 B. 191 c. 49 1546 1695 B. G ,459 1709 B. c. 395 1763 M Eng. Macaulay, T. Babington, essayist, historian, critic, and statesman . Scotch. McCrie, Thomas, D. D., biographer of Knox Eng. McCuUoch, John, M. D., geologist, &c. Scotch. MaccuUoch, political economist and statistician Fr. Mac Donald, marshal of France .... Amer. Mac Donough, Thomas, commodore, victor on Lake Champlain Ital. Machiavel, Nicholas, a celebrated writer on polities, &c. Scotch. Mackenzie, Henry, " the Addison of the North" Amer. Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of Travels Eng. Mackintosh, Sir James, a celebrated literary character Scotch. Macknight, James, a divine and author Scotch. Maclaurin, Colin, a mathematician .... Eng. Mac Lean, L. E. L. (Miss Landon), poet and novelist Scotch. Maclure, William, geologist, M 1794 f. 1650 1769 1774 IS.J'.I 1781 1754 1817 1022 1673 1746 l'^18 1608 lo: .1 1759 1S31 1390 1453 1690 1762 1533 1592 1769 1809 1609 16S1 1689 1755 1737 1775 1771 ±783 1753 1828 1493 1567 1627 1693 1761 J 809 1480 1535 178f 174.4 1833 1763 1813 1752 1761 1768 f. B. 0. 160 1695 1740 1756 1777 1752 1797 1771 1672 1727 1745 1775 1761 1778 f. B. c. 1243 N Pers. Nadir Shah, or Thamas Kouli Khan, a warrior and king Scotch. Napier, John, baron, inventor of logarithms Fr. Napoleon I., (Bonaparte,) ... Pers, Narses, a warrior, in the service of Justinian I., the emperor Dutch. Nassau, prince Maurice of, an able general 1688 1747 1550 1617 1769 1821 507 1567 162£ 680 T.rCE WORLD S PROGRESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Pers. Nassir Eddyn, a celebrated astronomer Eng. Neal, Daniel, author of History of tiie Puritans, &c. Ger. Neander, J. W. Augustus, ecclesiastical historian . . Fr. Necker, James, an eminent financier and statesman Eng. Neele, Henry, a poet and miscellaneous writer . • m • Eng. Nelson, Horatio, viscount, a celebrated admiral Rom. Nepos, Cornelius, an historian .... Russ. Nesselrode, count Charles R., statesman and diplomatist Ger. Neuwied, Maximilian, prince of, traveller in North America, &c. Eng. Newton, Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers Eng. Newton, Thomas, a learned prelate .... Eng. Newton, .John, a Calvinistic divine and writer Fr. Ney, Michael, marshal, " the bravest of the brave" Eng. Nicholson, William, a writer on natural philosophy and chemistry , Eng. Nicholson, Peter, architect and practical mechanic Amer. Nicklin, P. H., bookseller and miscellaneous writer Ger. Nicolai, Chris. Fred., a bookseller and author Ger. Niebuhr, Garsten, a celebrated traveller " . Ger. Niebuhr, B. G., a statesman and historian Pol. Niemcevvicz Jidius U., mil. com. and author . Swe. Nilston, Sven, zoologist .... JFr. Nodier, Charles, novelist ..... Eng. Normanby, C. G. Phipps, marquis of, novelist and statesman Eng. North, Frederick, lord, prime minister of Geo. III. Eng. Northcote, .lames, artist and biographer Eng. Nott, John, a poet and translator .... BORN. DIED. 1201 1274 1678 1743 1789 1850 1732 1804 1798 1828 1758 1805 B.C. 30 1755 1782 1642 1727 1704 1782 1725 1807 1769 1815 1753 1815 1786 1842 1733 3811 1733 1815 1776 1830 1756 1841 1787 17a3 1797 1732 Z792 1746 1837 1751 1826 o Eng. Gates, Titus, the infamous pretender of the " Popish Plot" . Eng. Ockley, Simon, an orientalist Arab. Odenatus, a warrior, the husband of Zenobia Fr. Odillon-Barrot C. H., statesman Ger. Oken, Louis, naturalist ..... Ger. Olbers, H. W. M., astronomer Eng. Opie, Mrs. Amelia, writer on morals and education Gr. Oppian, a poet ..... Dutch. Orange, William of Nassau, prince of, the founder of the Dtitch i Span. Orfila, M. J. B., chemist and toxicologist Dutch. Origen, one of the fathers of the church Enff. Orme, Robert, an historian .... Eng. Ormond, James Butler, duke of, a statesman Gr. Orpheus, a poet, sometimes styled " the father of poetiy" Port. Osorio, Jerome, a philosopher, historian, and theological writer Amer. Otis, James, a patriot and statesman Amer. Otis, Harrison Gray, statesman and jurist Eng. Otway, Thomas, a celebrated dramatist Fr. Oudinot, Charles N., marshal of France Rom. Ovid, Publius Naso, a poet Eng. Owen, John, an eminent divine publ 1619 1705 1678 1720 267 1791 1758 I8i0 1771 f. 150 ic 1533 1584 1787 185 253 1728 1801 1610 1688 1506 1580 1725 1772 1767 1848 1651 1685 1767 B. c. 43 17 1765 1822 Eng. Paine, Thomas, a political and deistical writer Ven. Paez, military commander, and president of Venezuela Ital. Paganini, Nicolo, a famous violinist Eng. ■ Paley, William, an eminent divine and author . Fr. Palisset de Montenoy, Charles, a satirist Pruss. Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist Paoli, Pascal, a Corsican patriot and general Can. Papineau, L. J., politician and " patriot" Rom. Papinian, jEmilius, a civil lawyer Swiss. Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de H., an alchemist Eng. Paris, Matthew, an historian Scotch. Park, Mungo, a celebrated traveller Eng. Parkes, Samuel, a chemist and author Ital. Parma, Alexander Farnese, duke of, a warrior Eng. Parry, captain Edward, arctic navigator Fr. Pascal, Blaize, eminent as a geometrician and writer Pruss. Paskewitch, Ivan F., prince and military commander 1736 1809 1787 1784 1835 1745 1805 1730 1815 1741 1811 1726 1807 1789 145 212 1493 1541 1259 1771 1804 1759 1825 1592 1790 16:33 1662 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. G81 MATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Fr. Pasquier, Etienne D., couiu, chancellor or France Ger. Passow, Francis L. C. F., philologist and lexicographer Rom. Paterculus, Caius Velleius, an historian Gr. Pausanias, a topographical writer Port. Pedro, don, claimant of the throne of Portugal . Eng. Peel, sir Robert, statesman Brit. Pelagius, a monk, founder of a sect Ital. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot Gr. Pelopidas, an illustrious Theban general Eng. Penn, William, the founder and legislator of Pennsylvania Fr. Perefixe, Hardouin de Beaumont de, historian . Gr. Pericles, an able Athenian orator and statesman Fr Perrier, M. Casimir, a statesman Fr. Perouse, John F. Galaup, tie la, a navigator Rom,. Persius Flaccus, Aulus, a satirist Swiss. Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system of education Fr. Peter the Hermit, the first mover of the Crusades Russ Peter I., the Great, a warrior and statesman Eng. Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl of, a warrior Petion, Alexander, a mulatto, president of Hayti Ital. Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets Fr. Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Charles X. and historian Rom. Phcedrus, a fabulist ..... Philip II., king of Macedon, a warrior Eng. Phillips, sir Richard, bookseller and compiler . Gr. Philoposmen, a celebrated general Gr. Phocion, an eminent Athenian Photius, a learned patriarch of Constantinople Amer. Physic, Philip Syng, M. D. . Fr. Picard, Louis Benedict, a dramatist and novelist Fr. Pichegru, Charles, an eminent general Amer. Pickering, Timothy, a distinguished statesman Amer. Pickering, John, philologist .... Gr. Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets Scotch. Pinkerton, John, a fertile and eccentric author • Amer. Pinckney, William, a distinguished orator and diplomatist Span. Pinzon, Vincent Yanez, a navigator, discovered Brazil . Fr. Piron, Alexis, a poet, dramatist, and wit Gr. Pisistratus, sovereign of Athens Amer. Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician Eng. Pitt, Christopher, a poet and translator Eng. Pitt, William, a celebrated statesman Gr. Pittacus, of Mitylene, one of the seven sages Span. Pizarro Francis, the conqueror of Peru Gr. Plato, an illustrious philosopher — founder of the academic sect Rom. Plautus, a comic poet ..... Scotch. Playfair, John, an eminent mathematician and natural philosophei Rom. Pliny, the elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of Natural History Rom. Pliny, the younger, a warrior and author . Egypt. Plotinus, a Platonic philosopher Gr. Plutarch, a celebrated biographer Fr. Poisson, D. S., mathematician Eng. Pole, Reginald, a cardinal and statesman . Fr. Polignaa Melchior de, a cardinal and statesman Fr. Polignac, J. A. M., prince, minister of Charles X. Amer. Polk, James K., president of the United States Ital. Polo, Mark, a celebrated Venetian traveller Gr. Polybius, an eminent historian Rom. Pompey, Cneus, a statesman and warrior . Pol. Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, an able general Eng. Pool, Matthew, an able divine and author . Eng. Pope, Alexander, a celebrated poet Porphyry, a Platonic philosopher Eng. Porson, Richard, an eminent hellenist and critic Ital. Porta, John Baptist, a natural philosopher Eng. Porter, Anna Maria, novelist .... Eng. Porter, sir Robert Ker, author of travels, &c. Eng. Porter, Jane, novelist .... Eng. Porteus, Beilby, an eminent prelate Eng. Potter, Robert, a divine, poet, and translator Russ. Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist Eng. Prideaux, Humphry, a learned divine 29* BORN. 1767 1786 about B. c. 20 f. about 120 1788 354 1789 1644 160.5 B. c. 490 1777 1741 34 1745 DIED. 1833 1834 1850 1672 1658 1770 1304 1778 f. 30 B. c. 383 B. c. 253 B. c. 400 1768 1769 1761 1746 1772 B. C. 522 1758 1765 f. 1500 1689 1765 1699 1759 B.C. 650 1475 B. c. 430 B. c. 227 1749 23 61 203 50 1781 1500 1611 1780 1795 1250 B. c. 205 B.C. 106 1763 1624 1688 233 1759 1540 1780 1776 1731 1721 1768 1648 B. c. 364 1718 1670 B. c. 429 1832 178S 62 1827 1115 1725 1735 1818 1374 s o. J36 B.C. 183 B. c. 318 891 1837 1824 1804 1829 1846 B c. 442 1826 1822 1773 B. c. 527 1847 1748 1806 B. c. 570 1541 B.C. 347 B.C. 184 1819 79 115 270 120 1558 1741 1849 1523 B.C. 123 B. c. 48 1814 1379 1744 304 1808 1616 1832 1842 1850 1808 1804 1842 1724 682 THE world's progress. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. EnR. Priestley, Joseph, an eminent philosopher and writer Prior. Matthew, a poet and statesman . Proclus, a Platonic philosopher .... Procopius, an historian .... Propertius. Sextus Aurelius, a poet Egypt Ptolemy, Claudius, an eminent astronomer and geographer Ger. Puckler-Muskau, H. L. H., prince of, author of travels, &c., Puffendorf, Samuel, a publicist and historian Pulci, Louis, a poet ..... Putnam, Israel, a distinguished officer in the revolution Pyrrho, a philosopher, founder of the Skeptic sect . Pyttiagoras, a celebrated philosopher . Eng. Gr. Gr. Rom Ger. Ital. Amer. Gr. Gr. BORN. DIED. 1733 1804 1664 1721 410 487 410 487 B c. 52 70 1785 B c. 12 1632 1694 1432 14S7 1718 1790 f. B c. 300 B c. 586 B. c. 497 Fr. ftuatremere, E. M., orientalist Belg. Q.uetelet, L. A., mathematician and statisticiaa Span. Quevedo De Villegas, Francis, a poet Fr. Quinault, Philip, a lyrical dramatist . Fr. Cluinet, Edgar, literateur Span. Quintana, M. J. poet Rom. Quintilian, Marcus Fabius, a celebrated orator 1782 f796 1580 1645 1635 1668 1772 42 122 B. Fr. Racine, John, an eminent dramatist Eng. Radclilfe, Anne, a celebrated romance writer Dan. Rafn, C. C, historian and antiquary Amer. Raguet, Condy, political economist Eng. Raleigh, or Ralegh, sir Walter, " a man illustrious in arms and literature" Hind. Rammohun, Roy. philanthropist Scotch. Ramsay, Allan, a poet ..... Amer. Ramsay, David, an historian .... Amer. Randolph, Peyton, first president of Congress Amer. Randolph, John, eccentric statesman . " . . Pruss. Ranke, Leopold, historian .... Fr. Raoul, Rochette, archaeologist and traveller . Dan. Rask, E. C, philologist and lexicographer . . . Fr. Raspail, F. V., chernist and radical statesman . Prass. Rauch, metaphysician ..... Pruss. Raumer, Frederick Von, liistorian and traveller Amer. Rawie, William, jurist ..... Eng. Ray, John, a naturalist and author Fr. Raynal. William Thomas Francis, an historian and philosopher Eng. Reed, Isaac, a critic and editor Eng. Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopedia, &c. Eng. Reeve, Clara, a novelist .... Fr. Regnard, John Francis, a comic writer Scotch. Reid, Thomas, a celebrated metaphysician Fr. Remusat, J. P. A., historian and linguist . Eng. Remiie, ,Iohn, an eminent engineer Fr. Retz, John F. P. de Gondi, cardinal de, minister of Louis XV. Eng. Ricaut, sir Paul, a traveller and historian Eng. Richardson, Samuel, an eminent novelist . Fr. Richelieu, A. J. du Plessis, cardinal and duke, a statesman Ger. Richter, John Paul Frederick, a novelist, &c. Span. Riego Y Nunez, Raphael de, a patriot Ital. Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, a political reformer Amer. Rittenhouse, David, a philosopher and astronomer Ger. Ritter, Aug. H., history of philosophy Ger. Ritter, Charles, Geographer .... Eng. Robertson, William, a celebrated historian Fr. Robespierre, F. M. J. I., the " terrorist" of the Revolution Fr. Rochelbucauld, Liancourt, F. A. F , duke de la . Fr. Rochej iquelin, H. de la, a royalist leader Amer. Rodgex-s, John, commodore in llie American navy Eng. Rodney, George Brydges, lord, an able admiral Eng. Rogers, Samuel, poet ..... Fr. RoTand de la Platriere, J. M., a revolutionist and author . Fr. KoUin, Charles, a celebrated historian leb^ 1699 1764 1823 1795 1784 1842 1552 1618 1776 1&33 1685 1758 1749 1812 1723 1775 1773 1833 1795 1790 1784 1832 1794 1759 1830 1628 1705 1713 1796 1742 1807 1743 1825 1723 1S03 1647 1709 1710 1796 1788 1832 1761 1821 1614 1679 1700 1689 1761 1585 1763 1825 1783 1825 1354 1731 1791 1796 1779 1721 1793 1759 1794 1747 1827 1773 1794 1771 1838 1717 1792 1733 1793 1661 1741 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 683 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Romaine, William, a divine and author Rom. Romulus, the founder and first king of Rome Eng. Rooke, sir George, an admiral Rom. Roscius, Q.uintus, an actor of proverbial talent Eng. Roscoe, William, a biographer and miscellaneous writer ital. Rosellini, Ippolito, author of " Monuments of Egypt," &c. Ger. RosenmUUer, E.F.C., orientalist Fr. Rosseau, John Baptist, a poet Fr. Rosseau, Johp James, an eloquent and paradoxical writer Ital. Rossini, musical composer Ger. Rotteck, historian ..... Eng. Rowe, Nicholas, a poet and dramatist Amer. Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, count, an officer (in foreign service) and philosopher ..... Ger. Rupert, prince, a warrior Amer. Rush, Benjamin, an eminent physician and author . Eng. Riissel, lord William, one of the martyrs of liberty Eng. Russel, Lady Rachel (wife of the last), author of '' Letters" Eng. Russell, William, an historian . . BORN. DIED. 1714 1795 B. 0. 716 1650 1708 B.C. 61 1751 1831 1800 1768 1835 1670 1741 1712 1778 1792 1775 1840 1673 1718 1753 1814 1619 1682 1745 J813 1641 i683 1723 1746 1794 s Fr. Pers. Ital. Eng. Eng. Rom. Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Amer. Amer. Eng. Fr. Gr. Ital. Fr. Ger. Pruss. Ger. Amer. Ital. Ger. Swe. Ger. Pruss. Gei-. Ger. Ger. Ger. Ger. Ger. Dutch. Ger. Dutch. Ger. Ger. Ger. Amer. Ger. Rom. Rom. Scotch. Eng. Scotch, Fr. Sacy, Sylvester, baron de, orientalist , Sadi, orSaadi, a poet .... Saint Real, Cssar Vichard, abbe de, an historian Saint Vincent, Jolm Jervis, earl of, admiral . Saladin, Sultan of Egypt and Syria, a celebrated warrior Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, a statesman Sail ust, Caius Crispus, an historian Salmasius, Claudius, a scholar and author Salvandy, N. A., comte de, statesman . Salverte, miscellaneous writer Sand-, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist Sanderson, John, Uterateur . . , Sands, R. C, poet and Uterateur Sandwich, Edward Montague, earl of, naval officer Sanson, Nicholas, a geographer and engineer Sappho, a poetess . . . . Sarpi, Peter, known as father Paul, a patriot and historian Saurin, James, a divine and sermon writer Savigny, Fred. C. von, historian of Roman law . Saxe, Maurice, c.ount de, a celebrated' general in the French service Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, a warrior Say, Thomas, naturalist .... Scaliger, Julius Cffisar, a learned critic Scandenberg (real name George Castriot), an Albanian prince and Scapula, John, a lexicographer . . . Scheele, Charles William, an eminent chemist . Schelling, F. W. J. von, metaphysician Schill, Ferdinand Von, an intrepid and patriotic officer . Schiller, John Frederic C, an eminent historian and dramatist Schlegel, A. W. von, critic and essayist Schliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and theologian . Schlosser, M. S. F., historian Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, an historian Scholl, historian ..... Schomberg, Armand Frederick, a warrior Schopenhauer, J. F., novelist Sclirevelius, Cornelius, a lexicographer . . Schulembourg, John Matthias, a warrior Schumacher, H. C, astronomer .... St\VL\t.z,C. G., exilic anAliterateur . . , Schuyler, Philip, an officer in the revolution Scioppius, Caspar, a philologist and grammarian Scipio, Publius Cornelius, surnamed Africanus, an able warrior Scipio, .aEmilianus Publius, an able warrior Scott, Michael, a philosopher — supposed magician . Scott, Thomas, a divine, and biblical commentator Scott, sir Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous, and popwlar wri ters of modern times .... Scribe, A. E., dramatist .... 1758 1838 , 1296 639 1693 1734 1823 1137 1193 3550 1612 f. B. C. 86 B. C. 35 1588 1653 1795 1771 1839 1804 1785 1844 1790 1832 1623 1672 1600 1667 i. B. 0. 606 1552 1623 1677 1730 1779 e 1696 1750 1600 1639 1737 1834 1484 1558 warrior 1404 1467 1600 . ■ 1742 1786 1775 1773 1809 1759 1805 1767 1845 1768 18.34 1776 1736 1794 1765 1833 . 1619 1690 1770 1838 1615 1667 1661 1747 1780 1747 1731 1804 1576 1649 B c. 189 3. 0. 128 1291 . * 1747 1821 lar wri- 1771 1832 1791 684 THE world's progress. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Fr. Sebastiaiii, marshal of France, Statesman Eng. Seeker, Thomas, an eminent prelate Amer. Sedgwick, Theodore, statesman and political economist Fr. Segur, count Louis de, a diplomatist and writer Tr. Segur, P. P. de, historian Rom. Seneca, Lucius Anneeus, a celebrated philosopher, statesman, and moralist, Ger. Sennefelder, inventor oflilhography Span. Sepulveda, John Ginez de, an historian Rom. Sertorius, Quintus, a warrior ; Fr. Sevigne, Mary de, marchioness of, an epistolary writer Eng. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, eajl of, a statesman feng. Shakspeate, William, the greatest of tiramatic poets Eng. Sharpe, Granville, a ishilanthropist Eng, Shaw, George, a naturalist Eng. Shelley, Percy Bysshe. an eminent poet and atheist . Eng. Shenstone, William, a'poet . Eng. Sheridan, Thomas, an actor and author Eng. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, a dramatist and orator Eng. Sherlock, Thomas, a prelate Amer. Sherman, Roger, a patriot and self-taught statesman Eng. Shovel, sir Cloudesley, an able naval officer Eng. Siddons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses Eng. Sidmouth, viscount (H. Addington), statesman Eng. Sidney, sir Philip, an accomplished officer and author Eng. Sidney, Algernon, a martyr of liberty and an author Ger. Siebold, Ph. F. Von, botanist and naturalist Eng. Simpson, Thomas, a mathematician Eng. Simpson, Robert, mathematician . Hind. Sing, M. rajah Runjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashemire Swiss. Sisraondi, .i. C. L, Ustorian . Ger. Sleidan, John Philipson, an historian Eng. Sloane, sir Hans, an eminent naturalist Eng. Smart,Christopher, a poet and translator Eng. Smeaton, John, an eminent civil engineer . Scotch. Smellie, William, a naturalist Eng. Smith, William, a divine and translator Scotch. Smith, Adam, a celebrated writer on morals and political Eng. Smith, Charlotte, a poetess Eng. Smith, sir James E., botanist and naturalist Amer. Smith, general Samuel, military commander and statesman Eng. Smith, rev. Sidney, essayist, critic, and moralist Erig. Smith, sir William Sydney, military commander Eng. Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institution, Eng. Smollett, Dr. Tobias, a novelist and historian Pol. Sobieski, John IIL, king of Poland, a warrior Ital. Socinus, Faustus, founder of the Socinian sect Gr. Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers Gr. Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athens Gr. Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet Fr. Soulie, M. F., novelist Fr. Soult, marshal of France, and statesman Eng. South, Robert, an eminent divine .... Amer. Southard, Samuel L., secretary of the navy and senator of U. S., N. J. Eng. Southcott, Joanna, a fanatic (her sect not yet extinct) Eng. Southey, Robert, poet, historian, biographer Eng. Spenser, Edmund, an eminent poet Eng. Spencer, earl of, statesman Amer. Spencer, Ambrose, chief justice of New York Span. Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, a warrior Ger. Spurzheim, Dr., a celebrated phrenologist (died at Boston) Fr. Stael, Madame de, a talented writer Eng. Stackhouse, Thomas, a diVine and author . Fr. Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, an authoress Eng. Stanhope, Charles, earl, a politician and inventor Eng. Starahope, lady Hester, eccentric traveller Anier. Stark, John, a distinguished officer in the revolution Itish. Steel, sir Richard, an essayist and dramatist Irish. Sterne, Lawrence, a miscellaneous writef . Pruss. Steuben, Fred. W. A., baron, who generously aided the American cause Scotch. Stewart, Dugald, an eminent philosopher and writer Amer. Stone, Wm. L., historian of " Six Nations," " Brandt," and " Redjacket' Russ. Storch, Henry F., political economist .... economy United States BORN. 1775 1693 1780 1753 B.C. 2 1490 1627 1621 1564 1734 1751 1792 1714 1721 1751 1678 1721 1650 17.55 1757 1554 1620 1796 1710 1687 1779 1773 1506 1660 1722 1724 1740 1711 1723 1749 175"9 1752 1768 1764 1721 1629 1539 , c. 470 c. 598 0. 495 1800 1769 1638 1787 1750 1775 1553 1758 1765 1571 1776 1693 1680 1766 1753 1776 1728 1671 1713 1753 ' 1793 1766 1768 1839 1830 65 1S34 1572 B.C. 73 1696 1683 161'3 1813 1813 1822 1763 1788 1816 1761 1793 1705 1831 1844 1580 16S3 1761 1768 1839 1842 1556 1752 1770 1792 1795 1787 1790 1806 1828 1839 1845 1840 1835 1771 1696 1594 B.C. 400 404 1842 1814 1843 1598 1835 1848 1630 ia32 1750 1752 1817 1816 1839 1822 1729 1763 1764 1828 1844 1835 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 685 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Amer. Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence Eng. Stowell, lord, jurist .... Gr. Strabo, an eminent geographer Eng. StralTord, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, a statesman . Ger. Strauss, David F., author of skeptical " Life of Christ" Eng. Stuart, James, an architect and author Scotch. Stuart, Gilbert, an historian Fr. Fr. Rom. Rom. Dan. Fr. Eng. Russ. Swe. Irish. Eng. Rom. Suchet, Louis Gabriel, a celebrated marshal Sue, Eugene, novelist .... Suetonius, Tranquillus Caius, an historian Suetonius, Paulinus, a warrior Suhm, Peter Frederick, an eminent historian Suidas, a Greek lexicographer Sully, Maximilian de Bethune, a warrior and statesman Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of, a poet Suvaroff, or Suwarrow, prince Alexander, a celebrated and cruel Swedenborg, Emanuel, iounder of a sect Swift, Jonathan, a celebrated satirist Sydenham, C. W. Poulett, lord, governor-general of Canada, &c. Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, a warrior, and a brutal usurper BORN. 1779 1746 19 1593 1808 1713 1742 1772 1804 f. 100 37 1728 f. about 1000 1560 1515 warrior 1730 1689 1667 1793 c. 137 DIED. 1845 1836 1C4] 1788 1786 182(5 1793 1641 15-17 ISOtl 1772 1745 1841 B.C. 78 T Rom. Fr. Fr. Ital. Ital. Ger. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Swiss Eng. Eng. Eng. Rom. Ger. Gr. Gr. Fr. Gr. Rom. Gr. Gr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Ger. Eng. Scotch. Dan. Gr. Rom. Rom. Ger. Eng. Hind. Rom. Eng. Amer. ■tins. Ei:^. Eng. Irish. W. Ind Fr. Rom. Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, an eminent historian . . .56 Talleyrand, prince, statesman and diplomatist . . 1754 Talma, Francis J o.seph, one of the greatest of actors . . 1763 Tamerlane, Timur Beg, or Timour, a celebrated Tartar prince and conqueror 1336 Tasso, Bernardo, a poet — author of Amadis de Gaul . . 1493 Tasso, Torquato, one of the greatest of Italian poets . . 1544 Tauchnitz, Karl, an eminent publisher at Leipsic Taylor, Jeremy, a prelate and eloquent writer . . . 1613 Taylor, Thomas, editor of Plato and other classics . . . 1758 Taylor, Zachary, maj.-gen. U. S. army, victor in Mexico, president of U. S. 1784 Telford, Thomas, civil engineer Tell, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty Temple, sir William, a statesman and writer Tenterden, Charles Abbott, lord, jurist, chief justice, K. B. Tennyson, Alfred, poet ..... Terence, or Terrentius, a comic writer . . . b. Tertullian, Q,. S. F., one of the most learned of the fathei's of the churcli Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture 1757 1628 1762 1.35 1838 1826 1405 1569 1595 1836 1667 1835 1850 1834 1354 1698 1832 192 160 1752 Thales, one of the seven sages — founder of the Ionic school of philosophy, b. c. 639 b Themistocles, an illustrious Athenian Thenard, chemist and statesman ..... Theocritus, a pastoral poet . . . . . f. e. c. 285 Theodosius, Flavius, a Roman emperor and warrior . . 346 Theophrastus, a celebrated philosoJDher . . . .b. c. 371 Thespis, a poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy . . b. c. 576 Thibaudeau, A. C, count, historian .... Thierry, Jacques N. A., historian . . . . 1795 Thiers, Adolphe, hisi jrian and statesman . . . 1797 Thiersch, F. W., Gree^ philologist, &c. . . . . 1784 Thomson, James, a popular poet .... 1700 Thomson, Dr. Thomas, chemist . . . - . Thorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor .... 1771 Thucydides, an historian . . . . b. c. 469 Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, a warrior and emperor . b. c. 34 TibuUus, Aulus Albius, an elegiac poet . . , f. b. c. 30 Tieck, Louis, a poet and novelist .... 1773 Tillotson, John, an eminent prelate .... 1630 Tippoo Saib, Sultan of Mysore, India, a warrior . . 1739 Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavius, an emperor, the father of his people 40 Tomline, George, a prelate and writer .... 1750 Tompkins, Daniell)., vice-president of the United States . 1774 Tooke, John Home, a politician and philologist . . , 1736 Tooke, William, a miscellaneous writer . . . 1744 Toplady, Augustus M., an eminent divine .... 1740 Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist . . 1783 Toussaint rOuverlure, negro president of Hayti . .. . 1745 Tracy, A. L. C. D., comte de, Writer on education and philosophy 1754 Trajan, Marcus U. C, an able emperor and warrior . . 