Glass _LAii Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2010 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/briefcourseinhis01monr A BRIEF COURSE IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION t.. { ' 'Uin^ i vaitBM^fnMT'.'' A BRIEF COURSE IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION BY PAUL MONROE, Ph.D. PROFESSOR IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY AUTHOR OF "A TEXT-BOOK IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION," OF "THOMAS PLATTER AND THE EDUCATIONAL RENAIS- SANCE OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY," ETC THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. I912 All rights reserved ,nV Copyright, 1907, By the macmillan company. Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1907. Reprinted November, 1907 ; January, July, October, 1908 ; January, July, ^909; July, 1910 ; April, August, October, 1911 ; March, 1912. NorfaonlJ J^ress J. 8. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 1 / PREFACE This condensation of A Text-Book in the History of Edu- cation, issued in 1905, has been prepared to meet the demands of Normal and Training schools and of those colleges that 'lave not sufficient time at their disposal for this subject to .naster the contents of a larger text. The great need in the study of the history of education has been the incorporation f enough historical material to give body to the subject, and indicate the relationship between history or social life and ducation. This Brief Course aims to avoid the tendency jwards too great generalization characteristic of most texts jn the subject, and to preserve much of the concreteness of \e larger text by omitting many topics, especially those that ^mand a philosophical treatment such as most non-collegiate udents are unprepared to give. Even in the abbreviated jrm, the volume contains more material than other texts on the subject ; but it is hoped that the use of this or any briefer text is but preliminary to the use of some larger one commen- surate with the importance of the subject. So far as compatible with this condensation, the text aims :o retain the merits sought for in the larger one, namely : to suggest, chiefly by classification of this material, interpreta- tions such as will not consist merely in unsupported gen- eralizations ; to give, to some degree, a flavor of the original sources of information ; to make evident the relation between educational development and other aspects of the history of education ; to deal with educational tendencies rather than with men ; to show the connection between educational theory and actual school work in its historical development • to suggest relations with present educational work. VI Preface The methods of presentation of the subject are the same as in the larger work. Marginal notes and chapter summa- ries have been added for the convenience of the student. All bibliographical material, together with suggestions con- cerning topics for further study, have been omitted, as they are accessible in the larger text Should further material or further references be desired, recourse can be had to the Text-Book or to the Syllabus prepared to accompany the text. P. M. New York, May, 1907. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I PRIMITr.T PEOPLES: EDUCATION IN ITS SI2iIPLEST FORM FAGK SIG^IFICAZ^CE OF PRIMITrVE EDUCATION PRACTICAL EDUCATIOZ? ..... THE-ORETICAL EDUCATION .... Initiation ceremoniei Bduoationa.! ncueer.ing of the initiations THE FU^DAI-lEZxTAL CHAPACTERISTICS OF PRIMITIVE LIFE — ATrncsM 5 NATURE OF EDUCATIOZ? OF PRIMITIVE MA5 DETERMUfED BY THIS DOilD^A:?! SOCIAL CHAPACTEPTSTIC , . . 6 TRAySITI05 TO A HIGHER STAGE 8 A teaching class 8 Subject-matter for study 9 Elaboration of metkod 9 SUMMARY lo CHAPTER n ORIENTAL EDUCATION. EDUCATION AS RECAPITU- LATION: CHINA AS A TYPE THE SECOND STAGE m EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT . . ii CHINESE EDUCATION u The written lan^^oage . . ii Chinese literarore 12 Selection from Confacian tert ....... 13 The work of the school 13 Rz GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 350 CULTURE DEMANDED BY MODERN LIFE 351 THEORY OF EDUCATION FORMULATED BY THE NATURAL SCIENTISTS 354 Education, by Herbert Spencer 355 Thomas Huxley 358 SCIENCE IN THE CURRICULUM 360 In universities and colleges . . , . . . . . 360 In the United States 361 In secondary schools 363 In Germany ....... ^ . . 363 In England 364 In America .......... 365 The elementary schools ......... 366 In Germany 366 In England 366 In the Untied States 367 SUMMARY . 368 CHAPTER XIII THE SOCIOLOGICAL TENDENCY GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 369 SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE WORK OF PESTALOZZI, HERB ART AND FROEBEL 370 SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECT OF THE SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT . 372 EDUCATIONAL IDEAS OF POLITICAL LEADERS . .373 EDUCATION AS A PREPARATION FOR CITIZENSHIP . . 375 PLACE OF EDUCATION IN SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY . . .377 xviii Table of Contents PAGE PHILANTHROPIC-RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS FOR EDUCATION . 381 Among the German peoples 382 The monitorial systems of Lancaster and Bell .... 382 The infant school movement 384 Public school societies in the United States .... 385 DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATE SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION — POLITICO-ECONOMIC TENDENCY 386 Germany 387 France 388 England 389 United States 391 Early free schools ......... 391 The Educational Revival of the Early Nineteenth Century . . 392 Modern state systems of public education ..... 393 THE INDUSTRIAL PHASE OF THE MOVEMENT . . . .393 SUMMARY 397 CHAPTER XIV CONCLUSION: THE PRESENT ECLECTIC TENDENCY GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 399 FUSION OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL, SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIO- LOGICAL TENDENCIES 399 CURRENT TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION 401 HARMONIZATION OF INTEREST AND EFFORT . . . .403 THE MEANING OF EDUCATION 405 THE CURRICULUM 407 METHOD 407 THE PERMANENT PROBLEM 408 INDEX i A BRIEF COURSE IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION BRIEF COURSE IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION CHAPTER I PRIMITIVE PEOPLES. EDUCATION IN ITS SIMPLEST FORM SIGNIFICANCE OF PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. — Educa- tion in its simplest form is found among the primitive societies of savage and barbarian peoples. Here one finds no school, no method of education consciously recognized as such, and only the slightest differentiation of a teaching class. And yet there is evi- dent the essential characteristic of the educational process — the fitting of the child to his physical and social environment through the appropriation of the experience of previous generations. In our own time society is so complex that one can with difficulty get a grasp of the true nature of the entire educational process and of its relation to social life as a whole. In the Character- primitive stage, where society is so simple, the general nature, g^j^^^^Q^ purpose, method, organization, and result of education are more readily seen readily discovered. By such a study one may arrive at a better comprehension of later more complex stages of educational activity. PRACTICAL EDUCATION. —The training in the processes of obtaining food, clothing, and shelter — which are obligations possessing a very direct and insistent character for every in- dividual in primitive society — constitutes their practical edu- cation. Yet there is seldom, if ever, a direct, conscious process of training on the part of society. The necessary knowledge 2 Brief Course in the History of Education Education of the primitive :hild through play His education through work Education through religious and social ceremonies is obtained by the child through imitation. In the earlier years this imitation is unconscious. The child in savage and barbarous tribes plays with miniature imitations of the imple- ments used by adults. His amusements and games are, simi- larly, but imitations of the activities of adult life. Indian chil- dren play with a log in the water and learn to balance and to paddle as the use of the canoe will later demand. The boys shoot at a mark with the bow and arrow; the girls make utensils of clay and play at the preparation of food. There are few games aside from such imitations. These few, such as a simple ball game, are merely imitations of the sports of adults. The second stage of this training through imitation is a con- scious one. Then both boy and girl assist in the activities of the adults, and must learn by imitation because the work is demanded of them. This demand on the part of the adult, however, is not for the sake of training the child, but for the result of the work. In the art representations of their social activities left by primitive people, there are to be found no evidences of any conscious training of the young by the adult. And in the study of those forms of primitive life that have sur- vived, few practical educational activities, save the two forms of imitation mentioned above, have been found by scientific observers. THEORETICAL EDUCATION. — Another phase of primitive life which occupies much of the time of the adults and possesses educational value for the young, is that connected with cere- monies, dances, and incantations. Such ceremonial perform- ances constitute the religious worship of primitive peoples and are necessary before a hunt, a military expedition, a harvest, the planting of grain, the storing of food, and, in fact, before any important social activity. Inasmuch as they contain explana- tions of the myths, legends, religious dogmas, scientific or in- tellectual beliefs, or historical traditions of the respective tribes, all such ceremonials have an educational function. Thus the younger generations are being continually instructed in the lore Primitive Peoples 3 of the past, — in that which constitutes the intellectual and spiritual life of these people. Initiation Ceremonies possess special educational value. Educational These are to be found with all primitive people. Usually there significance are initiation ceremonies for girls conducted by the women, as initiation well as those for boys conducted by the men. The latter, "=^''^™°°ies however, are by far the more elaborate and more important. The greatest variation occurs. With some tribes such cere- monies are brief; with others they extend over a series of years. In all cases they are most characteristic at the beginning of the adolescent period of the novice and culminate in his admission into adult membership in the tribe. Voluminous descriptions of such ceremonies in many tribes are now to be found. The outline of the initiation as practiced by the Central Australian tribes will suffice as an example. Here there are three distinct steps or periods in the initiation which Outline extend through several years. At the age of ten or eleven the f^.***. ... 11 , 1 initiation boy IS seized by a number of adults who are marked out for ceremonies this special work by the position which they hold in the genetic ^ ?f ^^^ . or family organization of their tribe. He is painted with the to- Australians temic symbols, tossed up into the air, and severely beaten. A few years later he is again seized and subjected to mutilation. The form of mutilation varies: it may be a scarification of back or breast that will leave throughout life marks of identification; it may be a knocking out of front teeth, a piercing of nasal septum or of lips, or a loosening of the scalp by biting. The ceremony usually culminates in a smoking or burning over a fire. During the period of these ceremonies — lasting for some days — the youth is given little or nothing to eat. By hunting he must secure certain animals used in the ceremonies. Thus as an incidental part of the initiation he is trained to fur- nish food for the adults. The entire period is taken up with a variety of complex totemic dances and ceremonies. During the ^ Society organized on the basis of blood relationships instead of upon the territorial relationship of political societies. 4 Brief Course in the History of Education Moral value of this ini- tiation Political and social value ceremonies he has a guardian to direct him, but for the most part he must observe absolute silence. The illustration given shows the concluding ceremony by which the ban of silence is removed by the medicine men who have conducted the initia- tion. The third phase of the initiation follows this, after an interval of some months. It consists of elaborate dances and performances participated in by large numbers, often represent- ing several tribes, and sometimes lasting for several months with ceremonies every day. After this the youth is admitted into full membership in the tribe and henceforth associates no longer with the women and children. Educational Meaning of the Initiation. — These ceremonies possess first a moral value. Through the mutilations, the boy is taught to endure pain; through exposure and want, he is taught to endure hardship and hunger; through subservience to the performers, he is taught obedience and reverence for adults. He learns that he is expected to serve his elders and especially to supply the family, of which he becomes a member by marriage or adoption, with the necessities of life. In fact, to an observer these ceremonies seem to be largely for the purpose of continuing the dominance of the elders in the control of society. Thus they possess a social and political value. This second value is further revealed by the fact that the decorations painted on the performers are totemic symbols. The explanation of these reveals the history and traditions of the tribe. Thus, also, are explained the complex relationships of genetic society, which constitute their politics, social order, science and religion, all in one. The dances and ceremonial performances have a similar purpose and are connected with their religious beliefs as well. In this they resemble in a crude way the early drama of the Greeks, the miracle and moral plays of the Middle Ages, and even the initiation ceremonies of modem secret societies. Their reHgious value is evidenced in the fact that the totem is the center of worship and that the characters in these ceremonies The Initiation of the Yoliii hv tiik Shaman.^ .^:e metal speculum to get fire with; and on the right, the needlecase, thread, and floss, all bestowed in the satchel, the great spike, and the borer to get fire with from wood. They will also fasten on their necklaxes, and adjust their shoe strings, etc." ^ The Work of the School consists first in the mastery of these language forms; second, in committing to memory the sacred texts; third, in the study of the almost innumerable com- ^ MUUer, Sacred Boohs of the East, Vol. 37, p. 449. 14 Brief Course in the History of Education mentaries on these texts, for the purpose of developing a liter- ary style similar to that of the sacred writings. Reading is Reading. — For several years school work is devoted to com- for mastery niittin? to memory the characters of a series of six text-books. of forms of '^ ■' language The third of these, the Millenary Classic, will serve as a type of all. It consists of one thousand characters, no two of which are alike in form or meaning, but which are arranged to secure both rhythm and rhyme. With the memorizing of this text a considerable portion of the characters of the language is mastered, but how complex the task when compared with the mastery of our alphabet ! It is true that the content of some of these texts consists chiefly of moral maxims, and that thus the child gets some guidance in conduct. This, however, is incidental. Writing, ako, Writing is also mastered in the elementary schools. On IS purely for- a^(>(,Qyj^|- gf j-j^^g number and the intricate nature of the Chinese mal imitation characters and the similarity between many of them, this is a far more difficult task than with us. Yet success in the literary examinations depends to a considerable extent upon the callig- raphy of the contestant. Throughout the period of elemen- tary education, little or no relation exists between the writing and the reading. The characters the child learns to write he probably has never seen before, and they afford no assistance in his other studies. Only when the pupil reaches the essay-writ- ing stage, are the two combined. In the study Mastery of Literature. — Higher education is devoted to the mastery^or* memorizing of the nine sacred classics together with many of formal liter- the Commentaries upon them. Here some mastery of content ti^ ^ef ^ ^^ necessary, but attention is centered chiefly upon the formal aim literary structure. The duration of this period of higher educa- tion is indefinite. It is terminated only by the passing of the governmental examinations which admit to official position. Thus it happens that many spend the greater part of a lifetime preparing for an office to which they never attain. Instances have been known of father, grandfather, and grandson partici- Oriental Education 15 pating in the same examination — and hence engaged in the * same studies. Literary Composition. — For the purpose of developing an An approved abiUty to imitate the formal literary style of the Chinese, Ji^^hThig? many more commentaries on the sacred classics must be studied est attain- than are committed to memory. This abihty is the final test ^^'^ of an educated person, and is to the Chinese the noblest achieve- ment of the human mind. To this devotion of an entire edu- cational system to the development of power to imitate in for- mal essays the literary structure of a dead language, a striking parallel is found in the Latin prose and verse composition of English and American schools of past generations. With the latter, however, it was but a means; with the Chinese it is the end. Moreover, there is an immeasurable difference in the content of the hteratures which served as models of literary structure. The Organization of Education is twofold. There is, first, a system of schools; and, second, a system of examinations conducted by the state and serving as the controlling part of their educational system. Schools. — Elementary schools, wherein is mastered the cur- Schools nu- riculum as previously described, are found in practically every serous and " ■' ' ... unsystema- village. Such schools are supported by private tuition, patron- tized ized voluntarily, and taught by unsuccessful candidates for the degrees or by those less fortunate recipients of the lower degrees who have found no office awaiting them. Schoolhouses there are none to speak of; school is kept in any vacant room of a private house, of a temple or public building, — most often the ancestral or Confucian temple, — or it may be in a shed, or in any covered nook or comer. School days are long and continue practically throughout the year. The schoolboy, as also the schoolmaster, is sharply separated from those of his own years but affect a and relationship. He must devote all of his time to learning, oHhe^popu^ and is disgraced by any labor or even by amusements such as lation fall to the lot of common mortals. Though the, expense is very 1 6 Brief Course in the History of Education Teachers honored but ill-rewarded Higher schools The three governmen- tal examina- tions for de- grees and for oflcLce Examina- tions consist of essay writ- ing in verse and in prose moderate, only a small number of children attend these schools. As but one in twenty of the children who do attend ever get beyond this elementary grade, and as a much smaller proportion ever reach the coveted degree with ofhce attached, it is, from one point of view, the most wasteful system imaginable. For while it accomplishes the general social results desired, the educational effect upon the ninety-nine hundredths that fail is valueless. Furthermore, this education unfits them for par- ticipation in any ordinary occupation in life, except with loss of prestige. Thus most of them must turn to teaching, and, in a population where the struggle for existence is abnormally severe, the profession that is held in highest honor becomes one of the worst remunerated and the most burdensome. Beyond the elementary schools there exist in the larger cities numerous, or at least occasional, higher schools where students, through study of commentary and practice in essay writing, are prepared for the examinations. The Examination System is the central feature of the Chinese educational system. By it all students are tested; through it all public officials are selected ; for it all studies have been prose- cuted. Its prizes are the greatest offered in Chinese life. After the preliminary examination, there are three examinations for degrees, all of which are held under the auspices of the govern- ment. The degrees are those of "flowering talent," "promoted man," and "entered scholar" or "fit for office." The first examination is held once in three years in each district capital by the provincial literary chancellor; the second is held, usually some months later, in the provincial capital; the third is held at longer intervals at Peking and is open only to those who have passed the preceding examinations. These examinations consist in writing verse and prose essays on various themes taken from the sacred writings. The essays of the first examination must be completed in one day, though the contest is often repeated. Those for the second examination take three days ; those for the third take thirteen days. Each / J , 1 u 1 ' .\. l; ; H "-'i ip - ^ ^ >.^ 1 f ' ' J- 'i J l^^^£^^ - ^^^' ,.L<^^ 1 A Chinese School. A Boy " backing his Book Examination Cells and Official Pavilion at Chentu, China Oriental Education 17 examination, successfully passed, carries its own rewards, in the form of decorations of dress and of the household dwelling, in the right to honored places at feasts and public occasions, and m exemption from corporal punishment. From the unsuccess- ful candidates in the lower examinations come most of the school teachers; from the successful competitors for these degrees the minor officials are chosen; from the successful competitors in the Rewards for highest examination are selected the chief officers of the empire, thesrex^ai- From those that pass the third examination a few are selected nations by private examination before the Emperor to form his cabinet. This examination carries no degree, but admits to membership in the Imperial Academy. On rare occasions the Emperor may select from these, still by competitive examination, the consum- mate flower of literary perfection of 400,000,000 people. Formal educational systematization can go no farther. While these examinations now affect directly but a small por- This exami- tion of the immense population of China, they set a standard of "^^^ 7^\m- excellence for all, and select, to rule in the present, those who ates the are best able to conserve the past, because of their knowledge ^deak'of ^^ of it and ability to imitate it. Chinese Some statistics of 1903 will indicate the extent of this system. ^°"^^ There were 1705 matriculation centers where the preKminary tests were held; 252 centers for the examination for first degree ; 18 for the second degree — one, at least, containing 30,000 Number of examination cells or rooms; and one for the third degree. Only jo^deCTces 28,923 bachelor's degrees could be given to the 760,000 com- petitors; for the somewhat rarer master's degree, or "promoted man" examination, but 1586 competitors were selected out of a total of 190,300. Not to mention the million or more that were preparing for the preliminary examinations, there were 960,000 men preparing for these examinations, of whom all but 1839 were destined for failure. The Method of Chinese Education is that of direct and exact imitation. In the lower stages it is purely a training of the memory. "The object of the teacher is to compel his pupils, 1 8 Brief Course in the History of Education School work is chiefly mem- orizing of text; method is that of di- rect imitation Imitation in essay writing Originality or variation suppressed Chinese edu- cation is now undergoing radical re- form first, to Remember, secondly, to Remember, thirdly, and ever more, to Remember." The school of the Chinese is a "loud school"; each child takes the appropriate text and shouts aloud the passage until it is impressed upon his memory. When the assigned task is complete, he recites, or "backs his book," by handing the book to the teacher, turning his back, and re- citing the passage in high key and rapid speed, without any knowledge, necessarily at least, of its meaning. "The attention of the scholar," to quote from Smith, "is fixed exclusively upon two things, — the repetition of the characters in the same order as they occur in the book and the repetition of them at the highest attainable rate of speed." It would seem that the writing of essays, as the great out- come of this system of education, possesses peculiar merit, in that it is a test of ability or power rather than a test of knowl- edge. But this merit is in appearance only; for the ability is again wholly one of imitation. The one who can imitate the construction, the metrical form in poetry, the balanced structure in prose, of their sacred literature, is the successful theme waiter. It is as though our whole aim in school were to develop the ability to write essays similar in form, structure, and sentiment to the Proverbs or Psalms. While the ability to imitate the form might without doubt be readily developed in the average boy, the degree to which corresponding ideas of an original character could be called forth can be readily imagined. Or again, the success of the average schoolboy of a few generations ago in rivaling Homer or Virgil may be taken as a similar criterion. In reality the aim of the entire training is not to develop originality, but to suppress it; not to develop creative power, but power of imitation; not to produce literary abihty, but the ability of the clever versifier and parodist. Changes in Chinese Education have occurred in recent years, owing to the conflict first with Japan and then with the Western nations. In 1898 the Emperor, by edict, substituted a system of Western Colleges for the examination system. This action was Oriental Education 19 too radical and was soon rescinded. In 1903 the Empress Dowager substituted examinations in Occidental sciences and languages for those in hterary composition. These radical educational changes with others of a social character are pro- ceeding rapidly at the present time. EDUCATION OF THE HINDUS. — While the characteristic Causes of details of purpose, organization, method, and content of curricu- lum of Hindu education differ from those of the Chinese, its their essential features are typically Oriental. The divergence in g^g^tem""^ details from other Oriental systems is caused mainly (i) by the caste system and (2) by the more philosophic character of Hindu sacred literature. A partial cause of this divergence maybe found in the Aryan origin of the dominant class; but the racial characteristics were the result of the fusion of this small Aryan element with an overwhelming pre-Aryan popula- tion. While the caste system, as well as the educational system, has The caste been largely modified during the nineteenth century by English ^'^^'^^'^ influence, it is the historic condition in which we are here in- terested. The Hindu castes are four: (i) The Brahmins, or priests: this class also furnishes all teachers, and controls all . legislation; (2) the Kshatriyas, the warrior, or military execu- tive class; (3) the Vaisyas, or industrial class; (4) the Sudras, or servile class. Altogether outside of the Brahminical social organization are the pariahs, or outcasts. The Sudras and pariahs received no formal education whatever. Education ot The members of the warrior and industrial classes had access *^^°^^'^ castes to the literary schools kept by the members of the higher class, but never availed themselves of these privileges to any great ex- tent. A knowledge of certain portions of the sacred texts, chiefly the ceremonial, and a memorizing of briefer portions was the extent of the education gained by the members of these castes. A training of a practical and professional nature was gained through the traditions and the customs of the home and of the village community. These two institutions were 20 Brief Course in the History of Education Education of the Brahmins Sacred writ- ings of the Hindus in reality the schools. But neither in the schools of the Brah- mins nor in the home or the village community did instruc- tion in reading and writing form a part of the education gained by most of the members of these castes. In a caste system, where the child follows the occupation of the parent, the necessary training is provided automatically by a universal system of apprenticeship. Not only training in handicrafts, but such practical knowledge of arithmetic or other subjects as was essential would result from the apprenticeship training given chiefly in the family. The elaborate literary education was reserved for he Brah- mins. All members of this class were supposed to acquire a most minute knowledge of the sacred writings, and a general knowledge of the literature and the philosophical beliefs of the Hindus. Through this knowledge of religious writings and ap- proved forms of conduct, the literary priestly class became the ruling class politically as well as socially and rehgiously. Theo- retically every me^nber of the group must devote his life to such studies and to the appropriate accompanying activities. Practi- cally it was possible only for the most devout to follow the hfe of literary study and philosophical reflection. This literary ruling class in India differed markedly from that in China not only because membership was unattainable by any of lower class origin, but because, on account of its religious character, the enjoyment of the privileges of this hfe carried with it practically no obligation of immediate service to the community. Only through some knowledge of the Hindu religion and sacred literature can one obtain an understanding of this highe: education and of its bearing, both in theory and in practice, on the development of the individual. The Hindu sacred writings, the Vedas, consist of four treatises, one for each of the three or- ders of Brahmins, and one for the guidance in conduct of the warrior or executive class. Each Veda consists of three parts: (i) the sacrificial formulas, mostly in verse; (2) instruction in the meaning and use of the former; (3) an abstract for the con- Oriental Edtication 21 venience of the priests. The second portion of each Veda con- tains a section of philosophical reflections or suggestions, out of which has grown the, Hindu philosophy, and the study of which constitutes the most important part of their higher education. The chief aim of Hindu philosophy is to reduce the multiphcity character- of the phenomenal world to unity; the aim of their ethics, to isticsofthe Hindu genius change the chaos of the world of conduct to harmony; and the aim of their religion, to escape from the transitoriness and suffer- ing of the present world into the peace and enjoyment of a life to come. The solution of their philosophical problem is found in mysticism; of their ethical and moral problem, in asceticism, with its isolation from the activities, interests, enjoyments, and evils of the present life. Their reHgion asserts not only the im- mortality of the soul, but its transmigration through successive in- carnations, each dependent upon the character of the preceding Hfe, and all subject to the evils and sufferings incident to this life of mortals. All individual existence, then, is an evil, morally and religiously as well as philosophically. The ideal is to escape Hindu ideal from such sufferings, to terminate this process of reincarnation, °^ ^^ by the absorption of the individual soul in the world soul. Nir- vana, which means extinction or may mean perfect peace, wisdom and goodness, is their ideal. This can be obtained only through extinction of individuality. Thus we reach the highest philosophical expression of the Oriental hostihty to indi- viduality. JEWISH EDUCATION.— In one respect the Jews formed a Contributed marked variation from the Oriental type. In regard to the the moral and ■111.. .,.-- .-, religious ele- moral and rehgious aspect of hfe, far more opportunity for the ment to mod- development of personality was given than with any other ernaviiiza- Oriental people. In this respect they contributed much to the development of Western culture. But in all other aspects of education, — school organization, school method, etc., — they did not vary from the Oriental type. In regard to schooling Tardy de- they were not nearly so advanced as were the Chinese. In veiopment of •' •' educational fact, they did not possess schools for the laity until a short time system 22 Brief Course in the History of Education Educational aspects of their cere- monial reli- gion Literary in- struction centers in the ceremonial law Develop- ment of per- sonality in its moral and religious as- Dects Fruition in the Christian religion before the loss of their national organization. Following the return of Ezra (458 B.C.), synagogues were gradually estabhshed in all the towns, and in them the law was expounded and reli- gious services were held. Thus in addition to the ceremonial law to be observed everywhere, and the temple worship to be participated in at Jerusalem, the Jews had institutions for fur- nishing instruction, chiefly rehgious, throughout the land. In connection with the synagogues there grew up the scribes, or expounders of the law, who were teachers, and who came to rival the priesthood in power. Later, from the second century B.C., minor officers of the synagogue began to teach the children during the week. After the Maccabean revolt (167 B.C.) such schools became quite general. Reading and writing, hitherto taught together with the rudiments of arithmetic in a few of the well-to-do families, now came to be taught in a public school to the children of the masses. Soon after this period the Hebrew national identity, as well as national life, was lost, and their educational system never developed beyond these germs. All instruction of a literary character, as well as all instruction of the people by the scribes and priests, centered in the law, that is, in the Bible and the Talmud. It is to be remembered that this law, mostly moral or ceremonial precept but containing more of principle than other Oriental sacred Hterature, was im- posed by external authority, either that of biblical revelation or of priestly authority. On the other hand, through their con- ception of personal Deity and their belief in close personal contact with Him and personal responsibihty to Him, which ever formed a permanent factor in the Jewish religion, greater emphasis was laid by the Jew than by any other Oriental upon development of individuality in this one respect. But the period from Ezra to Christ was pecuharly one of the exaltation of the law. The conception of moral and rehgious personahty, obtained not under the law objectively, but in and through a higher law, was reached only through the Christian rehgion and through the rejection of the ceremonial law. This con- Oriental Education 23 ception was not clearly worked out till Jewish life came into contact with that of Greek and Roman. Hence this highest contribution of the Jews to education and to life, and that in which they differed most from other Oriental peoples, will be considered more fully in connection with the education of the early Christian Church. THE CHINESE AS A TYPE OF ORIENTAL EDUCATION.— Oriental systems of education differ much in detail. While the Chinese system is more complex and elaborate than those of other Asiatic peoples, yet in its main features it is a type of them all. As with the Chinese, so with the Hindu, the Egyptian, and the Literature Hebrew, education centered in the knowledge of a language "^ f^'^^T: oi ' _ ° 00 the formal technically complex and difficult of mastery, and in the pos- education of session of the lore of the past contained in its literature. In all j^^"^"^' cases that literature related largely to forms of conduct and reH- gious ceremonial; and with the Hindu, the Egyptian, and the Hebrew it was the possession of the priesthood alone. If in China this learned class is not the priesthood, it is, as in the other cases, the dominant class in society. In all instances the masters of this literature are steeped in the The literary knowledge of the past, and are especially interested in preserving ^^^ '^ ^^ traditional ways of action. So far as the masses of the people are UsuaUy this concerned, their education yet consists in being told "What to '^^t^o'^^ do" and "How to do it." With most Oriental peoples the class into whose charge the conduct of the masses is committed is the educated priesthood ; with the Chinese it is the educated office-holders. For the masses of the people there is no formal Education of education. Their informal education consists of the training themasfes ° and of the m conduct and practical activities given by the priests, the literary ruling dass governing class, and the adult generation in the home. For the chosen class there is a training in reading, v^riting, literary composition, and in the exposition of hterature. For the individual no variation from established forms is permissible. In most minute details conduct is prescribed. 24 Brief Course in the History of Education Individual variation sup- pressed by external au- thority Results of this suppres- sion of indi- viduality Results on the thought life This dominance of some external authority is characteristic of all Orientals. In India this authority is exerted through the caste system; among the Hebrews, through the theocracy; in Egypt, through a combination of a priestly ruling class and a partially developed caste system; in China, through the system of Confucian education. Thus the Oriental is conscious of the past, as the primitive man is not; and he seeks to prevent any variation from it through individual initiative. The result of this dominance of external authority in their life and of the development of an appropriate educational scheme to carry it out is twofold. Society becomes stable, but remains stationary. Both materially and spiritually civilization is non- progressive. Thus it happens that in such societies education most readily accomplishes the purpose assigned to it. It is true that this stabihty relates only to internal forces; but when a people is isolated, like the Chinese, such an education is effect- ive for a long period. Neither individually nor socially, how- ever, does this education give power of adjustment to new conditions. On the side of the inner or subjective life, it is again the exter- nal and prescriptive that controls. All that belongs to the free spirit — the art, science, religion, education, of a Western peo- ple — is wanting, or tends to be wanting. In this the Chinese education is again typical. Art becomes external decoration; literature an effusive form.ulation wherein merit is in style, not in thought; science becomes occultism, and discoveries are the result of accident; religion emphasizes mere formal worship, in which there is often little room for free personality; morals are governed by traditional forms; education has no room for self-activity. If to these characterizations, as in the ethics and religion of the Jews, there are marked exceptions, such excep- tions at least indicate the all-prevaihng tendency. Thus it results that among most Oriental peoples there is to be found an educational system of merit, often of long stand- ing and of most successful operation. Such systems show an Oriental Education 25 accurate correlation between purposes and results, and must be School sys- tems char- acteristic of ranked high on such a basis of judgment. Comparison with more modern systems, however, must be instituted upon the basis of Oriental so- the purpose of education. °^^ The rapidity with which the Japanese have modified their Transforma- ancient social structure and assimilated the culture of Western ^°'^°^^'^ Oriental sys- civilization, chiefly through the adoption of Western education, tem into a indicates the extent to which the characteristics of Oriental "^°dern sys- tem by the society are due to the estabhshed education rather than to in- Japanese herent racial traits. The Oriental type of education aims simply to recapitulate This is the the past, to sum up in the individual the life of the past, in order education of ,1 . . 1 , 1 Recapitula- that he may not vary from it or advance beyond it. It aims to tion form habits of thought and action identical with those of the past, without developing any ability to modify or adjust habits to new conditions. So far as instruction is added to training, it is without any rational basis. It is not instruction in the sense of seeking to interpret to the individual the meaning of a social custom. At every point education consists (i) in indicating to the individual what to do, to feel, or to think ; (2 ) the exact way the act is to be performed, or the emotional reaction expressed; and (3) in constant repetition until the habit is unalterably fixed. This is education as Recapitulation, which is the second stage in educational development. SUMMARY Transition from primitive society to the earlier stages of civilization is marked by the substitution of a poHtical for a genetic organization of society and by the formation of a written language and a literature. The political organization of society indicates that individuahty is now recognized and that the individual rather than the family or class is the social unit. The written language and literature indicate that society has now become con- scious of the past and of established forms of conduct and has discovered means of preserving these accurately. Formal education with these early or Oriental types of civilization is directed (i) toward a mastery of these languages, technically difl&cult, (2) toward a mastery of the approved forms of conduct embodied in a sacred literature, and (3) toward the imposition 26 Brief Course in the History of Education of such standards of conduct upon all the people. The last result is obtair ■• ; by putting the control of society into the hands of the limited class which !._„ mastered this language and literature and hence has a knowledge of the traditional and approved forms of conduct. To these customs the sanction of a religious significance is given. The class controlling society is the literary class, and usually forms the priesthood also. A system of schools results; with China a system very elaborate and long enduring. Definite curricula and methods of teaching are evolved. But the suppression of all individual variation becomes the conscious aim and the actual result. The general outcome is a social order which possesses stability, but lacks all progressiveness. The Greeks. The Liberal Education 2^ Chronological Survey of Greek Education Political Events First Olympiad 776 Dominance of Sparta . 750-600 Messenian Wars . 743-668 Laws of Draco 629 Laws of Solon 594 The Pisistra- tids . . 560-510 Laws of Clisthenes . 509 Persian Wars . 500-479 Athenian su- premacy 479-431 Confederacy of Delos 477-450 B.C. Poets, Dramatists, Orators, etc. Age of Pericles 459-431 Peloponnesian War. . 431-404 Sicilian expedi- tion . . 415-413 Spartan su- premacy 404-371 Retreat of the Ten Thousand . 399 Theban su- premacy 371-362 Philip of Mace- don . . 359-336 The Sacred Wars . 346-338 338 B c. Battle of Chaeronea Homer flourished c. 900 or 850 Hesiod . . c. 700 Terpander . c. 676 Sappho . . c. 612 Thespis . . c. 536 Simonides 556-468 Pindar c 522-c. 443 iEschylus 525-456 Sophocles 495-405 Euripides 480-406 Phidias . 488-432 Herodotus c. 484-^:. 425 Thucydides 471-400 Aristophanes 450-385 (Old comedy) Xenophon 434-3S9 Menander 344-292 (New comedy) Demosthenes 384-322 Philosophers, Sophists Thales . c. 624-548 Anaximander c. 6ir-547 Anaximenes f.588 524 Pythagoras c. 580-500 Heraclitus c. 525 475 Anaxagoras c. 500-428 Zeno, the Eleatic &. c. 460-440 Gorgias Protagoras Prodicus . Socrates Antisthenes Plato . . Isocrates . Aristotle . c. 485-380 c. 480-411 fl. c. 435 469-399 422-371 420 348 436-338 384-322 Writings Pos- sessing Direct Educational Significance Iliad . . . c. 850 Laws of Lycurgus c. 850 or 800 Thucydides' Peri- cles' Oration 431 Aristophanes' Clouds . 423 VXalo's Protagoras Plato's Republic "^•395 Plato's Lawsc, 350 Xenophon's Economics c. 380 Xenophon's Metno- rabilia . c. 380 Xenophon's Cyro- __ 'edeia . c. 380 Isocrates' Against the Sophists 390 Isocrates' Exchange of Estates . 354 Educational Events Parental duty in education in Solon's Laws . 594 Origin of the drama c, 556 Protagoras teaches at Athens . 445 Trial of Socrates 399 Isocrates establishes a school at Athens . 392 Founding of the Academy 386 Founding of the Lyceum 335 Macedonian supremacy 338 Alexander the Great . 336-323 Battle of Issus 333 Alexandria founded . 330 Ptolemy I (Soter) 322-285 First invasion of Greece by Gauls . 279 Ptolemy III (Euer getes) . 247-222 Agis (Sparta) r. 244-240 Cleomenes (Sparta) r. 236 222 Destruction of Corinth — Greece a Roman province . 146 Egypt a Roman province 30 a.d Theocritus . i. 324 Polybius c. 205-C. 123 Strabo c. 63 B.C.-c. 24 A.D. Epicurus . Zeno . . Chrysippus Pyrrhoa . 341-270 c. 350-260 280-207 • <'-330 Aristotle's Politics t.330 Museum at Alexandria founded 2S0 Euclid systematizes geometry c. 250 Plutarch c. 46-120 a.d. Lucian C, 12$-C. 192 A.D. Philo of Judea 20 B.C.-40 A.D. Plutarch's Train ing of Children c. 100 A.D Lucian's Teacher of Orators, Anacharses, etc Gregory of Nazianzus' Panegyric 379 Imperial sup- port for the University of Athens A.D 69-79 University of Athens sup- pressed A.D. 529 CHAPTER III THE GREEKS. THE LIBERAL EDUCATION Opportunity for individual develop- ment Social prog- ress The liberal education The political aspect THE SIGNIFICANCE OF GREEK EDUCATION. — Chief Characteristics. — If the chief characteristic of Oriental edu- cation was the attempt to reproduce and preserve the past by- suppression of individuahty, the great significance of Greek education is found in the fact that here first was opportunity given for individual development. Consequently progress not only resulted, but was welcomed and indeed striven for. Social progress was the result of the freedom that was allowed in their organization of society for the development of various aspects of personality — of personal achievement and realization — and of the esteem in which every form of expression of individual worth was held. As a result of these characteristics, the Greeks first formulated that conception of education which we yet call liberal. This is the education that is worthy of a free man and will render him capable of profiting by or using his freedom. More nearly than to any other people of the past, did the problem of education appear to the Greeks as it does to us in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. There is no other period until the later eighteenth century that is so full of suggestion to the educa- tor of the present. Concept of Personality. — The Greek conception of man- hood, of fully developed personality, was quite as broad as ours. It was the Greeks who first worked out the conception of political freedom in and through the state, and the idea that education was to fit for this citizenship. To the Greeks we owe the iirst attempt to secure the development of personality on the thought side. The love of knowledge for knowledge's sake found with 28 The Greeks. The Liberal Education 29 them its first devotees; inquiry into nature, into man, into the supernatural, here first was fearlessly attempted. With the Greeks, first of all, knowledge ceased to be the servant of the- ology and inquiry the special privilege of the priesthood. The application of the intellect to every phase of life was the task The inteiiec- of the Greeks; it was they who first strove to five by reason. ^^^^P^^t They first formulated the conception of man as primarily a rational being. As expressed by Socrates, the duty imposed upon each individual was to know himself. Consequently on the moral side also, the Greeks arrived at the conception of per- The moral sonality. Each individual found in his rational nature the sane- ^^p^'^'^ tion for determining his own ends in Hf e ; and in his moral nature the conception of these ends as shaped by his own being. Through the realization of his own nature, each must work out the things that life is to be lived for; science, art, philosophy, religion, are means to this end, and are to be made subservient to it. Thus moral responsibility and moral freedom, freedom under and through the law discoverable in one's own nature, were first conceived and applied to every individual by the Greeks. In one further aspect, the aesthetic, the Greeks deter- The esthetic mined the nature of personality. To them first and beyond all ^'^^'^ others was given the power of expressing a general truth in con- crete embodiment. For art is but the embodiment of some truth, ideal, or experience of universal validity in such concrete form as can be comprehended by all. Education and Life : Then and Now. — From yet another point Their aim— of view, the work of the Greeks was to determine the things in pli^'^nd^^^" this life worth hving for. Aristotle says that the aim of life is beautifully" "living happily and beautifully." And the best expressions of their civihzation give us this knowledge, or at least indicate to us their realization of this high ideal. Add to this the one great element since added to civilization through the Christian religion, ideal of the and the ideal now formulated for our life and for our educational j^ ■ ^ added process is but slightly more advanced. In this Hst — poHtical later freedom, intellectual freedom and attainment, moral freedom 30 Brief Course in the History of Education Material achievement a modern ideal Standards of conduct in many respects not high Women had few rights and little freedom Tendency to the insincere and frivolous The Old Greek period in- cluded the Homeric, the Spartan, and the early Athenian education and life, aesthetic appreciation, and power of accomplishment — we have made but one great change, that of substituting material achievement for the aesthetic expression of personality. This change is not an unmitigated blessing nor an unqualified advance. Since the aim of education, as limited in the work of the American schools to-day, must eliminate the religious element, it can find no higher purpose than that of determining for each individual the things in this life that are best worth Hving for. Consequently no other phase of educational history has more significance for the student, or will better repay consideration of the means and methods adopted for securing this end. Limitations in Realization. — It is not to be understood that the Greek ideals were without their limitations, or that the Greeks were wholly successful in carrying them out. The reli- gious element in these ideals had little influence on many aspects of conduct. The ethical motive among the masses of the people was not sufficiently developed to prevent the tolera- tion of many customs abhorrent to modern times. The position of women was little above that accorded them in Oriental society. The privileges of personal attainment were restricted to free- men, and thus denied to nine tenths of the population. As indi- cated by the custom of "exposing" undesirable children, little feeling of compassion was developed. Moreover, the Greek versatility bordered on the insincere, even the dishonest, while their light-heartedness often became frivolity and licentious- ness. However, had they reahzed in the concrete all that is worth living for, modern education would also be merely one of recapitulation. PERIODS OF GREEK EDUCATION. —The emphasis placed upon personality by the Greeks and the opportunity given for its exercise were both matters of growth. The generally recog- nized division of Greek education is that into the Old and the New Greek periods, with the division point at the Periclean Age or the middle of the fifth century B.C. The Old Greek period The Greeks. The Liberal Education 31 IS divided into, first, the Homeric Age and, second, the historic period, including both the Spartan and the eariy Athenian types. In all of these the dominant emphasis was on the social and institutional rather than on the individuahstic aspect of education. The New Greek period included, first, the period of transi- The New don in educational, religious and moral ideas during and follow- p''^^^ educa- ' ^ _ _ ^ ^ ^ tioti included ing the Age of Pericles. This is the period in which the new the period of philosophical thought was developed, and the new educational !^^j^^^^°'^ practices were shaped. The second of these subperiods ex- nod of cos- tended from the Macedonian conquest (toward the close of the ^fe^nd^edu- fourth century B.C.) until Greek culture was thoroughly fused catioa with Roman life. By the time of the opening of this last sub- period, the philosophical schools had been definitely formulated, and during the period they were organized into the University of Athens. In her intellectual hfe Greece now became cosmo- politan and ceased to have distinctive characteristics aside from the philosophical schools. THE EDUCATION OF THE HOMERIC PERIOD contained Anunor- the germs of all the subsequent development, but it possessed gamzedso- ° ... cial process, no specific institutional organization, method or control. It as with all was an education that consisted essentially in a training in defi- p"™!"^^^ J --, ~o people nite, practical activities with httle or no place for instruction of a literary character. As the Homeric Greeks were just passing from the higher stage of barbarism into that of civilization, their education is similar in principle to that described in Chapter I. The training for the humbler needs of life was given at home. The home That for life's higher duties — those of general public service — ^^^ ^'^f o & r council were was received in the council, in war and in marauding expeditions, the chief In fact, the council formed the nearest approach to an educational ^ng^^^^^o^ns institution that they possessed. The Homeric ideal, however, contained the germ of development. It included the twofold The man ideal of the man of action and the man of wisdom. The former °^ f'^l'°" and the man was typmed by Achilles, the latter by Odysseus. While these of wisdom ideals were developed most highly in separate types, both wis- ^ ^^^^ 32 Brief Course in the History of Education These ideals permanent ones Bravery and reverence, the characteris- tics of the man of action Wisdom and temperance, the virtues of the man of council dom and power of action were to be attained by each free Greek Phoenix says of his instruction of Achilles : — "In all which I was set by him to instruct thee as my son, That thou mightst speak, when speech was fit, and do when deeds were done; Not sit as dumb for want of words; idle, for skill to move." This union of thought and conduct in a life of action guided by reason remains the Greek ideal even as formulated in the later philosophical stage. Ideals of Homeric Education. — These ideals contained several elements, each of which tended to develop during the later periods. The primary virtue of the man of action, the warrior, was that of bravery. Bravery, however, was to be tempered by reverence. The man who had no fear, like the man who had no sense of shame or modesty in his dealings with his companions or who was insolent in his attitude toward the gods or his elders, was guilty of irreverence. That is, he lacked proper balance in his action. The Greeks were far more sensitive to fine distinctions of all kinds than any other people. This they revealed in music, in sculpture, in architecture and in literature. So, also, in regard to physical pain and in matters of conduct, a proportion or har- mony, an avoidance of extremes, was the ideal. The primary virtue of the man of council was good practical judgment in advancing his own material welfare, and in the ser- vice of the tribe or the community. The other side of this ideal of wisdom was the Greek whole- mindedness. In order that good judgment be exercised, it was necessary that the desires and passions be brought under control. This control of the appetites by reason is the temperance, or whole-mindedness, of the man of wisdom ; it is the balance, or harmony, in thought that corresponds to the balance in action demanded by their ideal of reverence. Social and Individual Elements in these Ideals. — Now while these ideals, both of wisdom and of action, were dominantly The Greeks. The Liberal Education 33 social, yet large scope for individuality was permitted. The attainment of these ideals, especially in the aspects of reverence and whole-mindedness or free moral personality, was made more definite and brought into far higher rehef than in the primitive stages of civilization of any other people except the Hebrews. THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION OF THE HISTORIC PE- The city RIOD was determined in its character and its organization by ^^^^j^^t the dominant social institution, the city state. This institution, institution as the outgrowth of the tribe and council of the Homeric period, furnished the ideals and the basis of education, as did the family with the Chinese and the theocracy with the Hebrews. Membership in the city state was at first limited to members of the old ruling families of the tribe, who alone, in the Aristo- telian phrase, possessed "ancient wealth and worth." This privilege, however, entailed many duties. As the head of a family, the Greek citizen had to perform Duties of the duties of a husband, a father, a priest, an owner of slaves, ^tizen^ As a member of the village community, he added to these the duties connected with property, communal and family, and the elementary duties of government; as a member of a phratry, he added duties of a religious character; as a member of a tribe, duties of a mihtary and political character. With the formation of the city state he added an expanding group of administrative and judicial obligations and certain others of a wholly new character now to be noted. In time there evolved, especially among the Ionian Greeks, The ideal an ideal of worth, or nobility, more largely spiritual than had pre- °jj^g i^'g"'^ viously been attained. As the ideal became immaterial, its comes spirit- attainment depended more and more upon the exertion of the henre more individual. Admission to the chosen class was thus rendered individual possible for those not members of the ancient ruhng families. According to this ideal, service to the state and superiority to the barbarians and the low-bom could be shown only by attainment in those interests in life which the Greeks considered 34 Brief Course 171 the History of Education Worth, or "uperiority, now more largely intel- lectual, esthetic and moral To produce such worth in the indi- vidual was the new aim of education With Sparta the early ideals were formulated into a system of education which per- sisted throughout the period of her national Influence of the natural environment and of the social and Aistoric situa- tion under the peculiar protection of the Muses — the fine arts, the sciences and philosophy. Nobility now became worth, or virtue, in the spiritual sense as well as in the more practical material sense. Ancient wealth and worth in the sense of property and birth were now considered not so much the essen- tial elements of nobility, as presuppositions to the more spiritual- ized forms of wealth and worth. As Aristotle expressed the contrast, the aim of tribal and village organization is mere living, that of the city state is the good life. Worth in this sense could be attained and could be lost; and it was to be main- tained at all times solely by a striving that not only was of ser- vice to the state, but produced, as the essential feature of the process, the development of free and clearly defined person- ality. This conception of nobility, or worth, was the bond which held the city state together, gave it its superiority, and, at the same time, became the ideal attainable in the life of every citi- zen. To produce this worth became the aim of education. Spartan Education reveals the Old Greek education in its most pronounced form. Here there was no change from the earliest clear formulation of the ideals of action and of wisdom and no change in practice save by way of dechne. After the definite formulation of this system of education in the constitu- tion of Lycurgus, during the ninth century B.C., there was no more change in the Spartan ideal than in that of the Oriental type. The complete dominance of the state over the individual, secured through a system of laws which furnished at the same time the core of their educational procedure and the structural frame of their society, is explained by the peculiar environment and historical setting of the Lacedaemonian nation. The Do- rian Greeks, including the Cretans and Spartans, representing as they did the earliest form of Greek culture in the historic period, replaced or conquered at about the Homeric period an earlier branch of the Hellenes, then in the primitive stage of culture. To preserve their national existence from the dangers arising Tlie Greeks. The Liberal Education 35 from powerful neighbors, from a vast conquered population, and a sodaUstic from internal insurrections, the Spartan people adopted the con- s°ate «iuca-^ stitution of Lycurgus. This resulted in the most perfect exam- tion pie of a socialistic state and the most extreme case of govern- mental control of education with emphasis upon the educational function of various social institutions. In fact, society itself became a school, ill which every adult member was expected to participate, as an important duty of citizenship, in the education of the young. It is not supposed that these laws were formulated de novo Theconstitu- by Lycurgus; rather, that he recognized and strengthened old ^^Z^. l^ • customs and at the same time introduced some new ones, espe- origin and cially those of an educational sort, from the related Cretans. This system of law or of education — since it was little else than a scheme for the training of the younger generation by the older — remained in force without modification until near the time of the Macedonian conquest. Though it then began to de- cline, it yet remained operative until the second century B.C. After this time its vigor much abated, and only the remnants of form were left. The details of this system have been most fully presented by Plutarch who is corroborated in the main points by Xenophon and Aristotle. The Aim 0} Spartan Education was to give each individual Courage, such physical perfection, courage and habits of complete obe- ^'^'^^^J'^f dience to the laws that he should make the ideal soldier, unsur- endurance, passed in bravery, and one in whom the individual was sunk ° ^io^tism in the citizen. It was successful beyond any other scheme were their of extreme paternalistic education. The Spartan state pos- sessed a stabihty and a record of mihtary achievement unequaled Effects of this by any other Greek state ; the Spartan man, a bravery, power, ^pon^he^ endurance and self-control that was often wanting in the other state and Greeks; the Spartan woman, a dignity, a scope for activity in spartan men life and an ability to meet these opportunities that were denied, women and save in the early period, to women in other parts of Greece; and the Spartan youth, a reverential and obedient demeanor, 36 Brief Course in the History of Education Defects of these ideals The intel- lectual and aesthetic ele- ments want- ing A state su- perintendent of education with numer- ous assist- ants Self-govern- ment of the boys under the leader- ship of the Irens, or of older boys Always under the careful supervision of adults a reserve in conduct, a stoicism under pain and habits of obe- dience that were possessed to a far less degree by other Greek boys. The reverse of the picture shows many defects. While the Spartans possessed a keen sense of humor, and while much of simple pleasure entered into their active life, there was but httle place in their ideal for the "living beautifully and happily" of the Athenians. There was a lack of the finer sentiments and of Athenian sensitiveness to harmony in conduct and especially to the amenities of life or to its cultural aspect. There was wanting a sense of sympathy, of interest and of fellowship for others, which the isolation of Sparta preserved long after this narrowness had tended to disappear among the other Grecians. In the intellectual and aesthetic aspects of life, individuality was scarcely defined or developed at all. And finally Sparta did not participate to any great extent in the splendid artistic, literary and philosophical development which was the glory of Athens. Organization 0} Spartan Education. — The Spartan state, which after Lycurgus was governed by an aristocratic senate and a democratic assembly composed of all free men, appointed a general superintendent of education — the pcedonomus — and assistants., After a hardy training of seven years of infancy, during which time the boy was in the direct care of his mother, he was taken from the home and put under the charge of the assistants to the psedonomus. These cared for him in public barracks at state expense. The boys were here divided into successively smaller groups under charge of leaders chosen from older groups of boys. Of the boys over twelve, Plutarch tells us that "the most distinguished among them became the fa- vorite companions of the adults ; and the old men attended most constantly their places of exercise, observing their trials of strength and wit not slightingly and in a cursory manner, but as their fathers, guardians, governors, so that there was neither time nor place where persons were wanting to instruct and chas- tise them." ~" TAe Greeks. The Liberal Education 37 This organization of the entire hf e of the boys constituted the The entire school. The family, the shop, the church, the social life of other !|[^.^ ^^^' peoples, all were merged into this one educational institution, dai institu- The boys slept in public barracks; they ate at common tables; ^i'ne^d'into- they assisted in supplying the necessary food ; they hunted wild school animals under the direction of their Irens ; they participated in the choral dances of their rehgious ceremonies; and finally all the remainder of their time was spent in the gymnastic exer- cises which constituted the chief instrument of their education. From eighteen to twenty the boy was classed with the Irens Higher edu- who devoted themselves to the serious study of arms and to mili- ^^^°^ ^^scoA tary maneuvers. During this time he underwent rigid exami- public ser- nations every ten days and spent much of his time in the instruc- ^^^ tion of younger boys. From twenty to thirty his training became but Httle differentiated from actual warfare, practiced during the intervals of peace at the expense of the Helots. At the age of thirty the youth became a man, only to continue both the complete devotion of his services to the state and to the training necessary thereto. /"^"^ ""N Content of Spartan Education. — Into this education there/content was entered very little of the intellectual and aesthetic; it was| ^^fa.ndSorti dominantly physical and moral. Plutarch sums up the con-\ training tent of their education in these words: "As for learning, they ^v^^,^--'^ had just what was absolutely necessary. All the rest of their education was calculated to make them subject to command, to endure labor, to fight and to conquer." There was much conversation and association with the elders, inteUectual either at meal time or in the street, when the latter were wont to ^f "^^"^Sv ' , , laconic test the boys in repartee and ready speech, and to train them in speech ideas of justice and honor (especially in the later centuries of Spartan history). Some training in reading and writing was given. Through the choral dances and religious ceremonies Their music there was training in music, for which there must have been ^^ ^ j-eHg^us some private instruction in the use of instruments. To a large and patriotic extent the training of Spartan youth came through the approved 38 Brief Course in the History of Education Physical training Hunting was both a sport and a train- ing Aversion to professional training The ideal soldier was the ideal Spartan Moral train- ing through direct and constant as- sociation with their elders forms of exercises, — running, leaping, jumping, discus throw- ing, javelin casting, boxing, military drill combined with choral dancing, but above all wrestling. Hunting, the chief sport and occupation of their leisure hours, was at the same time a form of exercise quite as important as any branch of the formal curriculum. With all their emphasis on gymnastics the Spartans had no gymnasium and no training of a professional character. The trained athlete and the beautifully developed physique — im- portant objects of gymnastic training with other Grecian peo- ples — were alike foreign to their purposes. The resourceful and handy soldier, keen, cautious, self-controlled, fearless, piti- less, inured to all hardship, obedient to command, respectful to authority, able to act in unison with his fellows, and having that disregard for death that was by the Athenians accounted as insolence — he was the object of the Spartan training. Their music and their choral and religious dances were used to develop similar qualities. Since these dances consisted of intricate movements often in full armor, they accustomed the partici- pants to concerted action. Moral Training. — The Spartan system of education gives a direct affirmative answer to the question, "Can morality be taught ?" One means by which the moral results were obtained was the fact that all contests were in the open air, that all the boy's education — in fact all his hfe — was public. Hence the approval or disapproval of his elders was a constant source of discipline. The frequent conversation, either of an informal character or supervised by the adult in two ways now to be mentioned, and relating to moral or social questions, secured similar results. Plutarch describes the first custom in these words : — " The Iren, reposing himself after supper, used to order some of the boys to sing a song ; to another he put some question which required a judicious answer, for example: 'Who was the best man in the city?' or, 'What he thought of such an action ? ' This accustomed them from their childhood The Dromos at Sparta A Restoration from Falke's, Hellas und Rom. i 5> » ^ A Greek Youth accompanied to School by his Pedagogue From a Vase Painting The Greeks. The Liberal Education 39 to judge of the virtues, to enter into the affairs of their countrjmien. For if one of them was asked 'Who is a good citizen, or who an infamous one? ' and hesitated in his answer, he was considered as a' boy of slow parts, and of a soul that would not aspire to honour. The answer was likewise to have a reason assigned for it, and proof conceived in a few words. He whose account of the matter was wrong, by way of punishment had his thumb bit by the Iren. The old men and magistrates often attended these little trials, to see whether the Iren exercised his authority in a rational and proper manner. He was permitted, indeed, to inflict the penalties; but when the boys were gone, he was to be chastised himself if he had punished them either with too much severity or remissness." The Other custom, one most characteristic of the Greeks since Attach- it tended to occupy the same place in their society that romantic ^g"^,'^ °j^. (.1^^ attachments or those of sentiment and affection occupy in ours, "inspirer" was that of the relation between " the inspirer " and " the hearer." f.'Jiearer" The above quotation continues as follows : — "The adopters of favourites also shared in both the honour and the dis- grace of their boys; and one of them is said to have been mulcted by the magistrates because the boy whom he had taken into his affections let some ungenerous word or cry escape him as he was fighting. This love was so honourable and in so much esteem that the virgins, too, had their lovers amongst the most virtuous matrons. A competition of affection caused no misunderstanding, but rather a mutual friendship between those that had fixed their regards upon the same youth, and a united endeavour to make him as accomplished as possible." In other words, every Spartan adult was a teacher, and every Spartan boy had a tutor, selected through mutual esteem. Teacher and pupil were bound together by no economic ties, but by those of friendship and affection. Through this companion- ship, usually outside of the hours of regular gymnastic training, the boy received a further training in justice, in honor, in pa- triotism, in self-sacrifice, in self-control and in honesty. It must be admitted, however, that while the Spartan moral training con- served certain elemental virtues, its effects morally, as well as physically, had a hardening, even a brutalizing, tendency. Other phases of Spartan education can only be mentioned. Unlike any Summary of moral results Relative high position of women and of children Sturdy though crude char acter 40 Brief Course in the History of Education other ancient people, they gave women practically the same kind of education as men — yet with no higher purpose than that Neglect of of training mothers of warriors. While there was an absence ofUr*^^ among them of those grosser forms of immorality characteristic of early forms of civilization and constituting a blot upon the fame of Athens, they yet practically destroyed the family. While they possessed a sturdy character and the elemental virtues in a higher degree than did the other Greeks, they saw httle of the beauty of life and possessed few of the graces of character. They have left us a type of education that produced physical strength and endurance, the homely moral qualities, strength of character under a despotic system of regulation and a citzien body strongly imbued with patriotism and devotion to a state that encom- passed every activity and every interest in life. But to future generations they have left little save their example. Contrast be- Athenian Education during the Old Greek Period. — Save in Spartan and ^^ simpHcity of aim and in the means adopted for training, the Athenian the Old Greek education at Athens had httle in common with AeOki° that at Sparta. Even in these two general respects there Greek educa- was wide divergence in the relative values assigned to the various elements in the aim, as well as in the emphasis upon the various subjects of study. All that has been said concerning Hellenic ideals of life and that clear development of individuality worked out by the Greeks, appHes with peculiar force to the lonians and, above all, to the Athenians. Education The Organization of Athenian Education. — The citizen, guid- basedupon jjjg ]^-g |j£g ]^y j-eason, wise and judicious in his performance of the manifold pubhc duties demanded by the state, yet free in the disposition of his leisure time and in his interpretation of social obligations, as well as strong in body and brave in war- fare, could not be produced by an education thoroughly con- trolled by a despotic socialistic regime, as at Sparta. While Sparta dehberately destroyed the family, Athens aimed to pre- serve it as a means of developing and shaping personality, and- placed upon it the burden of responsibility for education. All The Greeks. The Liberal Education 41 schools were private schools; and the state provided directly for only that portion of education between the ages of sixteen and twenty, which was almost wholly physical and a direct preparation for military service. The state required a training in music and gymnastics; and while the freedom and the pri- vacy of home life was not destroyed, certain results were de- manded by law, and the process was supervised by the court of the Areopagus. This court had especial charge of the morals of the youth, and during the period in which it preserved its original authority, punished with severity grave lapses from the accepted standard of morality. Schoolhouses owned by the The state masters were quite common. The state may have provided established ^ J ir Standards some of the palsestras, or elementary gymnastic schools, as it and super- did, without any question, the gymnasia for advanced physical ^^^^ results education. Education in the Family. — The training o f the child for Education th^--fij:sL seven veai&^aa.:ffiholly in the hands of the,„ family. As through piaj •^ — — .™~~---v- - >~.«__jL».j-~~™-™— — « — ..,~--^,«.. - ■- > and games at Sparta, this training was chiefly physical, since the chief con- cern was to secure a hardy constitution and a well-developed physique. The training in the family was not, as a rule, of so high a character as at Sparta. The child at Athens was usually given into the charge of nurses and slaves, while the Spartan mothers were famous throughout Greece for the careful physical and moral training they gave their children. A most interesting phase of child life, before the definite series of physical exercises in school life was taken up, is indicated by the fact that Greek literature mentions or describes a very extensive list of children's games, including practically all that we have to-day. In the home, on the street, in the country, the child's early education, then as now, was unconsciously furnished. School Liee began at about seven, and for the children of the Two types free Greek families, save those financially unable, continued °]^g^^°s|^' for eight or nine years. The age of entering, the length of at- school and tendance,. . and .th£_,subiects studied" Hepe somewhat upon ^c^g^'^oi^' tne standing of the family. In two respects Athenian education 42 Brief Course hi the History of Education Importance of moral edu- cation,- supervised by the pedagogue The educa- tion of the ephebes from sixteen to eighteen The two public gym- nasia The ephebic education was physi- cal, political, and moral Literary ele- ment was wanting differed very widely from modern practice, — the Athenian boy attended two distinct types of schoolSj_the_niusic„ sghpol and iSe^gymnastic school, or palaestra, — 3nd _ the.„ character of * wor]nn~^ese two schools was radically^ dijffere^^ school w6rTFHliT£dern ones. From the time he grew out of the care "^f the nurse, the Greek boy was in charge of a ££dagogue, — a slave jot ^seryantjj— who was intrusted with the moral over- sight and general care of his charge. Too often one was chosen for this who from age, injury, or other disqualification was unfit for any other service in the household. At about sixteen years of age the youth was freed from the carFoTthe pedagogue, discontmued^alUiterary aii^^ anTreplaced the training of thej)alxestra_W2th^^ nasium. Here He associated most freely with youth of his o'Wn age and with adults. He was taught or trained in a variety of exercises by a state official, the padotrihe, and was und&il^ general supervision of the sophronist, or moral overseer. During the Old Greek period there were two of these public SIE£^i^j3i£~A£§.