52 245 1828 543 B. c. 535 B. c. 470 395 1748 1844 B. c. 400 37 1694 1799 81 1787 1825 1812 1820 1778 1S40 1803 ia36 117 686 THE world's progress. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Pruss. Trenck, Frederick, baron de, celebrated for his adventures Dutch. Tromp, Martin H., a celebrated admiral Amer. Trumbull, .lonathan, a statesman Amer. Trumbullj John, a poet ; born in Connecticut Araer. Trumbull, col. .John, statesman and historical painter Eng. Tucker, Abraham, a metaphysical writer Fr. Turenne, Viscount de, an eminent warrior Fr, Turgot, Anne Robert James, a statesman Eng. Tyrrell, James, an historian .... Gr. Tyrtffius. a poet Scotch. Tytler, William, an historical and miscellaneous writer Scotch. Tytler, Alexander Fraser, an historical and miscellaneous writer BORN. DIED. 1726 1794 1597 1653 1809 1750 1831 175G 1S13 1705 1774 1611 1675 1727 1781 1642 1718 171 1 \7'.i:i 1747 isi.; u Span. Irish. Ulloa, don Anthony de, a navigator and author Usher, James, a learned divine and historian 1716 1580 nor- 1656 Fr. Vaillant, Sebastian, an eminent botanist Dutch. Valckenaer, I.ouis Caspar, an able philologist and critic Fr. Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses, f. in 12th century. Rom. Valerius Maximus, an historian . . . . f. Iial. Valla, Laurence, an eininent philologist Eng. Vancouver. George, a navigator Ens. Vane, Sir Henry, an advocate of republicanism Rom. Varro, Marcus T., " the most learned of the Romans" Ger. Vater, John Severinus, an eminent philologist Fr. Vauban, S. le P. de, marshal, a military engineer Fr. Vendome, Louis Joseph, duke of, a warrior Fr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter Eng. Vernon, Edward, admiral .... Fr. Vertot, Rene Hubert, abbe de, an historian Rom. Vespasian, Titus Flavins, a warrior and emperor Ital. Vespucius Americus, a navigator whose name was unjustly given to the new world ..... Eng. Victoria Alesandrina, queen of Great Britain Ital. Vida, Mark Jerome, a Latin poet Fr. Villars, Louis Hector, duke of, an able general Fr. Villemain, minister of public instruction, and historian . Eng. Vince, Samuel, an eminent mathematician Rom. Virgil, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of the Roman poetf Fr. Volney, count de, a celebrated writer Fr. Voltaire, Francis iMarie Arouet de, a celebrated poet, philos., and historian 1609 1722 1715 1785 30 1406 1457 17.50 1798 1612 1662 116 B.C. 27 1771 1826 1633 17U7 1654 1712 1789 1684 1759 1655 1735 79 1451 1516 1819 1490 1566 1653 1734 1791 1821 . 70 B !. 19 17-57 1820 1694 1778 w Eng. Wakefield, Gi .?rt, a scholar and critic Eng. Walker, John, a lexicographer Scotch. Wallace, William, a patriot and hero Ger. Wallenstein, A. V. E., a celebrated general Eng. Waller, sir William, a parliamentary general Eng. Waller', Edmund, an elegant poet Eng. Walpole, Robert, earl of'Oi ford, a statesman Eng. Walpole, Horace, earl of Orford, an author Eng. Walsingham, sir Francis, a statesman Eng. Walton Izaak, an angler and biographer Eng. Walton, Brian, a divine and orientalist Eng. Warburton, William, an eminent prelate and writer Amer. Ward, Artemas, an officer in the revolution . Eng. Warren, sir John Borlase, a naval officer Eng. Warton. Joseph, a poet and critic .... Eng. Warton, Thomas, poet and critic Anier. Washington, George, the father of his country Amer. Washington, Bushrod, justice of Supreme Court of the United Slato; Scotch. Watson, Robert, an historian .... Cng. Watson, Richard, an eminent prelate and writer Scotch. Watt, James, a celebrated natural philosopher and engineer 1756 1801 1732 1807 1276 1305 1583 1634 1597 166S 1603 1687 1676 1745 1718 1797 1536 1590 1593 16S3 1600 1661 1698 1779 1748 ISIW 1754 1822 1722 ison 1728 1790 1732 1799 1759 lts29 1730 1780 1737 1816 1736 1819 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 687 NA riON NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. Scoirh. Watt, Robert, a bibliographer ..... 1774 Eng. Walts, Dr. Isaac, a divine, poet, and miscellaneous writer . 1674 Ger. Weber, Carl Maria Von, an eminent composer . . . 1786 Amer. Webster, No;ili, author of English Dictionary . . . 175S Irish. Wellesley. marquis of, gov.-gen. ol'India and lord lieutenant of Ireland 1760 Irish. Wellington, duke of, military commander and statesman . . 1769 Eng. Wells, Edward, a theologian and scholar .... 166.3 Ger. Werner, Abraham Theophilus, a mineralogist . . . 1750 Ger. Werner, Fred. L. Z., a poet and dramatist .... 1763 Eng. Wesley, .lohn, the founder of the Meihodist Society . . 170.3 Eng. Westall, Richard, historical painter .... 176.5 Amer. Wheaton, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator . 17S5 Eng. Whislon, William, a divine, mathematician, and translator . . 1667 Eng. Whiiby, David, a learned divine .... 1638 Eng. White, Henry Kirke, a poet ..... 178.5 Anier White, William, one of the two first bi.^hops of the P. E. church in U. S. 1747 Eng. Whitefield, George, founder of the Calvinistic Methodists . . 1714 Eng. Wicklitfe, or Wiclif, John, the morning star of the reformation . 1324 Ger. Wieland, Christopher M.. an able. and fertile writer . . 1733 Eng. Wiffen, J. H., poet and historian .... 1792 Eng. Wilberforce, William, statesman and philanthropist . . 1750 Anier. Wilde, Richard Henry, a poet and liternleur . . . 1789 Eng. Wilkes, .John, a celebrated political character . . . 1717 Scotch. Wilkie, sir David, historical painter .... 1785 Eng. Wilkins, sir Charles, oriental philologist .... Eng. Wilkinson, sir . I. G., historian of Egypt and archBeologisl Eng. Williains, Helen Maria, a miscellaneous writer . . . 1762 Anier. Williamson, Hugli, physician and historian of North Carolina . 1735 Amer. Wilson, Alexander, a celebrated naturalist . . . 1766 Eng. Windham, William, a statesman . . . . 1750 Amer. Wirt, William, attorney-general of the United States, and biographer . 1772 Amer. Wistar, Caspar, an eminent physician and anatomist . . 1761 Amer. Witherspoon, John, an able divine and patriot . . . 1722 Amer. Wolcott, Oliver, a patriot — signer of the Declaration of Independence 1727 Eng. Wolcott, John, known as Peter Pindar, a poet . . , 1733 Eng. Wolfe, James, a distinguished general . . . 1726 Ger. Wolff", John Christian, a philosopher and matliematician . . 1679 Eng. WoUaston. William Hyde, an experimental philosopher . 1766 Eng. Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, a celebrated statesman . . . 1471 Eng. Wordsworth, William, poet ..... 1770 Amer. Worth, W. J. major-general, United States army . . . 1794 Eng. Wren, sir Christopher, a celebrated architect . . . 1632 Aust. Wurmser, D. S., field-marShal, Austrian army . . . 1717 Eng. Wyatt, sir Thomas, poet and statesman . . . 1503 Eng. Wycherley, William, dramatic poet .... 1640 Eng. Wykeham, M., bishop of Winchester, statesman and philanthropist 1324 Amer. Wythe, George, an eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot DIED. 1819 1748 1826 1843 1812 1727 1817 1823 1791 1837 1848 1752 1726 1SU6 1836 1770 13-S4 1813 18.36 1830 1847 1797 1841 1836 1827 1819 1813 1810 1835 1818 1794 1797 1818 1759 1754 1828 1530 1850 1849 1723 1797 1540 1715 14ai 1806 Fr. Xavier, St. Francis, " Apostle to the Indies" Gr. Xenocrates, a philosopher .... Gr. Xenophenes, a philosopher — founder of the Eleatics Gr. Xenophon, a celebrated philosopher, historian, and general Span. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, an eminent statesman . 1506 . 406 1552 I. 314 . 446 B.C. 360 1457 1517 Eng. Young, Edward, a poet and miscellaneous writer Eng. Young, Arthur, an agricultural writer Eng. Y'oungi Thomas, a physician and philosopher Ypsilanti, prince Alexander, a leader in the modern Greek revolution S]ian Yriarte, don Thomas de, an eminent poet . 1681 1765 1741 1820 1774 1829 1792 1828 1750 1790 Iial. Zaccaria, Francis A., a voluminous writer Gr. Zeno, of Elea, a philosopher . Gr. Zeno, the founder of the sect of Stoics 1714 1795 B.C. 463 B. c. 362 B. c. 264 688 Tllb; WORLDS Plt.OGK.ESS. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. Ital. Zeno, Apostolo, an eminent writer .... 1B68 1750 Zenobia, Septimia, qtieenof Palmyra, a conqueror, and patroness ofthe arts 300 Swiss. Zimmerman, John George, a miscellaneous writer . . . 1728 1795 Ger. Zimmerman, E. A. W. von, naturalist . , . 1743 1815 Ger. Zinzendorf, N. L., count, chief of the Moravians . . . 1700 1760 Swiss. Zolikofer, G. J., theologian . . . , . 1730 Zoroaster, a famous Eastern philosopher .... Swiss. Zuinglius, Ulric, an enlightened reformer . ' . 1484 1531 PAINTERS, ENGRAVERS, SCULPTORS, ETC. THE MOST EMINENT IN THEIR DEPARTMENTS. NATION. Gr. Gr. Gr. Iial. Ital. Ital. <.;r. Scotch. Amer. Ital. Ital. Gr. Gr. Ital. Gr. Fr. Ital. Eng. Flem. Ital. Eng. Irish. Ital. Ital. Iial. Eng. Ital. Flem. Do. Eng. Dutch. Fr. Swiss. Eng. Ital. Dutch Dutch. Flem. Ital. Eng Ital. Ital Eng. Gr. Ital. NAME AND PROFESStON. Agailiarcus, the inventor of perspective scenery ni theatres .... Painter - Ageldas .... Sculptor Agesander (sculptor of "Laocoon and his Chil- dren ") - - • - Sculptor ■ Albano, Francis ("the painter of the d'ncfist ")Painter i. B. c. 5th cent. Alberii, Leo Baptist, a Florentine Alheninelli, Mariuito - Alcamenes (pufiil of Phidias) Allan, Sir William - - ■ - AUston, Washingtiin AiiErelo, MichaefdUionarotii), a pre-eminent Angelo, Michael (Caiaviiiiirlo) Pa. Sc. Sf Archil- Painter Sculptor f. B. Painter - Poet ^ Histor. Painter Pa. Sc. 4" Architect Painter Apelles, the most celehiaied of ancient painters Painter • f. B. Apollodorns, an Athenian - - - Pointer • f. B. Appiani, of Milan - - - Painter Arisiides, of Thebes - - - Painter - f. B. Audran, Gerard, a celebrated - • Histor. Engraver Baccio, Delia Porta (known as San Marco) - Painter Bacon, .Tohn .... Sculptor • Balen, Henry Van - - - - Painter Bandinelli, Baccio ... Sculptor - Banks, Thomas .... Sculptor Barry, James .... Painter ' Bartolini - - . - - Engraver Bartolomeo, Fra, di St. Marco - . Painter Baioni, Pompey . - - - Painter Beechy. Sir Wm. - - - Landscape Painter - Bella, Stepha--,o Delia, a Florentine - Engraver ' Berchem, Nicolas - - • Engraver Bird, Edward . . Painter Blake, William, .... Painter 4" Engraver Both, .lohn and Andrew - ■ Painters Bourdon, Sebastian - - - Painter Sp Engraver Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in London) Painter - Boydell, John (a printseller, and lord mayor of London) . - - . Engraver Bramante D'Urbino, Francis L. (1st of St. Peter's Church) .... Architect Brontel, Francis - - - Painter- Brill, Maahew .... Painter Brtiges, John of, or John VanEyck - Painter Boonavotti, see Angelo. Burnett, James - - . - Landscape Painter Cagliari, Paul (known as Paul Veronese), a cele- brated ----- Painter - - - 1532 Cagliari, Benedict, Carletto, and Gabriel, bro- thers and sons of Paul. Calcott, Sir A. W. - - . Landscape Painter 1779 Callirnachus .... Sculptor ^ Architect i. a. 6. 5^0 Cambiaso, Lucus, a Genoese - - Painter - 1527 . c. 5th I 1578 1400 c. 450 1781 1779 1474 1569 c. 330 c. 408 1751 c. 240 1640 1469 1740 1560 1487 1745 1741 1469 1708 1753 1610 1624 1772 1757 1610 1616 1756 1719 1444 f. 1635 1550 1370 1788 1660 1490 1520 1850 1843 1563 1609 1817 1703 1517 1799 1632 1559 1805 1805 1517 1787 1893 1684 1689 1819 1826 1650 & 56 1671 1811 1804 1514 1584 1441 1816 1588 1844 158S BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 689 NATION Ital. Ital. Ital. Ital. Ital. Ital. Ital. Fr. Span. Ital. Ital. Flem. Gr. Eng. Eng. Fr. Ital. Ital. Gr. Amer. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. Ital. Ital. Fr. Fr. Dutch. Dutch. Dutch. Eng. Ger. Fr. Fr. Fr. Ger. Gr. Ital. Ital. Ital. Dutch. Fr. Fr. Amer. Ger. Ger. Eng. En?. Gr." Dutcli, En?. Swiss Eng. lial. Ens. UhI Iteare's time was that of Leonard Digges. — C. Knight. In 1851, Dr. McGowan, laboring in China for the Missionary Union, prepared a philosophical almanac in the language of that countrj^ exhibiting to the Chinese the realities of science, and particularly detailing the principles of •**--=} Magnetic Telegraph. — A''. Y. Express. See World's Progress, p. 162. aflERICAN FLAG. Previous to 1776 the colors used in this country exhib- ited a snake with 13 rattles, in a crimson ground interlaced with white, by ast] addenda to the world's puogeess, 1850-51. 3 some supposed in compliment to France, but more recently by others as re- presenting those in the armorial bearings of Gen. Washington. A descrip- tion of this flag is given in a London paper, published in 1776. On the 14th June, in the succeeding year, the American Congress " Resolved, that the flag of the 13 Unitsd States be 13 stripes, alternate red and white ; that the union be 13 stars, white, on a blue field — representing • a new constellation.' " Anew '-star-spangled banner" made its appearance on the river Thames (London), October, 1851, showing five stars emblematical of the British colonies New South Wales, Victoria (Hong Kong), South Australia, Van Dieman's Land, and West Australia. AMERICAN LITERATURE. The first English work Avritten in America was Sandy's Translation of the Metamorphoses ; Dr. W. Vaxighan's poem of the Golden Fleece was written about the same time. Joceiyn, who wrote the New England Rarities, and his Two Voyages, brought over a version of part of the Psalms, by Quarles, which, if approved by the Minister at Boston, was to have succeeded Stcrnhold and Hopkins in the New World. The first work printed was the ■' Freeman''s Oath," Cambridge, 1639 ; the second an Almanac, calculated for Nevf England, by Pierce, a mariner ; and the third " The Psalms, neioly turned into metre." — Dr. Holmes's Amcrico^n Annals. AMUSEMENTS, Public, New York, April, 1851. Nine Theatres, with audiences nightly of - - - - 15,900 Four Minstrel Concerts ""..... 2,300 Three Panoramas, « ii .... gOO Nightly audiences at Public Amusements in New- York 18,800 The average nightly receipts, exclusive of Astor Opera House (not obtained), amounted to $'5,800. AMUSEMENTS, London. The amount annually expended in London for sight-seeing, theatres, &c., is estimated at about four millions sterling. — Art Journal. ARMY, (Standing), U. S. A. June, 1850, the regular army of the United States, including 882 commissioned officers, consisted of 10,320 men : distributed, eastern division, in the Atlantic States ; Avestern, west of the Alleghanies ; and the Pacific division in Oregon and California. Expenses of the war department j^ear ending June 30, 1849, partially including those of the Mexican war, amounted to S17;290,936. ' ARMIES, European, 1851. Great Britain, 114,451, infantry and cavalry effect- ive ; France, 408 000 (exclusive of National Guards, who number over 2,000,000) ; Russia, 674,000; Austria. 405,000; Prussia, 121.000, which last with Au.stria, has an effective organization of the Landwehr, similar to the Na- tional Guards of France. ARMORIES, U. S. There are five armories in the United States, viz. : Harper's Ferry, Virginia; Springfield, Massachusetts; Alleghany, Pennsylvania; Washington, District of Columbia ; and Watervhet, New-York. For the fiscal year ending January 30, 1850, the manufactory of weapons of war is reported as 28,115 percussion muskets; 2,000 percussion cavalry musketoons ; 2,676 percussion rifies ; 110,487 fiint lock muskets altered to percussion. ASTRONOMY. The planet Uranus, was discovered through observation of the perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn ; and similar movements in Uranus led M. Leverrier to determine by calculation the existence of a new planet. This remarkable theoretic conclusion was verified on the night of Sept. 23d, 1846, by M. Galle, at Berlin, the new planet {Neptune) being found in the position and with the diameter announced by Leverrier , one of the noblest achievements of modern times. M. Arago calculates the distance of 4 ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS. 1850-5 1, [baN this planet from the sun af 1,250,000,000 leagues, or about 3,125,000,000 miles ! Periodic time nearly 166 years. Its volume is about two hundred and thirty times that of the earth. Thus, during the year 1846, the bounds of our solar system have been nearly doubled. The discovery of Neptune marks, in a signal manner, the maturity of astronomical science. The Parthcnope, a new planet discovered by M. de Gasparis, at Naples, May, 1850 ; the name of the Victoria, discovered b}' Mr. Hind in same year, was changed for that of Clio ; the Ei(eria planet, discovered by de Gasparis, at Naples, November, 1850. Another discovered by Mr. G. P. Bond, of Cambridge; United States, August, same year ; and one by Dr. Peterson, of Altona, situate near the North Pole. ATTORNEY-GENEEAL, U. S. A. Appointed by the President, and is one of the members of the Cabinet. He is the legal adviser of the executive gov- ernment. The first attorney-general of the United States was William Bi-ad- ford, appointed by Washington. 1789. (See Administrations.) There are also District Attorneys for the United States, appointed by tlie President, for the several districts in each State of the Union. In each State there is also an attorney-general of the State ; in some States appointed by the gov- ernor and legislature, in others elected by the people. AUSTRIA. Ultimatum of the Austrian government delivered at Berlin, Nov. 6, 1850. directing that Prussia evacuate Hesse, dissolve the Erfurt league, &c., which is replied to by the Prussian king signing an order for calling out the whole military force of the monarchy. The Russian ambassador at Vi- enna, Nov. 11, announces that the continuance of the Russian policy in the electorate will be considered by his government a causus belli. Protest of France, and remonstrance of Lord Palmerston at Vienna, Dec. 1850, against the proposed extension of the Germanic confederation beyond the Alps. The Austrians complete their military possession of Hamburg, Jan. 31. 1851, and Feb. 2 proclaim their resumption of seignorial rule of the King of Denmark. The Emperor estabhshes a council of the empire by imperial decree, April 1851. The German diet, July 17. in answer to Lord Palmerston's protest against annexing the non-German provinces of Austria to the German Fed- eration, reply '• that no foreign interference should be allowed in a purely Germanic question." August 20, the Emperor, by cabinet letters, declares " that his ministers are responsible to no other political authority than the throne," and the minister-president is directed to take into consideration the possibility of carrying out the constitution of March, 1849. BALLOONS. Mr. Green and the Duke of Brunswick in April 1851, crossed the British channel from Hastings, and in 5 hours landed safely near Boulogne; greatest altitude mid-channel was 4000 feet. Mr. Green ascended on horse- back from Vauxhall, July 1850 ; since then M. Poitevin has made several ascents en-cheval, and in a carriage and pair (July 1851), sometimes accom- panied by his wife, &c. — In one ascent he carried up a live ostrich. Lt. Gale (the Mazeppa of the Bowery Theatre) left Bordeaux with his balloon Sept. 1850, and was found dead the next morning in a field, dreadfully mutilated. Several hazardous ascensions have since been made in France, one by an aeronaut with his head downwards. BAL riMORE, U. S. A. Population, by the census of 1850, 169,000, being a gain of 66 per cent, in ten years. BANKS, PENNY. These were first instituted at Greenock in Scotland. Of 5,000 deposits the aggregate amount of nearly .£1,100 gives an average of about 4s. 6d. each. In London and the provincial towns they are becoming very pop- ular. In Whitechapel, 8000 deposits in nine months showed an accumulation of nearly £2,000 or about 5s. each. bis] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. try, to March 1851. Maine - New Hampshire - Massaciiusetts - Boston Vermont Rhode Island Providence Connecticut New-York New- York city New .Jersey Pennsylvania Philadelphia Wisconsin - Texas Maryland - Ballimore Iowa Mississippi Virginia North Carolina - South Carolina Georgia - Ohio Indiana - Kentucky - Tennessee District of Columbia Delaware Missouri Michigan Louisiana - Alabama Total - Boston, Banker's Mag. 1851. itioQ of the Bankin % interests in this c To. Bks. Circulation. Specie. Capital. 32 $2,300,000 $424,000 $.3,148,000 - 22 1.700,000 150,000 2,205;000 102 9,600,000 645,000 16,405,000 - 30 6.000,000 2,100,000 21,760,000 27 2,300,000 120,000 2,195.000 - 38 1,100.000 130,000 3,037,865 23 1,400,000 130,000 8,159,037 14 5,200,000 880,000 20,9^9,732 152 18,000,000 880,000 20,949,732 - 28 6.400,000 . 10,740,000 27,300,330 25 2,900,000 690,000 3,646,7';0 - 58 7,000,000 2.-500,000 8,009,781 15 4,130,000 4,000,000 10,518,700 1 225,000 I 300,000 12 i',2i6i6o"6 '400,066 1,997,079 12 2,068,000 2,127,000 1,997,079 1 200,000 1 100,000 35 7,000,060 2,300,666 9.913.100 19 3,500,000 1,600,000 3,650^000 14 6,090,000 2,200,000 11,431,183 17 1,000,000 1,600,000 5,329,213 - 57 10,366,000 2,750.000 7,425,171 14 3,300,800 1,280,000 2,082,910 - 23 6,680.000 2,680,000 9,180 000 21 4,000,000 1,500.000 7,16.5,197 4 900,000 300,000 1,182,300 9 900,600 250,000 1,440,000 6 2,600,000 1,900,000 2,258.751 6 650,000 116,000 1,150.000 5 4,200,000 7,300,000 13,267,120 2 200,000 - 863 $120,505,400 i 5:51,446,000 S (230,897,500 BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES. The receipts of some of the principal Benevolent Societies of New- York, for the year ending April 30th, 1851, were: American Tract Society, $310,618 09 " Bible " 276,852 53 " B. C. For. Miss. 8 months, 176,676 83 " Home Missionary Society, 150,940 25 " and Foreign Chrislian Union. 11 months, - - - 56,265 82 " and Foreign Bible Society, ....... 29,648 28 " Baptist Home Missionary Society, ..... 19,2-52 61 " Seaman's Friend Society, 22,000 00 " Society for Melior. condition of Jews. - - - - " 11,193 02 New- York State Colonization Society, - ' 22,000 00 " Association for Improving the condition of the Poor, - 32,327 31 " Society, Relief Widows and Orphans of Medical Men, amount of funds, Nov. 1851, 10,292 94 $1,118,067 68 BIBLE SOCIETIES. Tlie first that ever existed, was established by some Ro- man Catholic Prelates, in France in 1774. — Chambers's Ed. Jl. Tlie British and Foreign Bible Society has distributed during the 45 years ending Jan. 1. 1851, more tha.n twenty- i/iree millions of copies, in one hundred and forty different languages. BISHOPRICS, English Colonial.— Nova Scotia, established 1787 ; Quebec and Montreal, united 1793; Calcutta, 1814; Barbadoes and Jamaica, 1824; Madras, 1835 ; Sidney and Bombay, 1836 ; Toronto and Newfoundland, 6 ADDENDA TO THE WOE-Ld's PROGRESSj 1850-51. [bRI 1839 ; New Zealand and Jerusalem, 1841 : Gibraltar, Antigua, Guiana, and Tasmania, 1842 ; Fredericton and Colombo, 1845 ; Newcastle, Adelaide, Mel- bourne, and Capetown, 1847 ; Hong-Kong and Prince Rupert's Land, 1849 ; Lyttleton, 1850.— iV. Haven CL Rev. BOOKS, U. S. — The number of volumes published during the year ending June 30th, 1851, is estimated to have been 1,261, forming 1,176 distinct works ; which were Novels and Tales, 249 Theological and Religious 170 Histories and Travels 121 Biograpliical, 96 : Poetry and Hymns, 80 176 Science, Natural History, &c. 83 Classics, Educaiion, &c. 84 Law, 43; Medicine, 47; Agriculture, 20 110 Practical Mechanics 18 Arts, Music, and Architecture 57 Political Economy, Commerce, and Miscellaneous - - - 193 Total 1,261 "Book Trade." BOOKS Imported into United States for the year ending June 80, 1851 : — In Hebrew, $74 00 Latin and Greek, 2,027 00 English, - 341,755 00 Other Languages, 115,486 00 Periodicals and Illustrated Newspapers, 4,328 00 Periodicals and other works in course of publication, - - 2,88100 Total, $466,531 00 Books exported during same period, .... $119,47500 American Almanac, 1852. BOOKS, German. — Since the Easter Fair at Leipsic, 1851, not less than 3,860 new books had been published, up to Nov. ; and 1150 were then in prepar- ation for issue. — Illus. News. BOOKS, London, 1850 about 4,400 were published, of which the Papal Question furnished 180 in one month; fiction, 500; law, 250; and travels, 200; the remainder miscellaneous. — Illus. Netus. BRITISH MUSEUM. The total income for the year 1850, was £55,686 17s. Id. ; and the actual expenditure within the same period, £47,463 5s. lOd. BOSTON, U. S. A. Population by the census of 1850, 135,000, being an increase of 42,000, or about 45 per cent, in ten years. BRIDGES. The Suspension Bridge over the Niagara river, near the Falls, com- pleted July 28, 1848. C. E. Ellett was the engineer. The Britannia Tubular Bridge, over the Menai Straits, between Caernarvon and the Isle of Anglesea, completed October, 1850, Mr. Stephenson engineer, at an outlay of nearly £600,000. A suspension bridge over the Ohio, at Wheeling, span 1010 feet, being 152 feet longer than the Friburg bridge, Switzerland, was completed by Mr. Ellett, 1850. Remington's bridge, at Montgomery, Ala., on the same plan as that he exhibited in London about two years ago, though slight in appearance, is of extraordinary merit for its strength and ingenuity. The floating bridge, for passage of railroad cars across Lake Champlain, went into operation 1st Sept., 1851. BRITAIN, GREAT, and BRITISH ISLES. The returns of forty thousand enu- merators show the population of this country, in March 1851, to be, males 10,192,721 ; females, 10,743,747, being an increase during the last 50 years of 98 per cent. ; the average of annual rate of increase during that period, is 1'37- This amount is exclusive of absent soldiers and sailors, the number of whom is estimated at 167,604. In Scotland, the rate of increase for the car] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. T half century preceding 1851, is 78 per cent. ; present popnlation, 2.865,421. The population in Ireland 6,515,794, compared with that of 184], viz., 8.175.124, shows a total decrease of 1,659,330 souls. The returns of the Brit- ish metropolis, including parts of Middlesex, Surrey and Kent, give a total population of 2,361,640, the preponderance in which is females. — Parliamen- tary Returns. BUILDING (Benefit) SOCIETIES. First established at Kircudbright, Scot- land, 1815 ; after 1830 they increased rapidly. — Scratchleifs Treatise on B. B. Societies. Several have been in successful operation in New- York since 1848. CALCULATING MACHINE. A very superior one exhibited in the Crystal Palace, 1851. by J. A. Statfel, of Warsaw. This extraordinary machine was the effect often years undiminished study and application ; by it any errors may be corrected and the operator warned of any surplus calculation. — Itlus. News. CALIFORNIA, State op, U. S. A. Constitution ratified by the people, Nov. 13, 1849. The State admitted into the Union by vote of the United States Senate, Aug. 13, 1850, and on Sept. 9, 1850, the California Senators, Dr. Wm. M Gvvin and Col. J. C. Fremont, took their seats. The number of emigrants, to California, passing Fort Laramie, and registered to June 20, 1850. are, men, 82,740 ; women. 494 ; children, 591 ; of mules, 6,725 ; oxen, 21.418; cows, 3.185 ; horses, 28,798 ; and wagons, 7,586. The census returns for 1850, in- dicate a white population of 165,000 and 1,800 colored, making the fractional representative enumeration 74,000 and thus securing a second Representa- tive in Congress. — Daily Times. First overland party of the season, 1851, arrives at Placerville July 17. in 77 days from St. Joseph's. Gov. McDougal issiies a proclamation, July 21, against " Vigilance Committees," calling upon all good citizens to sustain the laws. From Jan. to 31 Oct. 1851, inclusive, the number of vessels at Boston. New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New Orleans, show an evident decrease in tlie clearances and cargoes for that country. — Boston Price Current. Great fire in San Francisco, Sept. 17, 1850, loss $300,000 ; more than 200 houses destroyed by fire in Nevada City, esti- mated loss, S'l, 300,000. Another fire at San Francisco May. 3, 1851, several lives lost and many injured, 2,500 buildings consumed, and from one to five millions of property destro3'ed. A fire at Stockton, May 14, total loss $1,500,000. Sliock of an earthquake felt at San Francisco, May 15. Jenkins hung at San Francisco and the police driven back by the " Vigilance Com- mittee," June 10, 1851. Another Are (the sixth) at San Francisco, June 22. 500 houses burned, and $3,000,000 property consumed. " Jim Stuart" hung at San Francisco, July 11, 1851, being the second execution by the " Vigi- lance Committee." At Saci'amento, Aug. 21, a prisoner under sentence of death, but reprieved by the Governor, is forcibly executed by the citizens. Aug. 24, Whittaker and McKenzie taken by force from the jailer at Saa Francisco, and publicly executed b}^ the " Vigilance Committee." Aug. 30, a fire consumes part of Marysville, California. California Fleet. — The whole number of clearances from the United States for California, in the year 1850, was 565, of which 181 were from New York, and 170 from Boston. CANADA. A memorial for annexation to the United States received, in five hours, the signatures of 300 merchants, land-owners, and professional men, in Montreal,''Oct. 10, 1850. CARDINAL WISEMAN, born at Seville, created cardinal January, 1848, public assumption in London, 1850. The operations of the Catholics arising from this creation produced great excitement in England. A London bookseller issued a catalogue of more than 1700 English works on Popery, which he offered for sale. — See Westminster. 8 ADDENDA TO THE WOKLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. j COA CARPETS IN NEW- YORK. Prior to 1760 they were not known, but in the papers of that date Matthew Wilders advertises a variety imported from Scotland. — Noah's S. Times. CATHOLICS, 1851. Prelates in the U. States— Archbishops, 16 ; Bishops, 85 ; Vicars Apostolic, 10. — Ami de Religion. The total income received by three Catholic institutions in Low. Canada, was stated by the Montreal Courier, of March, 1851, to be larger than the whole Provincial revenue. Real es- tate in the Papal dominions is stated at $195,000,000. — II Cailnlico Christiano {Maltese paper), 1851. The number of Catholics in the United States is esti- mated at 1,233,350 {Am. Almanac), while the entire Catholic population of the world, Greek and Roman, is judged by Ungewitter and Dr. Baird to amount to nearly 200.000,000. The great " aggregate meeting" of Roman Catholics from all parts of the United Kingdom for inauguration of the Catholic Defence Association, held at Dublin, August 19th, 1851. The Duke of Norfolk, whose ancestors for centuries observed the Roman Catho- lic faith, secedes to the Protestant Church, Sept., 1851. CHICAGO. From the returns of eight of the largest establishments in this city, the business operations for 1851 were : — Cattle slaughtered, 30.800 ; barrels beef packed, 59 600 ; barrels tallow, 7,342 ; hides, 30,800 ; tons of salt used, 2,023 ; number of hands employed, 463. — Chicago Trib. and N. Y. Daily Times. CHILI. Suspension of " discriminating duties" upon Chilian vessels deter- mined by U. States Nov. 1, 1850, so long as the equality of maritime imposts is maintained between the two countries. Don Manuel Montt inaugm-ated President Sept. 18, 1851, CHINA. The progress of the disturbance in the southern provinces escites serious alarm in the Imperial Court, Pekin, June 23, 1851. CHOLERA appeared on the island of Jamaica, West Indies, in the autumn of 1850, and before the 1st December, more than 6,000 persons had fallen vic- tims. It also appeared in California, Oct. 22, 1850. In the city of Mexico, 2,700 persons died of cholera in four weeks — May and June, 1850. CHURCH OF ENGLAND. Great escitement and agitation in England re- specting a dispute on doctrine between the Bishop of Exeter and Rev. Dr. Gorham, one of his clergy. The Privj' Council's decision in favor of the latter, afterwards ratified by the courts, March 8, 1850. According to evi- dence of Mr. Baines before Committee H. Commons, 1851, there were in Gt. Britain 13,193 places of worship dissenting from the tenets of the Es- tablished Church ; to which may be added R. Catholic chapels 597, minor sects and Jews 550 ; making the total of nonconformist churches 14,340. CINCINNATI, the " Queen of the West,' had by the census of 1850. a popula- tion of 115,590. In 1840, it was 46,382. Increase, in ten years, 69,208, or about 150 per cent. CLOCKS. Between 200,000 and 300,000 clocks are manufactured annually in the State of Connecticut ; the brass works being made by machinery with mathematical precision. Chauncey Jerome of N. Haven makes upwards of 800 per day, some of which he sells at sixlij cents each wholesale, warranted. An astronomical clock exhibited in Crystal Palace, by Dr. Henderson of Liverpool, requires winding up but once in a century. It was commenced in 1844, and finished for the Great Exhibition. — Illus. News. COALS. Comparative view of the areas of coal lands, and the production, la 1845, of the six principal producing countries. com] ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. Countries. Square Miles, of Coal For- mation. Tons of Fuel produced in 1845. Relative parts of 1,000. Official estimated Value at tlie Places of Production. American Dollars. Pounds Ster- ling. Great Britain... Belgium United States... 11,859 518 133,132 1,719 not defined. 31,500,000 4,960,077 4,400,000 4,141,617 3,500,000 659,340 642 101 89 84 70 14 45,738,000 7,689,900 6,6.50.000 7,663,000 4,122,945 800,000 9,4.50,000 1,660,000 1,373,963 1,603,106 856,370 165,290 Prussian States. Austrian States. Total 49,161,034 1,000 72,663,845 15,108,729 COAL FIELDS, 1851. East of the Mississippi, 124,735 square miles ; west of ditto, 8,379 square miles. This is all bituminous. The anthracite of Penn- sylvania is about 437 square miles. In Europe & Brit. America we find : — Great Britain and Ireland, anthracite, .... 3,720 sq. miles. " " bituminous, - - - 8,139 " British America, " .... 18.000 " Spain, " ... 3^408 « France, " .... 1,719 « Belgium, " ... _ 518 " Scientific American. The very general substitution of coal for wood as fuel, and its emploj^ment in the manufacture of iron and in the production of steam and gas, have, of late years, given an amazing impulse to the trade in this article. Coal was discovered in Mansfield, Massachusetts, about 1835, but the efforts to ren- der the same available Avere only eflSciently applied by the Mansfield Mining Co., in 1848, which establishment it is expected will work the mine to much public advantage. The main shaft is 171 feet from the surface, and four other shafts lead from this, making the entire length 1,100 feet. — Boston Traveller. The amount of Pennsylvania anthracite coal sent to market in 1850 was 3127,083 tons. Coal-field found at Port Philip, V. D. Land, June, 1851. surpassing any of those in the sister colonies. COAL, GT. BRITAIN. The present home consumption is about thirty-two millions of tons annually : export about six millions. — Anderson's " Course of Creation." COD FISHERY. The total amount of tonnage employed in the cod fishery of Marblehead, Mass., from 1794 to 1850, was 28,233,507. Number of vessels rating over fifty tons each, 8147 ; under fifty tons, 1007. Vessels lost in 1846, eleven — A^. Y. Sun. COFFEE AND TEA. Value of imported into the United States of America, For the year ending, June 30, 1849 :— Coffee, $9.058,352 ; Teas, $4,071,789. " " 1850: " 11,234,835; " 4,719,232. " " 1851: " 12,851,070; " 4,798,005. Courier. COINAGE OP THE U. S. Mint and Branches, for the year ending December 31, 1849. Gold, value S'9, 007,761 ; silver, S2. 114,950 ;'copper. $-41,984 ; total, Sll, 164,695. The amount of coinage at Philadelphia, 1851, from January to November 5 inclusive, was : gold. i$46. 139,131 ; silver, S246.650; silver three cent pieces, $146 653; copper, $91,988; total, $46,624,422.' The Cali- fornia gold deposited at the Mint during that period was $42,512,588. — 'Pfibune. COMMERCE, Internal, of the United States, 1851. The aggregate value of the lake trade, as appears by returns made at the bureau of Topographical Engineers, amounts to the enormous sum of $186,485,269, or more, by $40,000,000, than the whole foreign export trade of the country. The aggre- 1* 10 ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [cOT gate tonnage is 203,041 tons, of which 35,904 is foreign. The net value of the commerce of the western rivers is $256,233,820; the value of vessels, $18,661,500. The gross value of the internal commerce of the United States may be estimated at $795,654,744. COMMERCIAL Tonnage, the, of England is stated at 3,130,000 tons. If so, the United States will stand as the first commercial nation in the world, as her tonnage on the 30th of June. 1850, was as follows : registered tonnage in foreign trade, 1.585. 711 tons; vessels in coasting trade, 1.797,824 tons; fishing vessels, 151,918; in whale fishery, 146,016 tons. Total, 3,681,469 tons. CONVENTION of Delegates from Southern States in defence of the slavehold- ing interest, at Nashville, June 3, 1850 ; and again November 12, 1850. COPPER. The Connecticut mines are stated by Professor Silliman to extend over thirty miles south of Bristol, and would employ, it' thoroughly worked, 30,000 miners. The net profits in 1849 were $120,000; and the yield in- creases in value everj' foot the miners proceed. From Lake Superior the shipments of copper, till the close of navigation, 1850, were 2,680,000 lbs. — Ann. Scientific Discovery. COSTUME, Bloomer. The male costume was entirely adopted by Miss Web- ber, an agriculturist of Belgium, in 1850; and a jjartial modification by Mrs. Bloomer, of Seneca Falls, New-York, in 1851. Attempts have been made for its general adoption, both in this country and in England; but the pro- priety of female opinion has hitherto been against it. COTTON. First exported from this country to Liverpool in 1784, when eight bales were seized by the customs, who disputed its positive shipment from the United States. In 1791 the exports to Great Britain were about 2,000,000 ; the shipments now made exceed 800,000,000 lbs. With the ex- ception of Liverpool, moi-e cotton is shipped from New Orleans to Boston than to any other part of the world. — V. Flax-Cotton. The quantity received in England from the United States has increased from seventy millions of pounds in 1849, to nearlj^ one hundred and twenty millions in 1850 ; the former being about 9 per cent, of the Avhole quantity imported by that country, the latter about 18 per cent. — Morning Express. The ratios of cotton imported by Great Britain in the five years 1844-49 were : America 78i per cent., India 10^. Brazil 7, Egypt, 3J, West Indies and miscellaneous OJ per cent. "If we could derive a larger supply than we now do from our own colonies, equally good and cheap with that from the United States, it would be nationally beneficial in many ways." — Companion to British Almanac. 1851. The exports of cotton from the United States in 1850 were valued at $72,000,000. The value of entire product of United States cotton goods for year ending June 30, 1851, was $61,859,184. — Herald. COTTON SPINDLES in operation in Europe and America, 1851. The follow- ing is the estimated number of spindles in actual operation : Great Britain, 17-500.000; France. 4.300.000; United States. 2.500 000; Zohvereiu States, 815.000; Russia, 700,000: Switzerland, 650,000; Belgium. 420,000; Spain, 300,000; Italy, 300,000. Total, 28,985,000. ' COTTON MANUFACTURES in the United States. It is estimated that the annual product of all the cotton mills in the United States is 250,000,000 yards, and the consumption of cotton 600,000 bales; 100,000 bales of which are consumed south of the Potomac and in the Western States. The value of this amount of cotton when manufactured, is supposed to be upwards of sixtj^-seven millions. Convention of cotton planters at Macon, Georgia, October 28, 1851. dec] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 11 CUBA. Trial of General Lopez and others, engag-ed in the Cuban expedition, commenced in Circuit Courr, New Orleans, December 17, 1850. General Quitman, of Mississippi, arrested by United States Marshal February 3, 1851, on charge of setting on foot a military expedition against Cuba ; he issues a paper to the people of Mississippi, resfgning his office as Governor. Proclamation by the President United States, April 25, warning all persons within jurisdiction of the States from aiding or engaging in any expedition against Cuba. Arrest of OSullivan and others, April 26, on charge of being concerned in a Cuban military expedition then fitting out in New- York. Steamer Pampero, with Lopez and 400 to 500 volunteers, sails from New Orleans, Aug. 3 ; disembark at Cabanos on the 12th ; Col. Crittenden, on his route to join Lopez then in advance, is attacked by 500 Spanish troops and his forces scattered. Lopez having repulsed Gen. Enna, at Las Posas, retreats to the mountains ; is taken by bloodhounds on the 29th, and publicly garot- ted at Havana, September 1. Col. Crittenden puts to sea, but is captured with 50 of his comrades on the 15th Aug. ; the whole are carried to Havana and shot the next day. The remaining followers of Lopez, after enduring great privations, are captured or surrender, and all but three or four con- demned by the governor to 10 years' labor on the public works in Spain, for which country they are shipped September 1, under escort. Great excite- ment at New Orleans, Aug. 21, growing out of the above ; the Spanish resi- dents attacked, and the Spanish Consul placed in city prison for safety. Mr. J. S. Thrasher, late editor of the '-Faro Industrial," arrested at Ha- vana, and after a trial resulting in his conviction, sent to Spain 24th Nov., 1851. The American prisoners in Spain pardoned by the Queen, Dec. 1851. DAGUERREOTYPES. Of the innumerable variety of specimens of this Art, those of the United States are considered superior for brilliancy and execution. It is estimated that not less than 15,000 persons are connected with this Art in the U. States, and that the amount of material annually consumed in their operations exceeds ^900,000. The nearest approach to success in Daguer- reotypes in natural colors is that of M. Niepce the original inventor of the Art — Daguen'e having only perfected the discoveries of that gentleman. Da- guerre died in Paris, July 1851. ' Hill's " discoveries " in colored Daguerreo- typy decided by a committee of " New York State Daguerreotype Associa- tion," 18th Nov. 1851 to be " an unmitigated delusion." DEBTS OF THE STATES IN THE AMERICAN UNION, 1851. In round numbers the debts of the different States for the year 1851, are estimated as follows : — Maine, $850,000 ; New Havnpsliire, ^76,790 ; Vermont, none ; Massachusetts, $6,000,000 ; Rhode Island, none ; Connecticut, none ; New- York, $24,000,000 ; New .Jersey, $67, 000; Pennsylvania, «54O,000,000: Delaware, none; Maryland, .$15,000,000; North Carolina, $977,000 ; South Carolina,' .'J2.300,000 ; Georgia, $1,800,000 ; Florida, none ; Alabama, $8,- 900,000; Mississippi, $7,270,000; Louisiana, $16,283,000 ; Texas, $11,000,000; Arkansas, S3,850,000; Tennessee, $3,3-37,000; Kentucky, $4,497,000; Ohio, $49,000; Indiana, $6,530,000; Illinois, $5,590,565; Michiean, $2,800,000; Missouri, $156,000; Iowa, $55,000; Wisconsin, none ; California, $650,000. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. In March 1851 the Legislature of North Carolina accepted a Report affirming as a well-ascertained historical fact that tlie celebrated Mecklenburg; Declaration was published in June, 1775, — large portions of which were embodied in Mr. Jefferson's Declaration of the following year. A resolution was passed that the Governor cause to bo transmitted the block of mai'ble presented by Lincoln county for the Washington Monument with the arms of the State and the following inscrip- tion sculptured thereon, — "North Carolina, Declaration of Independence, Mecklenburg, May 20, 1775. 12 ADDENDA TO THE WOULd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [EDIT DEMOCRACY of England, France and the United States— Compared. Votes Votea Conntry. Pop. No. Votes, to Country. Pop, No, Votes, to Pop. ■ Pop. England, 17,000,000 630,721 1 in 26 I Great Britain P ooficn nnn sqa •571 i in 49 Wales, 850,000 37,924 1 in 23 and Ireland, \ '^°P^"i"^ bdy,d71 1 m 4^ Scotland, 2,800,000 72.720 1 in 38 I France, 34,000,000 250,000 1 in 137' Ireland, 8,000,000 98,006 1 in 81 | United States, 20,000,000 2,750,000 i in 7 DENMARK. Battle of Idstedt, between the Danes and Schleawig-Holsteiners ; Danes lose 116 killed and 2,373 wounded, Holsteiners retire, but advantage about equal, July 25, 1850, See Germany, Austria, &c. The Government of Schleswig-Holstein yields to the Commissioners of the Germanic Confed- eration, Jan. 10, 1851. The Danish mining operations in Greenland 1851 pro- duced large quantities of copper ore, yielding about sixty per cent. DIAMONDS. The Koh-i-noor, or " Mounlain of Light," valued at £2,000,000, received in England from India, July, 1850. The actual value of this Dia- mond tested by Mr. Jeffrey's tables is ^£260,000. It is however exceeded by the famous Portugal Diamond, weighing 1,680 carats; this Diamond has never been cut or polished, and is valued by the Portuguese Government at £5,644.000! The Durra-i-Noor or Sea of Light, the property of the East India Company, a blue Diamond belonging to the Queen, another in Mr. Hope's collection (177 grs.) with several parti-colored, and a green diamond owned by the King of Saxony, are among the most remarkable gems of the present day. Several pink diamonds were exhibited in the " Crystal Pal- ace," also a Black diamond weighing 350 carats, the property of Mr. Joseph Mayer. DIRECTORY, New York City. The earliest published was in 1786, a small volume of 82 pages, printed by Shepherd Kollock, Wall street ; the names of the individuals and firms include about 900, and occupy 33 pages, the remainder being filled with general statistics of the City, U. S. Govern- ment, Post Office regulations, &c. In his address the Editor states it was the " first Directory ever attempted in this country." The N. Y. Hist. Society possesses a complete set from its first publication to 1851. • DOLLAR. This word is said to have originated from the following circum- stance. In 1516 a silver mine was discovered at St. Joachim's Thai (or dale) in Bohemia, the proprietor of which issued a number of silver pieces which were called Joachim's Thaler; by subsequent corruptions this word became Dollar, the mark $ is simply a monogram of the letters P. S. — i. e, Peso the Spanish v/ord for Dollar. DRAMATIC FUND ASSOCIATION. This benevolent institution for the re- lief of decaved or disabled members of the profession, in this country, was founded in New York, April 1848. EARTH, Rotation of the. M. Foucault's public demonstration in Paris, May 1851, of the rotation of the earth, was preceded by a similar exhibition bj M. Guyot, Paris, 1836. EDUCATION. General convention of the friends of education in the United States, at Philadelphia, Oct. 19, 1849, and again, Aug. 1850. The report of the Board of Education of New York, for 1851, shows the number of children attending the 207 schools in that district, as 107,363. Yearly outlay, $274,794; average expense of each child for the scholastic year of 204 days, is $6 86. The London Athenjeum in referring to this report states that the governmental cost of each criminal in Great Britain is, from first to last, nearly £400 ! and nobly endorses that great truth in political economy, * Before the late revolution. At the election in December, 1851, the sufTrage was nominally • universal,' and the number of votes was about 8,000,000, ERi] ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. IS that " The cheapest system of police is education !" Students in New-York Free Academj^, 1851, 382 ; professors and tutors 17. — F. A. Catalogue {See Schools.) In the United States there are 217 colleges and professional schools, 120 colleges proper, 43 theological, 17 law, 37 medicine. Of the colleges 13 are Baptist, 8 Episcopalian. 13 Methodist, and 11 Roman Catholic. The number of volumes in the diflerent collegiate libraries is 871,800. — American Almanac. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. The crude idea was started by Schwenter, a Ger- man, in 1636. — Lond. Pldlos. Jaur. In 1684 the celebrated Hooke presented a communication to the Royal Society, " showing how to communicate one's mind at great distances, not by sound but by sight!" — Chambers. In 1774, Le Sage of Geneva submitted a plan for an electric telegraph, to Frederick the Great, as '' the monarch best capable of realizing it." In 1787, Lomond, of Paris, exhibited to Arthur Young ■' an alphabet of motions" appertaining to an electric telegraph ; the distances to be accomplished by which. Young expressly states, " depended solely on the length of the wires." In Jan. 1851, twenty-two thousand miles of a continuous telegraphic route, extending from Halifax, N. S., to New Orleans, and as far West as Dubuque, Iowa, was ac- complished as follows : Professor Morse's principle, 12,000 miles ; Messrs. House and Bain 10,000 miles. — Scien. American. Dec. 2, 1851, a dispatch of 84 words was sent from New York to New Orleans, a distance of 1,900 miles, and an answer received in less than five minutes ; the whole distance traversed being 3,800 miles. — N. Y. Commercial. BakewelFs copying electric telegraph expei'imented on, Apr. 1851, gave fac-similes of autographs, at the rate of 120 to 150 letters per minute. The submarine telegraph between Dover and Calais, completed Oct. 17, opened for public use Nov. 13, 1851. United States brig Dolphin, sailed Oct. 1851, upon her expedition to run a line of soundings for telegraphic purposes across the Atlantic. EMIGRATION to the U. S. A. Passengers arrived in the year ending June 30, 1849, 299,610, of whom 213,736 landed at New York; in 1850 the num- ber was 315,333, of whom 212. 796 landed in New York. ENGLAND. Resignation of the Russell Ministry Feb. 22, 1851 ; after several unsuccessful attempts by Lord Stanley to form a cabinet. Lord J. Russell and his colleagues resumed their ministerial functions. Second reading of the prohibited Affinity Marriage Bill, lost in the House of Peers, Feb. 25, by a vote of 16 to 50 ; Lord Campbell and the Ecclesiastical Bench voting in the majority. Great Exhibition, May 1st, which see. Banquet to royal and foreign commissioners of Great Exhibition, on board American steamer Atlantic at Liverpool, by Mr. W. Brown, M. P., July 12, 1851. Oath of Abjuration (Jew) Bill, passed by the Commons, is refused a second read- fag in the House of Lords, July 17, by a majority of 36. July 18, Alderman Salomons, the Jewish member for Greenwich, not permitted to take his seat. (Case in abeyance.) Resignation of Lord Palmerston, Sec. for Foreign Af- fairs, Dec. 1851. ENVELOPES FOR LETTERS. Delarue's machine in London completes no less than 396,000 daily, the cutting, folding, and gumming, being performed by one single operation. — Illus. News. Dr. Hawes' three machines at Worcester, Mass., complete, count and pack 36,000 per day, and prepa- rations are making for a contract of 120,000 daily. — W. Spy. ERIE CANAL ENLARGEMENT. The passage of this bill defeated in the New York Senate April 16, 1851, by the withdrawal and resignation of twelve of the democratic members. The bill passed by new Legislature, 1851. ERIE RAILROAD. This great undertaking, extending from N. Y. city to 14 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS; 1850-51. [EXP Dunkirk, 469 miles, was opened by President Fillmore. Mr. Webster, &c., 15tli May, 1851. Original charter 1832; cost nearly' $20,000,OJU ; first regular journey 19th May, 1851, the whole distance being completed in 17 hours, or nearly 27-2 miles per hour. EXHIBITION. GREAT, LONDON, opened by the Queen, May 1, closed Oct. 11,1851. This building, erected for the exhibition of the "World's In- dustry" in arts, manufactures, &c., covered nearly nineteen acres, being four times the size of St. Peter's at Rome. It was erected from the designs of Joseph Paxton, almost entirely of glass and iron ; the cubic contents of the building were 33,000,000 feet; height of the transept, 108 feet. — Total cash receipts from privileges, season tickets and visitors, - - - j6505,107 DC which ^356,808 25 was taken in the Is. days. Expenses and appropriations, 355,000 Net profit, - £150,107 Total number of visitors, 6,201,856 Laraest number of admissions on closing day, being at 5 P. M., - - - 10S,000 Nurhber of Exhibitors, 17,000 Council Medals awarded to Great Britain, 79 ; Germany, 12 ; Austria, 4 ; Belgium, 2 ; Tuscany. 2; Spain, 1 ; France, 56; United States, 5; Russia, 3 ; Switzerland, 2; Holland,!; Rome, 1 ; and Turkey, 1. Total, 169. Jury Medals, of which 9 were awarded to U. S., 2,918. Tiie number of letters received by the acting Commissioners during their otficial session was Thirly-stven Thousand ! It is not a little to the honor of the United States that the articles com- bining the greatest utility were exhibited by American citizens ; McCor- mic's Reaping Machine being one of the most important and successful. EXPLOSIONS, Fires, E.