^:£SX...S^^ erected toward the opening of the sixth century B.C., outside the city walls. Here in the midst of beautiful groves and extensive gardens, the sons of pure Athenians at the Academy, and those of mixed blood at the Cynosarges, passed two years in free association with their elders and in the physical contests and social and po- litical discussions that prepared them for the life of the Athenian citizen. The only intellectual training of the ephebe was this indirect one which he obtained from association with his elders. Through discussion in the agora, conversation at banquets, attendance upon the theater and the law courts, he gained that knowledge of the laws and moral customs necessary to direct his conduct. Moral delinquencies that argued any lack of appreciation of the responsibilities of citizenship brought him before the court of the Areopagus. Public Education. — Having completed this two years of one's educa- tion The Greeks. The Liberal Education 43 * preparatory training and demonstrated to the officials that Entrance into he met the moral and physical requirements of citizenship, he J'^'lJ^^o^jJjl?' was enrolled among the list of free citizens, took the oath pledge tioned upon ing fidelity to the state, the gods, and the moral traditions of his people, was furnished in the pubHc assembly with hife ec^uip- ment as a soldier, either by his father or, if an orphan through war, by the state, and exchanged the dress of youth for tl^at of the free citizen. There was yet a definite training in the use of ■ arms and in genera FmiTItarv disciplin e before he assumed the Military and ''duties ancT^privifeges of fu)l^jtize^n^hip^_JTMs_w^ peri6d^f''epEeS^'~OT^£ade^ common to all Grecian theephebes people, thougli it varied in length from two years at Athens"to ten years at Sparta. During the two earlier years of ephebic discipline, — that from sixteen to eighteen in the gymnasium, — the youth had remained under the control of parent or guardian. For these latter two years he passed under the direct contror of state officials. The first year of this service was spent in bar- rack or camp life in the neighborhood of the city, and was de- voted to severe military training in the use of arms and in the conduct of practical affairs of the state. In the second year this life became that of the regular soldier in more remote garri- sons, with the idea of acquainting the prospective citizen with the roads, frontier, and topography of his country as well as with the duties of a soldier. During the entire ephebic period no small part of this training in public service consisted in the participation of the youth in the religious- and social festivals, as is depicted in the Panathenaic procession on the frieze of the Parthenon. In these festivals training in religious devotion Graduation and patriotism was combined with the cultivation both of the tks°of citizen- graces of life and of harmonious physical development. The ship end of the first year was signalized by a pubHc examination in the use of arms; that of the second, by a similar examination upon the duties of citizenship which were thereupon assumed. Even here the process of education did not cease, for the life of the Athenian citizen was one neither of private enterprise nor 44 Brief Course in the History of Education Educational training of the citizen All social activities possessed a definite edu- cational value Gradual for- mulation of this educa- tional sys- tem Unique posi- tion of gym- nastics of private indulgence. On the contrary, the state demanded such services of the citizen that a hfe of economic activity for personal ends was hardly possible, certainly not to the extent common in modern times. The pleasures of private life, whether amuse- ments in sports and games, attendance upon the theater, or social gatherings for eating and drinking, were controlled, for social ends, by the Athenians, though somewhat less directly than by the Spartans. The state and the entire social life became a school in which, although effort for physical perfection was not neglected, yet greater emphasis was laid upon intellectual and moral growth. Thus was obtained the highest conception of the elements of nobility, or virtue, that constituted the ever developing "worth" of the Athenian citizen. While this organization of educa- tion did not become clearly defined in all of its details, probably not even in its chief stages, until late in the Old Greek period, it formed the full expression of the Old Greek ideals and was a feature of Greek life dur- ing the fifth century. The definite training of the ephebes was the latest phase of this early educa- tional development to take shape. ■ The Content of Greek Education-: Gymnastics. — The most striking contrast between Greek and mod- em education is found not in its or- ganization, but in its content, especially in the importance * A, B, C, porticoes with seats vi^here the philosophers and sophists taught; E, double, covered portico ; F, ephebium, or hall for exercise for youth, seats w^ere provided here also ; G to P, rooms for hot, cold, and tepid baths, for anointing the body, for sprinkling the body vi^ith dust, etc. ; Q, R, S, porticoes for exercises in inclement weather and in winter, also used for peripatetic in- struction ; U, uncovered walks and running tracks ; W, stadium for public contests, with provision for a multitude of spectators ; in the center is the grove. Plan of a Greek Gym- nasium, i The Greeks. The Liberal Education 45 '' given to gymnastics. In the period of school hfe from seven to sixteen, fully half — and before the fifth century much more than half — of the boy's time was given to the palaestra. The formal education of the ephebic period, including the two years in the gymnasium and the two years' garrison duty, hkewise consisted, for the most part, in physical training. And yet from all this the Greeks got much more than Moral value mere physical development Moral results were no less impor- °j gymnasts r J ^ r education tant. Whole-mindedness, or temperance, — the control of the passions and the emotions by reason, — was thus obtained. Above all, the coordination of thought and action, the fitting of conduct to precept, of word to action, was secured through this same training. There resulted that harmony between the inner thought life and the outer life of conduct which formed the ideal of the Greeks. Games and physical contests were not indulged in haphaz- Organizatior) ard as with the modern youth, nor participated in by the few °^ s^™^^ for the entertainment of the many. Nor were the standards .M- of excellence the same as modern ones. .Success consisted not Results to be so much in the winning of the contest, 'af3!inTKe"evi3[SQce™^Ten gained of th^^pro^FTomTol jl^^^ercisey li^ gr^cef^ul ^and^ dig^nified carriage, in control of temper an d of ski ll. Above those exerc isestEaT'HIIed lordisplay of m ere f oj^? «J^^£^li?^^ such games as called for quickness of perception and evi- dence of courage, or "pluck." Succeeding the games onfttle children there were useST^aT^reat variety of games with the ball and of contests in running, together with a multitude of children's games and simple forms of exercises or calisthenics. In the schools these exercises were organized into a more definite course of study called th.\pentathlon. "This included, in succes- The pen- sion, jumping, running, throwiiiglhe discus, throwing the spear and wrestling. Wresthng developed into boxing with the open palms of the hands and into the pancratium. ^ This latter was a combination of boxing and wrestling, in which hands and feet, in fact, any means of discomfiting one's opponent, might be jt" 46 Brief Course in the History of Education used. At Athens, however, this was reserved for the older boys and was always under strict control of the gymnastic teachers or directors. To these a variety of other exercises were added. Music, to be understood in a much broader sense than is given in the modern meaning of the term, constituted the second portion of the Greek curriculum. ''Qy^gmaatic Jcr the bod^ music for the soul," was_^ei£ conception of an education. Music in this sense inclucled all that came within the activities presided over by the nine Muses. E^nce__£oetry^_the drama, histox^^atog;, the sciences,^ Greek Music School, from Vase Painting, about 450 b.c. sense, came to be included within the scope of this term. It is in the restricted meaning, however, that it formed the larger part of the education of the Greek boy in the earlier period. In the music schools the Athenian boy from early morning til? sunset spent most of his time not given to the palaestra. The earlier years of childhood were devoted to memonzing the Homeric poems, with portions of Hesiod. Later, in the historic period, selections from the lyric and didactic poets were added. Beyond this memoriter work, the tasks of the school consisted chiefly in explaining the meaning of words, phrases and obscure allusions. After a few years devoted to the mastery of this The Greeks. The Liberal Education 47 literature, wherein the early ideals of Greek life are expressed in a form that had imperishable influence on each succeeding generation, the boy was taught to ^Ti'ar^; these poernsi to an accompaniment on th^^^^^fyre^^^J]^^^ ;_.s--"-^*---~»»-««*-"'- ■^°^ ^'^IH^il-.SEi':^!.^^^^"^^^ Constituted all of the intellectual Technical edu'cation of the Athenian boy and, evenaiterwriting^an ing became commondum^^ CQntim ,ieidia..fQiia the~major part of it. However long it might take the boy to acquire the ability to play the lyre, mere technical skill was never the end. The task of the boy was similar to that of the work of the old bard. The playing of the lyre, in the school sense, was Reverse of Same Vase the improvising of an accompaniment in harmony with the thought expressed in the passage repeated. Here was demanded not only insight and understanding in the interpretation of the poem, but skill and creative abihty in the construction and per- formance of its accompaniment. In both respects there was a demand for individual ability and initiative, and hence there resulted a development of personality quite foreign to any pre- ceding type of education. Indeed, it is to be doubted whether education as a process of developing creative power — power of expression, of initiative and of appreciation — has ever been given a more fruitful form. It is in this sense that the 48 Brief Course in the History of Education Reading and writing intro- duced about 600 B.C. Greeks expected and accomplished so much from their musical education. Music developed not only this power of appreciation and ex- pression, but it produced as well a harmony of soul corresponding to the harmony of the body produced by gymnastics. In this connection Plato says : — - "Harmony is not regarded by him who intelligently uses the Muses as given by them with a view to irrational pleasure, but with a view to the in- harmonical course of the soul and as an ally for the purpose of reducing this into harmony and agreement with itself." The two accompanying illustrations of the music school are taken from a vase painting dating from about 450 B.C. by the Athenian artist Duris. On each side of the vase there are five people : two pupils, two masters, and a pedagogue who has accompanied the boy to his master and remains to look on, to assist, or merely to return home with the boy. It probably is an exigency of the representation of the artist that each boy has a master, for we know that a single master had many pupils, though most of the instruction, save in the chorus, was individual. On the one side, the boy in one group is learning to play the lyre; in the other group he is repeating a portion of a poem which the master holds in book or scroll form. On the other side, the boy is either learning to sing, or is repeating a poem to the accompaniment by the master on the flute, or is learning to play the flute ; in the other group instruction in vnrit- ing is represented, the master holding in his hands a triptych^ or folded wax tablets, and either correcting an exercise or setting a model. On the wall are hung musical instruments, flute cases, rolls and satchels for books, and on each wall a cyHx, or drinking cup, hke that from which the illustrations are taken. Reading, Writing and the Literary Element of educa- tion are thus included in the work of the music school. Reading and writing were introduced into the schools about 600 B.C., l^ut long before this the Homeric poems were taught orally, as they continued to be afterward. Filling a function similar to that_ The Greeks. The Liberal Education 49 performed by the Bible in the education of our own people in Educational earher generations, t he //?a .~> J pggy were the ness, or harm(;ny, or proportion, we have the Roman tendency Roman to judge ever by the usefulness or the effectiveness of a thing, standards For this reason the Romans tended to look upon the Greeks as a visionary, unj;rartical people, while the Greeks considered G 8i 82 Brief Course in the History of Education Romans for- mulated laws, institu- tions, and ideals of practical vir- tues ) The five rights of the Roman citizen The duties correlative to these rights the Romans somewhat as sordid barbarians, with force of char- acter and miHtary strength, but with no appreciation of the higher aspects of life. Conlrilmiions of Rome lo Civilization. — The permanent contributions of the Romans to civihzation were, then, of two great types, (i) Through their development and organization of law they furnished that institutional organization of life that serves to a large extent as the basis of modern social life. (2) Through their iniluence on the practical virtues, chiefly by means of the law and the state, but also later by the adapta- tion of the Stoic philosophy and the propagation of the Christian religion, they contributed to the exaltation of the moral con- ception of life. Thus it follows that they liave exerted much less of permanent influence on education, in the narrower sense, than have the Greeks. No science, no speculative phi- losophy,(no contribution to the abstract intellectual or aesthetic elements in education followed from their conception of life and of religion.^ 'Their whole influence was the practical one of adaptation and organization. Roman Ideal of Education shown in their Conception of Rights and Duties. — -The rights of the Roman citizen were five in number and all clearly defined by law. These were: the right of the father over his children (patria potestas); the right of the husband over his wife (maims); the right of the master over his slaves (potestas dominica); the right of one freeman over another which the law gave him through contract or through forfeiture (manus capere); and the right over property (do- minium). The freeman received these rights by birth; but after the earlier centuries they could also be acquired either by naturalization or ado])tion or by enfranchisement. The duties of a Roman citizen corresponded to and grew out of his rights. Now all of the duties of the father and of the citizen neces- sitated a definite training through the years of boyhood in order that the appropriate abilities or virtues might be developed. Only to a slight extent was this training furnished by the school The Romans. 'I kn J'racf/ual J'jlucation 83 even in the IaU;r periods. Vet a definite ecmtive charatjter and great value wa)» furnishefl by the hormi. Elements in this Educational Ideal, -t/ In the performance of '^ the:-/^ duties certaia detixiite virtues or momV chara(c:teri«tic» "^ were (\ftmaxiAi:c\. Thc^se were all of an extremely piriuXlcai char- acter and were formulated from an actual living type. Man- hood, as exemplitijed in Ij'ving mien, in welJ-kn/>wn* hkiXfrUM j^ersonages, or in mythical hatcm^, inmhhad the ^ia,nnii,r(h fifhich the youth was expected to 2ti)[mmmMii. Foremost of these virtues was that of piety or oU:4ien/>e, v/irtf Piety-coomprised h»oth the religious if4^i>i»« management ctf one's \)mmem affair*, and hfmesiy or fair Z^'^t^'^*' dealing in all economie relatjons. E^.- (ynirinf/iAjy sobriety in condufA, or 4't^iaky oi l>earing y/^„ ./.-iU-A for the Greek idea of graioc^f ulnoint of tlw? ere summed up in the if ;/. .... .> the j^ate, in the itm, i '. ^ e Ujginning the Greek i^kral of virtue y/as largely < to the «tate, the ideal of pfey^ical bravery «oofi Influence of the mother 84 Brief Course m the History of Education ceased to be its chief element; their moral ideal was ever for- mulated in some form of virtue in terms of personal satisfaction. In time their ideal came to be formulated in terms of hap- piness or in terms of intellectual activity. The Roman ideal, on the other hand, ever continued to keep as its basal element the idea of bravery or of virtue in the sense of devotion to the state.J^ Virtue, then, in terms of duty, as stated in principles or in law, remained the Roman conception of life J Life in terms of personal virtue is the idealistic formulation of life; life in terms of duty is the moral conception of life as formulated by the practical man. The Practical Education. — The Home as the Center of Edu- cation. — In a conception of education that has to do for the LlFK U¥ A Ru.MAN FRUM INFANCY lO MaNUUOD From a Sarcophagus. (School life in the center) most part with the formation of moral character, schools can hold but a minor place as an educational means. And so it was at Rome. Their place was taken by other institutions, chiefly the home. The power of the father exalted his functions and made the family the social unit, even in many legal respects. The moral importance of the home, as well as its legal and social ^ importance, was emphasized. The father was responsible for the moral and physical training of the boy. The mother held a position far superior to the place of women in Greece. Within the home she was dignified with a position of independence and responsibility. She was more the companion of her husband socially and more his partner in his management of the home than in Greece. She herself reared and cared for her own children, instead of turning them over to a nurse. The boy, The Romans. The Practical Education 85 when somewhat grown up, became the companion of his father instead of being turned over to a slave or pedagogue, as with the Greeks. Biography as a Means. — The influence of the home was sup- The use of plemented bv that of concrete t^^pes of Roman manhood. Xo biography ^ ■' _ ' J^ ' embodied other people have so ettectivel^sed the personages of importanceAin early in their own histor}^ in forming the character of the youth , ^"^^ of each generation.^ Their earhest hterature consisted of the hymns and legends and heroic tales of the earlv Romans. Their songs were ^^^^^^ but the glorification of these same deeds. Something similar to this occurred in Greece in the earHer period. The Grecian heroes, however, were demigods or were constantly protected by the interposition of the gods, and hence were beyond imi- tation by the wiser men of later generations. The Roman heroes, on the other hand, possessed ^-irtues and performed deeds such as could be imitated by every Roman boy. Imitation as the Method. — From what has been said it follows that the most important characteristic of the method of Roman education was imitation. WTiile the Greeks empha- tanceofim sized the assimilative character of the soul and hence sought ^^°^ " — ^o asooates; educational results by creating an environment of cultural value the Greeks through public works of art, rehgious ceremonials, dramatic %sil^^°" presentations, and a free and open life in public places, tte nient Romans emphasized the imitative character of the soul and hence sought «iucational results by placing before the youth a concrete characteuio. be followed. Though the pedagogue and the inspirer performed a somewhat similar service with the Greeks, yet the function of these was rather to control and direct; this was true at least of the pedagogue, who, because a slave, was not to be imitated. The Roman youth was to be- come pious, grave, reverential, courageous, manly, prudent, honest, by the direct imitation ol his father and of old Rommis of so heroic a character as to be embodied in their legends and histories, yet withal men who had actually walked the streets and had gathered in the Forum. ennro 86 Brief Course in the Histoij of Education In one other important respect does the method of Roman education differ from that of the Greeks. With both peoples education was primarily a process of doing as opposed to one of instruction. Certain activities were undertaken to form cer- tain approved habits. Subsequent to this earher phase of their educational development, the Greeks added a process of in- struction to make such habits rational; this the Romans never developed as a component part of their education. Though in later periods they adopted the Greek school, it was not a native process ; it neither formed an essential part of their con- ception of education nor became of general use and significance until well on in the imperial period. Then, too, there was a radical difference between the " doing " process of the Greeks and that of the Romans. The Romans were a direct rejected as marks of effeminacy, gymnastic training, dancing, practical music, literature: in brief, all such educational means as the training for ' - ' the activities Greeks employed. Through games, it is true, the Roman boy of adult life g^jj^g^ jj^ physical development to a certain extent; but not through any organized and systematized use of them. There were no gymnasia. Physical development was secured on the martial fields and in the camp, and through actual exercise with weapons, supplemented by the actual training of real life on the farm. In every respect the training of boys was either through an apprenticeship to the soldier, the farmer, the states- man, or by actual participation in those activities that were later required of them as citizens. Thus in method we see the characteristic of thelpractical education, — the doing of the actual thing to be doi^~7They had no appreciation whatever of. training and instructioifi-Hin certain selected activities that possess cultural value because they plant in the very nature of the child germs of a much fuller development in manhood. PERIODS OF ROMAN EDUCATION. — Roman education falls into two great time-divisions: one in which its ideals and practices w^ere purelyJR.oman, the other in which Greejk_jn;:^ fluence was prominent and education became of a composite The Romans. The Practical Ediuatioii 8y or cosmopolitan character. Owing to the much more stable character of the Romans, this change was more gradual than the corresponding one in Greece and affected the masses of the people much less radically. The dominance of Greek educational practices and insti- Theintro- tutions did not become complete until near the fall of the q^j.^'^"^^ Republic (31 B.C.). In 55 B.C. Cicero (106-43 ^-c) pubhshed cationai his work On Oratory, which was the first Roman exposition ''].!||^jj^"g'^ of the Greek educational ideal. As Cicero was the first Roman formed the to rise fo power through oratory, that is by means of the Greek Jon^^rin education, this date may well be taken as the dividing point be- Roman edu- tween the two eras. Each of these general divisions falls into two sub-periods. PERIOD OF EARLY ROMAN EDUCATION (753 to about Early Ro- 250 B.C.). — During thisperiod the features previously given co.n- ™o^n largely cerning Roman education dominated completely. The rearing moral and of the child was in the hands of the mother, the training of the boy in the hands of the father. The home was practically the only school, though the boy early became the companion of his father in business, pubhc and private, on the street, in the forum, and in the camp. Education was largely moral; "J discipline was severe; ideals were rigorous. The slight literary element entering into their education was that connected with the religious and choral service, and with the Laws of the Twelve Tables. These fundamental laws of the repubHc, adopted ^j^p^^^^^^^ 451 and 450 B.C., remained the basis of Roman society for of the Laws almost a thousand years. /In the function they performed, these twelve laws resembled those of Lycurgus ;y hough they dealt not with Tables education, but with the power of the father, property rights, religious services, political and military obligations, and similar subjects. In the broadest sense, they constituted the frame- ' Constituted work of Roman society and hence embodied the ideals of life ^^f/ "jf Jt'^^j that gave to- education its concrete ends. The relation of the j training of laws to education in the narrower sense consisted, first, in the y|^|j^'^^^'^^' definite embodiment of the power of the father over the child 88 Brief Course in the History of Education and his duty concerning his training; second, in the custom followed for many generations of requiring every boy to learn the tables as they were posted in the Forum and to become perfectly familiar with .their meaning. This in itself offered no insignificant intellectual training. Its practical character, however, made such training very different from that which the Greek boy acquired from a similar familiarity with Homer. During the latter part of this period, elementary schools fur- nished the rudiments of the arts of reading, writing, and arith- metic. Such elementary schools were known as ludi {ludus, — play, sport, or a turning aside),^ a name which indicates that their function was only supplementary and that they were not essential to the real education of the Roman youth. These schools were of a purely private character, and were held in some home or in an unfrequented nook or porch of a temple or other pubhc building. Even in the matter of training in the arts of reading and calculating, these schools evidently rep- resented a "diversion" from the ordinary custom of training in the home. PERIOD OF INTRODUCTION OF GREEK SCHOOLS.— The time from the middle of the third century to the middle of the first century constituted a period of transition, during which Greek customs and ideas were introduced. This period coin- cided substantially with the period of national expansion through- out the peninsula of Italy. Previous to this time Rome was only a local community; after this period Rome became an empire which had, necessarily, to acquire a cosmopolitan culture. By the time of the opening of this transitional period, the ele- mentary schools (schools of the liter ators, they were also called) were quite numerous and they soon came to be known as schools of the grammatists as well. This of itself indicates that a tran- sition was going on. About the opening of this period Livius Andronicus (284-204 B.C.) translated the Odyssey into Latin. ' A somewhat similar idea is contained in the Greek word for school, — ^ schole, leisure. The Romans. The Practical Education 89 The book was soon introduced into these schools, giving them a more literarYJxmtent tlian they had hitherto possessed. The translation of other Greek works followed rapdily; and Latin introduc- literature took its rise at the same time. This growth of literary [|°J^ ° ^ ^ material soon produced a radical advance in education, namely, element into the introduction of the Greek grammar school, distinct from the ludus in form and superior to it. The exact time of intro- duction is difficult to determine. The Greek Andronicus, pre- The Greek viouslv mentioned, was (in 272 B.C.) brought as a slave to Rome grammar or •' 1 \ I ' o ^ hterarv from his home in southern Italy, and after securing his freedom school's is said to have become a teacher of the Greek and Latin lan- guages. Other teachers, of Greek origin, followed; though it is probable that these early teachers did little more than give some slight knowledge of the language and literature, chiefly in trans- lation, to a chosen few. Certain it is that by the time of the The Greek decree of expulsion of philosophers and rhetoricians issued by gchooTs^^ the Senate in 161 b.c. a higher type of Greek teachers had appeared. Thus the Greek grammatical and rhetorical schools T were both established. The subsequent introduction of the Latin rhetorical school not Latin gram only supplem.ented the work of the Greek rhetorical schools, ^g^o^kal but gave a much wider scope to this formal or rhetorical schools education, since it affected a much larger portion of the popu- lation. In 92 B.C. the censors issued the following decree: — Decree of the Senate " It is reported to us that certain persons have instituted a new kind of 92 b.c. discipline; that our youth resort to their schools: that they have assumed ^^'^\ ^"S ,:, P-r.T-.i-- 1-- teachers of the L:tie of Latin Rhetoricians; and that young men waste their time there grammar for whole days together. Our ancestors have ordained what instruction it is fitting their children should receive, and what schools they should attend. These novelties, contrary to the customs and instructions of our ancestors, we neither approve, nor do they appear to us good. Wherefore it appears to be our duty that we should notify our judgment both to those who keep such schools, and those who are in the practice of frequenting them, that they meet our disapprobation." That the reception given to these schools had not been a hearty one and that their influence was not general until the 90 Brief Course in the History of Edtication Support of literary schools not general at first The general appropria- tion of Greek learning and education Work of the elementary school more literary in character imperial period, is evidenced by the fact that the instances ol the few notable men who underwent a rhetorical training and profited practically by it, such as Cicero, Pompey, Caesar, Mark Antony, and even Augustus, are cited by Suetonius as unusual. He states that by slow degrees, rhetoric made itself manifest as a useful and honorable study, and that many persons de- voted themselves to it, both as a means of defense of personal rights and as a means of acquiring reputation. The custom of sending the youth to Greece to receive this rhetorical training, as in the case of Cicero, became estabhshed during this period. THIRD OR IMPERIAL PERIOD. THE HELLENIZED ROMAN EDUCATION. — During this period, including about a half century B.C. and two centuries a.d., the Romans attempted to introduce the new wine of Greek culture and intellectual activity and individualism into the old bottles of Roman in- stitutional life. Never before, perhaps never at any time, has one people attempted to appropriate so thoroughly the intel- lectual hfe of another. The native vigor of the Roman char- acter made it possible to do this without a complete surrender of their own characteristics, and consequently rendered some modification of the Greek intellectual and educational char- acteristics necessary. The Romans never acquired the intel- lectuality, the versatility, or the originality of the Greeks. At best, they perfected the form of hterature; at worst, their education became one of pure form possessing little real value. This was true in the later centuries of the empire and is re- vealed in their intellectual hfe and hterature. The general means by which the Romans appropriated the Greek cukure was by the adoption of the Greek educational institutions. The School of the Literator (or Ludimagister).— Even during this period this elementary school never attempted to give more than the merest rudiments of the arts of reading, writing, and calculation. Since reading was taken up in the grammatical school as a fine art, it is probable that, when the boy had mas- A Roman School. From a Mural Decoration at Pompeii t>\B 0/^A >Sri IE 'QVOWO DO ECxO i^BO R/^l A Roman Boy's Opinion of the Grammar School AS "A Grind" A graffito from the walls of the Palace of the Caesars. (The legend reads : — " Labor on, little ass, just as I have labored, and may it be of profit to you.") A ^^ ^ -1/ ^' u- y* The Romans. The Practical Education 91 tered the art of reading ordinary prose, he was immediately transferred to the higher school. By the time of Cicero, the Laws of the Twelve Tables disappeared from the elementary schools, and their place was taken by portions of the Latinized Odyssey or by versified moral maxims. This phase of education, being non-Grecian, never received any general attention, nor such teachers — often mere slaves — any pubhc esteem. The School of the Grammaticus now became a definitely Definite or- formulated educational institution with an elaborate method, a gamzation ' of the gram- fixed curriculum, and pubhc support. Such schools were of mar schools two types ; one for the teaching of the Greek language, the other for the Latin. Quintilian recommended the learning of the Greek language first. The Latin Grammar Schools were to be found in every city in the empire, and they remained as one of the most persistent institutions of the old pagan civilization until the overthrow of Roman culture by the barbarians. The master was called a literatus or a grammaticus. The major part Literature, ■ of the work of these schools was, as the name indicates, ^^'ftoryand ' science in- the study of grammar. But grammar included more than the eluded under term signifies with us, for it related to the study of both the ^^^^^^^ linguistic elements and the literary products of the language. And literature might be — and certainly was in the conception of Quintilian — a broader concept than with us. It included the work of the historians and of the scientific writers as well as of the poets. For the Romans, the world of learning had become iden- other prac- tical in outline v/ith that of the Greeks. It is certain that ticai subjects introduced to some extent mathematics, music, and rudimentary dialectics into the were introduced into the grammar schools. In all of the studies g'^f^'^"^^^ ° school mentioned, the practical character of Roman life was never lost sight of; their use never became identical with that in the Greek schools. Gymnastics and dancing were never introduced; the former was taught only in connection with military training, and the latter, if ever, in the home. ice- di::S» lio" cs~ the csrszcc 92 Brief Coyrse in the Hisiory of Edncafion Through ihe ixaining in declamaiion ihe work of ihe gram- maiical school merged into thai 01 the rheiorica] ?chool. Biit in iis main piirpose the foimex wa^; dineren: from :he latter- in the grammaiical school the object was 10 give a master}* ok the language, a comeciness of expression in reading, in wriiing and in speaking, and to do this throu^ a familiaiit}* with i^e best Gneei and Latin auihors. Thus the literal}- educatioc de\'ielope\i by the Greeks as the highest form ca the liberal edu- cation was further deA^eloped along the definite line of a practical educa::on for ihe life of azairs. The School of the Rhetor was the c\ilmmatieai erf this practical hteran* education. Similar :o :h? schools of the sophists, or of the latex rhetoricians of Greece, these schools furnished a direct pieparauon for the life of anaiis at Rcene by a thonou^ training in ora:or\\ Consequently they weie pation- ized oqIy by those who e:specied to de>T»te their li\'e5 to a public career. During the larer ■"—:-■..! r:-?5- such a life became the distincti\'e character;?: „ .: - : : ers of the senatorial class. To :he Roman. :he power of :he orator represented :he ^T;r:ous wa^-s in which an educated man in modem :imes car. male his knowledge enecti>'e hi :he ser^-ice of his feilow-m-fn. I: is no: so much that :he K. : - ■ ;. -. ; , ■. : ; , ; ■ . " . i , ;. : ,m is narrow, but rather tha; the s. .^:_ ,r^.i:„..:_n :: ;_i; ;_mes ga\^ but few facilities tea: bxinging iniellect to bear upon practical asairs. The great w:.:- :- swere also great orators; indeed, tiiey weie ci:;-: ^i...: .._s beca . ?f :':~fy were greai orators. The orator was greater than the r r ; v er. "because the cjator included the philosopher. The funciions r : : ; : : : i in modem society by the pulpit, the press, the rostrcr ax, the legis- lative debate, eveai by the uni\-ersity, wer; : : cse times all peifoimed by the oxator. Hence a: ::? best the Roman ideal was a grea: one. It is oaah* when we come to consider its orviinar}- realization luiai it appears formal, aitincial, and lestiicted. The Romans. The Practical Education 93 The rhetorical training of the youth began at about the Attended bj. fifteenth year of age, the time the boy laid aside the toga prcetexta ^^ ^^"^ and assumed the dress of manhood. Then, if destined for a of age public career, he entered the rhetorical school to supplement the thorough linguistic training he had received in the grammar schools. The length of time spent on this stage of education would depend upon his interests, his abihties, and the schools he attended. The routine of the school consisted for the most part in dec- Routine lamation and debate. At its best, however, the rhetorical work of these schoolE school included much more than this exercise in debate. Ac- cording to Quintilian, the grammar school should thoroughly acquaint the boy with all literature; and the rhetorical school, in a similar manner, should give him a knowledge of music, of arithmetic, of geometry, of astronomy, and of philosophy. Quintihan enumerates the qualifications of the orator as follows: a knowledge of things (gained through a mastery of literature); a good vocabulary and an ability to make careful choice of words; a knowledge of human emotions and the power of arous- ing them; a gracefulness and urbanity of manners; a knowl- edge of history and of law; a good delivery; a good memory. Beyond this he holds, also, that no one can oe a good orator unless he is first a good man. Libraries and Universities. — In a most literal sense the higher Libraries education of Rome was an imitation of Greece. Its earlier ^^^^^ f" libraries were taken as spoils from the Greeks, just as the earliest the Greeks of its higher teachers were slaves or refugees from Greece as a result of the Roman conquest. In 167 B.C. the conqueror Paulus iEmilius brought over the first of these libraries; Sulla and later conquerors brought others. Augustus founded two public libraries. During the golden age of Latin hterature, books multiplied, many libraries were founded, and all the The univex- appurtenances of an age of culture abounded. With the library found^ed by^ founded by Vespasian (69-79 a.d.) in the Temple of Peace, Vespasian erected after the fire of Nero, the university of Rome had its origin. 94 Brief Course in the History of Education University studies Universities only in Greek centers Grammati- cal and rhe- torical schools in almost every town Imperial and munici- pal support Imperial subsidy made gen- eral Under Hadrian (i 17-138 a.d.) and the later emperors interested in literature and education, this was developed into a definite institution termed the Athenaeum. More attention was given to law and medicine than to philosophy. The liberal arts, especially grammar and rhetoric, were fully represented both in the Latin and in the Greek languages. Later, teachers of archi- tecture, mathematics, and mechanics were appointed by the emperors, — at least by Alexander Severus. These lines of instruction represented the entire work of the university. There was nothing in the way of investigation or of creative speculation. All instruction consisted in formal discipline such as was given in the lower schools or in the mere exposition of the subject as organized by the Greeks. While grammar and rhetorical schools were distributed over the provinces, the same cannot be said of the universities. Aside from those in the Greek centers of culture, all of which were in the East except Massilia (the modern Marseilles), there were no other universities under the Roman regime. The estab- lishment of libraries in provincial towns was an occasional occurrence. Support of Schools by the Empire. — Although the number of schools increased during imperial times to such an extent that scarcely one provincial town was w^ithout its grammar school, yet it can hardly be said that a system of schools existed. There was no governmental oversight of these schools; there was no compulsion in their establishment. But owing to the fact that the government, both imperial and municipal, came to the sup- port of these schools, many of them lost their private character and in that sense may be said to have constituted a system. Several of the early emperors followed the example of Ves- pasian in building up the Athenjeum. But Antoninus Pius (138-16 1 A.D.) was the first to systematize the encouragement to education and to extend it to lower schools. He conferred upon a limited number of grammarians, rhetoricians, and phi- losophers in provincial capitals and smaller cities many of the The Romans. The Practical Education 95 privileges of the senatorial class. These privileges included ex- Privileges of emption from taxation and other governmental burdens. Con- extended to stantine (r. 306-337 a.d.) extended these privileges and made them teachers the basis of the privileges of the Christian clergy. In many cases, Gratian (367-383 a.d.) duphcated from the imperial treasury the amount contributed from municipal treasuries for the support of schools. In 376 the same emperor estabHshed a salary schedule for teachers throughout the empire. The apostate Julian (361-363) required the certification of teachers Certification as a means of eliminating Christian teachers from pagan schools, ^y ^^ In 425 Theodosius and Valentinian made the imperial govern- empire ment the sole authority in the establishment of schools and declared any attempt to found a school by a private party to be a penal offense. This is the nearest approach made to an imperial system of schools. But by this time educational and intellectual interests had declined, and schools had ceased to have the influence and importance they formerly possessed. Yet these steps in the building up of the system parallel quite closely those taken by the few modern governments, such as Germany and France, that have built up a state system of schools. Educational Writers during the Imperial Period. — The lit- Educational erature on Roman education is much less abundant and less gen^e^ca important than that on Greek. Seneca is the one writer whose point of view would be likely to approximate most nearly that of the Greeks. Although he considers education to be in close contact with life, he has little to suggest except stray observations, full of truth and still often quoted, but offering no underlying principles of education. Among his famous maxims are these : "We should learn for life not for school;" "We best learn by teaching;" "The result is gained sooner by example than by precept." The remainder of the hterature falls into two general classes. Educational The first includes incidental references to educational customs f^^^J^^."^,,^ in Latin lit and institutions. Our information concerning the education of erature the Romans is drawn, for the most part, from brief reference 96 Brief Cotcrse in the History of Edtieation Works of Cicero, Tacitus and Quintilian on oratory (».?. on edu- cation) Quintilian the most prominent Roman edu- cator Decline in the Roman spirit, power and social mo- rality Real decline in the third and fourth centuries scattered throughout Latin literature, beginning with Plautus, and inchiding among the writers of the first two centuries of the Christian era. Horace, ^Martial, Juvenal, Seneca, Suetonius, Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, and Marcus AureHus. In the other class are included the theoretical or scientific discussions of the problem of education as it appealed to the Romans. The most important of these are the de Oratore of CicerOj the de Oratoribus of Tacitus, and the de Institutione Oratoria of Quintihan. The latter is really the first scientific exposition of the whole problem of education, including pur- pose, method, curriculum, and organization, ever written. It consists of the most matter-of-fact discussions of all problems relating to the school and is entirely typical of a practical people. Quintilian (35-95 a.d.) was not only the most prominent writer on education, but the most successful of Roman teachers. He was among the rhetors first subsidized by Vespasian and was given the highest marks of esteem by his contemporaries. Though he acquired great wealth through his teaching, he did not claim that he possessed great originality, but rather that in his practices, as later in his writings, he summed up the best results of the work of his predecessors.^ FOURTH PERIOD. DECLINE OF ROMAN EDUCATION. — In form, this Grecianized Roman education continued to flourish and to dominate until the extinction of the Roman imperial power in the West during the fifth and sixth centuries. In spirit, the dechne began with the gradual loss of Hberty by the Roman citizens shortly after the opening of the Christian era. The decadence in literary quality and in the intrinsic merit of this grammatical and rhetorical training did not come until the later part of the third or the early period of the fourth cen- tury. Long before that time the significance of this education had departed. As in other aspects of Roman society, the in- * For selections of those portions of Roman literature that relate to edu- cation in the school, see Monroe's Source Book of the History of Education for the Greek and Raman Period, Pt. II, Ch. VII. The Romans. The Practical Education 97 stitutional form persisted long after selfishness had destroyed the purpose, after corruption had destroyed the spirit, and arti- ficiahty had taken from it all real influence upon the lives of the people and all real social significance. The education of the Christian Church was gradually replacing the education elaborated by the Roman from the material borrowed by them from the Greeks. The great merit of the Roman adaptation had been its close relation to the practical needs of political and institutional hfe. This was now lost. When the practical bearing of a practical education is lost, there is nothing left to commend it. The limitation which most characterizes the decline is the fact that this education was for the upper class only. This education is to be judged, not as the practical training of a whole people, but as an adornment to a hollow, superficial, and usually corrupt society; not as the expression of the highest aims in life, but as a dilettante interest, and more often still, as an affectation; not as a stage of development possible for an entire people, or for individuals of any rank, but as an attainment or even a mere badge of distinction of a favored class. As the old political power and opportunity for political activity disappeared, as the municipal government became mere ma- chinery for collecting taxes, as the army became filled with bar- barians, the upper class, now more numerous than ever, turned to the one remaining feature of early imperial Rome, — its culture. These centuries were not without many minor writers of merit, Formal ex and able systematizers, especially grammarians. This is espe- ceiience of cially true of the fourth century. With the return to paganism education under the apostate Emperor Julian (361-363) — a revival in itself largely inspired in the schools — there occurred a revival of the classical culture and of schools, which is spoken of by histo- rians as a distinct renaissance of learning. Donatus (about 400) in the West and Priscian (about 500) in the East perfected the grammatical analysis of the language in text-books that were Persistence of these schools 98 Brief Course in the History of Education to remain the basis of linguistic study and hence of education until the sixteenth century. Grammarians and rhetoricians had never been held in such high esteem. Rhetoricians had followed the conquering Roman armies into Gaul, as do traders a modern conquest, and had gained a hold upon the Romanized Celtic civilization that rendered possible the survival of this culture in that province after it had disappeared elsewhere. In addition to the rhetoricians and grammarians located in the cities, wandering sophists or teachers traveled from place to place. Speaking of these, Professor Dill says: — " If he was a man of reputation in his art, people rushed to hear him declaim, as they will do in our times to hear a great singer, or actor, or popular preacher. Provincial governors, on a progress through a district, would reUeve the tedium of official duties by commanding a display of word- fence or declamation by such a master as Proaeresius, reward him with the most ecstatic applause and conduct him home in state after the perform- ance. . . . This power of using words for mere pleasurable effect, on the most trivial or the most extravagantly absurd themes, was for many ages, in both West and East, esteemed the highest proof of talent and cultiva- tion." Such being the ideal, it is not to be wondered that the work of the schools was of the most artificial and ineffectual character. The study of philosophy had disappeared altogether from the schools and found but few devotees among the cultured, and here, too, merely for a show of learning. Except in Rome, even law attracted but slight attention in these Western schools. Such ideals of culture stopped all progress. If the Hellen- ized Roman education ever possessed any of the liberalizing tendencies that it did with the Greeks, it had long since lost all of them. The practical merits of Roman education had disappeared quite as completely. Down to the close of the sixth century these schools existed throughout the European provinces and gave to the early Church in that region a formal training in the culture of pagan society. In portions of Italy some of these schools — modified by the The Romans. The Practical Education 99 ecclesiastical influence, it is true — survived the dark ages. Replaced In Gaul, where the Goths accepted Roman culture, they per- nxma^tic' sisted well into the seventh century. But with the coming of the schools Franks and the spread of monasticism the few surviving ones were replaced by the schools of the monastic orders. SUMMARY The Roman contribution to civilization was the practical one of institu- tions as means for realizing ideals or social purposes. Consequently they contributed to education much less of permanent value than did the Greeks. On the other hand, they furnish the best illustration of the practical educa- tion. Their educational ideals during the earlier periods were wholly moral ones, that is, relating to practical conduct. The home was the chief educational institution, imitation the chief method, biography and the practical process of Hfe the chief educative means. Shortly before the opening of the imperial period and of the Christian era, Greek ideals came to dominate and Greek educational processes to be adopted. This es- pecially affected higher education. Consequently, for the remainder of Roman history, a modified system, including both Greek and Roman ele- ments, prevailed. The Greek literary and culture elements appealed chiefly to the higher classes and left untouched the great masses of the people. For these higher classes, an elaborate system of grammar and rhetorical schools, and even numerous libraries and some universities, were developed. The great achievements of Latin literature were products of the very earliest por- tion of this period, when the Roman genius had lost none of its virihty, and the Greek education had been adopted only to a sHght extent. In a com- paratively short time, this imitation of the Greeks became wholly artificial, education became very formal and unreal, Roman life tended a,t the same time to become veiy corrupt, government became despotic, the earlj indi- vidualism and virile character of the Romans was lost, and the dominsxi*: education ceased t; have any vital connection V7ith. the life >-)f ^'^ Consequently a new education, that furnished by the earh' ■ gradually replaced the old. Roman education lost ' though its structure continued to persist even afte" control of the emp: .: in the West. Chronological Survey of Mediaeval Education. 476-1300 a.d. Political Events Writers, Schoolmen, etc. Churchmen and Ecclesiastical Events Educational Writings Educational Events " Fall " of Rome . Odoacer . Theodoric Tothila . Justinian The empire reunited . Arab conquest of Spain . Karl Martel defeats Saracens . , 732 Carolingian line 752 End of Lombard kingdom . . 774 Charlemagne 772-814 800 a.d. . . 476 • • 476 • • 493 541-542 • ■ 527 563 714 Boethius c. Cassiodorus c. Gregory of Tours c, Isidore of Seville c. Venerable Bede . . Alcuin . . Paulus Diaconus 480-524 480-575 538-594 570-636 673-735 735-804 St. Benedict 480-543 Franks converted . . 496 Gregory I c. 540-604 Mohammed b. 572 Columban . 540-615 Hegira of Mohammed . 622 Conference at Whitby . . 664 Boniface converts the Germans . 721-754 Last council recog- nized by Eastern and Western churches . . 787 Leo III . 795-817 Benedict's Rules Boethius, Consolations, Translations of A ristotle. Cassiodorus, Institutes of Sacred Literature Gregory of Tours, Chron. Isidore, Etymologies Bede, Chron Alcuin, On Seven Liberal Arts, etc. Monte Cassino founded . . 529 Cassiodorus founds monastery . 540 Christian era first used for dating . . . 526 St. Gall founded 614 Reichenau f. . 724 Fulda founded . 744 Alcuin called to Frankland . 781 Karl's Capitularies on ed. 787 et seq. Alcuin, Abbot of Tours , 794-804 Carolmgian Empire founded . . 800 Charles the Bald . 840-877 Treaty Verdun 843 Alfred . 871-901 Henry of Saxony 919-936 Otho . . 936-973 Holy Roman Em- pire founded 962 Otho III . 996-1002 Caliphate of Cordova 929-1031 Capetian line . 9S7 Norman conq. 1066 Canossa . . 1077 1100 A D. Einhard . 770-840 Rabanus Maurus . 776-856 John Scotus 810-875 Walafred Strabo . 809-S49 Avicenna gSo-1037 Anselm . 1033-iiog Roscellinus c. 1050-1121 Consular govern- ment in Italian cities . fl. iioo Arnold of Brescia 1100-1155 Frederick Bar- barossa 11 52-1 190 Henry II of England 1154-I Philip II of _ Francs i l8:j-l2.>3 Ureaty of Coastanca 1183 Fall of '"■N-T-rjir-tiuorle William of Champeaux Conversion of Saxons . . . Separation of Eastern and Western churches . . Clugny founded 910 First Crusade 1095 Sylvester II (Gerbert) 999-1003 Cistercians founded . 1098 Knights of St. John founded . 1099 Rabanus Maurus, Education of the Clergy Walafred Strabo, Biography Anselm and Roscellinus begin scholastic controversy Division of Monastic Schools into interns and externs . . 817 Hirschau founded . . 830 Oath of Strassburg, earliest form of German and French language . , 841 Salerno . fl. c. 1050 Anselm, Abbot of Canterbury 1093-1109 d. 1121 Bernard . a'. 1 153 Knights Templars Abelard 1079-1142 founded . 1119 Hugo St. Victor Second Crusade 1097-1142 1147 Richard Murder of St. Victor d. 1173 k Becket . 1170 John of Salis- Innocent III bury . iiio-iiSo 1198-1216 Peter of Blois Peter the Venerable Albertus Magnus jAlbigensiaa I 193-1280 Crusade . laoS Walter Map JFraiciscsns c. 1140-1210 founded . i .^verroes ii26-ii9SlDomtnicans Ale.x. Hales d. 1245I founded . i Tro^seleste Crusade of 1175-1253! St. Lcuis . 1270 '-.ira jChristiaus -^:!i-i274 cxpe'.led from ;?TT-74| Palestine . X251 Boniface 1S94-1303 Abelard, Sic et N'on, etc. Hugo of St. Victor, On Instruction John of Salisbury, Meta logic US Walter Map, Latin Students Songs Alexander de ViUc. dieu. Grammar Irnerius at Bologna . 1113 Trans, from Arabic under Raymond of Toledo 1130-1150 U. of Paris . c. 1160 Aristotle's Physics proscribed at Paris . . X2IO Metaphysics proscribed . 1215 Frederick II sends trans of Aris. to Bol and Paris 1220 Niebelungenlied C. I230 Epic poetry in Ger. and FrEnce c. 1200-1250 Dominicans at ) P^ris . . 1217 I ranciscans at Paris . . 1230 U. of Padua . 1222 U^of Naples . 1224 " of Stlamanca 1243 ,jjt|ijS/. Oxford 1249 ;. te"' use, y\ ?a>roridge 1284 'istotle again stud. -It Paris . 1255 CHAPTER V MIDDLE AGES: EDUCATION AS DISCIPLINE SIGNIFICANCE OF MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. — By sue- Political cessive decrees (312,313, 321, etc.) of the Emperor Constantine, ciTr'isttrni^^ Christianity became the official religion of the Roman empire, tion of Ro- So far as formal acceptance was concerned, it soon came to Teuton'^ °^ prevail throughout the empire. After the surrender of the imperial office in the West (476) the political control was in- direct until the re establishment of the imperial office by Charles the Great (800). Meanwhile, to all practical purposes, the in- stitutional control of the people had passed to the Church. But not even yet could it be said that the masses of the people were Christianized in spirit and in conduct. The political conversion of the Roman populace had left their ideas and their conduct but slightly modified. True the gladiatorial shows, the exposure of infants, and similar pagan customs were sup- pressed in time; but at heart the masses of the people experi- enced little change. The conversion of the barbarians during the sixth and seventh centuries was also largely of a pohtical character. Both with the decadent Roman and with the barbarous Goth Great need and Vandal, the great need was a schooling in conduct and poiuicd con- spirit through the substitution of new ideals of life and new mo- verts was a tives of conduct. Neither the education nor the religion of the tion Greeks and of the Romans gave this. But under the dominance of Christianity education received a wholly new character. Instruction in doctrine and training in Church ceremonials were subst -ited for the intellectual element; a rigid discipline in conduct, jr the physical and rhetorical training. I02 Brief Course in the History of Education Dominant moral char- acter of early Christian education V.^ Disciplinary character of the intel- lectual edu- cation when introduced Education became a rigid regime in preparation for some future state. From the point of view of this disciphne, all that was an outgrowth of natural interests was to be suppressed; everything connected with this world and its activities was evil; all consideration for the development of personality and the cultivation of esthetic taste or intellectual activity was a gross sin. From the sixth To the thirteenth century, the in- tellectual element was practically eliminated from education. Even when reintroduced, it was still under the dominance of the disciplinary conception. The subordinate types of education which developed during the long period of the ]\Iiddle Ages, before the classical Renaissance of the iifteenth century, are but various expressions of this disciplinary conception. Through a rigid training, physical, intellectual, moral, the individual was to be prepared for some state, remote from the present both in time and in character. Under the dominance of the Church and of monasticism this future state became the future life. For the entire period there prevailed a new conception of education, antagonistic both to the liberal, individualizing education of the Greeks and to the practical, socializing education of the Romans. EAEXY CHRISTIAN EDUCATION The educa- tional as well as the social ideal found in the moral rather than in the intel- lectual na- ture of man THE NEW EDUCATIONAL IDEAL. — In the various solu- tions of the moral problem of life offered by Plato, Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, the key was found in the intellectual nature of man. Since high intellectual attainments were pos- sible only to a few, such solutions were aristocratic in nature and partial in apphcation. Opposed to this, Christianity offered the solution found in man's moral nature. Since the moral nature is common to all alike, or at least is possible of develop- ment in all, such a solution was universal in its application. It was in no ideal of immediate happiness or of any activity of the rational nature that Christianity discovered its solution of the world problem. It was in the idea of Christian charity or love, Middle Ages : Education as Discipline 103 — that expression of personality which is most individual and individual most complete and which at the same time, from its very nature, figments finds its expression in objects or personahties external to itself, harmonized Thus in the moral nature, which pagan religion had so slightly ^^J chris-^ affected, and which Greek philosophy had but dimly appre- tianchar- hended, a new basis of life was found and a new solution of ^^ °^ the fundamental educational as well as ethical problem was secured. This position led to an indifference on the part of the early and indifference mediaeval Christians to the intellectual and aesthetic features of and esthetic the Graeco-Roman education and culture. Christianity also elements offered its greatest boon to classes wholly neglected in the economy of pagan society and Grecian culture. When it was further reahzed that the literature, culture and schools of the old civiHzation furnished the strongest intrenchments for paganism, there grew up a general hostihty between Hellenism and Christianity that at first had not been evident. Thus moral and religious elements replaced the intellectual, aesthetic and physical elements in the dominant educational ideals and practices. A complete readjustment of social and educational factors Readjust- occurred. Religion with the Greeks and Romans was chiefly ^^^*i*fnd a political concern. It had little to do with personal morahty educational and right conduct. Ethics had been associated with philosophy. Under Christianity, religion was dissociated from pohtics. Ethics and morahty, through their new connection with religion, were given an unprecedented hold on the masses of mankind. With this new alignment of rehgion, ethics and politics, there came other readjustments of vital interest to education. Re- ligion lost its previous relationship to assthetic culture and to literature, philosophy its intimate connection through ethics with the practical life. The new moral and religious character of education, excluding the aesthetic and intellectual phases so essential to the education of the classical world, persisted for many centuries. I04 Brief Course in the History of Education Friendly attitude of early Greek Christians to Greek learning Grounds of opposition of Church to Greek learning ATTITUDE OF THE EARLY CHRISTIANS TOWARD PAGAN LEARNING. —The relation of Christianity to the pa- gan learning and culture divided the leaders of the early Church into two quite well-defined groups. One group held that this an- cient learning contained much that was valuable for Christians and for the Church; that much of it confirmed the teachings of the Bible; that philosophy as well as Christianity was a search for truth; that all philosophies contained some valuable truth, though not the highest and not complete ; and that Christianity should therefore include all this ancient learning and build upon it. The other group recalled the scorn of the Greek philoso- phers, the insults and the atrocities heaped upon Christians by the representatives of this heathen culture, and the immorahties contained in their literature and sanctioned by their rehgions. Therefore they held that there could be no compromise between the truth and the world ; that philosophies when connected with Christianity produced only heresies; that literature and culture in general represented merely the pleasures and the seductions of the world. They believed that those who were instructed in the legends of Homer, in the myths of Zeus and the gods, got from them nothing but lessons of impurity, and, hence, that such literature and in fact all ancient learning should be rejected as hostile to the purposes and interests of Christianity. In general the view friendly to this learning prevailed in the earHer history of the Church and especially in the East among the Greeks. The hostile view became more general in the West and prevailed among the Christians of those parts even before the overthrow of the old social structure by the barbarians. It was but natural that the Christians of the West shduld identify heathenism with this ancient culture, for the chief hold which the old religion retained upon the people was through this literature; the most forcible opposition to the progress of the Church came from the class most conversant with this literature; and the chief stronghold of the pagan regime was in the schools. With such a hostility it is not to be Middle Ages: JEducation as Discipline 105 wondered that learning almost ceased to exist, and that there followed for some centuries the period commonly termed " the dark ages." Since this attitude of the Church explains to a large extent Reasons for the condition of education for a thousand years, some further tioninthe" explanation of it should be given. One of the most important Western .causes of this attitude has been mentioned. It is the fact that found in the great mission of the Church, as well as the great need of the the early times, was a moral one. Added to this was the belief prevalent the Church throughout the early Church that the second advent of Christ was near, and that consequently learning, culture and in fact all mundane affairs, were of trivial importance. The persecution and the exile which many Christians in the first three centuries were compelled to undergo deprived them of all opportunity for the acquisition of pagan learning, even if they had desired it, and destroyed all inclination to attain to the most distinctive possession of their persecutors. In the following section, on monasticism, one other great reason for this indifference is discussed more fully. This is asceticism or the opposition to all worldly interests and to all that gives satisfaction or pleasure of a natural or human character. Two other reasons, one operative in the earher centuries, the other in later times, explain in part this indifference of the Church to learning. In the early period its success was largest with the lower class of people, to whom its message brought a wonderful deliverance. They were disinchned, through nature, through sympathy and through tradition, to take any great interest in the culture that had been made possible only by their debasement. In the later period, and in the the strength of the Church was found in the new Teutonic character of " Teutonic peoples, whom the Church raised out of barbarism, but to whom converts it was impossible throughout many generations to impart the graces of culture. Again, the unification of the Church in the West and its reputation and desire for orthodoxy acted as a check not only upon learning, but also upon the spirit of inquiry, which was fostered or permitted in the East long after it had disappeared in the West, io6 Brief Course in the History of Ediccation Attempt of Greek Fathers to identify Greek phi- losophy and Christian reaching Later Greek Fathers recognize difficulty, even impos-~ sibility of this recon- ciliation at that time The Attitude of the Greek Christian Fathers toward Learn- ing is typical of the attitude of the Church in general. Many of them had been Greek philosophers before their conversion and all of them had been pupils in Greek schools. All encouraged the study of literature and philosophy. Clement of Alexandria (c. 160-c. 215), one of the formulators of the theology of the Christian Church, held that the Gospels were perfected Platon- ism and that " Plato was Moses Atticized." He taught that pagan philosophy was " a pedagogue to bring the world to Christ." Another of his doctrines was that God had made three covenants with man, — the law, the gospel and philosophy. Most of his teachings and writings were directed toward the reconcihation of faith and reason, of Christian revelation and pagan philosophy. In this general attitude, Justin Martyr (c. loo-c. 175) and Origen (c. 185-c. 254) agree. By the time of St. Basil (331-379) and Gregory of Nazi- anzus (c. 325-c. 390), the opposition of the Christians to pagan learning and especially to Greek philosophy had become more pronounced. But both these Fathers unite in the protest of the earlier ones against this prejudice and in the effort to show that Greek literature is full of principle and event, of precept and example, helpful in instruction and leading to the higher life. However, the opinions of these later Fathers is not so unqualified as that of the earlier. It is only within limits that learning is recommended. Chrysostom (c. 347-411), though not in con- demnation, it is true, yet with greater disparagement, writes, " I have long ago laid aside such follies, for one cannot spend all one's life in child's play." And Basil, writing on the education of children, thus sums up his judgment, expressed fully in a much longer discussion: "Are we then to give up literature? you will exclaim. I do not say that; but I do say that we must not kill souls. ... In fact, the choice lies between two alternatives: a Uberal education which you may get by sending your children to the public schools, or the salvation of their souls which you secure by sending them to the monks. Which is to gain the day. Middle Ages : Education as Discipline 107 science or the soul ? If you can unite both advantages, do so by all means; but if not, choose the more precious." Attitude of the Latin Church Fathers. — In the West, by the Latin Fa- fourth century, especially among the Roman Christians, Hel- conTiJ^entiy lenism had become almost synonymous with hostility to the hostile Church. This is true, notwithstanding the fact that most of the Latin Fathers — TertulHan, Arnobius, Lactantius, Gregory, Augustine — had been teachers of oratory or of rhetoric. Ter- tuUian, in his chapter On Schoolmasters and their Difficulties, denied that a Christian could be a teacher of ancient learning. To St. Jerome (331-432), the translator of the version of the Jerome's ' Bible accepted by the Church for centuries, this conflict between 111^°^^ ^^^^^ the classical learning and the Christian faith became most tativesignifi clearly defined. Perhaps no single event of this general conflict had so great an influence upon succeeding generations, as that of Jerome's famous vision (374). Dreaming that he was dead and dragged before the judgment seat, he was asked the question, " Who art thou? " Upon answering, " A Christian," he heard with the stricken conscience that repeated its awful warning to many successive generations, the terrible judgment, "It is false : thou art no Christian ; thou art a Ciceronian ; where the treasure is, there the heart is also." In the case of St. Augustine (354-430) as in that of Jerome, Change in a retrograde movement from an earlier devotion to classical ofs'^A^ugu^ learning is to be found. Until middle life a teacher of rhetoric tine and oratory, Augustine had partially completed an encyclo- pedic treatise on the liberal arts. Intellectually the most active and the most brilhant of the Fathers of the Western Church, and exerting the widest, the deepest, and the most far-reaching influence of them all, he called his extended learning into service in combating the many heresies in the Church. Thus although in his earlier years he sanctioned " the spoihng of the Egyptians," as he termed the study of the classics, at a later period of his life his sympathy for classical learning was much restricted. He discountenanced its use and is supposed to have been io8 Brief Course in the History of Education The disci- pline of Christian life was a schooling The training of converts on probation organized into a school Incorpora- tion of Greek learn- ing into such school for learners and teachers personally responsible for the prohibition of philosophical and literary study made by the Council of Carthage. EARLY CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS. Christian Life a School- ing. — In its reaction against this corrupt society of the last pagan centuries, life in the early Christian Church was in itself a schooHng of very great importance. To be sure, this was not a schooHng of an intellectual character, but we have previously seen how formal and how futile was the intellectual education of Rome for some centuries of the new era. Education was now to possess very little of the intellectual element for a thousand years. The early Church was concerned in the moral reforma- tion of the world, in the destruction of the state of society already described; for this reason it turned its attention wholly to the moral education of its own membership and thus to the regen- eration of society. Catechumenal Schools. — The earHest aspect of the hfe of the Christian Church that approximated a formal schooling was the training given to converts both young and old. As in heathen countries at the present time, so it was necessary then to post- pone the reception of such converts into full membership until a period of probation for instruction in doctrine and trial of Christian life had been passed. Such probationers were called catechumens, and such schools, catechumenal schools. Catechetical Schools. — As the Christian leaders at Alexandria and other Eastern centers came in conflict with the Greek schools of thought, it became more and more necessary to equip the leaders and the ministers of the Church with a training similar to that of the Greeks. For some centuries Alexandria was the center of this intellectual and theological activity. In 179 a.d. Pantaenus, a converted Stoic philosopher, became head of the school for catechumens at Alexandria. Through him and his successors both philosophy and rhetoric — in fact all the Grecian learning — were brought to the service of the Church. Pantaenus was succeeded in turn by the two most noted of the Greek Church Fathers, Clement and Origen, from whom came the earliest Middle Ages : Education as Discipline 109 formulation of Christian theology. Similar, though less im- portant, schools grew from the catechumenal schools elsewhere. These were the catechetical schools. However, since the schools for catechumens used the same catechetical method, the term catechetical schools is often used in a more generic sense to in- clude both. Episcopal and Cathedral Schools. — In time such schools came to be organized by each bishop for the training of the Incorpora- tion of these schools into the Church organization under the control of the bishops A Cathedral School clergy for churches under his supervision. As the life of the priests gathered in these central places was brought into sub- jection to regular rules or canons, as was first done in 354, it became possible to regulate the work of such schools more definitely. During the fifth and sixth centuries the Church councils legislated that children destined for the priesthood should be early placed in these training schools under the charge of the bishop. In the West such schools were more commonly called cathedral schools, from the building in which they were no Brief Course in the History of Education located. After the overthrow of Roman culture by the bar- barians, when education had completely fallen into the hands of the Church, these schools with those of the monasteries remained the only ones of the West. § 2. MONASTICISM. EDUCATION AS A MORAL DISCIPLINE SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF MONASTIC EDUCATION. — The term monasticism in its most general apphcation indi- cates the organization of those who have taken special vows of a rehgious life and live according to rules controlhng conduct in most minute details. For this reason they are generally termed the regular clergy, as opposed to the secular clergy, who do not live under special rule and who pass their lives in close associa- tion with the lives of the people. We have noted the estabhshment of cathedral or episcopal schools under the control of the bishop, for the training of the secular clergy. But in western Europe, from the seventh cen- tury to the Reformation, the most important type of school was that of the monastery. Under these must also be included the schools of the mendicant. friars, which were established during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries (p. 153). After the Reformation, other monastic orders, termed teaching congre- gations (p. 201), were organized especially for educational work. Since the term monastic education indicates a great variety of activities, includes the work of a great number of orders, and covers a scope of territory from Egypt to Ireland, and a period of time from the sixth century well into modern times, only its most general characteristics can be here discussed. ORIGIN OF MONASTICISM. —The primary idea of mo- nasticism is asceticism. In its original significance, asceticism was the training or discipline of the athlete in preparation for the physical contests. In its figurative use it indicates the subjection or the disciplining of all bodily desires and human affections in order that the mind and soul may be devoted to the Middle Ages : Education as Discipline in interests of the higher hfe. Found in some degree in all beliefs, it was given a special prominence in many religions, — in the Jewish, the Persian, the Egyptian and in several of the Grecian philosophical sects, — with which Christianity early came in con- flict. In all of these the highest ethical thought was that of rising to spiritual excellence and insight through the elimina- tion of all natural and material wants. Through fasting, penance, flagellation, or through prolonged and enervating physical exercise, the quiescence of the physical nature and the complete eradication of temporal interests were obtained. Thus the Christian ascetics united in themselves the Stoic Theeie- virtues of contempt for pain and for death and of indifference to chrisV^n the vicissitudes of fortune, the Pythagorean customs of silence asceticism and of submission of the physical nature, and the Cynic neglect of the obhgations and the forms of society. The ascetic idea found support in Christ's commands to take no thought for the morrow, to sell all one's goods and give to the poor, to forsake father and mother, wife and children, and, above all, in the frequent exhortations to world-renunciation and to the devo- tion of one's self to the service of spreading the gospel. The particular occasion of the rise of monasticism in introduc- the East was the intimate relation of Christianity to other ^rtkism^n Oriental religions. The particular occasion for its spread in the the West West was the development of the secular character of the Church and the worldly hfe of its communicants after the general inclusion of the Roman population within the formal limits of Christianity. The first prominence was given to monasticism by St. Anthony, who in 305 fled to the desert on the shore of the Red Sea and there subjected himself to a series of physical penances which became the model for a long line of exacting, ingeniously devised and herocially endured practices for the mortification of the flesh. Monasticism was transferred to Rome by Athanasius (296-373) and Jerome (340-420). In the West the monks lived in communities rather than in isola- tion as hermits, as was the usual custom in the East. 112 Brief Course in the Histo7y of Education MONASTIC RULES.— At first each of these groups form.^ted its own rules. Among these was Benedict, a patrician who had fled from the corruption of Rome and had attracted many by his Hfe of spiritual devotion. In 529 he drew up a set of rules for his own community. Through the influence of the popes these rules were soon adopted quite generally by the monastic communities in western Europe. These rules were not nec- essarily exclusive, but were at first adopted as supplemental to the local rules. During the tenth century the Benedictine rules were made more rigid by the " Cluny reform." During the eleventh and twelfth centuries still more rigid rules were adopted by a variety of new orders. The most notable of all was the Cistercian Order, founded in 1098. The rules of this order enjoined absolute silence, provided for the soHtary life so far as possible, simplified worship, and apphed in their churches and ceremonials provisions more rigidly ascetic than any pre- viously formulated. The original rules of St. Benedict were seventy-three in number. Nine related to the general duties of abbots and monks; thirteen to worship; twenty-nine to discipline, errors, penalties; ten to the administration of the monastery; and twelve to various topics, such as reception of guests, conduct of monks while travehng, etc. The distinctive feature of the Benedictine Rule was insistence upon manual labor of some kind, added to the implicit obedience which the monk must render to the abbot in the performance of this work. In very great divergence from the ideas and habits of the monk of the East, indolence was termed the enemy of the soul. To provide against this, at least seven hours a day must be given to some kind of toil. Thus many of the evils that had come into monastic Hfe as a result of idleness were eradicated. The more subtle evils of a subjective kind, arising from enforced solitary confinement and a brooding over imaginary evils by minds little adapted to profit from such a course, were also eliminated. The Benedictine Rule is the first recognition of Middle Ages : Education as Disripline 113 the Vc^xue of manual labor in education. Though the conception of education and the value placed upon the manual activities in this moral training were both very different from those in our own time, they were a great step beyond the position of the Greeks and Romans. From this provision came most of the Social value social benefits of monasticism in the West, — for monasticism °^/^^^^ ' rules was an education in the broadest social sense of the term. In the cultivation of the soil the monks furnished models for the peasantry. They introduced new processes for the craftsmen in wood, mxctal, leather and cloth. They gave new ideas to the architect. In a way they stimulated and fostered trade among the mercantile class. They offered asylums to the poor, the sick, the injured and the distressed. They drained swamps and improved public health and public life in almost every way. The Benedictine rules also provided that two hours of each day should be devoted to reading; indicated the portions of the Bible and of the Fathers to be read ; provided for the reading of the Bible during the meal hours ; and through minute rules saw to it that these times for reading were not to be wasted in idleness, in sleep or in talking. IDEALS OF MONASTIC LIFE AND EDUCATION. Asceti- Educational cism an Ideal of Discipline. — The rules of monastic life might f^pectsof •^ o the ascetic present the greatest variation; its ideals were everywhere the rules same. In all places and in all ages its dominant ideal was that of asceticism. The virtue of the monk was often measured by his ingenuity in devising new and fantastic methods of mortifying the flesh through fasting, through eating insufficient and in- appropriate foods, through taking insufficient sleep, through wearing insufficient clothing, through assuming unnatural postures of extreme discomfort and maintaining them some- times for months, through uncleanliness of body, through bind- ing the limbs with hgatures, through loading the body with chains and weights, through every means which would reduce or even destroy the natural wants or which would produce suffering from insufficient care for them. This irrational regime might 114 Brief Course in the History of Education either destroy or weaken the mind. In any case it would make it subject to abnormal visions, which would be increased by the terror of such temptations. However, this seems seldom to have been noticed by the monks. All these forms of discipline were for the sake of the spiritual growth, the moral betterment of the penitent. All these, as the very significance of the word asceticism indicates, reveal the dominant conception of educa- tion which prevailed throughout this long period, — the idea of discipline of the physical nature for the sake of growth in moral and spiritual power. The ideals of monasticism were usually summed up in the three ideals of chastity, poverty and obe- dience, or more technically, conversion, stability and obedience. Social Significance of these Ideals. — Thus, in a manner, the monastic ideal had its negative as well as its positive signifi- cance. In its three great ideals it negated the three great in- stitutional aspects of social life, — the family, industrial society and the state. It represented a type of disciplinary education which left out of account these three great classes of needs of society and emphasized and developed those moral virtues that, in a restricted sense, found expression largely through the Church and religion. On the other hand, monasticism became in the larger sense an educational force of very great importance to society as a whole. Each one of these monastic ideals introduced new factors into social development. For example, the habit of obedience, with its accompanying virtue of humihty, presented as great a contrast as can be imagined to the strong individual- ism of the barbarian and the arrogance of the Roman. The ideals and habits of the monks entered into the reorganization of society in the institution of feudalism, revealed themselves in the crusade movement, and probably did more than any other single factor in the subjection of the rude Teuton to the restric- tions of civilization and culture. MONASTICISM AND LITERARY EDUCATION. — As we have seen, monasticism was not primarily a scheme of education Middle Ages : Education as Discipline 1 1 5 in the literary or school sense. Its conception of education Educational related to the formation of moral and religious character alone. ^teTaTy ^char- Many, consequently, have resented any criticism of the learning acter were or of the educational efforts of the monks as altogether invalid, ordinate" on the grounds that an institutiori or a class of people is not to be held responsible for that which it does not explicitly under- take. It is true that until the organization of the teaching orders in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the monastic orders did not make education a controUing aim; on the other hand, it is also true that, from the seventh to the opening of the thir- teenth centuries, there was practically no other education but that offered by the monks. Moreover it was the Church and the monastic institutions which were responsible for the facts that no other conception of education existed and no other educa- tional institutions were tolerated. Study in the Monasteries. — St. Benedict provided for seven Provisions hours of labor, chiefly manual, though it might be Hterary; and for from two to five hours of reading each day. Some similar provisions had been made before by St. Basil in the East. From these provisions, imposed only as matters of discipline for the monks, came most of the indirect social benefits of monasti- cism. If the monks must read, they must be taught to read, they must have books, and they must in turn teach the novices to read and copy manuscripts. Hence, without any word in the rules concerning schools and with but the briefest reference to the training of the youth accepted for the monastic life, without any direct reference to the copying of manuscript or to the study of hterature or to the preservation of books, all of these things followed. But there were other causes contributing to make the results Gave oppor- of this one provision so great and so far-reaching. In those ^^^^^^x\ restless ages of rude culture, of constant warfare, of perpetual so inclined lawlessness and the rule of might, monasticism offered the one opportunity for a life of repose, of contemplation, and of that leisure and relief from the ordinary duties of life which are ii6 Brief Course in the History of Education essential to the student. Hence the youth, who came at the age most impressionable and most given to the pursuit of ideals, was influenced toward the life of reflection and of study. Those also who had been l^ereft of family and of protection found in the monastic cell a retreat and in study a consolation. While those worn out with a life of toil, or shocked by the brutality and callous indifference about them, found in the monastery a natural resting place, and in the pleasures of a life of reflec- tion and of study a legitimate reward for the burdens they had borne. ""^ ^Thus it happened that the monasteries were the sole schools for teaching; they offered the only professional training; they were the only universities of research; they alone served as publishing houses for the multiplication of books; they were the only libraries for the preservation of learning; they produced the only scholars; they were the sole educational institutions of this period. In each of these lines their activities were, to be sure, meager. But the opportunities were meager, and, how- ever great the needs, the conscious social demands of the times were more meager still. 