^rthquakes, &c. Portuguese frigate. Donna Maria II., of 32 guns, accidentally destroyed by explosion at Macao, China, Oct. 29, 1850, when 188 of the 244 men on board perished. At Fredericton, N.B., near 300 houses destroyed by fii'e, Nov. 11, 1850. A terrible hurricane at Cape Girardeau, Mo., Nov. 27, 1850, and many of the principal buildings destroyed. Steamer Anglo-Norman, on a pleasure trip, explodes at New Or- leans, Dec. 13, 1850, nearly 100 persons killed, wounded and missing. Violent storm, Boston and vicinity, March 17, 18.19, 1851, miusual rise of tide, and great damage to property on wharves. Earthquake at Valpai'aiso, South America, April 2, the most violent since that of 1822, few lives lost, but great destruction of property. Great storm on the whole sea-coast of Massachu- setts, April 15, 16, 17, greatly exceeding the injuries of the preceding month. The city of Amalfi, and neighboring towns southeast of Naples, visited by a series of shocks by earthquake July 14, and 3,000 persons supposed to have perished. Volcanic eruptions from 8 craters, in the mountains of Martin- ique, West Indies, Aug. 5. Tornado, attended with great injury to build- ings, &c., at St. Louis, Mo., Aug. 15 ; this was preceded by storms and freshets in Iowa and Tennessee. On the 17th great damage to shipping at Castries, St. Lucia, by an extraordinary commotion of the sea. A destruc- tive tornado passed over Waltham, West Cambridge, and Medford, Mass., Aug. 22, doing much damage in its progress. Same day a violent storm blew down and unroofed buildings, &c., at Tallahassee, Florida. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS, U. S. A. Year ending June 30, 1849, imports $147,857,439, exports $145.755,820 ; excess of imports, $2101,619. Imports for year ending June 30, 1850, $178,138 318. Year ending June 30, 1851, imports $210,000,000, exports $188,000,000 ; excess of imports $22,000,000. Specie imported same period, $5,000,000 ; do. exported, chiefly California gold, $29,000,000. The amount of imports in 1850, for articles of dress and personal ornament, was stated by N. Y. Express to be $18,476,768. EXPORTS OF Great Britain and Ireland, 1849, .£58,848,042— being an in- f'RAJ ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 15 crease of £9,902,717 over those of 1848. Of the exports there were : — To British Colonies. Xl6.594.087 ; China, ^61.445. 959 ; United States of America, £9,564.909 ; Cuba, £733.169 ; Brazil, £2.067,299; Mexico and Central South America, £3,757,468. In 1850 the British exports were, to United States, £14,891,951, and to forty-four other countries, £37,847.085; total exports, 1850,£71,867,885. — Pari. Returns. Imports by Great Britain. 1851, amount exclusive of London was, England, £6,691,629 ; Scotland, £1,961,981 ; Ireland, £2,055,925.— 7/Zus, News. FIRES. At San Francisco, $1,500,000 worth of property destroyed, Dec. 24, 1849 Another at same place, May 4, 1850 ; 200 buildings, value $4,000,000, destroyed. Another at same place, 300 houses, &c., value $5,000,000 burnt, June 14, 1850. — See Explosions. FIRE-ANNIHILATORS. The Water Bomb for extinguishing fires, invented by Zachary Greyl, a German, 1721 ; another by an English chemist, 1823, Phillips's annihilator, experimented with in New York, 1851. Salomon's gas engine exhibited, Cincinnati, Sept. 1851 ; and one by W. Lay, at Phila- delphia, same 5'ear. First fire engines in New- York, brought from London, 1713, with hooks and ladders. FLAX-COTTON. M. Claussen's patent, in 1850, for a new preparation of hemp, under the title of cotton-flax, having excited much attention, extensive pre- parations were made in Great Britain and Ireland, for the cultivation of flax for the new material. A sample of 60 tons manufactured for a Manchester house, I flax and i cotton, was considered decidedly successful, when the British Board of Trade agreed to purchase a company's produce of 100,000 acres, at the rate of £l2 per acre. In the western states, and particularly Ohio, the subject excited great interest, as a branch of trade well suited for the agricultural facilities of that district. FLOGGING IN THK NAVY. Bill to abolish it passed the House of Representa- tives of the United States, 131 to 29, Sept. 19, 1850. Mr. Brodhead of Penn- sylvania, presented a petition in Senate, Dec. 17, 1851, praying for " restor- ation of flogging in the United States Navy." FLORIDA, 1851. White population 47,167 ; free colored 925; slaves, 39,309; total 87,401. Farms in cultivation 4,304; manufacturing establishments producing annually upwards of $500,121. — Census Returns. FRANCE, 1849. Nov. 9, M. Poussin, French minister to the U. S., having been dismissed by the American government, sails for France. Nov. 12, trial of the political offenders of June 1848 ends at Versailles ; 11 are acquitted, 20 convicted and sentenced — 17 to transportation for life, 3 to imprisonment for five years. Nov. 15, Ledrja RoUin and 30 other accused persons, absent from trial, are sentenced to transportation for life. 1850, Jan. 1. The President creates his uncle Jerome a marshal of France. April 15, 300 soldiers drown- ed at Anglers by the fall of a bridge. May 16, the French ambassador re- called from London in consequence of a dillaculty connected with an English claim on Greece. May 31, new electoral law restricting the right of suffrage, passed. June 21, an arrangement Avith England on the Greek dispute. June 24, dotation bill, giving the President 2,160,000 francs per ann., passed. Dec. the French government protests, at Vienna, against the proposed ex- tension of the Germanic Confederation beyond the Alps. 1851, Jan. 3, the Ministry resign. Feb. 8, the Presidential Dotation Bill proposing an additional grant of 1,800,000 francs, rejected in the assembly. March 25, Declaration at Honolulu of arrangement of difficulties between the Haisvaian government and the French republic. July 5, report of sub-committee on petitions, for revision 741,011; for revision and prolongation of powers 370,511; for pro- longation of powers 12,103; total signatures 1,123,165. July 19, question of 16 ADDENDA TO THE WOULd's PROGRESS, 1 850-5 i. [gOL revision of French Constitution again taken in Assembly, when the minority was declared 97 less than the three-fourths required by the constitution. Dec. 1, Revolution in France ; Louis Napoleon by a coup cUilat seizes the reins of government, dissolves the National Assembly; declares a state of sie^-e ; ar- rests the Members of the Assembly ; constitutes an entire new Ministry. The President proposes the instant restoration of universal suffrage ; an immediate election by people and army of a President, to hold office for ten years, to be supported bj^" a council of state, and two houses of Legislature. The revolution creates an intense excitement. Dec. 10, the vote of the army shows a large majorityfor Louis Napoleon. Resistance to the usurpation is shown in various parts of France, but the overwhelming power of the ainiy, and a " state of siege" in 33 departments, crushes all open opposition. Dec. 20, the election, under various controlling influences, results in the confirm- ation of Louis Napoleon as President for 10 j^ears, bj^ a vote of about seven millions out of eight millions. The French census of 1851 shows a total pop- ulation of 35,500,000. The number of foreigners domiciled, of all nations, exceeds 1,000,000, of which 75,000 are British, or about one-half the British residents previous to the revolution of 1848. GAS. First introduced in U. S. in City of Baltimore 1820, and shortly after in Boston, New York and Philadelphia. — Sci. American. Opposed in Italy by the Pope (Gregory XVI.) as " subversive of religion " in suppressing the sale of wax candles for the shrines. — Gas Journal. Water Gas discovered by Lavoisier, circa 1790. — Sci. American. Paine's Water Gas spoken of during the last 5 or 6 years, but appears to have been accomplished by the French Chemists. Superior gas from wood and fibrous matter, the discovery of a German, used at the R. R. Depot at Munich, 1851. In 1847 the expense of gas at the London Gen. Post Office was X3.047 ; increased facilities by the Gas Co. gradually reduced the charges in 1850, when the whole amount paid by the Post Office was ill, 485. GEORGIA. Population in 1850 was,— white, 513,083 ; free colored, 2,586 ; slaves, 362.966; federal representative pop. 733,448. — Census Returns. GERMANY. The Archduke John resigns his office as head of the central power at Frankfort. Dec. 20, 1849. The Schleswig-Holsteiners under Gen. Willisen, engage the Danes at Idstedt, in a bloody but indecisive battle, July 25, 1850. The Schleswig-Holsteiners attempt to take Frederickstadt, but are repulsed by the Danes and lose 500 men, Oct. 5, 1850. Difficulties in Hesse-Cassel, between the Elector and his people, in regard to the mode of taxation. Aus- tria aud Prussia respectively send armies to the Electorate, to take opposite parts in the struggle ; but they are soon after withdrawn, without collision, Sept.— Nov. 1850. GIPSIES. A company from England arrived in Cecil county, Maryland, in March 1851, bringing with them all their wandering habits and peculiarities. GLOBES, MONSTER. Originally exhibited in Paris 1823, and a more perfect one by M. Gu^rin in 1844, which he styled the Georama. — Art. Jl. Wyld's Monster Globe erected in London 1851. employed 300 men nearly 30 days in fitting up the interior. — ///. News. GOLD. Received from California, in port of New York, 1851, •Tanuary, - - - $2,890,903 February - - - 4,363,471 March, - - - 1,951,055 April, .... 2,02.3,119 May, . - . 2,282,388 June, .... 3,975,355 Gold discovered at Opkir, Bathurst District, Australia, by Mr. Hargreaves, in Feb. 1851 ; and at Port Philip, in June, same year. One piece weighed July, $3,094,311 August, - 4,105,689 Saptember, 3,237,460 October - 3,756,241 Nov. to 21st, 5,233,813 hun] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 17 3 lbs. 10 oz. ; and Dr. Kerr found in one day over 102 lbs., value £4000 ster- ling. The diggings are estimated at 300 miles in extent. Gold mines re- ported to be discovered in the province of Gerona, Spain, Oct. 1851. Nearly .£750,000 sterling was raised in London, Nov. 1851, for California and Aus- tralian gold mining operations. GREECE. Lord Palmerston's note to the Greek government, Nov. 1851, pro- duces great sensation at Athens, and the ministerial crisis likely to end in favor of the Russian party. GUN COTTON. Discovered by Prof. Schoenbein, in Germany, 1846, but its practical utility for mining purposes supersedes its use in tii-e-arms. GUTTA PERCHA. Previous to 1844, the very name of gutta percha was un- known to European commerce. In that year two cwt. was shipped experi- mentally from Singapore. The exportation of gutta percha from that port rose in 1845 to 169 piculs (the picirl is 1330 lbs.) ; in 1846, to 5,364 ; in 1847, to 9,292 ; and in the first seven months of 1848, to 6,768 piculs. In the first four and a half years of the trade, 21,598 piculs of gutta percha, valued at $274,190, were shipped at Singapore, the whole of which were sent to Eng- land, with the exception of 15 piculs to Mauritius, 470 to the continent of Europe, and 922 to the United States. The great variety of articles for do- mestic use, the ornamental arts, &c., to which this material has been applied, has given employment to thousands, not only in the factories of our own and other countries, but also to the gatherers in the Indian Archipelago, with whom it at present constitutes one of their most profitable articles of export. HAMBURGH. Occupied by 4,000 Austrian troops, Jan. 1851. HATS, STRAW. This branch of trade is principally carried on in Massachu- setts. At Medfield the value of Bonnets made in 1851 was ^^134,000 ; Fox- boro' for the same period, $122,000 ; and in Franklin $160,000. In Boston city alone there are over 300 sewers. HESSIAN FLY. This plague to agriculturists was introduced into this country by the foreign mercenaries on Long Island, 1777, from their baggage or in the forage of their horses. HUMAN RACE. Dr. Pickering enumerates eleven different races, of which the names and numbers, supposing the whole human family to be 900,000; 000, are as follows : Abyssinian, - - - 3,000,000 Papuan, - - - 3,000,000 Negrillo, - - - 3,000,000 Australian, - - - 500,000 Hottentot, - - - 500,000 Dr. P. supposes that there have been at least two centres whence these dif- ferent races have been derived, one in Asia and the other in Africa ; he does not support the original unity of the races in one parent stem. — See Picker- i'lig's Races of Men, 1861. Professor Agassiz contends for a primitive ubiquity, or different types of humanity co-existent in different climes and countries. HUNGARY. The fortress of Comorn surrenders to the Austrians, September 27, 1849. Count Louis Batthyani, late prime minister of Hungary, shot at Pesth, at the sole urgency of Haynau, October 7, 1849. In his visit to Lon- don, September, 1850, Haynau was attacked and severely maltreated for his cruelty in the late Hungarian war. General Bem dies at Aleppo, December 9. The Austrian government and the Ottoman Porte, in Feb., 1851, con- clude on a general amnesty towai'ds the Hungarian refugees, eight only ex- cepted, amongst whom is Kossuth. Mr. Charles Brace, an American, im- While, - 350,000,000 Mongolian, - - 300,000,000 Malayan, 120,000,000 Telingan, - 60,000,000 Negro, 55,000,000 Ethiopian, - 5,000,000 18 ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [iRO prisoned in Hungary May 23, on a charge of being an agent of TJjhazy and Cretz, and travelling with revolutionary books, &c., for the purpose of ex- citing rebellion. The authorities of Pesth. November 15th, forbid the distri- bution of all foreign journals, including those intended for editors of news- p|ipers, until decision is received as to what papers, &c., shall be admitted. Louis Kossuth, ex-governor of Hungary, after a series of vicissitudes, during which he was nobly protected by the Ottoman Porte, visits England on his route to this country, landing at New- York, December 5, 18-51. where, as in England, he was received with every demonstration of friendship and liberality, in return for his great exertions to procure the freedom of his native country. His arrival in New- York was known, per telegraph, at Mil- waukie. 1,000 miles distant, in less than fifteen minutes. Great Kossuth- procession, Saturday. December 6th, 1851. This was followed by a public banquet, professional dinners, &c., &c. ; Kossuth's semi-official interview with the President at Washington, December 31. He is formally presented to the Senate of the United States, January 5, 1852. ILLINOIS, Population of in 1850 was,— white, 846,104; colored, 5,366; farms in cultivation, 76,208; dwelling-houses, 146,544; manufactories producing annually ^500 and upwards, 3,099. — Census Retwrns. INDEX Expurgatory. In 1850 the " Congregation of the Index" among other works placed on their pages Professor Vericour's (Cork College) " Historical Annals of Christian Civilization." — Ilhistrated News. In 1851, D'Harmon- ville's " Diet, de Dates," 1844, Professor Whateley's " Elements of Logic," and Henry's " Historical Institutions of Egyptians," were added to the list. The last author, however, "made due submission to the Church." — Giornale di Roma, April, 1851. INDIA, British. A fourth presidency contemplated by Great Britain, Nov. 1851, and a proposal to remove the seat of government from Calcutta to Lahore. INDIANA, 1850. White population, 983,634; free colored, 5,100. Total, 988 734. Farms in cultivation, 93,896 ; manufactories producing annually S500 and upwards, 4,326. — Census Returns. INDIA RUBBER. The natives of Hindostan were the first to collect this sub- stance, which was introduced into England in 1735, for the purpose of re- moving pencil marks from paper. — AlJicn. In 1772 a cubical one-half inch of this substance cost 3s. sterling. Mr. Macintosh, of England, was the first to manufacture the prepared gum for its present innumerable applications. Cuirasses of vulcanized rubber were introduced in the French army, 1851, and said to be biillet-proof (?) The daily product of India rubber shoes, made in the United States, is calculated at 15,000, at an annual profit of nearlj' $200 000. — Farmer and Mechanic. INOCULATION. The small-pox was introduced into the United States about 1517 ; and so late as the year 1769 we find the practice of inoculation prohibited by law in Virginia, IOWA. The population of this territory, according to census returns 1850, was 192 214, and the aggregate valuation of taxable property $22,623,334, being an increase of $4,114,567 since 1849. — Avierican Almanac. IRON, United States, 1851. * Annually. Mine at Salisbury, Conn., yields, - ..... 3,000 tons. Dulchessand Columbia Co., N.Y., 20,000 " EfS'xCo., 15,000 " Clinton Co., - - - 3,000 " Franklin Co., GOO " St. Lawrance Co., 2,000 " Value oflron produced in the U.S.,1S35, .... $6,000,000 '. " " 1837, - ... 7,700,000 LAN] ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 19 The iron ores in Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Illinois, Maryland, and Virginia, from recent inspections, are found to be inexhaustible. — Sci. American. In the Gentleman's Magazine, 1783, is a recommendatoi-y article of cast iron, then in its infancy, which is there said to be " capable of being carried to a great extent." JESUITS. In 1851 this body published in Italy a " Catechism Filosnfio," or dialogue on Monarchical "Constitutions, containing instructions for kings, how far thty may go with a safe conscience in breaking promises made to their people. — Edin. Rev. JEWS. Of the original twelve tribes, two only are at present known ; the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. The Spanish and Portuguese Jews are the descendants of Judah ; the Jews of Germany and Northern Europe are of the tribe of Benjamin —Art Jour. Dr.Raphael (lecture N. Y., May, 1851), states that with the exception of Josephus. who wrote in Greek, and M. Jost, who wrote in German, about 1841, the Jewish historians from the first century (A.D.,)'to the nineteenth, invariably wrote in the Hebrew language. Dr. Lykins, of the Pottawattamie Reservation, exhibited in the office of Indian Department, Washington, in Dec. 1851, a Jewish frontlet, containing por- tions of the Pentateuch, which he received from P'ategwe. a Pottawattamie Indian, iu whose family it had been from time immemorial. There were originally two of these indexes of Jewish faith, one of which was irrecover- ably lost in crossing a river. — Nat. Intel. This curious discovery may per- haps be considered as strengthening the opinion of the late Major Noah, that the American Indians are descended from the lost tribes of the Jewish people. KAFFIR (or Caffrk) WAR, in South Africa, against the British Colonists ; Jan., Feb. 1851, several engagements and many lives lost. — See Africa. KENTUCKY. The census returns show the population in 1850 to have been 987.950; of whom 776,713 were free, and 211.237 slaves. The increase com- pared with returns of 1840, is, free, 179,143 ; slaves, 28,979 ; total, 208,122. The first white man who built in Kentucky, was James Harrod, in 1774, at Harrod's Station, near the present town of Harrodsburg. KOSSUTH.— &e Hungary. LAND OWNERS. It is a remarkable fact, that of all the constitutional states of Europe or America, Great Britain is the country in which the people hold the smallest stake in the soil. France with a population of 32,560,034, has 10,896,682 landed proprietors, or one in three. The United States, with a po])ulation of 20,000 000, has 5,000,000 proprietors, or one in four. Belgium, with a population of 5,022,677, has 950,723 proprietors, or one in five. Hol- land, a commercial and shipping country, with a population of 3,500 000, has 400,000 proprietors, or one in nine. Sweden, with a population of 3,874,203, has 300,000 proprietors, or one in twelve. While Great Britain and Ireland, with a population of 27,041, 050, have only 633,421, or one in forty of the popu- lation, including freeholders and copyholders, with a direct interest in the soil. LANDS (Public) of the U. S. A. Within the limits recognized by treaties and cessions (see American Almanac, 1850, p 179), the public lands covered an estimated area of 1,584,000,000 acres. To the 30th Sept. 1849, 146,000 000 acres had been sold, leaving unsold an area of 1,438,000, acres, which land, in large bodies of detached tracts, is found in the several States and Terri- tories above mentioned. The system for surveying and disposing of the public lands was established by the act of 20th May, 1785, and has continu- ed to the present time but with slight modifications, viz. ; every township of six square miles is to be divided into 36 sections, of one mile square, each 20 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. section generally containing 640 acres. The lands are then proclaimed by the President for sale, at public auction, at not less than SI 25 per acre, and such as hereafter remain unsold may be purchased at private sale at that rate. — American Almanac. Quantity of Public Land sold, and the amount paid for it, in each Year, from 1833 to the Third Quarter of 1850. Years. Acres. Dollars. Years. Acres. Dollars. 1833 3,856,227-56 4,972,284-84 1843 1,605,264-06 2,016,O44-.30 1834 4,658,218-71 6.099,981-04 1844 1,7.54.763-13 2,207,678-04 1835 12.564,478-85 15,999,804-11 1845 1.843,527-05 2,470,303-17 1836 20,074,870-92 25,167,833-06 1846 2,263,730-81 2,904,637-27 1837 5,601,103-12 7,007,523-04 1847 2,52 1,305 -.59 3,296,404-08 1838 3,414,907-42 4,305,564-64 1848 l,8S7..553-04 2,621,615-26 1839 4,976,382-87 6,464,556-79 1849 1,329,902-77 1,756,890-42 1840 2,236,839-74 2,789,637-53 1850" 869,082-32 1,129,186-50 1841 1.164,796-11 1,463.364-06 1842 1,129,217-58 1,417.972-06 Total + 73,752,221-65 $94,191,279-21 ' Embracing only three quarters of the year, t Total for eighteen years and three quarters. LANGUAGE. Ethnography has furnished conclusive evidence that the family of American languages have had a common origin with those of Asia. The unity of all human language must be considered as establishing an identical unity of all the human races ; all dialects must be regarded as dialects of one iiow lost. — Dr. Smyth's Unity of Human Races. LAW. The number of Lawyers in the United States, in March 1851, was 21,979, or about one to every tifteen hundred inhabitants. — Monthly Law Magazine. Estimating their average receipts at SIOOO per annum, their aggregate income would reach within a fraction of twenty-two millions of dollars. In 1851 there were in New York, 4.740 lawyers; in Pennsylvania, 1,848; in •Ohio, 2,031 ; in Massachusetts, 1,132 ; in Kentucky, 1,066 ; and in Georgia, 908. — Livingston's Laiu Register. LETTERS. The number of letters transmitted in the following European countries annually, were estimated, in March 1851, as follows: — Population. Letters. Pr. Head. England, - - - 29,000,000 320,000,000 11- France, .... 36.000,000 108,000,000 3" Prussia, - - - 16,500,000 45.000,000 2-7 Switzerland, - - - 2,408,000 13.600,000 5-6 Austria, - - - 37,000,000 23,000,000 0-6 Being rather more than half a letter iot t&zh inhabitant of the Austrian dominions. London Watchman. Vide P. Office. LIBRARIES in United States, 1851. Professor Jewett, of the Smithsonian In- stitute, shows the number of libraries to March, 1851, to be 10,640, and the aggregate number of volumes 3, 641. 765. Of these, Harvard comprises 83,000; Philadelphia and Loganian, 60,000; Congressional, 50,000 ; Boston Athenaeum, 56,000. The aggregate number of volumes in 182 of the largest libraries was stated by Mr. Evans, before the select committee, British House of Commons, to be 1.294.000. The Legislature of New- York, in 1851, voted an appropriation of $75,000 for the erection of a State library in the rear of the capitol at Albany. Among the donations to this library is one from Austria of the Pater Noster in upwards of 600 languages and dialects. A large portion of the valuable library of Congress destroyed by fire in the Cajitol, Dec, 1851. LINEN. The average annual import of linens into the United States is esti- mated at about S6^500,000. The only manufactory in the United States is that of Mr. Stevens, at Webster, Massachussetts. In 1840 the flax crop in all the States north of the Ohio river, and including Maryland, covered some mas] addenda to the world''s progress, 1850-51. 21 four millions of acres, averaging 350 lbs. flax lint per acre ; of which about one-third is fit for linen fabric ; the remainder, say ISOlbs., being available for paper bagging, &c. The excess of profit in the culture of flax compared with cotton, is shown by A^. Y. Tribune, April, 1851, to be nearly 50 per cent. LIGHTHOUSES. In July, 1850. the lighthouse establishment of the United States numbered 315 lights in lighthouses, and 40 floating-lights, attended in all by 346 keepers, exhibiting over 3,000 lamps, and supported at an annual expense of $141,153. LITHOGRAPHY. A process for printing in oil by different stones, according to the colors required, was invented byJMr. Kronheim, of Pater noster Row, London, in March, 1851. LOCKS. Mr. Chubb, of London, stated before the Society of Arts in Jan., 1851, that the basis of all security in modern locks is found in the old Egyptian, the original of the patent tumbler lock. — Illustrated News. His lock, however, was picked by the celebrated Mr. Hobbs, of New- York, during the session of the Great Exhibition, 1851. Day and Newell's parautoptic lock, exhibited in the Crystal Palace, is susceptible of 1,307,647,368,000 changes ; the time required for effecting the whole of which would consume 13,000,000 years. LOTTERIES. The Maryland Convention of 1851 passed a resolution abolish- ing all lotteries and their attendant evils, after April, 1859. MANHATTAN. This term, as applied to the island on which the city of New- York stands, is taken from the name given by the Indians to the original Dutch settlement in 1621, and means '^ the place where they (the Indians) all got drunk !" MANUFACTURES. The increase of manufacturing industry in Great Britain in sixty years, is shown by the following table of the raw materials used in that kingdom : Tn 1790. In 1849. Wool, .... 3,245,352 lbs. 76,756.183 lbs. Silk, 1,253,445 " 6,881,861 " Hemp, .... 592,306 « 1,061,273 " Flax, - - ' - - . 257,222 " 1,806,786 " Cotton, .... 30,574,374 " 758,841,650 " See " Cotton," &c. MARYLAND. The new Constitution of this State went into operation on 4th July, 1851, and from its general acceptance promises greatly to increase the prosperity of the State. Population by the census of 1850, 582,506, of which 89,800 were slaves. MASKS. Before the introduction of females on the British stage, masks were used in the representation of female characters', by the male actors who were no longer youthful. — Knight's Shakspcare. They were also employed by female actors in the early stage of the English drama, and also by women when travelling. Miss Livingston, of New-York, who married Nicholas Bayard, about 1749, when she rode out in cold weather, or went sleighing, wore a black velvet mask, with a silver button or mouthpiece to keep it on. MASSACHUSETTS. The polls, population, and valuation, for the last four decennary terms, are as follows, viz. : Polls. PopTilatinn. Valuation. 1820, - - - 125,715 - - 523,287 - - $153,644,265 . 1830, - - - 150,691 • - 610,408 - - 208,908,107 1840, - - - 185,908 - - 718,592 - - 299,878,327 1850, - - - 245,142 - - 994,665 - - 597,936,969 The relative increase of polls, population, and property, during the above periods, omitting fractions, is as follows : 22 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PKOGRESS, 1850-51. [MET Polls. Population. Valuation, 1820 to 1830, - - 28,000 - - 17,000 - - $55,000,000 1830 to 1840, - • 35,000 . - 108,000 - - 9i;000,O00 1840 to 1850, - - 57,000 - - 255,000 - - 299,048,666 In this State systematic beggary is unknown. The poor are provided for by law, and for this purpose not less than 204 comfortable alms-houses are sustained at the public charge. The number of persons relieved or sup- ported as paupers, in the year 1850, was 25.981, and of these 12,334 were foreigners, the larger portion being from Ireland. The weekly cost of each pauper in alms-houses was Sl'OSs- ; out of alms-houses, $0*98. Estimated value of pauper labor in alms-houses, S17,966. Of paupers by reason of idiocy, the number was 969 ; while that from intemperance in themselves, or through others, was not less than 14,674. Number of pubhc schools in this State, 1850, was 3,878 ; scholars in summer, 176,344 ; in winter schools, 194.403. Male teachers, 2,442 ; female do., 5,985. Average expense each scholar in Massachusetts is nearly $8. Value of public school-houses in 1848 was S2,750,000, of which amount S2,200,000 had been expended since 1838. Criminal prosecutions in 1850 were 3,764, of which the convictions were 1,907. Of the banks in Massachusetts, there are 29 in Boston, and 97 in various parts of the State ; cash capital, independent of other resources, $36,925,050; circulation, $17,005,826. The commerce and manufactures of Mass. have advanced 100 per cent, in the last ten years — Am. Al. ; the im- portations more than doubled, and its tounaffe has increased more than 50 per cent. The-Avealth of Boston and its suburbs, in 1840, was $120,000,000 ; in 1850 it had increased to nearly $270,000,000. The annual value of the boots and shoes manufactured in Massachusetts is estimated at $18,000,000. MEDICINE. The first medical school established in the U. S. was commenced in Philadelphia in 1768 ; this was closed during the first war with Great Britain. First medical degrees conferred were by King's College, New York, 1769. Thatcher's " Brief Guide on Small Pox and Measles," Mass., 1677, was the first medical work published in this country. Inoculation for small pox introduced by Dr. Z. Boylston of Boston, 1677, having first ex- perimented on his own son ; Dr. B. Van Beuren first practised inoculation in New- York. The first recorded post-mortem examination in America was that of Gov. Sloughter, by Dr. Johannes Kutbyl and five other physicians of New-York, in 1691 ; and the first medical meeting was held in New Brunswick, N. J., Vim.— Lit. World. Medical Sludents,fall Session, N. Y., 1S51. Coll. Physicians and Surgeons, .... 197 Univei-sity of New-York, ..... 179 N. Y. Medical College, 69 445 Med. Gaz. At the Female Med. College, Philadelphia, June, 1851, there were forty students. Doctor or Doctress Elizabeth Blackwell practises at this present (for females and children) in N. York city. MESMERISM. In 1776, F. A. Mesmer of Germany first made pubhc his doc- trine of a subtle fluid produced by planetary influence acting on the nervous system of the animal frame. Franklin and Dr. Bailly exposed the futility of animal magnetism, which theory, however, has been lately revived, both in this country and Europe. Among others who have made themselves conspicuous in favoring this absurdity, is the celebrated Miss Martineau. — Haydn. METEORIC Stone falls at Charlotte, N. C, accompanied by explosion. &c., Oct. 31, 1849. METHODISTS. The general "Book Concern" of this body was first estab- mor] addenda to the wokld's progress, 1850-51. 23 lished at Philadelphia in 1800. — Ezekiel Cooper, Agent ; it was subsequently removed to New-York. The unfortunate dissension between the Northern and Southern Methodist Conferences on the question of Slavery was brought to trial in New-York in May, 1851, and by decision of Judge Nelson, of U. S. Circuit Court, in Nov. of that j^ear, judgment was given confirming the full right and title of the Southern Conference to their proportion of the profits of the General Book Concern, the value in 18i5 being |i750,000. The case will be moved to the Superior Court. MEXICO. Gen. Arista inaugurated president of republic of Mexico, Jan. 15, 1851. The initial boundary point between Mexico and the U. States, es- tablished on the right bank of the Rio Grande, in 32° 22' north latitude, by the American and Mexican commissioners, and a monument recording same, erected April 24, 1851. Herrera, ex-president of Mexico, dies in that city May 15, 1851. Gen. Carvajal's insurrection in Northern Mexico — his attack on Metamoras Oct. 20, 1851, MEXICAN WAR with the United States. Mr. Corwin, Sec. of the Treasury, estimates the direct and indirect cost of this war to the U. S. at nearly $300,000,000. MICHIGAN. The population of this state in 1850 was— Whites, 393,156; Free colored, 2,547 ; Federal Rep. Poi3ulation, 395,708. — Census Returns. MILITIA, U. S. The Army Register for 1851, gives the aggregate number of the militia force throughout the States as 2,006,456, this does not include Iowa, California, Minnesota, Oregon, Utah, and New Mexico, from which there are no returns. Of the volunteer companies included in the militia re- turns, New-York city furnishes 170, each of which averages 60 members. MILITARY BOUNTY Land Bill, passed the House of Representatives, U. S. June 25, 1850. It gives 160 acres of land for 12 months' service in the war of 1812, and the Mexican and Indian wai'S. MILITARY, U. S. The number of officers, non-commissioned officers, privates, &c., attached to the army of the U. States on 1st January, 1851, was 10,334. MINNESOTA. The first Territorial legislature closes its session of sixty days Nov. 1, 1849. The census retui-ns show the population of this territory in 1850 to be — white, 6,038; colored, 39— total, 6,077; farms in cultivation, 157 ; manufactories producing annually S500 and upwards, 5. MISSISSIPPI. The literal translation of the aboriginal name is Great River; the Indian title is written variously by the early journalists ; Marquette spells it " " Missoissippy ;" Heniippin " Meschasipi." Sape is river, running water ; the prefix means '-'great" 'Mg." — Christ. Rev. The Population of Mississippi in 1850 was -. Whites. Slaves. North District, 170.459 134.508 Soutli " ] 29,550 177;060 Totals, .... 300,009 311,568 The Mississippi Legislature in the session of 1850 abolished the common- law form of pleadings, for a system similar to that of chancery or civil law, and appointed a special officer for making up the •' Mississippi Reports," to the exclusion of all other reporters. These reports are in future to be printed by the State only. — Am. Almanac. MORMONS. The number of Mormons in England and U. S. early in 1851 was estimated at 300,000. Twenty-five hundred left the former country for Deseret in the spring of that year. — AUien'm. In April, 18ol. their elders and preachers were gathering converts to their principles in Italy and Switzerland, and especially among the Waldenses ; also at Paris. Their 24 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [nEW celebrated " Bible," professed to have been delivered to Joe Smith, was really written by Rev. Sol. Spaulding, about 1812, as a supposed history of some ancient mounds in Ashtabula co., Ohio. The MS. is said to have been borrowed by one of the Mormons, who copied it and subsequently printed the same. — Athen. A copy of this " Bible" in the English, French, and Danish languages, was intended for exhibition in the Crystal Palace, 1851. MORTALITY, New-York. Deaths— 4,042 men— 3,683 women— 6,798 boys, and 5 234 girls — total, 19,755. Greatest mortality in a single month in July when 2,364 persons deceased ; lowest in June, when 1,385 died. Deaths in 1850, were 16,978— increase 1861, 2,777.— iV. Y. Ccmmercial. MOUNTAINS, FORMATION OF. Prof Gorini of the University of Lodi, in Oct. 1851, by a remarkable process, illiistrated the formation of mountains by melting a secret composition, and allowing it gradually to consolidate, during which jDrocess portions continue to ooze up in gradual elevations, forming ranges and chains of hills exactly corresponding in shape with those which are found on the earth. — Lon. Times. MUSIC. Jenny Lind, the " Swedish Nightingale " gave her first concert in America at Castle Garden, New York. 1850. The proceeds of her 100 sub- sequent concerts in the U. States and Havana, were estimated at $^800,000. MURDER. John W. Webster, Professor of Chemistry in Harvard College, ex- ecuted in Boston for the murder of Dr. Geo. Parkman (Nov. 1849,) August 30, 1850. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF DESIGN, N. Y. Instituted 1826; number of members originally limited to 35; but now increased to 50. — A?-t Jour. NAVY, OF THE U. S. The Naval power Sept. 1, 1851, consisted of the Penn- sylvania, 120 guns ; 10 Ships of line, 74 guns each ; the Independence Razee, 64 guns ; 12 Frigates of 1st class, 44 guns each ; 2 Frigates of 2d class, 36 guns each ; 21 Sloops of war, 20 guns each ; 1 do. 18 guns, and 4 of 16 guns each ; 4 Brigs of 10 guns each : 3 Schooners, 4 guns ; 5 Steam Frigates, 30 guns (including the Mississippi) ; the Powhatan — number of gnus not returned ; 3 Steamers 1st class 7 guns ; 3 do. 2d class 8 guns, and 4 do. num- ber of guns not returned, with 5 store Ships and Brigs, 24 guns. NAVY, BRITISH. The Naval force of , the United Kingdom for 1850, compris- ed six hundred and seventy-one Ships of war, either in ordinary or commis- sion, varying from two to one hundred and twenty guns each ; of this number one hundred and seventy-eight are armed Steamers, of one hundred to three- hundred horse-power engines, constructed on the most approved principles for active sea service. This fleet, the largest of any maritime power on the globe, employs in time of peace 35,000 to 50,000 able-bodied seamen, 2,000 strong lads, and 13,000 royal marines. NEW ENGLAND. " In 1630 the whole of New England contained but SOOin- habitants, which, in a century afterwards, had increased to 160 000, and may at this day be given at nearly three millions. The capital of New England, in 1720, contained 12,000 inhabitants; in 1820, 43,000 ; in 1830, 78,000 ; and in 1860i 186,000. Boston, in 1789, was proud of two stage coaches, which employed twelve horses ; she was prouder still in 1800, of twenty-five stage coaches, which employed one hundred horses ; in 1847, these twenty-five coaches had risen into two hundred and fifty coaches and omnibuses, em- ploying one thousand six hundred horses, without taking into account seven railways, which provide, daily, accommodation for 7,000 passengers. The first newspaper published in the colonies, was issued in 1704, ia this same city of Boston, and a third newspaper published in the same town, in 1721, under the title of the Nexv England Courant, could not maintain itself, though it had very warm advocates, being supported by the Hell-flre Club ; new] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 25 at this moment there are in Boston sixteen daily news-papers, with a circulation of 36,000 copies, and fifty weekly news-papers with a circu- lation of 223,000— to say nothing of semi-weekly papers, and semi-monthly papers, and monthly, quarterly, and annual publications. — Extract from Sir H. Bukoer's Speech before N. Eng. Society, Dec. 22, 1850. NEW HAMPSHIRE. The returns of the 7th census (1850) show a population of 817,997 ; in 1810 it was 284,574 ; gain in 10 years 83,423, being an increase of nearly 12 per cent. 1850. 1851. Number of School Districts reported, ..... 2,167 2,222 " Scholars in winter schools, .... 77,806 73,301 " " summer " 61,498 58,328 Whole amount raised for District Schools, - - S174,517 66 $179,065 46 Increase above preceding year, .... 15,087 28 4,-547 80 Number of Banks in N. Hampshire is 22 ; cash capital independent of othw resources, $2,501,000; circulation $2,012,837. — Am. Almanac. NEW JERSEY. The total free population of this State, according to the 7th census (1850) was 488.552, viz 466,288 white and 22,269 colored ; of the old slave population but 119 remaining. The number of children receiving pub- lic instruction in 1851 was 76 245, at the average cost per quarter of $2 10 each pupil. The appropriations and receipts for school purposes was $152,- 678 62 ; amount expended $99,560 13 ; whole available school fund was $377,929 86. — Am. Almanac. Transit duties levied upon merchandise and passengers, for the year 1850, and paid into the State Treasury was $75,511 — viz.; Delaware fellaritan Canal $20,289; Camden & Amboy Rail-Road & Transportation Co., $41,421 ; New Jersey R. R. & Trans'n Co., $13,261. NEWSPAPERS. The newspaper press of a country may be regarded as the surest index to its intellectual condition. The census of 1850 shows the number of newspapers in the United States to be 2,800, of which 2,000 are published in the free, and 800 in the slave states. About 850 are Whig ; 750 Ojiposition ; 70 Freesoil or anti-slavery ; 20 Agricultural ; 40 Temper- ance ; 200 Religious ; and 870 neutral and miscellaneous. New York state publishes 443 papers ; Pennsylvania 328 ; Massachusetts 212 ; and Ohio SOO. — Census Returns. In the Austrian dominions it appears there are but 10 newspapers ; 24 in Spain ; 20 in Portugal ; 30 in Asia ; 14 in Africa (1) ; 65 in Belgium ; 85 in Denmark ; 90 in Russia and Poland ; 800 in Prussia ; and 320 in other Germanic States. Of the London papers it is stated that the daily circulation of the Times, in 1846, was 28,594 ; other papers 88,999 ; but in 1850 the Times had run up to 38,019 daily copies, while the circulation of all the other papers was only 24,116. The London Illustrated News, in 1849; rose to a weekly circulation of 69,000. Of the newspapers published in the United Kingdom, 159 are issued in London ; 222 in the English provinces ; 110 in Scotland ; and 102 in Ireland. The duty paid for the different advertisements in these, in 1850, was .£163,038 ! In July, 1851, Burgess, an Englishman, issued the tirst number of a Persian Journal, with all the fea- tures of a general newspaper, under the patronage of the prime minister of that country. — N, Y. Tribune. NEW YORK City. The census of 1850 shows a population of 617,849, being an increase in ten years of 205,000, or about 65 per cent ; including Brooklyn, Williamsburg, and other suburbs, properly belonging to New York, the en- tire population was about 700,000. The manufacturing capital employed in this city, annually, according to the last census, is $105"218 308. Number of children in the Public and Ward schools in 1850, was 105,378. Dreadful acci- dent in 9th Ward school, Nov. 20, 1851, through a false alarm of fire, when 43 children were killed, and 59 injured ; there were 1,800 children in the school at the time of the accident, under the superintendence of 24 teachers ! 26 ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [PAT NEW MEXICO. This Territory, according to the census returns, 1850, has a white population of 61,632 ; colored 17. Farms in cultivation 3,750 ; man- ufactories producing annuallj' $500, and upwards, 20. NEW ORLEANS. Population shown hy the census returns, 1850, was 119,- 285. — Am. Alma. Number of deaths, same year was 7.819, of which 1,389 were by cholera. The St. Charles Hotel destroyed by fire. Mar. 18, 1851. NICARAGUA. General Munoz, ex-minister of war, deposes President Pineda and his cabinet, at Leon ; sends them prisoners to Tigre Islands, and elects Albaunaz president. The senate assembles at Grenada, and elects Monte- negro president, Aug. 4, 1851. Steamer Prometheus arrives at New York from San Juan, the Atlantic terminus of the Nicaragua route, Aug. 12, 1851, then for the first time opened. NORTHWEST PASSAGE. The Investigator and Enterprise, Sir James Ross's vessels, arrive in London, on their return from their fruitless Arctic E.xpe- pedition, Nov. 11, 1849. Another expedition, under Captains Collinson and McClure, sails from Woolwich, Jan. 11, 1850. Another, under Capt. Penny and Capt. Stewart, from Peterhead, April 13, 1850. Another under Capt. Austin, 4 vessels from Greenhithe, May 4, 1850. Another, under Sir John Ross, from Lochyran, May 24, 1850. — See Arctic Expedition. OHIO. The total population of this state in 1850, was 1,980,408; viz., white 1,956 ; colored 24,300. Farms in cultivation 143,887 ; manufacturing es- tablishments producing annually over $500, 10 550 ; houses. 336,098. — Cen- sus Returns. In 1850 the wheat crop of Ohio amounted to 30,000,000 bushels. April, 1851, completed 62 years since the first band of white settlers entered Ohio. OCEANS. Edrisi, the Nubian, writing in the 12th century of the Atlantic, says: '-There is no mariner who dares to enter into its deep waters, or if they have done so, keep along its coasts, fearful of departing from them." — Irding's Columbus. Lieut. Goldsborongh (U. S. ship Saratoga), in Dec, 1850, found soundings in the Atlantic 128° 21' south, at 3J miles ; but Sir James Ross in 1848, in lat. 15° 3' south, long. 26° 14', run out 4,600 fathoms, or nearly 5^ miles, without finding a bottom ; this appears to be the greatest depth satisfactorily obtained. In May, 1851, Lieut. Rodgers, TJ. S. navy, in Gulf Stream, 30 miles S.W. from Key West, sounded at 730 fathoms; but at another point at a depth of 3,000, the line was cut off, '■ supposed by a sword- fish." — Tribune. The entire surface of the sea is estimated at 150 millions of square miles, the Pacific covering 78 millions, the Atlantic 25 millions, and the Mediterranean one million. The waters of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea are exactly on a level. — Tribune. Mr. Stephenson (Brit. Ass., 1850), from actual experiment, found the force of the waves is 1^ ton per square foot, in the German Ocean ; and nearly double that force in the waves of the At\^^iX\i\c.— Household Words. Dr. Scoresby (Brit. Ass., 1850), stated the height of the waves of the Atlantic, from the trough to the crest, to be 43 feet and their average velocity a fraction over 32 miles an hour ; thus confirming Mr. Scott Russel's observations in 1845. OMNIBUSES, &c. The number licensed to carry passengers, in New- York in the year 1851, was 586 ; hacks d20.— Marshal's Returns. PARLIAMENT (British). The House of Commons first meets in the new building at Westminster, May, 1850. Baron Rothschild, a Jew, claims his seat as member elect for London, but his claim is postponed, August 5, 1850. Mr. Alderman Salomons, Jewish member for Greenwich, refused his seat in the Commons, July 18, 1851, the question still in abeyance. PATENTS, American. The number of patents granted by the oflSce at Wash- ington, from 1790 to 1850 inclusive, is 16,296. POS] ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 27 PENCILS. Gessner first describes the " pencil of plumbago, in wooden handles," in 1565. — {Fossils.) Pettus (Fleta Minor) speaks decidedly of pencils " in- closed in fir or cedar," in 1683. M. Conte, of Paris, made great improve- ments in 1795. Mordan's " ever-pointed pencil" was patented about 1820. Philip Crabbe, the first manufacturer of lead pencils by machinery, died in his 100th year, in London, May, 1851.— Tribune. PENS, STEEL. The largest factors are Gillott's, of Birmingham, who em- ploy nearly 1,000 hands, for the conversion of 2^ tons of steel into 35,000 gross of pens weekly ! In 1820-1 the first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for ,£7 4s. ; in 1851 a superior article could be furnished at 3s. 6d. to 5s per gross, while the commonest pens can be rendered at twopence the gross! Gillott's house exhibited in the Crystal Palace, 1851, a giant pen of thirty-six inches in length, and close to this was a small glazed frame con- taining 15,840 steel pens, the whole weighing only one ounce. The greatest number of these pens are sent to the United States. — Illus. News. PENNSYLVANIA. The population exhibited by the 7th census, 1850, was 2,311.681 ; the banking capital, $18,675,484 14 ; tax on dividends, $153,877 14 ; tax on corporation stocks, $70,008 86 ; ratio of tax, 12 ; in 1849 the ratio was 14. — Herald. Total revenue for year ending Novem- ber 30, 1851, was $5,645,678 74; total expenditures during the same period $4,780,667 53. PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. By the census of 1850 this city and suburbs con- tains 406.353 inhabitants. Increase in ten years, 148,221, or about 57 per cent. In the city and county there are 258 public schools, with 45,388 child- ren, under the instruction of 81 male and 646 female teachers. The total school expenditure for the year 1850 was $332,433 21, being an average of $6 46 each child. Manufacturing capital of this city in 1850, according to census returns, was $33,000,000, and the annual products $61,000,000. Duties received at custom-house, 1851, Jan. to Nov. inclusive, $3,532,982, against $3,213,031 in corresponding period of preceding year. — Tribune. PLANK ROADS. The first plank road in Canada was laid down in 1836, and in New-York in 1837. Plank roads in operation, Jan. 1, 1851 : Canada. New- York. Numloer of roads, .... — 19 Number of miles, .... 442 2,106 Averase cost per mile, - - - $1,750 $1,833 Total cost, $773,500 $3,860,292 Very nearly four millions of dollars have been expended in New-York upon these roads, and the resulting advantages are immense. The Troy and Lansingburg road pays 10 per cent, dividend, which is generally believed to be the case Avith all the others, with the exception of the Utica and Bur- lington, which j'ields 20 per cent. None of the stocks are in the market. — Kingsford. POSTAGE, Gt. Britain. The gross revenue of the Post Office for the year ending Jan. 5, 1850, was £2 213,149 ; the cost of management, .£1,307,248 ; the net revenue, after deducting charges other than management, was ^840,787. [An ample proof of the advantage of cheap postage.] The num- ber of Money Orders issued was 4,248,891, the representative value, .£8,152,643. The value of commission on the issue was £70,670 ; the amount of expenses incurred was £70,248. The total amount of the charge for packet service in the year was £748,296. The value of bank notes, checks, and money orders found in letters returned to the Dead Letter office, for the two years ending 5 Jan., 1851, amounted to £1,245,158 Bs. 5d., the whole of which was regularly entered and indexed, and is returnable to the claimant, on proving his title to same. ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [pop POPULATION, United States of America, viz. : I860. 1840. Incre.ise per cent, since STATES. TOTAL POPULATION. POPULA TION. 1840. Whites. Sl.lves. Whites. Slaves. Whites. Maine ... - 583,088 501,798 about 16 pr. ct. New Hampshire - 317,864 284,574 i " 11 " Massachussets 994,271 737,699 « 35 « Conrjecticut 370,604 309,978 17 " 20 « Rhode Island 147.555 108,830 5 " 36 " Vermont 313,466 291,948 « 7 « New York - 3,090,022 2.428.621 4 « 28 " New .Jersey 489,333 222 ■373.306 974 » 31 « Pennsylvania 2,311,681 1,724,033 64 " 34 « Ohio .... 1,977,031 1,519,467 3 " 24 " Michigan 395.703 212,267 » 86 " ■ Wisconsin - 304,226 30,945 11 « 884 " Indiana 988,734 685,866 3 <( 44 « Illinois . . - . 858,598 476,183 331 « 77 " Iowa .... 192,122 43,112 " 347 " California . 200,000 " . . " SLAVE STATES. 1850. 18-10. Increase per cent, sir CO De- STATES. TOTAL POPULATION. TOTAL POPULATION. 1840. crease. Pop. 1 Whiles, 8lavBS. Fop. Whites. slaves. Total. Whites. Sla. W. S. Delaware 91,.535i 89,246 2,339 78,085 75,480 2,605 17 p. Ct. 19p. Ct. H Dis. Columbia 51,687 1 48,000 3,687 43,712 39,018 4,694 18 " 19 " 22 Maryland 533.035 492,667 90,368 470,019 .380,282 89,737 24 « 30 " 0^ Virginia 1,421,081 9-18,0.55 473,026 1,239,797 790.810 448,987 15 " 20 " 5i N. Carolina - 868,903 530,491 288.412 753,419 .507,602 24.5,817 15A " 14i" 17 S. Carolina - 663,469 283,.544 384,925 594,398 267,315 327,083 13" « 6 « 18 Georgia 878,635 515.669 362.966 691,392 410,448 280,944 27 " 26 " 29 Florida - 87,387: 48,046 39,341 54,477 28,760 25,717 59 " 66 " .50 Alabama 771,659 428.765 342,894 590,756 337,224 253,532 31 « 27 " 36 Mississippi - 592,853 292.434 300,419 375,651 180,440 195,211 58 " 62 " 54 Louisiana - 500,763 269.9.56 230.807 352,411 183,959 168,452 42 « 47 a 37 Texas - 187.403 1.34,0.57 53,346 Arkansas 209.640 162,658 46,98::! 97,574 77,639 19,935 116 " 111 " 135 Missouri 682,043 594,621 87,422 383,702 325,462 58.240 77 " 83 » 50 Tennessee - 1,002,6:2:5 763.164 239,461 829,210 646,151 183.059 21 " 18 " 31 Kentucky 1,001,495 779,728 221,768 779,828 597,570 182,258 29 " 31 " 20 Territories. Minnesota 6.192 N. Mexico - 61.632 Oregon 20,000 Utah - 25.000 KECAPITULATION. Free States Slave States District and Territories Total Free Population. 13,533,328 6,393,757 160.824 20,087,909 119 3,175,783 3,687 3,179589 Total free population Slaves Ratio of Representation Representative Population. 