'iEvery monastic rule — and they were much more numer- ous than this brief account would seem to indicate — either authorized indirectly or commanded directly the study of literature. The most famous monasteries in every country were those noted for their learning and for the training they afforded. Typical of these were those of Fulda and Hirschau in Germany; those at Tours, Corbie, Bee, and Cluny in France; of St. Gall in Switzerland; of Glastonbury, Malmesbury, and Canterbury in England; of Monte Cassino in Italy. While these were exceptional institutions, there were many others that adopted as their motto, " Love the study of Scriptures and you will not love vice." The negative aspect of this relation of monasteries to study must also be noted. The ScripturcB Sacra, which the monks were commanded to study, included all religious writings, but it did Middle Ages: Education as Discipline 117 not go beyond these. Moreover, study was never an end in interest in itself, but simply a disciplinary means or an occupation for other- [^efatoe wise idle moments. The instant study became an end or a alone toi- pleasure in itself, the very purpose of its introduction into the monasteries was negated. Further, it is just as erroneous to argue from a few exceptional cases, such as St. Gall, or Monte Cassino, that " to the monk of the tenth century no knowledge was unfamiliar," as to argue from other occasional instances that they knew nothing. It is quite evident that many monks were entirely ignorant; that many monasteries gave practically no attention to learning; and that those which gave attention to secular literature were comparatively few. To most monks the study of ancient hterature, disapproved as it had been by the Dangers in Church for several centuries, represented distinctly the interests of^secuiJr and the temptations of the world. The desire for such study was literature indulged in only at a distinct risk or as a positive sin. Such study was a gratification of human desires, a satisfaction of the tastes, that was distinctly hostile to the idea of acetic ism. In addition to this, such studies were the cause of 'heresies. Greek phi- -^ . ,..,,. 1 ' \ — - losophy the Quite as promment m its early history as they are now were the origin of many divisions within the Christian Church. Even as late as the heresies period of St. Augustine, these numbered eighty-five according to his own enumeration. As a result of this, both error of judgment and the state of intellectual doubt came to be looked upon as sinful. One of the most commendable traits of ancient society within the polytheistic period of Greece or Rome or in the later skeptical cosmopolitan period, was toleration of be- liefs. To this fact Christianity itself in its early days owed very • much. But to the Christian, tolerance of a belief that might mean eternal damnation to those enslaved by it was no virtue. Hence the very basis of all intellectual progress — ■ the spirit of inquiry and the desire for truth or reality, irrespective of its effect upon emotional states or religious beliefs held as a matter^,,--' of faith — was wanting to these ages. Schools in the Monasteries. — Except for the training of the 1 1 8 Brief Course in the History of Education ^t!rE?SI -J'~M\ monks themselves or of the youth offered for monastic Hfe, the monasteries made Jittle provision during several centuries for schooling of any kind, and that given was chiefly of a religious character. The arts of reading, of writing, of singing, and of calculating the Church calendar were necessarily given, though probably the last was reserved for but a few. Later supplementary rules required a no- vitiate of two years, and stipulated that no member should be received into the order under eighteen years of age. As boys not yet in their teens were often accepted, a pro- longed schooling and discipline were pro- vided. Previous to the last of the eighth century such schools throughout western Europe were very rudimentary. The learning of the monasteries was very meager, and there was no opportunity for the education of boys not destined for monastic life. Then, through a movement headed by the Emperor Charles the Great and his minister Alcuin (pp. 125-8), monastic schools becamxC more numerous and of better grade. Soon they came to pro- vide an education for youth not intended for monastic life. Such pupils were called externs in distinction to the interns, or those destined to take the monastic vows. ,/Tt was not until the eleventh century that there was any education to speak of out- side of monastic schools, and not until the thirteenth century that there were any marked changes in the character of education given in any institutions. During all of this period it might be A Monastic School From a British Mss. antedating the Norman Conquest Middle Ao^es Education as Discipline 119 said that every monastery was a school, and that all education no demand was either in the monasteries or under the direction of monks. ^'^^ schools / outside of ^t must be remembered that the masses of the people of these the Church centuries were little more than barbarians and that they cer- tainly took much more naturally to warfare and destruction than they did to school- ing. The Church and the monastery must not be held altogether responsible for the fact that schools were not more numerous, and that the character of their work was not of 1 higher grade. That learning should be preserved at all was v '--t/ no inconsiderable serv- ^ "-"^ ice. A Monk in the Scriptorium The Copying of Man- uscripts and the Preservation of Learning. — Through the work of the monks in the copying of manuscripts, whether as a form of monastic disciphne or through real interest in learning, most of the writings of the past that we now have were reproduced frequently enough to prevent their anni- hilation. This activity continued from the period of the formulation of the Benedictine rules. In later centuries the scriptorium^ or general writing room, was an architectural feature of most monasteries. That this work of the copyist was not merely mechanical, but was designed to have an intel- lectual and moral effect as well, is indicated by the words in dedication of the scriptorium: "Vouchsafe, O Lord, to bless this room of thy servants, that all which they write therein may be comprehended by their intelHgence and realized in their works." To the custom of copying manuscripts we owe the preservation of the physi- cal bases of learning I20 Brief Course in the History of Education On the other hand, the monks have often been accused of destroying the hterature of the past. Many of the extant manu- scripts devoted to the chronicles of the monastic foundation, to wearisome comment on some older sacred writings, or to the disquisitions of the Schoolmen, are written on parchment from which a previous writing, usually of some classical texts, has been removed by chemical or mechanical process. In this way, undoubtedly, many classical texts were destroyed. Such were chosen for destruction with the distinct feehng that they were unworthy of preservation. Possibly in this way some ancient texts have been lost for all time. It is now beheved that this custom was not nearly so general as was formerly supposed. It was probably due to a scarcity of parchment, especially dur- ing the thirteenth century. The Monasteries as Depositories of Literature and Learning. — One service which monasticism performed for learning cannot be gainsaid. Whatever of ancient learning and literature we have preserved to us to-day, is largely owing to the monks- Though the Arabs added much during the laterMiddle Ages, even then such additions were given into the possession of the monks. While the majority of monasteries possessed but few book'^, probably none outside of a strictly religious character, there were many that possessed hundreds and some few whose volumes mounted to the thousands. The few monasteries especially noted for their learning had large libraries, and gave particular atten- tion to the collection of books through the exchange of duplicates made by the monks. Among these more noted foundations, there existed a very definitely regulated system of exchange. Several of the later orders made special provision in their rules for this interchange and for the requisite work of copying; some few made it a means of financial support. But with the founding of the universities and finally with the invention of printing, the monasteries ceased to give much attention to this activity; or at least, with changed conditions, the literary char- acter of their service no longer appeared conspicuous. Middle Ages : Educatio7i as Discipline 1 2 1 The Monks as Literary Producers. -Though the range of The monks their interests was not broad, yet until the general appearance ^^°Q^icies of vernacular literature in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, lives of the monks produced practically all the literature of this period, schdastic This included the lives of the saints, short moral tales or sermons, discussions — such as are collected in the Gesta Romanorum, — Biblical or patristic comment, and monastic chronicles. During the latter half of the Middle Ages the literary product of the School- men and of the vernacular poets became far more important than that of the monks. Yet the Schoolmen were practically all monks, for the most part at least were nominal adherents of the two great friar orders. The one other class of secular writings besides the chroni- cles is that devoted to the discussion of the Seven Liberal Arts or of one of the component subjects. The Literary Heritage of Monasticism : The Seven Liberal Deveiop- Arts. — The Middle Ages possessed in outline all the knowl- the Seven edge of the few preceding and the few succeeding centuries; Liberal Arts but in its content this knowledge was immeasurably more meager than that of either the preceding or of the following era. It was far from being in its ancient form, — for most of the original writings had disappeared, — but consisted of the knowl- edge of the ancients organized in a much abridged form by a few learned men, chiefly of the fifth century. The expression, The Seven Liberal Arts, as inclusive of all learning, came into vogue at this time. yLong before the fifth century, however, practically all these differentiations into subjects had occurred; but it was reserved for the ecclesiastical and symbolical tendencies of the Middle Ages to limit the sciences definitely to seven, /^ato had shown the distinction between what now came to be called the trivium, including grammar, rhetoric and dialectic, and the quadrivium, including arithmetic, geometry, music and as- tronomy. Varro, the most learned of the Romans, wrote, in the last pagan century, upon the liberal arts or studies, which included all of these, together with architecture, medicine 122 Brief Course in the History of Education and philosophy. Qiiintilian, in his treatise on education, omitted dialectic and arithmetic from the liberal studies. St. Augustine (p. 107) wrote a treatise on two of these subjects and stated that he intended to write on five others. Writing in the same period, Capella completed his treatise on the seven in which all knowl- edge was presumed to be summarized. The content Content o] the Seven Liberal Arts. — One can hardly estimate of these sub- j-j^g extent and the value of the learning of the Middle Ages until jects was " " broader then the Content of these liberal arts is noted. /_Geometry, for ex- than now An Allegorical Representation of the Trivium , A Woodcut of the Thirteenth Century- ample, always included the rudiments of geography; astronomy included physics; grammar included literature; rhetoric in- cluded history. The actual extent to which the literature of the ancients found any place whatever under grammar and rhetoric is a question to which very diverse answers are given. Isidore and Cassiodorus (p. 124) knew Greek and possessed a small library of Greek classics ; but during the following cen- turies, the knowledge of the Greek language almost disappeared Middle Ages: Education as Discipline 123 from western Europe. Even the indirect knowledge of Greek literature, through Latin summaries or through extended ref- erences by such writers as Boethius, was very meager, as, indeed, was that of Latin literature. Some of the writings of Virgil and of Cicero were well known. For the most part, however, monasteries possessed but very few of the works of classical authors. The general attitude toward this literature The hostile and its study was distinctly hostile. Alcuin tells his pupils at ^"i^^^e -^ -^ ^ toward hter Tours, 'The sacred poets are sufficient for you; there is no atureasa reason why you should sully your mind with the rank luxuriance ^"^^ ^^* of Virgil's verse." EDUCATIONAL WRITERS OF THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES. — A few of the most important of these deserve to be mentioned. Martianus Capella, a representative of the pagan culture of Capeiia's North Africa, wrote (between 410-427 a.d.) a treatise entitled pj%''f^^''^ The Marriage 0} Philology and Mercury. Throughout the first and Mercury half of the Middle Ages this was used more widely than any other book as a text of the ancient learning. The god Mercury desires to marry, and all the machinery of the pagan heaven is set in motion, first to determine to whom, and then to celebrate the consummation of the marriage to the most learned maiden. Philology. The seven bridesmaids, or handmaidens, presented by Phoebus, are the Ars Grammatica, Ars Dialectica, Ars Rhe- torica, Geometrica, Arithmetica, Astronomia, Harmonia, and each, as led forward in the ceremony, gives her parentage and expounds to the assembly the substance of the art typified. These speeches contain, in the driest of text-book form, prac- tically all of the learning of the schools of these centuries. Boethius (c. 480-524) was the most influential of all the Text-books learned men of the early Middle Ages. His chief service was °^ Boethius to give to several succeeding centuries the little knowledge of the Greek writers, especially of Plato and Aristotle, that they pre- served. While some of his briefer treatises gave impetus to the early scholastic movement, his more important works were not 124 Brief Course in the History of Education Literary in- fluence of Cassiodorus known until the twelfth century. He gave to the Middle Ages logic and ethics, oi the basis of the entire dialectic element in their education. He also wrote on arithmetic, geometry and music. These works of his were extensively used as text-books; some continued to be employed in some universities until well into the eighteenth century. Cassiodorus (c. 490-585) was the prime minister of at least four of the early barbarian emperors, or Gothic kings, and thus on education served them as the interpreter of Latin culture as well as the exponent of their will to the conquered Romans. The latter half of his long life was spent in a monastery which he himself had founded. Here he wrote for his monks commentaries, text- books and an educational treatise containing a presentation of the seven Hberal arts. Cassiodorus laid much emphasis upon study by the monks, urged them to give attention to classical writings, and directed that those without interest in letters should devote themselves to agriculture. These should read Cato, Columella and others writers on agriculture. Much of his wealth he devoted to the collection of manuscripts. It was through his influence that the custom of copying these as a spe- cific part of the work of the monasteries, became estabhshed. To the influence of Cassiodorus was largely due the dissemi- nation of the custom, begun by one of his monks in 562 a.d., of dating from the Christian era. Isidore (c. 570-636), bishop >of Seville, is the distinctive rep- resentative of the mediaeval learning. For his monks and clergy he composed an encyclopedia called Origines or Etymologies, which purported to be a summary of all knowledge worth knowing. This served as a common text in all the sciences. To gain a general survey of the text- books of the early Middle Ages, there should be added to these few works the Grammars of Donatus (c. 333-400), and of Priscian (c. 500) and The Distychs of Cato (said to be the work of Cato the Elder, 234- 149 B.C.). This latter was a selection of moral sentiments in versified form, illustrating grammatical and rhetorical structure. Etymologies of Isidore Grammars ■ Middle Ages: Education as Discipline 125 § 3. THE CAROLINGIAN iiEVIVAL OF LEARNING THE WORK OF CHARLES THE GREAT (r. 771-814).— The fusion The one important aspect of educational history from the seventh ^^ Roman to the twelfth centuries that was not wholly monastic, was the tonic eie- revival of learning under the Emperor Charlemame, The task ™^"*^ '^^ 7" 1 • ■ -e ^ 1 1- ? m 1 civilization of this great emperor was to unify the work of the Teuton and that of the Roman, to adjust the barbarian Frank to the Roman culture, to transfer the foundations of social organization to the German, who was hereafter to build upon it the structure of modern society. The transfer of the religious element had been made through the Holy Catholic Church, and the barba- rians were now at least nominal Christians. Through the Holy Roman Empire, established by Charles in 800, the political and legal structure of society was finally a,ccepted by the Teuton. There remained to be added to these forms of external unity, that internal unity whi^^h consists in a community of ideas, of language, and of the cultural elements of social hfe. It was the ambition of Charles to bring about this union, by the adoption of the Latin language, of the learning of the Church, and of such of the Roman culture as survived. In 782 Charles called Alcuin from the cathedral school at The palace York to assist him in this work. For a century or more pre- i^^g'^^nflu'^n ceding this time, Irish monks had been largely instrumental in missionary and educational activities on the Continent, and the chaplains of the court of the Merovingian kings had in a way attempted to foster learning. But this school of the palace was developed by Alcuin into a definite institution, patronized by Charles himself, by other members of the royal family, and by the youth of the nobility. From it Charles drew many of his assistants in the administration of his great empire. While the work of the school was very meager in its literary character, yet its importance was great owing to the influence which it exerted as an example. In 787 and following years, Charles 125 Brief Course in the History of Education rhc capito- Cb-aziles and • — -^ r€M3n!25 edocado- issiied ids cai^:rilarie5 '^iixjH schools, vrhidi have ^re::i ':':::^:':rred to hr :hr :::ji1i::::is of nodrm education. — i;.v :^2Jter both v -^ ihrr l::l ., '.:.: ::.:::.. T':-z i. :.-i-.-of 789 sajs: "Let eveiy nonasterr and every abbsT-ii ^: iti -:h::' "hrjT ":: - "i ;hr :i.,h.: the Psalms, re given tn: e bov5 don: e the provision- : : ^ ' '.\ w caidJBg 10 in-n i^^z. .^i „^;: _n fiiere was an attempt to caixr g: to the pazish churches, and thus 1 1 schools. This giv^ ^c; h *: '.'' taiT education for th^ ! in the d^ith centur 1 cenrnrv. T^ ; '- - ■:;; n ; n i:; •who innmii.; ,; .: ;n.- nn ;' pert: n:i . - I'V-^^ -'^^ '■- pec-n: :i--- ininn:. n -; of the nineteenth en by Gibbon, le em- inc-, 794r - Its : it V.a:: 11 of his influence upon Charles, - ts- is giaieraUy regarded as tiie r aK of the Middle Ages. . ; to—ed upon Alcuin in ' nr i 1 o@ce in France. ' ;: : : i ;-ir:' 1: in extent, and n: r : :: : 51 master of , ; ^ : :_ . :, r^ade the ig in France as well as the center ,: hii ;- le "" , nim flocked the youth desiro: 1 .: :i" .ri-, vterr went out an ever increash 1 . . .i. n of f his pupils and disciples, i-E -a "Pix 2=jls.je aspect 'Ed: Hioe ttu _ - :^t : iz=r "" % ~ ~ . hs XDDi: ■nr ^=-m-»^ i:ii w-^.-r IS ">^? ij 'r s" '>g - -„ - w -i ■ Tig; -r — ^- C_.s^ J..",-7PT '-^ iiSens/ ^^j. Ins Trsa:d5e= :~ i'::r . !£.__ J_ __.ir _^_T - ^"i,.^_ - LT : : r : r-zr_r:r5 xo con^e. Some of "Zigiii :_iir;::7r _i:e aiirbi3>eDc canssis rs. Man- Ere ii: zjii: :f AknTn. A; :'_ir i':": :: :: i-nlda, rie zrir mi zi r^r izi- ^_i~~^ -ri-ir 'JL :' ~ re nil. ~ -. ~ to tha t of A-:__z. zi Praiik- 128 Brief Course in the History of Education land. Like Alcuin, he had some slight knowledge of Greek, but being of more virile mind his chief interest was in dialectic instead of in grammar. Dialectic he terms the science of sciences, which teaches us how to teach and how to learn. One of his important works, The Education oj the Clergy, con- tains a treatise on the seven liberal arts and hence covers the entire field of education of his day. The begin- Joannes Scotus Erigina, or John the Scot (c. 8io-c. 875), scholastic ^^^ most notcd successor of Alcuin in the palace school, was discussion called by Charles the Bald, about 845, from the British Isles theScot° ^ ^s Alcuin had been by Charles. Of greater scholarship than either Alcuin or Rabanus, he introduced the study of the Greek language and brought a wider knowledge of the ancient learn- ing, especially of the Greek Fathers, than had hitherto been found among the Teutons. With a much more liberal attitude toward the pagan authors, with whom he had a fairly wide acquaintance, he made the work of Capella the chief text in secular learning in the monasteries. Of more vigorous mind than any of his predecessors, he laid more emphasis upon the study of dialectic than had any before him. Being somewhat heretical in his views, he stimulated an unprecedented activity in theological discussion. With John the long conflict between realism and nominalism really begins. The work and influence of Rabanus Maurus and John the Scot lead directly to the great revival of intellectual interest in the eleventh and the twelfth centuries which will be discussed under scholasticism. § 4. SCHOLASTICISM. EDUCATION AS AN INTELLECTUAL DISCIPLINE NATURE OF SCHOLASTICISM. — Scholasticism is the term given to the type of intellectual life, and hence of edu- cation, that prevailed from the eleventh to the fifteenth century inclusive. It was largely responsible for the origin of univer- sities and represented the work of these institutions for three Middle Ages: Education as Discipline 129 or four centuries. Scholasticism produced a vast literature Schoiasti- which possesses very distinct characteristics of its own. Its ^ ^j aim was definite, though narrow; its subject-matter restricted; inteUectuai its method keen and subtle ; its outcome fruitful in the develop- dominated ment of certain mental traits and abilities. As a type of in- during the tellectual life, scholasticism has been as grossly abused and as Ages much underestimated during the centuries following its over- throw by the Renaissance movement of the sixteenth century, it is not a as it was over- valued by its own devotees. Scholasticism is t>odyof •' ^ _ _ , principles not characterized by any group of principles or beliefs, but is rather a peculiar method or type of intellectual activity. THE PURPOSE OF SCHOLASTIC THOUGHT. --The dom- With the inant characteristic of the intellectual life of the early half of down'of^ the Middle Ages was the attitude of unquestioned obedience medieval to authority; of receptivity to all doctrines, statements or inci- there re-' dents sanctioned by the Church; of dependence upon formal suited a 11 -11 1 T 1 1 1- , • , . new type of truths dogmatically estabushed; of an antagonism to any state thought of doubt, of questioning or of inquiry as wrong and sinful in itself. ' By the eleventh century a new attitude was necessary. Heretical views had crept in from the East and had to be met by argument as well as by force. A few men of exceptional learning, especially John the Scot of the ninth century, had suggested many questions that could not be ignored. The study of dialectic, which had received new and unprecedented emphasis from the time of Rabanus Maurus, had stimulated an interest in intellectual activity and in the logical formu- lation and statement of religious beliefs. The Crusade move- ment had broken down the isolation and the rusticity of the people of the West through their contact with the variety of beliefs in the East. All these changes stimulated new intel- lectual interests and made it necessary to state religious beliefs in new forms. The purpose of scholasticism was to bring reason to the sup- Support of port of faith; to strengthen the religious life and the Church ^^^'^'^y ^ ' ° ° reason by the development of intellectual power. It aimed to silence 130 Brief Course in the History of Education Educational purposes of scholasti- cism, (i) to develop power of disputation; (2) to sys- tematize knowledge; (3) to give individual mastery of this system of kn owl- Religious in- terests su- preme all doubts and questionings through argument. Faith was, however, still considered superior to reason. The credo ut intellegam ("I believe in order that I may understand") of Anselm was the dominant principle throughout the period. Church doctrines had long been formulated; they were now to be analyzed, defined, systematized. Educationally, the purpose of scholasticism was included within this broad purpose. Scholastic training aimed to de- velop the power of formulating beliefs into a logical system and the power of presenting and defending such statements of beliefs against all arguments that might be brought against them. At the same time it strove to avoid developing an at- titude of mind that would be critical of the fundamental prin- ciples already established by authority. In a more general way the aim of scholastic education was to systematize knowl- edge and thus give it scientific form. But to the scholastic mind knowledge was primarily of a theological and philosophi- cal character. The scientific form valued was that of deductive logic. In this, the aim of scholastic education was briUiantly successful. Most exhaustive systems of knowledge, compassing the whole range of their interest, were elaborated. In some cases these systems were of such profundity that they have few rivals in more modern times and even yet serve as both basis and content of the intellectual life of large portions of modern society. The third aspect of the educational purpose of scholasticism was to give to the individual a mastery of this knowledge, now reduced to propositions and syllogisms, all systematized into a logical whole. THE CONTENT OF SCHOLASTICISM. — Scholasticism was the complete reduction of religious thought to logical form. Since this organization was furnished entirely by the logical writings of Aristotle, scholasticism is often defined as the union of Christian behefs and Aristotelian logic. All other phases of knowledge were subsumed under the religious. All legiti- mate knowledge had to be sanctioned by the Church; it Middle Ages: Edtication as Discipline 131 had to be given its place in the system of scholastic thought Given a and reduced to the appropriate logical form. To do this was ?ai fo°^ ' the task of the Schoolmen. ; The primary interests of the times were in the great doc- statement ot trines of the Church concerning justification, predestination, ch^^^rcMn^ the Trinity, the freedom of the will, the doctrine of the eucha- terms of rist. The proper philosophical statement of these and of ^g^^^^^^' similar doctrines, the reduction of all to a harmonized system, their presentation with answers to all objections to the ortho- dox view and with refutations of all unorthodox interpretations, constituted the content of scholastic literature. Now it happened that during the very same period when circumstances emphasized the necessity of supporting by reason the beliefs of the Church, a certain fragmentary knowledge of the fundamental philosoph- ical problems discussed by Plato and Aristotle became prev- alent. In the very nature of the problem, the interpretation of the orthodox views came to depend upon the acceptance of some such view of the nature of reahty as that of Plato, and the heretical theological views became bound up with a metaphys- ical doctrine contradictory to that of Plato. Plato's views that ideas, concepts, universals, constituted the Nominalism only reality, became accepted by the orthodox Schoolmen under the name of realism. By the Schoolmen such general concepts were regarded as the archetypes in the Divine reason, and the various phenomenal existences and the species were regarded as merely copies or reflections of these thoughts of the Deity. The view that such ideas or universals are only names, and that reality consists in the individual concrete objects, — in the species of Aristotle, — was termed nominalism. The conflict between these two schools of metaphysicians continued long and loud, through four centuries and in innumerable volumes. But these views were of more than metaphysical interest; Practical they compassed all interests. Consider, for a moment, the ^^^^^.^xq. application of the views of the fundamental doctrines pre- sophicai viously suggested. At this period the doctrine of transub- 132 Brief Course {71 the History of Education stantiation had peculiar practical importance, on account oi growing heresies, especially the Manichean. Believing that all matter was evil, the followers of Manicheus held that Christ's life was only an appearance and that the true God was not the God of the Old Testament. Now if ideas, i.e. what Plato called substances, are realities, as the realist held, and are hence in- dependent of the accidents, attributes or quahties which identify them in the concrete and which to the nominalist constitute the only reality, then it is possible to distinguish between the substance and the accident, and it is possible to conceive of a change in the substance without any corresponding change in the attribute. Thus the Church justiiied its belief in the doc- trine of transubstantiation, or the actual change in the bread and wine of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. Thus this sacra- ment of the Church, wherein contact between Christ and the flesh was demonstrated daily, was an answer to the heresy that the divine could not have lived in contact with a v/icked world. The explanations of other doctrines were very similar. So these philosophical views furnished characteristic solutions to all theological problems. Great scho- The educational content of scholasticism consisted in the books '^^^" most noted of these systematized schemes of learning, with the innumerable comments upon them. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the two most noted of these were con- structed, — The Sententice of Peter the Lombard (c. iioo- c. 1 160) and the Summa Theologicce of Thomas Aquinas (1225- 1274). The former of these was the most generally used text- book of the remaining scholastic centuries. The latter was, and yet remains, the most complete and thorough presentation of the knowledge of the times, or, to be more exact, of the theology of the Church. It is still accepted by the Roman Cathohc Church, as the orthodox presentation of its beliefs. Preliminary to the mastery of such summaries of knowl- edge, scholastic education demanded the mastery of the science of logic or dialectic as a preparation for the practice of the art. Middle Ages: Education as Discipline 133 In general, the content of scholasticism and of scholastic educa- tion deals with the abstract and immaterial; while the tendency in current education is to reject all subject-matter of this nature and to deal only with that which is concrete and material in character. A Mediaeval Disputation A Woodcut of the Fifteenth Century THE FORM OF SCHOLASTIC KNOWLEDGE. —The idea Logical or- of organizing knowledge according to the mental dgyplopment oJ'aii sub^ of the student is an idea of much later development. ISThe com- jects of plementary principle, that of organization based upon the logic ^"^"^^ 134 Brief Course in the History of Education of the subject, was fixed upon education for many centuries by tliis period of scholasticism. Hence in the introductory subjects, such as grammar, which the child first attempts in his school work, the most formal logical arrangement was adopted. The subject was presented to the child for his mastery in the order in which it appeals to the most mature mind. Previous to this time, the catechetical arrangement, that of questions and answers, was much followed, even in treatises upon the seven liberal arts. But with scholasticism, the systematized, logical form prevailed almost to the exclusion of the other. THE METHOD OF SCHOLASTICISM was that of logical analysis. In reality there were two distinct methods used by the Schoolmen and in the universities as well. The one in most general approval was the analytical. The entire subject if a treatise by a Schoolman, or the entire text if a course of lectures in the university, was divided into appropriate parts, then into heads, subheads, subdivisions, etc., down to the particular proposition of each sentence. Each topic was examined most minutely after the manner of Aristotelian logic, under the headings of formal, final, material and efficient causes ; of literal, allegorical, mystical and moral meaning. Thus with analyzed text and comment upon the basis of each division, the student was overwhelmed with a multitude of fine meta- physical distinctions. The other and freer method was that of stating the propo- sition, then the several possible interpretations with the diffi- culties of each interpretation, with the final selection of the favored one. The solution favored gave rise to other problems; these in turn suggested varying solutions with their appropriate answers. In respect to definite conclusions and to the syste- matic arrangement of knowledge, this method was inferior to the former. But in its stimulus to thought, to the freedom of inquiry, and to general progressiveness, it was far more bene- ficial ir its influence. DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOLASTICISM. —The doctrinal Middle Ages; Education as Discipline 135 disputes in dialectic form, especially those concerning transub- Scotus stantiation, began with Scotus Erigina and his follower Beranger "^"^^ (d. 1088). Then logical and philosophical interests were wholly- subordinate. During the eleventh century the conflict between realism and norninalism became definitely formulated in the discussions between Anselm (c. 1034-1109) and Roscellinus Anselm (d. 1 106), Anselm was called the father of scholasticism., The critical work of Roscellinus was continued by one of his pupils, and one of the greatest of the Schoolmen, Abelard Abeiard (Petrus Abelardus, 1079-1142), who, however, opposed the extreme nominalism of one of his teachers as he did the realism of WiUiam of Champeaux, his other teacher. His philosophical position, strikingly similar to that of Aristotle — a fact then unknown — was the compromise view of conceptualism. Ac- cording to this view universals are existent, though not inde- pendent of the phenomenal form in which they exist, save as conceptions in the divine mind before creation. Abelard's position regarding the great philosophical question was a con- ciliatory one ; but his real influence, and his writings in general, were far from it. His most influential work, Sic et Non (Yea and Nay), was a collection of passages from the Bible and from patristic writings, designed to show the conflicting ideas or views of the religious and ecclesiastical authorities, but giving no decision concerning their solution. Consequently inquiry wa.s^ stimulated and the importance of research emphasized. But the unanimity of ecclesiastical authority being ques- tioned, doubt was thrown upon its rehability. Abelard l held that reason was antecedent to faith, and that much of Christian belief could be supplied by reason. The arrogance of ecclesiastical authority was thus shattered. Though the man and his writings were condemned, his life bhghted by per- secution, and his views regarded as heretical, yet his influence con- tinued to exist as one of the most powerful forces in scholastic thought during the following period. The thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries constituted the 136 Brief Course in the History of Education period of the complete dominance of scholasticism. During this period philosophy and theology seem to have been in com- plete sympathy; the widest extension was given to philosophical thought in its Christian dress ; theological views were elaborated into most perfect and complicated systems; reason and faith were in fullest accord. THE GREAT SCHOOLMEN. —The first of the Schoolmen to be acquainted with the entire philosophy of Aristotle and to employ it in the service of theology was Alexander of Hales (d. 1245), The Irrefragable Doctor, author of Summa Theologia. Bonaventura (12 21-12 74), The Seraphic Doctor, a Platonist rather than an Aristotelian in his philosophy, represented as did the Victorines of the preceding century the mystical tendency in thought and education. Albertus Magnus (i 193-1280), called The Universal Doctor, was the first to reproduce the phil- osophy of Aristotle in systematic form and with constant refer- ence to the Arabic commentaries that constituted so large a part of the new knowledge of the times. Thomas Aquinas (1225- 1274), The Angelic Doctor, was the most influential of all. In his great work (p. 131) he represents the culmination of scholasticism, and is its authoritative exponent both in his own period and in subsequent times. Joannes Duns Scotus (c. 1271- 1308), The Subtle Doctor, was famous as a founder of a school of theology rival to that of Thomas; his work, however, was rather of a critical and negative than of a constructive char- acter. The long line of great Schoolmen was closed by William of Occam (i 280-1347), The Invincible Doctor, who revived again the nominalistic views. His work was rather an attack upon the entire realistic system than a formulation of specific doctrines. In general, Occam denied that theological doctrines could be demonstrated by reason, and held that they were wholly matters of faith. He held that particulars alone were real and that uni- versals were mere conceptions of the mind. Thus he prepared the way for the careful, concrete study of the objects of nature Middle Ages: Educatimi as Discipline 137 and of the mind. Whatever was vital to the spirit of progress now Hved in nominahsm only, and soon passed over into the new spirit of the fifteenth- century Renaissance. The old scholasticism persisted, but it no longer represented the pro- gressive intellectual life or the most vital educational ideas and procedures. MERITS AND DEMERITS OF SCHOLASTIC EDUCATION, interest in —The first great limitation of the Schoolmen, and one sufficient ^""g^.i^ent, o ' _ not in VcUid- to call forth the condemnation of the modern mind, is that they ity of con- never stopped to inquire concerning the validity of the material "^ ^^^'^^ with which they dealt or to ascertain whether they had all the data before attempting the conclusion. A second and related limitation is that the material they dealt with was abstract and metaphysical and was not supplemented by any knowledge of the concrete and physical. The truths they reached pos- sessed only formal value. Such truths would affect primarily Formal the thought life, and only indirectly and remotely the conduct condusfon"^ of the people. One further decided hmitation of the Schoolmen ,, ? was the fact that much of their discussion possessed no reality; not only no reality in the concrete world of everyday life, but also no validity in thought. Much of it consisted merely of endless '6- and profitless discussions about words and terms. Even against the greatest of the Schoolmen such a criticism is often valid. On the other hand, much of the modern contempt for the School- m.en in this respect is based upon a failure to apprehend their point of view and their interest. To them all questions must be given a philosophical form and a theological bearing. Hence such trivial or even sacrilegious questions as those which are so often quoted as indicative of the puerility and utter worthlessness Charge of of scholastic learning in reality deal with subjects regarded as of Puerility due vital importance in our own times. " How many angels can misunder- stand on the point of a needle? " " Can God make two hills standing without the intervening valley?" "What happens when a mouse eats the consecrated host? " — all such questions con- ceal beneath their simple form the profound inquiries concerning 138 Brief Course in the History of Education the relation of the finite to the infinite, the attributes of the in- finite, the nature of reahty. Give them a form that only the trained metaphysician can understand and they constitute the profundities of modern thought; give them such form as the untrained adult or the youth just beginning his course of scho- lastic studies can comprehend and handle, and they form the " monstrosities " of the Schoolmen. §5. THE UNIVERSITIES ORIGIN OF UNIVERSITIES. — Under the stimulus of the interest in dialectic, a number of schools connected with the cathedrals and monasteries sprang into prominence in the later eleventh and early twelfth century. The essential elements of the early university — the students and the teachers — were found at Paris before the middle of the twelfth century. With the eleventh century western Europe, especially the Church, began to throw off the incubus to enterprise and the obstacle to greater intellectual freedom that existed in the belief that the millennium was at hand. The fact that during the tenth and the eleventh centuries the Northmen, the last of the migratory Teutons, accepted a settled life and gave to France and England a period of comparative peace, permitted a development of the interests of a stable civilization. Though they showed little appreciation as yet for the cultural aspects of life, these same Normans, in fact the Teutons in general, were endowed with virile minds. Hence they were drawn to dialectic discussion, as they could not have been to a mere literary study of apprecia- tion; and more and more, as other lines of activity were reduced to the orderliness of a complex society, they turned their genius into intellectual lines. This new Teutonic blood affected Italy as well as England, France and Germany. The papacy and th'^ Church in general had recovered from its period of greate degradation, and through its struggle with the Holy Rom£ emperors had acquired new strength and new interests. Th Middle Ages •' Education as Discipline 1 39 affected intellectual pursuits and stimulated the study of dialectic, theology and canon law. The development of commercial enterprise and municipal government, especially in the Italian cities, stimulated secular interests and secular learning. Mean- while the Crusade movement had begun. The isolation of Euro- pean society ^^ which under early feudalism had not really been one society but a series of isolated groups — was broken down. The communication of ideas was stimulated and the intellectual horizon expanded immensely. It was discovered that the " bar- barians " of the East had reason to consider, in turn, the people of the West as " barbarians." The attitude of inquiry and of freedom of opinion, which belonged to the East, began to affect the West. This contact with the East and with Saracen learning, not only brought to Europe a knowledge of Arabic culture and science, but it also furnished in the thirteenth century a completer knowledge of Aristotle and of Greek philosophy. These influences combined in varying proportions: no two Nouni- universities were founded by the concurrence of exactlv the ^°''™''^y"^ ■' J causes oi same circumstances. Each had some causes of origin peculiar origin of to itself and all the earliest ones were, in reality, schools where versitks^"^^" one_^pr two special studies were pursued. THE FOUNDING OF THE UNIVERSITIES. — In southern Italy, where the contact with the Saracens, the Normans, and the old population of Greek origin was intimate, and where a more direct acquaintance with Greek hterature was preserved, there had grown up, in connection with the monastery at Salerno, an Salemo interest in the study and practice of medicine. The work and teachings of the monks along these lines were stimulated by the first Crusade and the fame of this school was spread abroad by the returning knights. Under the shadow of the monastic in- fluence there grew up a school for the teaching of medicine, which in a way became the first university. In 1224 the school was united with that of the neighboring city of Naples and char- tered by Frederick II as the University of Naples. 140 Brief Course in tlu History of Education In the northern Italian cities, struggHng as they were with the German emperor for their rights, a new and vital interest grew up in Roman law. The emperor based most of his claims to authority upon the rights of the old Roman emperors; the cities sought to check these claims by a knowledge of charters,, of edicts, and of legal hmitations that had long been forgotten. There grew up in several of these cities schools for the study of law. That at Bologna was made famous by the greatest of these early teachers, Irnerius (1067-c. 1138), in the same manner that Paris had been raised to distinction by Abelard, and large numbers of students collected here. These bodies of students and teachers were given privileges in the form of a written document from emperor or pope, which became the charter or charters of the institution. It was only much later that an institution was organized by conferring on it outright all desired privileges. At Bologna the first charter was given by Emperor Frederick I, in 11 58. Paris received its first recognition from Louis VII in 1180 and was recognized by the pope about the same time. Its full recognition came in 1200. At Oxford and Cambridge the date of the formal recognition by charter is yet more difficult to determine, but it was somewhat later. In all these cases the large groups of students and teach- ers had existed for some time previous to charter organization, and schools had existed under monastic or Church control in all these centers for an indefinite period. Chartered institutions, that is those possessing special privi- leges, quickly came to exert pecuhar influence and were rapidly multiphed. During the thirteenth century nineteen of these institutions were created by popes and monarchs; during the fourteenth, twenty-five more were added; and during the fifteenth, thirty more. STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF UNIVERSITIES. — Other features of the universities that distinguished them from previous schools were their government, democratic in its nature; their location in centers of population rather than in Middle Ages: Education as Discipline 141 remote spots, such as those sought by the monasteries ; and their special privileges, legal and pecuniary. Privileges of Universities. — In general, these charters con- Universities ferred upon all masters and students, and even upon their attendants, the privileges of the clergy. Such privileges ex- empted students from official service; from military service, except under specific limitations {e.g. at Paris only v^hen the enemy v^^ere within five leagues of the city wall); from taxation, especially the petty local exactions; from contributions, etc. One of the most important of these privileges was that of internal jurisdiction. Just as the clergy had obtained the right of trying of jurisdic- their own members in all civil and many criminal cases, so in own mem- turn the universities developed much the same power over their bers; own members and their adherents. The civil, or at least police jurisdiction, which the German university yet exercises over its student members, and the special favor of a privileged standard of conduct which the American college student claims, are survivals of this once extended right. The other important privilege of universities'^' is that of granting the degree, which of granting was merely the license to teach. Previous to this time this te'^ach^^" privilege had been granted only by the Church through the archbishop, the bishop or one of their subordinate officers; and thus the Church had controlled the method and the content of teaching. These privileges possessed a sanction not granted by charter but developed by usage, known as cessatio, the right of " striking " or of moving the university, if its privileges were infringed. Thus the importance of Oxford dates from a migration from Paris in 1229; the importance of Cambridge from a similar disturbance at Oxford in 1209. The Nations and the University. — These privileges had to be Division of conferred upon more definite bodies of people than the studium teachkig^"^ generale. The most natural division of these heterogeneous body into masses of students and teachers, drawn from all over Europe at a time when territorial lines were very indefinite and national 142 Brief Course hi the History of Education Amalgama- tion of the nations The facul- ties a later develop- ment The rector and council distinctions were more genetic than territorial and political, was that of language and kinship. Hence students and masters . organized into groups according to their national affiliations. And it was to these nations singly, or more often in group organi- zation, that privileges were granted. Such a body was called universitas magistrorum et scholarium. The term universitas means primarily " all of us," and had the general significance of our word corporation or association or company. In time, but not until the fourteenth century, this one word came to be used instead of the previous more general term. At Paris there were four nations, the French, the Normans, the Picards, and the Enghsh (after the Hundred Years' War began, the last was changed to German). In Bologna there were at first four universities ; then two, the Cisalpine, consist- ing of seventeen nations, and the Transalpine, of eighteen. Finally, all were amalgamated into one organization. The Faculties. — The organization of the nations had to do with conduct, civil rights, and ecclesiastical jurisdiction. It had little direct reference to the studies. In time, however, it be- came necessary to regulate studies and methods, — in fact, scholastic procedure in general. The faculties were therefore a somewhat later development than the nations. The term itseK, quite as indefinite as the term university, simply meant knowledge or science; but in time it was applied to a depart- ment of study, as faculty of law, theology, arts, etc., and finally to the body of men, previously termed consortiim magistrorum, that had control of a particular department of study. This body was originally composed of all who had taken their degree, and as it developed, obtained control of the granting of degrees. Governing Body and Other Officials. — The nations elected, usually annually, a procurator or councilor; each faculty, a dean; and these representatives together, a rector of the uni- versity. This official head of the university possessed only delegated power, was usually elected annually, and in the South Middle Ages: Education as Discipline 143 was usually a student. By the sixteenth century, these head ofi&cials had become for the most part political appointees, and the nations had long since lost all material authority. DEGREES. — The nature of the degree and of the entire work of the university can best be understood by a compari- son with some simpler as- pects of mediccval life which the student life par- alleled. Such, for example, is the chivalric education, with its seven years of train- ing as a page and seven years as a squire preceding the acquirement of full knighthood (p. 149). A similar parallel can be found in the making of a master in any craft or mer- cantile pursuit, where the youth had first to serve seven years as an ap- prentice; then as a journey- man he served under a master for a further period, during which he received a wage; finally, he became a master possessing full rights in the guild. In quite a similar way the youth of thirteen or fourteen who wished to study the liberal arts, or to prepare himself for teaching, was obliged when he appeared at the university to enroll himself with a master who was, for the time- being, responsible for him. Here he served an apprenticeship of from three to seven years, until he learned to read the ordinary texts in grammar, rhetoric and logic, and to define the words and determine the meaning of phrases, and the use of terms and classifications. When he could define and determine, he A Youthful Master of Arts and HIS Pupils A Woodcut of the Fifteenth Century The univer- sity system compared with the guild sys- tem The educa- tional pro- cesses 144 Brief Course in the History of Education Aitei sub- mitting a " master- piece" is made " a master of arts" The bacca- laureate only a pre- liminary degree Scholastic method Texts-books chiefly in logic continued his studies and at the same time, as a journeyman workman, gave instruction under the direction of a master to the younger boys. After this further period of study, in which he famiharized himself with the required texts and learned to carry on logical disputations, he was permitted to demonstrate this abihty, as a journeyman workman makes a " masterpiece," by defending in pubhc a thesis. His opponents were the members of the faculty, or those who already possessed the degree, since these v/ere the " masters " of the Arts, which he professed. This having been done successfully, he was given the degree, the licentiate, the mastership, the doctorate — • whatever it might be called. Master, doctor, professor, were synonymous terms in the early university period. Such a degree signified that the possessor was able to dispute as well as to define and determine, and authorized him to teach pubhcly, i.e. admitted him to the " guild " of teachers. He was now on a parity with other members of the faculty, and could teach in the free competition into which they all entered. The preliminary degree, the baccalaureate, was in the be- ginning simply formal admission to candidacy for the license, and was not a degree in itself. During the fifteenth century it became a distinct stage in the educational process and hence quite well defined as a minor degree. THE METHODS AND CONTENT OF UNIVERSITY STUI)- lES have been discussed under scholasticism. After the opening of the thirteenth century, the course of study was determined by papal bull or university statute. In the school of arts were used the grammatical works of Priscian, a work on grammatical figures by Donatus, the logical works of Aristotle given through Porphyry and Boethius. The Categories and the de Inter preta- tione of Aristotle, and the Isagoge of Porphyry, from which originated the realistic-nominahstic controversy, were known in the translations of Boethius. The remainder of the Organon was known only through summaries or other writings of Boethius. To these latter the greatest attention was given, and much time A Mediaeval Unu'ersitv. Lectiire on Theology by Alkerius Magnus ( I 193-1280) Library of the Univeksity of Leyden (1610) / Middle Ages: Education as Discipline 145 in addition to the long hours in the lecture room was spent in listening to endless disputations or participating in them. At Paris the statutes of 12 15 introduced the Ethics of Aristotle, Dominance and in 1255 his Physics, Metaphysics and his treatise On the of-^^^istotie Soul were added. These works of Aristotle, previously inter- dicted at Paris, had been introduced somewhat earlier in other universities. Elsewhere some other introductory works on logic might be substituted. Up to the middle of the fifteenth century, Aristotle controlled the work of the universities. The study of logic dominated the trivium, and rhetoric was given no attention whatever. The study of geometry and astronomy had made some ^progress, especially in the Italian universities and in the University of Vienna. The work of the professional faculties consisted, likewise, in the study of a few fun- damental texts together with innumerable commentaries upon them. The early university education was wholly an education An education of books, with a very limited selection in each particular °ft.ooks, field, but still those that were looked upon as furnishing in the written word absolute and ultimate authority. It was directed much more to the mastery of form and the develop- ment of the power of formal speech, especially argumenta- tion, than to the acquisition of knowledge, or to the pursuit but did de- of truth in the widest sense, or even to familiarizing the veiopeffi- . ° ciency in student with those literary sources of knowledge which, though debate lying within his grasp, were outside the pale of orthodox ecclesi- astical approval. THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY UNIVERSITIES. —The Political in- political influence of the universities, both direct and indirect, ^^^^^^ was marked. They furnished the first example of purely democratic organization. Freedom of discussion concerning political as well as ecclesiastical and theological matters here found its first home. While for the most part the sympathies of the universities would naturally be with the privileged classes, whose privileges they themselves had obtained, yet the university 146 Brief Course in the History of Education often became the mouthpiece of the common people in opposition to king or priestcraft. The right of the university to a voice in the government, to a seat in the parhaments of France, England, Scotland, is a recognition of this political authority and of the fact that the university had become a great " estate." Questions of state and of controversy between state and Church, such as the divorces of Henry VIII of England and of Philip of France, were submitted to the arbitration of the universities. The university often spoke for the nation in opposition to the papacy. In one instance the king of France and the university compelled the pope publicly to recant his views and to apologize, and in another secured the deposition of the head of the Church. Largely through the influence of the University of Paris the great schism in the papacy and the " Babylonian Captivity " were ended. In a similar way the university became an author- ity in the settlement of disputed doctrinal points, and in the determination of questions of heresy. In holding this balance of power, it tempered the extreme views of the papacy and especially of the papal representatives, — the friar bodies, — and thus mitigated, if it did not entirely eliminate, the operations of the inquisition in the north of Europe. But it was in regard to the intellectual life, restricted, formal and meager though this was, that the greatest influence of the university was exerted. Intellectual interests were now crystal- lized into a great institution, recognized as almost on a parity with Church, state and nobility. This interest and its resulting institutional organization were so reduced by the fifteenth century as to possess little more than formal life. Yet even then the university provided a retreat for the rare genius who kept alive the spark of real intellectual life and so maintained a home for the new intellectual spirit when it did come. How- ever hostile it may have been during these centuries to innova- tion, to radicalism and to rationalism, yet in preserving the spirit of speculation the university kept aUve the spirit of inquiry. Middle Ages : Education as Discipline 147 And out of it came such men as Roger Bacon, Dante, Petrarch, WycHffe, Huss, Copernicus, — the men who brought the modern spirit. § 6. CmVALRY. EDUCATION AS A SOCIAL DISCIPLINE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF CHIVALRY. — Chivalry repre- Chivalry sents the organization within secular society of those recognizing ^a^ization the highest social ideals and attempting to reahze them through of an ideal definitely established forms and customs. Chivalry was to the ckty corre- secular life what monasticism was to the religious life. It did spending to not necessarily include all of the nobility, but only those who i^°QieVe-^°^ definitely accepted the highest obligations of a social character. Hgious life Knighthood and the chivahic character were not inherited as nobility was. The institution of chivalry represented the education which secular society received, and the training in knightly ideals and activities formed the only education of the members of the nobility. Like all education during the Middle Ages, this education was a discipline, both for the individual and for the social class; but the intellectual element in it was even slighter than in monasticism. The origin of chivalry is found in the character and customs Origin found of the Teutons, in the structure of later Roman society, and in the ^^^^"^^'^7 in Christian Church. The Church directed the energies of the survivals of Teutons into particular channels and discovered to them in many (.j^f^^^'^uc-' of the teachings of Christianity a bond of sympathy between ture, and in the Church and the worthier traits of character of the barbarians. i^eaiV^'^ THE IDEALS OF CHIVALRY form a very different concep- tion of personal virtue from that of classical society and involve strength' and some radical modifications of the elements of the early Christian tj^ggg i^je^is ideal. In speaking of the leader of the first Crusade, Cornish thus describes the knightly character, " We observe in them reckless courage, personal pride, and self-respect, courteous observance of the word of honor, if plighted according to certain forms, disregard of all personal advantage except military glory; and, on the other hand, savage ferocity, de- 148 Brief Course in the History of Education Dignified service and obe- dience An educa- tion of discipline liberate cruelty, anger indulged in almost to the point of mad- ness, extravagant display, childish wastefulness, want of mili- tary discipline, want of good faith alike to Christians and infidels." Under chivalry these ideals, constituting the charac- ter of a gentleman, were very much more definitely formulated than in modern ages. As thus definitely organized, the knight summed up all duties of life under his obligations to God, to his lord, and to his lady. Chivalry performed for the secular life a service identical with that performed by monasticism for the religious life, in that it dignified the ideal of service and held up to a rude and violent people the ideal of obedience to rule and to personal command. While this organization of society had its demerits, sanctioning or fostering a contempt for inferiors and being a regulation rather than an eradication of evil, it is difiicult to overestimate its value in ameliorating the crudities and the barbarities of the life of the times through the new attitude toward service and obedience. Reverence for superiors, a consideration for inferiors, a gentle- ness toward the weak and the defenseless, a courtesy toward all women, were further amplifications of the ideal of service and obedience. A greater gentleness of manner, a consideration for others in deed and speech, in fact, a general amelioration of manners, followed throughout all classes of society. The general ideals of chivalry, its effect upon society and the indi- vidual, and, by reference, the character of the education it de- manded are indicated in this summary from Cornish: " Chivalry taught the world the duty of noble service willingly rendered. It upheld courage and enterprise in obedience to rule, it con- secrated military powers to the service of the Church, glorified the virtues of liberality, good faith, unselfishness and courtesy, and, above all, courtesy to women. Against these may be set the vices of pride, love of bloodshed, contempt of inferiors, and loose manners. Chivalry was an imperfect discipline, but it was a discipline, and one fit for the times." Middle Ages : Education as Discipline 149 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF CHIVALRY. — Theedu- Seven years cation of a knight was divided into two distinct periods: the'pafe-"'^ that of the page, which covered approximately the period from seven years the seventh to the fourteenth year, and that of the squire, from ^"^ squire the fourteenth to the twenty-first year approximately. Every feudal lord and the more prominent clerics as well, maintained a court that was attended by the sons and frequently by the daughters of the subordinate gentry of his realm. It was the usual custom for all ranks of chivalry, probably growing out of the earlier custom of taking hostages, to send their children from home. In some instances, though very rarely, schools were established. For the most part the training was given through a definitely organized household or court service. The page began with simple service about the castle, especially Services in attendance upon the ladies. As he grew older he waited upon b^"^^"^™^*^ the table. This duty he continued to perform as a squire ; and squire and in addition to these, he was called upon for a great variety of personal services to his lord. All culminated in the office of "squire of the body," who was the immediate personal attend- ant upon the lord in battle and in tournament. The page and the squire were supposed to learn " the rudi- Meaning of ments of love, of war and of religion," The " rudiments mlnls'^of '' of love " were courtesy, kindliness, gentleness, pleasant de- war, love meanor, generosity, knowledge of the very elaborate formalities ^- j, of conduct, good manners, pleasant speech and the ability to turn a rhyme. Love was to protect the youth from the evils of anger, envy, sloth, gluttony and excesses of all kinds. The rudiments of love were to be acquired through service to the ladies and through the teachings of the minstrels. It often happened that to these accomplishments the squire added the ability to play the harp and to sing. In particular he was ex- pected to devote himself to the service and the amusement of the ladies of the court. He participated in their hunting and hawking expeditions, in the entertainment of the court, perhaps by the reading of chivaLric literature and by the game of chess. non' 150 Brief Course in the History of Education Their mili- Religious significance The justing in the tournament was the chief preparation for war; in time it became a substitute. For this the youth was trained from his earhest years in the abihty to ride, to handle the shield, to wield the sword, to tilt with the lance, to cast the javelin, to exercise in armor, — in fact, in every martial exercise. tary training 'pjiting 2X a revolving target, either in boats or on horseback, was much practiced. Hunting and hawking not only formed the chief amusements of the nobility, but also furnished training for warfare as well. This training in the rudiments of war developed an abihty to withstand all hardships of life in the open air, an indifference to pain, an abihty to withstand hunger and fatigue. As the period for knighting drew nigh, the religious aspects of chivalry were emphasized. The prospective knight must go through ceremonies of purification; his sword was blessed by a priest, and in the initiation, frequently if not usually held in a church, he swore " to defend the Church, to attack the wicked, to respect the priesthood, to protect women and the poor, to preserve the country in tranquillity, and to shed his blood in behalf of his brethren." In all of this training there was little of the intellectual. In the earlier centuries of chivalry it was an effeminacy to know how to write ; but in the later centuries the knowledge of reading and writing among both men and women of the upper classes was quite common. Knowledge of the French language — the language of chivalry — was quite necessary. Except for this and for the song and music of the minstrels, there was no Uterary element in this type of education. Absence of the intel- lectual ele- ment § 7. EDUCATION AT THE CLOSE OF THE MIDDLE AGES The later Middle Ages not " dark ages " THE RENAISSANCE OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. — From the previous consideration of scholasticism and the universities, it will be seen that the later Middle Ages were far from being " dark ages," that the intellectual interests of AEPITOIVI^ OMMS PHYLDS0PH!m M^tf "^ , AS MARGARITA PHYLOSOPHICA TRACTANS 3eomni geiterc laljiIi;Cteaddmonibiis:Quf malijstionhabctitur, The Title P\ge of a Fii especially notable in literature, and national Barzizza (1370-1431), especially notable for scholarship, the work of These, with Petrarch, led in the movement for the revival of '^^^l^l^h ' ' _ and of riis co- classical Latin, for the recovery of the classical text, for the laborers multiplication of these manuscripts, and for the founding of libraries. In one remaining aspect of the educational Renais- sance — the recovery of the Greek language — Petrarch had little part. In Hebrew the Italians had no interest, but to them was due the restoration of Greek. Even among the Byzantine Greeks of the East, a knowledge of the classical Greek was a rare thing. While many travelers and some students had come in contact with the contemporary Greeks and a few of the Byzantians in Italy professed to teach Greek, the first real teacher of the classical Greek in the Western world was Manuel Chrysoloras (d. 1415). From 1397 to 1400 Chrysoloras lectured at the University of Florence and later at other cities of Italy. Many flocked to his tuition; other Greek teachers followed his example; Greek manuscripts were brought over in great numbers; Greek grammars were written for Latin students. Shortly there was given to the Western world a new language and a whole literature, of infinitely greater wealth than that possessed, whether of classical Latin, of patristic and mediaeval Latin, or of the vernacular. By the time the Renaissance movement had reached its Recovery of zenith in Italy and had begun to pass north of the Alps, the [jtej-atoe^^ classical Latin and Greek languages had been recovered. The largest part of the literature of these languages that we now possess had been brought to light, libraries had been founded and the new spirit as well as the new knowledge had been firmly established. .:—.:.... MODIFIED CHARACTER OF THE RENAISSANCE IN Center of the NORTH EUROPE. —The later Renaissance period, that of the i^terRenais ^ ' sance in latter half of the fifteenth century and the greater part of the north sixteenth, was modified in two respects, (i) By this time the ^'^°P^ 1 66 Brief Course in the History of Education Late Italian Renaissance becomes formal Interests in the North of a social rather than of a personal character movement had run its course in Italy and had begun to decline into a formalism little superior to the old. (2) The movement shifted north of the Alps and, though first welcomed by the French, received its greatest development among the Teutonic peoples. In the South the new learning tended to lose its wide interest in nature and in life and the intensity of its belief in personal development. It tended to concentrate into merely formal study of literature, until on the educational side it degenerated into that type known as " Ciceronianism." With the northern peoples culture and aesthetic appreciation as a means of personal development were not emphasized to the extent to which they were among the Italians. In the North there was not the broad interest in life, in its possibilities and in its opportunities for per- sonal development; in its pleasures and its legitimate interests aside from the religious and social. Moreover there was little or none of that interest in the investigation of nature and of life in the past that so characterized the earlier period. Erasmus, who represents the later movement as Petrarch did the earlier, had none of these. Since the archaeological, aesthetic, philosophical interests of the early movement were for the most part expres- sions of self-culture as well as means of personal development, there was comparatively slight attention to them. While in the North the movement was a narrower one so far as it related to personal development, it was infinitely broader in another respect, — in that it resulted in social reform and im- provement. In the South the movement was aristocratic. In the North, until late in the sixteenth century, it was demo- cratic. All of the early leaders were social or religious reformers. With them the Renaissance movement fused with the Refor- mation movement. With Erasmus the interests that deter- mined his career in life, the side chosen in every controversy, the selection of classics to be edited or translated, were all determined by one aim. This was to remove the common ignorance which was the root of the gross evils of Church and Renaissance and Humanistic Education 167 State. He ever sought to condemn the selfishness, greed and hypocrisy of all who used the cloak of their office, whether in government, in university, in monastery or in Church, to prey upon the ignorance and superstition of those committed to their care. ,^ THE EDUCATIONAL MEANING OF THE RENAISSANCE. Revival of (a) The Revival of the Idea of the Liberal Education. — Not f^^^^^f^^ ^ ' _ _ _ literature only did devotion to the study of the classical literatures become primarily a the chief outward manifestation of the Renaissance spirit, ^^5^^°°* but these literatures also furnished the chief means for develop- ing the new hfe. The new aspirations for the development of free moral personality, defined on both the intellectual and the emotional sides, found little basis in the immediate past and little encouragement in the immediate present. But the life of the ancients as portrayed in their literature furnished both incentive and definite suggestion for imitation. The Renais- sance was not a direct attempt to reestablish the ideas and the life of the ancients, but in many respects it became such an imitation. This was because the formulation of certain aspects of life by the ancients could not be improved upon. Some as- pects, however, could not well be modified to conform to the needs of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries by men of such meager experience and outlook as were the students of that age. A most important phase of this revival was the restoration of a means to the idea of the hberal education as formulated by the Greeks and ^"^f liberal •' _ education of adapted to the Romans by Cicero, Quintilian, Tacitus, and the ancients others. Educationally, the Renaissance seems often to have been merely a devotion to the study of the literary classics and to the linguistic drill necessary as a preparation. But this is not the heart of the matter, at least during the earlier period. The great desire was for a new life and, in this respect, for a new education hostile to the old, pedantic scheme of scholas- ticism. This ideal revealed itself in the liberal education as formulated by the ancients. Both the earlier and the later Renaissance periods were quite 1 68 Brief Course in the History of Education Renaissance educational treatises bor. row idea of the liberal education from the ancients prolific in treatises on education. Those of the earher period not only revived the liberal idea, but even defined education in the same terms as those used by Plato, by Aristotle or by Quintilian. The aim of education was always conceived as that of producing the perfect man fitted for participation in the activities of the dominant social institutions. The ideal, while individualistic, was as clearly distinguished from the narrow practical aim of individual success as a citizen and from the other extreme of a life of isolation spent in mere contemplation of the good, as it was from the prevailing formal disciphnary education of the scholastics. The educated men of the past who were held up as ideals were Demosthenes, Aristotle, Caesar, Pliny and, above all, Cicero. Formulation 0} the Aim. — Some of the formulations of the purpose of education by these early educators are of great interest and value. Paulus Vergerius (1349-1420), a pro- fessor in the University of Padua, wrote a treatise on education about 1374 which was widely influential and even widely used as a text in schools. In this he formulated the conception of education as follows: " We call those studies liberal which are worthy of a free man; those studies by which we attain and practice virtue and wisdom; that education which calls forth, trains and develops those highest gifts of body and of mind, which ennoble men and which are rightly judged to rank next in dignity to virtue only." To distinguish it from a purely practical education, which, owing to the revived economic interests of the times, was competing with the liberal idea in the struggle with the dominant scholasticism, he adds: " For to the , vulgar temper, gain and pleasure are the one aim of existence ; ' to a lofty nature, moral worth and fame." The major part of all of these numerous treatises on education is naturally devoted to a discussion of the subject-matter and the method of edu- cation, since it was in these respects that the new education presented a visible contrast with the old. It has been noticed that while Plato defined the aim of education in terms of knowl- Renaissance and Humanistic Education 169 edge and Cicero in terms of eloquence, — meaning knowledge both of the content and of the form of literature, — much more was indicated by these terms than they now connote. Knowl- edge and eloquence would now indicate the receptive or even the formal side of education; they then included the expression side as well. During the early Renaissance period this ex- pression side was even wider than that indicated by efficiency in writing or speaking. At that time these powers stood for that effective participation in the affairs of the times which is now represented by the differentiated activities of all of our learned professions and by the pubhc press. The New Elements in Education. — One very important aspect of the Renaissance education was the inclusion in the ideal and practice of education of elements common in the classical period, but, with the exception of chivalry, excluded from the mediaeval. The first of these is the physical element. Ac- Emphasis companying this emphasis upon the physical element was a cai element;" similar one upon matters of conduct and behavior. In these respects the early Renaissance education represented a fusion of the chivalric and the literary education with a result much superior to that which was obtained in the preceding or in suc- ceeding ages. These, along with the idea that hterary training on the eie- i iiOl De oi liiat cont-.^ Ci.itj,id.c<.Ci >vi."sicii v- 'iv.iu icii«^i ■ k of interest --^'^ "■--. ,-p- '.■■: ^.m. n, ;^' I'f^v ;,;? «^- - i •-•;■■'- heir thi'-- i:ducaiioR mtghr ^-„„„^..„„ „^ j^.^v,.^^u,x jci.u.5iJLj.v,iii. lii cvciytlay aiiairs was one ot its chief purposes. Hence the moral element received a new emphasis, different from that of the medieval spirit, where the moral was limited to the rehgious and theological element. One further element characteristic of the new education was on the the aesthetic. Wholly ehminated from the mediaeval education, ^il^^^ owing to the dominance of ascetic ideas, the aesthetic was re- introduced as the very breath of life of the new movement. It became the most characteristic feature of the change from the 170 Brief Course in the History of Education old to the new. It found its chief expression in the study of literature and became a dominant feature of the work of the schools under the titles of grammar and rhetoric. This em- phasis on the importance of expression related not only to language but also to conduct and behavior. (6) The Narrow Humanistic Education, — The content of this new education, consisting primarily of the languages and classical literatures of the Greeks and Romans, came to be indicated during this period by the term humanities. Battista Guarino, summing up his treatise (1459) on this new education, writes as follows: " Learning and training in Virtue are peculiar to man; therefore our forefathers called them ' Humanitas,' the pursuits, the activities, proper to mankind. And no branch of knowledge embraces so wide a range of subjects as that learning which I have now attempted to describe." This passage hints at the change which soon came to pass with tremendous results for education. The interest in the liberal education described in the last section was in " the pursuits, the activities, proper to mankind," and the literature of the Greeks and Romans was merely a means to an understanding of such activities. Soon, however, — that is, by the sixteenth century, — that which was at first merely a means came to be considered as an end in itself. The term Ivu/WKMtuie's came to jiidicate ms. languax ■ A the ancients. . Consequently, the aim of educdv. '.^ ?■'!'>.■ ■*■'";•» '.(7 A •^f-'fr' }T!.St'E:3,'!! OT V which was superior from the formal standpoint became the center of educational effort. Consequently, the formal instead of the content or hterary side of these writings was considered to be of the greater importance. This change, though a gradual one, resulted in the formulation of a type of education distinct from and inferior to the liberal education out of which it grew. This newer conception w: far more widely accepted and has per- sisted well into modern times. As in popular usage the term Renaissajice and Humanistic Education 171 humanities was narrowed to indicate merely the languages and literatures of the two peoples, so the term humanistic was nar- rowed to indicate the type of education corresponding to it. Though not quite exact, since the term contains the original broader significance as well, we are forced to adopt, as following popular practice, the term humanistic education to indicate the narrow linguistic education that dominated European schools from the sixteenth to the middle nineteenth century. Elimination of Elements from the Conception of Education. — Eiimina- At its best the narrow humanistic education gave httle place to ^^""^ ?^ ^,^^ ° -"^ physical the physical and to the social or institutional elements. It element; of had little thought of broad preparation for social activity through *^^ social; familiarity with the life of the ancients. It gave no place to the study of nature or of society (history) and, at first, little even to mathematics. The individualism of this education was not ofthesci- so much a training in the exercise of personal judgment and of ^'^^^^'^ personal taste and discrimination, as it was a preparation for a career which would be successful in the formal hfe of the times from the purely personal point of view. This end was gained through an education so formal and stereotyped that in time it - ated most of th.; results of the early humani^iic ....;;. r.tior\. The only p-i-^,;v. ../ xhe jesthelic elemen- ■ -■ — -■■ - ^-■.: :"; .-'c!dr^ rhetoric,.. .-'-Eaucdd{BagSilteaiE^ -:hool ~and that work became of tbr- .- ^ — i^^.o^, xv-xu-Li^xg oOxci_y to Liic sLuuy oi languagc and literature. Since the child began with the study of a synthetic language through the mastery of grammatical constructions, and since few children have much power of Hterary appreciation, the work of schoohng must be prolonged for years in its attention to the structural side of language only. Even literary appreciation This possible could not be a general attainment. Hence for the rank and file °^ ^"^^''- of children, educational work became a drill of the most formal ^^'^^ ^ ^^ and laborious character. In the universities, the same tendencies prevailed that controlled in the lower scnools. By the seven- teenth century the study of the humanities was almost as formal 172 Brief Course in the History of Education and profitless as had been the narrow routine of scholastic discussion of the fourteenth. Cicero now had become master in place of the dethroned Aristotle. Ciceronianism. — This humanistic education at its worst be- came almost inconceivably narrow and boldly asserted itself, even as early as the first half of the sixteenth century, under the name of Ciceronianism. The Ciceronians, arguing that the aim of education was to impart a perfect Latin style and that Cicero was the admitted master of that style, held that all work in the school should be confined to the study of the writings of Cicero or his imitators and that all conversation and all writing should be in Ciceronian phrase. In the words of the Ciceronian controversiahst, " they would discard all subjects that do not admit of being discussed in Cicero's recorded words." Against these views, as represented by numerous Itahan and French humanists, Erasmus carried on a long controversy and wrote his dialogue on The Ciceronians. In this satire the Ciceronian describes his ideal education. For seven years the child is to read Cicero and not a single other author, until he has practically committed to memory the whole of the master's writing and has aCQUired a Cireroninn -i^rv^oV"! — T„ -,-1, h^^T'r wf C. r-A: the >s of composed with infinite pains, in the effort to make a living language of that which even at the time of its creation was no more the spoken language than was that of Shakespeare during the sixteenth century or that of Browning in the nineteenth. Ciceronianism was an extreme. But substituting the clas- sical writers in general for Cicero, their master, the whole tenor, purpose and method of the schools of the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were but Httle broader than the spirit of the Ciceronians. Character 0} the Narrow Humanistic Education. — In the Renaissance and Humanistic Educv^^.^,^ _/3 narrow humanistic education a familiarity with the classical A writing literature, or with that portion of it superior from a rhetorical w kno^- point of view, and a writing and speaking knowledge of Latin edge of constituted the sole aim of education. The content of educa- ^ok aim^in tion and the subject-matter of school work became a prolonged education drill in Latin grammar; a detailed grammatical and rhetorical study of selected Latin texts, especially of Cicero, Ovid, Terence, withlessattentiontoVergiland someof thehistorians; with some study of portions of the Scriptures, of catechisms and creeds in Latin or of the Epistles in Greek. This command of Latin was Dominance perfected through frequent exercise in declamation and the pres- °^ ^Z"^^^ entation of the comedies of Plautus and Terence. This was supplemented by some attention to Greek and possibly to elementary mathematics and, as a final accomplishment, a training in oratory. Oratory meant a speaking knowledge of Latin as nearly classical or Ciceronian as possible. Methods followed the most formal grammatical lines, with no apprecia- tion of the child's nature. He was considered to be a miniature man whose interests and powers of mind differed from those of the adult only in degree, not in kind. Consequently, the child on comine- to school was given the task of acquiring a foreign ■-'rventeet}_th c^r^tirv, Tmist c^et this formal ]:T:rv.'';ei.g"-? t'; . text-DooJis written m tne same loreign longue. mere icbuncu a tremendous emphasis upon the memorizing powers and upon the power to discriminate forms. All this produced a dialectic abihty little inferior in subtlety and " hair-splitting " acumen to that of the Schoolmen. The discipHnary spirit of such an education was of the harshest, because of the most formal, and harsh character. Corporal punishment furnished the incentive to study ^^iscipiine as well as to moral conduct — not a very secure basis for either. This education, formal in its spirit as in its subject-matter, accompanied the return to the emphasis upon the formal in 174 Brief Course in the History of Education life. This is seen in the intellectual, the political, the religious and the moral life of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. (See Ch. X.) SOME RENAISSANCE EDUCATORS. —The great educa- tors of the Renaissance movement were not necessarily teachers, though many of them were. Leadership in education was quite as frequently exerted by general treatises on the new learning or even by stimulation of appreciation for Hterature. It was thus quite outside the pale of university or school that the early Italian leaders wrought. In any educational sketch of the Renaissance, some of the more prominent of those who reduced the new learning to the methods and the purposes of the schools In Iiaiy the advanced position occupied by Petrarch, Boc- caccio, Barzizza,Vergerius and other humanists has been noticed previously. Many of these early humanists, whether aU' ached to courts or to universities, possessed but a meager income. Consequently, it was their custom to supplement this by receiv- ing private students into iheir homes. Through such work, rather than through university lectures, these men reduced the new learning to def.nice educational procedure and exercised their greatest influence on their times and on education. Both Barziz^a a«(2 Gfeyselsrs?; l&adeis respectively in tb^ Latin and the Greek revival, conformed to this custom, and Guarino of Verona was on ^^^ ''■■/ most successful and most famous.''^- A ^ome rhat mc^ : statsmeni. of the work of one of these must answer for that of all. Vittorino da Feltra (1378-1446) has been considered as the most famous of all these Itahan educators, both by his own and succeeding generations. Since none of his writings have sur- vived, his reputation depends on the influence of his pupils and the traditions of his school. Vittorino was a product of the earlier generation of humanists, and had been associated with the three scholars just mentioned. He taught privately at Padua and Venice and pubhcly at the University of Padua before Renaissance and Humanistic Education 175 organizing the school which was to be the means of his great influence. In 1428 he was called to establish such a school by the Prince of Mantua, who wished to have the dignity of a school of the new learning at his court to rival those of the neigh- boring courts. Here he continued until his death. This institution represented the first thorough organization of the new learning for school purposes as distinct from university lectures. The master here gave to the Greek idea of a liberal education its first modern embodiment, and taught for the first time the literature, history and civilization of the Romans instead of the mere form of their language. Later ages have given Vittorino the title of " the first modern schoolmaster." In time, he associated children of his friends and of the neighboring nobility with the children of the court, until the school occupied an entire palace. His aim was to make the life of the pupils as pleasant and active as possible, so that the schoolhouse was made, as it was termed, "The Pleasant House." Sport and games were "interest" joined with study, aesthetic appreciation was cultivated, and, ^^ education above all, moral and Christian influences were strongly em- phasized. While the curriculum still retained the organization of the seven liberal arts, literature dominated, and dialectic and grammar were wholly subordinated. The new purpose repre- sented a change even more radical. Education now became a direct preparation for a useful and balanced life in leadership in State or Church, for a citizenship based upon knowledge of and Moral and sympathy for the best in the life of the Greeks and Romans. ^|^'^'^'^^' Self-government by the boys of the school, a dependence upon the natural interests of the pupil, use of the natural activities of the child as a basis for much of the work, and a strong em- phasis upon activity and upon the constructive side of the work as furnishing an immediate introduction into a useful life, were some of the features exemplified in this school at Mantua. Early German Humanists. — Among the early German humanists, John Wessel (1420-1489), Rudolph Agricola (1443-1485), Alexander Hegius (1420-1495), John Reuchlin aim 1 76 Brief Course in the History of Education Erasmus the greatest Renaissance educator Education of Erasmus His educa- tional influ- ence exerted ; (i) through teaching; (1455-1522), and Jacob Wimpfeling (1450-1528) possess the greatest reputation as educators. Their educational importance consists rather in what they did for the introduction of the new studies and the new spirit among German students, than for any formulation of educational doctrine or for any work in the organization of schools. Erasmus. — The most famous of all leaders of the new learning was Desiderius Erasmus (Gerardus Gerardi). Erasmus's long life (1467-1536) was wholly devoted to the furthering of the new learning as the most important factor in the much-needed moral, religious, educational and social reform of the time. As a scholar he probably does not take rank with some others of the critical phase of the Renaissance; but he was the most effective humanist and educator of all these centuries. " Of all scholars who have popularized scholarly hterature, Erasmus was the most brilhant, the man whose aim was the loftiest, and who pro- duced the most lasting effect over the widest area," is the judg- ment of Professor Jebb. It was in this broader sense that Erasmus was an educational leader. All his work was primarily educational; that is, designed to reform the many abuses in society that were the outgrowth of ignorance. Let us see how this was accomplished. Erasmus's early education was designed to fit him for the monastic life. But after a few years of the narrow training of the typical monastic school, he was put at his ninth year in the famous Church school at Daventer. Through the influence especially of Hegius and Agricola, he became imbued with enthusiasm for the new learning. Later, in Paris, in Oxford, and in Italy, he perfected his knowledge of languages and of the hterature of the ancients. Throughout his life he remained a most indefatigable student and often denied himself the barest necessities of life to obtain coveted books. During his sojourn at Paris and at Oxford, he was a teacher of private pupils, and he became the first teacher of the new learning at Cambridge. For many years he led the life of the itinerant scholar, at centers Renaissance and Humanistic Education 177 of learning in England, France, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Italy. For twenty years preceding his death he resided at Basel, then one of the chief centers of printing. Through his (2) through personal correspondence and his personal intercourse with ence; students and scholars, he did even more of the work of instruc- tion than through his formal connection with universities. But Erasmus accompHshed far more as a publicist than through (3) through either of these activities. Few men have published more, and j^^^ efforts' no man has seen his writings so widely disseminated in his own for the en- lifetime. All of his vast labors in this line were determined by his dominant educational or reform motives. He possessed little of the archeeological or aesthetic interests of many human- ists, and none of the dialectic and metaphysical interests of the scholar of the old time. Against both of these he wrote, chiefly in the form of satire. This satire enters into many of his works, this partly such as The Praise of Folly, The Colloquies, The Adages, and ^f*^?"^ many of his briefer dialogues, such as the one on The Ciceronians through his previously referred to. The A dages is a collection of the sayings of ^^^^^^^'' the ancients, professing to give a summary of their wisdom, but in reality so selected and commented upon as to serve as an influence reformatory of existing abuses. The Colloquies dis- cuss in dialogue form a general variety of topics so as to reveal the current abuses in Church, state, family, monastery and university. Thus Erasmus became a reformatory force next in importance to Luther himself. His whole effort was concen- trated on giving to the public a more accurate and more intimate acquaintance with the Scriptures. A fourth aspect of his educational labors is seen in his editions (4) through of many of the Latin and Greek classics. Here, again, he pur- ^q^^°^^ °^ posed to give a more accurate knowledge of this literature and classics; to make such selections as would expose the formahty and the corruption of his times. Most important of these were the editions of Terence, Seneca, Cicero, Suetonius and Plautus. (5) through A work of even greater importance for schools was performed in various text- <• T . 1 Vm 1 1 r 11 books; preparation of Latin and Greek grammars and of text-books, 178 Brief CotU'se in the History of Education of which the most famous and most widely used was The Colloquies. One more source of Erasmus's influence still remains to be mentioned. This is his direct discussion of educational subjects. Such discussion is found in some of The Colloquies, in The Ciceronians, in his Method 0} Study, and in his Liberal Educa- tion of Children. His educational beliefs — there was no system of philosophy — were as follows. The writings of the classical authors, the Church Fathers, and the Scriptures contain all that is necessary for guidance in this life and for the reform of the many existing abuses; but it is necessary to know these in the original and in their uncorrupted form. Consequently, the great work of the schools is to study a wide selection of these and to thoroughly imbibe their spirit. No mere mastery of form is sufficient, nor is a Hmited selection of authors to be allowed. In place of dialectic distinctions or obscurities, rhetorical analy- sis and appreciation are to be emphasized. Grammar necessarily forms the basis of all school work, but grammar as an inteUigent approach to Hterature. Nature, history and contemporary life are to illumine this literary study, as it in turn is to reform so- ciety. Such knowledge should be disseminated broadly and should be free to women as well as to men. The moral purpose in education should ever be emphasized, and a study of religious literature and participation in rehgious services should form a part of all training. In a similar way, conduct, behavior and the amenities of life receive due appreciation. The spirit is that of the best of the ItaHan Renaissance. The barbarous methods of discipline of the times are condemned, and more at- tractive methods are commended. A study of the child is advised, and personal care and direction of his studies is insisted upon. The function of the mother, the importance of play and of exercise, the necessity of keeping education vitally in touch with the life of the times, are all recognized. Many details of sound method, such as repetition, procedure through the mastery of small portions of work, importance of introductory studies such Renaissance and Humanistic Education 179 as grammar and many similar topics, find exposition in his writings. Above all, he combats the narrow thinkers of his own school who would reduce the new learning to a formalism no more fruitful than the old which it replaced. Few of the educational leaders of the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries, and probably none of the important schools, failed to reflect in some degree the educational influence of this great master. English Humanistic Educators. — England produced no great Renaissance leaders who achieved any wide reputation. So her humanistic educators are those of local or, at best, national influence. Special attention can be given to but one. (See p. 182 for others.) Roger Ascham (1515-1568) has achieved a reputation above Ascham.the all other English humanistic educators. This is due to two representa- '-' tive En gush things: first, that he was one of the first Englishmen to write a humanist treatise on education in the vernacular; and, second, that he possessed a style that has given him a place in literature as well as in educational history. Ascham was a product of the early Renaissance revival at 'Cambridge and succeeded Cheke, his master, to the chair of Greek. Afterwards he became tutor to the Princess, later Queen, Elizabeth, and then her Latin secretary. His School' He was a man of public affairs as well as an educator, and speaks ^'^^'^ with the authority of such experience as well as that of a school- master. This authority and his royal influence gave him his reputation during his lifetime. His educational treatise. The Schoolmaster, was not published until after his death (1571). His conception of education, though definitely limited by the title of his book to schoolroom education, is that of the typical humanists. Its aim is defined in terms of culture and virtue. Moral purpose and practical efficiency are supposed to be its outcome; but these ends are to be gained wholly by the use of literature. His analysis of the subject-matter of education shows a wide knowledge of the classics, and his recommendations are similar to those of Erasm.us and of Sturm, whom he closely i8o Brief Course in the History of Education followed. His treatise, however, is so largely devoted to a dis- cussion of method that the general impression left from his insistence on the importance of grammar is that of the nar- rower humanists. All learning seems not only to be based on this, but to center in it. His essential idea of method was that of " double translation," by which one would come into possession of a knowledge of the content as well as of a mastery of form. School disciphne is the only other topic treated with any thoroughness. Ascham opposed the brutal disciphne characteristic of all schools and masters of his time, and argued for a different attitude of teacher to pupil for both moral and pedagogical reasons. TYPES OF HUMANISTIC SCHOOLS. —The educational triumph of the humanistic ideas was first seen in the conquest of existing educational institutions, primarily the universities and the recently founded burgher schools. Then there followed the multiplication of such schools more thoroughly embodying the new spirit than was possible in those founded under the segis of the old traditions. Finally, by the estabhshment of new types of schools wholly expressive of the new spirit, the human- istic education became triumphant. By the time this latter stage was reached, the Renaissance movement had coalesced with the Reformation movement, and these new types of schools were connected with some aspect of the religious reforms. By the latter part of the sixteenth century, the formalism in the work of these institutions was no less characteristic and no less rigid than the formalism of the later mediaeval education, though different in content. These schools and this narrow humanistic education represented the practice and the ideal of education for several hundred years. It was even well into the nineteenth century before there was any general revolt against them. In. the subsequent consideration of other types of educa- tional thought, it must be borne in mind that these latter were protests only, and that the normal condition was the one deter- mined at the period here under consideration. (See Ch. IX.) Renaissance and Humanistic Education i8i The Universities. — These general statements are especially introduction true of the universities. Here the old traditions long resisted f *^^^ '^^^ " learning the spirit of the new learning. Though the conquest of some into the was complete and the new subjects in time found tolerance in u^i^^^sities all, the formalism of most university work was not radically changed. The most important modifications were a broad- ening of the authority which dominated the work, the change in content made by the addition of literary and linguistic sub- jects, especially Greek, and the substitution of classical for ecclesiastical Latin. It was in the Italian universities, those of Pavia, Florence, Padua, Milan and Rome, that the new learning first found a permanent home. As a result of the influence of Petrarch and Boccaccio, teachers of rhetoric in the universities began to devote their time to the study of the classical authors. The " imitation of the ancients " became a passion with many, "imitation and students were drawn from the dominant interests of law °^*^^ „ ancients and dialectic. This imitation led to the study of the classics in Italy; and from that to an attempt at reproduction, especially through epistolary efforts. In the case of the leading humanists this imitation produced a real literature; for it was not only an attempt to master the style of the ancients, but also to assimilate the content of their writings, their dominant ideas, and their conduct of life. During the fifteenth century the teaching of Greek in the universities, in the schools under the patronage of local lords, or in those under wholly private auspices, became quite common throughout Italy. By the sixteenth century the classical study in these universities had degenerated into that narrow Ciceronianism previously noted. As the new learning had spread through Italy chiefly through in France-, the wandering scholars and teachers, so it passed to the univer- sities of the North during the later half of the fifteenth century. The University of Paris, where the Hieronymians had gained a stronghold and favored the new learning, was the storm center. Greek was taught here as early as 1458. The political connec- tion between France and Italy was especially close after 1494; 1 82 Brief Course in the History of Education this aided the development in intellectual sympathy, already strong because of the basal Latin character of the two peoples. During the sixteenth century French scholars and printers were the leaders of the movement, both within and without the universities. in Germany; After 1460 the German universities of Heidelberg, Erfurt and Leipzig were frequented by these wandering teachers of " poetry" (p. 173). The first permanent chair of the new learning — " Poetry and Eloquence " it was called — was estabhshed at Erfurt in 1494. Wittenberg, founded in 1502, was humanistic from the beginning. By 1520 the new learning was at least represented in all the German universities and thoroughly dominant in several of them. in England The new learning was first introduced into England at Oxford by a group of students who had acquired their inspiration from the ItaKan schools. The foremost of these Hellenists were William Grocyn and Thomas Linacre. Around these men Erasmus found a group of scholars gathered when he came to Oxford in 1498. At Cambridge it was Erasmus himself who introduced the new learning from 1510 to 1513. Ascham and Colet were Cambridge products of the early sixteenth century. Numerous Schools of the Couft and of the Nobility. — The hostility of the court schools universities and of the Church and monastic schools to the new of Italy simi- ■, i . i ,. ^ ^ i i • lar to those learning led to the estabhshment of many schools embodymg the new spirit, under the patronage of the monarchs and of the nobihty. This was especially true in many of the small Itahan states, where the dignity of the court was much enhanced by such attendants (p. 174). A great rivahy grew up among these states for the attachment of noted scholars or for the possession of famous schools. The customary migratory life of the scholars in their search for learning or for new honors encouraged this competition and assisted in the dissemination of the new learning. At Florence, Verona, Padua, Venice, Pavia and numerous Italian cities, such court circles flourished, frequently with no organization into schools whatever. Some of these rivaled of Vittorino Catechetical Instruction in the Protestant Schools From a. German Woodcut of the Sixteenth Century Proteflant Tutor, Infiiu^iog Yoodi and Otheis, Ctttfc Cngltlft t ALSO XHIcVmring fo tfem the WoKKlon ERROIV, Umiabh DOCTRIHBS, «ni) Cmtl M4S5A. CBES of iht B^K«i7 WISTK wtiti £w. Imd may fiwft froTD \ Popifli SUCCESSOS To wHcIi b Er«Hx"d, A TTinely M^E, M O R I A L TO ALt TBVE PHOTESTA/^TS DcnwJ^rarin'i; l^e Cncdntr of ■ horrid ani dimn>WePoi(m PLOT oo« n-r.ins o« ,n Oieat-Bfil»!(i. in ordcrxo PeKrojr HiiM»jBl(y King. aEORGB,and Royal Fiinilx. MvwJu" a Poplft SucfefTor, aiuitovol»elh • " «.! 'i iif J™ ^^;/:^^''V*f^~-' J First English Public School ; Winchester, 1387. Relationshii WITH Monastic Schools indicated Renaissance and Humanistic Education 185 catechism, creed, etc., with reverence for rehgion and participation in Church services; by knowledge he meant the Latin language and literature ; and by eloquence the ability to use that language in practical life. Sturm trained many of the leaders of his time. His school often had more than a thousand pupils from many lands, many of them from the nobility. His influence was exerted on the schools of the sixteenth century through the many expert teachers whom he trained, through the influence of his model course of study so often imitated, through his published texts more carefully graded than any hitherto, through his corre- spondence with such men as Ascham and Melanchthon, and through his personal advice and influence in the establishment of schools. The school was of the narrow humanistic type. No attention was given to the vernacular, and only casual men- tion is made of geography and mathematics. In later years Hebrew was introduced. This represents the gymnasium of the sixteenth century; and with some gradual curtailment of the classical element, in favor first of mathematics, then of modern language and history, and finally, to some slight extent, of the natural sciences, it represents the gymnasium from that time to the present. With the progress of the Reformation and the organization of state systems of schools, the gymnasien passed under the control of the central governments and became, as they have remained, the unifying core of the various German school systems. The English Public Schools represent the formulation of the The public same type of schools. In England such schools are on founda- f ^^^^jg^' tions, independent of both State and Church, furnished by England private benevolence or by royal endowment. It is to this char- acteristic that the term public refers, for tuition charges are uni- versal and are here quite high. Beginning with Winchester (1379) and Eton (1440), such schools had been founded before the Renaissance. But it was not until after the founding of St. Paul's in London (15 12) that they became either numerous or 1 86 Brief Course in the History of Education representative of the Renaissance. St. Paul's, founded by John Colet, to whom reference has been made as one of the early humanistic leaders of England, became the model in curriculum, in method and in purpose. The first master, William Lilly, also a humanistic leader, perpetuated his influence and that of the school in a Latin grammar that was the standard text for all Enghsh schools for generations. At the time when Colet founded St. Paul's there existed in England from two to three hundred secondary schools in con- nection with monasteries, with cathedral or collegiate churches, with charity foundations in parish churches, with guilds or upon independent foundations. There were few of these latter, and all were inferior to Winchester and Eton. The close connection between these and the monastic schools is indicated by the il- lustration given, which is the oldest representation of Winchester School. The chief difference between these and monastic or hospital foundations was in the beginning not one of kind, but of degree. Here priests and paupers were provided for as well as scholars; but there were seventy of the latter and only three priests and sixteen charity foundationers. The main function of the institution was the preparation of students for New College, Oxford; hence teachers were provided, and behold! a new institution, a school rather than a monastery or a hospital. These public schools, nine of which, Winchester, Eton, St. Paul's, Westminster, Harrow, Charter-House, Rugby, Shrewsbury and Merchant Taylor's, are termed great, continued the narrow humanistic training as formulated during this early Renaissance period, ahnost without modification until the report of the royal commissioners of investigation in 1864. The Grammar School of the American colonies was a trans- planted English public school. Soon, however, these schools became supported and controlled by the colonial or local town governments. Only rarely did such a colonial school receive a foundation by bequest, and even more rarely was one founded by rehgious or private association. The curriculum, the method Renaissance and Humanistic Edtication 187 and the purpose were almost identical with those of their English prototype. Such schools were to be found in all the colonies, • with the exception of Georgia and North Carolina. They were most numerous in the New England colonies, where the religious motive was prominent and where colleges demanding the pre- paratory grammar train- ing were influential. In Massachusetts, Connecti- cut and Maryland sys- tems of such schools ex- isted. In Massachusetts alone such schools were estabhshed in considera- ble number. The first of these in America, the Bos- ton Latin School, founded 1635, has existed con- tinuously to the present time. The illustration given is of the old schooUiouse in con- nection with King's Chapel, as it was during the early part of the eighteenth century, at the close of the long mastership of Ezekiel Boston Cheever. Cheever, the most famous of colonial schoolmasters, "camelo the Boston school in 1670, after a teaching experience The most of thirty-two years in New Haven and in various Massachusetts "^I^^f^ ^°^°; •' -' nial school- towns. For thirty-eight years he served as master of the Boston master school. Owing to the fact that social and educational tradi- tions were far less binding in the new country, the humanistic school gave place to a new type in America sooner than in any of the European countries. By the close of the eighteenth century, the Latin schools were replaced by the academy, to be mentioned later (p. 250). j The Jesuit Schools, to be discussed under the Reformation (p. 202), were also important types of these schools. The Boston Latin Grammar School, FOUNDED 1635. The earliest of these schools at Brief Cotirse in the History of Education SUMMARY The Renaissance was primarily a movement in individualism. The characteristic features of the period were the attempts to overthrow the various forms of authority, in Church, State, industrial and social organiza- tions, intellectual and educational Hfe, dominant during the Middle Ages. In the eariier part of the movement and in the South of Europe, culture as the means of personal development was emphasized; later, and in the North, knowledge as a means of reforming those evils and injustices of society which were the outgrowth of ignorance was the chief interest. Two dis- tinct types of educational thought and practice grew out of the Renaissance. The first was the revival of the liberal education of the Greeks, which aimed at the development of personality by means of a great variety of educational instruments. This aim of education was broad and included a variety of elements besides the intellectual, and used many means besides the literary. Soon, however, this became the exception, and survived only in various forms of protests or reform movements which sprang up against the domi- nant type of education. This dominant type of education was the second educational outgrowth of the Renaissance. It was the narrow humanistic education into which the broad humanistic or Greek liberal education soon degenerated. The classical languages and literatures were first studied as the source of all liberaHzing ideas; then as a training in formal Hterary appreciation; then merely as a formal discipline of the individual. Each country produced a number of Renaissance educational leaders and ap- propriate types of schools. Among the leaders Erasmus was the most prominent. The German gymnasium, the EngHsh public school, the American colonial grammar school and college, were all types of the narrow humanistic schools. In all, the content of education was restricted to the Greek and Latin languages and literatures. This purely formal education became identified with the liberal education, a.nd was the dominant type of education well into the nineteenth century. Any other conception or practice of education during the early modern period was wholly subor- dinate to this, and is of importance only as a protest or as a germ of subse- quent development. CHAPTER VII THE REFORMATION, THE COUNTER-REFORMATION AND THE RELIGIOUS CONCEPTION OF EDUCATION WHAT THE REFORMATION WAS. —The Renaissance in Relation of Germany is distinsniishable from the Reformation only in its ^^^ ^^^°'^" , . , . "^ mation to spirit and in its outcome. The most fundamental features of theRenais- this period have already been mentioned in stating the changed ^^^^^ character of the Renaissance in the North. The Italian Renais- sance was largely interested in classical and pagan literature; the Teutonic Renaissance, in patristic and Christian literature. The one was concerned in personal culture ; the other, in social reform, in morals and in rehgion. One was individualistic and Chief differ- self-centered: the other was social and reformatory. One "ice was m ' •' the immedi- explanation of the difference is found in the fact that the civili- ate aim and zation of the Latin countries was based directly upon the classi- ^'^^^^^^'^ cal institutions, the traditions and influences of which were ever present ; while the civihzation of the Teutons had been a direct outgrowth of their Christianization. Another partial explanation is that the Teutonic mind had a moral and religious bent, while the Latin mind, was predominantly secular in its interests. The interests of the fifteenth century were literary and aesthetic, and involved the recovery and appreciation of the classical literatures. Those of the sixteenth century were ethical and theological, and involved criticism and reconstruc- tion rather than appreciation. This criticism and this reconstruction were directed toward The two two aspects of religion, one abstract and theological, the other ^he reitg^ous practical and moral. The movement began with the prac- reformation: tical effort to reform the many abuses within the Church. The thedogkai 189 I go Brief Course in the History of Education Need for moral reform alone would not have caused a permanent division Different tempera- mental atti- tudes toward religion The Refor- mation em- phasis on reason was a continua- tion of the Renaissance attitude necessity for such a reform was admitted by the Church long before the actual break occurred, and was striven for by many sections of the CathoHc Church both before and after the open break had taken place. This tendency toward moral reform within the Church, which culminated in the Council of Trent (i 545-1 562), would probably in itself have caused no permanent division. But by that time the abstract and theological differ- ences, due to fundamental disagreement, had become so promi- nent that harmonization was no longer possible. This fundamental divergence in the conception of religion is due to the nature of the human mind. It had appeared in the discussions of the later Middle Ages between realists and nominahsts. But so long as men's minds remained essentially uncritical and without the basis for forming positive judgments, the inherent incompatibihty of the views did not cause open rupture. With the Renaissance this basis was furnished in the knowledge of ancient and patristic hterature, and the critical spirit v/as consequently developed. Hence it was inevitable that the two fundamental views of religion should come in con- flict. The one view looks upon religion as a completed truth, revealed in its entirety by divine providence and given into the hands of an institution, which, in its origin, constitution and authority, is as divine as the original revelation itself. To the other view, rehgion is a truth divine in its origin, but completed only with the growth and through the development of the spirit of man. It is not a completed truth, but one whose principles are perfected by progressive application through the lives of men. Its particular meaning, in time and place, is given by the ap- plication of man's reason to the original revelation. Accepting the original revelation as the basis, the one finds the truth completed in the authority of the Church, the other in the rea- son of the individual. Hence the emphasis on reason, originat- ing in the Renaissance, was continued by the Reformation and applied to rehgious beliefs and practices. The tendency to observation, comparison, criticism, — that is, the appeal to The Reformation 191 original sources and to experience — which characterizes the humanistic Renaissance is the essential characteristic of the Protestant Reformation. From this grew the most important educational consequences. The counter-Reformation was the reaction against this The coun- movement toward separation. The inquisition was the chief tfon^wlTthe' negative of repressive means of this reactionary movement, reactionary and education its chief positive one. This education was con- wHW^thL^ trolled for the most part by the newly organized teaching con- Roman gregations, chief among which was the Society of Jesus. church^ INFLUENCE OF THIS PERIOD ON THE CONCEPTION AND SPIRIT OF EDUCATION. —The logical outcome of the views of the reformers would have led, first, to a continuous development of the Renaissance emphasis upon the use of reason The Refor- , ^ ^ mation was m the mterpretation of secular life and of nature ; second, to the at first a restriction of the authority of the Scriptures to religious matters ; •^p'^tmua- and third, to the use of reason by the individual even in the best educa- interpretation of the Scriptures. But the tendencies in all of t'o'^aiinflu- ^ ^ _ ences of the these lines were checked before the expiration of a single genera- Renaissance tion. Luther, in the early days at Wittenberg, wrote: " What is contrary to reason is certainly much more contrary to God. For how should not that be against divine truth which is against reason and human truth ? " And even later he said, "It is admitted that reason is the chief of all things, and among all A reaction that belongs to this hfe, the best, yea, a something divine." [°'^LuthIr''i But before the close of his hfe he stated as his view that, views " The more subtle and acute is reason, the more poisonous a beast, with many dragon's heads, is it against God, and all His works." This latter position is reiterated with characteristic vehemence and denotes not only an individual but a general change. The Reformation leaders themselves recognized that the doctrine of the Reformation contained inherently the right of Hberty of conscience and the duty of interpreting the Scriptures according to one's own reason. But they found it quite as 192 Brief Course in the History of Education Broad appli- cation of fundamen- tal Reforma- tion prin- ciples to education made only in later centuries Formalism caused by the domi- nance of the- ological interests Intensified by the Counter- Reformation The new scholasti- cism difficult as it had been before to admit this right for others. Hence the apphcation of the critical and rational faculties to literature, religion and secular affairs, to institutional life and to the realities of nature, was left for succeeding centuries. Even then this progress was through bitter conflict with the reformed churches as well as with the Roman Catholic. Liberalism of thought and emphasis on reason find little realization in the education of the time, either as formulated into doctrine, as organized into schools or as expressed in the somewhat inde- finable spirit of education. Formalism in its Results. — On the contrary we find education dominated by a formalism growing out of the dominant theo- logical groups into which the Protestant movement divided, the Lutheran, the Calvinistic, the Zwinglian and the Socinian, with their almost innumerable subdivisions. Lutheranism es- pecially, following the political divisions of the German people, became a congeries of discordant sects, whose chief interests were now in the petty conflicts among themselves. The result was a multitude of creeds, expanded to cover the minutest details, carrying to their respective adherents all the authority of the Scriptures. Intellectual life was bound within these narrow limits. The education of the schools, higher and lower, took its purpose and received its spirit from this same formal and narrow interest. The counter-Reformation intensified the same attitude upon the part of those of the Catholic communion. For the later half of the sixteenth and for all of the seventeenth century there existed a new scholasticism, either Protestant or Roman Catholic. In this there was a return to Aristotelianism as a basis for the endless definitions and distinctions made necessary by these involved systems. Though the content of this scholasticism of the sixteenth century was somewhat different from that of the thirteenth, its spirit and form were the same. For these reasons the Reformation failed to secure freedom of learning, the spread of culture and the development of The Reformation 193 science, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, though The domi- these intellectual and educational results were logically involved !f "^^ °^ o -' the new in the basal positions of the reformers. The bitter partisan formalism and destructive rehgious wars of the entire period were partially ^^^ -^^ " r r J rehgious responsible for the dominance of the state over religion and for wars explain the formal and scholastic character of education. These con- ^'j^^^^^'^b 01 educa- ditions also explain the low ebb of educational affairs during the tionai affairs seventeenth century and the fact that the educational ideals of Reformatiori the early reformers and the reformed states did not begin to times be realized until late in the seventeenth or in the eighteenth century. This formal theological education appeared not only in the The formal- content of the work of universities and higher schools and in the lower^schoois spirit of the intellectual life in general, but also in the concrete work of the lower schools. Here it was not the actual training in formal theology so much as it was the training in the old dialectic power, the power of making fine distinctions in the meaning of words and of using abstract terms. There was little or no interest in content. Thus there resulted in all the schools an emphasis on the memory and on the abstract logical activities of the mind, with little reference to the inherent validity of the material upon which it worked. Humanistic Content. — On the content side the Reformation ed- Humanistic ucators accepted the humanistic curriculum, though they used it curriculum ■T . . accepted for a purpose diilerent from that of the earlier humanistic educa- by the re- tors. This acceptance resulted from the vital connection between '^^'^'^^^^ the two movements, previously noted, and from the fact that a mastery of the classical languages was essential to the direct study of the Scriptures and of the Fathers in the originals. Con- Addition of sequently, this study became the immediate purpose of Protestant ^!|fg^^i education and found a prominent place in Protestant schools. The curriculum received a profound religious bias in a variety of ways. Catechisms, creeds and church services were memo- rized. The Scriptures were used as a text. The entire work of Aim of the the school was directed to the exposition of Christian literature ^'^°° 194 Brief Course in the History of Education The Refor- mation led to the es- tabhshment of systems of schools, con- trolled and partly sup- ported by the state Completion of such sys- tems of free schools the result of po- litical ideas of eighteenth and nine- teeth cen- turies Reformation basis for universal education found in the necessity that every one should be able to read the Scriptures Most Refor- mation edu- cators were humanistic educators also and doctrine and to the development of exegetical and polemical ability. Institutional Effects. — One other great educational influence of the Reformation was the establishment of systems of schools based upon the idea of universal education. The development and completion of such systems of state public schools awaited the growth of the political idea that the welfare of the state depends upon the education of the individual citizens. But the basis for all such systems is found in the Reformation doc- trine that the eternal welfare of every individual depends upon the apphcation of his own reason to the revelation contained in the Scriptures. Consequently the abihty to read the Scriptures in some form, the desirability of reading them in the original, and the necessity for the training of the rational powers presented new tasks for the school and demanded the universal and even compulsory education of children of all classes and of both sexes. It is not maintained that the Refor- mation gave the Bible to the people in the vernacular, for there were at least twenty-four German editions before that of Luther. Nor is it true that it gave the elementary school to the people ; for it is probable that the actual opportunity for educa- tion open to children of all classes was greater for the century before the Reformation than it was for the century afterward. But the modem idea of elementary education is undoubtedly an outgrowth of the principles involved in the Reformation. SOME REFORMATION EDUCATORS. — It is quite difficult, if not impossible, to differentiate the humanistic from the rehgious educators of the sixteenth century. From the fact that the north European humanists gave the new learning a reformatory bent, they were collectively responsible for the Reformation movement. While many of them, such as Erasmus, Wimpfeling, More and Rabelais, refused to break with the Church and rejected the violent methods of the reformers, they could not dissociate themselves from this responsibihty. On the one hand, many of those prominent as humanistic educators, such as Sturm, are quite The Reformation 195 as good representatives of religious education. On the other hand, many of those usually considered as Reformation educa- Religious tors, such as Melanchthon, are quite as thoroughly humanistic f^P^'^*^^^^^ , ^ o y iji ajm and as any mentioned in the previous chapter. The rehgious aspect organization; of the work of these educators is revealed in the purpose and ch^a^'fn'^' organization of education, while the humanistic or realistic content aspect appears in the content or subject-matter. The Reforma- tion and the counter-Reformation movements produced many great educators and leaders of educational thought, though but few of them are here mentioned in detail. In fact, it was a consequence of the character of the later Renaissance move- ment that^ll the religious leaders seized upon education as the chief instrument for bringing about the reforms which they desired?y On the Protestant side, the great leaders are Luther and Melanchthon and, in a less important way, the other great reformers. John Calvin (i 509-1 564) was occupied during the greater Educational part of his Hfe in rehgious and theological controversies. Only p°w°! during his later years did he give especial attention to education. He then organized a college at Geneva, which was httle more than a typical humanistic Latin school. Later, these schools became quite numerous throughout France among the Protes- tant communities. With the expulsion of the Huguenots, many schools of a similar type, under the patronage or influence of the French refugees, were established in Germany, as a type scarcely to be distinguished from the jiirstenschulen previously mentioned (p. 183). Zwingh (1484-1532), the great Swiss reformer, fostered the humanistic learning, encouraged the formation of elementary schools, and wrote a treatise on "The manner of instructing and of Zwingii bringing up boys in a Christian way " (1524). John Knox ^"^ °°^ (1505-1572), the leader of the Scotch Reformation, was the chief agent in the establishment of the parish school system of Scotland (p. 210). Martin Luther (1483-1546), the great protagonist of the Reformation, assumed the leadership of the educational 196 Brief Course in the History of Education Luther, the great Re- former, in regard to nature and aims of education Secular need of schools Broad scope of educa- tional views of Luther movement that had begun in Germany even before the germs of the Renaissance ideas took root. This movement vi^as threefold. It worked through the pov^er of the state toward the dehverance of education from the trammels which the Church had gradually forged for it through centuries. It strove for a wider dissemination of the opportunities for edu- cation. It held a truer conception of the function of education in hfe, both rehgious and secular. All of these tendencies har- monized with Luther's beliefs, and the success of the Reforma- tion necessitated at least a partial reahzation of them. Luther harshly condemned the education given by monastic and ecclesi- astical schools and held that the purpose and scope of education was no longer to be dominated by religion and the Church. In his Address to the Mayors and Councilmen of the German Cities, Luther writes : — "Were there neither soul, heaven, nor hell, it would be still necessary to have schools for the sake of affairs here below, as the history of the Greeks and the Romans plainly teaches. The world has need of educated men and women, to the end that the men may govern the country properly, and that the women may properly bring up their children, care for their domestics and direct the affairs of their households." He looked upon the family as an educational institution not secondary even to the school. In his view education became something broader than the school. But the school itself was to be broader than that which then existed, and much broader than those estabhshed by his followers of the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries. It is true that Latin and Greek con- stituted the bulk of Luther's curriculum. To those languages he added Hebrew, and also attempted to bring this linguistic educa- tion within the reach of all. But his curriculum was much more than linguistic. He also added the logic and mathematics demanded by the times, but laid a new emphasis upon history, science and music. This latter provision indicatss one of Luther's most important influences upon the German people. • For through his influence music became a component part of The Reformation 197 the education of all. Gymnastics and physical education were given a place new to German thought. Luther clearly saw the fundamental importance of universal Luther's education for the Reformation and insisted upon it throughout ^^^^^ '^°^'- r o cernmg uni- his teachings. Schoohng was to be brought to all the people, versaiedu- noble and common, rich and poor; it was to include both boys ^^'^°°- and girls — a remarkable advance ; finally, the state was to frame laws for compulsory attendance. In the Address previously mentioned Luther wrote: — "I by no means approve of those schools where a child was accustomed Luther's to pass twenty or thirty years in studying Donatus or Alexander, without conception learning anything. Another world has dawned, in which things go differ- ° a- sc 00 ently. My opinion is that we must send the boys to school one or two hours a day, and have them learn a trade at home for the rest of the time. It is desirable that these two occupations march side by side." It was further his opinion that the authorities were " bound to force their subjects to send their children to school," just as they compelled every subject to render military service and for much the same reason; namely, for the defense and the pros- perity of the state. Consequently, education should be state- supported and state-controlled. The concrete work of carrying ideas into effect was left to his followers. Chief among these was Melanchthon. Philip Melanchthon (1479-1 560) is called the Preceptor of Ger- Reason for many, for he was to Germany in educational reform what Luther Meianch- was in religious reform. The title was not given without good thon the reason, for at his death there was scarcely a city in all Germany Gennan°y ° but had modified its schools according to Melanchthon's direct advice or after his general suggestions, and scarcely a school of any importance but numbered some pupil of his among its teachers. Wittenberg was the center from which radiated Work at the these influences, united as they were with those of Luther. In Wittenberg^' this university Melanchthon labored for the last forty-two years of his life. Through his influence the university was soon re- modeled along humanistic and Protestant lines, and became the 198 Brief Course in the History of Education Influence of his pupils as teachers Melanch- thon's text- books The Saxony school plan Humanistic schools be- come Refor- mation schools model of the many new universities of Germany. To Wit- tenberg flocked students by the thousand, drawn by Melanch- thon's great reputation. From Wittenberg, in turn, were sent out teachers carrying Melanchthon 's idea into all Germany. If a prince needed a professor for his university or a city a rector for its schools, Melanchthon was consulted and most naturally one of his pupils chosen. The most distinguished teachers of this period, such as Neander and Trotzendorf , were his pupils, or, like Sturm, dependent upon him for counsel. Through his correspondence and visitation of schools he led in educational reform. Melanchthon' s contact with the individual pupil was mainly through his many text-books. When sixteen years of age, he wrote the Greek grammar which later became almost universally the text for the German schools. His Latin gram- mar, written later, achieved a similar vogue. His texts on dialectic, rhetoric, ethics, physics, history, were similarly useful in the lower schools ; and his theology became the great text for Protestant universities and higher schools. Through his formulation of the Visitation Articles of Saxony in 1528 (p. 208), drawn up at the request of the Elector, he became the founder of the modern state school system. Melanchthon's pedagogical writings consist chiefly of in- augural addresses or lectures to students on the value of the study of Hterature and philosophy. They are of importance only as indicating the content and spirit of the humanistic education. TYPES OF RELIGIOUS SCHOOLS. The Universities.— The history of the universities of the German states during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was determined by the prog- ress of the Protestant religion and was almost identical with the development of Protestant theology. Wittenberg, founded in 1502 as the first university of the new learning, became through the residence of Luther and Melanchthon the very center of Protestantism. The universities gradually threw off their alle- The Reformation ^ 199 giance to the pope and transferred it to the temporal princes. New uni- Since their support was now derived from the favor of these ^^"^^^ ^^^ governments instead of from ecclesiastical sources, the control exerted by the princes became determinative. To a considerable extent their support came from the dissolution of old monastic and ecclesiastical foundations. Marburg, founded in 1527, was the first of these Protestant universities, while Konigsberg, Jena, Helmstadt, Dorpat, and a number of others were added within a century, j Within this same period seven Roman Catho- lic universities were founded within the limits of the German states.) Several during the same period grew out of gymnasien, as the one at Strasburg (162 1) from Sturm's school, and the one at Altdorf (1578) from a famous institution at Nuremberg. Both of these were Protestant. The work in many of these was of a high character, and their influence great. Altdorf, for Work of the example, though very poor, is said to have contributed more to German 1 -1 1 • 1 11 r 1 • reformed philosophical study than all of the universities of the British universities empire. Yet, in general, by the seventeenth century the activities of these institutions degenerated into the lifeless formalism previously mentioned, A German historian re- marks that the dominant theological interest " called into existence a dialectic scholasticism, which was in no way inferior to that of the most flourishing period of the Middle Ages, either in the greatness or minuteness of the careful and acute develop- ment of its scientific form, or in the full and accurate exhibition of its religious contents." In England the connection between the Reformation and The Refor- the universities followed a similar course. At Cambridge, ^^'^En^'ish where the Reformation centered, the movement began early in universities the period, under the leadership of Tyndale (c. 1484-1536) and Latimer (1485-1555). The dissolution of the monasteries and friaries which formed so important a part of Oxford and Cam- bridge occasioned considerable diminution in their power and effectiveness. This was gradually offset by the founding of new colleges from the spoils of these dissolutions and by the establish- 200 Brief Course in the History of Education ment of regius professorships. In various other ways the monarch and the national Church came to the support of the universities, but in time the degeneracy in work and Hf e of these institutions was even more marked than in those of Germany. Humanistic Protcstant Control of the Humanistic Secondary Schools. — ■ controUed by '^^^ movement toward the secularization of the Latin schools, the states bcgun in the fifteenth century, was completed by the Reforma- tion movement in the sixteenth. This secularization related to the control of schools and not to the purpose and character of study. Even under state control the dominant motive was the re- ligious one. The rectors of these schools, as well as many of their teachers, were Protestant leaders or ministers. The dominant influence in the boards of control and visitation was always Influence of exercised by the representative of the Church. The new schools Meiandi- founded were shaped by Melanchthon's " School Plan," which tnons School ^ ■' ' Plan was thoroughly humanistic in the sense that Erasmus and Luther would approve. The purpose was chiefly religious and political, rather than humanitarian in the broader sense. In content little difference, if any, from the old schools can be discovered. A little Greek and less mathematics were added to the Latin curriculum. No attention was paid to the vernacular. State system A more striking change was the organization of these schools ^h^^^k^'^^^^ into systems, through the cooperation of the state with the municipalities. The first distinctly Protestant gymnasium was that of Magdeburg, founded from the union of the old parochial schools in 1524. The following year Melanchthon drew up his plan of a g}Tnnasium for the school of Eisleben, the birthplace of Luther. In 1528 the electorate of Saxony established the first general system of such schools. It provided for the founding of Latin schools on Melanchthon's plan in all the towns and villages of Saxony. The Duchy of Wiirtemberg followed in 1559 and the other German states later. In England these secondary schools have not to this day been organized into a system. However, they remained practically under the control of the national Church. The reorganization The Reformation 20I of these schools by Henry VIII and Edward VI was for the pur- in England pose of destroyinsr the monastic and ecclesiastical control. Each ^^ ^^ schools ■■^ y o ^ under inde- was placed on a separate foundation, but most of them were so pendent organized that the masters and fellows, the teaching and the ejj"\™|j" *^ controlling bodies, must be from the clergy of the Established lie schools Church. Thus they remained until the reforms of the nineteenth century. X The Westminster Public School, London (f. 1542) The great schoolroom in an old monastery The Teaching Congregations. — ^No more conclusive evidence can be cited of the effectiveness of the Protestant schools as a means of reforming social and ecclesiastical evils and of estabhsh- ing churches, than the adoption of the same means by the Roman Catholic Church. The instruments of the church were the new monastic or teaching orders. With the old monastic orders educational efforts were wholly subordinate. More important still, they were hostile in their nature and spirit to the new ideas and methods. The teaching orders adopted such ideas and methods, as improved upon by the Reformation schools, and exalted educational effort as their chief purpose. Until the early part of the nineteenth century these orders controlled secondary The teaching orders of the Roman CathoHc Church 202 Brief Course in the History of Education Purposes of the Jesuit order Importance of the educa- tional work of the order Structure of the order ; its educa- tional system outlined in the Ratio Sttidiorum and higher education, and for the most part elementary educa- tion also, in the Roman Catholic countries of south Europe and in France. They were also quite extensively represented in the Protestant countries of north Europe. The strongest and most important of these orders was that of the Jesuits. The Schools of the Jesuit Order. — The Society of Jesus, organ- ized in 1540, became the chief instrument of the counter-Ref- ormation movement. The means adopted by the order for the accomplishment of its purposes were preaching, confession and teaching. We are here concerned with its educational activities alone, and with these in their historic aspect. Hence all such ques- tions as the character of its influence, the motives inspiring it, the permissibility of its methods, the interference of the order in political affairs, the justification of the suppression of the order, are aside from our interests. It is possible to consider the or- ganization, content, method and administration of its system of education without an intimate investigation of its spirit and purpose. This latter is something not to be gained from the study of plans and records or from the reading of books. It is possible to form a favorable judgment of the one without being in accord with the other. Certain it is that the schools, which were the most successful educational institutions of two hun- dred years and educated very many of the leaders of Europe for that period, were not without great merit^.., — The Constitution of the Order consists of ten parts, the fourth one of which is the Ratio Studiorum, or System 0} Studies. This was not perfected until 1599, and remdned unchanged until 1832. As formulated, it embodied not only the experience of the order through more than half a century of teaching and experiment, but also a full consideration of the experience of others. The order possessed the advantage of being able to give continuous attention to the subject and to carry on close observation and wide experimentation. No other single edu- cator or group of educators had such advantages. The Reformation 203 The function of the order was to train prospective members interest con- and to educate youth in general. They provided not only ondaiyand religious but also the most thorough secular education of the higher edu- times. So successfully did they do this that they drew stu- dents even from the Protestant communions. The order was devoted to the education of leaders and consequently had little interest in elementary education, and hence in the education of the masses. Two classes of schools were established, colleges inferior and colleges superior; the former corresponding to the gymnasien and the latter to the universities and theological seminaries. Extent of Influence. — By the second quarter of the seven- Number of teenth century the number of their colleges had increased to of^students^ 372. By the opening of the eighteenth century they controlled 612 colleges, 157 normal schools, 24 universities, and 200 mis- sions. And at the time of the suppression of the order, after the middle of that century, the colleges of both grades num- bered 728. The attendance upon many of the larger of these colleges was over 2000; the total attendance in the department of Paris was over 13,000; and in the various national colleges at Rome more than 2000. At the time of the suppression, the order numbered about 22,000 members, the majority of whom were devoted to the work of education. Organization. — One cause of the great success of these Outline of schools is found in their completeness of organization and con- ^ation^^"'' tinuity of administration. The order was divided into ad- ministrative provinces, each presided over by a provincial responsible directly to the general. On the educational side were the rectors of the various colleges, under the provincial but appointed by the general. In turn, under the rectors were the prefects of studies, the educational supervisors, who were ap- pointed by the provincials. The teachers were directly super- vised by both rector and prefect, and the latter was required to make frequent visits to each class. This constant supervision and the constant check exercised on one officer by another, as 204 Brief Course in the History of Education Close super- vision and absolute authority of superior officers char- acteristic Rigorous dis- cipline Corporal punishment almost elimi- nated Thorough training of teachers explains the great suc- cess of their schools well as the preparatory training of all their teachers, made for a definiteness of procedure and a certainty of results that are with- out parallel in schools of that or subsequent times. This close supervision, amounting almost to repression on the one hand and espionage on the other, was also characteristic of the government of the pupils in the schools. The students were divided into groups under monitors and into pairs, so that each acted as a check upon the other. Thus order was secured and a respect for absolute authority that resulted almost in an elimi- nation of individuahty. Notwithstanding these characteristics in the way of limitations, there were corresponding merits in the matter of educational government. Discipline was secured through this ever present evidence of authority and by depend- ence upon religious motive, consequently the great abuse of corporal punishment, so characteristic of the time, was almost eliminated. In place of resorting to physical force, the Jesuit teachers elaborated, in their characteristically thorough and practical way, a system of rewards that made use of the motive of emulation to an extent never before employed. Preparation of Teachers. — Yet another cause of the edu- cational success of the order was due to the thoroughness of teach- ing in their schools, resulting from the careful preparation of teachers. The teaching force was made up for the most part of those who had passed through the rigid course of the lower and usually of the superior college, while the permanent teachers who directed the work of the student teachers were trained through a long university and normal career. Those best adapted to teaching were selected for this permanent service. As the members were picked men, to begin with, the order obtained a selected body of teachers far superior to those of any schools of the times. The Subject-matter of the Jesuit schools was of the charac- teristic humanistic order. In this respect they did not differ from the other schools of the time, either as to the scope of the material or the purpose to be achieved by its use. Their superiority lay The Reformation 205 in the fact that they were one and all kept up to the high stand- Subject- ard of the Ratio, while the g; the schools under secular cont; selection of the subject-matter. ard of the Ratio, while the greatest variation prevailed among °^^"^^ thoroughly the schools under secular control in regard to methods and the humanistic with reli- gious mate- Method. — Frequent reviews were given. Each day began rial added with a review of the previous one ; each week closed with a re- view; each year with a review of the year's work; and finally Frequent the student destined for the order reviewed the entire course acterized by teaching it. their method Each class was divided into groups presided over by decurions, Organization to whom the boys recited under the general supervision of the w'*'"^ the .,,... . school master. Another division was into groups of two, the rivals, by which means each boy was to become a corrective and an incen- tive to his companion, being expected to keep watch over his studies as well as over his conduct. A larger division of the classes was into groups for discussion concerning points of the lesson, grammatical, rhetorical and historical. These discus- sions were called concertations. The brighter boys were organ- ized into academies, where the concertation became fully developed dialectic discussions. Themes, essays, translations, discussions of classical subjects, all entered here. Membership in these was wholly voluntary and was one of the forms of reward for merit. Their entire work was based upon the principle that it is much Principle of better to give a small amount in a thorough manner than to give thorough- a rather indefinite impression or partial mastery of a quantity. Hence no single word was left without thorough explanation. While from the modern point of view their education was not troad, it was very thorough and very effective. Defects and Decline. — After this re\dew of the exceptional Decline of excellence of these schools, some explanation must be given of order due to the extreme hostility aroused by them among the Protestants social reia- and of the opposition of the Roman Catholic Church that oc- tionships casioned the temporary suppression of the order. To a large extent this hostility was due to the political activities of the order. The occasion for this is found in the application of the funda- 2o6 Brief Course in the History of Education Limitation of the educa- tional work and prin- ciples marked with the more re- cent changes in spirit and subject-mat- ter of edu- cation Character of Port Royal schools op- posite to that of the Jesuits Port Royal educators mental principle of the order, that all is to be done for the greater glory of God (A.M.D.G., as it passed into the usual formula of the order, that is, ad majorem Dei gloriam). This was secured through advancing the interests of the Church. In its applica- tion the principle means the complete subjection of the individual member to the order, and of the order and of all whom it edu- cated or could influence to the Church. Once more, in principle as well as in practice, the individual was to disappear completely before the institution. The principle frankly avowed by the order in its work, and expressed in the vows of the members, was the complete subjection of the individual. Their educa- tional scheme was directed toward this end. As Macaulay observes, " the Jesuits seemed to have found the point up to which intellectual development could be carried without reaching intellectual independence." Both practice and principle of the Jesuit education were in opposition to the new ideals of the Renaissance period. Their very method, perfect as it was in its way, inhibited all initiative and prevented the development of all spontaneity and of all freedom of opinion. Their superiority was maintained so long as there was no great change in the spirit and subject-matter of education. But when, with the eighteenth century, there came to be a decided movement away from the dominant theological spirit and from the formal humanistic content of education, the Jesuit schools lost much of their prestige and superiority. __, The Port Royal Schools. — The schools of this order repre- sented a reaction against the dominant Jesuit education both in their conception of education and in their method. They attained their importance not from their number or from the length of time that they existed (i 637-1661), but from their influence. This was wholly confined to France, and was ex- erted chiefly through the writings of the members of the order. The schools were founded by Duvergier de Hauranne (1581- (1643), better known as St. Cyran, from the abbey over which he presided. Several of the leaders of the order wrote educa- The Reformation 207 tional treatises widely circulated. Their most renowned pupils were La Fontaine (1621-1695) and Pascal (1623-1662). Individual care of the pupil by the teacher was one of their dis- individual tinguishing marks. To such an extreme was this carried that the care of the child was never left free to himself, but was ever under the per- great 'prin- sonal charge of his teacher. This practice grew out of the funda- ^'^!f°j mental belief that the purpose of education was to shape the moral and religious character of the child; to mold his v/ill by sur- rounding him with good influences. The motive of their work was the love of the child, enunciated now probably for the first time. They held that children should be compelled to study only that which they could understand, and consequently that their Principle of education should begin with the vernacular instead of with ^"^^'^^^t Latin. They discarded the alphabetical method of teaching and invented a phonic method. After the vernacular was mastered, the child was introduced to classical literature through translations. When Latin was begun, it was taught with a minimum of grammar, chiefly through translation into the vernacular, followed by the reading of wide selections from the classics. The moral training through the use of the subject- matter was to come from literature instead of from language. Hence this small group of men exerted a great influence ,on the development of French literature. Literature, history, mathe- matics, were to be used on account of their content value, but influence on only so far as they could be used in shaping character. Their ^^^^ ^^ thought was to lay the foundations of all schooling in a thorough literature mastery of the beginnings, but to make that mastery as attractive as possible to the pupil, by emphasizing content rather than Modem form, by building upon the understanding rather than upon the ^^gj^^"^ memory, and by a greater use of the senses than had been the educational custom previously. ^'^^^ Elementary Schools in Protestant Countries. — The chief practical outgrowth of the Reformation was in the establishment of systems of schools controlled and partly supported by the state, founded on the principle that it was the duty of the 2o8 Brief Course in the History of Education The Saxony school sys- tem, 1528 The Wiir- temberg school sys- tem, 1559 The Saxony system re- vised, 1580 family, of the Church, and especially of the state to see that every child attended these schools and received at least an ele- mentary education. The Public School Systems of the German States were the first of the modem type. Not until 1559 do we find a system of schools providing for all the people. In that year the Duke of Wiirtemberg adopted a plan, though it was not approved by the state until 1565. This system, an extension of the Saxony A German Elementary School of the Sixteenth Century plan, provided for elementary vernacular schools in every village, in which reading, writing, religion and sacred music were to be taught. The Latin schools in every town and city were expanded into six classes, instead of the three of Melanch- thon's original plan for Saxony (p. 198). Above these were the cloisteral or higher Latin schools, which were later incorporated with the lower Latin schools into the gymnasien. Crowning it all The Reformation 209 was the university (Tubingen). In 1580 the Saxony plan was re- vised so as to incorporate the elementary vernacular schools of the Wiirtemberg system. This code, borrowed from the Wiirtem- berg plan, remained without substantial revision until 1773. In Subsequent 1724 it had been provided that girls as well as boys should ^ ^"^^^ attend. In 1773 the compulsory provision extending from the fifth to the fourteenth year was made effective and the scope of the curriculum broadened. Meanwhile, during the early seven- teeYith century, Weimar, Hesse Darmstadt, Mecklenburg, Holstein and others German states adopted systems that in Other Ger- some respects were in advance of the Wiirtemberg and Saxony ^hool plans. The first state to adopt the principle of compulsory systems education for children of all classes was Weimar, in 16 19. It provided that all children, girls as well as boys, should be kept in school from the sixth to the twelfth year. Duke Ernst the Reforms of Pious of Gotha, more than any other ruler, deserves the credit ^j^^' ^-^^^^ for the founding of the modem system of German schools. In 1642 he adopted a comprehensive regulation for the schools of the duchy which was substantially the same as that of the German states at the present time. Attendance from the fifth year was required of every boy and girl in the province. The school year was to be ten months in length and the children were compelled to attend every week-day. The school day was to be from nine to twelve and from one to four every day in the week, except that Wednesday and Saturday afternoons were free. Parents were to be fined for non-attendance of children. The subjects of in- struction were those of the Wiirtemberg plan with the addition of arithmetic. The grading of the schools, the details of the subjects of study and the methods of instruction were all pro- vided for in the general law. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) had a disastrous effect Effect of \ -r / ^j^g Thirty upon the development of the school systems of all the German Years' War states, and it was not until the eighteenth century that school affairs begin to make continuous and rapid progress. Then giansciwol the Prussian school system, founded in 1648, rapidly forged to system 2IO Brief Course in the History of Education the front in all educational matters. By that time, however, it was political rather than religious considerations that were determinative in the control of the schools. (See p. 388.) No other people have even approximated the achievements of the German states in these respects. Until late into the nineteenth century, England left ail educational effort either to the family or to the Church. The chief means were the great public schools and special religious-educational societies. Among these were the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (founded 1699), the British and Foreign School Society (founded 1805), the National Society (1811), and the Home and Colonial School Society (1836). In Scotland the early Reformation period witnessed many efforts toward the establishment of schools under the influence of the Church. But it was not until 1696 that an effective system was estabhshed through the cooperation of Church and state. At that time an act was passed requiring the land- holders of each parish to provide a schoolhouse and to support a schoolmaster. In case the land-holders did not do this, the presbytery was authorized to apply to the commissioners of the shire, who were then to secure the enforcement of the act. The control of the teacher and the supervision of the schools were largely in the hands of the Church. Many of these schools offered secondary instruction as well as elementary, and sent boys directly to the university. Consequently the Scottish people had much better educational facilities and reached a higher common standard of intelligence than those of any other portion of the British Empire. No changes of any im- portance were made in the system until the opening year of the nineteenth century. Provisions were then made for more than one school in the larger parishes, and for transferring the power of selecting teachers from the Church to the taxpayers. From this time on a system of education adequate for towns as well as for rural regions gradually grew up. In Holland a system of elementary schools was established The Reformation 21 I mation under the auspices of the reformed churches. Notwith- Develop- standing the cruelly oppressive Spanish wars of the sixteenth ^hooi°sys-^ century, the synods of the Dutch Reformed Church made tem of Hol- provision for the education of the youth. But it was not until ^^ Refor- the Synod of Dort (1618) that the Church undertook, in con- nection with the state, the establishment of a system of elemen- tary schools in every parish. This system was as efficient as the chaotic condition of the times would permit. The earliest .schools in the American colonies were established in accordance with the requirement of the Church-state of Holland that the respective trading companies should provide schools and churches for every one of their settlements. A Dutch Village School of the Sixteenth Century In America the earliest systems of schools, however, were in the Puritan colonies in New England. These were also direct outgrowths of the Reformation spirit. The first general law providing for schools was passed in 1647 by the Massachu- setts Bay Colony. The oft-quoted preamble to that law indi- cates the dominant motive. " It being one chief project of that old deluder, Satan, to keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures, as, in former times, keeping them in an unknown tongue, so in these later times, by persuading them from the use Systems of schools in the New England colonies grew out of the same Reformation influences 212 Brief Course in the History of Education of tongues; so that at last the true sense and meaning of the original might be clouded and corrupted with false glosses of deceivers; and to the end that learning may not be buried in the graves of our forefathers, in Church and Commonwealth, the Lord assisting our endeavors; " it was therefore ordered that an elementary school should be established in every town of fifty families, and a Latin school in every town of one hundred f amJlies. Li 1650 the Connecticut Colony passed a law of similar import. Elementary Education in Roman Catholic Countries. — The Christian Brothers performed for elementary education, at least in France and to a less degree in other Roman Catholic communities, the same service which the Jesuits did for sec- ondary education. The Institute of the Brethren of the Christian Schools was founded in 1684 by Jean Baptiste de la Salle (1651-1719). By the time of the founder's death the institute numbered 27 houses and 274 brothers; by the opening of the Revolution 122 houses and 800 brothers. The spread of the institute until its establish- ment in almost every land, Protestant and Catholic, was the work of the nineteenth century. Their educational ideas and methods are set forth in The Conduct of Schools, first issued in 1720. The conception of education as well as the control exercised was thoroughly religious. Both in the control of the order and in tbe conduct of schools the spirit of asceticism was very marked. The rule of the schools most emphazised for both pupils and teachers was that of keeping silence. Punishment was to be used instead of reprimand; signals instead of commands, written work was emphasized and so far as possible restrictive and repressive measures were to be brought to bear upon the child.. The subjects of study in the schools were the ordinary elementary curriculum: reading, writing, arithmetic, and religious instruction. These schools resemble thoss of the religious associations of England, previously mentioned, in the freedom from tuition charges and in their dominant religious purpose and spirit. The Reformation 213 However narrow and repressive the spirit of the schools and Their im- the character of the method when compared with the freer spirit fl^^^ce p"" of the Protestant elementary schools, the scheme of the order the training was far superior in two respects. These were the training of °^ '^^^■^ers the teachers and the grading and method of instruction. In these respects they mad& the first general approach to modem standards. One of the greatest defects of the times, especially of the elementary schools, was the very inferior character of the teaching body. This was due partly to taking the conduct of the schools from the immediate control of the Church and partly to the unsettled social condition of the times. No longer drawn from the clergy, who had at least some education and no distracting interests, the teachers in the elementary schools were largely made up of church sextons, disabled soldiers, , village cobblers, or various persons whose chief occupation was either sedentary or lasting for part of the year only. As early as 1685 the Christian Brethren opened what was prob- ably the first institution for the training of elementary teachers. All the members of the order were to be professionally trained for their work. In other normal schools, founded later, primary schools for practice teaching were incorporated. The excellent example thus given waited long for any general imitation. The improvement made in the method of instruction was in and on the the substitution of a simultaneous or class method of recitation class method of recitation for the prevailing individual method. Usually, each child was instructed by most laborious methods in the alphabet, simple words, elementary reading and writing and rudiments of all the elementary branches. Even in the Jesuits' schools, while the classes were divided into groups under decurions for general discussion, each student finally recited in person to the master. Some similar modification of the monitorial system was adopted in most of the English and many of the German Latin schools. The plan of class recitation, as a systematic method, the essential feature of all modem schools, was first brought into general use by the Brethren of the Institute. This as a matter 214 Brief Course in the History of Education of necessity required a more careful grading of the schools than the previous one, based upon classification of subject-matter only. SUMMARY The Reformation was the Renaissance in the North, directed toward reforms in society and in the Church. It had both a moral and an in- tellectual or theological phase. In this latter respect it exalted the use of individual judgment. Consequently the division of the Church was unavoidable, since such sectarian divisions were based upon fundamental differences in the mental make-up of men. The earlier educational effect of the Reformation, continuing the early Renaissance tendencies, was to emphasize reason, the right of private judgment, and the necessity of familiarity with original literary material as the source of true ideas. Owing to the formation of many sects and the resulting conflicts between them as well as with the parent Church, the educational influence tended towards a new formalism little different from the old scholasticism. To the dominant humanistic content religious material was added. The chief immediate result of the Reformation in Protestant countries was the transfer of the schools to the control of the state, the building up of state systems, and the development of the idea of imiversal education based upon the necessity of reading the Scriptures, catechisms and other religious literature. While all Reformation leaders were concerned in the development of this new conception and organization of education, Luther was the most important. His views are much broader than those of his followers. Melanchthon put these views into practical operation, through the training of teachers, the writing of texts, and the organiza- tion of schools and of the Saxony system. The universities and human- istic schools, though nominally under state or independent organization, were really under control of the Church. First in Germany, then in Holland, Scotland, New England and other Protestant states, public school systems were developed during the seventeenth century. To the Reforma- tion, then, we owe our idea of universal, elementary education and also the early realization of this idea. CHAPTER VIII REALISTIC EDUCATION WHAT IS REALISM?— This term is applied to that type of Emphasis education in which natural phenomena and social institutions ^p°"p^«- ^ nomena of rather than languages and literature are made the chief subjects nature and of study. This movement in human thought became prominent °nstit"f and first profoundly affected educational thought and practice during the seventeenth century. In a true sense it v^as merely the further development of the Renaissance. The dominant interest in progressive thought in the fifteenth century v^as Adeveiop- personal and cultural and hence revealed itself in literary and ^fen\ific*^^ aesthetic forms. During the sixteenth century this dominant aspect interest was moral and reformatory and hence became chiefly naLance' religious and social. But during the seventeenth century the same intellectual interests and forces became impersonal, and The earliest directed towards philosophical and scientific problems. Modern ^o|e°Q philosophical and scientific thought here takes its rise. Con- science sequently the educational aspect of the movement, here termed sense-realism, may quite as appropriately be termed the early scientific movement. Two phases of realistic thought in education developed before Two earlier the growing interests in the natural sciences had begun to influ- ^laffstic^ ^^^^ ence the educational theory. These are termed humanistic, or development literary, realism and social realism. Each type had many devo- tees and found at least some expositors. In order to under- stand the details of these earlier movements of thought, a few of these exponents vdll be considered. They are not formu- lators of anything new, but are expositors of widely accepted views and practices. In the case of the more scientific move- 215 naissance survival of the idea of 2 1 6 Brief Course in the History of Education ment, the educators here considered performed a vital part in the development of thought and in the shaping of practice. § I. HUMANISTIC- REALISM Humanistic- THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION. — Humanistic-realism is realism was ^]^g reproduction during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries a later Re- ^ . . of a View of education characteristic of the earlier Renaissance period and now representing a protest against the dominant a liberal education of the narrow humanistic type. The humanistic- education realists and the narrow classical humanists agreed in looking upon the classical languages and literatures as the sole object of study, or at least the sole means to an education. To both, this literature represented the highest achievement of the human mind and contained not only the widest product of human in- telligence, but practically all that was worthy of man's attention. Yet there existed a fundamental diilerence in their purpose of study. We have previously considered the purpose and the spirit of the study of the narrow classicists (pp. 170-4). Their object was to form young Romans, to produce a newer Latium. "Realistic" The purpose of the humanistic-realist was to master his own gXed^ ^^ environing life, natural and social, through a knowledge of through lit- the broader life of the ancients. But this could be gained only is literature through a widc acquaintance with the literature of the, Greeks studied for and Romans. Mastery of form was important only so far as it was a key to the realities of thought. Study itself was not all of education. Physical, moral, social development formed com- ponent parts. The formal routine of linguistic discipline gave way to a broad and appreciative study of literature. It might even be necessary to resort to the practical study of life around one, but after all only for the purpose of a clear understanding of the text itself. For, when understood, literature was a safer and a more comprehensive guide to life than a direct study of that life. *" REPRESENTATIVE HUMANISTIC-REALISTS. — Since this view was developed in opposition to the narrow humanism, its Realistic Education 217 representatives are found among the leaders of the later Re- Erasmus naissance. Erasmus, who lived to see and to combat this re- ^fP'"^^^^*^ this view strictive tendency, gives one of the clearest presentations of the position of the humanistic-realist in his System of Studies. His position may be summed up in a few words: " Knowledge seems to be of two kinds, that of things and that of words. That of words comes first, that of things is the more important." The views of Erasmus, however, are too broad to be classified through this one writing. The representative humanistic- reahsts are of at least a generation or even a century later. Rabelais (1483-1553) is the better exponent of this view and Rabelais the the one usually selected as representative. The educational im- typical rep- -' _ ^ ^ resentative portance of Rabelais comes, not from any immediate and concrete influence on schools, but from the influence his ideas exerted upon Montaigne, Rousseau and Locke. Though a university man and scholar, Rabelais was a trenchant satirist on the humanistic tendencies and the learning of his time. His great work con- sisted in combating the formal, insincere, shallow life of the period, whether in state or Church or school. This satire, couched in most violent and exaggerated form, yet contains the Character of truth of most of the reformatory aspirations of the sixteenth J^/^ s'^^'^^; -' ^ ^ tional writ- century. Consequently, the dominant education of words, ingsand instead of realities, meets his most forceful condemnation. In ^^^^^ place of the old linguistic and formal literary education he advocated one including social, moral, religious and physical elements; one that would lead to freedom of thought and of action instead of the complacent dependence on authority, whether of schoolmen, classicists or churchmen. His training in medicine led him to give unusual emphasis to the developing sciences. It is true, according to his views, that almost all of education was to be gained through books; but it was through mastery of their contents and for practical service in life. Studies were to be made pleasant; games and sports were to be used for this purpose as well as for their usefulness in the physical 2i8 Brief Course in the History of Education Extract giv- ing a sum- mary of Rabelais' educational views development of the child and for their practical bearing on his duties later in life; attractive rather than compulsory means were favored. In the closing part of a letter from the giant Garguantua to his son, the hero of the satire, concerning his education, the entire scope of his teachings can be given. "I intend, and will have it so, that thou learn the languages perfectly. First of all, the Greek, as Quintilian will have it; secondly, the Latin; and then the Hebrew, for the holy Scripture's sake. And then the Chaldee and Arabic likewise. And that thou' frame thy style in Greek, in imita- tion of Plato; and for the Latin, after Cicero. Let there be no history which thou shalt not have ready in thy memory; and to help thee therein, the books of cosmography will be very conducible. Of the liberal arts of geometry, arithmetic, and music, I gave thee some taste when thou wert yet little, and not above five or six years old; proceed further in them and learn the remainder if thou canst. As for astronomy, study all the rules thereof; let pass nevertheless the divining and judicial as- trology, and the art of LuUius, as being nothing else but plain cheats and vanities; As for the civil law, of that I would have thee to know the texts by heart, and then to compare them with philosophy. Now in matter of the Ijnowledge of the works of nature, I would have thee to study that exactly; so that there be no sea, river, or fountain, of which thou dost not know the fishes; all the fowls of the air; all the several kinds of shrubs and trees, whether in forest or orchard; all the sorts of herbs and flowers that grow upon the ground; all the various metals that are hid within the bowels of the earth ; together with all the diversity of precious stones that are to be seen in the Orient and south parts of the world ; let nothing of all these be hidden from thee. Then fail not most carefully to peruse the books of the great Arabian and Latin physicians; not despising the Talmudists and Cabalists; and by frequent anatomies get thee the per- fect knowledge of the microcosm, which is man. And at some hours of the day apply thy mind to the study of the holy Scriptures: first in Greek, the New Testament with the Epistles of the Apostles; and then the Old Testament, in Hebrew. In brief, let me see thee an abyss and bottomless pit of knowledge: for from henceforward, as thou growest great and becomest a man, thou must part from this tranquillity and rest of study; thou must learn chivalry, warfare, and the exercise of the field, the better thereby to defend our house and our friends and to succour and protect them at all their needs against the invasion and assaults of evil-doers. Furthermore I will that very shortly thou try how much thou hast profited, which thou canst not better do than by maintaining Realistic Education 219 publicly theses and conclusions in all arts, against all persons whatsoever, and by haunting the company of learned men, both at Paris and elsewhere." John Milton (1608-1674), the poet, published in 1644 a Milton's brief Tractate on Education which remains one of the best ex- tractate on Educatton pressions of the views of the humanistic-reahsts. His first represents objection to the dominant education was that against the method j-g^aUsm^*^'*^' of approaching the subject through formal grammar and no less formal exercises in composition. Secondly, granting that this evil should be removed, he held that a greater one existed in the custom of directing the entire attention of the student to the mastery of the formal side of the language, without any atten- tion to the literary or content side. Again, granting an im- provement in this respect, his final objection was that all of education was not contained in the languages and literature of the Greeks and Romans. There follows a truly marvelous analysis of the work of Course of the school that is to provide for the boy's education from twelve ^^'^'^^ ""jT"^ ^ -' mended by to twenty-one. For the first year the boy was to receive the usual Milton training in Latin grammar, together with arithmetic, geometry and moral training. Then followed the study of agriculture through Cato, Columella, Varro; of physiology through Aris- totle and Theophrastus; of architecture through Vitruvius; of natural philosophy through Seneca and Pliny; of geography through Mela and Solinus ; of medicine through Celsus. This study of the natural and mathematical sciences was to be sup- plemented by reading the poets who treated of cognate subjects. This list included such as Orpheus, Hesiod, Theocritus, Aratus, Nicander, Oppian, Dionysius, Lucretius, Manilius, Virgil and others. Thus the Greek and Latin languages were to be learned incidentally to the mastery of the content of the, literature. In the following stages, ethics, economics, politics, history, the- ology. Church history, logic, rhetoric, composition, oratory, were to be mastered through the appropriate authors. In this manner, the political orations and treatises, the tragedies, the 2 20 Brief Cotirse in the History of Education histories, the poetry of the Greeks and Romans, were given place in this capacious programme. And not in the Greek and Latin only, for all of this necessitated the command of Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac and Italian, the last acquired " at any odd hour." The prodigious scope of school work which Rabelais suggested in jest or for the race was incorporated by Milton into the pro- gramme of a school. One permanent contribution made by Milton to education is found in the notable definition which he formulated. While the form is that of the seventeenth century, the spirit is that of all times. " I call therefore," he says, " a complete and generous Education that which fits a man to perform, justly, skillfully and magnanimously all the offices both private and public of Peace and War." THE EFFECT OF HUMANISTIC-REALISM ON SCHOOL WORK is necessarily a thing which cannot be estimated or traced. It was not characterized by any great external differ- ence from the dominant humanism either in content or method ; certainly not by any difference in organization or administration. Its direct influence on schools was only that exerted by individual teachers and individual programmes. Rare teachers and in- frequent schools kept alive these traditions; but the dominant classicism overshadowed all other tendencies in school work. Naturally, since with the higher stages the formal language was at least mastered, the realistic spirit flourished more in the universities than in the lower schools. Yet the dominant character of the work of these higher institutions was, as has been previously noted, formal, artificial, and more or less per- functory and traditional. The chief importance of humanistic realism is that it led directly to the sense-realism that soon found a place in organized educational work. § 2. SOCIAL- REALISM THE EDUCATIONAL CONCEPT, —This term social- realism is adopted to indicate a view of education held by Realistic Education 221 various educators in previous centuries, but more generally Sodal-reai- accepted during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and clTionTor " then also most clearly expressed in theory. Its advocates practical looked upon the humanistic culture at its best as an inadequate ^^^.j^ ^ usu- preparation for the life of the gentleman. Its great representa- ally an edu- tive, Montaigne, said in this connection:' " If the mind be not theggiTtiy better disposed by education, if the judgment be not better settled, I had much rather my scholar had spent his time at tennis. . . . Do but observe him when he comes back from school, after fifteen or sixteen years that he has been there; there is nothing so awkward and maladroit, so unfit for company and employment ; and all that you shall find he has got is, that his Latin and Greek have only made him a greater and more conceited coxcomb than when he went from home." Education should shape the judgment and the disposition importance so as to secure for the youth a successful and pleasurable career direct ^con-' in life. This view regarded education, in the frankest and most tact with utilitarian manner, as the direct preparation for the life of the ^^"^'^ ^ " man of the world." Holding a view as far as possible from a high idealism, or a rigid asceticism, or a fervid emotionalism, ' these educators looked with unconcealed skepticism upon the ordinary routine of the school and the accepted opinion of humanistic studies. To them, education should be a frank pre- . paration for a practical, serviceable, successful, happy career of a man of affairs in a civilization formal enough in its pretenses, but not over rigid in its standard of conduct. To them the more important fact of education was a period of travel for the sake of acquiring experience and familiarity with men and customs. Through travel one would acquire practical knowledge and the culture which comes from actual contact with places and people made familiar through literary study. MONTAIGNE VS. ASCHAM CONCERNING REALISTIC This custom SOCIAL EDUCATION. — With many writers throughout the ^,005?'°'' course of the history of education, one finds an acceptance of the travel, of view that a period of travel and the consequent broadening of standing 2 22 Brief Course in the History of Education Opposed by Ascham in his School- master Defrnded by Montaigne in his Essays one's views and one's experience form the proper conclusion of a long course of study. After the practice of sending Roman youths to Greece to complete their education had become quite common, Quintilian discusses this question. Ascham devotes a considerable portion of his Schoolmaster to a condemnation of this practice and this conception of education which was quite common among the gentry. In general, he objects that "Learn- ing teaches more in one year than experience in twenty; and learning teaches safely, when experience maketh more miser- able than wise." In the concrete, his objections are that " a young gentleman, thus bred up in this goodly school, to learn the next and ready way to sin, to have a busy head, a factious heart, a talkative tongue, fed with a discoursing of factions, led to contemn God and his religion, shall come home into England but very ill-taught, either to be an honest man himself, a quiet subject to his prince, or willing to serve God under obedience of honest living." This conservative English view of the result of grafting Italian and worldly culture on the native English robustness was not the common one among the gentry — who alone a5 a class provided an education for their children. This is one side only of the picture. Hear Montaigne describe the other. "That he may whet and sharpen his wits by rubbing them upon those of others, I would have a boy sent abroad very young. . , . This great world, which some multiply as several species under one genus, is the true mirror wherein we must look in order to know ourselves as we should. In short I would have this to be the book my young gentleman should study with most attention. Many strange humours, many sects, many judgments, opinions, laws, and customs, teach us to judge rightly of our own actions, to correct our faults, and to inform our understanding, which is no trivial lesson. ... In these examples a man shall learn what it is to know, and what it is to be ignorant; what ought to be the end and design of study; what valour, temperance, and justice are; what differ- ence there is between ambition and avarice, bondage and freedom, license and liberty; by what token a man may know true and solid content; to what extent one may fear and apprehend death, pain, or disgrace, '£i quo quemque modo fugiasque jerasque laborem. (And how one may avoid, Realistic Education 223 or endure each hardship.)' He shall also learn what secret springs move us, and the reason of our various irresolutions; for, I think, the first doctrines with which one seasons his understanding ought to be those that rule his manners and direct his sense; that teach him to know him- self, how to live and how to die well. Among the liberal studies let us begin with those which make us free; not that they do not all serve in some measure to the instruction and use of life, as do all other things, but let us make choice of those which directly and professedly serve to thsX end. If we were once able to restrain the offices of human life within their just and natural limits, we should find that most of the subjects rcw taught are of no great use to us; and even in those that are useful there are many points it would be better to leave alone, and, following Socrates' direction, limit our studies to those of real utility." Studies are not condemned, but they are subordinated. Subordinate They are only means, partial and insufficient at best, to an end p°^'':'°^ °^ which lies wholly beyond and without them. The end is found in character, — in the practical, successful, efficient, useful and happy life of action. In this sense the ideal is a moral, not an intellectual one; but it is moral in a matter of fact, utilitarian sense. Herein the Renaissance conception of education is exalted; but the Renaissance means to that end is rejected, just as in the narrow humanistic education the means was accepted but the end unappreciated and neglected. MONTAIGNE'S CONCEPTION OF EDUCATION. —Michael Rejection of de Montaigne (1533-1592) presents in his essays 0/ Pedantry, Of the Education of Children, and Of the Affection of Fathers to means their Children the clearest expression of this view of education. Though in all his writings, Montaigne adopted the current Oniyasu- rractice of making reference in almost every sentence to the knowledge ideas and words of the ancients and thus making a parade of of literature his learning, yet he was not a humanist as he is so often classed. This very practice, especially as an educational ideal, he fre- quently condemns. He granted that a certain amount of this knowledge was desirable, that " one should taste the upper crust of science," but after all merely as an accomplishment always to be distinguished from education itself. He inveighed Renaissance educational 224 Brief Course in the History of Education Knowledge through books of little value In some re- spects agreed with sense- realists, in others not Aim of edu- cation was virtue. Montaigne's description \)f virtue constantly against this misconception of knowledge and of education. " We can say, Cicero speaks thus; these were the ideas of Plato ; these are the very words of Aristotle. A parrot could say as much. But what do we say that is our own? What can we do? How do we judge? " Such knowledge is " like counterfeit coin, of no other use or value but as counters to reckon with or set up at cards." For such knowledge that came through books and was primarily of books, the greatest scorn was expressd, since it had nothing to do with the real life of the individual. " A misuse enriched with the knowledge of so many things does not become ready and sprightly. A vulgar understanding can exist by the side of all the reasoning and judgment the world has collected and stored up without benefit thereby." Montaigne believed in the training of the senses and in physi- cal education ; he believed with the ancients that a sound body is the basis of a sound mind; he believed that the vernacular should come first and should be taught by natural methods. Therefore he is often classed with the sense-realists. In these respects, indeed, he did agree with them. But he gives no emphasis to the study of the natural sciences or of the phenomena of nature, and is not concerned at all with knowledge of any kind as the end of education. The Ami of Education according to Montaigne is Virtue. — Montaigne's idea of virtue is expressed in one place as his conception of the function of the teacher. The teacher should "make his pupil feel that the height and value of true virtue consist? in the facility, utility, and pleasure of its exercise, and that by order aiid good conduct, not by force, is virtue to be acquired. . . . Virtue is the foster mother of all human pleasures, who, in rendering them just, render, them also pure and permanent ; in moderating them, keeps them in breadth and appetite. If the ordinary fortune fails, virtue does without, or frames another, wholly her OAvn, not so feeble and unsteady. She can be rich, potent, and wise, and knows how to lie on a soft and perfumed couch. She loves life, beauty, glory, and health. But her proper and peculiar office is to know how to make a wise use of aU these good things, and will be practically Realistic Education 225 how to part with them without concern — an office more noble than trouble- some, but without which the whole course of life is unnatural, turbulent, and deformed." This is not a high ideahsm; certainly no rigid asceticism. Not a high Yet it is a wholesome corrective of the formal morality of the idealism time and of the pedantic scholarship which passed for education. It is a frank statement of an honest, if somewhat materialistic, morality. If inferior at many points to the abstract, authori- tative, and ineffective idealism of the times, it at least was practicable and far superior to the actual state of affairs. The Content of Education. — Such studies as are needed study what can be selected by the same practical or pragmatic principle. " Among the liberal studies let us begin with those which useful make us free; not that they do not all serve in some measure to the instruction and rise of life, as do all other things, but let us make a choice of those which directly and professedly serve to that end." Herein is stated the principle that is com- ing to be accepted in modem times. In a story from the Greeks, which Montaigne quoted, the same principle is expressed even more trenchantly: " Agesilaus was once asked what he thought most proper for boys to learn. ' What they ought to do when men,' was the reply." He would not have the traditional studies entirely neglected. But he held that their impor- tance was secondary and depended much upon the method. " After having taught your pupil what will make him wise and good, you may then teach him the elements of logic, physics, geometry and rhetoric. After training, he will quickly make his own that science which best pleases him." Method of Education. — The principles of method enun- Lessons to ciated follow as corollaries from the general conception ^^ "Pf^^" "^ ^ bced, not given. Knowledge is to be assimilated, action is to be imitated, "learned" ideas are to be realized in conduct. " A boy should not so much memorize his lesson as practice it. Let him repeat it in his actions. We shall discover if there be prudence in him by his undertaking; goodness and justice, by his deportment; grace Q 2 26 Brief Course in the History of Education and judgment, by his speaking; fortitude, by his sickness, temperance, by his pleasures; order, by his management of affairs ; and indifference, by his palate." Here, again, are given both the elements in the ideal and the character of the method. The most famous statement of method found in Montaigne contains the gist of all his educational ideas. Apropos of the "To know traditional verbal instruction, he remarks: "To know by heart heart is not ^^^y ^^ ^*^^ ^° know^ at all ; it is simply to keep what one has com- toknow mitted to his memory. What a man knows directly, that will he dispose of without turning to his book or looking to his pattern." " The art of The sum total of the views on education, whether of purpose, living well" content, or method, Montaigne expresses in words from Cicero: " The best of all arts — that of living well — they followed in their lives rather than in their learning." Social real- SOCIAL-REALISM IN THE SCHOOLS.— Social-realism was bTtaufiht in* ^ ^^P^ °^ education not to be found widely represented in the schools and schools. Schools Were too much given up to grammar and effect on" ^ rhetoric to think much of useful and happy lives ; too much schools devoted to cramming the memory to think of training the judg- ment. This type of realism rather expressed an educational practice, one common with the upper classes of society for these centuries in most European countries. It is a conception of education which found a presentation in educational writings, and claims as its chief representative one of the most charming writers of any age and certainly one of the most lovable of " pedagogues." t. § 3. SENSE- REALISM The genn of THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SENSE-REAL- conceptfons ISM. — This Conception of education was formulated during the of education seventeenth century and grew out of and included the character- istic phases of the earlier realism previously described. But in addition it contained the germs of the modem conception of education, whether stated in psychological, sociological or Realistic Education 227 scientific terms. The term itself is derived from the funda- mental belief that knowledge comes primarily through the senses. Consequently, education was to be founded on a train- Primary idea ing in sense perception rather than on pure memory activities ^nc^ft""^' and was to be directed toward a different kind of subject-matter, ing in sense So far as most of the characteristics mentioned are concerned, and of^st'udy the term early scienti'fic movement would be quite as accurate, of natural This, however, would not so clearly indicate the connection of ^ enomena the tendency with previous development. For the first time, we find formulated a general theory of Principles of education based upon rational rather than upon empirical disrov'^^rabie grounds. The sense- realists were influenced by the new dis- in nature coveries then being made in nature's processes, and the new inventions contrived to take advantage of her forces. They were imbued with an interest in and a respect for the phenomena of nature as a source of knowledge and truth, and held that education itself was a natural rather than an artificial process. They believed that the laws or principles upon which education should be based were discoverable in nature. This belief gave rise to two tendencies observable in the work of all the representa- tives of this group. The first was that toward the formulation of a rudimentary science or philosophy of education based upon scientific investigation or speculation rather than upon pure empiricism. The second was a tendency to replace the exclusive literary and linguistic material of the school curriculum with material chosen from the natural sciences and from contempo- rary life. The first tendency constituted the earliest attempt, at least since the time of the Greeks, to formulate an educational psychology. While several of these men insisted upon the study An educa- of the child, and the adaptation of the educational processes to ehoiogy^^' the child, their thought in respect to these educational principles was controlled rather by their theory of knowledge and, as with Bacon, by their investigation into the manner in which knowl- edge was advanced by mankind as a whole. They possessed little, if any, knowledge of the development and activities of the 2 28 Brief Course hi the History of Education Use of the vernacular Formulation of a new educational method based on the inductive process Idea of a general method child's mind. They held, however, that the child should acquire the idea rather than the form and should understand the object before the word, or the word through the object. This view, which seems to us a commonplace and self-evident truth, constituted for that period a revolution in thought and, so far as carried out, one in practice as well. This, moreover, led to another innovation. It necessitated the use of the vernacular in the earlier school years and thus produced a practical and a permanent reform. Both the early Protestant reformers and the Port Royalists emphasized the value of the vernacular. But its importance was first established on strictly educational grounds by the sense-realists. This sense-realistic tendency was also the first general educational response to the new scientific and philosophic ideas which were the logical outcome of the Renaissance movement. Along with these tendencies went a corresponding change in method. This was the effort toward the formulation of a method — the inductive — appropriate to the new subject- matter and the new aim. While not grasped at all by the earliest realists, the re-formulation of this method constitutes the chief claim to greatness of one whom we have here included in this group, — Francis Bacon. The educators of this group who came later in time than Bacon, all adopted the method of induction as the most important key to the solution of all edu- cational difficulties. Educationally, this thought developed into the idea of a general method, by which all children could be taught all subjects, in a way wholly novel. So expeditiously was this to be accomplished that instead of the meager results of previous times, all children would now be able to master all subjects. It is necessary, therefore, to refer to one other characteristic of seventeenth-century thought in order to understand the work and ideas of these sense-realists. In this thought of the great possibilities of the new education, they shared in the visionary hopes of the times. Disappointed at the failure of either the Realistic Education 229 reform in religion or the recovery of the classical learning to Movement bring about any great and rapid social betterment, the thinkers toward the , . r 1 • 1 1 r 1 1 • universal and writers of the period, who strove for the general improve- organization ment of mankind, turned to the new sciences and the new ^^^. ^^issemi- nation of method for the solution of these evils. This general tendency was knowledge termed the " pansophic " movement. Through the universal ^f^^^'^ ^^ dissemination of knowledge concerning life and nature and by sophic" means of the new method, it endeavored to raise the average ™°v«°^e'it of human attainment, thought and activity to the level reached hitherto only by the favored few. When unified, reduced and organized by the application of Sodal re- tire new method of induction, the sense-realists held knowledge ^°^"^ ^""^ ' ° progress to to be comparatively simple. By means of the new method and be the out- the previous use of the vernacular all the necessary languages '^°™^ °!.*^ ^ J o o pansophic could be mastered, and within the time and effort allotted to the movement mastery of one under the old system. Upon the basis of this unified and simplified knowledge which consequently could be mastered by every individual, the race could go on in a course of discovery, invention and self-improvement. Upon this uniform method and content of education they based their hopes, first, of a unified language or at least of unified national languages; second, upon the unified language, the hopes of a unified religion in place of the innumerable dissenting bodies then existing ; and upon the unified language and religion, the hopes of a unified political life and organization. It is to be noted, however, that rationality not authority, was to form the Basis found basis of all this. This new education of the seventeenth century n'^ot^in au^ ^^ was expressed in the educational writings of the times. How- thority ever, it acquired but slight influence upon the schools, and that was of very gradual growth. SOME REPRESENTATIVE SENSE-REALISTS. — A move- Many repre ment so lasting and so fundamental naturally found expression s^^J^^'^^s , , ^ , ^ ^ of this move- in the writings and in the work of many men. Some of these ment perceived the new idea in a few of its aspects only, while others grasped it in its entirety. Two or three of these representatives, 230 Brief Course in the History of Education Mulcaster was the first advocate of the general use of Eng- lish in edu- cation First advo- cacy of the general training of teachers and of an edu- cational de- partment in universities who wrote before the philosophy of the movement had been formulated by Bacon and Descartes, are quite worthy of study if space permitted. Among these are the Frenchman, Peter Ramus ; the Spaniard, Ludivico Vives ; the Englishmen, Mulcaster, Hoole, Hartlib, Petty, and the philosopher Bacon; and above all the Czech, Comenius. Richard Mulcaster (c. 1530-1611) was one of the earliest of these. He was one of the first to advocate the use of the ver- nacular in education, and in 1582 published The Elementarie, which entreateth chieflie of the right Writing of the English tung. In his work published in the preceding year (1581), entitled Po- sitions wherein those circumstances he examined, which are neces- sary for the training up of children either for skill in their booke, or health in their bodie, he expresses views that entitle him to be classed among the reformers of the following century. As a reaction against the formal, repressive school work of the times, which aimed at the eradication of many of the tendencies and activities natural to childhood, Mulcaster held that education should not aim either to force or to repress the child. "The end of education and training," he wrote, " is to help nature to her perfection." Two or three corollaries of great importance followed from this view of the nature of education. One was that while all children can profit by some elementary training in the vernacular, yet on the other hand too many seek the higher education in the classical tongues which is not fit for all. An- other corollary was that education of both grades should be for boys and girls ahke. Mulcaster further argued that education in the schools is preferable to education by tutors. This latter view led to the elaboration of a position that forms one of the remarkable previsions of the work. The arguments for the training of teachers are fully stated, and, in addition, Mulcaster held that the universities should provide for this as for the pro- fessions of the law, medicine and the ministry. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) stands highest among those who caught a preliminary glimpse of the coming changes in the Realistic Education 231 character of the intellectual life and of education. He pos- Bacon had sessed little knowledge of or interest in either educational j^^g^^g^^*^* problems or processes and wrote little directly on either question, of or interest But Bacon gave to philosophy and to the intellectual life a new ^q^^^°°^ purpose. He rejected the previously accepted aim — the theo- but influ- retic formulation of Icnowledge — in favor of the practical and tk)n^pro'^^^^' useful aim. The intellectual life was to be made fruitful, as the foundiy old speculation was not, by being made practical. What is true of the intellectual life in general, is more true of its method, — education. In becoming fruitful, it becomes useful to the many instead of attainable only by the few. This fruitfulness was to be gained by giving the intellectual study to be life a new foundation, — nature. Neither theology nor meta- ^"^^cted °-' toward the physics, the basis of previous philosophies, but physics was to investigation serve as the foundation of the new. Even the moral and political °^ 'mature philosophies were to receive new meaning by being founded on, or referred to, the natural sciences. In this position Bacon foresaw the re-formulation of those sciences on the basis of evo- lutionary thought, and paved the way for their eighteenth and nineteenth century development. The new tendency given to the intellectual life and to educa- Formah'sm tion was away from the formalism of the old learning toward ""^^ ^^f''^'" the realism of the new. From deahng with words and abstrac- trast in tions it came to deal with objects and ideas. The tendency of ^'^^<^^t^°'^ the intellectual life was away from the formulation of closed systems of thought which were satisfied with definitions and abstract formulations. Nor was education directed toward a mastery of words and logical power in handling the syllogism developed through a discipline in grammatical forms, and in " defining," " determining " and " disputing." Intellectually, the new tendency in thought was directed toward the formulation of fruitful principles of interpretation and methods of investiga- tion that could never produce a perfected system of thought. Educationally, it was concerned with the entire realm of the knowledge of nature and of society and with the use of a method 232 Brief Course in the History of Education that would develop in the individual power of dealing with this world of reality. Bacon himself was not the first, nor the only one of his times, to participate in these tendencies. Copernicus, Vives, Da Vinci and others worked immediately before him; Galileo, Descartes, Kepler, Grotius, Boyle and others along with him. But Bacon of them all seized the whole problem, stated its terms and for- mulated its equations. In actual solutions he did less than many of the others. The first part of Bacon's plan, which was to serve as a model for future intellectual endeavor, was to survey human knowledge in its existing stage. He designed to construct a chart or map of the intellectual world, including not only the previous systems, but also those unknovm or barren regions which, though ready for exploration, had rarely been visited by the human mind. This he did in his Advancement of Learning, the only part of his plan even approximately completed. The second part of his work was to formulate the method for the investigation of phenomena. This was the determination of the process by which the new edifice was to be erected upon the foundation previously laid. This is the Novum Organum, the new method, — induction, — opposed to the Organon of Aristotle, which had determined the intellectual methods of centuries. Bacon fin- ished only a part of this work, but sufiicient to give a profound and determining influence to all modem thought. The Educational Influence of Bacon may be briefly summed up under the aim and subject-matter of education, and the new method. Aim and Subject-matter. — Bacon's aspiration for a reor- ganization of the entire realm of human knowledge such as would serve for the improvement of human welfare, by basing it not upon the old literary knowledge which concerned itself with man, but upon the new scientific knowledge which concerned itself with nature, was shared by many philosophers, educators and statesmen of his time. This was the " pansophic " ideal of the Realistic Education 233 seventeenth century. They held that when knowledge was based upon the uniformity of nature instead of upon the varia- bility of man, it dealt with laws and principles that could be investigated and determined by definite methods, not by guess- work. Moreover, it dealt with forces that could be controlled and used for human progress. Such knowledge must be derived primarily from a study of the phenomena of nature. Only in a secondary sense could it be gained from the language, the litera- ture, the philosophy and the theology of past generations. Education to Education through the schools should secure the dissemination seminWoii of this knowledge, because when unified it would be within the of knowledge grasp of every child. Within the centuries since the opening of the Renaissance, intellectual man's empirical knowledge of the material universe and his shoulder - power over it had been marvelously expanded. The world cede and of thought had not kept pace with this. The problem, to Bacon, covTry'^^^" was to expand the intellectual world until it should not only correspond to and keep pace with this development, but should precede it. He considered that it was dishonorable that " the boundaries of the intellectual world should be confined to the discoveries and straits of the ancients." Consequently, study was to be directed toward the phenomena of nature as the only means of bringing about this equilibration between practical opportunity and knowledge. With his followers this new and productive kind of knowledge was to be made the subject- matter of school work. This was because such knowledge was the only real and fruitful knowledge, because such knowledge made up the bulk of the whole pansophic scheme of thought, and because the renovation of society was thus to be brought about. This is the earlier form of sense-realism in education. The principle that knowledge came only through the senses was not yet fully formulated in its modem meaning. Education was now regarded as not merely of religious or New social practical value to the individual, but was accorded a hitherto ^ g^ducadon unknown social value. Education, as science itself, was with 2 34 Brief Course in the History of Education Bacon but a means to an end, — the dominance of man over things. " Human science and human power coincide." To such knowledge and to such power, there was no hmit. If the expectations of these men led by the pansophic ideal appear to us now as wholly visionary, no less so to their own times did those specific instances of the expansion of human power, through knowledge of nature, which were clearly foreshadowed by Bacon and have been realized only in the present- Little explicit reference is made in any of Bacon's works to the particular bearing of his general ideas concerning knowl- edge on concrete educational work. However, the closing portion of his incomplete Utopia, The New Atlantis, is devoted to a description of the ideal educational institution, the investigat- ing university, called Solomon's House. In this work much that universities, scientific departments of governments, and learned investigators now do, and much besides in a scientific way that is yet in the realm of unachieved human aspiration, is foreshadowed. The modification of species, animal and plant; curative methods, through hypodermic serum infusions; the modification of metals, as in steel; the transformation of various forms of energy; the steam engine ; communication at a distance, — were some of these remarkable previsions of scientific innovations. Yet even here it is the spirit and the principle rather than the detail that is significant. Method. — " There are," says Bacon, " and can be, only two ways for the investigation and discovery of truth. One flies from the senses and particulars to the most general axioms, and from these principles and their infallible truths determines and dis- covers intermediate axioms. And this is the way now in use. The other constructs axioms from the senses and particulars, by ascending continually and gradually, so as to reach the most general axioms last of all. This is the true way, but it is yet untried." With the old method of thought, the entire process is controlled by its starting point, which is an axiom, a thing given or determined. With the new method, the entire process Realistic Education 235 is controlled by the goal to be reached, which is a problem to be solved by investigation of particulars. With this method the particulars are discoverable by observation, not given by author- ity; the problem is solved and the principles are determined by induction. The practical goal, beyond the scientific problem, is reached by the application of the principle through the deductive process to the practical problem. The result is an not the ex- invention, — the practical application of knowledge to human ^^"^^^^. welfare and power. This is the complete circle of Baconian thought involving both methods. Only the deductive method is secondary. Striking advance had been made in Bacon's time and most of it had come as a result of accidental discovery, as with the compass, gunpowder, the telescope and the printing press. Bacon aimed to change this chance to design. " For chance works rarely and tardily and without order; but art constantly, rapidly, and in an orderly manner." The new method, the art formulated of discovery, was formulated in the Novum Ormnum. Bacon ^"Z*^^ , ° Novum stated the logic of the new thought, as Aristotle did that of the Organum old. The goal which Bacon held to be of sole value was power over nature. Knowledge of nature was the source of all such included ob- power. Observation, investigation, experimentation, was the nervation, m- ■■^ :> ^ o :> J- 7 vestigation sole method of reaching that knowledge. This knowledge andexperi- could not be obtained by the old scholastic method, that of "mentation definition and of the syllogism. These methods were valid enough for the truths which they sought, but the truths thus discovered were to Bacon not worth the search. Nor did Bacon hold to the nominalistic formula, " only that is in the intellect which first is in the senses," or to its modem restatement as a determinant of all method; for he held that the senses unchecked were particularly unsafe guides. Neither the senses, as seen in the case of a test of temperature, nor the understand- ing, as in the long-accepted Ptolemaic explanation of the mo- tions of the earth and the sun, are safe guides when left to them- selves. Truth is not reached by the mere accumulation of 236 Brief Course in the History of Education similar instances. A generalization reached inductively is not valid unless tested by the " negative instance "; for one such instance to the contrary will counterbalance the weight of any number of a positive character in the establishment of a uni- versal law or principle such as are those of nature. The difficulties in the way of the employment of the proper method and the discovery of knowledge worthy of human endeavor, Bacon termed '* idols " {Novum Organum, xxxix). He classified them as idols of the tribe, those that " have their foundation in human nature as such, and in the tribe and race of men "; idols of the den, or the personal bias of the individual; idols of the market place, or those which arise from the manners, customs and usages of men in their social intercourse; and idols of the theater, those which depend upon doctrines, dogmas and traditions.' Now invention and progress are only secured by an interpretation of nature without the intervention of any of these idols, consequently only by the scientifically guarded inductive method. Then we come to know things as they really are, not merely as popularly represented. This is the aim of science, of philosophy, of education. But this method has one more scientific relation to educa- tional work, made not by Bacon, but his followers. Bacon in his method was not thinking of the subjective process, the psycho- logical bearing of his great idea, but merely of its objective value. He was concerned in showing how the race as a whole could come into the possession of that knowledge which would be of permanent benefit to itself, and in indicating the tests of real knowledge. But in showing how it is that we know, he by inference indicated how it is that the individual comes to know and also how the individual should be taught. Bacon himself was interested primarily in the subject-matter of thought and the possible outcome of it ; only secondarily in the process of thought. But as method elaborated by Bacon revolutionized the scientific knowledge of the race and led to unprecedented progress, so its educational application, as made by his followers, in time Realistic Education 237 revolutionized school method. The specific application of these we are to see later. BacorCs Place in Education, as in the history of human A formula- thought, is usually either much exaggerated or undervalued, discoverer On the one hand he was not the discoverer of a new method of thought, for he had predecessors as well as colaborers. He formulated this method, however, showing that hitherto nature had been rather anticipated by happy chance than interpreted by certain method. Nor on the other hand was he a man who simply repeated what was a time-worn familiarity with all great thinkers. He showed that, while all men have experience and guide their conduct by it, experience not scientifically tested has far less value than explicit discovery through scientific method. Nor is he to be charged with the narrowness of some of his followers in exalting one phase of the thought process to the exclusion of all others, or identifying the test of knowledge with the source from which all knowledge is obtained. Wolfgang Ratke^ (Ratichius or Ratich), who lived from 1571 Ratke first to 16 ^t;, jBrst formulated in educational terms those ideas con- ^^^'!V„^ ceming the new subject-matter of study and the new methods of principles to investigation that were a part of the new spirit of the early seven- ^^^ods teenth century and were first definitely formulated by Bacon. In an address to the Diet of the German Empire at Frankfort, in 1612, Ratke claimed: (i) By his new method to be able to teach Latin, Greek and Hebrew tongues more thoroughly and in a much shorter time than had hitherto been devoted even to the one ; (2) by use of the vernacular as the basis for instruction, to give to all children a thorough knowledge of all the arts and sciences ; (3) through the continual use of the vernacular and the new methods to bring about the use of one language among all the German people in place of the multitudinous dialects, and thus to lay the basis in the uniform language for uniformity in * A more adequate treatment is given in the translation of Von Raumer, in Barnard's German Teachers and Edu^'^tors, pp. 319—347. This is condensed in Quick's Educational Reformers, Ch. -X. 238 Brief Cotirse in the History of Education Not prac- tically suc- cessful The "order of nature" the basis of his reforms Summary of Ratke's principles religion and ultimately for uniformity in government. Ratke failed, however, of the success in the practical application of his ideas that he attained in their theoretical presentation on ac- count of defects in his character and in his personality. The thought underlying all the other principles vi^as that everything should be done in its natural order, or in the course of nature. " Since nature uses a particular method, proper to herself, with which the understanding of man is in a certain connection, regard must be had to it also in the art of teaching; for all unnatural and violent or forcible teaching and learning is harmful, and weakens nature." While this was a direct at- tempt at a general method, it was not based upon psychological principle. It was founded rather upon general and often arti- ficial comparisons with the phenomena of nature, or upon purely superficial resemblances between the processes of the mind and the processes of biological development in plant or in animal. Some others of Ratke's principles, important as reformatory influences and as permanent truths, can only be suggested: each thing should be oft repeated ; everything first in the mother tongue; everything without compulsion; nothing should be learned by rote; mutual conformity in all things {i.e. com- parative grammatical study of the languages) ; first the thing itself, and afterward the explanation of the thing; all things through experience and investigation or experiment. The last of these contains the essentials of the Baconian reforms; the next to the last, the essentials of the Pestalozzian rerorms; all of them are foreshadowings of the Comenian reforms. John Amos Comenius (1592-1670). — Whether considered from the point of view of theoretical writings or from that of direct treatment of schoolroom problems, Comenius is one of the most important representatives of the realistic move- ment as well as one of the leading characters in the history of education. Nevertheless, his actual influence on his own and the following generations was slight save in one respect. This was in the use of a more scientific method of teaching the Realistic Education 239 languages embodied in the Comenian text-books. For almost two centuries even the very knowledge of his most important educational writings ceased to exist. Consequently, they had little or no influence upon later educational reformers until the time of FroebeL Few biographies of educational leaders pos- sess more interest; but reference to several excellent works of recent publication must answer as a substitute for a study of the life of Comenius in these pages. ^ Purpose of Education. — " The ultimate end of man is Ultimate eternal happiness with God," Comenius stated as the primary Purpose of ^^ , ' r y education principle of the Great Didactic. The purpose of education was found in to assist in attaining this great end. So far, all the educators ^^^^^°^ of these centuries agreed. But it was in the conception of education as a means that they differed so widely. Hitherto education strove for this end by attempting to eradicate Butaradi- the natural desires, instincts and emotions, and by furnish- caiiydiffer- ' ■ ' ■' ent concep- ing an appropriate mental and moral discipline. Comenius tion con- worked along an entirely new line, one that ultimately became these°e^nds^ the path of modem educational endeavor, though with funda- were to be mental purposes formulated somewhat differently. With Co- ^^^^^^^ menius the ultimate rehgious end was to be obtained through moral control over one's self, and this in turn was to be secured by knowledge of one's self, and consequently of all things. Knowl- edge, virtue and piety, in this order of their acquisition, were the aims of education. What Sturm and the Reformation Emphasis educators propounded as isolated ends, Comenius unified in a °° ^J^^^^' logical and psychological relationship, and gave a radically things different interpretation of the initial element, — knowledge, — the one element relating directly to the school. This advance, however, was so radical that it affected vitally every phase of education, — content, organization, method and text-books. Content of Education. — This change respecting the subject- matter of education can best be presented through an explana- ' Quick, Educational Reformers, Ch. X ; Monroe, W. S. Comenius; Keatinge, The Great Didactic, Introduction ; Quick, Comenius. 240 Brief Course in the History of Education The encyclo- pedias of the seven- teenth cen- tury Comenius arranges his encyclo- pedic writ- ings on the inductive principle Natural phe- nomena of fundamental importance in these tion of the great purpose and endeavor of the entire life of Comenius. His religious activity and his contributions to the improvement of schoolroom procedure were immediate duties which he did not shirk. But both were of subordinate im- portance when compared with his greatest aspiration ; namely, the complete reorganization of human knowledge, along Baco- nian lines, with the consequent expansion of that knowledge and of human power and happiness. This pansophic movement of the seventeenth century produced many notable attempts at reorganization. Of these the Advancement of Learning of Bacon and the Encyclopedias of Henry Alsted and of Campanella were notable examples. Probably both Alsted and Campanella had greater influence on Comenius than did Bacon. This idea of the encyclopedic organization of human knowledge was a com- mon one throughout the Middle Ages; but the execution at- tempted by Comenius and by the pansophic writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was quite different. Co- menius's aim was to give " an accurate anatomy of the universe, dissecting the veins and limbs of all things in such a way that there shall be nothing that is not seen, and that each part shall appear in its proper place and without confusion." Previous encyclopedias had been mere collections of facts; his was to be an arrangement of facts around universal principles, so that in all the arts and sciences, starting from the essential point of the universal law as a basis, study could proceed from what is best known, by slow degrees, to what is less familiar, until all knowl- edge was compassed. So in the text-books of Comenius, each chapter and each paragraph leads up to the next, and thus embodies his universal principle of method. The knowledge of physical phenomena was, for him, the most important object of study, and the main influence of his teach- ings in respect to subject-matter was the introduction of such material into the school-books actually used, together with the exposition of this idea in all his works. . Method. — The general thought of a method " according to Realistic Education 241 nature," which Comenius advocated and applied throughout all inductive his writings, must be distinguished from that particular part ^ggdoniy of it which approximated the Baconian induction and formed partially; the basal idea of his text-books. Comenius argued that Bacon's method was competent to distinguish truth from falsity, but that it applied only to natural phenomena, while pansophy con- sidered the entire universe. In the introduction of his first pansophic work he states that the three channels through which knowledge comes to us are the senses, the intellect and divine revelation; and that "error will cease if the balance between them be preserved." In The Great Didactic Comenius speci- fically states that the principles of that work were formulated a ■priori and does not even mention Bacon in the entire work, held to be Essences and principles find place in his philosophy as in that "^^^ "^'^^ of the fantastic pseudo-scientists of the Middle Ages. In his Physics the world is constituted from the three principles of matter, spirit, light; while the "qualities" of all things are. consistency (salt), oleosity (sulphur), and aquosity (mercury). Yet despite these survivals of the mediaeval, he stands distinctly for the study of natural phenomena and the dependence upon sense perception as the source of knowledge concerning nature. Notwithstanding this partial grasp of the significance of the insight into inductive method when applied to the investigation of natural ^c^hooiroom phenomena, when it came to the practical problems of instruc- problems tion in the schoolroom, Comenius did clearly see the importance of the new method and first applied it to the actual processes of instruction. This is a field where Bacon was much more of a stranger than was Comenius in the realm of the larger philo- sophical and scientific problems. In the chapter on the Method of the Sciences Comenius states nine principles of method, which must have grown out of his own long experience as a teacher. It was the concrete embodiment of these ideas that led to the remarkable success of the text-books and to the beginning of radical reforms in schoolroom work. They are stated thus : — 242 Brief Course in the History of Education Summary of principles of method 1. Whatever, is to be known must be taught (that is, by presenting the object or the idea directly to the child, not merely through its form or symbol). 2. Whatever is taught should be taught as being of practical applica- tion in everyday life and of some definite use. 3. Whatever is taught should be taught straightforwardly, and not in a complicated manner. 4. Whatever is taught must be taught with reference to its true nature and its origin; that is to say, through its causes. 5. If anything is to be learned, its general principles must first be explained. Its details may then be considered, and not till then. 6. All parts of an object (or subject), even the smallest, without a single exception, must be learned with reference to their order, their position, and their connection with one another. 7. All things must be taught in due succession, and not more than one thing should be taught at one time. 8. We should not leave aijy subject until it is thoroughly understood. 9. Stress should be laid on the differences which exist between things, in order that what knowledge of them is acquired may be clear and distinct. Text-books based on practical experience and theoretic views Importance of the Janua Linguarum, the earliest successful embodiment of the new principles Text-books. — Comenius had been a student of education from his early school days. He began to teach upon leaving the university, and later combined the supervision of schools with his pastoral work. Even when nearly sixty years old (1650) he returned to the directorship of the gynmasium. Consequently his text-books were not the work of a mere theo- rist, but of one who combined, as no one before him had ever done, a theoretical knowledge of educational problems, derived from contemplation and from study, with the practical ex- perience of the schoolroom. In 1631, the year before the completion of the Didactica Magna, Comenius published the Janua Linguarum Reserata, or Gate of Languages Unlocked. This was his most famous book and alone would have made him a notable character in his own century. For many generations the schoolboys of three con- tinents thumbed this book as their primer to the "languages instead'of the Donatus and Alexander of preceding generations. And very different from these it was, though in some respects Realistic Education 243 Geometiy. ( 129 ) CV. GeometrUi, ^ Geometrician mtafuretb f/;-^. height of a Tower, i , i,-.,V 2-. 6r the dijlance of places, 3« , . ♦ 4, tUher njuiih aQ\xz^x2LX\.X.t 5. Or a Jacob's-flaS*, 6. He markeihout thi' Figures of ThingSj^ with Lines, 7, Angles, 8. The ^A Page from the Orbis Pictus From the twelfth English edition (London, 1777). Identical with p. 14s of the first American edition (New Yoik, 1810). 244 Brief Course in the History of Edtication not much less difficult. The plan of the book was simple and " natural." Starting with several thousand of the most com- mon Latin words referring to familiar objects, the plan was to arrange them into sentences, beginning with the simplest and becoming progressively more complex, and in such a manner that a series of related subjects would be presented, the whole presenting a brief encyclopedic survey of knowledge as well as affording a vocabulary and a working knowledge of simple Latin. Each page gave in parallel columns the Latin sentence and the vernacular equivalent. The instruction dealt with material that, in its elementary form at least, was within the experience of the child. Contents of This tcxt will give a fair conception of the pansophic ideal as the/awMo ^^ ^^ ^^ -^^-^ tendency in the subject-matter of education. The one hundred different chapter headings included such subjects as these, introduced in the order given: Origin of the World, the Elements, the Firmament, Fire, Meteors, Water, Earth, Stones, Metals, Trees and Fruit, Herbs and Shrubs, Animals (in several chapters) ; Man, His Body, External Mem- bers, Internal Members, Qualities of the Body; Diseases, Ulcers and Wounds; External Senses; Litemal Senses; Mind, The Will, The Affections; The Mechanic Arts (in several chapters) ; the Home and its Parts ; Marriage ; the Family, State and Civic Economy (in several chapters); Grammar, Rhetoric, Dialectic and the various branches of knowledge; Ethics; Games; Death, Burial, Providence of God ; the Angels. Care was taken that every grammatical structure should be presented so that a complete grammatical knowledge would be developed in- ductively by the skillful teacher. Other Ian- In 1633 Comcnius published the Vestibulum (Entrance guage texts jjall) as an easy introduction to the Gate, which, though far simpler than the previous formal grammatical texts which were impossible of any mastery save a verbal one, had yet proved too difficult for beginners. Later, additional texts were added. The Atrium was an expansion of the Janua, following the same Realistic Education 245 plan, treating of the same subjects in greater detail, and also giving more attention to grammar. An accompanying grammar written in Latin was now to be used. In the final book of the series, the Palace or the Thesaurus, a summary of Latin literature was given. Through selection of various portions of Caesar, Sallust, Cicero, etc., the substance of this literature, especially as it dealt with subjects of interest from the Comenian point of view, could be given with the omission of much of the material objectionable to Comenius and certainly detrimental as used in the colloquies and school presentations of the times. The most remarkable and most successful of all the Comenian OrMs Piaus, texts was an adaptation of the Janua Linguarum, the Orbis Pic- succetsM ttis Sensualium, published in 1657. In this text the method of illustrated dealing with objects instead of with mere symbols or words was *^^*^' °°^ carried to its logical conclusion in the introduction of the objects themselves by means of pictures. The Orbis Pictus — The World of Sensible Things Pictured — was of great importance merely as the first illustrated text-book for children. But its method of dealing with things and of leading by inductive process to a generalized knowledge, was yet more important. While the text was substantially that of the Janua, each chapter was headed by a rather comphcated picture in which the various objects were numbered with reference to specific lines in the text. A page of this remarkable text is reproduced as indicat- ing in a concrete way, when compared with any of the Latin grammars then in ordinary use, all the revolutionary educational ideals of Comenius. The Organization of Schools. — One other phase of these System of educational ideas deserves brief mention, that is, the organiza- ^J^°f^' ' ' ° Kinder- tion of schools. In this respect, as well as in those previously garten; noticed, Comenius was quite two centuries ahead of his con- temporaries. Two grades of school were to precede the gymna- sium: first, the infant school; second, the vernacular school. Previous to the writing of the Didactica, Comenius had written The School of the Mother's Knee, in which there is a remark- 246 Brief Course in the History of Education Elementary; Latin gram- mar, college and uni- versity His syste- matic treatise on education Contains the germs of all modern able foreshadowing of the kindergarten. The purpose of the book was to indicate to mothers how they could care for the early education of their own children. The pansophic ideals control even here. Not only was the infant to be cared for physically and to be trained in games, sports and manners, but he was to be instructed in history, geography, even metaphysics, as well. But by these high-sounding names Comenius meant a very feasible and desirable thing; namely, that the child's simple experience as to locality, time and causal relationship of many events could be and should be made quite definite even before the sixth year. All this was independent of formal instruction by means of books. The Vernacular School should comprise the period from the sixth to the twelfth years. It was rather a substitute for than a preliminary to the gymna- sium, and was designed for those who could not obtain the higher education. As to method and subject-matter, this school resembled the Latin School, which followed. Above the secondary, or Latin, school was to come the University, where every subject could be pursued as in the gymnasium. Above the University, reversing the use of terms as we now employ them, was the College of Light, an institution for scientific investigation of every subject, similar to the Solomon's House of the New Atlantis. The Great Didactic. — Though Comenius has more than a hundred treatises and text-books to his credit, yet they are all summed up in his one great theoretical treatise which was one of his earliest educational writings. The Didactic Magna was completed by 1632, though not published in a Latin translation until 1657, and not printed in the language in which it was written until the middle of the nineteenth century. This work is certainly one of the most remarkable educational treatises ever composed. Though essays or books on didactics were among the most numerous of the publications of those times. The Great Didactic is a striking variant from the ordinary type. Both its ideas or principles and its arrangement are modem. On the Realistic Education 247 contrary, the form in which the ideas are expressed, as well as the particular interpretations of the method used, are thoroughly- colored by the theological character of the age and by the pro- fessional training of the author. Yet so sane and far-seeing are the precepts of this work that it may now be read with greater immediate profit to the teacher, sufficiently intelligent to avoid many minor errors, than the majority of contemporary educa- tional writings. So broad a foundation is laid for the educational development of the succeeding centuries that it is quite worth while, in conclusion, to give the entire table of contents. 1. Man is the highest, the most absolute, and the most excellent of Table of things created. contents of 2. The ultimate end of man is beyond this life. Didactic 3. This life is but a preparation for eternity. 4. There are three stages in the preparation for eternity: to know one's self (and with one's self all things); to rule one's self; and to direct one's self to God. 5. The seeds of these three (learning, virtue, religion) are naturally implanted in us. 6. If a man is to be produced, it is necessary that he be formed by education. 7. A man can most easily be formed in early youth, and cannot be formed properly except at this age. 8. The young must be educated in common, and for this schools are necessary. 9. All the young of both sexes should be sent to school. 10. The instruction given in schools should be universal. 11. Hitherto there have been no perfect schools. 12. It is possible to reform schools. 13. The basis of school reform must be exact order in all things. 14. The exact order of instruction must be borrowed from nature. 15. The basis of the prolongation of life. 16. The universal requirements of teaching and of learning; that IS to say, a method of teaching and of learning with such certainty that the desired result must of necessity follow. 17. The principles of facility in teaching and in learning. 18. The principles of thoroughness in teaching and in learning. 19. The principles of conciseness and rapidity in teaching. 20. The method of the sciences, specifically. 248 Brief Course in the History of Education 21. The method of the arts. 22. The method of languages. 2T^. The method of morals. 24. The method of instilling piety. 25. If we wish to reform schools in accordance with the laws of true Christianity, we must remove from them books written by pagans, or, at any rate, must use them with more caution than hitherto. 26. Of school discipline. 27. Of the fourfold division of schools, based on age and acquirements 28. Sketch of the Mother-School. 29. Sketch of the Vernacular School. 30. Sketch of the Latin School. 31. Of the University, of traveling students, of the College of Light. 