13,533,399 8,299,226 21,832,625 20.087,909 3,179,589 ',* The highest rates of increase in the Free States lor the last 10 years were in Wisconsin, 884 per ct. ; Io"wa, 347 per ct. ; Michigan, 86 per ct. ; Illinois, 77 per ct. The highest in the Slave States were, in Arkansas, whites, 111 per ct. ; Missouri, whites, 83 per ct. ; Florida, 66 pro] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 29 per ct. ; Mississippi, 62 per ct. Tiie higliest increase of Slaves was in Arkansas, 135 per r.t ; Mississippi, 54 per ct. ; Missouri, 50 per ct. Tlie lowest rate in tlie Free States was, in Ver- mont, 7 per ct. ; New Hampshire, 11 per ct. The lowest in the Slave States of whites, was in South Carolina, 6 per ct. ; North Carolina, 14i- per ct. In North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia," Alabama, and Arkansas, the Slaves have in- creased more than the Whites. In all ihe other States the proportion of Slaves lias diminished, especially in Maryland, Virginia, and Kentucky. General ratio of increase of the whole United States. FromlSSOtolSlO, white, 34-72 - - - Colored, 23-81 " 1840 to 1850 " 38-20 ... " 26-16 The centre of Representative population in 1790, was 46 miles north and 22 east of Washing- ton, in Baltimore county, Maryland. In 1800, the centre was 64 miles north and 30 west of Wash- ington, in Adams county, Pennsylvania. In 1820, it was 47 miles north and 71 west of Wash- ington, in Morgan county, Virginia. In 1830, it was 43 miles north and 108 west of Washing- ton, in Marion County, Virginia. By these calculations, the accuracy of which we see no rea- son to question, the representative power, in its rapid and accelerated movement westward, has for lifty years kept nearly the same parallel of latitude. In that time it lias moved 10 miles south, and 182 miles westward. The advance westward was as follows : From 1790 to 1800 - - 13 miles. | From 1S20 to 18-30 - - 37 miles. " 1800 to 1810 - - 39 " I " 1830 to 1840 - - 52 " " 1810 to 1820 - - 41 " I The calculation is that the census of 1850 will show the centre of representative population in the State of Ohio. PHYSICIANS were formerly ecclesiastics. It was during the nunciate of Cardinal d'Etouteville in France, in 1452, that he obtained permission for them to marr}'. — Menage. Sir William de Butts, phj'sician to Henry VIII., and mentioned as such by Shakspeare. was paternal ancestor of Mrs. Sher- wood, the popular authoress, who died in Sept., 1851. POET-LAUREATE (England). Alfred Tennyson appointed Nov., 1850. POST OFFICE, U. S. A. Year ending June 30, 1849 ; length of mail routes 167,703 miles ; amount of annual transportation, in miles, 42,544.069 ; gross revenue $4,905,176; net revenue $426,127. In 1850, the length of mail routes was 178,672 miles; revenue $5,552,971; expenditures $5,212,958; of which amount the transportation charges were $2,965,786. The actual receipts during the year ending June 30, 1851, were, - $6,786,493 22 Less amount received for Brit. Postages, ...... 58,626 44 Gross Revenue for the year, ...... $6,727,86678 Being an increase of $999,006 41 over the proper revenues of the preceding year. The ordinary expenditure of the department, year ending .lune 30, 1851, was $6,024,566 79. Number of post offices in 36 states, and District Columbia in 1837, was 19,604.— P. Mas. Gen. Report. POST OFFICE, New York. For the quarter ending Sept. 30, 1851, there were received by steamers and packet ships 577.885 letters and 261,426 papers; despatched by mail per steamer and ship, during same period, papers 305,448 ; letters 584,038 ; which latter, added to the daily average corre- spondence, shows the receipt and transmission of nearly 7 millions of letters by the New York office, in three months. During same quarter, 5 100 official letters were received, and 3 018 written and despatched. In addition to all this, 687 Dead Letters were sent to the proper office at Washington, con- taining property of value, gold dust, bank bills, drafts, &c., in amounts varying from $1 to $10,000, a large portion of which were returned to the writers, and the balance remain subject to the order of the proper owners. Increase of business under the new Jaw is 10 per cent,, and about 75 per cent, of all letters are prepaid. Number of stamps sold to Sept. 30, was 1,475.555. PROTESTANTISM in U. S. In the year 1800, the Episcopal Church, the old- est in the Union, numbered 320 churches ; 260 ministers ; 16 000 members ; and 7 bishops. In 1850 it had increased fourfold, viz. ; churches, 1,560 ; minis- ters, 1,504 ; members, 73, 000; bishops, 28. The congregation lists in 1850, com- prised 1,971 churches ; 1,687 ministers ; and 197,175 members. The Baptists enumerated 18, 455 churches ; 9,018 ministers ; and 948,867 members. Pres- 30 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS. 1850-Sl. [raI byterians 4 General Assemblies ; 65 Synods ; 360 Presbyteries ; 4,578 minis- ters; 1,014 students and licentiates ; 5 672 churches ; and 490.259 members, being an increase of eleven-fold since 1800. The various bodies of Methodists speaking the English language, had, in 1850, 80,000 places of worship ; 6,000 regular preachers ; 8,000 local preachers ; and more than a million and a quarter of members. The Methodist Protestant churches of German origin, have 1,827 regular and 559 local preachers ; 5 356 congregations ; and 333 000 members. The orthodox Friends had 300 congregations. More than 10,000 places of worship were erected in 1849, and S"l,670,150 were paid in volun- tary subscriptions to ministers. — Dr. Baird before Lon. Evan. Soc. To these may be appended the following, viz. : — Churches. Ministers. Members. Dutch Reformed, ..... 282 299 33,980 German do. and Lutherans, ... 1,865 936 233,000 Moravians, ..... 22 24 6,000 Unitarians, 245 250 30,000 Universalists, 1,194 700 60,000 Swedenborgians, .... 42 30 5,000 Dr. Baird estimates the number of Protestants in the world as follows : — England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland, ..... 20,000,000 Prance, Italy, and Switzerland, ...... 3,000,000 Germany and Holland, ....... 22,' 00,000 Hungary and Poland, more than ...... 3,000,000 In the Scandinavian countries, ...... 8,5L10,1'00 In Russia, fully ........ 3,000,000 The United States, all of ...... 19,000,000 British America, including West Indies, about .... 2,000,000 Australia, Cape of Good Hope, and British possessions in Asia, Africa, and Polynesia, ....... 500,000 Total, 81,000,000 PRUSSIA. New edict against the press enforced ; 37 journals forbidden to pass through the post, June 5, 1850. The treaty of Olmutz announced at Berlin, Dec. 3, 1850. May 31. 1851, Inauguration of Ranch's Colossal Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great, Berlin. In Oct., 1851, the question of the ad- mission of Jews to judicial office, brought to a partial termination by their permission to study law. — Illus. News. PYRAMIDS. M. Persigny, in his "Destination," &c., "des Pyramides," lately published in France, appears to have made the nearest approach to the original design of these structures, viz., that they were intended as a barrier to arrest the progress of the sands from the desert, and thus to preserve the cultivated fields of Egypt from destruction. The great Pyramid at Ghizeh it is stated was first opened by the Caliph Al Mamoun, in the expectation of discovering treasure ; when the people murmured at their disappointment, he ordered a smn of money to be secretly deposited, which, on its discovery by the laborers, is said to have satisfied their cupidity. RAILWAYS IN THE United States of America, Jan. 1850. In Massachusetts, .... In other New England States, In New- York, .... In other States, .... Total, . . . 9,714* " * The estimate on page 154* was erroneous. Railroad Jubilee at Burlington, Vt., celebrating the union by railroad of the waters of the lakes and the Atlantic, June 25, 1850. N. Y. & Erie R. Road opened witli appropriate ceremonies, through the entire line. May 14. 1851. The Hudson River R. Road Co., organized March, 1847, road completed, Oct., 1851, at a cost of 86,666,681. RAILWAYS, South America. The first Railway in Peru, from Callao to Lima, six miles, was opened Nov., 1850. rev] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 31 RAILWAYS, Great Britain. During- the year 1849, about 870 miles of new railways were opened in the United Kingdom, viz. : 630 miles in England, 108 in Scotland, and 132 in Ireland. The following table gives the progress of railways since 1811, with the average receipts per mile per week : YeaTs. Miles open 1,770 Per mile per v £S4 years. Miles open Per mile per week 1844 1848 4,178 £50 1845 2,033 £67 1849 4.983 £46 1846 2,498 £64: 1850 6,075 £44 1847 3,375 £56 The number of rail-road passengers in England and Wales in 1846, was 35,- 000,000; in 1850,53 000 000; total United Kingdom in 1850, 66,000,000.— Herald. The great Russian rail-road, from Moscow to St. Petersburgh, was opened Nov 13, 1851, the distance 420 miles, being run through in 18 hours, 23j miles per hour. — Londoji Paper. RELIGIOUS denominations in the United States, according to returns made 1844 — 51, and by estimate. Names. Churches. Ministers. Communicants. Roman Catholics, . 1,073 1,081 1,233.350 Protestant Episcopalians, . 1,232 1,497 67,550 Presbyterians, old school, 2,675 2,027 210,306 Presbyterians, new school, . 1,579 1,489 140,060 Cumberland Presbyterians, . 480 350 50,000 Other classes of Presbyterians, . 530 293 45,500 Dutch Reformed, - . 282 299 33,980 German Reformed, . 261 273 70,000 Evangelical Lutherans, - . 1,604 663 163.000 Moravians, . 22 24 6,000 Methodist Episcopal CNorth) - 3,984 662,315 Methodist Episcopal (South) • Metliodist Protestant Church, . 740 64,313 Reformed Methodists, - 75 3,000 Wesleyan Methodists, - 600 20,U0O German Methodists, (United B ethren) 1,800 500 15,000 AUbright Methodists (Evangelical Association) 600 250 15.000 Mennonites, 400 . 250 58,000 Orthodox Congregationalists, 1,971 ■ 1,687 197,196 Unitarian do. . 245 250 30,000 Universalists, - 1,194 ■ 700 60,000 Svvedenborgians, ■ 42 30 5,000 Resular Baptists, - 8,872 5,509 719,290 Si-if-Principle Baptists, 21 25 3,586 Seventh-Day Baptists, - 52 43 6,243 Free Will Baptists, 1,252 ,082 56,4-52 Church of God Baptists, - 97 128 10,102 Reformed Baptists (Campbelli es). 1,848 848 118,618 Christian Baptists (Unitarians) - 607 498 3,040 Antiraission Baptists, - 2,023 897 A 64,738 m. Almanac, 1852. REVENUE, and Expenditures, U. S. A. REVENUE. Year ending, June 30, 1848. 1849. 1850. Customs, $31,757,070 $28,346,733 $39,668,686 42 Sale public lands, 3,3-28,642 1,688,959 1,859,894 25 Miscellaneous sources. 351,037 1,038,649 1,847,218 33 Loans and balance on hand. 22,957,951 2.S,742,-284 6,230,914 28 Total, $-58,394,700 $59,816,630 $49,606,713 28 EXPENDITURES. Civil List, $2,647,955 $2,865,615 $3,042,770 07 Foreign Intercourse, 390,897 "7,972,832 4,8-33,594 76 Miscellaneous, 2,546.216 3,179,192 6,958,360 24 War Department,t 27,8-20,163 17,290.936 9,401,239 16 Department of Interior, Navy, 3,400,524 87 10,670,4 16 '9,869,8i8 7,923,313 18 Public Debt, - 15,429,197 16,453,272 7,437,366 41 Total, $58,-241,167 Including the Indemnity to Mexico. $57,631,667 $43,002,268 69 t Inc. part of Mexican war. Jackson's Administration. Rev. from Ciis. Ex. ofCnU'n. 1835 .... 26,091,829 1,284,997 1837 31,129,275 .... 1,397,469 Van Buren's Administration. 1838 .... 20,127,988 .... 1,514,633 1840 .... 15,332,036 .... 1,542,319 1841 .... 20,104,474 .... 1,483,960 Tyler's Administration. 1844 .... 29,560,530 .... 1.807,500 1815 .... 31,144,244 .... 2,066,033 Polk's Administration. 1847 .... 28,305,464 .... 2.099,844 1848 .... 33,034,275 .... 2,132,636 Taylor's and Fillmore's Administration. 1849 .... 28,346,738 1850 .... 39,668,686 32 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 1850-01. [RUS Agsresate receipts for fiscal year ending June 30, 1850, with balance in Treasury - - $52,312,979 87 Total expenditures to same period, .... 48.005,878 68 Imports for year ending .lunu 30, 1851, .... 215,725,13000 Of which there were in specie, - - . - 4,967,901 00 REVENUE FROM CUSTOMS, and Expenses of Collecting it. U. S. A. Washington's Administration. Rev. from Cus. Ex. of Coll'n. 1796 .... $12,fB1.866 $291,206 1797 .... 13,000;i05 .... 343,434 Adams's Administration. 1800 16,185,889 440,373 1801 .... 20,828.336 .... 483,772 Jefferson's Administration. 1808 11,349,769 565,238 1809 .... 11,885,380 .... 498,130 Madison's Administration. 1815 .... 39,012,624 .... 476,007 1816 .... 33,577,988 .... 819,038 1817 .... 22,706,514 .... 782,308 Monroe's Administration. 1824 .... 25,726,836 .... 779,739 1^5 .... 31,903,875 .... 889,302 Adams's Administration. 1827 .... 28,191,308 .... 889,818 1828 .... 30,187,701 .... 932,093 1829 .... 27,982,947 1,01.3,667 REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE (Great Britain), year eoding Jan. 5, 1850, Revenue, .£52,951,748. Expenditure, £50,853,622. RICE. First planted in South Carolina, 1693, and has been grown in that state every year since that period. RIOTS. At Philadelphia, between a set of white "rowdies," called "killers," and negroes. Military called out ; 4 persons killed ; 11 wounded; 4 houses burned, Oct. 10, 1849. Riot at Hoboken. N. J., between Germans and " short boy" rowdies from N. York. May 26. 1851. Riot at New Orleans in refer- ence to Cuban affairs — ^the Spanish Consul's house attacked, and also those of the Spanish residents, Aug. 21, 1851. Christiana Treason trial, at Phila- delphia, Nov., 1851 ; Hanneway and others acquitted Dec. 11, but the mur- derers of Mr. Gorsuch sent to Lancaster for trial. •ROMAN CATHOLICS. The appointment by the pope of several R. C. bishops and archbishops in England, causes great excitement in that country, and an indignant letter from Lord John Russell, the premier, Nov., 1850. A sta- tistical account from the Vicar General's office at Rome, in April, 1851, shows the ecclesiastical body of that city to consist of 34 bishops, 1,240 seciilar and 1,892 regular priests, and 1,467 monks. The schools and seminaries under their supervision were 321. — See Eccl. States. ROME. The Council of State at Rome announces a political amnesty, except- ing from it, however, the late Triumvirate, the chiefs of the assembly, and the military leaders, and about 13,000 persons supposed to be implicated in the late movements, Sept. 18, 1849. The pope returns to Rome, April 19, 1850. The total population of Rome in April, 1851, was 170,824. — Vicar GenHs Office. In 1848 the population numbered 179.000, and a proportional dimi- nution is shown in the returns of the other Roman States. — Herald. In Oct. 1851, a mixed commission of cardinals, prelates, merchants, &c., and simple workmen, was formed by the Pope, for the examination and amendment, where susceptible, of all corporate laws. — Illus. Neics. RUSSIA, The Russian troops repeatedly defeated by the Circassians, June 1851. RUSSIAN ARMY, 1851. Infantry, 640,384 ; cavalry, 101,902 ; artillery, 41,902 ; adding to the above the engineer staff", the entire force amounts to 810,000 sha] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 33 eifective troops. Other accounts, however, place the actual number of mili- tary fit for service no hig'her than 300,000 men, and of these a quarter must be kept in Poland. — -Tricskr Zdlung. SAN FRANCISCO, Commerce of. The amount of duties collected at San Fran- cisco, in the quarter ending- Sept, 30, 1851, as compared with the correspond- ing q uarter of the year 1850. 1850. 1851. July, - - - .fl43,276 48 $182,396 75 August, - - - 176,656 00 104,128 00 September, - - 144,318 00 162,558 19 1464,250 48 $459,082 94 Amount of deposits in September, 1851, on account of unascertained, $72,707 30, being ia addition to above. Amount of Bullion reported in manifests at Custom's House was, July, 1851, $3,471,245 , ■ August, $3,311,100; Sept., $3,488,171 ; Total, $10,270,516. Specie brouglit into tlie city in freight was, for July, $84,280 ; August, $61,195 ; Sept,, $55,351. Males. Females. Cliild'n. Total. Left. Passengers arrived, July, . - 1,729 231 134 2,094 1,697 " '• August, - 1,886 348 211 2,445 2,097 " " September, - 1,140 140 56 1,336 6,574 Totals, - 5,875 10,368 Excessof Departures, Sept. 30, 1851, .... 4^493 10,368 SCHOOLS, originally kept in the porches of churches. Even so late as 1624, John Evelyn, then four years old, was taught by " one Frier at the church- porch of .Wotton." — E^s. Diary. The ragged schools, for the instruction of destitute children in England, originated with John Pounds, a poor cripple and shoemaker at Portsmouth, who, while laboring for his daily sustenance, found tiine to instruct the vagabond children of his neighborhood. He died, "deplored by all his scholars and their relatives, Jan., 1839." Infant schools originated about 1780, with Oberlin, pastor of Waldbach (Germ.); and in England were first put in operation in 1815, by James Buchanan, one of the masters engaged by Robert Owen at Lanark. Wilderspin's plans were subsequent to the above. — West. Review. Sabbath schools were par- tially in operation previous to the great effort of Mr. Raikes, through the instrumentality of Miss Walker, a Quaker lady of Tottenham, near London, and the Rev. Mr. Lindsay and wife, of Catterick, Yorkshire. — Nor. of Scot. Gaz. The first S. school in the United States is said to have been estab- lished by Mrs. Archibald Lake, in the stockade in Marietta, Ohio, March, 1791. SEWING MACHINES. Invented 1848, and brought to general use by the large tailoring establishments. A machine, with the attention of one girl, will sew six overcoats per day. — Sci. Am. SHANGHAI. The population trading with this Chinese port is between 60,000.000 and 80,000,000. The teas grown here are the finest in the world, and its supplies to foreign countries are about seven-eights of the whole pro- duct exported from the empire. The amount sent forward from China in 1850. is given officially as follows: To Russia, 7,000 000 lbs.; France, 2.000 000 lbs. ; Holland 3,000,000 lbs.; Great Britain, 52,000 000 lbs.; and the U. States. 30 000 000 lbs. ; the total valuation of which shipments can- not fall far short of $30,000,000. The rich silk fabrics of Suchan are brought to Shanghai, as well as numerous other articles of valuable traffic, all of which may be more readily purchased here than at Canton, which port re- ceives its principal export supplies from the former. The importance of Shanghai as a port of entrance for the American merchant offers incalculable advantages. — See N. Y. Courier. 2* 34 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [STE SHIPPING, U. S. A. Vessels built and tonnage thereof in the U. S. : year end- ing June 30, 1849. Ships, 198; brigs, 148; schooners, 623; sloops and canal boats, 370; steamers, 208. Total, 1,547. Aggregate tonnage, 3,535,000. Iron cylinder masts first fitted in a Dutch E. Indiaman at Liverpool. March, 1851. Amount of tonnage of American vessels engaged in foreign trade, for year ending 30th June, 1850, was entered 2,573,016 ; cleared, 2.632,788. For- eign tonnage during same period entered, 1,775,623; cleared, 1,728 214. Number of vessels built in 1850 was 1 360. their total tonnage 272,218 54-95. In 1851 the total U. S tonnage was 3,772,439, including the whaling vessels, 181.644 ; vessels built, 1.367. Massachusetts total tonnage engaged in foreign and domestic trade, 694,402; New- York. 1,041.013; Oregon (smallest), 1,063.— ikf. Courier. The clipper ship " Flying Cloud," Capt, Cressy, left New- York June 2, 1851, and arrived at San Francisco, August 20, making the trip round Cape Horn in the unprecedented short space of 90 days ; the shortest passage on record. In three days the F. C. made 992 miles. SLAVE-TRADE. Official returns made to the foreign ofSce in London show that from the year 1840 to the year 1848, inclusive, 594 vessels, containing 37,824 slaves, were captured by the British squadron, and 556 of them con- demned. It has been estimated by the English statician McQueen, that the loss sustained by slave-traders in conseqiience of the caiitures or presence of African cruisers, from the year 1800 to 1847, was £30,240,000. SLAVERY, U. S. A. Renewed agitation of this subject caused by the passage and enforcement of the " Fugitive Slave Bill" (passed by Congress in Aug., 1850). In several instances, the claims for fugitive slaves are resisted or defeated in the Northern States, but without serious collision or bloodshed; Sept., Dec, 1850. By decision of Judge Hoadly, Superior Court, Cin., in Oct., 1851, this law was pronounced as '■ opposed to the spirit and letter of the Constitution of the TJ. S." The Boston Post of Dec., 1850, states that the original Fugitive Slave Law was drafted by Geo. Cabot, of Mass., Nov. 1792, and passed unanimously by the Senate on the 18th of Jan'y following, by a majority of 41. A Papal Bull of Dec, 1839, prohibits all traffic in human beings by subjects of Roman Catholic States. — Wade's Brit. Hist. SPAIN. Queen Isabella personally opens the Cortes in the new palace, in the Plaza de Cervantes, Oct. 31, 1850. At Madrid, Nov., 1851, the commission- ers for regulating the liberty of the press refuse to assent to the ministerial proposition of seizing newspapers before publication. STAGES. In 1749 there was a daily stage route between Newark, N. J., and New-York, during the summer months only. The number of passengers in one season was considered large at 3.000; the number of passengers over the railroad to the same place v.'as, in 1850, 959,000 ! STEAM ENGINE. A patent was granted in England in 1618, for a steam— or as it is there designated, a " fire-engine, for taking ballast out of rivers and for raising fresh water." It is supposed to have been an invention brought from Italy, where it is stated to have been anteriorly used. Brancas, an Italian philosopher, published at Rome, in 1629, a book on the subject. — Wade's Brit. Hist, A complete steam-engine, weighing only three fourths of an ounce, and capable of full motion, was finished and intended for exhi- bition at the Crystal Palace by an ingenious mechanic of Saddleworth, Yorkshire, in Feb., 1851. — Illus. Nev^s. The tubular boiler was invented by Col. John Stevens, Hoboken, N. J., 1805. STEAM NAVIGATION, U. S. A. The steamer Atlantic, 3,500 tons, the first of the Collins' line, sailed for Liverpool, from New York, April 27, 1850. Steam communication between Philadelphia and Liverpool opened jby the " City of Glasgow," arrived at Philadelphia, Jan. 1, 1851. The first steamer sug] ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 35 that ever crossed the Atkntic was the " Savannah," 350 tons, from Savannah, Geo., to Liverpool, which port she reached 20th July, 1819. — Manoade's Com. Report. The first steamboat that ascended the Mississippi was com- manded by Capt. Henry M. Shreeve, who subsequently invented the steam snag-boat ; he died in 1851. The number of steamboats on the Western watei's in 1850 was estimated at 575, investing a capital of S60,000,000, and employing 15.000 hands. The annual cost to the U. S. government of the Steam Mail Service in 1850. was distributed as follows : — Collins' line, New York and Liverpool, $385, 000 ; Ocean Steam Navigation Company, New York and Bremen, $200.000 ; do., do., do., do.. New York and Havre, $150.000 ; New York, Havana and New Orleans, $290,000 ; Panama and Oregon line, $199,000; Charleston and Havana line, $.50,000.— Total, $1,274,000. The first steamer on Lake Nicaragua began its trips January, 1851. Duty paid by Cunard steamers at Boston, in 1847, was $1,199,971 78; in 1850, $1,322,383 30. Marine Steam Force of Great Britain in 1851 was— 147 ships, including 3 in Canada, and 32 iron steamers, 11 ranging from 1.547 to 1,980 tons. A discovery in 1851 of a work in the archives of Venice, of a treatise on " Navigation by Fire," byM. Gautier, Mem. Roy. Soc. Paris, shows that the professor's plans for steam navigation were exhibited by him to the Venetian Republic in 1756. STEAMBOAT BUILDING. The annual report on commerce and navigation, gives the following aggregate of the number of steamboats built in the United States since 1824 — twenty-five years, in periods of five years each : From 1824 to 1829, - - - 194 I From 1844 to 1849, - - - 960 " 1829 to 1834, - - 304 I • " 18:34 to 1839, - - - 504 I Total, - 2,492 " 1839 to 1844, - - 522 I Two-thirds of these were built in the West, one-sixth of them in Ohio. STEAM AND POWDER EXPLOSIONS. The most fatal accident of this nature in 1849 was that of the steamboat Louisa, at N. 0., Nov. 15, when 60 persons were killed and 92 wounded and missing. During 1850 the number of steamboats lost in the Western waters was 53, and 64 seriously injured. Nearly 700 persons lost their lives, and $1 500,000 of property was destroyed. Some of the most prominent accidents by explosion in 1850 and 1851, were :— FACTORY OR VESSEL. Steamer Telegi-aph, Ship of war, Volney, Am. Steamer Resolute, Ste. Antoinette Douglas, Am. Steamer Colurnbus, Steamer Anglo Norman, South America, Knoxville, Fashion, Oregon, Ferry-boat (many injured), Victoria Coalpit, Cotton mil], Distillery, Balloon, 1 mile high, exploded near Lon- don ; the 4 passengers providentially escaped without serious injury. Steamer .lai-kson (35 injured), Shawneetown, III., 7 Brilliant, Bayou Sara, La., many. ed years ago the Jesuits brought a few bundles of cane from planted them in the second municipality of New Orleans. 