32. Of the universal and perfect order of instruction. T^T). Of the things requisite before this universal method can be put into practice. EFFECTS OF SENSE-REALISM ON SCHOOLS. — At any time, the response made to educational theory by the concrete practices of the school is necessarily slow and indirect, for those who formulate the advanced theory are seldom those who control the schools. The practical administrator is ever loath to be considered a theorist, that is, one recognizing a new theory instead of practicing an old one; and the teacher is ever loath to assume new burdens or form new habits, in learning to do old things in a new way. Leaders of On the Other hand, Ratke, Comenius, even Bacon, were this move- merely exponents of a thought movement that was affecting menthad i ii-?r i- ri 1 1 little con nee- many; they were leaders m the formulation of the new thought tion with rather than originators of it. As with these men, so with the universities " ' other leaders of advanced thought of the seventeenth century, their work was performed outside of the university, which had little sympathy with the new thought. Neither Descartes, Hobbes, Locke or Leibnitz of the philosophers, nor Harvey and Boyle of the scientists, nor Bacon as representative of both philosophy and science, were in close contact with the universi- ties. So it was in the secondary schools and in independent institutions that the new ideas were realized. In 1619 the first Realistic Education 249 academy of natural science was founded at Rostock. Under Frederick the Great (r. 1 740-1 786) the Berlin Academy became a powerful exponent of the new thought. After the close of the Thirty Years' War (1648), the old The old Re- academies for the nobles {RUterakademien, see p. 183) again g^^hooig^fo^ became influential, and now as exponents of the new ideas, the nobles rationahstic and practical, as opposed to the scholastic for- ^^riy^fEected malism of university and gymnasium. This, however, was a realistic foreign culture which did not afifect at all the masses of the °^°^^™^°' people. Here realism found its first exposition, based more upon the social-realism of Montaigne and the popular ideals of the French aristocracy, then dominant throughout Europe, than upon the scientific realism of Bacon and Comenius. From the middle of the seventeenth century, the text-books of Comenius had come into common use in the gymnasien of the German cities, but rather as aids to Latin study than for their scientific content. The first schools to embody the realism of Comenius, emphasizing more the religious than the scientific side, were those of the pietistic movement as it centered around Hermann Francke (1663-1727) and Spener (1635-1700). Piet- ism was a reaction quite as much against the profligacy and extravagance of rationalism as typified in the ritterakademien as against the formalism of the classical schools. But the rationalistic and the pietistic schools were at one in their oppo- sition to the dominant classicism and formalism, and in their advocacy of the realistic studies and the use of the vernacular. Beginning in 1692 Francke established, at Halle, a group of The pietistic educational and charitable institutions of very wide scope and of ™°d thL^"* extended influence. With a constituency drawn wholly from schools of the middle and lower class people, — a large orphan asylum bodyfte^"^' was a part of the institution, — Francke aimed to combine a realistic practical preparation for life and a religious influence with a ^^"^*^ school training necessarily strong in the realistic studies. His / achievement was a demonstration of Comenian ideals; a com- / bmation of Christianity and practical training, with formal r 250 Brief Course in the History of Education The begin- nings of the real-schools of Germany The dissent- ing acade- mies of Eng- land were an expression of the same theory of education school work. A seminary for the training of teachers, instituted as a part of his general foundations, assisted materially in the spread of his ideas in many schools, especially those of Prussia, both of old and new foundations. The Real-Schools (Real-Schulen) of Germany, which em- body most completely the realistic educational movement, date from 1747. In this year Hecker, a pupil of Francke, established at Berlin a school, the curriculum of which included the German, French and Latin languages, writing, drawing, history, geography, geometry, arithmetic, mechanics, architec- ture, religion and ethics. Within a comparatively short time the leading commercial cities of the German countries established similar schools. During the later part of the century, under the influence of the " naturalistic " movement (Chapter X), these schools were incorporated as a component part of the Ger- man school system. The Academies in England. — In England the introduc- tion of the " real studies " was bound up with the history of the " academies " which were developed by the nonconform- ing churches. The beginning of this movement is connected with the humanistic realism of Milton, who styled the institution described in his Tractate an academy. With the downfall of the Puritan protectorate and the restoration of the Stuart mon- archy, the dissenting clergymen, some two thousand in all, were expelled from their parishes (1662), and shortly afterward the dissenters were excluded from the public schools and the uni- versities. This gave both a teaching staff and a constituency to a new type of educational institutions. For a time these had but an indefinite organization and unsubstantial existence, but after the toleration act of 1689 they became a definite part of the English educational scheme. Though these, as well as all other educational institutions of England, had only an ecclesiastical and private support, they continued to perform an ever widening function in the educational life of the people. With the dis- appearance of religious disabilities, they became indistinguish- Realistic Education 251 able, as a type, in the multiplicity of secondary schools during the early nineteenth century. As was to be expected, the founders of these institutions of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had little sympathy with the narrow and restricted education that had produced their illiberal persecutors. Hence, the new institutions pro- vided for a much broader training through a curriculum that included many of the new " real " studies. Preparation for the ministry was yet an important, though by no means the exclusive, Subjects purpose of these schools; hence the classical languages formed studied m the r r 00 academies a prominent part, if not the foundation, of the course of study. To these were added a variety of subjects, varying with the institution, including French, Italian, Hebrew, logic, rhetoric, ethics, metaphysics,' history, economics, oratory, theology, nat- ural philosophy, anatomy, geography, geometry, algebra, sur- veying, trigonometry, conic sections, celestial mechanics and even shorthand. One subject that was given especial emphasis in all of these institutions was that of English, and the instruction in all of the subjects came to be given in the vernacular. Of one academy it is specified that in addition to the usual cur- riculum " all the classes were exercised at times in land survey- ing, dialling, making almanacks, and dissecting animals." Such institutions took the place of both secondary schools and universities for the nonconformists, and offered a more direct preparation for the practical occupations of life than did the clas- sical public schools. For the Church, the university and the state, however, the old type of institutions yet served exclusively. In America. — With the growth of the minor dissenting Realism bodies in the American colonies a similar, though until the mid- finds expres- dle of the eighteenth century a more rudimentary, institution America grew up. These bodies were especially strong in the middle col- through the IT 1 ...-,, _ denomina- onies, and there these new mstitutions found a home. Even m tionai New England the Latin grammar schools began to make pro- academies vision for the practical economic interests of the people. In most of the seaport towns of all the colonies, branches of practi- 252 Brief Course in the History of Education Franklin's "Academy of Pennsyl- Response of the univer- sities slow University of Halle, 1694, the first modern university German university reform cal mathematics, especially surveying and navigation, were intro- duced by the middle of the eighteenth century. Not until this later period, however, was a typical " real-school " introduced and the term academy used. This was the "Academy and Charitable School of Pennsylvania," later the University of Penn- sylvania, which was suggested by Benjamin Franklin in 1743 and opened in 1751. Three schools were included in this academy, a Latin, an English and a mathematical. Franklin's writings exalted practical economics into a philosophy of life, and did much to further a scheme of education which had much in common with the educational theories of the sense-realists. While the philosophical basis might have been quite different, in its concrete embodiment it was almost identical with the " real-school " of Germany. After the Revolutionary War, the academies became the typical educational institutions of the American states. By this time several other momentous forces, besides the realistic educational philosophy, were at work to produce revolutionary changes in education. The Universities responded much less quickly than the secondary institutions to the new educational ideas. The theological-classical scholasticism controlled the German uni- versities throughout the seventeenth century. But in 1694 the University of Halle was founded, chiefly as a protest against the narrowness of the old institutions. Halle is considered the first modern university, for here first were the " real " subjects taught, with the new methods and in the modem tongue. Francke and Thomasius, both of whom had been expelled from Leipzig because of their too liberal ideas, made Halle the center of the new influence. The custom of using German in the uni- versity lecture room, introduced by Thomasius, who also pub- lished the first German magazine, soon gained adherents; so also did the university teaching of the natural sciences and a more liberal philosophy. In fact, the German university ideal of " freedom of teaching and freedom of study " first found its embodiment in the foundation of Halle. In 1737 the Univer- Realistic Education 253 sity of Gottingen became a second center of these same in- fluences. By the close of the century the conquest of all the universities, at least of Protestant Germany, was accomplished. The conservative English universities responded much lc^:s quickly and much less thoroughly to the nev/ influences. During the professorship of Isaac Nev/ton Cj.669-1702; and the head- mastership of Richard Eentley ''i74(>-i742;, Cambridge v/as given the strong mathematical bent which it has since retained, and the mathematical and physical sciences were fostered. During the eighteenth century a numh»er of regius professor- Eni^iah ships in history and the sciences v/ere founded by the Georges, "efcmmmucb But there v/as no such renovation of the university by the new late- spirit, as in Germany, until late in the nineteenth century. SUMMARY The realistic movemoat is the developmment of the inters in nature found in the Renaissance of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. During the seventeenth century this interest received philosophical and scientific formu- lation. At this time modem science and mcKiem philosophy began. Edu- cationally, hov/ever, there v/ere two preliminary stages. One v/as the Hu- manistic Realism, or the study of the classics for their content value. This v/as but a continuation of the idea of a broad liberal education of the early RenaLssaince. It Is best represented by Erasmus, Rabekis, and Milton. The other wa.s Sodali-sm-realLsm, or immediate education for the practical duties and pleasures of life. This viev/ held schools and literary training in lovsr esteem and exalted travel and direct contact Ti'ith the world as the proper educational means. ^\Tiile this conception cf education had found some representatives at all times, it ha/i peculiar force thioughout the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and is best expressed by Montaigne. Sense-realLsm was the beginning of the modem scientific movement in education, although it contained the germ of the psychological and sociological movements as well. Bacon first clearly formulated the theory; Comenias gave it practical pedagogical embodiment. Hov/ever, there were rrxany representatives of the movemait in every- a>untry. The German real -schools and the English and American academies were the institutional embodiment of this theory. I *? CHAPTER IX THE DISCIPLINARY CONCEPTION OF EDUCATION. JOHN LOCKE The n arrow humanistic education ceases to have a func- tional or social value By the seven- teenth cen- tury it had become traditional and its technique had become perfected A new theory must be found to justify its perpetuation ORIGIN OF THE MODERN DISCIPLINARY CONCEP- TION. — With the Reformation, Latin ceased to be the language of religion and of the clergy; similarly, during the later seven- teenth century, it ceased to be the exclusive language of the universities, of the schools and of learning. Even before this time it had been superseded by French as the language of diplomacy and of the courts. When, with the development of the vernacular literatures, it ceased to be the language of culture and of the humanities as well, Latin could no longer dominate the schools upon the same basis and for the same reasons that it had done hitherto. But by the seventeenth century the linguistic and literary curriculum had become traditional, with the authority of the learning of two centuries behind it. More- over it had developed a scholastic procedure which in details of method and of curriculum, and in the entire technique of the schoolroom, had never been equaled by any previous system of educational practice. In fact, it has had no equal since. Now perfection in the technique of schoolroom procedure is no justi- fication for a system of educational practice. Yet, since it has behind it to give it stability, both the force of tradition and the most tenacious professional conservatism, it is the strongest influence working for such a system. Consequently, since this narrow humanistic education no longer had any direct connection with the practical demands of the times and no longer offered the sole approach to a knowl- edge of human achievement and thought, a new theory must be 254 Disciplinary Conception of Education 255 found to justify its perpetuation. This new theory was the disciphnary conception of education. FEATURES ESSENTIAL TO THE CONCEPTION. — The Greater essence of the disciplinary conception of education can be given po^tance^f in a few words ; namely, that it is the process of learning rather the process than the thing learned that is the important and determining ^^fng^ thing in education. learned The disciplinary conception takes a great variety of forms. But substantially they unite on the one point, namely, that a particular activity or experience, especially of an intellectual A general character, if well selected, produces a power or ability out ^y^d'from of all proportion to the expenditure of energy therein. Such certain spe- a power when developed will be serviceable in most dissimilar experiences or activities, will be available in every situation, and will be applicable to the solution of problems presented by any subject. More specifically the theory asserted that one or two subjects, thoroughly taught and mastered, were of much greater educational value than a variety of subjects One or two demanding the same amount of time and energy. The dis- ^oroughiy ciplinarians believed that those subjects which, through the mastered generahty of their principles, such as mathematics and logic, ^^^ ^^^^ ^f or through the formal nature of their content and arrange- education ment, such as the classical languages, furnished a formal training for the various "faculties" of the mind, were of "Faculties" supreme importance educationally. This value belonged to andof^elLn such subjects irrespective of their relation to life or of their were held to final mastery or use by the pupil. It was further imphed, cili°impoT- so far as the period of complete dominance of this theory was tance concerned, that these subjects were peculiarly adapted to the development of the memory and the reason, and that these " powers of the mind " were preeminently the ones demanded for success in any walk of life. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPTION. — In respect to its fundamental principle, the new education was but a revival of the formalism of mediseval scholasticism. To the elaboration 256 Brief Coicrse in the History of Education Influence of the social changes of the sixteenth and seven- teenth cen- turies Support of disciplinary education by religious beliefs The religious view of edu- cation was the disciplin- ary one Support of disciplinary education by the current Aristotelian psychology Even the new psychol- ogy of sen- sationalism did not oppose the disciplinary view of the theory a number of factors contributed. The general social changes (p. 254) were in themselves the most impor- tant of these factors. The new realism emphasized even more strongly than had the early Renaissance thought with reference to the old scholasticism, that the important thing educationally was the thing learned, not the process of learning. The narrow humanistic education now adopted, in addition to the argu- ments advanced as peculiar merits of its own, all those formerly used for the scholastic education. In the second place, the disciplinary education, as it repre- sented the continuation of the narrow humanistic education, yet retained the almost undivided support of those who viewed education from the religious standpoint. As is evidenced in the attitude of the Church toward most of the leaders of the realistic tendency, notably Descartes, Bacon and even Comenius, that movement was looked upon as irreligious and atheistic. But from a yet more general reason, and that a pedagogical one, the religious view supported the disciplinary conception. In fact, since it looked upon education as one process of eradicat- ing the essentially evil character of human nature, the rehgious view of education on its pedagogical side was the disciplinary one. On the ethical side, then, religious thought furnished the theory of the disciplinary education. On the psychological side, so far as that entered into the educational thought of the times, the disciplinary conception received the support of the current belief. This was the old Aristotelian faculty psychology, with its mediaeval implications, which demanded a training of the various faculties of the mind by appropriate disciplines formulated into schoolroom procedures. No subject afforded better facilities for this than the formal side of language study, unless it was the mathe- matical branches to which, consequently, greater importance was now attached than formerly. Even the new psychology of Bacon and Locke, so far as their theory of knowledge for- mulated a psychology, contributed to the prevailing discipUnary Disciplinary Conception of Education 257 view. At least Locke made it so contribute, as will be seen subsequently. While the doctrine of innate ideas was re- jected by these men in favor of experience, training in sense perception did not supersede nor make unnecessary the train- ing of the higher jacuUies. In either case, so far as the popular view went, the training was to be a " discipline." So persistent has been this narrow disciplinary view that Survival in even when the old rational psychology, based upon intro- psychology spective analysis, began to give way or to be supplemented tothepres- by a conception of the mind based upon a study of its develop- " ^^^ ment, education was still viewed as a process of developing Support the " powers " or " faculties " of the mind through appropriate ^""""^ '" discipline. This is to be seen in the case of Pestalozzi (p. 312)^ century who first represents this newer view in practical educational f^'^^^^c ^ ^ tendency work. Nor was the case different when the natural sciences also began to find a place in the work of the schools; for the pursuit of such studies was most frequently justified by the arguments for their disciphnary value (p. 225). Such undoubtedly has been the popular view; the general public believed, at least in regard to a college course, that " the great problem in educa- tion is how to induce the pupil to go through with a course of exertion, in its results good and even agreeable, but im- mediately and in itself irksome." THE CONTRAST OF TWO MODERN VIEWS. —The na- The great ture as well as the force of the disciplinary conception of opposition education is best seen by placing it in opposition to an equally piinary view one-sided view of education, but one that, on the contrary, ^urhi°The places the whole emphasis on the thing learned rather than nineteenth upon the process of learning. A nineteenth century writer, an"ourrowtb Fouillee, in his argument for the disciplinary education of ofthenat- the classics as opposed to the content or practical education teaching of the modem sciences, contrasts these views as follows : — Huxley proposes to make the natural and physical sciences the basis of education. Spencer, in his turn, by a kind of idolatry of science which is widespread in these days, makes of positive science almost exclusively s 258 Brief Course in the History of Education Criticism of the opposi- tion offered to the disci- plinary view by modern sciences, found in Fouill6e's Education from the National Stand- point, pp. 36, 37 the subject for youth, under the pretext that, in this Hfe, geometry is neces- sary for the construction of bridges and railways, and that in every definite trade, even in poetry, we must have knowledge. How conclusive is poetry as an instance ! Is a Virgil or a Racine made by learning rules of ver- sification? The scientific man is not made by teaching him science, for true science, like poetry, is invention. We can learn to build a rail- way by rule of thumb, but those who invented railways did so only by the force of the intellectual power they had acquired, and not by the force of the mere knowledge they had received; it is therefore intellectual force that we must aim at developing. And then returns the question: Is the best means of strengthening and developing the intellect of cur youth, to load the memory with the results of modern science, or is it to teach them to reason, to imagine, to combine, *^o divine, to know beforehand what ought to be true from an innate sense of order and harmony, of the simple and the fruitful, — a sense near akin to that of the beautiful ? And, besides, are youths educated to be engineers, or poets? Education is not an apprenticeship to a trade, it is the culture of moral and intel- lectual forces in the individual and in the race. Huxley's criticism of the disci- plinary con- ception, found in " A Liberal Education," (in Education and Science, pp. 98, 99) On the other hand, Huxley answers this argument by show- ing, in somewhat satirical language, that the sciences could be so arranged and so taught as to give a disciplinary train- ing similar to that given in his times in the public schools. Then he says : — It is wonderful how close a parallel to classical training could be made out of that palceontology to which I refer. In the first place I could get up an osteological primer so arid, so pedantic in its terminology, so altogether distasteful to the youthful mind, as to beat the recent famous production of the headmasters out of the field in all these excellencies. Next, I could exercise my boys upon easy fossils, and bring out all their powers of memory and all their ingenuity in the application of my osteo- grammatical rules to the interpretation, or construing, of those fragments. To those who had reached the higher classes, I might supply odd bones to be built up into animals, giving great honor and reward to him who succeeded in fabricating monsters most entirely in accordance with the rules. That would answer to verse making and essay writing in the dead language. To be sure, if a great comparative anatomist were to look at these fabrications he might shake his head, or laugh. But what then? Would such a catastrophe destroy the parallel? What, think you, would Cicero, or Horace, say to the production of the best sixth Disciplinary Conception of Education 259 form going? And would not Terence stop his ears and run out if he could be present at an English performance of his own plays? Would Hamlet, in the mouths of a set of French actors, who should insist on pronouncing English after the fashion of their own tongue, be more hideously ridiculous? STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS OF THE THEORY.— Disciplinary education gave no con- This theory of education, dominant for so long a period, so trenchantly attacked in the present, must consequently pre- siderationto sent elements of both weakness and strength. Among the or"o need?' chief defects was the fact that the special demands which or capacities the various callings or needs of hfe make upon education studemts ^^ received no special consideration. All were to be met by the simple turning of the ability generated by the formal train- ing of the school into the desired channel. Nor were the special aptitudes or inaptitudes of the pupils given any con- sideration. Since these studies with their appropriate disci- pline furnished the best possible preparation for every obligation that life made upon education, those pupils that were unable to meet the demands of such a training were ipso facto incapable of fulfilling any of these higher offices or functions in life or of meeting the requirements of any of its greater opportunities. As a consequence, however, it possessed one great merit. Excellent Since the educational subjects elected were chiefly those deal- t°ve^system" ing with abstract ideas, it did furnish valuable training for did give a limited class of the intellectually superior, and did develop training for a capacity to deal with those phases of life's activities (law, special theology and the like) which were concerned chiefly with ciass^eT""^^ abstract ideas. That such a process of instruction offered nothing of value to the great masses of children, was no ob- jection to it in an aristocratic society, and in an age before the development of democratic sentiment. The chief modem argument for the theory has been, that Offered such a discipline develops the power of voluntary attention, ^^g jj^^^^ses oi But modem psychological thought questions, if it does not children positively deny, that there is any such thing as a general power 26o Brief Course in the History of Education The question of general power or ability a disputed one But the old disciplinary education developed special powers of value to a limited few in society Great defects of the system become evi- dent with universal education Certain sub- jects do have a general value Also there is an identity of mental procedure that gives some basis for the disci- plinary view or ability. But this power of voluntarily attending to linguistic, legal, theological abstractions, developed through such a train- ing, was just the capacity necessary for the success of this particular intellectual class. Consequently, whether explained through the theory of general ability or of special abilities, this disciplinary training for many generations did afford an effective education for the classes receiving an education. Further- more, voluntary attention must be more depended upon in all those life activities dealing with abstract ideas than in others, for here the natural interests offer little of that support which they would give in other lines of action. The com- parative sufficiency of the theory in these earlier periods is more evident when it is remembered that the opportunities for education were offered to a very few, selected from a limited class. It is with the entrance of all classes of pupils into the schools, with varying capacities and with varying social needs to be met, that the total insufffciency of the disciplinary theory becomes apparent. However, even with a total disbelief in the theory of general mental capacity, it must be admitted that there is a certain identity in the content of experience which gives to some sub- jects a far more general value than to others. Thus arithmetic and language study, since they give a training in activities that enter very generally into the experiences of after life, pos- sess a general value as subjects of study, which, if not identical to that argued by the old disciplinarians, is at least similar. Moreover, there is a certain identity of mental procedure in all experiences now more apparent since the mind is conceived as a unit in its action, than when viewed as a bundle of faculties. Consequently, every subject has a disciplinary value. But this merit is not the peculiar possession of a favored few, nor is it of so wide an applicability, nor can it be possessed at all by a particular subject that has no content value, — i.e. one not apt to enter into later experiences, — as was held by the old disciplinarians. Disciplinary Conception of Education 261 While the disciplinary conception, even in its early form, Continued yet prevails very generally and is apt to continue, we are here Prevalence chiefly concerned in its historical formulation, especially by the piinaryview great Enghsh philosopher, Locke. ^^ practice JOHN LOCKE AS A REPRESENTATIVE OF THE DIS- Locke's idea CIPLINARY EDUCATION. — John Locke (1632-1704) held ^fdTsc?'' the idea that education was a discipline, and his view strongly pHne much reenforced the prevalent one. But the " discipline " of the fhTdfsdpiin- philosopher was a much broader one than the discipline of the ary idea of schoolmasters. Locke's one great passion in life, the thought master °°' emphasized in his philosophical writings as the aim of intellectual endeavor, was the love of truth. The guide to the attainment of truth and to every activity in life, was reason ; but the mind was capable of attaining to truth and of formulating it only when educated to this end. This education consisted in a rigid Based upon discipline. In his Essay concerning Human Understanding, ^'^ empin- Locke formulated the Baconian philosophy, or more especially knowledge the theory of knowledge, that of empiricism, which has remained the dominant philosophy of the English thought-world to the present time. This theory was that all knowledge comes from the perception of the senses and the " perception of the intellect " ; that is, from experience. The doctrine of the sensational origin of knowledge became But sense- the most important part of his teachings, philosophically; but Perceptions it was the second part of his theory, that concerning the elabora- worked up tion of knowledge through the perception of the intellect, that ^"[°^thr™^'ii became the most important educationally. After the simple the " percep- stuff of experience is furnished by the senses, according to -nteiiect"^ Locke, our ideas, judgments, etc., are formed through the per- ception of the intellect. This can be developed, not through This is de- training in sense-perception, but through the discipline of mental '^^loped powers, chiefly reason. training or Though it is impossible to enter into details here, it must be thedisciphn- . . ary edu- borne in mind that Locke's philosophical and psychological cation ■ views do not always accord with his views on education. The 262 Brief Course in the History of Education Fundamen- tal basis of his view given in his philosophical works not in his Thoughts concerning Education Locke the most impor- tant English writer on education His analysis of education Method of physical edu- cation was that of a rigid discipline, a hardening process one fundamental thing that makes Locke a representative of the discipHnary education throughout is his idea of the human mind as a mere blank to begin with, which has its virtues and powers worked into it from the outside through the formation of habits. Development, according to Locke, comes only by the formation of habit through discipline. Our main interest, however, is in the educational theory of Locke, not in his philosophy. In his Essay and more especially in his Conduct of the Understanding, he shows how this type of mind can be developed, that is, through such a training or dis- cipline as will strengthen all its powers. This is not to be done merely by study and reading, but more largely by reflection and meditation. These views must be taken into account in the examination of his Thoughts concerning Education (1693), which is the one work by which his educational ideas are usually judged. Locke is probably the most important and most influential of all Enghsh writers on education; at least he takes rank with Ascham and Spencer. Consequently the main thoughts of Locke's treatise deserve presentation aside from the connection they may have with any general tendency. However, it is just these fundamental conceptions, as distinguished from the many valuable suggestions and ideas scattered throughout the treatise, that give Locke his relation to the disciplinarians. The aspects of education according to Locke are three: physical, moral, intellectual. The aims are, correspondingly, vigor of body, virtue and knowledge. The first is fundamental as a basis. This being provided for, the aims of education are, as he states in another place, virtue, wisdom, breeding and learning in the order of their importance. Physical Education. — "A sound mind in a sound bod short but full description of a happy state in this world f'c- that has these two, has httle more to wish for; and he that ■ :r- 3 either of them, will be but little the better for anything • • .- These are the opening sentences of the Thoughts, the first • -. Disciplinary Conception of Education 263 paragraphs of which are given to the discussion of physical education — one of the iirst and yet one of the sanest of such treatises. The principle underlying it all, the scanty and loose clothing, the hard beds, the open air, the simple, even rigid, diet, is that of the hardening process, — rigid discipline. Moral Education. — One of the most striking of Locke's positions, as well as one of the soundest of them, is the clear distinction he ever holds in mind between education and in- Education struction. This explains the divergence between Locke's ^^^ ^/^^"^ views and those of the educators of the disciplinary school pre- struction vailing during his own time. With the latter, education came to be identified with instruction, as it in turn became a rigid and formal discipline. With Locke it is education as a whole that is a discipline. Instruction is merely the method of in- tellectual education. The primary object of education as a whole is the formation of character. 'Tis Virtue then, direct Virtue, which is the hard and valuable part its chief aim to be aimed at in Education, and not a forward Pertness, or any little is virtue Arts of Shifting. All other Considerations and Accomplishments should give way and be postponed to this. This is the solid and substantial Good which Tutors should not only read, lecture, and talk of, but the Labor and Art of Education should furnish the Mind with, and fasten there, and never cease till the yovmg man had a true Relish of it, and placed his Strength, his Glory, and his Pleasure in it. But it is rather the manner in which this great end is to be accomplished that indicates again how, fundamentally, Locke holds throughout to the disciplinary conception of education. "As the strength of the Body," he remarks in beginning his discussion Basis of vir- of moral education, "lies chiefly in being able to endure Hardships, so tue in self- also does that of the Mind, and the great Principle and Foundation of (jgygjop j' all Virtue and Worth is placed in this : That a Man is able to deny himself by practice his own desires, cross his own inclinations and purely follow what Reason in self- directs as best, tho' the appetite lean the other way. ... It seems plain stage the ordinary course of education ends; but strictly speak- lescentperiod ing here one's should begin." Up to this time Emile has not been brought, save indirectly, into contact with others; he has not had to adapt himself to the conduct and interests of others; he has known no motives save those of self-interest and curiosity. He has probably never even heard the name of God. Now his education is to be strictly moral and religious. Previous attachments for persons have been merely the result of habitual association; now they are based on unity in sym- pathy and upon emotional experience. The whole character of his education changes. "The study proper for man is that of his relations. While he knows only his physical ex- istence, he should solely study his relations to things; this is the employment of his childhood. When he begins to feel his moral existence, he ought then to inquire after his relations u 290 Brief Course in the History of Education Basis of moral and religious education to be found in the emo- tional nature Learning through doing No necessity of experi- encing the evil, to know of its conse- quences Religious education Religious forms held to be worth- less to mankind; for this is the proper occupation of his whole hfe, beginning from the period which we have now reached." Self-love, in which are latent both good and evil, is now to be turned irrevocably toward the good. The basis of all this is the emotional hfe. " From the tirst movements of the heart, arise the first utterances of the conscience; and, from the first feelings of love and hate, spring the first notions of good and evil." This training was to be secured in the earlier period by the preservation of his native modesty through the negative training. So now, not through precept, but through contact with men, through the example of his tutor, through the study of history, is this development to be secured. " I do not grow weary of repeating that all the lessons of young men should be given in action rather than in words. Let them learn nothing in books that can be taught them by ex- perience." And yet Rousseau was far from preaching the dangerous doctrine that one should learn to avoid evil through experience of its consequences. "There is no ethical knowl- edge which cannot be acquired through the experience of others or through one's own. In case the experience is dan- gerous, instead of making it ourselves, we draw the lesson from history. When the trial is without consequences, it is well for the young man to remain exposed to it." Thus, Emile is taught not only to shun evil, but to do good. Es- pecially the poor and the oppressed call for his sympathy and his assistance. While he is firm in the assertion of his own rights, and is quick to the defense and protection of others, he is an exponent of the virtues of peace. "The spirit of peace is the effect of his education." In a similar way Emile receives his religious education. " At the age of fifteen, he did not know that he had a soul, and perhaps at eighteen it is not yet time for him to bs informed of it ; for if he learns it too soon, he runs the risk of never know- ing it." This last clause contains the underlying principle of his teaching concerning religious education. Otherwise, the Naturalistic Tendency in Education 291 religious ideas which the child gets are mere forms, verbal imitations, worthless so far as real experience is concerned. SOME PERMANENT RESULTS OF ROUSSEAU'S IN- The essence FLUENCE. The Education of Natural Interests vs. the Educa- seau'Tedu- tion of Artificial Effort. — The fundamental theories of Rous- cationai seau can be given briefly. Education is a natural, not an arti- °'^ ™^^ ficial, process. It is a development from within, not an accretion from without. It comes through the workings of natural in- stincts and interests, and not through response to external force. It is an expansion of natural powers, not an acquisition of in- formation. It is life itself, not a preparation for a future state rem^ote in interests and characteristics from the life of childhood. The old conception of education aimed to remake the nature Contrast of the child by forcing upon him the traditional or customary between the way of thinking, of doing, and even of emotional reaction. It education substituted for the instinctive or " natural " reaction of the child j , dominant those artificial reactions developed through many generations "formal" of religious, intellectual and social formalism. Human affec- ^." ^^p''^^" o ' sive educa- tions were evil, and hence the heart was to be separated from tion the objects of natural desire. Human senses were untrust- worthy, and hence could not be made the basis of knowledge or of instruction. Human inclinations and instincts, springing from a nature depraved in its essence, were toward the evil and were to be eradicated. Natural interests, as expressions of the nature- which both education and religion sought to repress and make over, were to be shunned in all educational processes. To the extent that an activity or task was difficult to perform Religiousand intellectually and was distasteful emotionally, to this extent it estimate of possessed educational value. The first step in the moral edu- child nature cation was to " break the will of the child," which in its per- ^/th^he verseness but represented the evil of human nature. This traditional was to be followed in his social and moral education by the con- ^jg^ stant effort to mold the child into the artificial forms of conduct satisfactory to the judgment of the adult, even though such forms might conceal motives contradictory to the external expression. 292 Brief Course in the History of Education As seen in the preceding chapter, the dominant psychological views implied the same attitude. The mind as a bundle of faculties was to be developed by exercising these various powers upon appropriate tasks whose value consisted in the difficulties they offered. These faculties were considered to have no necessary connection with one another, hence these disciplines were separate and distinct things. The highest of the faculties ■ — the reasoning power — was to be developed by appropriate discipline in mathematics, logical dis- putations and the lan- guages. But the faculty upon which all the others depended, was the mem- ory. Discipline of the memory, then, took pre- cedence above all other exercises. The best train- ing for the memory was afforded by the mastery of material which had no inherent interest for the child. The social ideals of the time favored this same view. The child was considered but a miniature adult — of no value and of no rights until he could mimic the way of the adult. In this most artificial of all ages, in dress, in manners, in deportment, in pleasures, the child was molded on the pattern of his seniors. Previous to the Rousseau period, the child as he appeared in literature was merely the adult viewed through the wrong end of the telescope. He spoke as an adult, thought as an adult, acted as an adult. Educationally he studied the same subjects as the A Fashion Plate of the early Ekjhteenth Century Showing the ideal of child-life as the adult in miniature. the domi- nant ones Naturalistic Tendency in Education 293 adult, — preeminently the languages; approached them from the same logical point of view, through formal grammar; mastered them through sheer effort of memory ; made the same formal use of them, in the same artificially organized life. All the subsidiary precepts of Rousseau were but concrete Rousseau's applications of his one general protest against this entire con- merdcau" ception of education. "Take the reverse of the accepted prac- opposite to ticc, and you will almost always do right," he advised. Hence he reiterated in a variety of forms the thought that, " Whatever may happen, abandon everything rather than have the child's Theeduca- tasks become irksome; for how much he learns is of no account, V*^" "^ ' ' interest but only that he docs nothing against his will." Thus in Rous- seau is found the negation of the conception of education of the Negation of Renaissance and of all of its subsequent development. ^^^^ Renais- ^ ^ sance idea The Conception of Education as a Process — as the process of education of living — follows as a corollary from the preceding. Being a process, it lasts throughout life, or at least from birth to adult Education life, and finds its meaning for any particular stage, not in a ^'j^ppl!^'^"^ future state, but in the process itself. "What must we think," he asks, "of that barbarous education, which sacrifices the present to the uncertain future, which loads a child with chains of every sort, and begins by making him miserable in order to prepare for him, long in advance, some pretended happiness which it is probable he will never enjoy?" Education is no longer a procedure, — artificial, harsh, unsympathetic, repressive of all natural inclinations, — by which the child as a little man is made into a big man through the hands of the teacher. But, through allowing natural forces to have their way, it is the process of development into an en- joyable, rational, harmoniously balanced, useful, and hence natural life. The end is reached, not with adult life, but with each succeeding day, whenever life has its natural activities, its appropriate duties and its corresponding satisfactions. A Simplification of the Educational Process follows. If education as an artificial procedure, as a making over of the 294 Brief Course i7i the History of Education child at the hands of man on the model conventionalized by society, is done away with, the highly elaborated artificial methods of instruction have no further use. "Let us transform our sensations into ideas, but let us not jump ab- ruptly from sensible objects to intellectual objects; for it is through the first that we are to reach the second. In the first movement of the mind, let the senses always be the guides; let there be no books but the world and no other instruction than facts. The child who reads does not think, — he merely reads; he is not receiving instruction but learning words." The latter criticism is as pertinent in regard to much of school work now as in the days of Rousseau. He would have geography learned in the woods and fields, by the observa- tion of the position of the sun and the earth, by the study of the stream, the rain and the changes of temperature; astron- omy by the study of the heavenly bodies; botany by the study of plants; the necessary facts and fundamental prin- ciples of physics and chemistry by observation and experi- mentation ; mathematics as it is needed in these other activities and in economic relations; history alone through reading. Geography, history and all subjects were to begin at home; only that which can be thoroughly comprehended should be attempted, and only that which is mastered should be passed over. " In general, never substitute the sign for the thing itself, save when it is impossible to show the thing; for the sign absorbs the attention of the child and makes him forget the thing represented." Most widely heralded educational discoveries or reforms of the present are but more practical attempts at realizing these principles formulated by Rousseau. The Child the Positive Factor in Education. — To John Locke belongs the honor of writing the first book on educa- tion that deals primarily with the child; but to Rousseau belongs the honor of deriving his educational theories from the nature of the child. It may be admitted that Rous- seau had little actual knowledge of child life and child nature and that his sympathy for children was pure sentimentalism, Naturalistic Tendency in Education 295 which was never converted into actual practice. It is true, nevertheless, that here for the first time education finds its purpose, its process and its means wholly within the child life and the child experience. An appropriate development of childhood is the purpose of each particular stage of educa- tion; the child's nature and the child's growth are to determine the process; the child's experience is to furnish the means. All of the pregnant reforms of Pestalozzi, of Herbart, of Froebel, and of the multitude of other reformers of lesser influence, thus find their origin in the teachings of Rousseau. In a similar way sympathy with childhood is emphasized as the Work of the quahfication for all educational work. Made theory by Rous- be^based^"^* seau, made practice by Pestalozzi, sympathy with the child, sympathy intellectually, morally, personally, has come to be recognized as an essential in the educative process. The Foundation of the Nineteenth Centurj Educa- Thefunda- tional Development. — In Rousseau's teachings, notwith- ^^^^^.i T 1 • • 1 <• 1 1 , principles standmg their extravagance, is to be found the truth enunciated upon which all educational development of the nineteenth by Rousseau ^ ^ ^ held by most century is based. Rousseau was the prophet denouncing modem the evil of the old; foretelling, yet seeing vaguely and in dis- ^^"'^^^^'^s torted outline, the vision of the new. He became the inspira- tion of those educational reformers who reduced his vagaries to practicable procedure. He was the forerunner of many who, all unconscious of their indebtedness to the despised revolutionist, have followed in the trails he blazed until now they have become the broad highway of common travel. The three interpretations which Rousseau gave to his doctrine of nature mark out the lines of educational development dur- ing the nineteenth century. As nature to Rousseau meant the native instincts, tendencies, Rousseau capacities of the human being as opposed to those acquired the forerun- through association with his fellows, he became the forerunner psychologists of the educational psychologists. There grew out from this, i^ education especially in connection v/ith the work of Pestalozzi, Herbart, 296 Brief Course in the History of Education and Froebel, the most important and most fruitful develop- ment in the whole history of education. The fundamental idea of this tendency in educational thought derived from Rousseau is that education is a natural process. It starts from natural instincts and tendencies to action, and should be controlled by principles derived from the study of the child mind in development and of the adult mind in its function- ings. In a similar way Rousseau's teaching that the educa- tional material should be the facts and phenomena of nature, strongly reenforced the scientific tendency in modem education. Finally, in Rousseau's teaching that education should pre- pare the individual to live in a society wherein each should contribute by his own labor to his own support, should be bound by sympathy to all his fellow-men and by benevolence to all that needed his aid, he laid the foundation for the socio- logical tendency in education. In his individualism he clearly emphasizes the idea of a social education of a new type. This is seen in his introduction of an occupation as a component part of education, in his rejection of the formal education of the times fostered by and fostering in turn the dominant aristocratic classes of his day, and in his emphasis upon the emotional and moral as opposed to the intellectual aspect of education. EFFECT OF THE NATURALISTIC TENDENCY UPON SCHOOLS. — So profound an influence does not have its effect on schools immediately. The effects are seen only when the results of these later tendencies, especially of the psycho- logical, are discovered. Immediately those results were slighti ultimately they were so general as to defy measurement. In France, where the influence of Rousseau on thought and sentiment was most profound, the old regime was so thoroughly intrenched in the social organization that change could come only as a result of a violent revolution. In addition to this, the teachings of the Emile were looked upon as direct attacks upon the aristocracy and upon the Church. Hence the vested in- Naturalistic Tendency in Education 297 terests and authority of both were Invoked against it. Many of the cahiers, or books of wrongs and grievances of the early Revolution, contain complaints and recommendations concern- ing schools. In general, a demand was made for a national plan for education. The work of the Revolution was chiefly to lay the basis for the institutional organization of education. Much was projected but httle was carried out. Education was to be universal and to be free; but it was also to be largely political and social. Even this work, the discussion of which belongs more properly under the sociological tendency, was largely checked by the Napoleonic reaction. In England, where Rousseau's literary influence was very in England, great, and where his social ideas found many converts, his *h^'"^^"i*s . . . . are seen educational ideas received little support. A considerable litera- chiefly in ture on the subject of education, influenced more or less by ^'^^^^^^ Rousseau's ideas, now appeared, and the rather extensive child literature of the early nineteenth century was a direct outgrowth of the influence of the Emile. In Germany, the work of Basedow, Salzmann, Campe, and First reduced their schools was the immediate expression of the naturalistic [,° ^he'^oer- views and represents the first positive formulation in practice of mans those revolutionary ideas given only a negative form by Rous- seau. Johann Bernard Basedow (i 723-1 790) gave, in his early Basedow's career and in his irregular course as a student, evidence of his ^^^^^ ^^"^^^^ erratic though talented nature and of his unstable character. Becoming professor of philosophy in a Danish Academy (1753), he was later transferred (1763), and, though yet salaried by the government, was soon compelled to give up all teaching on account of his unorthodox views. From 1763 he deluged Germany for many years with a succession of publications, and by his persistency succeeded in making his influence felt in spite of violent opposition on the part of all the traditional orthodox forces. For the first few years he was chiefly in- terested in reform in philosophical and religious teaching ; most His educa- tional works 298 Brief Cotirse in the History of Education of his publications were of a religious character, propagating Rousseau's idea of natural religion and morality. Coming under the influence of the Emile, from 1767 he directed his attention wholly to educational reform. In 1768 he issued An Address to the Friends 0} Humanity and to Persons in Power, on Schools, on Education, and its Influence on Public Happiness, which contained a plan for a complete system of reformed elementary education. Advertised through many preliminary publications, A "Naturalistic" School, from Basedow's Elementarwerk. supported by subscriptions from all parts of Europe from royalty and commonalty alike, this Elementarwerk finally ap- peared in 1774. At the same time was published his BooU of Method for Fathers and Mothers of Families and of Nations. This Elementary Work, for children, which appeared in four volumes with one hundred plates of illustrations, was a com- bination of the ideas of Comenius, Bacon and Rousseau. It Naturalistic Tendency in Education 299 was the first step since the time of Comenius to improve the character of the work of the school through the preparation of appropriate text-books and the radical revision of the subject- matter of school work. It aimed first of all to give a knowledge His educa- of things and of words quite similar to the encyclopedic plan of ^^^^^ ^^^ the seventeenth-century reformer. This knowledge was pri- methods marily a knowledge of natural phenomena and forces ; in the next place, a knowledge of morals and of mental phenomena; and, lastly, of social duties, of commerce, of economic affairs. The " natural methods " of Rousseau appeared as the second great feature of the book. Thus through the " method of experience " children were to be taught to read, both the vernacular and Latin, without weariness and without loss of time. In a similar way the truths of religion and of morality were to be imparted without the accompanying prejudices, narrowness and formal- ism of existing religious teaching. These volumes were soon in almost every home of the middle and upper class in Germany, just as were the Emile and the New Helo'ise of Rousseau in the preceding decade. As Basedow aimed to reform private as well as public education, the effect of this propaganda was profound. Basedow and his followers, among whom Salzmann and Campe were the most important, soon produced a wholly new literature for children. As for the first time there was an education de- Children's signed wholly for children, not controlled by the needs, character and interests of adults, so also this was the first literature designed for children. Notwithstanding the many defects of Basedow's personality, and the fact that he was totally unable to carry out his own reform plans because he was so unpractical, Schlosser states that " he succeeded in effecting a complete change in the whole nature of education and instruction in Germany, which Rousseau was able to accomphsh neither in hisnativecountrynorin France." The Philanthropinum} — In 1774 was founded the long- * A concrete description of the work of the Philanthropinum, translated from Von Raumer, is to be found in Barnard's German Teachers and Educators, p. 462. literature 300 Brief Course in the History of Education The new " natural- istic" schools Educational principles embodied in these Jiew schools Manual training and object teaching Moral aim of all instruc- tion heralded institution, erected to illustrate the principles of re- formed education and termed the Philanthropinum. This institution at Dessau was the parent of many others, more or less short lived, but existing long enough to exert a profound influence on the education of children throughout the Teutonic countries. The fundamental idea of the reform was " education according to nature," which was interpreted to mean that children should be treated as children, not as adults; that languages should be taught by conversational methods, not through grammatical studies; that physical exercises and games should find a place in the child's education; that early training should be connected with "motion and noise," since children naturally love these; that each child should be taught a handicraft for reasons partly educational, partly social; that the vernacular rather than the classical languages should constitute the chief subject-matter of education; that instruction should be connected with realities rather than with words. The strong emphasis upon the training of teachers reacted favorably upon the entire German school system. The intro- duction of " turning, planing and carpentering " into the regular course of study of the Philanthropinum for educational purposes is the earliest practical recognition of the purely educational value of positive character to be found in manual work. School instruction from objects and from pictures here found general use in a system of schools. The connection be- tween the out-of-door life and the process of instruction wa^ made more intimate. The principle that all instruction has a moral because a practical outcome, and "that formal moral in- struction is of little value when not thus connected, was em- bodied in their work. It will be recognized that all of these ideas are worked out more explicitly by later reformers, especially Herbart, Pestalozzi and Froebel. Naturalistic Tendency in Education 301 SUMMARY The dominance of arbitrary authority, exercised by absolutism in government, orthodoxy in reHgion, traditional classicism and the disci- plinar)' conception in education, produced during the eighteenth century a vehement and revolutionary reaction. The earlier aspect of this move- ment, known as the Illumination or the Enlightenment, was largely intellectual and aristocratic. It included a rationalistic revolt against orthodox religious views, an aristocratic revolt against absolutism in Church and state, a revolt against Puritanism in morals. It resulted in a skepticism in religion, a cynical formalism or polished immorality in conduct, and an aristocratic indifference to the rights and needs of the masses. The revolutionary tendency in the latter half of the century became known as the Naturalistic Movement, and was emotional rather than intellectual, democratic rather than aristocratic, and was directed toward social reform rather than toward class or individual aggrandize- ment. Voltaire was the leader in the first movement, Rousseau in the second. Rousseau formulated the new ideas in regard to social, family and political reform, and finally in the Emile in regard to education. Education should not aim to instruct, but simply to allow natural tendencies to work out their natural results. Education should not aim to repress or to mold but to shield from artificial influences. Natural instincts and interests should control, close contact with nature should furnish the occasion and means of education. Only in the adolescent period and later should attempt be made to supply wider knowledge and to establish connection with social life through moral training. Out of Rousseau's teaching came the "new education " of the nineteenth century based on interest. It gave direct impetus to the clear formation of the psychological, sociological and scientific conception of education. These are the various aspects of nineteenth-century thought and practice in edu- cation. The immediate application of Rousseau's teachings was attempted by Basedow and the "philanthropinists." The successful amplification of the naturalistic doctrines was made later by Pestalozzi, Herbart and Froebel. 302 Brief Course in the History of Education Chronological Table of Educational Development during the Nineteenth Century Political Literary Men, Scientists Educational Events and Religious Philoso- Writings and Educational Events Personages Leaders, etc. PHERS Educators 1800. Goethe Hegel Pestalozzi, 1803. Sunday-school Union f '1804. Bonaparte 1749-1832 1770-1831 Htiisi Gerirjide 1805. Public School Society jf emperor. Wordsworth Cuvier Teaches . 1801 New York. 1807. Class 1 770- 1 850 1769-1832 Jacotot 1770-1840 1806. University of France _. distinctions Byron Comte Herbart, 1776-1841 1S06. Neef introduces and serfdom 1788-1824 1798-1857 Froebel 1782 1852 Pestalozzi in United States. abolished in Scott Faraday Thomas Arnold 1808. First treatise on education Germany. 1771-1832 1791-1867 1795-1842 published in United States, 1814. Bonaparte Coleridge Hamilton Rosmini 1809. University of Berlin at Elba. 1772-1834 1788-1856 1797-1855 founded. 1815. Congress Irving Liebig Herbart's General \i.'ioZ-T'&-i.z.. Von Humboldt head of Vienna. 1783-1859 1803-1873 Pedagogics, 1806 of German schools. Frederick Cooper J. S. Mill Horace Mann 1804-1844 Fellenberg's School William 1789-1851 1806-1873 J 796-1 859 at Hofwyl. 1797-18^0 Emerson Herbert Rosenkranz 1811. National Society for 1810-1830 Free- 1 803 -1882 Spencer 1805-1879 Promotion of Ed, of the Poor. dom of South Thackeray I 820-1903 George Combe 1813. First State superintendent American 1811-1863 Buckle, 1788-1858 of ed. in United States (N.Y.). States. Dickens History Froebel, 1814. British and Foreign School 1817. Wartburg 1812-1870 ■ of Civili- Education of Society. demonstration zation Man. . . 1826 1818. Lancaster comes to U.S. for freedom. 1857 Spencer, Essay on 1821. First legislative aid for 1830. July Darwin, Education, 1861 education of women (N.Y.). Revolution in Origin of Alexander Bain 1821. First High School France. Species 1818-1887 (Boston). 1830. Reform ■ '^59 Henry Barnard 1827. All schools free in bill in Agassiz 1811-1900 Massachusetts. England. 1807-1873 Stoy . 1815-1885 1835. Cousin's Report published 1833. Slavery Darwin Otto Frick in United States. abolished in 1811-1882 1832-1892 1837. Mount Holyoke seminary British Wallace Tuiskon Zeller for women. colonies. 1820 1817-18S3 1837-1849. Mann Secretary of 1846. Corn R. H. Quick Mass. Bureau of Ed. laws repealed. 1831-1891 1837. First kindergarten. 1848 French 1837. First city superintendent Revolution. of schools. 1851. New 1838. First State normal school French in United States (Mass ). Empire. 1843. School Board in New York 1854. Crimean City. War. 1850. Kindergartens forbidden in 1870. Franco- Germany. Prussian War. i860. First kindergarten in U.S. 1871. German 1861. First Ph.D. in U.S. Empire 1862. Morrell land grant for founded. agricultural and technical 1871. The education. Union of Italy. 1867. Elective system at Harvard. 1867. United States^ Commissioner of Education. 1867. All State schools free in New York. 1869. English Endowed Schoo! Act. 1870. Elem. Ed. Act in Eng. 1873. Kindergarten part of public school (St. Louis). 1890. Berlin School Conference. 1896-1897. University of France reorganized. CHAPTER XI THE PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. —The psychological Relation to tendency is not clearly distinguishable in time, in place, or even ^tic'^sden^" in personnel from the sociological and the scientific tendencies, tific and The three movements find their immediate antecedent in the tendenSef naturalistic movement and are to be distinguished educationally chiefly by differences in emphasis and in point of view. The more important of these characteristics of the psychological tendency may be summarized as follows: — In its main features this tendency was merely the clarifying (i)Areduc- and developing of the principles of naturalistic education. Its naturalistic basal thought was that education is not an artificial procedure principles to by which one acquires a knowledge of the forms of language and proced™r°eT literature or of formal knowledge of any sort, but that it is an unfolding of capacities implanted in human nature. The psy- chological tendency was an effort to state these ideas in scientific form and give them a concrete formulation in actual school procedures. It is true the psychological tendency sought a reconciliation (2) An at- of the conflict between the old "education of effort" and the ondiiatioiT*^ new "education of interest." But since the old remained in- of interest trenched for many decades of the nineteenth century, the chief in reality a work of the new was to destroy it by conflict. The rank and continuance • 1 1 r 1 11°' "^^ con- file of the new educators, without that grasp of the problem aict possessed by the great leaders in the movement, emphasized almost exclusively the importance of the new method and consequently of interest. Hence it was this aspect of conflict rather than that of reconciliation that was ever most prominent. 303 304 Brief Course in the History of Education However profound may have been the effort of Herbart and Froebel to effect this reconcihation, in the popular conception there was an irreconcilable opposition. A brief extract, con- trasting the main ideas of these two views, will serve as an illus- tration. A review of cne of Pestaiczzi's works by Caroline Frye, in her Assistant of Education, Vol. ix, p. 263 (1827) " Of the second work, Pestalozzi's Letters on Early Education, we have little to say. A book written for the inhabitants of Mars, if there are any, would almost as much come under our task of criticism. If there be a people between the Alps, in the bosom of whose offspring there is an innate principle of faith and love, that needs only to be cultivated and cherished by the sacred power of innocence, to produce pure morality and exalted devotion, this book belongs to them. It need not have been put into English, or any language into which the word of God has been translated; for it belies it utterly. We have no such children to educate, and therefore the book is useless to us. I could not help comparing the following passage, one among many such, of Pestalozzi — ' I would, in the first place, direct your attention to the existence and the early manifestation of a spiritual principle, even in an infant mind. I would put in the strongest light that there is in the child an active power of faith and love; the two principles by which, under the divine guidance, our nature is made to participate in the highest blessings that are in store for us. And this power is not, as other faculties are, in a dormant state in the infant mind. While all other faculties, whether mental or physical, present the image of utter helpless- ness, of a weakness which in its first attempts at exertion only leads to pain and disappointment, that same power of faith and love displays an energy, an intensity, which is never surpassed by its most successful efforts when in full growth' — we could not help comparing with curiosity this dream of Socinianism, with some sentences from a Christian author^ we happened to take up on the same day: — 'No sooner do children begin to act at all, but we discover how universally sin has pervaded all the sources of intelli- gence. There is a greater pleasure in reflecting on the images of crime than on the character of piety; the conscience is enfeebled and oppressed; its voice is stifled and its actions perverted; the imagination delights to revel over scenes of iniquity, and is difficultly carried forward to anticipations of future happiness, glory, and praise: the will is enslaved by selfishness; the imitation of all that is wrong is most easy, — of all that is right is most onerous, — the judgment is prone to perpetual error; the evil passions grow and flourish, while the good are educated with difficulty.' The Christian ^ Newham, On tlie Principles of Education. Psychological Tendency in Education 305 mother will compare these opposing principles with the testimony of Scrip- ture and of her own heart, and will have no difficulty in deciding in which author to study the principles of education." The new educational conception of man's nature was closely (3) Educa- bound up with the similar thought now developing in science based upon and philosophy. Educationally, "nature" now came to indi- a rational cate the nature or mind of man. The principles upon which ^^^ °°^ education was to be based were now sought for in a knowledge of the activities and the development of the human mind. The scientific formulation of these principles of psychology, through observation and experimentation, was hardly begun before the middle of the nineteenth century. The application of these principles to education is yet largely the work of the future. But the attempts toward such a foundation for education were begun in the early part of the century. The significant truth reached was that a more scientific interpretation of human nature was now possible, and that an adequate conception of education and formulation of more fruitful processes of instruction must be based upon the results of such study. To this general tendency, vague and indefinite as it was in its application to education, we have here given the term psychological. This tendency aimed at improvement in the character of (4) interest education ; whereas the complementary movement, which in \^^ method the same general way may be characterized as sociological, of education aimed at the more general diffusion of education. The modify- ing influence of these psychological tendencies was directed chiefly to improvement in the method of instruction, in the spirit of the schoolroom, in the character and training of the teacher, and in the popularization of a broader and truer conception of the nature of education. Thus there followed a sympathy for childhood, a knowledge (s) Sym- of the child, of the child mind, of the child's interests and ^^JknoSi- abilities, that were entirely absent from the schoolroom in all edge of, previous ages. While the actual knowledge of the child mind 3o6 Brief Course m the History of Education (6) Attention to the elementary stage in education (7) Educa- tion defined in terms of individual development was at first slight and was for a long time gained by empirical means alone, yet educational practice came to be based upon a study of childhood, and the theories concerning education came to be formulated from data gathered during actual contact with the child. Consequently, the chief interest in education was diverted to an entirely different phase of the educational process. For many centuries, it will be recalled, the interest in education was in the secondary and higher stages. All the early reformers, the realists as well as the humanists, thought especially of the acquisition of foreign languages and literature as the chief work of education. Little or no attention was given to the elementary stage. Comenius, it is true, wrote of infant and vernacular schools, but he supervised and wrote text-books for the Latin schools. The chief immediate interest of almost all those participating in this new tendency was in the elementary stage. From that time to the present, the formulation of educational theory and the improvement in educational practice have, with few exceptions, related primarily to elementary education. The attempt to apply many of these principles in unmodified form to higher stages of education has often been detrimental in its results. A fundamental conception of the psychological tendency was that education is the process of the development of the individual. This accorded with the individualizing tendencies of the later eighteenth and early nineteenth century, with the ideas of social progress, of biological development, and of evolution in all its scientific and philosophical implications, that during the same period were becoming clarified. The thought and even the form accepted for two or three generations was that given by Pestalozzi; namely, that education is "the harmonious develop- ment of all the powers of the individual." The same general idea, in different terminology, due to more accurate knowledge of psychology, is now expressed in terms of "organization of acquired habits of action or tendencies to behavior." This Psychological Teitdency in Edtication 307 conception of education in terms of individual development is an essential feature of the psychological conception of educa- tion, and is one great contribution of the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth century to education. This conception has its sociological significance also, and (8) Tke coincides with the tendency toward universal education in one the"s^cho- respect. For if education is the process of development of the logical inter- individual, if it is at basis a natural rather than an artificial un^jversTi ^^ process, then it is a process through which all human beings education pass, and a process from the regulation and direction of which all can profit. Consequently there results an emphasis upon popular and universal education that was not possible so long as the chief interest was in higher education, and so long as education was the process of giving to the child or forcing on the child the ideas, emotional reactions and activities of adults. The psychological movement possessed two aspects. One, The theo- practical and concrete in character, attempted through ex- ""eticai and 1 1 • • 1 rr-n 1 logical vs. penmentation to work out general prmciples. i he other, the concrete metaphysical in its charapteristics, aimed at the formulation ^"^ practi- . . . . cal phases of the logic of education. The men representing the practical of the movement — Pestalozzi, Herbart, Froebel — merely expressed movement the dominant ideas gained from the thought movement typified by Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Schleiermacher and Hegel. Only the representatives of the practical movement will be con- sidered here. THE PESTALOZZI AN MOVEMENT. Character and Sig- The Pesta- nificance of his Work. — It must be understood at the outset lozzian that much more is included under this subject than the personal includes the work and influence of Pestalozzi. It is a very common error to ^°^^ °^ . r 1 • r •II- many educa- overestimate the importance of this one reformer m the history tors of education, and a gross exaggeration to attribute to him the entire educational reform movement of the early part of the nineteenth century. Pestalozzi merely made positive and con- crete the negative and general educational principles enunciated by Rousseau; and, as we have seen, there were many others. 3o8 Brief Course in the History of Education Pestalozzi merely laid foundation for further reforms Pestalozzi' s recognition of the limitations of his own work The real importance of Pestalozzi notably Basedow and his group, who were successfully engaged in the same work. Moreover, the ideas and practices generally grouped under his name are largely due to the work of his assistants and of the innumerable teachers of succeeding genera- tions who have labored along the lines first indicated by him. Later educational theorists, especially Herbart and Froebel, possessed all of the practical insight of Pestalozzi, with a fuller philosophical penetration than his, and a broader knowledge. They have built upon his work a more extensive and stable structure of educational doctrine than the Swiss reformer was able to work out. No one, however, has been more just than Pestalozzi himself in recognizing the limitations of his work, and in realizing that the particular form which he gave to his ideas was merely tenta- tive. This point, made emphatic by the reformer, is often over- looked by his expositors and disciples. The value of our study of Pestalozzi in connection with the general psychological tendency in education lies not in the acceptance of his views as final, but in the recognition of his theories as containing the germs of modern educational ideas. In the face, then, of his lack of any philosophical and organiz- ing ability, his lack of accuracy, of consistency, and of practical success, it becomes necessary to restate the basis of his impor- tance in educational history. What he did do was to emphasize the new purpose in education, but vaguely perceived, where held at all, by others ; to make clear the new meaning of educa- tion which existed in rather a nebulous state in the public mind; to formulate an entirely new method, based on new principles, both of which were to receive a further development in subsequent times, and to pass under his name; and, finally, to give an entirely new spirit to the schoolroom. He it was who first made clear and forced upon the public the position that the whole problem of education Avas to be considered from the point of view of the developing mind of the child. The significance of much of Pestalozzi's work lies in the fact that Psychological Tejidency in Education 309 experimentation was now substituted for tradition as a basis Experiment for educational work. Hence its value consists, not in any ^s thTbaTis particular form of experiment, but in the final results attained of work in or yet to be attained. Consec^uently, more than in the case of any other man in the history of education, it is necessary to study Pestalozzi's life and experience in order to understand his ideas. They are the direct outgrowth of the experimental life which he led. Life and Works. — Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746- 1826) was early influence of influenced by the naturalistic movement, especially by Emile, *t^(,"hou^ht and became an ardent revolutionist as all humanitarians then on Pestalozzi must have become. Abandoning in turn his preparation for the ministry, for the law and for public service, he entered finally upon an agricultural life, with the double purpose of improving a waste tract of land through new methods of culti- vation and of living a life in accord with the prevalent naturalistic ideals. Failing in this business venture, he turned the establish- ment into a philanthropic institute for destitute children. Meanwhile, in the education of his own child, he was led to see many of the deficiencies as well as the excellencies of the educa- tion described in Rousseau's Emile. Thus began his life's great task, in the positive formulation and modification of these ideas. His first educational work, entitled A Journal of a Father, — one of the earliest examples of child study, — was a further result of his experiences in the education of his son. The philanthropic venture mxentioned above was an educa- Experiment tionai experiment as well, for it was but an application of the ^^ Neuhof m doctrine advocated by the naturalists, that the character of an don of individual is shaped by his environment. Reduce this environ- orphans ment to as nearly natural conditions as possible, they held, and character will be formed or developed. From 1 775-1 780 Pestalozzi conducted what was probably the first "industrial school for the poor." The children were engaged in raising special farm products, in spinning and weaving of cotton and in other occupations. While so engaged they also spent some ,io Brief Course in the History of Education Period of lit- erary activ- ity, 1780- Leonard and Gertrude time in reading and in committing passages to memory and especially in arithmetical exercises. There was no real connec- tion between the occupations and the intellectual activities, but Pestalozzi demonstrated that the two could at least go on to- gether. But the combined functions of manager, farmer, manufacturer, merchant, schoolmaster, were beyond the ability of the reformer, and the experiment failed. During the next eighteen years, 1 780-1 798, Pestalozzi, as a participant in the revolutionary movement, devoted himself chiefly to literary activity. The fundamental thought of all his writings, whether on political or educational subjects, was the same. Social and political reforms were to be brought about by education — not the current education, but a new process of development that would result in the moral and intellectual reform of the people. This principle is complementary to the partial one upon which he based his work at Neuhof. The most popular of all Pestalozzi's writings, the one that exerted the most influence, was his Leonard and Gertrude, the first volume of which was published in 178 1. Written as a novel, it popularized the idea that he initiated in practical reform a generation later. The purpose of the book was to depict the simple village life of the people and the great changes caused therein by the insight and devotion of a single ignorant woman, Gertrude. By her industry and patience and skill in educating her children she saves her husband, Leonard, from idleness and drink. Neighbors, children and neighboring families are finally brought within the influence of the new ideas; and by the simple methods of this peasant woman this new purpose in education effects the reform of the entire village. What was done in Bonal, Pestalozzi held could be done in every village. This was his mission in life: to work out in detail the methods of this education that was to effect the regeneration of society by securing for every child that moral and intellectual develop- ment which was his natural right and inheritance. In 1798 there occurred a complete change in Pestalozzi's Psychological Tendency in Education 3 1 1 career. He at length realized that the way to establish education Turns prac- tical scl teacher as the means to social reform was to demonstrate in a practical *^^^^ school- way its efficiency. Consequently, he turned schoolmaster. No more remarkable testimony concerning the value and the validity of his fundamental educational ideas can be found than in the profound and lasting influence which he has exerted. This man who did not begin to teach until fifty years of age and who, from the practical point of view, failed in every enterprise he undertook in his long life, after all has had more influence than any other one person in the educational progress of the nineteenth century. One chief reason for this was that his ideas were the results of experimentation. Consequently the truths reached were not completed and closed formulas, but rather suggestions for the guidance of the work of education. Since the concrete personal elements to be dealt with are never fully determinable in advance, education must always partake some- what of the nature of experimentation. In the year mentioned, Pestalozzi accepted the charge in one The orphan of the districts of Switzerland of a large number of children school at " Stanz who had been made orphans through the massacre of the people by the French soldiery. With these orphans at Stanz were first worked out the germs of the new educational practices. As in the case of his earlier experience, his fundamental purpose was to combine educational activities with handwork. But now he saw not only that the two could be carried on together, but that, if an approach differing from that of the ordinary schoolroom was made, much of the experience that was most valuable for mental development came directly from those activities in which the children were immediately interested. But the fortunes of war terminated this experiment in less than a year. In the following year, Pestalozzi, now a discredited visionary, village was accepted as assistant teacher in the village at Burgdorf. ^fg^^^orT^ For the cause of educational reform this brief experience was fraught with great importance, for here was first worked out the significance of the object lesson, not as a mere means of 312 Brief Course in the History of Education Principles of education formulated An educa- tional propaganda starts from Burgdorf The insti- tute at Yverdun gaining knowledge of the word, or even of the thing, as with Comenius and earher reformers, but as a means of mental de- velopment. Here Pestalozzi first announced his great aim, "I wish to psychologize education." The recognition that the public failed to give was furnished by some friends among the progressive officials and by some schoolmasters, appreciative of the great significance of these new ideas, who now attached themselves as assistants. A private school, partially endowed by the government, w^as established. Here for some four years Pestalozzi continued to experiment along the line of the new thought, both with the pupils and with the teachers. The great purpose now clearly held before him was to answer the fundamental educational question, which was a challenge to the existing education respecting its purpose and its means. These inquiries were to determine what knowledge and what practical abihties were necessary for the child, and how they could be furnished to the child or obtained by him. This period produced Pestalozzi's most systematic work — How Gertrude Teaches her Children (1801) — which was an attempt to answer the above questions. His work at Burgdorf, directed both toward the education of the children and the training of teachers, was watched with great interest by publicists and philanthropists, was assisted by the government, and was widely discussed through pamphlet and magazine controversy. But withdrawal of the meager though necessary support, together with disagreement among the directors of the institute themselves, led to its abandonment. Pestalozzi then withdrew to Yverdun for liis last and longest experiment. Among this French-speaking people, with whom he believed his reform would make more rapid headway, Pestalozzi labored for twenty years. Here, more than hitherto, his efforts were directed toward the training of teachers and direct experimenta- tion in reforming educational practices. Influence of Pestalozzi on Education, (a) As to Purpose. — Psychological Tendency in Education 313 Throughout his long hfe Pestalozzi was moved by the convic- tion that we have found to be common to most educational reformers since the early Renaissance; namely, that education is to become the chief means to social reform. This idea, how- ever, possessed a peculiar significance during the latter half of the eighteenth century, since that was a period in which the greatest variety of remedies for social evils was advocated. Every form of Utopia found its devotee, while the practical means chosen by all was revolution. Throughout this period of turmoil, the voice of Pestalozzi in suggesting education — a new education — as the means for social regeneration became clearer and clearer. Few among those that in previous periods had held education to be the means for social regeneration had considered that it was necessary for the masses. Such as had were chiefly the Reformation leaders, who viewed the entire subject from the religious point of view. Even those, such as Comenius, who took a broader point of view and held that the education of the masses in every phase of knowledge was desirable for reasons other than the religious, were far from the thought of Pestalozzi. The latter had in view a conception of education that had little or nothing to do with the comprehensive encyclopedism of Come- nius, but related solely to the development of the child's nature, mental, moral, physical. In other words,. what Rousseau had demanded in a theoretic way for one individual, Emile, Pesta- lozzi demanded for every child, no matter how poor and humble his surroundings or how limited his capacities. Hence Pesta- lozzi's demand for universal education of the masses possesses a significance only grasped when one conceives the difference between the old conception of education and that which he advanced. Pestalozzi gave a saner interpretation to Rousseau's doctrine concerning the detrimental influence of the arts and sciences. He held that through the identification of learning in the literary sense with education, popular education comes to be a mere form without any resulting benefits for the masses. Education the means to social reform Education for the masses not as a religious necessity but as a natural right Modification of Rous- seau's theory of the evil in- fluence of the arts and sciences 314 Brief Course in the History of Education while the learned classes grow into greater power and into in- difference to the needs of the masses. \x\.IIow Gertrude Teaches he says : — "Europe, with its system of popular teaching, has fallen into error, 01 rather it has lost its way. On one side it has risen to an immense height in the sciences and arts; on the other it has lost the whole foundation of natural culture for the bulk of the people. No part of the world has risen so high ; no part has sunk so low. Our continent resembles the great image men- tioned by the prophet; its golden head touches the clouds, but popular instruction, which should bear this head, is like the feet of clay. In Europe the culture of the people has become vain babbling, as fatal to faith as to true knowledge; an instruction of mere words which contains a little dream- ing and show which cannot give us the calm wisdom of faith and love, but, on the contrary, leads to unbelief and superstition, to selfishness and hard- ness. It is indisputable that the mania for words and books, which has absorbed everything in our popular instruction, has been carried so far that we cannot possibly remain long as we are. Everything convinces me that the only means of preserving us from remaining at a civil, moral, and religious dead level is to abandon the superficiality, the piecemeal, and infatuation of our popular instruction, and to recognize intuition (i.e. mental development) as the true fountain of knowledge." (6) The New Meaning 0} Education. — 'In defining the new conception Pestalozzi started, as did Rousseau, with the con- trast between the accepted educational usages and the natural development of the child. What education should mean he indicates in the following words : — "Sound education stands before me s3Tnbolized by a tree planted near fertilizing waters. A little seed, which contains the design of the tree, its form and its properties, is placed in the soil. The whole tree is an unin- terrupted chain of organic parts, the plan of which existed in its seed and root. Man is similar to the tree. In the new-born child are hidden those faculties which are to unfold during life. The individual and separate organs of his being form themselves gradually into unison, and build up humanity in the image of God. The education of man is a purely moral result. It is not the educator who puts new powers and faculties into man, and imparts to him breath and life. He only takes care that no untoward influence shall disturb nature's march of development. The moral, intellectual, and practical powers of man must be nurtured within himself and not from artificial substitutes. Thus, faith must be cultivated by our Psychological Tendency in Edtication 315 own act of believing, not by reasoning about faith; love, by our own act of loving, not by fine words about love; thought, by our own act of think- ing, not by merely appropriating the thoughts of other men ; and knowledge, by our own investigation, not by endless talk about the results of art and science." Education as conceived by Pestalozzi is but the organic Educat;on as development of the individual, — mental, moral, phvsical. This °''g^"^'^ ^ ^ ' 7 7 r J development development comes in each of these phases through activities initiated by spontaneous desire for action. These lead to growth along lines which are predetermined by the nature of the child. Such development does not come by forms of pro- cedure established by custom. To quote the definition in its more traditional form, education is the natural, progressive, < harmonious development of all the powers and faculties of the human being. Starting from the new purpose that Pestalozzi gave to edu- Education cation, the elevation of the common people from their ignorance, ^\ ^ ^^^^^ squalor and misery, he was compelled to give to it a new mean- deveiopmeni ing. The growth of the individuals composing the submerged portion of humanity into the moral and intellectual maturity for which they as well as the chosen few were destined, con- stituted education. He found in each individual the germs of all the powers, sentiments, aptitudes, that were needed for their successful and useful participation in their walks of life and in the satisfaction of the needs of society. The existing education did not accomplish this adjustment. It sought merely to ac- quaint the child with forms, — ■ forms of religious dogma through the catechism, forms of thought through the mere ability to read words, forms of practical or scientific procedure through the memoriter knowledge of mathematics, or the forms of cul- ture through the dead languages. Real education was to do something infinitely greater. It was to develop in the child the elements of power implanted there by nature, by furnishing to him, in appropriately selected and graded series, the materials of experience needed for the natural exercise of these capacities. 3i6 Brief Course in the History of Education This general idea of growth and of organic development through activity had been formulated by Lamarck into a general philosophy or scientific hypothesis, and had received many special applications. It was Pestalozzi's work to apply it to the schoolroom, and to attempt to organize activities appro- priate both to intellectual and to moral development. Influence on Educational Means and Method. — The signifi- cance of the Pestalozzian reform in method can be appreciated only when the character of the contemporary schoolroom is kept in mind. The village watchman, the bricklayer, the rope- maker, the crippled soldier, the widow, or any one whose occu- pation did not consume all his time or furnish him with com- plete hving, was chosen as schoolmaster. More frequently the convenient house which they occupied was of greater importance than their qualification as teachers. The method in which this work was done is thus described by Diesterweg: — Methods of "Each child read by himself; the simultaneous method was not known, th^'^f '"?. '" One after another stepped up to the table where the master sat. He pointed tional school ^^^ one letter at a time, and named it; the child named it after him; he drilled him in recognizing and remembering each. They then took letter by letter of the words, and by getting acquainted with them in this way, the child gradually learned to read. This was a difificult method for him, a very difficult one. Years usually passed before any facility had been acquired; many did not learn in four years. It was imitative and purely mechanical labor on both sides. To understand what was read was sel- dom thought of. The syllables were pronounced with equal force, and the reading was without grace or expression. Where it was possible, but unnaturally and mechanically, learning by heart was practiced. The children drawled out texts of Scripture, Psalms, and the contents of the catechism from the beginning to end; short questions and long answers alike, all in the same monotonous manner. Anybody with delicate ears who heard the sound once would remember it all his life long. There are people yet living, who were taught in that unintelligent way, who can corroborate these statements. Of the actual contents of the words whose sounds they had thus barely committed to memory little by little, the children knew absolutely almost nothing. They learned superficially and understood superficially. Nothing really passed into their minds; at least nothing during their school years. The instruction in singing was Psychological Tendency in Education 317 tio better. The master sang to them the psalm tunes over and over, until they could sing them, or rather screech them, after him. Such vi'as the condition of instruction in our schools during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and tw^o thirds of the eighteenth centuries; confined to one or two studies, and those taught in the most imperfect and mechanical w^ay." While this was the character of the schools of Switzerland and of Germany, those of other countries were no better, if as good. That such was the condition of the average district school in the United States well into the nineteenth century and of the average elementary school in England much later is well known. The school which Pestalozzi wished to substitute was to be a transformed home, approximating the same relationships, The new duplicating the same spirit, seeking the same ends; that is, the moral and intellectual development and the material better- ment of the child. It is the peculiar excellence of Pestalozzi that he was the first to make great progress in indicating the practi- cal way in which these new educational ideas could be realized. The essential thought of the Pestalozzian method is compara- The induc- tively simple. The fundamental endeavor was to analyze apph^d\o° knowledge in any particular line into its simplest elements, as educational these present themselves naturally to the attention of the child. ^^'^^ ^^ These were to be acquired not simply in their form, but in their real inner meaning by the process of observation, or sense im- pression (intuition, it was often called). These elements of knowledge were further to be developed by a progressive series of exercises graded by almost imperceptible degrees into a continuous chain. Such exercises were to be based primarily upon the study of objects rather than upon the study of words. The object lesson, then, was the core of the method. But it The object was not the object lesson as often employed in later times, for the mere purpose of obtaining a knowledge of the object, or even of developing powers of observation. Its real use was as a basis for the entire mental development of the child. " Mental " arithmetic, the syllabic and phonetic methods in language work, and the study of geography and of nature in direct con- 3i8 Brief Course in the History of Education tact with natural environment were some of the innovations in method. In general, the arrangement of all modern text-books is a direct though not necessarily an immediate outgrowth of Pestalozzi's efforts at analyzing the subject into its simplest ele- ments and proceeding then, by a gradual increase in the com- plexity of the material, to build up a connected and symmetrical understanding of the subject. The old method of beginning with a mastery of rules and principles as in arithmetic, of the rules of abstract form in language, or of most general relations, as in geography, history and the natural sciences, has been gradually superseded. Morf, one of Pestalozzi's ablest disciples, summarizes the general principles of these methods as follows: — (i) Observation, or sense-perception (intuition), is the basis of instruc- tion. (2) Language should always be linked with observation (intuition), i.e. with an object or content. (3) The time for learning is not the time for judgment and criticism. (4) In any branch, teaching should begin with the simplest elements and proceed gradually according to the development of the child, that is, in psychologically connected order. (5) Sufficient time should be devoted to each point of the teaching in order to secure the complete mastery of it by the pupil. (6) Teaching should aim at de- velopment, arid not at dogmatic exposition. (7) The teacher should respect the individuality of the pupil. (8) The chief end of elementary teaching is not to impart knowledge and talent to the learner, but to develop and increase the powers of his intelligence. (9) Power must be linked to knowledge, and skill to learning. (10) The relation between the teacher and the pupil, especially as to discipline, should be based upon and ruled by love. (11) Instruction should be subordinate to the higher aim of education. Influence on the General Spirit of the Schoolroom. — In regard to method, as Pestalozzi himself stated in an exaggerated way, "half the world" was working on the same problem. The new purpose in education was held by many others, — pubhc men, rehgious leaders, philosophers and educators. In defining the new meaning of education, Pestalozzi was but making more Psychological Tejidency in Ed^ualion 319 explicit the ideas of Rousseau, Basedow and others. His peculiar excellence was in making evident, through all his writings and all his work, that a new spirit must pervade the schoolroom, that both teacher and pupil must breathe a new atmosphere, — the atmosphere of the home. This change of spirit is clearly indicated by a comparison of accompanying illustrations; one of the typical German school before Pesta-- lozzi's time, the other of Pestalozzi's school at Stanz. In other lines, more recent times have developed the germs of the ideas suggested by the unlettered reformer; but in this one respect, every modern schoolroom is so directly indebted to him that he may yet be called, as he was by his own teachers and followers, "Father Pestalozzi." THE HERBARTIAN MOVEMENT. Its Relation to Pesta- lozzianism. — Herbart built upon the work of Pestalozzi, but soon elaborated a scheme of educational principles far more fundamental, (i) The chief practical emphasis of Pestalozzi's work was on training in sense-perception. While these exercises in observation were for the purpose of developing "clear ideas," Pestalozzi did not show how mental assimilation and mental growth take place from this starting point. Herbart showed how the product of sense-perception could be converted into ideas, through the apperceptive process, and how knowledge could be made to bear upon moral character through the process of in- struction. (2 ) Pestalozzi made the study of the physical world through sense -perception the chief activity of the school. Her- bart made the moral presentation of the universe the chief end of instruction. (3) As a result, the emphasis which Pestalozzi placed on arithmetic, geography and the nature studies is re- placed in Herbart's theory by an emphasis on the classical languages, oh literature and on history. (4) Pestalozzi an- nounced his purpose of "psychologizing education." But, while he rejected the old psychology, he did not and could not construct any system of his own. Herbart did quite as notable work in this line as in constructive educational thought. (5) In Difference, (i) in use of ' ' observa- tion" or training in sense-per- ception; (2) in con- ception of ultimate (3) in appro priate sub- jects of study; (4) in their knowledge and use of psychology; *^% -^s t46&.i. Lr.'KS? ifeTiii f, f I ^? it." > pr^ — t — A Typical German Schoolroom of the Eighteenth Century. Pestalozzi in his Schoolroom at Stanz. 320 Bi'ief Course in the Histoiy of Education (5) in logical general, Herbart's work was the antithesis of Pestalozzi's, in their work that it was logical and philosophical in character, while Pesta- lozzi's possessed no logical form or system and Httle definitely formulated philosophical basis. The one possessed the com- prehensive view and calm logic of the philosopher; the other, the intense emotionalism and strong purpose of the reformer working toward immediate betterment, though with no adequate view of the ultimate end. His school Life and Works of John Frederick Herbart (i 776-1841). — training There is little in the life of Herbart that throws light upon his educational doctrines. Passing through the traditional course of the gymnasium and university, at the age of twenty-one he His teaching left the University for a three years' experience as private tutor. experience pj-Qm this experience he formulated much of his educational doctrine, and enunciated the belief that any real knowledge of the psychology of education can be gained, not from the study of children in masses, but only from a prolonged intimate study of the mental development of a few individuals. He returned later to study and then to give instruction in philosophy and in education in the University of Gottingen. Here and at the His univer- University of Konigsberg he spent the remainder of his life. sity career ^^ ^^ latter placc he established his pedagogical seminar with a practice school attached, the forerunner of the university type of instruction and experimentation in the subject of education. While as a member of school commissions he took some part in educational reform, his life for the most part was spent in, investigation, lecturing and publication. The place of Herbart's Psychology. — The movement which Locke began the child in ■ .^^y^rr the child the center of educational endeavor and education & pedagogical theory; which Rousseau established in general form through his brilliant critical and destructive work in the form of investigative literature; which Pestalozzi brought down to the schoolroom and made concrete in the hands of every teacher — that movement Herbart made permanent by giving it an actual scientific basis in place of the imaginative one of Rousseau and Psychological Tendency in Education 321 the empirical one of Pestalozzi. We are here concerned only with the main educational applications, not with an exposition of Herbart's psychology. This at most points has been de- veloped and modified through the investigation of the interven- ing century. At many important points his theory has been entirely superseded. The fundamental point is that Herbart established educa- Fundamental tional work upon the basis of a unified mental life and develop- ^^^* °^, ment. As previously noted, the prevailing psychology was the psychology, Aristotelian "faculty" psychology, popular even to-day. To ^"'^[^^^ Herbart, the soul is a unity, not endowed with intuitive or inborn faculties, but a blank at birth, possessing but the one power of entering into relation with its environment through the nerv- The mind ous system. Through these relations the mind is furnished develops .,. . ,, .,,. . , through its With its primary presentations" of sense-perception, and own experi- from these the whole mental life is developed. The interaction ^°^^^' of these presentations leads through generalization to concepts, acquisition of and by similar processes of interaction to acts of judgment "presenta- and reasoning. What the teacher has to work with is a mass of presentations, coming from two main sources, — experience. Education contact with nature ; and intercourse, contact with society, controls this Through the expansion of the one original power the teacher assimilation has to develop knowledge from experiences and sympathy from o"" growth intercourse. determine The mind or soul is built up or acquires a content, not through inteUigence and charac- the development of inherent faculties, but through its own ex- ter periences. It is inherently neither good nor bad, but develops one way or the other according to external influences, — that is, according to what it receives in the way of presentations and the manner of their combinations. Two corollaries of tremendous importance to education follow: (i)The chief characteristic of the mind is its power of assimilation; (2) education, which determines what presentations the mind receives and also the manner in which they are combined into higher mental processes, is the chief determining force in shaping both mind and character. 322 Brief Course in the History of Education Herbart's educational doctrines are thus founded upon the assimilative function of the mind, — apperception. In brief, apperception is the assimilation of ideas involved in the relation- ships of a nevi^ experience by means of ideas already acquired. So far as the immediate importance of this doctrine to the teacher is concerned, it is immaterial whether one agrees with Herbart in rejecting all inherent constitutive powers of the mind or not. For such original powers, if existent, are beyond con- trol, and the best that the teacher can do under any circum- stances is to direct the development of the mind through con- trol of this assimilative process. Conception and Purpose of Education. — Herbart derived his conception of education from philosophy as he derived its aim from ethics. The will is not any independent faculty of the mind that can originate actions that are independent of ideas or thought processes, but it is a functioning of the mind, growing out of and wholly dependent upon the ideas or presen- tations possessed by the mind. This conception of the will is fundamental and must be kept in mind throughout any con- sideration of Herbart's doctrines. The will is to be viewed as the product of experience, not, as popularly viewed, as the determin- ing cause of action. The apperceptive process is fundamental, because ideas lead to action, and action determines character. The aim of education, according to Herbart, is ethical. "The one and the whole work of education may be summed up in the concept, — morality," is the opening sentence of the Esthetic Presentation. To him virtue was "the idea of inner freedom which has developed into an abiding actuahty in an individual." That is, it is an evolutionary product in each individual, result- ing from a cumulative series of experiences, because each re- lation entered into calls forth an independent judgment of approval or disapproval. To develop this attitude of pref- erence for that which constitutes "inner freedom" or moral character into an "abiding actuahty in the individual" is the chief aim of education. The process of doing this constitutes Psychological Tendency in Education 323 the "aesthetic presentation of the universe," through "expe- rience, human converse and instruction." Herbart's analysis of virtue was not left in formal terms, but The five was reduced to five moral relationships or ideas. The funda- ^i^g"^** *° mental one was that of inner freedom — the harmony between the volition or desire on the one hand and insight and conviction on the other. To this were added eJEficiency, or perfection (the balance or harmony of the Greeks); benevolence, or good will; justice; and equity. The nature of the aim of education having been determined. The work of there arises a second point in Herbart's theory concerning |sfm^°^ the nature of education. The concrete work of education is furnish the (i) to furnish the mind with presentations or experiences, and pro" 7^ (2) upon the basis of these presentations to "complete the presenta- circle of thought" through ideas and motivation to action. As toTeadto previously noted, presentations furnish the elements out of thejr appii- which the mind is composed; thus far Pestalozzi went. But action it is the second point taken in connection with the first that is significant in Herbart's doctrine. Morality depends upon good will and knowledge; these in turn upon the general enlighten- ment of the whole man, in other words upon the ideas developed from the interaction of primary presentations. There is no in- dependent function of wilhng in the individual. Action is the result of motivation, or desire springing from these presenta- tions, influenced by good-will springing from the same source. Hence the importance of the instruction given by the teacher. The third point in Herbart's theory follows; namely, this "Educative formation of character, which is dependent upon the shaping -"^^arwhidi of the will, is determined by educative instruction. This follows thus influ- from two subordinate principles : (i ) that these presentations ^"^^^ which constitute the content of the mind are modifiable (through the apperceptive process), and (2) that these presentations deter- mine conduct. Conduct and character, then, depend primarily upon the sort of presentations acquired by the mind, and upon the manner in which they are acquired or given. The worth of ences con- 324 Brief Course in the History of Education moral as well as mental instruction depends upon following the proper psychological procedure in the building up of the more complex presentations. In other words, it is the business of the teacher to determine the kind and the relation of the pres- entations that constitute the content of the child's mind; by so doing he shapes the child's conduct, and thus his character. If these primary presentations have been fully acquired; if the proper and harmonious relations have been established between them; if from the presentations derived from social intercourse the appropriate S)Tnpathy or good -will has also been developed, then the good moral character is the outcome. In the process of rejecting that which is erroneous and evil the pupil finds or develops his true self, his character; it is "a making which the pupil himself discovers when choosing the good and rejecting the bad." The extent to which the teacher is competent to Capacity for produce such results is thus stated: "The capacity for educa- Iducadon ^'^°^' therefore, is determined not by the relationship in which does not various originally distinct mental faculties stand to one an- hS*er°nt"^°" Other, but by the relations of ideas already acquired to one capacities another and to the physical organism." Instruction in the tradi- prope^reia- tional scnsc, and even in the Pestalozzian sense, is insufficient. tionship of . . , . ... i(jga3 instruction in the sense of mere information contains no guarantee whatever that it will materially counteract faults and influence existing groups of ideas that are independent of the imparted information. But it is these ideas that education must reach; for the kind and extent of assistance that instruction may render to conduct depend upon the hold it has upon them." Instruction Such instruction, then, that modifies the groups of ideas Sucati^e^^^ already possessed by the mind and causes them to form a new through unity or harmonious series of unities, and that thus determine conduct, is alone educative. A volition is but an idea that has passed through complete development, in which the circle of thought, beginning with interest and ending with action, has been completed. This educative instruction that reaches and forms the will or determines volitions, and thus shapes char- uterest Psychological Tendency in Education 325 acter, is the proper work of the school. The immediate means to this educative instruction is by arousing in the child's mind a "many-sided interest." Herbartian Means and Method. How Instruction can he made Educative. — The presentation of the doctrine of interest, which here must be given in a few words, constitutes the bulk of Herbartian hterature, both of Herbart's systematic works, including the Science 0} Education and the Outlines of Educa- tional Doctrine, and of those of his expositors and followers. " The ultimate purpose of instruction is contained in the notion, virtue. Definition of But in order to realize the final aim another and nearer one must be set interest from up. We may term it many-sidedness 0} interest. The word interest stands ^^ ^^" "', in general for that kind of mental activity which it is the business of instruc- Doctrine, lion to incite. Mere information does not suffice; for this we think of as Pt. 2, Sec. 2 supply or store of facts, which a person might possess or lack and still Chap. 2 remain the same being. But he who lays hold of this information and reaches out for more takes an interest in it. Since, however, this mental activity is varied, we need to add the further determination supplied by the term many-sided." Since volitions are the results of ideas, it becomes of utmost Relation of importance that the pupils should conceive a genuine interest in the subjects of study. Only thus do these ideas enter into organic relationship with the presentations already in the mind. To affect character permanently, these interests must be made abiding. The arousing of interest is not merely a means for securing attention in the lesson. It is the means for securing the complete appropriation of new ideas or presentations through iheir apperception, so that they enter into the constitution of new unities in the child's mind and thus form a new and more elaborate and secure basis for conduct. Such interest in the activity remains after the learning or apperceiving process is complete; by making it many-sided and proportionate, a har- monious and broad character is produced. It is the work of the teacher to blend the individuality of the pupil into many- sidedness, by the development of these many interests and activities through instruction. The more thoroughly this is interest to instruction 326 Brief Course in the History of Education Herbart's selection of instructive material The culture epoch theory done, "the more easily will character assert its sway over the individual." In order to accomplish this, the teacher must have a care for two things : first, for the selection of materials of instruction that will furnish the proper presentations both of experience and intercourse; and second, for a method of instruction that will harmonize with the psychological development of the child, and that will produce many-sidedness of interest as an inevi- table result. Correlation of Studies. — The first of these essentials gives rise to the idea of the correlation or unification of studies. Her- bart himself believed that the Homeric poems furnished the best materials for the education of boys. For here, he held, in the youth of the race were to be found the same activities and interests that were natural to the youth of the individual. This material was to be followed by other portions of the Greek and Latin literatures, combined with the study of certain periods in history, all selected upon the basis of the progressive com- plexity of the child's interests and consequently of the objective materials. This idea, expanded, was given a fuller application to educa- tion in the form of the culture epoch theory by some of Her- bart's expositors, notably by Ziller. The idea in brief is that the stages of culture in the development of the race are paralleled by the stages of mental development of the individual. Con- sequently, in order to follow the proper order in the psychological development of the child, the materials of instruction should be selected and arranged according to the stages in the cultural development of the race. The culture epoch theory, however, is only incidental to the idea of correlation of studies, being but one means for determination, not only of the order of arrange- ment of materials, but of their selection as well. As a scientific hypothesis it was never demonstrated and is now considered to have little validity; as an educational theory, it possesses some suggestive value. Psychological' Tendency in Education 327 The idea of correlation itself demands only that the materials The theory of of instruction, even if classified into the various school subjects, '^^'^''^^^.tion. should nevertheless be so organized that they preserve the unity which is essential to the development of a unified consciousness in the individual. In other vi^ords, the material should be so unified that it shall be wholly apperceived by the child as it is presented; and thus that it should strengthen and not, through its lack of connectedness and its dissimilarity, disorganize or make disproportionate this many-sidedness of interests, and consequently weaken the character of the child. Herbart and his immediate followers prepared a scheme of The conccn- concentration of studies, or of the unification of all school in- *^^^f° °^ ' studies, and struction upon one central core study, either literature or htera- the coordina- ture combined with history. Some groups of his followers, g^^^gg notably some in this country, have elaborated schemes of co- ordination of studies. Coordination does not seek to find one central core study, but accepts a given number. In the scheme of Dr. W. T. Harris, five subjects are selected for logical and psychological reasons, as of equal value. These are to be organized so that the material is arranged in a psychological order and that the unities between the subjects are made evi- dent and preserved. Various forms of concentration, based either on the literary and historical studies, or on nature studies, or, where combined with the Froebelian influence, on social activities direct, are frequently employed in the lower grades. In the higher grades few attempts, save at the coordination of studies, have been tried. General Method. — Since the early sense-realists a general The first method had been sought. Herbart was the first to work this ^^^^ ^^ idea out in detail so that it becomes a method for the immediate scientific process of instruction by the teacher. This method consists ^^^ in a given series of steps, determined not by the character of the material, but by the way in which the human mind acts and human consciousness expands. These steps are to be followed in every unit of instruction, which presumably is the recitation, of the formal steps 328 Brief Course in the History of Education Its formal though particular units may be determined rather by the sub- chaxacter ject-matter than by time limits. There is no particular virtue in these steps themselves, nor is the goal that Herbart aims at to be attained by the mere formal application of these steps to a recitation. This method is a mere form to aid in the realiza- tion of the great end of instruction. Of this external form, a successful teacher may be in entire ignorance; and even the teacher familiar with it should most often be unconscious of its use. The basis The immediate function of instruction is to furnish the mind with ideas, to establish their proper relationships, to connect them or color them with good-will or sympathy that will lead to moral action. The concept interest, which indicates the activities through which the mind expands into the many- sidedness of character, can be differentiated into certain steps; namely, observation, expectation, demand, action. The "five Corresponding with these stages are the formal steps of formal instruction, — clearness, association, system, method, — which steps" m the ' ^ ^ \ • i recitation: may be taken as the basal psychological principle of the recita- tion. By clearness is meant the apprehension of a single object — practically the observation of Pestalozzi. Ziller, who elabo- rated this plan of Herbart's pedagogy in its application to preparation, elementary education, divided this step into two : preparation, — the calling to mind of such older ideas as have intimate connec- tion with the new to be imparted, and their arrangement in such an order as will explain the meaning of the new and tend to make lasting the impression which it makes; and the actual presentation, proccss of presentation so that the new will be wholly appro- priated. Here the concrete materials are finally brought to- gether so that a general idea is found. The third step is that association, of association, — the actual combination of the new with the old. This is the elementary stage in the apperceptive process, and this preliminary fusion is largely the work of the imagina- system, tion. The fourth step is system, — the complete separation of the general notion from its concrete embodiment in particu- Psychological Tendency in Education 329 lars. The general concept is now to be related in a systematic way with previously acquired knowledge, so as to make an organic whole. This is the work of reflection and requires both repetition and definite form of expression in language. The fifth step is method or application. This is the progressive application reflection of the pupil as he realizes the general concept gained through activities : the child must make application of his stock of ideas, as rapidly as they are gained, so far as is possible in the limited activities of a child's life. In this way the child's ideas develop and are fused into a harmonious and organic mental life, out of which grows, through suggestion and direc- tion, his active life. Herbartian influence reveals itself in a strong emphasis upon Herbartian the importance of instruction and consequently upon the tech- tg^hnrueTf nique of the schoolroom, especially of the recitation, rather than instruction on the general spirit as was the case with Pestalozzianism. He has truly summarized his system and thus indicated this influ- ence: "Instruction will form the circle of thought, and educa- tion the character. The last is nothing without the first. Herein is contained the whole sum of my pedagogy." THE FROEBELIAN MOVEMENT. General Characteris- Contrast tics. — In contrast with these fundamental characteristics of !?* *^^. Herbartian the Herbartian movement, the Froebelian movement is charac- ideas terized by an emphasis upon the importance of the child, upon his interests, experiences and activities as the starting point and means of instruction, and by an improvement in the spirit, purpose, "atmosphere" and morale of the schoolroom. One exalts the function of the teacher; the other exalts the impor- tance of the child. Herbart laid the emphasis upon instruc- tion as a means for forming moral character; Froebel upon the stimulated and guided activities of the child. To Froe- Emphasis on bel, education, beginning with the spontaneous activity of ^'°'^ '^^^^ the child and leading from that to ideas and permanently formed volitional interests, was more largely an emotional and volitional than an intellectual training. The volitional, not as 330 Brief Course in the History of Education Universality of Froebel's principles Present application of some of his theories Instruction to begin with immediate social or natural environment of the child Instruction to lead to some social activity His work as a scientist with Herbart the intellectual, character of the human mind was asserted to be fundamental. Froebel made the practical application of these new ideas to only one stage of education, the kindergarten. But the principles themselves, as formulated in his more philosophical works, are fundamental to all stages of education. The attempt to make this application to higher stages in the present and in the future is after all the true Froebelian movement. Some of the most profound changes in educational thought and practice of present times are in accord with these demands formulated by Froebel. Among these, two most fundamental ones may be taken as illustrative. One principle is that if the materials of instruction are to produce a real development of the child's mind and nature, they must be selected from life as it now is and as it affects the child and comes within his experience. A second one is that if education is to produce the results desired, both individual and social, the effects of school instruction must relate directly to life as it now is, through the activities of the child that form the culmination of the process of instruction. These two principles are receiving general acceptance among the leaders in education in the present and underlie the profound changes that are taking place in the subject-matter, organiza- tion and method of school work. Life and Works of Froebel (1782-1852). — Froebel's early education was fragmentary and without definite purpose. It was unsatisfactory, as he later said, because there was no unity whatever between the subjects taught and no connection between the subjects of instruction and life. His youth was divided between university work and practical scientific work. He was in turn an apprentice to a forester, an ac- countant on large estates, a surveyor, and later a museum assistant in geological sciences. Out of all this experience came two fundamental results, — a profound love for nature and a conviction that throughout nature one found revealed that unity of idea and realization that was preached in the philosophy Psychological Tendency in Education 331 of the university but nowhere found in educational work. At twenty-three he was persuaded to become a teacher in the His eaxiy Pestalozzian Institute at Frankfort, and thus discovered his !,!L>j^L^ life calling. After two years here he became private tutor to three boys whom he took to Pestalozzi's Institute at Yverdun, where he remained for two years more. From this experience came a devotion to educational reform, for which he now further prepared himself by completing his university course. In 181 6 he began his work of educational reform, inspired to Educational this by his previous experiences. In a peasant's cottage, with ^^ °™^ five little children, he opened his "Universal German Educa- tional Institute." The work was far more substantial than the similar work of Pestalozzi, because supported by far wider philosophical knowledge and by greater practical ability among the assistants. Its scope was far wider and was directed largely toward secondary studies. It was not until 1826, after the ap- pearance of his most general treatise. The Education of Man, TiieEduca- that Froebel turned his attention especially to the educational ^^^^^^-jgjgx possibilities of the earliest years of childhood. Froebel had ever been a close student of children, and had even then made further progress in the use of play and the spontaneous activities of children than had ever been done previously. During some eight or ten years of unsuccessful practical attempts, — one of them at Burgdorf, where Pestalozzi had made educational experimentation famous, — Froebel crys- tallized his ideas concerning the education of the earliest years. In 1837, in the little village of Blankenburg, near Keilhau, he put into operation the first of these new institutions, to which two years later he gave the name of kindergarten. To this new The kinder- educational propaganda, Froebel devoted the remainder of earten. his life; for here in this virgin field the new educational ideas were more clearly expressed and more readily realized. During the period immediately following the establishment of the first kindergarten, the greater part of the Froebelian literature was prodaced. This literature was chiefly devoted to the practical 332 Brief Course in the History of Education Connection with the idealistic philosophy of early nineteenth century The absolute as self-con- scious spirit Idea of "unity" the keynote in his theory. Quotation from The Education of Ma:i The reign of law explains the unity of life elaboration of these new kindergarten ideas and to a populariz- ing of the institution itself. The Law of Unity, or Inner-connectedness, as the Basis of Education. — Froebel starts from the dominant idealistic philosophy of Kant, Schelling, Hegel and Fichte, against which Herbart continually protests. The fundamental tenet of this entire philosophical movement was to find the explanation of reality and of life, in the fundamental unity of existence of nature and of man in the absolute spirit. The absolute is no longer matter, it is self-conscious spirit. .In this self- conscious spirit is found the explanation of the origin and the meaning of existence — both of man and of nature. To Froebel this spiritual reality was the source of all ex- istence. The purpose of education was to expand the life of the individual until it should comprehend this existence through participation in this all-pervading spiritual activ- ity. This inner-connectedness furnished the explanation of all reality; the realization of it in the life of the individ- ual constitutes the aim of education. The opening paragraph of The Education of Man contains the whole theory in essence. "In all things there lives and reigns an eternal law. To him whose mind, through disposition and faith, is filled, penetrated, and quickened with the necessity that this cannot be otherwise, as well as to him whose clear, calm, mental vision beholds the inner in the outer and through the outer, and sees the outer proceeding with logical necessity from the essence of the inner, this law has been and is announced with equal clearness and distinctness in nature (the external), in the spirit (the internal), and in life which unites the two. This all-pervading law is necessarily based on an all-pervading, energetic, living, self-conscious, and hence eternal Unity. This fact, as well as the Unity itself, is again vividly recognized, either through faith or through insight, with equal clearness and comprehensive- ness; therefore, a quietly observant human mind, a thoughtful, clear human intellect, has never failed, and will never fail, to recognize this Unity. This Unity is God. All things have come from the Divine Unity, from God, and have their origin in the Divine Unity, in God alone. God is the sole source of all things. In all things there lives and reigns the Divine Unity, Psychological Tendency in Education 333 God. All things live and have their being in and through the Divine Unity, in and through God. All things are only through the divine efflu- ence that lives in them. The divine effluence that lives in each thing is the essence of each thing." The intense religious feeling that pervades all of Froebel's Religious writings thus finds its explanation. It is not something extra- ^ough" " neous — tacked on as it were. It is the very breath of life of his system. Every being or reality participates in this essence and to that extent is capable of revealing it or, if conscious existence, is capable of attaining to it. Hence every object of nature can reveal God. The object of education is the realization of this destiny, the development of this essence into unity with the absolute. This law of unity had certain fundamental practical Practical relations to education with Froebel. From his belief in the ^^^^"'^g °^, the principles reality of this unity Froebel drew his belief that nature revealed on the God to the child; hence there proceeded both his emphasis s*°°^''°°'" upon the use of natural phenomena and nature study with the child and his symbolic presentation of this material. He saw (i) Value of the unity in organic life, and thus became one of the earlier ['j^^^of g^oiu- advocates of the theory of organic evolution ; from this he was tionary study led to place an altogether new emphasis upon the study of nature, sciences^'*^ of botany, zoology, etc., by the child. He believed that the same (3) of scien- unity was to be found in the inorganic world and that it became ^^^ symbolic a symbol to the child of all the higher unity of thought and life, use of inor- Consequently from this conception he derived his ideas of the nomen^:^' use of the " gifts " in the kindergarten. In that which he drew from his own feeling of the universal as expressed in inorganic forms, — as in crystals, — there is much that is fanciful; the more so when the fundamxcntal philosophical thought is not at (4) the school all understood. Between the individual and the race, which j^edlociety- form in reality but one great organic life which the school should this a epitomize, is to be found a higher unity. The school thus be- ^cS^ de- comes an association for the child wherein he discovers in a veiopment; simplified and idealized form all the relations of society. The 334 Brief Course in the History of Education true function of the school as a means of social progress as well as the instrument of individual development is thus revealed. In the life of the individual there is the same unity; that between the stages of infancy, childhood, youth, manhood, which is so set at naught by the school in its failure to comprehend this unity that education itself becomes but a form. Even more thoroughly than did Herbart, Froebel recognized the unity and the organic connection between the various subjects of study as a basis for a necessary reorganization of the school curricu- lum. Hence the theory of correlation of studies has received support among Froebelians, though with no adherence to particular schemes, as among Herbartians. In a similar way, this law of inner-connectedness gave to Froebel his conception of mental growth and led to an emphasis upon the unity of the knowing, feeling and willing activities. This view is much nearer the modern scientific theories of the nature of the mind's growth and activities than is the Herbartian psychology. At every point Froebel found a unity between thought and life, which is to be developed by education. Education becomes the continuous progressive adjustment of the individual to the larger life, which is his by destiny and in which he must find his true self. Development as the Process of Education. — The philosophi- cal idea of unity demands as its accompaniment the idea of con- tinuity of generation of all things. The individualism of the period of Rousseau gives way to the idea of organic unity and development. The scientific expression of this dominant idea is given in the theory of organic evolution. This idea Froebel seized and, first of all, applied to education. It is this that is found in his theoretical statements concerning the nature and process of education, and gives deeper meaning to the use of the gi]ts and the concrete activities of the schoolroom. The primary principle in both is that each following activity includes each preceding and earlier one. Evolution is the tendency of this unity to work itself out into the manifold expressions of spirit and of Psychological Tendency in Education 335 the accompanying phenomenal expressions. Thus education is Education but a phase of the general process of evolution ; it is a develop- p^^g'^of the ment by which the individual comes into realization of the life unified of the all-encompassing unity of v^hich he is but a unit; a growth or development by which his life broadens until it has related itself development to nature, until it enters sympathetically into all the activities of society, until it participates in the achievements of the race and the aspirations of humanity. The essential idea of the Education of Man Froebel states as Education is follows: "God neither ingrafts nor inoculates. He develops phase of IL the most trivial and imperfect things in continuously ascending process of series, and in accordance with eternal, self-grounded and self- developing laws." Education is but the realization of the evolutionary process in its highest stage as revealed in the individual human being. Thus Froebel, first of all, states the view of education which is yet to prevail. Self -activity as the Method of the Process. — In emphasizing importance the principles of self-activity as the method by which this functioning" development proceeds Froebel again indicated that he partici- in the general pated in the dominant thought-life of the early nineteenth gvoMion century. He was moreover the first to make application of these ideas, common to philosophy and to science, to the problems of education. In the department of scientific thought the old idea of the hard-and-fast classification of forms of life had given place to a more general belief in the idea of development of lower forms into higher and of the connectedness of all forms of life. In this respect the general introduction of the term biology to indicate a general science of living forms is sig- , nificant. At this time (i 802-1809) Lamarck had advanced his y^ theory that the higher forms of life developed from the lower, j through the use and disuse of organs. This was but a special / ^°^ application of the principle of self-activity. Previously, evolu- 1 \^ tion had been explained by such scientists or philosophers as / believed in it by the varying influences of external conditions, such as climate. With Lamarck, the organism itself became the/ Lamarck's theory of the use and dis- use of organs as a means of evolution This theory of function- ing identical with that of self-activity 336 Brief Course in the History of Education chief factor. As the use of the arm or of any particular muscle of the body will produce a corresponding development, so the effort of an organism to use any organ in a particular direction will produce a corresponding development; and conversely, its disuse will cause a proportionate atrophy. The prevailing philosophy of the times, especially as Froebel accepted it, held that there is a fundamental unity in all things, a permanent principle in all changes and forms of life. There is a single formative energy which reveals itself in nature, that is in external life, as force, and in consciousness of the inner life, as mind. This energy, as intelligence in the individual, builds up for itself its own world. The self — the mind — is not so much possessed of activity as it is activity. Through this activity it realizes itself, builds up its own world, becomes conscious of itself, and works out its own destiny. This is true both in the intellectual and moral application. In his early educational work, Froebel realized the signifi- cance of this principle when applied to educational method. At Keilhau in 1825 a hostile government inspector had been compelled to comment as follows : — " Self -activity of the mind is the first law of this instruction; therefore the kind of instruction given here does not make the young mind a strong box, into which, as early as possible, all kinds of coins of the most different values and coinage, such as are now current in the world, are stuffed; but slowly, continuously, gradually, and always inwardly, that is, according to a connection found in the nature of the human mind, the instruction steadily goes on, without any tricks, from the simple to the complex, from the concrete to the abstract, so well adapted to the child and his needs that he goes as readily to his learning as to his play." Self-activity A fcw words further will indicate somewhat more clearly ib^gg^^'^°'^^^^ the educational significance of self-activity as the principle of method. Froebel emphasizes at every point that self-activity is the process by which the individual realizes his own nature, by which he builds up his own world or representation of the external, and by which it unites and harmonizes the two. Self-activity at Froebel's school at Keilhau of, 'throf ighthe nature of and huiuam ty Psychological Tendency in Education 337 Thus the life of the individual is the process: (i) by which he knows nature, or the objective world ; (2) by which he comes to know his own nature; and (3) by which he becomes a part of the life of both nature and humanity. In all of this the individual has determined his own activities and is free. So far as he works under compulsion of external force he fails to realize this unity. SeK-activity is activity determined by one's own motives, The nature arisincr out of one's own interests, and sustained by one's own °^ ^^!^" 1 , ■' activity power. It alone can produce this evolution of mind, it alone can secure that which is held to be the aim of education. Such activity is in a way compelled, since it is in response to the inherent nature of being and of the individual ; but as the in- dividual responds only in obedience to the force felt within his own nature, and not to one from without, such activity is free — it is ^^//-activity. Because such activities are free, and at the same time take place according to law, — the laws of one's Qiwci nature, — it is possible to formulate them and to accept them as a guide to all educational work. Thus it follows that all processes of instruction must start from or originate with instruction this volitional interest of the child. Beginning with his spon- ™^t be ... . '11 1 . based upon taneous activities, action may be sustained and may be stimu- the interest lated toward certain ends that have far more permanent value ^^^^![.Ti^ than such activities undirected or uninfluenced. Not only does the tendency inherent in the child's nature Forms of relate to conduct and action, but the child reveals the same ^eif-activity to be used in , spontaneous effort to indicate its conception of things, to reveal the school the processes of its own mind. It attempts through this revela- tion to bring about a harmony between the world of thought and the world of external reality. Such spontaneous efforts con- stitute self-activity, and give to the teacher the opportunity for instruction; that is, for creating a fuller harmony between the inner and the outer, between thought and the external world, than the child unaided would be able to do. Thus for the school, self-activity means this desire of the child to enter into z 338 Brief Course in the History of Education Aim of edu- cation not found in Some future state, but in the imme- diate de- velopment of the child Power of doing de- veloped along with the process of acquisi- tion Froebel's conception of the school The school as an epitome of society the life of others and the Hfe around it; the desire to help, to find out, to discover, to participate in common activities, to create, to discover the identity or connection between itself and the activities and processes of others — the discovery which constitutes knowledge. Education is not a preparation for a future state. This life which the child seeks to enter is not the adult life, but the life around him. Education finds its meaning in the process, not in some condition remote and only real through the imagination. The aim of education is development, the process of education is development. In so far as the child enters to the full extent of his powers and his nature into unity with the life around him, the development of the present is secured. The development of the future is measured by the same standard. The aim of education is thus realized as fully in the child as in the adult. By basing education upon the activity of the child and gaug- ing education by the child's self-activity, power of execution is developed to the same degree and in the same connection as the other acquisitions. There is no hiatus between knowledge and action; no conflict between theory and practice; no dis- crepancy between profession and deeds. Influence of Froebel on Educational Practice. — The school, to Froebel, was a place where the child should learn the impor- tant things of life, the essentials of truth, justice, free personality, responsibihty, initiative, causal relationship, and the Hke; not by studying about them, but by living them out. Accord- ing to the fundamental idea of unity, the school was to be an institution in which each child should discover his own indi- viduality, work out his own personality and develop his power of initiative and of execution. He was to do this through cooperation with others in similar endeavors, in work where interest was shared by all, responsibility borne by all and rewards enjoyed by all. Mutual helpfuhiess was a constant motive. The school, as the world, was to become a unified organism in which the units of developing individuality were to Psychological Tendency in Education 339 find their perfection through participation in the life of the world. Thus the school becomes a miniature society. Edu- cation becomes a phase of life, not as a preparation but as an epitome. Instruction is no longer s}Tionymous with education, nor even instruction with school work. It becomes the middle term of a process notsynony- which starts from the child's spontaneous activities and native education interests and terminates in some creative use or tangible ex- pression of the knowledge imparted by instruction. Upon the native tendency is thus grafted a habit or custom, a mode of activity and of thought, which is approved as a desired educa- tional end. Thus education seeks neither to eliminate nature, nor to leave it severely alone, but to help nature, — to guide it to ends higher than those it would reach unaided. Flay. — As the most characteristic spontaneous activity of piay an im- the child, play becomes the basis of the educational process in po^^^nt form 11 T-> 1 • 1 • 1 ^ 1 . "^f self-activ- the early years. Resultmg most directly from the native inter- ity to be ests of the child, play furnishes the best natural stock upon ^f^ ^'^ 1-1 rill- f • r -i' education which to graft the habits of action, feeling and thought approved by the educator. It is through play that the child first repre- sents the world to himself. Consequently it is through play that the educator can give to the child the interpretation of life which he seeks to impart. Through it he can best introduce him into the world of actual social relations, give him the sense of inde- pendence and of mutual helpfulness, provide him with initia- tive and motivation and develop him as the individual constitut- ing a unit in the social whole. Froebel did not stop with the theoretical demonstration of the educational value of play; he realized his ideas in the practical procedure of the kindergarten. Educational Value of Handwork. — Analogous to the use Manual of play is that of all forms of constructive work. As a motive ac^'^ities as ^ ^ . a form of representing the same spontaneity as play, as an activity repre- self-activity senting the concrete constructive process of making real an e^uoit^on^ ^" idea or a process of instruction, constructive work might form both the beginning and the end of the educational process. 340 Brief Course in the History of Education Educational value of constructive work Educational value of nature study Industrial training had been recognized as a phase of education by Rousseau, but upon social and economic grounds. Pesta- lozzi introduced object study and manual activities largely from the receptive point of view, that of imparting knowledge, or at best that of developing the sense-perceptions. Fellenberg made these more practically effective than had hitherto been done. Yet he hardly seized more than the social and economic import. On distinctly educational grounds, Froebel gave to all manual and industrial training and to all forms of construc- tive work the place which they are coming to occupy in modern schooling. Through them the child was to develop power, since each activity was to the child but an expression of some idea or purpose gained through instruction. The use of any object or material or bit of information introduced into the school is to find out what the child can do with it. Thus, in a broader sense than with Herbart, all culminates in application; in a broader sense than with Pestalozzi, all school work is constructive. The great significance of constructive work, however, is found in the principle that education is but the development of the power to give outward manifestation and expression of the inner self. Creation with the hand is not the highest ex- pression of this. But the development of the abihty to give such material manifestations of ideas forms a basis of the higher power of expressing the intellectual, moral and spiritual life in action. When crystallized into habits, character is produced. Nature Study in the Schools. — Here again Pestalozzianism and Froebelianism, as well as other minor streams of educational thought, converge. What has come to pass in the actual study of nature in the schools is a resultant of them all. But with Froebel the basal principles underlying this study are quite different from those held by others. Least important of all, with him, was the simple knowledge of the facts of nature; most important of all was the moral improvement, the religious Psychological Tendency in Education 341 uplift, the spiritual insight, which the child got from association A source of with nature. As a source of natural interests and as affording y^^^^ o interests opportunity for varied activity, nature study retains a place in elementary instruction as influenced by Froebel, altogether aside from either the value of the facts taught or of the sym- bolical spiritual import. As suggesting material for reading, writing, language work, constructive work, number work, nature study has come to play an important function in the school. Even when all of these ideas concerning the function The func- of nature study are reiected, Froebel has influenced fundamen- ^""^^^ ?'^ •' ^ •' _ ' dynamic tally the conception of this study as it is conducted in all gi^ades. conception of For it is no longer nature analyzed and dissected according ^ ^*^ ^ to the old formal classificatory science, but it is nature as Ufe — the plant as developing, the animal as acting, the organ as functioning — that is studied. While the symbolism is antago- nistic to the modern scientific attitude, yet in the conception of nature, and of the value of science, and the use made of it in the school, it is quite in harmony with the modern scientific view. The Kindergarten. — The fundamental thought of the kinder- These ad- garten is to aid the child to express himself and thus produce o^proebef^ development. To accomplish this he must start from his native first made interests and tendencies to action. The work of the school the"khider^ must be based wholly upon "self -activity" and must culminate garten in the expression or use of the ideas or knowledge acquired in the process of the activity. The primary aim is not acquisition of Iciowledge, but growth or development, in which knowledge functions merely as a means to an end. Knowledge is, as it were, a subordinate or by-product; yet always essential, if growth is to be secured. Both the acquisitive and assimilative processes — exalted into ends in all previous school procedures — are here wholly subordinated. Both appear in every com- pleted educational process as stages preliminary to, or inci- dental to, the expression or constructive process. . The forms of expression of the child's feelings and ideas which 342 Brief Course in the History of Education Correlations of the various forms of self- expression The mate- rials of kindergarten instruction Continuous modification and develop- ment necessary Practical dissemina- tion of Pestalozzian ideas and methods Froebel seized upon as of importance in this training were (i) gesture, (2) song, (3) language. So far as possible these means were to be coordinate. The story, for example, when told by the teacher, was to be expressed by the child, not only in his own language, but through song, or gesture, or pictures, or construction of simple articles from paper, clay or other convenient material. In this way ideas would be given, thought stimulated, the imagination vivified, the hands and eyes trained, the muscles coordinated, the moral nature strengthened through the effort to put into concrete objective form the higher motives and sentiments aroused. The chief materials of the kinder- garten, aside from the' songs, the Mutter und Kose-lieder, Froebel organized into a series of "gifts and occupations." These are introduced gradually and in order. As the child becomes familiar with the properties of the one gift or the activities called forth by the occupation, he is led on to the next, which grows out of the preceding, each introducing new impressions and repeating old ones. The distinction between the gifts and occupations, though commonly made, is an arbi- trary one. Froebel himself called all the activities occupations, and the materials for them, gifts. But the distinction seems to bring out a most prominent tendency in the development of the Froebelian principles; namely, that a much greater stress has come to be placed upon the occupations than upon the gifts. While Froebel rendered the greatest service to education in thus transforming his principles into concrete schoolroom procedures, yet it is evident that many of these, including the songs, were appropriate only to his age and to the people with whom he was familiar. To keep his principles effective, modification may be necessary in the present and future. EFFECTS OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS ON SCHOOLS. The Pestalozzian Influence. — Both at Burgdorf and Yverdun, Pestalozzi's institute was frequented by numerous investigators, public men interested in education, students, even groups of students, from various countries of Europe. The Psychological Tendency in Education 343 institute had been made a normal school, subsidized by the Swiss government. Later, Pestalozzian institutes were founded in Madrid, Naples and St. Petersburg. The monarchs of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and of the Italian states were personally inter- ested in the reforms; and, as Pestalozzi said, any hedge school- master, in order to succeed, had but to proclaim the use of Pestalozzian methods. Nevertheless the popular introduction of the new ideas was Checked by very slow. This was due partly to the reactionary political *^° political •' ^ •' J r reaction of policies then dominant in most European countries. The new early nine- educational ideas, outgrowths as they were of the teachings of ^^^^"^ ^^^' Rousseau, were ever associated with revolutionary propaganda. Outside of the German states little progress was made until after the Revolution of 1830. Then in France, especially under Victor Cousin, minister of education, great advance was made, especially in the training of teachers. Among the German states Wiirtemberg first fell under the Pestalozzian new influence. During the first decade of the century Pesta- introduced lozzian enthusiasts had been appointed school inspectors and into the principals of normal schools. Prussia followed. The philoso- schools pher Fichte, in his address to the German people after the defeat at Jena in 1806, pointed out Pestalozzian education as the means of regeneration for the nation. The minister of education and the royal family were deeply concerned in the new educational movement. Picked young men were sent to Yver- dun, and through them and the German assistants of Pestalozzi the new ideas were incorporated in the training of the teachers for the Prussian elementary schools. Much of the Pestalozzian influence exerted on the United Early States came through England. To this fact is largely due the Pestalozzian. formal and even superficial character of much of American United Pestalozzian ism, relating as it did to petty methods. How- ^"^^^^^ ever, not all of it was of this character, for the movement for the training of teachers, as well as the character of this training, were outgrowths of the Pestalozzian ideas. From the tinie of Neef, 344 Brief Course in the History of Education The Horace Mann movement The Oswego movement Pestalozzian methods, the basis for education of deaf and blind, and of juvenile offenders one of Pestalozzi's assistants, who was induced by a philan- thropic American to settle in Philadelphia in 1808, sporadic instances of the transplanting of the new ideas occurred. The translation (1835) of Cousin's Re-port on the State of Public Instruction in Prussia, which did so much for the reform of the French schools, had great influence upon educational leaders in America. From the results of the reform movement, especially as he saw it in Germany, Horace Mann drew many of his ideas and much of his inspiration. His Seventh Annual Report, 1846, one of the most influential educational documents ever published in America, embodies the results of his personal investigation. The most specific source of this influence, however, was what is known as the Oswego movement, begun in i860. The ideas underlying this movement came indirectly from the Mayos in England and centered largely about the use of objects as the basis of instruction. The result was a previously unknown attention to the technique of instruction and to the details of special method. Such was the chief characteristic of normal school instruction during the generation following. Hence it comes that, for the most part, our schools are yet upon the Pestalozzian basis. However, the special methods of applying these principles have been much improved. One other practical effect of the Pestalozzian method on schools deserves at least mention; that is the new basis which it gave for the care of social dependents and defectives, es- pecially paupers, semi-criminals, deaf mutes and the blind. From Pestalozzi's institutions for the poor sprang the agricul- tural colonies, especially those for juvenile offenders. The in- dustrial occupations furnished a reformatory element hitherto wanting in criminal punishment. Guided by the principles of his master, one of Pestalozzi's assistants established a school for deaf mutes. The method of object teaching introduced hitherto unknown possibilities of developing such defective classes, while the industrial element gave them the prospect of economic independence, which was both a great gain for society and a Psychological Tendency in Education 345 basis for self-respect and self-confidence hitherto denied these unfortunates. From these methods have developed modem methods of education of these classes. The Herbartian Influence being, as we have noted, largely Spread of one of principle, is not to be traced v^ith any exactitude. The methods^" Herbartian propaganda, however, furthered as it had been by through groups of educators devoted to the popularization of his thought, ieadere°"^ is readily described. It is the former which has specific interest in the history of education. Here, however, we must be con- tent with indicating the extent to which Herbart's thought has entered into the educational consciousness of to-day as that consciousness is determining, in a practical way, the work of our schools. Undoubtedly, in this sense, the Herbartian thought has entered very largely into the best work of the ordinary school, for the progressive teacher everywhere, however uncon- scious he may be of the ultimate origin of those influences, shares to some extent in the educational purposes and en- deavors of the time. The establishment of pedagogical seminaries and experi- University mental or practice schools in connection with the universities I'^strucuon ^ in education was one of the more important educational works of Herbart. and practice The seminaries at the Universities of Jena, Leipzig, and Halle ^^"^^^^ were the more famous of these, and especially developed the Herbartian doctrines and applied them to practical work. At the former place, first Professor Stoy, later Professor Rein, have done most in applying these principles to elementary school work through the elaboration of general and special methods. It is from this course that the American influence has proceeded. From Professor Tuiskon Ziller, at Leipzig, came the more in- dependent development of Herbart's original doctrine, especially the elaboration of the culture epoch theory and of the theory of concentration of studies. Around these and similar Her- Herbartian- bartian principles has grown up a very extensive literature, ism m the From these two universities have gone out the most wide- schools spread influences, through trained teachers and instructors in 34^ Brief Course in the History of Education Herbartian influences in the United States normal schools and universities. Through these combined means the German schools have responded to these more advanced ideas, and have, so far as the character of instruction is concerned, reached a higher degree of excellence than any other schools. In the United States the dates of publication of the Her- bartian literature (c. 1890-1900) will indicate the recent origin of the movement. Though there were many other contributing forces, a most important one was the Report of the Committee of Fifteen on Elementary Schools, made to the National Educational Association in 1895. The aim of this report was to unify the work of the elementary school, to find a basis for that unity in a curriculum embodying some form of correlation of studies, and to prompt to better methods of instruction. A similar re- port five years earlier by a "Committee of Ten" aimed to per- form this work of unification for secondary education, and to bring about a closer articulation of elementary, secondary and higher education. Through such means a very general in- fluence is being exerted on the schools of our country toward placing the character of instruction on a higher basis than that reached through the Pestalozzian movements of some half cen- tury ago. The Froebelian Influence. — The influence of the Froebelian principles is practically coextensive with the most important educational tendencies of the present time. The application which Froebel himself made of his principles to the kinder- garten is being made by others to more advanced phases of education. All that can be sketched here is the spread of the kindergarten as an institution. In Germany a number of institutions similar to that at Keilhau were established before Froebel's death. But in 1851, a year before that event, kindergartens were prohibited by the Prus- sian government on account of their supposed revolutionary character. The Baroness Bertha von Marenholtz-Biilow, to whom the actual popularization of the kindergarten was largely Psychological Tende7icy in Education 347 due, transferred her activities, for the time being, to England. Though the Prussian prohibition was removed after ten years, kindergartens have not yet been incorporated into the Prussian school systems. While many private ones exist, they are not considered schools: their teachers do not have to comply with the standards required of elementary teachers, and, though they are under the supervision of school inspectors, they may not teach anything which will duplicate the work of the ele- mentary schools. Consequently there has been comparatively little development of the kindergarten idea. France best illustrates the extensive development of schools in France for very young children. But these infant schools — the ecoles maternelles — are rather a development of the infant school movement than of the kindergarten. Only to a slight degree do they embody the principles of Froebel. While these schools have developed for the most part since the War of 1870, and while their establishment is optional with the communes, yet in them are trained half a million children of the ages from two to six. First introduced into England in 1854, and advocated by a in England number of prominent men, such as the novelist Dickens, the kindergarten was established only in a few instances and then as a private institution for the wealthier classes. Not until 1874 did the ideas of the kindergarten begin to modify the work of the infant schools (see p. 385), which by this time had been incorporated as a part of the public school system. It was the procedure and methods rather than the principles and spirit of the kindergarten that were grafted on to this dominant institution. The first kindergarten in the United States was established in the by Elizabeth Peabody in Boston in i860. In the next ten years Umted states a number of private kindergartens were established. Under the leadership of Dr. W. T. Harris and Miss Susan Blow, — among the most proi'^iinent Froebelian exponents in this country, — the kindergarteli was first made a part of the public school 348 Brief Course in the History of Education system in St Louis in 1873. Since that time the movement has developed until there is scarcely a city of any size but what has incorporated the kindergarten as a component part of its public schools. SUMMARY The psychological tendency in education was the reduction of the natu- ralistic movement to scientific principle and to practical schoolroom pro- cedure. Its leading exponents attempted a reconciliation, in philosophical terms, of the old education of effort with the new education based on natural interests. Various attempts were made to work out a psychological basis for education. Many of the early attempts were empirical; more recently, the development of the science of psychology has rendered possible a more scientific basis. Other practical characteristics of the movement were (i) the new attention paid to method ; (2) a new desire to base educational procedure upon a knowledge of and sympathy for the child; (3) a new interest in elementary education; and consequently (4) a new emphasis upon the possibility of universal education. The great eighteenth century representatives of the movement were Pestalozzi, Herbart and Froebel. With Pestalozzi and his followers, education was considered to be the har- monious natural development of the child, intellectually, morally and physi- cally. The possibility of thus developing a perfected personality in all gave a new meaning to popular education as a measure of social reform. But such an education had little in common with the old education of ac- quisition of knowledge, which perpetuated social classes and the degrada- tion of the masses. The idea of education as organic development gave a new meaning to educational means and method. With Pestalozzi, the subject-matter of education came to be chosen more largely from the imme- diate environment of the child and to be used largely for the development of the power of sense-perception. Principles of method demanded the analysis of subject-matter into its component parts and an observance of the inductive method in proceeding from the simple elements to the mastery of the complex topic or subject. The school was to be modeled after the home; the teaching process to be controlled by a sympathetic understand- ing of child nature. Herbart and his followers laid chief stress upon the moral aim in education. Control of conduct was to be secured through ideas. Thus the instructive process, including both the selection of material and the process of uniting this new material with the previous experiences of the child became of supreme imp>ortance. These ideas were based upon a psychology, scientifically elaborated, in which the process of apper- ception and the control of interests were the chief theories. As a result Psychological Tendency in Education 349 the Herbartians elaborated a theory of subject-matter based on the epochs of cultural development; a theory of the organization of the curriculum based on the correlation of studies, and upon the unity of experience and of knowledge; and a theory of a formal method based on a knowledge of the psychical process. The Herbartian influence exalted the teacher and the instructive process. The Froebelian tendency laid chief emphasis upon the importance of the child, upon self-activity as the basis and method of all instruction, upon natural interests as the initial point of all instruc- tion, upon play, constructive work and study of nature as the chief means of instruction. The Froebelian philosophy is in accord with the chief principles in recent educational thought. These are (i) the supreme im- portance of natural interests in the selection of subject-matter and in the process of study; (2) the necessity of giving to all such learning processes, once begun, a social meaning drawn from present life; (3) the importance of having all such instruction processes terminate in activity as directly as possible; in other words, of giving all education processes a social and hence moral and practical meaning. Present educational thought is largely a S5mthesis of Herbartian and Froebelian ideas, in which the latter are more in accord with prevailing philosophical, psychological and scien- tific thought. CHAPTER XII THE MODERN SCIENTIFIC TENDENCY The scien- tific tend- ency is the continuation of sense- realism. The two essential features Prominence of the scien- tific move- ment in schools due to remark- able develop- ment and better or- ganization of the natural GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. — It will be recalled that the sense-realists of the seventeenth century represented the beginnings of modern science. There is no break in the develop- ment of this scientific thought; but conditions gave unprece- dented importance to the scientific tendency in education from the opening of the nineteenth century. Among these con- ditions were the great development of the physical and biological sciences, the influence of the naturalistic tendency in exalting the value of contact with nature, and the inadequacy of the old humanistic education as a preparation for modem life. The influence of the psychological tendency, especially of Pesta- lozzianism as object teaching and training of the sense-percep- tions, was also marked. The dominant characteristics of the modem scientific tendency in education were the same as those of the sense-realistic tend- ency. These were: first, the emphasis upon the importance of the content of studies and of the knowledge of the phenomena of nature; and, second, a recognition of the transcendent value of the inductive method of study. The immediate educational response in both of these respects was due chiefly to the develop- ment and better organization of the natural sciences. A survey of the development of the physical and biological sciences from the sixteenth century to the present time will be most helpful in throwing light upon the development of present educational thought and practices. Such a survey cannot be made in the brief space of this text, but the material can be gleaned from the various histories of science. 