1850. November 7, u 10, « 23, a 26, December 13, t' l?", « IS, ii 20, l&jl. March 2, February 23, March 15, " 27, August 2, September 8, Near Newcastle, Del Near Brest, New- York, Tate's Shoals, OtT Point Lookout, New Orleans, Near Bayou Sara, New Orleans, Near Pittsburgh, Mississippi, St. Louis', Scotland, Stockport, Eng., Harrison, Ohio, LIVES LOST. , 15 10 5 30 7 40 20 many 21 15 61 14 15 " 21, " 25 SUGAR. A hutldr Hispaniola, and 36 ADDENDA TO THE WOR-LD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. [UNI In 1759 the first sugar-mill was erected. In 1840 the number of slaves em- ployed in the sugar culture was 148,890, and the product was 119,947 hogs- heads, of 1,000 pounds each, and 600,000 gallons of molasses. — Mobile Register. TEA. Quantity imported into Great Britain in 1849, 53,460.751 lbs. The duty upon it amounted to i;5,471,671. This is an increase of nearly 50 per cent, over the imports of 1840. TELEGRAPH, THE SNAIL. The actuality of telegraphic communication by medium of magnetism in snails, experimentally demonstrated by Prof. Gregory of Edinburgh, May, 1851. TELEGRAPH— see " Electric:' TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. The benevolent influence of these associations may be estimated from the fact that the amount of taxation in the state of New York, in 1850, occasioned by pauperism and crime resulting from in- temperance, was nearly S2 600,000, and the amount for the entire Union during that period, and resulting from the evils of intemperance, was over S16,OL)0,000. The daily expenditure in the 5,000 drinking places in New York is calculated at over ^40,000. — Mr. Foster's Speech at Tripler Hall. March, 1851. — Father Matthew, the " Apostle of Temperance," after visiting numerous states in the Union during two years, and administering over 600,000 pledges, sailed for Liverpool in steamer Pacific, Nov. 8, 1851. TEXAS. The question of the boundary line between Texas and New Mexico, after mrrch excitement and discussion, is settled by the payment of S'lO,- 000,000 by the U. S. to Texas, as indemnity for the territory claimed by New Mexico, Sept., 1850. Population in 1850, 188,403, including 53,346 slaves. TIDES. The highest known are in the Bay of Fundy, Newfoundland, and the Bay of Tonquin, Cochin China. — Q. Rev., 1819. That of the former rises 60 feet; the tide at Chepstow (Monmouth, Eiig.) rises 70 feet. — Illus. News. That of Baffin's Bay only 4 feet. — Capt. Russ, 1819. Seeds dropped accidently into the sea in the W. Indies, were subsequently found on the shores of the Hebrides. — Dr. Walker to Lord Karnes. — See Oceans. TIGRE (Island of). Central America, seized by Mr. Chatfield, British Consul, with an armed force, for the " British Queen," Oct. 17, 1849 ; but the claim was not enforced, and was settled in the " Nicaragua Treaty," signed at Washington, by Clayton and Bulwer, June, 1850. TURKEY. Battle between the Turks and Syrians, who had revolted against the Turkish recruiting system — Syrians defeated with loss of 1,000 men, 1850. Explosion on board the Neiri Schevket, line of battle ship, at Con- stantinople, 1,000 persons killed, Oct. 23, 1850. UNION MEETINGS. Gov. Quitman of Miss., addresses a disunion meeting with some opposition, at Natchez, Oct 7, 1850. A similar meeting in Yazoo city votes down the resolutions proposed. A convention for amending the constitution of Indiana, assembles at Indianapolis, Oct. 7. A great union meeting at Mobile, Ala., Oct. 8. Convention for amending constitution as- sembles at Richmond, Va., Oct. 14. A union festival in compliment to Mr. Clay, at Lexington, Ky., Oct. 17. A Woman's Rights convention held in Worcester, Mass., Oct. 23. A great union meeting at Dayton, Ohio, Oct. 26, and an immense meeting for like purpose in New York, Oct. 30. Conven- tion to amend constitution of Maryland, meets in Annapolis. Nov. 4 ; another at Concord, N. H., for revising constitution of that state, Nov. 6 ; and one at Manchester, N. H., Nov. 20. A great union meeting at Philadelphia, Nov. 21. One at Bath. Me.. Dec. 16. Convention of Delegates from Southern wis] addenda to the world's progress, 1850-51. 37 Rights Association, of S. Carolina, at Charleston, May 8 ; adjourns after resolving " that with or without co-operation they are for dissolution of the Union !" UTAH Terrttort of U. S. A territorial government provided bj^ Congress, Sept. 9, 1850. The territory is bounded on the west b}^ California, north by Oregon, east by the summit of the Rocky Mountains, and south by the parallel of ST'' N. The act provides the sum of S5,000 for a library. VENEZUELA. Gen. J. G. Monagas elected president for four years, Jan. 20, 1851. VIRGINIA. According to the census returns, the real estate, &c., of Virginia, 1850, was 8530,000.000, viz. :— Real estate, 8278.000,000 ; value of slaves, $147,000,000 ; other personal estate, $105 000,000. The returns further show that nearly 83,000 white persons over the age of 21, can neither read nor write! The new Constitution of this state adopted 1851, in the 111th article has the following clause : " And no person shall have a right to vote who is of unsound mind, or a pauper, or a non-commissioned officer in the ser- vice oftke United States." Population of 1850, 1,421,081, including 473,026 slaves. WAMPUM. This material as a representative circulating medium, was bor- rowed by the people of Plymouth. Mass., from the Manhattan Dutch, and was found very profitable in their traffic with the eastern Indians, and subse- quently among the colonists generally. Three of the blackheads and six of the white, were considered as equivalent to a penny ; and for convenience' sake, they were strung in lengths of certain value from one penn}^ to 5 shil- lings, in white ; and from twopence to ten shillings in black; as the quan- tity in circulation increased, the value depreciated and the number of beads to the penny was augmented. — See Hild.retKs U. S. America, 1850. WARS, Modern. Those of the 17th century, were wars of religion; of the 18th century, of conquests and dynasties ; of the 19th, of monarchs against the people, — Berlin Corres. N. Y. Com. The actual cost of the late Mexi- can war is estimated at $300,000,000, The wars of Europe from 1783 to 1815, are estimated at $15 000,000.000. The late Hungarian war left 25,000 widows, and 80,000 orphans of soldiers, almost entirely without food, shelter, or clothing. WASHINGTON, D. C, Population in 1810. 8,201, in 1820, 13.248, in 1830, 18 827, in 1840, 23.,364, in 1850, about 42.000. WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS, The original MS. was sold at auction in Philadelphia, to a citizen of New York, for $2,300, February 12, 18-50, WESTMINSTER, Archbp. op. Nicholas Wiseman, having been created Car- dinal by the Pope, is installed as Roman Catholic Archbishop of Westmin- ster, Nov., 1850. This, in addition to Dr. Ullathorne's enthronement as R, C. bishop of Birmingham, in Oct., together with the parcelling out of all Eng- land into Roman dioceses, created great excitement, and petitions from every quarter of the United Kingdom were addressed to the Queen and govern- ment, praying their resistance to the '• monstrous usurpation." WHALE FISHERY. Registered tonnage employed in this branch of commerce, 1850, was 146.016, Fish and sperm oil exported during the year ending June 30, 1850, $1,809,115. The average yield of a polar whale is about 120 barrels oil. WILLIAM THE CoNauEROR. Inauguration of the statue of this renowned monarch at Falaise, Normandy, his native place, Oct, 26, 1851. WISCONSIN. The population of this State is shown by the census returns, S8 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESSj 1850-51. [ZIN 1850, to be : white, 304,565 ; colored, 626 ; total, 305.191. Farms in cultiva- tion, 20,177; manufactories producing annually S'500, and upwards, 1,273. WOOL. The imports of wool into the U. S. for fiscal year 1850, amounted to ^1,681,691 ; and for same period 1851, 83,883,160.— Cowie?-. WORSHIP, Forms of. The Jews and Quakers wear their hats during worship, Protestants and Catholics remove them. — The Mohammedans wear their turbans, but put off their shoes on entering their mosques, evidently from their Prophet's adoption of many of the Jewish customs. — See Exodus in, 5. It is particularly worthy of remark that the Moliammedans invariably re- move from their persons all jewelry, and articles of adornment previous to the commencement of their prayers. WRECKS, &c. The number of vessels belonging to the U. S. lost during the year ending June, 1818, was 585 ; value, $2,021,495 ; value of cargoes. $2,501,771 ; total number of lives lost in connection with them, 477. The Caleb Grimshaw, Liverpool and N. Y. packet ship, burnt at sea ; 60 passen- gers lost on a raft ; 339 rescued by Capt. David Cook of Nova Scotia, Nov. 12, 1849. DATE. NAME OF VESSEL. 1850. January 13, Am. Ship Hottinguer, May 6, Steamer Commei-ce, " 24, Br. Indiaman, Sulimary, June 2, A barge, " 17, Am. Steamer, Griffith, burnt " 18, Br. Steamer Orion, July 18, Brig. Elizabeth, October 4, Am. bark Isaac Mead, " 7, Br. ship Providence, Nov. 24, Br. Ship Edmund, " 28, Propeller Helena Sloman, Minot's Ledge lighthouse carried away, April 17, '51, and the two assistant keepers droAvned. Steamship Union lost on her passage from San Francisco to Panama, July 5, '51 ; passengers and gold dust saved. YACHTING. The Yacht America, built by Steers of New- York, 204 tons bur., after winning the " cup of all nations" at Covves, I. of Wight, England, and out-sailing the British j^acht Britannia, Aug., 1851, was sold by Messrs. Stevens to Capt. Blaquiere for i;5,000 ! YANKEE. The derivation of this word is generally accredited to the Indian pronunciation of the word English, which they render Yengeese. — In New- York it is applied to the New Englanders ; in the South to all the North- eners ; and in Europe to all Anglo-Americans. — In a curious book on the Round Towers of Ireland, published some j'ears ago, the origin of the term Yankee-Doodle was said to have been traced to the Persian phrase Yanki ^oiiwiaA, or "Inhabitants of the New World." Layard, in his "Nineveh," also mentions Yanghi-dunia as the Persian name of America. — Illus. News. YUCATAN. Intelligence received at New Orleans, Jan. 3, 1851, that a battle between the whites and Indians in Yucatan resulted in the victory of the latter, 300 of the whites being killed. ZINC. The Soc. Jndust. Nationale in Paris, granted to M. Leclaire, 1846, a medal of gold worth 3000 francs, for his substitution of zinc for white lead in the formation of painter's color, the use of which latter has been attended with so much danger to healtli. — Art Journal. White paint prepared from zinc is much used of late in the U. States, and has hitherto been greatly approved. WHERE. LIVES lOST. Wexford rocks. Ire. 13 Lake Ontario, 38 From Boinbay, 100 Near Neuwerk, Ger. 100 Off Port Patrick, 50 Lake Erie, 300 OffFirelsland, N. Y. many Charleston to N Y. 24 Near Belfast, 19 Near Limerick, 95 At sea, Hamburgh to N. Y. 11 PAINTING. PAINTING-. Chronological Table of the most celebrated Painters, arranged in Schools and Ages, from the revival of the art, 1600, to the commencement of the Nineteenth Century. (From Bell's Edition of Bredow's Tables of Universal History.) 1. Florentine School.— Style elevated and Ijold, seeking rather to be admired than to please ; sometimes gigantic ; neglects coloring and grace.— 1240, Gimabue : 1726, Giotto ■ 1211, Andrea Taffi; 14(Ji), Wassolino ; 1402, Massacio ; 1431, FilippoLippi; 1432, Andrea Verrochio, Andrea Castagna, Pisanello; 1443, Ghirlandajo ; 1445, Leonardo da Vinci; 1469, Bartolorameo di San Marco ; 1471, Baldassarre Peruzzi ; 1474, Michael Angelo Buon- arotti ; 1484, Dominico Beccafurai ; 1488, Andrea del Sarto ; 1493, Jacopo Carrucci da Pon- toruio ; 1496, Del Rosso ; 1500, Perino del Vaga ; 1509, Daniel da Volterra ; 1510, Francesco Salviati; 1510, Giorgio Vasari ; 1545, Antonio Tempesta ; 1559, Luigi Cardi ; 1563, Fran- cesco Vanni; 1578, Matteo Rosselli ; 1596, Pietro Berretini, called Pietro da Cortona; 1611, Pietro Testa; 1615, Benvenuto da Garofoli ; 1616, Carlo Dolci ; 1666, Benedetto Lutti ; 1695, Giovan' Geronimo Servandoni ; 1702, Pompeo Battoni. 2. Roman School carries invention and design to the highest perfection by the analyti- cal study of the antique and of nature ; heads of the most sublime beauty ; coloring and chiaro oscuro less perfect. 1513, Bernardino Pintuiichio; 1446, Pietro Perrugino; 1483, RatTael ; 1488, G. F. Penni ; 1492, Giulio Romano ; 15-28, Frederico Barocci ; 1529, Taddeo Zucchero; 1.543, Frederico Zucchero ; 1589, Dominico Feti ; 1594, Nicholas Poussin • 1598, Giovan' Lorenzo Bernini; 1599. Andrea Sacchi ; 1600, Claude Gelee, called Claud * of Lorraine ; 1602, Ceriozzi ; 1605, G. B. Salvi, called 11 Sassoferrato ; 1613, Gaspard E-.- ghet, called Poussin or Guaspre; 1616, Luigi Scaramuccia ; 1617, Francesco RomaneF ' 1623, Giacinto Brandi; 162:!, Filippo Lauri ; 1625, Carlo Maratti ; 1634, CiroFerri; 169-. Pietro Bianchi ; 1728, Raftael Mengs. 3. Venetian School.— Faithful imitation of well-chosen subjects of nature, excellent coloring, admirable effect; design less perfect throu,-;!! the neglected study of the antique; this school is now extinct. 1421, Gentile Bellini ; 1431, Andrea Mantegna; 1478 Gior''!- one; 1477, Titian (Tiziano Vecelii da Cadore) ; 1480, G. A. Regillo; 1485, Sebastiano del p,„,„K„. ,:.,A . ._T, ,.,„ r „ , ™. 1522, Paolo Pari ■ Cagliari ; 1535, ,..-.,, - • , , , , ,.- Pal ma (Tl Vec- chio); Io44, ,lac Palma; 1549, Giov. Contarino ; 1560, Maria Tintoretta ; 1561, Leonardo 1687, Ant. Canale ; 1693, Giov. Bat. Tiepolo ; 1699, Giuseppe Nogari. 4. Lombard and Bolognese Schools. — Correggio, born in Lombardy, not having founded a permanent School, but having been imitated by the painters of Bologna, these two Schools are conjoined. Correggio's distinguished characteristics are a seducing and vo- luptuous (though perhaps somewhat affected) grace in his figures and attitudes, and a magic harmony in his coloring. Tibaldi and the Caracci introduce a more elevated character of design, and many of their pupils unite therewith the fine coloring and the graces of Correg- gio. 1450, Francesco Franco; 149i), F. Priinaticcio; 1494, Coiiregoio Antonio AUe-'ri ; 1495, Polidori Ca'dari ; 1504, Fr Mazzuoli ; 1522, PelleOTino Tibaldi; 1546, Camillo I'ro- caccini ; 1559, M. Angelo Araerigi, called Carravaggio ; 1555, Lodo v. Caracci ; 1557, A-'OS- tino Caracci; 1560, Anniba'e Caracci ; 1560, Bartol. Schidone; 1575, Guido Reni. caTled Guido; 1.576, Lionello Spada; 1577, Aless. Tiarini ; 1578, Francesco Albano; 1580, Gia- como Cavedone ; 1581, Dom. Zampieri, called Domenichino ; 1581, Giov. Lanfranco ; 1588, Frances Gessi ; 1590, G. F. Barbieri ; 1597, Lodov Lana ; 1600, Mic. Ang. Colonna ; 1606 Grimaldi ; 1618, Giorg. And. Sivani ; 1612, SimoneCanlarini ; 1624, P. Fran. Mola ; 1628, Cignani; 1638, P. F. Caroli; 1643, Lodov. auaini ; 1648, Ant. Franceschini ; 1654, Guis. del Sole; 1657, Fer. Galli Babiena ; 1665, Guis. Maria Crespi ; 1668, Dom. Maria Viani ; 1671, DonatoCreti; 1674, Giov. P. Zanotti ; 1691, G. P.Paniui. (Neapolitans, Genoese, Spaniards. These nations are not regarded as having found- ed general Schools ; their painters are formed on the masters of the great Italian Schools. Neapo.itan.— The painters of this nation are reproached with being in general somewhat af- fected. Pietro and Tommaso Stefani, d. 1310 ; Fit del Tesauro, 1320 ; 15(10, And. Sabbata- ni; looO, Guis, Cesare d'Arpiuo ; IBUO, Aniello Falcone; 1603, Mario Nuzzi ; 1613, Mat- teoPetri| 1615. Salvator Rosa; 1631; Luca Giordano; 1657, Fran. Solimene ; 1661, Nun- zio Feiajoli; 1679, Sebast. Conca ; 1693, Carl Corrado. Genoese are often incorrect in design.— 14(10, Nich. da Vnttri ; 1527, Cambiasi ; 1544, G. B. Paggi ; 1557, Bern. Castelli • 1581, Bernardo Strozzi ; 1590. Gio. Carlone ; 1616, Benedetto Castiglione ; 1625, F. M. Bor- zoni;^1639, G. B. Gauli; 1644, Greg. Ferrari; ]6.=i4, Bart. Guidobjni ; 1660, II Molinaret- to. Spaniards.- These painters have especially imitated the Venetian School, and often display Its brilliant coloring.— 1400, Alonso Berragente ; 1487, Blaise de Prado ; 1519, Mo- rales; 15-28, Luis de Vargas; 1532, J. F. Ximenez deNavarete; 1550, Pablo de las Eovlas; 1589, Josef Ribera; 1599, Don Diego Velasquez de Siiva; i601, Alonso Cano ; 1610, Hen- rique de las Marinas ; 1(313, Barto'ome Esteban de Murillo ; 1617, Franc. Rizzi ; 1631, Mai ias de Torres; 1640, Pedro de Nunez ; 1640, Juan de AU'aro ; 1651, Juan C. Falco ; 1663, P. di Pietri.) 5. Gersian School. — This school having never had a common point of union, btars no general and distinctive character; it produces, in the different styles of painting, rival artists to the great masters of Italy and of the Netherlands. l-i97, Th.de Matina ; 13.57, Theo. de Prague; 1357, N. Wurmser ; 1479, Albert Durer; 1492, Lucas MUller; 1498, Hans Holbein ; 1515, Lucas Cranach ; 1534, Tobias Stimmer; 1550, Christ. Schwartz; 15.56, John Van Aachen; 1564, J. Rottenhammer ; 1570, J. Lys; 1574. Adam Elzheimer ; 1598, Sam. Hof- mann ; 1600. J. W. Bauer ; 1C06, Jo. Sandrart ; 1611 Ch. Loth ; 1616, Govaert Flink ; 1618, P. VanderFaes; 1619, J. Spilberg ; 1621, Leb. Stopkopt ; 1625, J. Lingelback ; 1631, J. HenRoos; 1637, Jos. Warner; 1639, Gasp. Netscher ; 1640, Ab, Mignon ; 1647, M. S. Me- rian ; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1666, G. P. Ruggendas; 1668, J. R Ruber ; 1669, Anna Wa- ser; 1685, Balthasar Deuner ; 1689, Fr. P. Ferg ; 1698, J. E.Riedenger; 1709, Brinkmann ; 1712, C. W. E. Dietrich ; 1728, Raffael Blengs ; 1730, Solomon Gessner. 6. Flemish or Belgic School. — This School e.xcels in coloring and in the faithful imi- tation of nature, but does not always e.\hibit sufficient nobleness of design ; it produces eminent artists in every style; that to which Teniers has affixed his name bad its birth in this School ; the Academy at Antwerp, the cradle of this School, was founded in 1510, but there was a Society of Painters at Antwerp from the year 1442. — -1306, Eubert Van Eyk ; 1370, John Van Eyk; 1450, ttuentin Messis; 1490, Ber. V. Orley ; 1499, J. de Mabuse; 1553, Peter Knock ; 1520, Frank Floris ; 1534, Mar de Vos ; 1536, J. Straden ; 1540, F. Por- bus; 1546, B. Spranger ; 1548. C. Van Mander ; 1550. H. Steenwyck; 1555, DenysCalvart ; 1556, OttoVenius; J569, P. Van Breughel ; 1570, P. Neefs ; 1573, S.Frank; 1576, Fr. Sneyders; 1577, Peler Paul Rubens; 1580, David Teniers; 1.594, James Jordaens; 1599, Anthony Van Dyk ; 1602, Phillip de Champagne; 1610, David Teniers ; 16l3, J. Van Ar- tois; 1618, Gonzales Coques; 1634, Van der Meulen ; 1664, Simon Varelst ; 1068^0. P. Vanbruggen; 1672, Ab. Breughel; 1742, Henry de Coort. 7. Dutch School. — ^This School is especially distinguished by an eminent intelligence of the chiaro oscuro; exhibits good coloring, and a faithful imitation of nature in the mi- nutest details. The style of precious finishing is carried to the highest pitch in this School. 1407, Erasmus; 1494, Luke of Leyden ; 1498, Martin Hemskerk ; 1518, 'An. Moro ; 1564, Ab. Blofmart; 1579, Sol. de Brey ; 1586, Cornelius Poelenberg ; 1596, Leo Bramer ; 1600, J. D. de Heein ; 1600, John VVyuants ; 1606, Albert Cuyp ; 1606, Paul Rembrandt van Ryn ; 1008, Gerard Terburg; 1610, Adrian Van Ostade ; 1613, Gerard Dnw ; 1615, Gabriel Mot- zu ; 1620, Philip VVouvermans ; 1624, Nicholas Bergham ; 1625, Paul Putter ; 1631, Ludolph Bakhuytzen; 1633, W. Van der Velde ; 163.5, Jac. Ruysdael, Hobbema; 163.5, Fran. Miens; 1636, John Steen ; 1637, Van den Heyden ; 1638, Adrian van der Velde ; 1640, Karel du Jar- din ; 1664, John Weenix; 1669, Adrian van der Werf; 1682, John Van Huysum. English Painters. — Formed in general on the masters of the Flemish and Italian Schools; excel in portraits and landscapes, are unrivalled in water-colors. — 1480, Haus Hol- bein; 1543 F. Zucchero; 1.572, Inigo Jones ; 1601, P. Oliver ; 1009, S. Cooper ; 1610, W. Dobson; 1620, Ric. Gibson ; 1019, John Greenhill ; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1660, Luke Cradock; 1677, James Thornhill ; 1697, William Hogarth; 1714, Rich Wilson; 1723, Joshua Reynolds ; 1727, Tbom. Gainsborough ; 1733, Sawrey Gilpin ; 1734, P. J. de Louth- erbourg; 1735, David Allan ; 1738, Benjamin West; 1745, James Strutt; 1746, James North- cote; 1748, J. F. Nollekins; 1748, Philip Reinagle; 1751, William Hamilton ; 1752, Wm. Beechey ; 1755, Thorn. Stothard ; 1759, Francis Bourgeoise; 1761, John Opie ; 1764, Geo. Morland; 1769, Thomas Lawrence; 1774, Edward Bird; 1776, John Constable; 1786, Will. Hilton ; 1787, Geo. Hen. Harlow ; , Thomas Daniell ; 1785, David VVilkie ; 1786. R B. Haydon ; , A. W. Calcott ; 1789, W. Etty. 8. French School. — The good painters of this School are formed on the model of the different Italian Schools, of which they bear the several characteristics ; they are in general more successful in composition and design than in coloring. It is emancipated from the de- gradation and afliected style it assumed after the death of Le Brun by Vien, and become ihe most numerous and flourishing school of all. — 1490, Fran. Primaticcio; 1490, Rosso de Rossi; l.')02, J. Cousin ; 1582, Simon Vouet; 1594, Nicholas Poussin ; 1600, Claude Lor- raine ; 1600, Le Va'entin; 1600, James Blanchard ; 1607, James Petitot ; 1016, Sebastian Bourdon; 1617, Eustachius le Seur; 1619, Charles le Brun ; 1640, Charles de la Fosse; 1644, John Jouvenet; ]6.')7, Joseph Vivien; 1667, Nicho'as Berlin ; 16B7. Anth. Rivallv; 1684, Ant. Watteau; 1683, Francs Le .Mo-ne; 1692, Noel N. Covpel ; 1700, Chas.Natoire ; 1794, F. Bouchier; 1712, Joseph Vernet ; 1716, Vien; 1729, J. B.Deshays ; 1756, J, L. Da- vid ; 1758, Carle Vernet; 1767, A. L. Girodet. ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 41 ADDITIONS TO THE BIOaRAPHICAL INDEX. (including accidental omissions in the former editions.) NATION, Eng. Eiig. Gr. Eng. Eng. Gev. Fr. Amer. Gr. Gr. Amer. Eng. Span. Amer. Amer. Eng. Fr. Eng. Amer. Ger. Eng. Scotch. Hung. Jew. Ital. Eng. Russ. Eng. Eng. Eng. Eng. Dutch. Eng. Fr. Eng. Eng. Moor. Eng. Fr. Eng. Ger. Eng. Fr. Amer. Enff. Fr. Eng. Eng. Eng. Fr. Amer. Eng. Polish. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Gr. Fr. Ital. Eng. Sp. Eng. Fr, NAME AND PROFESSION. Adelaide, Queen Dowaser, widow of William IV. Adrian IV. (N. Breakspeare), the only English pope .SIgineta, Paulus, writer on medicine .... iEifric, Abp. Canterbury, author of Anslo Saxon works . Almon, John, political writer and publisher Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII. of France Armstrong, S. T., book publisher and Lt Governor of Mass. . Armenides, philosopher of the Eclectic School Aspasia, celebrated courtesan — cause of the Pelop. war ' temp. Audubon, John James, traveller and naturalist (b. at New-Orleans) Baffin, Wm., navigator— explorer of Baffin's Bay . Balboa, Vasco Nunez D., one of the first navigators to the W. Indies Barron, James, Commod. TJ. S. Navy Bartram, William, horticulturist . ,'.".' Baskerville, John, celebrated printer, publisher, and ty'pe-fourider Bastide, .John F. de, voluminous writer and editor Bates, William, non-conformist divine, and theol. writer . Beck, John B., writer on medicine, botany, &c. . Beckmann, John A,, author of History of Inventions . Bell, Andrew, D.D., founder of national schools Bell, Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe Bem, Gen , military commander in the war with Austria Benjamin of Tudela, one of the earliest modern travellers . Beniivoglio, Guido, cardinal, and historian Benger, Eliz. Ogilvie, biog. of Anne Boleyn, Queen of Scots, &c. Behrmg, or Beering,Vitus, captain in Russian navy who gave name to the "Straits" . . . . ... Behn, Aphra, female dramatist, temps. Charles II '. " . ' Berrington, Joseph, Author of History of Middle Ages. " . Bickersteth, (Rev. E.,) author of popular religious works . Bickerstaff, Isaac, dramatic writer of 18th century Bilderdyk, George, poet ...... Bingham, George, author of Ecclesiastical History— Christ. Antici Blainville, M. de, chemist and naturalist ... Blanchard, Laman, essayist and magazine writer Bloomfield, E. V., classical scholar, ed. of Museum Criticum' Boabdil, the last Moorish king of Grenada . . about Bodley, Sir Thomas, founder of the Bodleian Library Bonaparte, N. F. C. J., duke of Reichstadt— only son of Napoleon Boleyn, Anne, second queen of Henry VIII. . Bos, Lambert, Greek scholar, author of works on Greek Classics Bowles, Rev. W. L., poet ..... Boyer, Abel (Fr. refugee in England), author of Fr. Dictionary Brigham, Amariah, M D., medical writer and philanthropist Brand, J., Author of ■' Popular Antiquities " Brinvilliers, Marchioness, notorious poisoner Brunton, Mary, novelist—" Discipline," &c. Bryan, Michael, author of Diet, of Painters Buckingham, John Sheffield, duke of, military comm'r, poet Burgundy, Charles the Bold, duke of . . Buckminster, J. S., author of " Sermons," &c. Buxton, T. Fowell, leading opponent of the slave trade . By thner, Victorinus, author of Lyra Prophetica Cadmus, founder of Thebes, introducer of letters . Cade, Jack, noted for his rebellion asainst Henry VI. . Calhoun, John C, senator of U. S. for'S. Carolina— ex-Sec. of State, &c Calamy, Ed., numerous theological works Cambridge, duke of, youngest son of George III. Capo D'Istria, John, Count of, diplomatist— o^sassmaZed Catharine de Medici, wife of Henry II. of France . Catharine Parr, 6th queen of Heurv VIII. Catharine of Arragon, 1st queen of Henry VIII. Caulaincourt, A. A. L., Duke of Vicenza BORN. DIED. 1850 11.59 630 1005 1738 1805 1604 1666 1784 1850 5th c. B c. Pericles, b c. 450 1780 1851 1584 1517 1769 1851 1823 1706 1775 1724 1625 1699 1794 1851 1739 1811 1753 1832 1767 1830 1851 1173 1579 1641 1827 1741 1689 1827 1850 1760 1668 1778 1803 1544 1811 1507 1670 1761 1664 1798 1743 1723 1850 1844 1816 1495 1612 1832 1536 1717 1850 1729 1849 1806 1676 1778 1818 1757 1821 1649 1720 f. 1470 1784 1812 1787 1845 1664 f. B. 0. 1700 f. 1450 1782 1850 1732 1774 1850 1780 1831 1503 1589 15 1548 1483 1536 1773 1827 42 ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. NATION. Ital. Eng. Ital. Fr. Amer. Eng. Kom. Mex. Eng. Fr. Gr. Eng. Amer. Fr. Fr. Eng. Amer. Fr. Ital. Eng. Eng. Scotch. Eng. Rom. Pers. Fran. Amer. Eng. Fr. Fr. Eng. Amer. Fr. Amer. Swiss. Eng. Fr. Dutch. Ital. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Scotch. Eng. Eng. Swiss. Amer. Amer. Ger. Eng. Eng. Ger. Fr. Eng. Rom. Ital. Eng. Eng. Eng. Ger. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Pr. BORN. 1749 1637 1500 1788 1650 NAME AND PROFESSION. Cavallo Tiberius, author of works on nat. phil. in England . Cave. Dr. William, author of ■' Primitive Christianity" Cellini, Benvenu-o, Florentine artist, author of Autobiography Chastelleux, F. .1 , marquis, author of '-Travels in America" Cogswell, Kev. Wm., D.D., theological and statistical writer Chillingworth, Wm., theologian — author of Religion of Protestants Claudianus, Claudius, poet, temp. Emperor Theodosius, Arcadius, &c. Clavigero, F. S., author of the History of Mexico Clemens, or Clement, of Alexandria, one of the fathers of the church Clinton, Sir Henry, commander-in-chief of British army in Amer. Revol. Clovis, first Christian king of France . . , Codrus, 17th and last king of Athens . . . Collier, Jeremiah, non-juring divine, author of Ecc'I History Colton, Waller, Rev., author of several books of travel Commines, Philip de, historian, chronicler, statesman, and courtier 1445 Condorcet, .John. A. N. C, marquis of, mathematician and philosopher 1743 Congreve, Sir Wm., inventor of Congreve rockets, &c. . 1772 Cooper, J. Fenimore, novelist, traveller and histoiian Corday, Charlotte, the executioner of the sanguinary Marat Cosmo I., grand duke of Tuscany, promoter of the arts, &c. . 1519 Coverdale. Miles, one of the earliest English relormers — trans, of the Bible 1509 Cowper, Wm., earl, lord high chancellor Crichton, .Tames, an accomplished gentleman — the " admirable Crichton" 1560 Crcssus, 5th and last king of Lydia, famed for his riches, . Curtis, William, botanisi, author of" Flora Londinensis" Curtius Marcus, who devoted himself for his country Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, conqueror of Lydia, Assyria, &c. Daguerre, perfecter of the rfao-i^erreoii/yje process Dale, Richard, naval commander, associate of Paul Jones, &c. Damon, Pythagorean philosopher, friend of Pythias — in Sicily Daniel, Samuel, poet-laureate on the death of Spenser, and historian Danton, George .lames, sanguinary revolutionist (guillotined) 1759 Daru, P. a. n. B., statesman, poet and historian . . . 1767 Davenant, Sir Wm., poet-laureate after Ben Jonson . . 1606 Davis, Matthew L., politician, biographer of Burr . . 1766 Da voust, L. N., duke of Auerstadt, marshal of France . . 1770 Dearborn, H. A. S., Gen., military commander in war of 1812, &c., 1783 DIED. 1809 1713 1.570 1738 1850 1644 f. 189 1795 511 . 1069 1726 1851 1509 1794 18-28 1851 1793 1574 1580 1723 1583 f. B. c. 5.57 1799 B. c. 362 B. c. 529 1789 1851 1756 1826 1562 Delolme, J. L., author of work on English Constitution Denham, Sir John, poet ..... Denon, D. V., baron de, author of the great work on Egypt Dewitt, John, an enlightened staiesman Diodati, John, translator of the Bible into Italian . Dodsley, Robert, bookseller, editor of Old Plays, and author Donne, .Tohn, a divine and poet . . . . , Douce, Francis, antiquarian — '• Shakspeare and his Times," &c. . Douglas. David B., officer in the war of 1812, engineer, &c. Drake, Nathan, essayist. — " Mornings in Spring," &c. Drayton, Michael, poet — '' Polyolbion," &c. . . . Drew, Samuel — ^" Essay on ihe Soul," &c. Drummond, Wm., poet — friend of Ben Jonson Drummond, Sir William, antiquary — "Origines," &c. Dugdale, Sir Wm., antiquary, '■ Monasticon," &c. Dumont, Stephen, writer on legislation, &c. Dwight, Rev. S. E., biographer of Edwards, &-c. . Eaton, Wm., consul at Tunis— distinguished in war with Tripoli Eichhorn, John Geo., biblical critic, author of History of Literature Ellenborough, lord, chief justice of England Elliott, Eben, the Corn-law Rhymer . . . . Eschenbers, .1. J — " Manual of Classical Literature" . Estaing, Chas. Hen., count de, naval coinm. in Amer. war Exmouth, Viscount, naval coiumander — at Algiers, &c. Fabius Pictor, the first Roman historian — works not extant Facciolati, James, author of Latin Dictionary Fairfax, Edward, poet — translator of Tasso, Falkland, viscount, statesman and soldier in the civil war Feltham. Owen, author of " Resolves, Moral," ifec, about . Fichte, John Gotlieb, philosopher and metaphysician Fitch, John, one of the first experimenters in steam-boats . Flamstead, John, astronomer .... Fletcher, Giles, poet ...... Fletcher, Phineas, brother of foregoing, poet Foix, Gaston de, nephew of Louis XII., warrior 1619 1794 1829 1668 1850 1823 1851 1806 1668 1825 1672 1649 1764 1631 1834 1849 1836 1631 1833 1649 18-28 1686 1829 1850 18U 1827 1818 1850 18-20 1793 1757 ,1833 f. B. c. 2-25 1682 1769 1632 1610 1643 1678 1762 1814 1743 1798 1646 1719 1588 1G23 1582 1650 1489 1512 1745 1615 1747 1625 1589 1703 1573 1793 1766 1.563 1765 1585 1605 1750 1764 1752 1748 1782 1743 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 43 NATION. Ital. Ital. Amer. Ger. Fr. Eng. Fr. Eng. Scotch. Amer. Scotch. Fr. Eng. Eng. Irish. Garth. Eng. Eng. Eng. Ger. Fr. Fr. Max. Eng. Eng. Eng, Gr. Eng. Amer. Eng. Amer. Amer. Rom. Fr. Eng. Ens. Eng. Scotch. Scotch. Amer. Eng. Eng. Eng. Amer, Eng. Gr. Gr. Span. Eng. Eng. En?. Eng. Amer. Fr. Amer. Amer. Swe. Fr. Eng. Eng. Eng. Ens. Ger. Fr. Fr. Eng. Scotch. NAME AND PROPESSION. Foscolo, TIgo, writer of plays and essays, &c, . Francis. Saint, founder of the Franciscan Friars Fuller, S. Margaret, marchioness d'Ossoli, essayist and critic Fugger, the name of a nohle and very wealthy "family at Augsburgh Gay-LAissac, N. F., chemist, .... Gell, Sir Wm., antiquary — " Pompeiana," and " Rome " Goguot, Anth. Y., advocate, author of "Origin of Laws," &c. Good, John Mason, medical writer — " Book of Naturej" &c. Gordon, lord George, author of the Anti-popery Riots in 1780 Gore, Christopher, Gov. of Mass., senator of U. S. Grahaine, James, historian of the United Slates Grammont, Philibert, count of, famous wit at court of Chaa. II. Grenville, Rt. Hon. W. Wynilham, lord, prime minister Hall, .Joseph, bishop of Norwich, the Christian Seneca . Hamilton, Anlh., count, poet, courtier, and man of letters . Hannibal, the Carthaginian general — invader of Italy Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman, patron of Pope Harris, .Tames, philologist, author of " Hermes," &c. . Hatton, Sir Christopher, lord chancellor for Queen Elizabeth Heinecius, .lohn G., jurist, civilian, prof, of philosophy Heloise, or Eloise, celebrated for beauty and wit, and love for Abelard Herbelot, Bartholomew d'. learned orientalist Herrera, ex- president of Mexico .... Herbert, Edward, lordof Cherbury, diplomatist and historian Hill, Aaron, poet ...... Hill, Rev. Rowland, a popular and eccentric preacher Hipparchus, the most eminent of ancient astronomers HoUis, Thos., benefactor of Harvard College, U. S. A. Holyoke, Edw. A., physician and man of science — lived 101 years Home, Sir Everard, author of Comparative Anatomy, &c. . Hopkins, Stephen, statesman and jurist— signer of Dec. of Indep. Hopkinson, Francis, political writer — signer of Dec. of Indep. . Hortensius, Q.uintus, eloquent orator and writer . Hoste, Paul, mathematician — author of Naval Evolutions Howe, .John, non-conformist divine and theol. writer Howe, Sir Wm., British comtnander-in-chief in America Howell, .Jas., author of Familiar Letters . , Hunter, Wm., anatomist ..... Hunter, .John, anatomist .... Hunter, W. L., diplomatist and senator Huntingdon, Henry of, historian Huntingdon, Selina, countess of, founder of chapels, schools, &c. Hurd, Richard, bishop of Litchfield — philologist and miscel. writer Hutchinson, Anne, i-eligious enthusiast — banished from N. E. . Hutton, Wm., an ingenious self-educated writer Hypatia, a female philosopher of great attainments, in Alexandria Ignatius, St., eminent father of the Church, and martyr . Irensus, St., bishop of Lyons, Christian father and martyr Irene, empress of Constantinople — famous for beauty, talent and crime Isabella of Castile, wife of Ferdinand of Arragon — patron of Columbus lamblicus, a philosopher — author of Life of Pythagoras Jervis, .John, earl St. Vincent, admiral — victor ofl'Cape St. Vincent John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, warrior, &c. John of Salisbury, bp. of Chartres, latin poet — promoter of literature Johnson, Sir Wm.. British commander in N. America Johnsonj Richard M., Col. distinguished in war of 1812, V. Pres. IT. Joinville, John Sieur de, statesman and historian . Jones, Jacob, commodore in U. S. N.— victor in the " Wasp," &c. Jutlson, Rev. Adoniram, D.D., missionary in Burma Jugurtha, king of Numidia — conquered and put to death Justinian I., the Great, emperor of the East — fanned for his Code Kalm, Peter, naturalist— author of travels in America Kellermann, Francis C, duke of Valmy, marshal of France Kent, Edward, duke of, 4th son of Geo. III., father of Q. Victoria Keppel, Augustus, viscount, admiral Kirby, Rev. W., entomologist .... Knowles, Richard, author of Hist, of the Turks, &c. Korner, Theodore, poet and dramatist Lannes, John, duke of Montebello and marshal of France . Larcher, P. H., classical philologist and translator Latham, John, M.D., ornithologist and antiquarian Law, John, the originator of the " Mississippi Bubble" BORN. DIED. me 1827 1132 1226 1810 18-50 15lh and 16th c. 1778 1850 1777 1836 f. 1758 1764 1827 1750 1793 17.58 1827 1790 1842 1707 1759 1834 1574 1656 1646 1720 , c. 247 B. 0. 183 1661 1724 1709 1780 1591 1681 1741 1101 1164 1625 1695 1851 1581 1648 1750 1744 1833 f. about 150 B. c. 1720 1774 1728 1829 1756 1832 1707 1785 1738 1791 B. c. 49 1652 1700 1630 1705 1814 1595 1666 1718 1783 1728 1793 1774 1849 f. 1150 1707 1720 1791 1808 1643 1723 1815 415 f. 68 202 803 1451 1504 f. 300 1734 1823 13— 1399 f. 12th c. 1774 1780 1850 1228 1318 1768 18.50 1788 1850 s. 0. 106 483 565 1715 1779 1735 1820 1767 1820 1786 1751 1850 1610 1788 1813 1769 1809 1726 1811 1740 1837 1681 1729 44 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Eng. Lee, Nathaniel, dramatic poet Fr. L'Enclos, Anne or Ninon de, a noted voluptuary Eng. Lennox, Charlotte, poet and novelist — born at New-York Ire. Leslie, Charles, theological writer Ger. Lessing. Gotthold Ephraim, miscellaneous writer Eng. L'Estrange. Sir Robert, polit. and controversial writer . Scotch. Leyden, .John, poet and oriental scholar Leyden, .John of, Eng. Lillo, George, dramatist — " Geo. Barnwell," &c. Eng. Lilly, Wm., astrologer .... Scotch. Lindsay, Sir David, poet Amer. Livingston, Brockholst, jurist .... Amer. Livingston, Robt. R., chancellor of the State of N. Y. and diplomatist Fr. Louis Philippe I., king of the French Span. Loyola, Ignatius, founder of the Jesuits Eng. McAdam, John Loudon — Co\ossus of Roads Amer. McDuffle, Geo., ex-Gov. of S. C, senator of U. S., &c. Eng. Macauley, Catharine, historian Irish. Macklin, Charles, actor and dramatist Rom. Macrobiiis, A. A. T., miscellaneous writer Eng. Madan, Martin, translator of Juvenal, &c. Irish. IVIagee, Wm., archb. of Dublin — theological writer Fr. Malebranche, Nicholas, priest and philosophical writer Fr. Malesherbes. C. W., statesman and author Eng. Mandeviile, Sir John, traveller Egypt. Manetho. historian Rom. Manlius, Titus Torquatus, warrior and consul Rom. Manlius, Marcus, saved capitol from Gauls Scotch. Mansfield, Wm. Murray, earl of, chief justice. Fr. Marceau, F. S. D., general under Napoleon Rom. Blarcellus, M. Claudius, general against Hannibal Ital. Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England Ger. Maria Theresa, empress of Germany Eng. Marlowe, Chrisiopher, yjoet and dramatist Irish. Martin- Mis. Bell, novelist— died at New-York Eng. Marvel, Andrew, poet and political writer Scotch. Mary Stuart, queen of Scots — murdered by Queen Elizabeth Eng. Maskelyne, Nevil, mathematician and astron. Amer. Mather, Increase, D.D., theol. and historian . Eng. Maurice, Thomas, oriental scholar and historian . Maximus Tyrius, philosopher of second century Ital. Medici, Cosmo de, merchant and statesman Scotch. Melville, Henry Dundas, viscount — statesman Jew. Mendelssohn, Moses — the Socrates of the Jews Port. Mendez-Pinto, Ferdinand — lying traveller Amer. Mercer, Hugh, brig'r general in Revolutionary army Ger. Mesmer, Fred. A., discoverer of animal magnetism Fr. Michaux, Andre, traveller and botanist — N. A. Sylva Amer. Miller, James, gen. Milit. commander in war of 1SI2 Eng. Miller, Philip, gardener and botanist Eng. Miller, .Joseph, witty actor — the Father of Jests Amer. Miller, Samuel, D.D., historian of" 18th Century" and theologian Amer. Miller, Wm., founder of the " Millerites," " End of the World^' sect Eng. Milner, John, Catholic divine and theological writer Minucius-Felix, Marcus, rhetorician Fr. Mirabaud, J. B. de, philosopher and translator Eng. Monmouth, James, Duke of, natural son of Charles II. Eng. Montagu, Elizabeth, essayist and founder of tlie Blue Stockings Fr. Blontespan, Mad. de, mistress of Louis XIV. Mex. Montezuma, emperor of Mexico — conquered by Cortes . Fr. Mont.faucon, antiquary and critic Eng. Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester — founder of the H. of Commons Fr. Montgollier, J. E., inventer of air balloons Scotch. Montrose, Jarnes Graham, marquis of, royalist general Eng. More, Henry, theological and philosophical writer Welsh. Morgan, William, mathematician Ger. Munchausen, J. C. F. — proverbial for "stories" Assy. Nabonassar, 1st king of the Chaldeans Assy. Nabopolassar, king of Babylon Irish. Napier, W. J., lord, naval commander Eng. Nash, Richard — commonly called Beau Nash Gr. Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople— founder of Nestorians JORN. DIED. 1692 1616 1705 1720 1804 1732 1729 1781 1616 1704 1775 1821 1693 1733 1602 1681 1490 1557 1757 1823 1746 1813 1850 1491 1556 1756 1836 1851 1730 1791 1690 1787 420 1726 1765 1831 1638 1715 1721 1794 1372 f. B. c 304 f. B. C 340 I . c. 383 1705 1783 1769 1796 B . c. 209 1482 1717 1780 1593 1850 1620 1678 1542 1587 1732 1811 1639 1723 1753 1824 1389 1464 1740 1811 1729 f. 1550 1777 1734 1815 1746 1802 1775 1851 1691 1684 1738 1759 1850 1781 1849 1752 1826 f. 3d c. f. 1770 1649 1685 1720 1800 1520 1655 1741 1265 1745 1799 16- 1645 1614 1687 1833 1797 f. B. 747 f. B. C 626 1787 1834 1674 1761 439 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 45 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. Gr. Nicephorus, Calistus, ecclesiastical historian Gr. Nicephorus, Gregorius, Byzanline historian Eng. Nichols, John, antiquary and miscellaneous writer Amer. Noah, Mordecai M., ex-consul to Mcu'occo, editor and politician Ger. Noheden, G. H., grammarian and misc. writer . Eng. North Fred., lord, premier during Amer. war Irish. Nugent, lord, author of Life of Hampden, &c. Rom. Numa Pompilius, 2d king of Rome Eng. Oglethorpe. J. E., general — founder of Georgia Eng. Oldcastle, Sir J., lord Cobham Amer. Olin, Stephen, D. D., Pres. Wesleyan Sem., author of Travels in the East, &c., ..... Irish. O'Keefe, J., dramatist, .... Sar Omar, 3d caliph of the Saracens— founder of the Mosque Irish. O'Meara, surgeon and biographer of Napoleon Fr. Orleans, L. J. P , duke of— "Egalite -'' — guillotined Scotch. Ossian, ancient Gaelic bard— supposed to have lived in the Egypt. Osymandyas, king of Egypt — about Eng. Overbury, Sir T., poet, &c. — poisoned in the Tower Span. O viedo, J. G., bishop of, author of " Travels in W. Indies " Ger. Panzer, G. W. F.. bibliographer Irish. Parnell, T., poet and divine . . Eng. Parr, Thomas — lived 152 years Eng. Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist . Eng. Patrick, Simon, learned prelate and theological vrater Paul, St. Vincent de, missionary ecclesiastic Eng. Pearson, John, bishop of Chester — writer on the Creed, &c. Eng. Peele, George, dramatist and poet Eng. Penn, Wm., admiral — father of the founder of Pennsylvania Eng. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to the admiralty, author of" Diary," &c, Eng. Perceval, Spencer, prime minister — assassinated . Eng. Peters, Hugh, eccentric preacher and Roundhead — executed Fr. Philidor, Andrew, writer on chess playing Span. Phillip II., king— married Mary Q ueen of England— sent the Armada Eng. Philipps, Ambrose, poet and dramatist. Jew. Philo Judaeus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria Ital. Piazzi, astronomer ..... Swiss. Pictet, Benedict, theological and historical writer Eng. Picton, Sir T., general — killed at Waterloo Eng. Piozzi, Hester L., miscel. writer — friend of Dr. Johnson Eng. Pocock, Dr. E., learned critic and commentator . Eng. Pocock, R., learned prelate and traveller Amer. Poinsett, Joel R., statesmen, diplomatist, and author Polycarp, St., Christian father and martyr Fr. Pompadour, J. A. P., Marchioness de, mistress of Louis XV. Polish. Poniatowski, Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland . Fr. Pradt, Abbe Dominique de, political writer Eng. Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty Eng. Pritchard, J. C, ethnologist — " Natural History of Man," Eng. Prynne, Wm., learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary Fr. Psalmanazar, Geo., literary impostor . Eng. Purchas, Samuel, divine — editor of Voyages and Pilgrimages Eng. Puttenham, Geo., poet and critic Eng. Pye, H. J., poet-laureate .... Fyrrhus, king of Epirus — one of the greatest warriors of antiquity Eng. Q,uarles, Francis, poet — author of "Emblems," &c. Eng. Q,uin, Jaines, eminent actor .... Fr. Rabelais, Fi'an., wit and satirist Eng. Raffles, Sir T. Stamford, author of History of Java Eng. Raikes R., printer — founder of Sunday schools Fr. Rapin de Thoyras, Paul, author of History of England . Fr. Reggio, C. N. Oudinot, due de, marshal of France Rom. Regulus, M. A., patriotic general and consul Eng. Rennell, Major J., geographer and topographer Eng. Repton, Humphrey, landscape gardener and architect . Eng. Jew. Ricardo, David, writer on political economy and finance Amer. Rich, Obadiah, bibliographer Eng. Richard I., Cosur de Lion, king Eng. Richard III. king— killed at Bosworth . Eng. Richardson. James, traveller in Africa, &c. Ensr. Ridley, Nicholas, prelate and protestant martyr Eng. Ritson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and editor of poets BORN. DIED. 14th c. 14th c. 1744 1828 ia51 1770 1826 1733 1792 1850 f. E c 714 1698 1785 1417 1748 1851 1833 643 1778 1836 1747 1793 3dc. 1500 B. 0. 1581 1613 1540 1729 1812 1679 1717 1483 1635 1746 1825 1626 1707 1576 1660 1612 1686 1598 1621 1670 1703 1762 1812 1599 1660 1726 1795 1556 1598 1749 f. A. D. 40 1746 1826 1655 1724 1815 1739 1821 1604 1691 1704 1765 1778 1851 169 1720 1764 1732 1798 1759 1837 1723 1791 1849 1609 1669 1679 1763 1577 1628 1600 1745 1813 B. c. 272 1592 1644 1693 1766 1483 1553 1781 1826 1735 1811 1661 1725 1767 f. B. c. 256 1742 1752 1772 1157 1450 1500 1752 1830 1818 1823 1850 1199 1485 1651 1555 ia)3 46 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. NATION. NAME AND PHOPESSION, Scotch. Rob Roy, (Robert Macgregor.) highland freebooter, about Fr. Rocbambeau, J. B. D, colintde, marshal of France Fr, Roland, M. J. P.. madame, martyr to the Revolution Eng. Romilly, Sir S., jurist and statesmen Irish. Roscommon, W. D., Earl of, poet and critic Scotch. Ruddiman, Thos., critic and grammarian Dutch. Ruyter, M. A. de, admiral Eng. Rymer, Thomas, antiquarian and historian (Fcedera) . Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, divine — impeached for sedition Eng. Sackville, T., Earl of Dorset, poet, . Eng. Sackville, Ch., earl of Dorset, wit and poet Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian . Jewish. Sadoc, Rabbi, founder of the sect of Sadducees Fr. Saint Pierre, Bernardin de— " Paul and Virginia," " Stud, of Nat." &c. Eng. Sale, George, hist(U'ian and translator of the Koran Phoen. Sanchoniatho, philosopher and iiistorian Eng. Savage, Richard, poet .... Fr. Savary, N., traveller and Oriental scholar Ital. Savonarola, Jeroine, monk — famed for zeal and eloquence Dan. Saxo Grammaiicus, Iiistorian Ital. Scala, statesmen and historian of Florence Ital. Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian Fr. Scarron, P., comic poet and satirist . Ger. Schlegel, Fred., critie and historian Ger. Schwab, Gustav., poet, .... Ger. Secundus, John, Latin poet Eng. Sedley. Sir C, poet .... Eng. Selden, John, antiquary and historian Scotch. Selkirk, John, mariner — the original of" Robinson Crusoe Span. Servetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin Eng. Seward, Anna, poetess and miscellaneous writer Eng. Shadwell, T., poet laureate Eng. Shirley, James, dramatic writer, Anier. Short, Wm., charge d'affaires to France, Holland and Spain Rom. Silius Italicus, Caius, Roman poet . Sam. Simon Magus, religious impostor Gr. Simonides, ancient poet . . . , Eng. Skelton, John, poet-laureate to Henry VIII. Gr. Socrates, ecclesiastical historian Span. Soils, Antonio de, historian of Mexico, &c. Eng. Somers, Lord John, chancellor and polit. writer — " Coll. of Tracts' Eng. Somerv'ille, Wm., poet, Pr. Sorbonne, R. de, divine, founder of the college at Paris Fr. Soult, one of Napoleon's marshals, ex-statesman, &c. Eng. Southern, T., dramatic writer and poet Gr. Sozomen, Hermias, ecclesiastical historian Eng. Speed, John, chronologist, historian and antiquary Eng. Spel man, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary Dutch. Spinoza. Bened., remarkable atheist . Eng. Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bp. of Worcester and theological writer Eng. Slow, John, antiquary and historian Eng. Strype, John, dirine, biographer and historian Amer. Stuart, Moses, professor, theologian, and philologist Eng. Stukely, Wm., divine and antiquary Eng. Suckling, Sir J., poet and dramatic writer Eng. Sylvester, Joshua, poet .... Eng. Taylor, John— called the "Water Poet," Eng. Tenyson, Dr. T., ab'p of Canterbury, polemical writer Gr. Theoduret, ecclesiastical historian Eng. Thoresby. Ralph, biographer and antiquary Eng. Tickell, Thomas, poet, and writer in the " Spectator" . Eng. Tindal, Matthew, D D., polemical divine Ital. Tiraboschi, G., historian .... Irish. Tone, Theobold Wolle, general in the Irish Rebellion Jew. Tudela, Benjamin de, rabbi and traveller Eng. Tusser, Thomas, old English writer and poet Eng. Tyndale, Wm., reformer, and first translator of the Bible into English Eng. Tytler, P. F., historian Eng. Tyrwhitt, T., critic and antiquary Fr. Valliere, the duchess de la, mistress of Louis XIV. Eng. Vanbrugh, Sir John, dramatist, .... Swiss. Vattel, E. de, jurist and metaphysical writer (" Law of Nations ") BORN. DIED. 1733 1725 1807 1754 1793 1757 1818 1663 1684 1674 1757 1607 1679 1713 1672 1724 1536 1608 1637 1706 1507 1587 f. B. C. 220 1737 1814 173G f. B. C 760 1697 1743 1788 1452 1498 1208 1430 1497 1540 1609 1610 1660 1772 1829 1792 1850 1511 1536 1639 1701 15S4 1654 1680 1509 1553 1744 1809 1640 1692 1594 1666 1759 1850 B. C. 1 k. D. 74 66 f. B. C. 450 1529 f. 5th c. 1610 1686 16.50 1716 1002 1743 1201 1274 1769 1851 1662 1746 450 1555 1629 1561 1643 1633 1677 1635 1699 1535 1605 1737 1780 18.51 1687 1765 1613 1641 1563 1618 1580 1654 1636 1715 386 457 16.58 1725 1686 1740 1657 1733 1731 1794 1763 1798 f. 12th c. 1580 1500 1536 1790 1849 1730 1786 1726 1714 1767 ADDENDA TO THE WORLd's PROGRESS, 1850-51. 47 NATION. NAME AND PKOPESSION. Span. Vega, Lopez de, dramatic poet . . . . Ital. Virgil, Polydore, priest and liistorian Fr. Voiture, v., poet and miscellaneous writer IJrit. Vortigern, warriur ..... Ger. Voss, , J. G., liistorical writer and chronologist Ger. Voss, Isaac, critic and philologist .... Eng. Warwick, R. Neville, earl of, general and statesman— " King Malcer' Eng. Waierland, Dr. D., divine, and polemical writer Eng. Wedgewood, . I., scientific manulacturer of pottery Eng. Whiiehead, Wm., poet-laureate . . . . Eng. Whiielocke, Bulslrode, lawyer and statesman Eng. Whitgift archb'p, divine, and writer against the Puritans . Eng. Wither, George, poet ..... Eng. Wood, Anthony j\, antiquary and biographer Eng. Wotton, Sir H., statesman and poet .... Eng. Zouch, T., D.D., biographer . . . . . BORN. DIED. 1562 1635 1555 1598 1648 484 1577 1649 1618 1689 1471 1683 1740 1731 1795 1715 1785 1605 1676 1530 1604 1590 1667 1632 1695 1568 1639 1737 1816 PAINTEES, ENGEAYEES, SCULPTOES, &c. NATION. Scotch. Irish. Ital. Ger. Ital. Ilal. Eng. Eng. Dutch. Ital. Ital. ■ Ital. Dutch. Ger. Eng. Ital. Fr. Dutch. Dutch. Ital. Dutch. Ital. Ital. Eng. Fr. Fr. Pruss. Ger. Ital. Eng. Span. Dutch. Ger. Scotch. Eng. Eng. Dutch. Dutch. Fr. Eng. Eng. {Additions to list on page 688.) NAME AND PROFESSION. Allen, Sir William Barker, Robert, inventor of panoramas Bartolozzi, Francesco Bauer, Ferdinand Bellini, Giov., founder of the Ven'n School Bernini, Giovanni, L. . Bewick, John, publisher of various works witli woodcuts Bone, Henry Brill, Paul .... Brunelleschi, Philip, " Pitti Palace" at Flor. Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist— au- thor of Autobiography Cignani, Carlo Con, Cornelius Cranach, Lucas, Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carving in oak Guilio, Romano, (see Julio) . Greuze. Jean Baptiste . Metzii, Gabriel Mieris, Francis Morghen, Raphael . ... Neel's, Peter, .... Pannini, Giov. Paolo Piombo, Sebastiano del . Richardson, Jonathan, writer on art and Roubilliac, L. F. Rousseau, James Schadow, J. G. , , Scheffer, Ary, — living Schidone, Bartolomeo Shee, Sir M. A., pres't Royal Academy Spagnoletto, Guiseppe Ribera la, Steen, Jan .... Sunder, Lucas, (see Cranach) Thom. Jas.— Tam O'Shanter, &c. Thornhill, Sir James Turner, J. W. M. . Van der Neer, Arnold Van Huysum Watteau, Antoine Westall, llichard Wyatt, R. J. . SSION. BORN. DIED. Painter 1781 1850 Painter 1740 1806 Engraver 1730 1813 Botanical painter . 1826 Fainter 1462 1512 Pain'r, Sculp' r 8^ Arch't 1598 1680 Wood engraver 1795 Enamel painter 1755 1834 Landscax)e painter . 1556 1625 Architect 1377 1476 1.500 1570 Painter 1628 1719 Engraver 1536 1.578 Engraver . 1470 1553 Sculptor 1721 Painter . ' . 1726 1805 Familiar life painter 1615 1669 U (h 1635 1681 Engraver . 1758 1833 Arch'l painter . 1570 1651 " " 1691 1764 Painter 1485 1547 Painter 1665 1745 Sculptor 1762 Painter 1630 1693 Sculptor 1764 1850 Painter Painter 1560 1616 Painter 1795 1850 Painter 1589 1656 Painter 1636 1689 Engraver Sculptor 1850 Historical painter 1676 1732 Painter 1851 Landscape painter . 1619 1683 Fruit painter . 1682 1749 Painter 1684 1721 Historical painter 1731 1836 Sculptor 1795 1850 ADDENDA TO THE WORLD's PROGRESS, 1850-51. MUSICIANS, (/ra addition to those mentioned in the Biographical Index.) NATION. Ger. Eng. Fr. Eng. Ital. Ital. Ital. Ger. Ital. Ital. Ger. Fr. Ital. Ital. ital. Ital. Ital. Eng. Ital. Ital. Ital. Ger. Ital. Ital. Eng. NAME AND PROFESSION. Bach, John Sebastian Bishop, Henry Rowley — living Boieldieu, Francois Adrien Calcott, J. W., musical doctor, atjthor of " Musical Grammar," and Corelli, Arcangelo . Gemimani, Francesco . Giardini, Felice Gluck, Christopher Jomelli, INicolai Lully, Giovanni Battista Blendelssohn, Felix Bartholdy Mehul, Etienne Henri . Paer, Ferdinand Paesiello, or Paisiello, Giovanni Palestrina, Giovanni Perluigi da Peraolesi, Giovanni Battista Jesi da Peri, Jacopo, (see Rimicini, v/ho did compose the first opera — Peri did) Purcell, Henry Sacchini, ARtonio, Maria Gaspardo Sapio Scarlatti, Alessandro Spentini Spohr, Louis — still living Stradella, Alessandro, about . Tanini, Giuseppe Tallis, Thomas Organist and composer Cotnposer . Comjyoser Composer . Violinist and composer Composer . Violinist and com,poser Composer 1782 1775 1766 1663 1680 1716 1712 1714 1634 1809 1763 1771 1741 1524 1707 DIED. 1750 1834 1821 1713 1762 1795 1787 1744 1687 1848 1817 1839 1816 1594 1737 or '9 Tenor vocalist Comjjoser Violinist and composer Vocalist " Violinist Composer . 1550 1625 1658 1695 1734 1786 1792 1851 1659 1725 1780 1851 1783 1645 1670 1692 1770 16th c. ABBREVIATIONS. Amer. American, Gr. Greek. Pruss, Ara. Arabian. Heb. Hebrew. Rom. Assy. Assyrian. Hind. Hindoo. Kuss. Bab. Babylonian, Ital. Italian. Sam. Bav. Bavarian. .Tew. Jewish. Sar. Car. Carthaginian. Mace. Macedonian. Span. Dan. Danish. Nor. Norman. Swe. Eng. English. Pers. Persian. Syr. Fr. French. Phen. Phoenician. U. S. A Ger. German, Port, Portuguese. U.S. Prussian. Roman. Russian. Samaritan. Sardinian. Spanish. Swedish. Syrian. , I* United States of 5 America. x-262 .# r ^ .^Jf/h^;; '^^^ j^J oV '^"^/^^^ll/3 ■"^^ ^- ■ '^' ^ . - .^' '^'0^--^ aO^„ 9M S 1 \" ^ ^ s " » / '^— - , .\^' *^ 0'f^''' D^a^'^'fied using the Bookkeeper process ^j ^ ^Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oyide " ■— J " Treatment Date APR 2D02 PreservationTechnologJes A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATrON 111 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 (724) 779-2111 ^;\/ V I fi * '?' '^^^^i;^:^.^ o^ ■ -^ct-. %^^=^* .^-^ ' .,0 is' ^- ri- o 65^ ^ -A CI.V - ^ ^%c4S>.^ ,, cf-^ ft •iM ^^ ^\ '/>. '""'"^ °^J^C^r° ^^'^^ ^ V" LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 009 475 160 3