350 The Modern Scientific Tendency 351 It is not until a subject of human interest or aspect of human experience receives a definite logical formulation that it can demand a place in the instruction of the school. The perfec- tion of organization of grammatical, linguistic and mathematical studies made it difficult to effect any change in the organization of the school curriculum. There resulted a prolonged struggle against the prevailing disciplinary or classical-mathematical education for the recognition of the sciences. This produced a most extensive literature, which can be noticed here only by the discussion of two or three of the most notable movements and the work of two of the most notable representatives. EDUCATIONAL DEMANDS OF MODERN LIFE. — Among conflict with Teutonic educators, the opposition to the dominant disciplinary *^ discipim- ' ^ >- I- ■' ary concep- education has been based upon psychological and philosophical tion of grounds. Consequently it has centered around the question of education method. Among the English-speaking peoples the opposition Demand for has been based largely upon practical and "common-sense" i^itroduction " •' J^^ ^ of sciences grounds, and has centered more around the question of subject- based matter. The chief argument for the general introduction of the v^kTe of"^°'^ sciences into the curriculum and for a complete revolution in subject- the character of education has been based upon the demands ™^"^'" made by modem life. Demands The movement of the first half of the nineteenth century was l^odem^nfe led by enthusiastic and well-designing reformers. They were not men of any broad scientific reputation or knowledge, such as George later appeared in Spencer and Huxley, or men who had any such fundamental grasp of the educational problem as had school" Herbart or Froebel. Most prominent among the English re- Q°J^t°^^"*^ '" formers was George Combe (i 788-1858), who represented a Britain considerable body of influential followers and headed a move- ment of practical reform of great influence. Two general lines of argument were followed by these earlier advocates of science. The first was based upon the distinction which they made between "instrumental" knowledge and posi- tive knowledge. " Instrumental " subjects were those which Combe and the "secular 352 Brief Course in the History of Education Based upon distinction between subjects valuable as means and subjects of intrinsic worth " Disciplin- ary" value of the sci- What con- stitutes "culture" ir the present furnished the means to gain further knowledge. The latter alone had intrinsic worth for the individual. The former included all the linguistic and much of the mathematical knowledge. Thus languages, grammar, writing, much of arithmetic, algebra, and all of pure mathematics merely provided means for obtaining a knowledge of the physical, intellectual, moral, social, political and religious world around us. Such knowledge was essential to the individual in regulating his life and promoting his own and the social welfare. These reformers argued that the dominant disciplinary education of their day directed all atten- tion to subjects that were merely instruments and never reached the subjects that really gave one the knowledge necessary to make life successful, useful and happy. In their second line of argument the early advocates of a re- formed curriculum considered education from much the same point of view as did the disciplinarians. Education should not only give to the individual such knowledge as would enable him to perform intelligently the various duties of life, but it should give the best possible training to all of his mental faculties in order that this great end might be attained. The old faculty conception of the mind prevailed, as did also the idea that it was a function of education to train these faculties. The more recent form of the view that the knowledge of value in education is that demanded by modern life may be sum- marized as follows : The elements which now enter into culture are very different from those of a few hundred years ago. New literatures have developed to vie with those of the Greeks and Romans; the arts have been perfected beyond the dreams of the imagination of those ages ; new sciences have been created ; and there now exists a knowledge of nature and of her forces that in comparison with the interpretation of preceding cen- turies seems most exhaustive and positive. Consequently it is necessary to define anew the liberal education. Studies are no longer considered to be liberal in proportion to their remoteness from practical bearing, but, on the contrary, in proportion to The Modern Scientific Tendency 353 their direct relationship to life. A liberal education is one The new which fits a man so well for his profession, for his life as a definition of ■^ ' a liberal citizen and for all of his activities in life, that he is very much education broader than that profession, seeing the import of his life in institutions. Civil, mechanical, chemical engineering, the prac- tical application of any of the sciences, may become learned professions. If the individual is so equipped with a knowledge of the fundamental sciences that he is perfectly "free" through his mastery of his subject and "free" in the life that grows out from and is based upon that profession, the preparation for this may in itself offer a liberal education. Such an education must contain more than the mere rudiments or the technical instruction necessar)/ for a practitioner in these arts; it must include a thorough mastery of them. For such a career the study of the French and German languages, contributing as subjects these literatures may in the broadest manner to one's success necessary m 1 1 1 r 1 1 ^ liberal by opening to him the experience of other peoples of advanced education in civilization, is far more liberal than the ordinary instruction in ^^ present Greek or Latin would be. Similarly the social, pohtical and economic sciences, contributing as they do a knowledge of the complex activities, interests and forces of modern social life, are liberal in the sense that the old disciplinary use of mathe- matics could not be. True, a man in such lines of scientific activity would need a most thorough course in mathematics. ' But the purpose of such study would be entirely different from the disciplinary aim, as would also the materials of study and the method. A liberal education is one containing the best culture material The new of the life for which it is designed to prepare ; and it is liberal culture and f only to the extent that it includes these materials. The natural education sciences most largely contributed to the culture of the nine- teenth century. In a similar way the social sciences are now being developed, with much of inspiration, purpose and method borrowed from the natural sciences. Every aspect of life and thought of the present age has been modified and given its tone 2a 354 Brief Course in the History of Education Necessity for elective studies The de- mocratiza- tion of the hberal edu- cation Connection between the scientific education and the sociological and psy- chological and color by the development of the natural sciences. There- fore, an education that constitutes a liberal preparation for present life must include a large element of these studies. But since it is impossible that every youth to be educated should master even the rudiments of all these sciences in addition to much of the old material, the representatives of this view of education have usually contented themselves with demanding freedom of choice in the selection of studies and the recognition by educational authorities of the equivalence in value of the sciences in the course of study. With the prevalence of such a conception of a liberal educa- tion and such an organization of its subjects, it will be possible for the ordinary practitioner in any of the professions to com- bine a liberal with a professional or technical education. So long as these two types of education are kept so entirely distinct that the person who has the one cannot have the other, and so long as the liberal education is restricted to the mastery of a few subjects to which the majority of men who enter the intel- lectual callings in life cannot devote time, it must follow that the great majority, even of those who lead and who sustain the life of a community, will continue to be denied the privileges of a liberal education. In England the men who have contributed to the establish- ment of this view, chief among whom were Spencer and Huxley, have labored for the most part outside of the universities; in America the most prominent of such leaders, notably President Eliot of Harvard, have been in connection with educational institutions. With regard to the subject-matter of education, the scientific view first presented agrees with the sociological. With regard to the foundation of method and the interpretation of the edu- cation of interest, — through the freedom of selection of sub- jects, — it agrees with the psychological. THE THEORY OF E) ifATir FORMULATED BY TH NATURAL SCIENTISTS ot until the middle of th The Modern Scientific Tendency 355 nineteenth century, when the organization of the natural sciences had become perfected, that a modern presentation of their edu- cational claims could be made. The first of these, and yet the most influential, at least for Anglo-Saxon thought, was that by Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). Spencer's "Education, Intellectual, Moral and Physical," Herbert was issued in i860. The fundamental characteristic of the ^Pf^^^r's haucatton scientific tendency is revealed early in the treatise in his dis- cussion of the importance of the selection of subjects of study as the vital theory in education. "If there needs any further evidence of the rude, undeveloped character General in- of our education, we have it in the fact that the comparative worths of difference to different kinds of knov/ledge have been as yet scarcely even discussed — education much less discussed in a methodic way with definite results. Not only is ^.j^Uy jq it that no standard of relative values has yet been agreed upon; but the question of existence of any such standard has not been conceived in any clear manner, value of And not only is it that the existence of any such standard has not been ^^^^^ clearly conceived; but the need for it seems to have been scarcely even felt. Men read books on this topic and attend lectures on that; decide that their children shall be instructed in these branches of knowledge and shall not be instructed in those; and all under the guidance of mere custom, or liking or prejudice; without ever considering the enormous importance of determining in some rational way what things are really most worth learn- ing. It is true that in all circles we have occasional remarks on the impor- tance of this or the other order of information. But whether the degree of its importance justifies the expenditure of the time needed to acquire it; and whether there are not things of more importance to which the time might be better devoted; are queries which, if raised at all, are disposed of quite summarily, according to personal predilections. It is true, also, that from time to time we hear revived the standing controversy respecting the comparative merits of classics and mathematics. Not only, however, is this controversy carried on in an empirical manner, with no reference to an ascertained criterion, but the question at issue is totally insignificant when compared with the general question of which it is part. To suppose Meager that deciding whether a m.athematical or a classical education is the best,^ .limits of the is deciding what is the proper curriculum, is much the same thing as to traditional suppose that the whole of dietetics lies in determining whether or not bread is more nutritive than potatoes." 356 Brief Course in the History of Education Influence of Bacon and Rousseau Education should be a practical preparation for life Classifica- tion of sub- tects of study on basis of im- portance as a preparation for living The new purpose, basis and method of education emphasized by Bacon are here again clearly presented. The purpose of education is defined as preparation for complete living. ^ This in turn is judged largely from the point of view of the welfare of the individual, though of the individual as living in a fully developed society. Rousseau's influence is evident, but the thought appears in a radically modified form. "How to live? — that is the essential question for us. Not how to live in the mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. The general problem which comprehends every special problem is — the right ruling of conduct in all directions under all circumstances. ... To prepare us for complete Hving is the function which education has to discharge; and the only rational mode of judging of any educational course is to judge in what degree it discharges such function." This preparation for complete living consists, first, in the acquisition of knowledge that is best adapted for the develop- ment of individual and social life ; and, secondly, in the develop- ment of the power to use this loiowledge. What knowledge is of most worth becomes, as with Rousseau and with Bacon, the chief question of educational importance. To this question Spencer gives this definite categorical answer. 'Knowledge which leads directly \o self-preservation, such as is included in the sciences of physiology, hygiene, physics and chemistry, is of first importance. Knowledge which leads indirectly to self- preservation through the sciences and arts relating to the secur- ing of food, clothing and shelter comes next. Third in order of importance is the knowledge of rearing of offspring, which, in strange contrast with the attention given to the breeding of animals and the training required of a builder of bridges or a maker of shoes, is wholly neglected. On the other hand, any parent or teacher is presumed to be capable of bringing up a child without any preparation. Fourth in order is the knowl- edge of social and political life such as shall make one an intel- ligent citizen and neighbor. Last of all comes the knowledge of The Modern Scientific Te7idency 357 literature, art, aesthetics, including foreign languages and litera- ture, , which, occupying the leisure of life, should also occupy the leisure of education. Thus the natural sciences demanded by the first three needs take precedence over the social sciences demanded by the fourth need and over the "liberal" or "cul- ture" subjects, which at that time formed the basis of all school work. While this constitutes a negation of the Renaissance emphasis upon literature and languages, it is not, as with Rousseau, a denial of the value of knowledge. It is, on the contrary, an altogether new emphasis upon that value. Frequent objection is made to the utilitarian character of Spencer's view, to its somewhat radical application of Rousseau's test, "Of what use?" It is true that this test led to a rejection of all that was held most dear in educational tradition especially, and of the idea that a subject lost its educational value as it gained practical value. Yet the utilitarianism of the scientists was almost identical with the "practical" of Kant and the "aesthetic" of Herbart. They all indicate what is commonly meant by the term moral. That which affects conduct di- rectly, improves life, benefits man individually or in society, is "utilitarian." Spencer did subordinate the amenities of life, but chiefly that he might gain for the neglected many what hitherto had been the perquisite of the privileged few. It has been said that Spencer sacrificed that which is higher in life — its culture — for that which is lower — its practical advantage. On the contrary, he emphasized the importance of the cultural elements in an entirely new way. His argument is that all these phases of knowledge should be emphasized and that every individual should be permitted some attainment or acquisition in each. In place of an educational and social scheme which gave to a limited few the education of a hfe of leisure without any of the practically useful, and to others an education of the most meager character in the dullest routine of Ufe, he demanded such a readjustment as should give to every individual an educa- Subjects of the "liter- ary" educa- tion come last A new con- ception of knowledge Spencer's doctrine not utilitarian but moral Culture ele- ments riot eliminated but given a new value 358 Brief Course in the History of Education Spencer over- estimates the value of knowledge as a prepa- ration His prin- ciples of method do not go be- yond those of Pestalozzi Moral training by natural conse- quences Practical educational activity of Huxley tion including some of all these elements, emphasized in the order mentioned. Another criticism is found in the objection, raised from the pedagogical point of view, that education is not a preparation for life, but that it is life. To a certain extent this objection is a mere juggling with words. So far as valid, it is that Spencer overestimated the value of knowledge as a preparation. \ This is characteristic of the entire scientific tendency. Yet this error is combined with a truer conception of the nature of knowledge than was the case in previous educational theories where the same defect existed. On the other hand, by way of justifica- tion, it must be recognized that Spencer's position is but a re- action against the over-emphasis on method given by the dis- ciplinarians and, in a quite different way, by those representing the psychological tendency. It will be recognized that, on this point, the scientific tendency is a more radical reaction against the disciplinary view of education than was the psychological. In the essay on Intellectual Education, Spencer discusses more fully the question of method. This discussion consists only in an elaboration of a number of Pestalozzi's principles; — educa- tion should proceed from the simple to the complex, from the concrete to the abstract, from empirical to rational, and should be pleasurable He adds nothing of value to these. The one principle, previously noted under Rousseau, that all moral training should result from allowing the child to suffer the natural consequences of his own action, is emphasized as the essence of moral education. Thomas H. Huxley (1825-1895) accomplished more for the actual extension of education in the natural sciences than any other living Englishman. Though Huxley's writings or ad- dresses on education are very numerous, his main points are but a reemphasis of those made by Spencer, Bacon and others, put in a somewhat different form. The practical purpose, the realistic basis, the criticism of the prevailing literary and classical education, is given in the following trenchant passage : — The Modern Scientific Tendency 359 " Now let us pause to consider this wonderful state of affairs ; for the time will come when Englishmen will quote it as the stock example of the stolid stupidity of their ancestors in the nineteenth century. The most thoroughly commercial people, the greatest voluntary wanderers and colonists the world has ever seen, are precisely the middle classes of this country. If there be a people which has been busy making history on the great scale for the last three hundred years, — and the most profoundly interesting history, — history which, if it happened to be that of Greece or Rome, we should study with avidity — it is the English. If there be a people which, during the same period, has developed a remarkable litera- ture, it is our own. If there be a nation whose prosperity depends abso- lutely and wholly upon their mastery over the forces of nature, upon their intelligent apprehension of, and obedience to, the laws of creation, and distribution of wealth, and of the stable equilibrium of the forces of society, it is precisely this nation. And yet this is what these wonderful people tell their sons: 'At the cost of from one to two thousand pounds of our hard- earned money, we devote twelve of the most precious years of your lives to school. There you shall toil, or be supposed to toil; but there you shall not learn one single thing of all those you will most want to know directly }'ou leave school and enter upon the practical business life. You will in all probability go into business, but you shall not know where, or how, any article of commerce is produced, or the difference between an export or an import, or the meaning of the word "capital." You will very likely settle in a colony, but you shall not know whether Tasmania is part of New South Wales, or vice versa. . . . You will very likely get into the House of Commons. You will have to take your share in making laws which may prove a blessing or a curse to millions of men. But you shall not hear one word respecting the political organization of your country; the meaning of the controversy between free traders and protectionists shall never have been mentioned to you; you shall not so much as know that there are such things as economical laws. The mental power which will be of most importance in your daily life will be the power of seeing things as they are without regard to authority; and of drawing accurate general conclusions from particular facts. But at school and at college you shall know of no source of truth but authority; nor exercise your reasoning faculty upon anything but deduction from that which is laid down by authority. You will have to weary your soul with work, and many a time eat your bread in sorrow and in bitterness, and you shall not have learned to take refuge in the great source of pleasure without alloy, the serene resting place for worn human nature, — the world of art.' Said I not rightly that we are a wonderful people? I am quite prepared to allow that education entirely devoted to these omitted subjects might not be completely liberal education. Illogical and unpractical education of English youth, from " A Liberal Education," in Science and Educa- tion, p. 94 Knowledge one wiU need to use not given in the schools Nor the in- tellectual or practical abilities one's duties will demand 360 Brief Course in the History of Education The tradi- tional educa- tion not a 'ibeial one Prevailing education not even literary Huxley's definition of a liberal edu- cation, from " A Liberal Education " in Science and Educa- tion, p. 86 But is an education which ignores them all a liberal education? Nay, is it too much to say that the education which should embrace these subjects and no others would be a real education, tliough an incomplete one; while an education which omits them is really not an education at all, but a more or less useful course of intellectual gymnastics?" Huxley did not admit that the prevailing education was literary, for the study of grammar and language structure is scientific rather than literary. The schoolboy never reached the literary stage ; and the training he got in the languages was very poor science as to its method, and of no value at all in content. The argument that universal and practical education would hi of no avail since neither poverty, crime, nor misery had de- creased with education, he answered by saying that this fact simply showed the uselessness of the old education, without revealing any theory about a truer educational procedure. The purpose, nature and method of education is stated in Huxley's notable description of the product of a liberal educa- tion. "That man, I think, has had a liberal education who has been so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts of equal strength, and in smooth working order; ready, like a steam engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and funda- mental truths of nature, and of the laws of her operations; one who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a tender conscience; who has learned to love all beauty, whether of nature or of art, to hate all vile- ness and to respect others as himself. Such an one, and no other, I con- ceive has had a liberal education ; for he is, as completely as a man can be, in harmony with nature." ,^ SCIENCE IN THE SCHOOLS. In the Universities and Col- leges, — The scientific study of nature was fostered in the earher centuries of the modern era more by academies 0} science, beginning with that of Naples in 1560, than by the universities. While the scientific spirit was embodied in the University of The Modern Scientific Tendency 361 Halle from its foundations, it was in these academies and real- Work of schools that science received its chief cultivation in Germany, scknce^more Modern scientific teaching in the sense of experimental use of important laboratories by students began with Liebig at Giessen in 1825. ^ork in^ In France the beginnings of higher instruction in science of a universities modern type were also outside of the universities. The Re- public, in 1794, founded the normal school at Paris, where the most famous French scientists, including Laplace and Lagrange, gave instruction. In England scientific instruction developed altogether independently of the universities. The College of Advanced Chemistry was founded in 184 c;, and the School of Mines was f"^'^*'^^ t -' ^^' instruction established by the government in 185 1. The Department of in England Science and Art, founded in 1853, also fostered advanced scien- universities tific study. The royal schools above mentioned, together with the normal training classes started in 1868, were gradually brought together, and in 1890 were reorganized under the title of the Royal College of Science. Engineering schools and science schools in connection with the army and navy had already been instituted shortly after the middle of the century. In i860 the Faculty of Science was created in the University of London, and the degrees of doctor and bachelor of science were first given. It was not until 1869 that the courses in science were estabhshed in any number in Oxford and Cambridge. While there has been rapid development recently, and while a large Carnegie fund has been devoted to fostering science in the Scottish universities, it is generally recognized that Great Britain has been almost a century behind the continent in the teaching of science. In the United States. — Science appeared in the curriculum Science in of American colleges in the earliest days. During the 17th and can^coiieTs 1 8th centuries, however, it was a most formal text-book study of astronomy and perhaps physics. The opening of courses in medicine at King's in 1767, at Founding of Harvard in 1782, and at Pennsylvania in 1791, was an impor- ^^^^'^^ tant aspect of the development of the study of the sciences. 362 Brief Course in the History of Educatio7i Introduction of more specialized sciences in early nine- teenth century Elective studies Scientific departments in the uni- versities Special sci- ence schools In 1825, at Harvard, mechanics and optics appeared as separate courses; mineralogy and geology were added to astronomy, chemistry and natural history; electricity and mag- netism first appeared as separate subjects; the philosophy of natural history was announced as a separate course and special lectures in physiology were given. Mineralogy, geology and botany appeared at Princeton in 1830, as had chemistry in 1803 and natural history still earlier. To natural philosophy, chem- istry, astronomy and geography the subjects of mineralogy and geology were added at Yale in 1824. Electricity appeared as a separate course in the University of Pennsylvania in 181 1. So far as mentioned, these scientific subjects were all incor- porated as required studies, and the disciplinary conception of education prevailed and was distinctly enunciated by various faculties. The importance of interest and of the capacities and desires of the individual began to be recognized before the middle of the nineteenth century. The University of Virginia was estab- lished in 1825 upon the basis of the complete freedom of choice by the student. Advocacy of this system at Harvard began in 1825, and considerable freedom was allowed students from about 1845. Not until 1869 was the system of complete free- dom in election of studies established, with the administration of President Eliot. Earlier than this Presidents Wayland of Brown and Nott of Union had stood for this broader conception of the college course. With the elective system came the general ascendency of the scientific subjects. The establishment of Cornell University, in 1867, upon a basis of complete freedom with a strong bias in favor of the scientific and technical sub- jects, completed this phase of the movement toward the general introduction of the sciences into higher education. Meanwhile, in Harvard (1847) ^^^ Yale (i860) special schools of science had been established. The earliest scientific school of higher grade was the Rens- selaer Polytechnic Institute, founded in 1824 at Albany, New The Modern Scientific Tendency 363 York. The advanced character of the scientific work can be Congres- judged from this direction to the board of trustees: "These [the ^lonaiaidto ■' " _ _ L scientific students] are not to be taught by seeing experiments and hearing instruction lectures according to the usual method, but they are to lecture and experiment by turn, under the immediate direction of a professor or competent assistant. Thus by a term of labor, like apprentices to a trade, they are to become operative chem- ists." The Morrill land grant of 1862, by which Congress ap- propriated thirteen milhon acres of land for the maintenance in each state of a college devoted chiefly to those branches of learn- ing related to agriculture and mechanic arts, though "without excluding other scientific and classical studies," developed an entirely new type of scientific school. These are the schools of applied science found either in connection with state universities or as independent institutions in almost every state in the Union. Science in the Secondary Schools. — In Germany the intro- Science in duction of science through the sense-realistic movement has the German ° gymnasien been noted. Through the influence of the philanthropists (p. 299), and of the materialistic thought on the one hand and the new humanistic movement (p. 269) on the other, the rigid classical conception of education was modified. In 1816 science was introduced into the Prussian gymnasien, and at a somewhat later period into those of the southern German states. Though but two hours per week were allotted to physics and natural history, — and even less in the southern or Catholic regions, — science retained its hold upon the classical schools, despite the reactionary movement that took place between 18 15 and 1848. In 1855 two types of rm^schools were recognized, and real- In 1882 these became the Realgymnasium of nine years' course ^'^'^^^^ with Tatin, the Oherrealschule of nine years' course without Latin, and the real-schule of a less number of years. In these schools thirty- six week-hours for the nine years, which is twice the time given to them in the gymnasium, are given to natural history, physics, chemistry and mineralogy. Much greater emphasis is also placed upon mathematics, geography 364 Brief Course i7i the History of Education German technical schools Science in the "acade- mies" of England The "secular schools " Science in the English "public schools " The "mod- ern side" of education and drawing. Allied to the real-schtden are the technical schools, which have achieved such practical success and such perfection of method and organization during the present generation. These began with the technical schools of Nuremberg, organized in 1823. While technical subjects are most emphasized, the scientific and mathematical subjects as the bases for the work in the applied sciences are made prominent. Such schools have increased in prominence and numbers since the middle of the century (p. 399). In England, as in our own country, the introduction of scien- tific subjects into the secondary curriculum was identical with the academy movement. But the academies declined during the early nineteenth century and little was done to continue any interest in the study of the sciences. With the second quarter of the nineteenth century the popular controversy be- tween the sciences and the classics in secondary education began and was continued with enthusiasm for many years (p. 351). Various "secular schools" were founded and a society was established to foster secondary schools that should emphasize the sciences instead of the classics. In 1856, in answer to the expressed opinion of the University Commissions for Winchester, "that good elementary instruction in physical science is essential in the case of many boys, de- sirable in all cases, and perfectly compatible with a first-rate classical education," that college instituted a course "of ten or twelve lectures — delivered once a year." After ten years this was extended into a series of lectures continuing throughout the year with appropriate examinations. After the public school acts of Parliament in 1868, which revealed that there was an almost total absence of study of the sciences in the five hundred and seventy-two endowed secondary schools, a "modern side" came to be organized in all of the more prominent of these schools. This was accomplished tardily in some and with minor attention and unconcealed disparagement in all. Natural history and physics along with modem languages and history The Modern Scientific Tendeiicy 365 were included in this modem side. While this condition has much improved, the serious attention given to instruction in the sciences is fostered by the Department for Science and Art (in 1898 combined with the Department of Education). This de- partment was created in 1853, though little of importance was done until after 1859. Schools or classes in which instruction is afforded in physics, zoology, chemistry, geology, mineralogy, botany, as well as in a variety of practical subjects, are now granted a subvention. In this manner more than ten thou- sand classes are assisted at the present time. In 1901 there were seventy-eight independent "science schools" of secondary rank. In America the academies were the home of instruction in Science in the sciences from the first (p. 251). Astronomy and "natural ^fggo^'^he philosophy" were the ones most emphasized, since these were United states most formulated during the eighteenth century. Geography was almost universally taught in these schools and chemistry frequently. A list of text-books published in the United States in 1804 includes six geographies as the only scientific text-books besides those of applied mathematics, such as surveying and navigation. By 1832 there were 39 geographies, 11 astrono- mies, 6 botanies, 5 chemistries, 6 natural philosophies. Most of these were designed for use in academies. It is needless to add that all the sciences were studied from books, though resort to experimentation with apparatus was frequently made for illustration. The first unmistakable evidence that any of these subjects composed a vital part of the secondary curriculum was the inclusion of geography among the college entrance require- ments by Harvard in 1807. No other science followed as an entrance requirement until physical geography was added in 1870, and physics two years later. With the development of the early high schools, the emphasis and in the upon the sciences was continued. The earliest high school, g^^^^jg that of Boston, founded in 1821, included geography in the first year; geometry, trigonometry, navigation and surveying 366 Brief Course in the History of Education in the second; and natural philosophy and astronomy in the third. All of the earlier schools of this type, whether called free academies, city colleges, English classical schools, union schools, or high schools, continued the same attitude toward the sciences. After 1870 the character of these schools was vastly improved, their number was increased, and the work in science was expanded to include physics, chemistry, botany and zoology, in well-organized courses. Until quite recently, how- ever, the policy of giving numerous general courses of superficial character prevailed over that of a more substantial mastery by t more thorough experimental methods of the principles of one or two sciences. While the curriculum of the high school gives an important place to the sciences, the institution itself was an outgrowth of the sociological tendency to be noted later. Science study Sclcnce in the Elementary School. — In Germany the influence thxmf "h 'pes- *^^ ^^^ naturalistic tendency under Basedow has been mentioned, taiozzianism It was the Pcstalozzian movement, introduced into Prussia in 1 8 ID, and into other German states later, that made such ele- mentary science studies general. Geometry was incorporated into the curriculum of the upper grades and drawing was offered throughout the course. Geography, taught by the inductive method and introducing much general information of scientific character, was included throughout. The study of science, in- cluding elementary physics, physiology, and natural history that dealt with the phenomena of botany and zoology in an ele- mentary scientific way, was introduced into the middle and Present state upper grades. In most of the grades these sciences were allowed Germln^^ ^'^ ^"^^ hours a wcck, though in some of the upper grades four, schools This remains the situation to the present time. For almost a century, then, science has been recognized as one of the sub- jects of the elementary schools throughout almost the whole of the German-speaking countries. In England. — ■ The condition of elementary schools was so chaotic until the establishment of board, or public, schools in 1870, that it is difficult to speak of general conditions. The The Modern Scientific Tendency 367 attitude of the Department of Science and Art in fostering Required science study, especially in giving encouragement to drawing su'^^ kmen-^ and recently to manual training, has been mentioned. The tary subjects establishment of numerous organized science schools since 1872 schookTr'^ by the same department has also been referred to. Until 1900 England the "three R's" were the only required studies in the primary schools. The teaching of other subjects was controlled by the governmental grants given for results in various subjects. The most popular of these supplementary subjects were geography and elementary science. These have now been included in the compulsory course. In the United States. — The question concerning the proper subjects for the elementary curriculum hardly existed before the middle of the nineteenth century. The "three R's," The "three reading, writing and arithmetic, with spelling and grammar, Ame'rican^'^^^ were without any rivals whatever. In fact, the average school schools included only reading, spelling and English grammar, while those of a superior sort added writing, arithmetic, geography and history.^ The first subject of scientific character that made any head- introduction way in its claims for representation was geography. By 1832, pwi'oio^ ^' thirty-nine geographies and atlases, many of them for ele- mentary school work, had been published in the United States. The second subject of scientific nature to find entrance into the elementary curriculum was physiology. This was especially the case in the New England region, and was due to the advo- cacy of Horace Mann, who, from 1837, continued his propa- ganda in favor of this subject. The first English text book on physiology of elementary character appeared in 1837 ; its intro- duction into elementary schools followed slowly, and in 1850 the state legislature of Massachusetts made compulsory the teaching of the subject in the elementary schools. Object teach- and nature ing, and along with this the study of simple phenomena of nature, were introduced through the Pestalozzian movement ' Hinsdale, Horace Mann and the Common School Revival, Ch. I. 368 Brief Course in the History of Education (pp. 317-8). Nature study has been a more recent outgrowth of this and other influences. SUMMARY The scientific tenaency during nineteenth-century education is but a continuation of the movement discussed under the sense-reaHsm of the seventeenth and, eighteenth centuries. The chief characteristics are emph?.sis on the importance (i) of the content of studies and especially of the knowl- edge of natural phenomena, and (2) of the inductive method of study. This movement becomes especially prominent during the nineteenth century because of the great development of the natural sciences and the necessity for a knowledge of these as a practical equipment for life as a part of modem culture. This leads to a new conception of a liberal education, namely, that it should contain the best culture material, of the life for which it is designed to prepare. A necessity for a choice among. subjects arises and the modem principle of election or choice among subjects results. The scientific tendency harmonizes with the sociological in that both make for the democratization of education or the liberalizing of all education so far as possible. While there were many advocates of scientific education during the nineteenth century, the most noted among English-speaking people were Spencer and Huxley. The introduction of the sciences into school curricula came slowly. In the universities their introduction began (1694) with the realistic movement in the German imiversities, but even there the reform proceeded slowly. Not until the second quarter of the nineteenth century did the sciences make much headway in , the United States and not until half a century later in England. The academies, high schools and German 7'ea/-schools provided for their introduction into secondary education. Geography was quite generally introduced into elementary education in the early nineteenth century. Physiology followed about the middle of the century. Pestalozzianism introduced nature study under form of object teaching. Nature study in more recent form, agricul- ture and elementary physics are quite recently introduced into the most advanced elementary schools. CHAPTER XIII THE SOCIOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.— The sociological and psy- Difference chological tendencies are not antagonistic, nor are the corre- so^ioio'^icai sponding conceptions of education mutually exclusive. The and psycho- psychologists look upon education as the process of the develop- tendencies ment of the individual; they approach the subject through the study of psychical activities; they emphasize the importance of method. The sociologists look upon education as the process of perpetuating and developing society ; they approach the sub- ject through a study of social structure, social activities, social needs ; they conceive the purpose of education to be the prepara- tion of the individual for successful participation in the economic, political and social activities of his fellows. Besides this difference in point of view and of emphasis, a Sociological few other characteristics may be noted. The extraordinary ^^gg^y^n interest in appropriate subjects of study for every stage of subject- education, from kindergarten to university, is an outgrowth Raisesques- of the sociological influence. This interest raises the question of tion of edu- educational values. Consequently, all traditional studies have ^J^^ been subjected to this test, with the result that some have been rejected and that all are being reorganized. There have been in almost every subject of study many elisions and many addi- tions. When there was raised the question, What knowledge is of most worth in order that the individual may take his place in society ? less and less importance was assigned to the purely linguistic and literary inheritance, and more and more to the knowledge of the phenomena of the natural environment, to the laws of the forces of nature, and to the knowledge of social 2B 369 370 Brief Course in the History of Education l institutions. Thus this sociological tendency to minimize the old humanistic education and to accentuate the natural and social sciences accords with the scientific tendency. From the view that education is the process of the develop- ment of society, or the less definitely formulated view that edu- cation offers the best means for social betterment, there follows the corollary that all members of society must participate in this development. The growth of public school systems, based upon the idea of universal and free education, fol- lowed the acceptance of these principles as a necessary con- sequence. The socio- SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECT OF THE WRITINGS OF PESTA- !°fi't!J^ LOZZI, HERBART AND FROEBEL. — While the dominant justempha- empliasis made by these men in their writings was upon the leadlrfin the method of instruction and while their immediate followers were psychological activc almost exclusively in the improvement in the process and movemen gpjj.j|. ^f educational effort, nevertheless in their theory the sociological aspect is very prominent. Pestaiozzi's In all of his earlier works, before the days of Yverdun or at interest m \^2^^\_ bcforc those at Burgdorf, the great object of search with the beginning ° i ir of his work Pestalozzi was a method of improvmg the welfare of the neg- i^^rov^ment lectcd, degraded or orphaned poor. The philanthropic motive of the com- was Uppermost in all of these earlier experiences. But social mon people ^j-^j^gg ^gj.g |-q j^g j-jghted by teaching children to be industrious. Through teaching them the simplest elements of knowledge, and Conse- this chiefly in connection with handicrafts, they were to be education Started on the road to self-development and education. Edu- was con- . cation is ever much broader than the school. It thus becomes fL-mOT^in- a social as well as an individual process, one which is carried elusive than ^-^ ]-,y ^ variety of institutions. Education is the process as well as the means of bettering society. Education is ever to Hence new perform more for the individual than to give him rudiments of new^subS;! learning; it is to assist him to be something for himself and to matter do something for others. It was only because he realized that necessary ^ practical method of attaining this end was the great essential, . TJie Sociological Tendency i^i Education 371 that Pestalozzi turned his attention exclusively to the betterment of the process of instruction. In the case of Herbart the social aspect of his influence ap- Sociological pears most clearly in two points : first, in respect to aim, which Herb^art's is found in character, that is, in will functioning aright in society ; theory seen and second, in respect to subject-matter, which is to represent nJoraior^ to the child, in an idealized form, the various aspects of life, social aim of With Herbart education was to be moral in its aim, not as in ^ ucaion. the old dogmatic religious conception, nor even as in the philan- thropic, reformatory views of Pestalozzi; education is moral in the broader sociological sense, since education has nothing else as its aim but the formation of the moral nature. The whole problem of education is to make instruction educative in this sense. Character is given a much broader analysis than formerly it had received, at least in educational thought. Inner freedom, and its external expression in efficiency, benevolence, justice and equity, represent in a new form the well-being and well- doing of Aristotle, and unite the individual and the social in terms of educational aims. In respect to the subject-matter of (2) in the instruction, the Herbartian pedagogy contains another impor- ^s the sun> tant sociological bearing, in that the curriculum represents to maryofcui- the child the summary of life in the past rather than merely so ^^^jJJ ^^^ much material for the whetting of his wits. But as this view tivities received further interpretation in the culture epoch theory, in which the curriculum represents the summary of past stages of culture rather than an idealization and amplification of one's own, its sociological import is subordinated to its psychological significance. It is with Froebel that the fuU social significance of the sub- with Froebel ject-matter of instruction, as the presentation to the child of iu^*^^gJven the simplified and ideahzed elements of his own life's environ- a social sig- . ' e ^^ 1 / \ A V r nificance and ment, is fully grasped (see pp. 340-1). As an epitome 01 represents life, the curriculum becomes the initial point of all instruction, society ideai- This conception gives education a wholly new significance, and epitomized that a social one. It is the working out of this conception that( 372 Brief Course in the History of Education Sociological and scien- tific tenden- cies agree in emphasis upon sub- ject-matter and in use of natural and social sci- ences Difference of emphasis on these Institutions for practical education the outcome of both movements forms the chief concern of education to-day. While it was the psychological aspect of the problem that first received chief recognition during the present generation, it is Froebel's peda- gogical thought, as it is more fully appreciated, that has come to have a new significance. No phase of school work has so closely approximated the idea of a society in microcosm as has the kindergarten. SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECT OF THE SCIENTIFIC TEND- ENCY. — In their emphasis on the importance of the subject- matter and in their opposition to the current views of the ortho- dox disciplinarian educators concerning the supreme importance of the process of acquisition of knowledge, the sociological and • scientific tendencies coincide. However, the emphasis upon the supreme importance of subject-matter is from somewhat different points of view. The approach of the scientists to this position is through the value of the natural sciences as they bear upon the welfare of the individual ; that of the sociologists is through the importance of both natural and social sciences as they equip the individual for life in institutions and thus secure the welfare of society. It is to be further noted also that all the prominent advocates of scientific education believe in a more extended educational use of the social as well as of the natural sciences. However the scientists and sociologists may differ in the solution of the problem of the curriculum, their point of view is the same; namely, "What knowledge is of most worth?" If, like Rousseau's "What is that to me?" the formulation of this question by the scientists is in individualistic terms, it is because it is more immediately connected in time and sympathy with this individualism of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries than are the views of the sociological educators. For the economic and utilitarian aspects of the study of the sciences, the sociological tendency has shown strong affinity. Pro- fessional, technical and commercial institutions have grown up quite as much in answer to sociological as to scientific demands. . The Sociological Tendency in Education 373 EDUCATIONAL IDEAS OF POLITICAL LEADERS.— The Eighteenth social and political importance of education as well as the re- recog^tion sponsibility of the state for education was first recognized by of social the German peoples. The beginnings of state systems of edu- oTeducati^on cation during the sixteenth century were outgrowths of the by German religious motive and conception of education. It was not until the eighteenth century that the politico-economic, or social, conception found full expression. The first monarchs to seize the idea that national prosperity and stability depended at bottom upon general education were Frederick the Great of Prussia (r. 1 740-1 786) and Maria Theresa of Austria (r. 1740- 1780). In his famous school laws of 1763 the former recog- nized that it was the duty of officials to "strive for the true welfare of our country and of all classes of people" by "having a good foundation laid in the schools for a rational and Chris- tian education of the young for the fear of God and other use- ful ends." The early French republicans came to hold a similar by French conception of governmental responsibility for education. While ^^^" '^^^'^'' they outlined a system, it remained for later generations to con- struct it. In our own country education was highly appreciated in the colonial days and found a notable exponent in Franklin. Yet it was either the religious conception, as with the early colonists, or the individualistic and utilitarian, as with Franklin's genera- tion, that prevailed. With our early national leaders, a new conception developed. In his message to Congress in 1790, Washington wrote: by American " Knowledge is in every country the surest basis of public happi- ^t^^'^^^'^en: ness. In one in which the measures of government receive their impression so immediately as in ours, from the sense of the com- munity, it is proportionally essential." Education, as the dis- semination of knowledge, was thus the conception which Wash- ington held. This undoubtedly is the approach to the subject Washing- most frequently made from- the sociological point of view. Con- ton's views; sequently the importance of education lay in the effect which 374 Brief Cotirse in the History of Edtication the intelligence of the people would have upon legislation. The chief concern of Washington lay in the establishment of edu- cational institutions that would serve as instruments of general enlightenment. In the same message he continues, "Whether this will be best promoted by affording aid to seminaries of learning already established, by the institution of a national university, or by any other expedients, will be well worthy a place in the deliberations of the Legislature." Later, he recom- mends the establishment of a national university and of a "national central agency charged with collecting and diffusing information and enabled by premiums and small pecuniary aids to encourage and assist a spirit of discovery and improvement." Thus he foreshadowed the work of the Bureau of Education, of the Smithsonian Institute, of the Carnegie Institution, and of the Department of Agriculture. The establishment of a national university is yet unrealized. Jefferson's Of all our early statesmen, Thomas Jefferson possessed the clearest grasp of the national significance of education and did most to promote such activities. The principle fundamental to this view we are here considering was announced in a letter to Washington in 1786. "It is an axiom in my mind that our liberty can never be safe but in the hands of the people them- selves, and that, too, of the people with a certain degree of in- struction. This is the business of the state to effect and on a general plan." Education as the safeguard of democracy is the general principle; the fundamental responsibility of the state for the education of the people is the working basis that comes to be accepted in the course of the following half cen- tury. How the tremendous task that this idea presented in the days of Jefferson could be accomplished could not then be seen. The solution awaited the gradual acceptance of this principle by the people and the growing ability and willingness to tax themselves generously for this end. With JefTerson this idea was bound up with the further one of local self-government. In other words, schools supported by local taxation, and con- views; The Sociological Tendency in Education 375 trolled by the local community as in New England, offered the solution of the new problem of democracy on a large scale. Late in life he wrote: "There are two subjects, indeed, which I claim a right to further as long as I breathe, the public educa- tion and the subdivision of counties into wards. I consider the continuance of republican government as absolutely hanging on these two hooks." James Madison (1751-1836), the fourth President, was, next Madison's to Jefferson, the most active of our earher statesmen in edu- ^'^^^ cational work. "A popular government without popular in- formation or the means of acquiring it, is but a prologue to a farce or a tragedy, or perhaps both," he wrote. Consequently he held that "the best service that can be rendered to a coun- try, next to giving it liberty, is in diffusing the mental improve- ment equally essential to the preservation and enjoyment of that blessing." With these two statesmen such views were not mere opinions. Practical for thev devoted quite as much attention to educational activi- realization oi ■^ . ^ slow growth ties and interests as to those of a political character. At the very beginning of this greatest of experiments in popular gov- ernment, they realized most clearly that the success of it as well as the economic prosperity and social progress of the people depended upon their intelligence, and that such intelligence could be secured and guaranteed only by a most general scheme of education. No such system as would be adequate to the needs could be furnished by any other means than the state. As might be expected, their views were a half century or more in advance of the actual realization of these ideals. EDUCATION AS A PREPARATION FOR CITIZENSHIP.— Opposed to The conception of education common to all of these statesmen udis^of uie and public leaders is that education is primarily a preparation poUticai for citizenship. For several generations people could not recog- dom'^antin nize any great distinction between this state education and the early nine- individuality-repressing education which Rousseau sought to centuiy overthrow. In fact, in our own country, it was near or after 'x^']6 Brief Course in the History of Education Education held to be a preparation for com- petitive struggle Recent recognition of the social value of education Resulting changes in school work the middle of the nineteenth century before this social concep- tion of education replaced the prevailing individuahstic one. This individualism, however, was not the individualism of Rousseau and of the early psychologists, founded on the con- ception of education derived from a consideration of the child's mind; it was an individualism based upon economic, political and social considerations. The prevailing view among those giving no technical consideration to the problem was that the function of democratic government was to give to every indi- vidual freedom of opportunity, — a free field and no favors, — and that education was to equip the individual in the best and briefest way for this harsh competitive struggle. With these premises only the most utilitarian view of education could pre- vail. In contrast with this, the sociological conception of education has received common acceptance through the idea that edu- cation is a preparation for citizenship. In the old view, the function of education was to develop the ability, improve the habits, form the character of the individual, so that he might prosper in his life's activities and conform to certain social standards of conduct. The idea emphasized in the citizenship conception is that individual and social welfare, happiness and righteousness depend more largely than ever before recognized upon the relations existing between persons and classes in in- stitutional life. Therefore education has a new work, that of clarifying the basal principles of this relationship and of giving information concerning the very complex relations in society, and a new aim found in social motive. The new work demands a readjustment of emphasis upon subjects of instruction, with greater attention to historic, economic and literary subjects. The new aim requires a greater attention to the formation of character, social habits, patriotic and altruistic motives. The first adds new emphasis to the importance of the knowledge side of education; the second, to the moral aim. Education thus becomes, though indirectly, the force modifying social in- The Sociological Tendency in Education 2>77 stitutions by bringing about a better adjustment of individuals The dynamic to one another. Progress is the characteristic of modern life; standa"ds"ff ability to adjust one's self quickly and properly to new social conduct conditions is the chief demand upon education. This necessi- tates a knowledge of these changing conditions and an ability and willingness to bring about the readjustment. These are usually summed up under the term "good citizenship." PLACE OF EDUCATION IN SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY.— A variety of The subject of education occupies an important place in the ^^^^^ sociological literature produced in the last few generations. Since the time of August Comte, w^ho founded the science of sociology and coined the term, various interpretations of the place of education in social economy have been made. It will be impossible in a brief space to notice many of these; a state- ment of four of the most important must sufhce. The exposi- tion of one of these views is given by Professor Lester F. Ward, in his Dynamic Sociology. This work, though much neglected, is, in fact, the most elaborate treatise on education published by an American. The substance of the theory is as follows : Progress depends upon intelligence. Intelligence is the prod- (i)Educa- uct of two factors, the degree of intellectual power and the dTssemina- product of its action ; in other words, upon intellect and knowl- tion of edge. The degree of intelligence can be improved only in- ^°^^ ^^ directly, through observation of the laws of heredity and the influence of environment, or through the process of acquiring knowledge. The extent of knowledge can be increased directly; hence from both points of view the function of education is to increase knowledge. The indirect means for the increase of intellectual power, that is, selection and rational change of en- vironment, have been at work for generations, with the result that the amount of useful knowledge possessed by the average mind is far below its intellectual capacity. Thus the degree of This view intelligence is correspondingly below what it might be, and the p^^^^'^*^'^ '° great educational need, from the social point of view, is the Dynamic more thorough dissemination of the great body of valuable ^°'^^^°&y 378 Brief Course in the History of Educatioiz knowledge already extant. Individual interest will care fo origination of loiowledge. Such discovery is easier and rapid than any increase of intellectual power can be. Thus education becomes a most important social fum It should be controlled by the state and not by private pax... It should concern itself chiefly with the dissemination of knowl- edge, for upon this depends the general intelligence, and upon general intelligence, in turn, depends social progress and happi- ness. But the final relationship of education to society is not yet clearly revealed. The highest social process is that of "sociocracy," — the rational control and direction of society by itself to reach certain determined and valuable ends. In other words, the highest form of social control and direction is "politics," though politics in a sense as yet hardly realized. Education, as the dissemination of knowledge, which will serve as a basis for this highly rationalized social process, — that through which all others are obtained, — thus becomes the most immediate means to that end. This scientific and abstract thought comes to essentially the same position formulated by the common thought in terms of "preparation for citizenship." In formal terms education is defined "as a system for extending to all members of society such of the extant knowledge of the world as may be deemed most important." (2)Educa- A second of these general sociological views considers edu- tionasa cation as a means of social control. Society in the past has means of ... social control relied chiefly upon the government with its direct means of control through force, and the Church with its indirect means of control through beliefs, ideas, ceremonies, rewards and punishments of immaterial character. Society now comes to depend more and more upon the indirect means of control exercised upon the coming generation through the school. This indirect means is far more economical than the direct means, since it depends so largely upon mere suggestion exercised by teachers rather than upon a force which rouses opposition. It The Sociological Tendency in EduccUion 379 is more economical than when exercised wholly by the Church, in that it is largely intellectual and rational, and thus, through the self-interest and rational enlightenment of the individual, prepares directly for activities valuable from the general social point of view. From this point of view, moral motives would be more em- phasized than ever. But they would be moral motives of a different character. As education in the hands of the parent sought to control the child for the sake of his practical success in life ; and the education of the Church to control him for the sake of the organization and for his own eternal salvation; so the education of the state seeks to control the child for the sake of the welfare of society, which includes the individual and his fellows as well. Thus as a form of control, education is merely an instrument of society similar to law, to pohce force, to reli- gion and the Church, to organized public opinion, and to various institutional customs and traditions. But as such it operates in a peculiar way, not directly by force, but indirectly through the suggestive power of ideas and through the impartation of knowl- edge ; not immediately upon the adult, but through the medium of a coming generation. A third estimate of the function of education from the socio- (3) Educa- logical point of view is a much more fundamental one. Sug- Fionas the : " / . . . _ ^ process of the gested in this meaning by social philosophers from the time of "social the Greeks, it was first given modern statement by Francis °^^"'^" Bacon. He emphasized the importance of the study of tradi- tion, — the transmission from one generation to the next of the substance of the learning and culture of the past. From this point of view education, in modern sociological theory, becomes the "effort to preserve the continuity and to secure the growth of common tradition." ^ Since the "social mind" or this com- mon tradition or summary of human experience exists only in * Vincent, The Social Mind and Education, p. 91. Chapter IV of this work gives the brief presentation of this entire theory, as summarized in the para- graph above. 380 Brief Course in the History of Education or the trans- mission of the racial inheritance of the inui- vidual to a changing environment (1) Place of education in the theory of evolution the mind of individuals, such continuity can be preserved and development secured only "by preparing the young gradually to appropriate the collective tradition in general and by train- ing a few minds to receive and elaborate its various highly specialized divisions." Without this inheritance of racial ex- perience by participation in social institutions, the individual becomes an abstraction. There is no social mind, it is true, aside from the individual minds which collectively constitute it ; but, on the other hand, there can be no individual mind save as it receives its content from this social one. Thus the nega- tive of Rousseau's idea of a "natural" education is reached. This, however, is not a return to the view against which Rousseau revolted; but, by a completion of the circle of thought, it is a compromise of the two extreme views in a conception which rejects both the unchecked individualism of the one and the unlimited dominance of authority of the other. The individual is educated, or he develops, by incorporating within his own experience the summarized achievements of the race; social stability is secured by this same process and social progress through the modification of tradition and slight increment which the individual may furnish it. Thus it is not to a fixed but to a constantly changing environment that the individual is ad- justed. This is the fundamental characteristic of modern edu- cation. For it is because the thought and institutional as well as the natural environment is constantly changing that the in- dividual, in adjusting himself to it as perfectly as the adult generation can secure, must preserve and develop his own in- dividuality. It is the -power of adjustment to a changing environment, not the fixed adjustment in itself, that modern education seeks to secure for the individual as its highest product. Thus is suggested the fourth and highest aspect of the socio- logical interpretation of education. Education becomes the most advanced phase of evolutionary process, or at least its most advanced method. The most general aspect of the theory . The Sociological Tendency in Education 381 of evolution is that vast uninterrupted and eternal forces of development obtain throughout all nature, and that all phe- nomena, physical and mental, are subject to law. In the more specific sense, organic evolution is that adaptation of organic life to its environment which is secured for the most part through the process of natural selection. Human evolution is such self- adaptation of the human race to its environment as results in development. With this stage of evolution the institutional aspect of environment is most important and social selection is of greater functional significance than natural. However, so far as the race as a whole is concerned, such development has been largely unconscious. That is, since the social consciousness rather seeks to prevent change, social progress has resulted for the most part through the conscious effort of the individual to secure for himself some advantage which is not permitted or, at least, not consciously given by society. The highest form of social selection is attained when society becomes conscious of the aim — a given social status — and of the process through which the desired results are to be secured. Since the group has now conceived definite ends and a definite method of pro- cedure through which it shapes the character of its constituent members and thus affects its own well-being, the process is a self-conscious one on the part of the group as well as on the part of individuals. Though chiefly of a negative character, legislation in general is such a method. The great positive Education method developed by modem society for effecting these pur- *e method poses is public education. Education thus becomes for the evolution social world what natural selection is for the subhuman world, — the chief factor in the process of evolution.^ PHILANTHROPIC-RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS FOR EDU- CATION. — The growth of the systems of public schools, now supported by all advanced nations, has been along two lines of development, or rather through two successive stages. The ^ For further development of this thesis, see Ward, Mackenzie, Vincent, Howerth, and Davidson. 382 Brief Course in the History of Education Two stages in develop- ment of the present school sys- tem : ( I ) phil- anthropic- religious schools ; (2) schools supported and con- trolled by the state The pietistic schools of Francke : the Philan- thropinum of Basedow; Pestalozzi's orphan schools Origin of the monitorial system in England first of these was the stage in which schools were supplied chiefly by private voluntary enterprise, from motives of religious and philanthropic character. While leaving the management in private or in quasi-public control, the state contributed to these very generally. The second of these stages is that in which the political and economic bearing of education receives general recognition and the state accepts the responsibility for general education of all of the people as one of the functions of government. The importance of this philanthropic stage varied with different countries. The more prominent of the philan- thropic-religious school movements, as they entered as con- stituent elements into the formation of our own public school system, deserve notice. Philanthropic-Educational Movement originating among the German Peoples. — Mention has already been made of the vari- ous philanthropic institutions founded by Francke at Halle, beginning with 1694. These developed into training schools for teachers, educational institutions of a practical character for orphans, and finally into the rea^-schools of the German states. The philanthropic movement under Basedow which, beginning with private institutions, led through the training of teachers and the production of a voluminous literature to the introduc- tion of a study of natural phenomena, of more agreeable methods, and of a new and better spirit into the schoolroom, has also been noticed. Similarly the Pestalozzian movement had its philan- thropic aspect. This aspect of the work was carried on by Emanuel von Fellenberg (i 771-1844). The Monitorial System of Bell and Lancaster. — In 1797 Dr. Andrew Bell introduced into England the system of using the older boys for the instruction of the younger, which he had previously employed in an orphan asylum. By him, and especially by Joseph Lancaster (i 778-1838), the system was developed until it became for England a somewhat inadequate substitute for a national system of schools. Through the use of a few conduct monitors and a sufficient number of teaching A Lancasterian Monitorial School with Recitation Semicircles AND Lesson Boards arranged around the Room A Monitorial School in Operation From the Manual of the Georgetown (Md.) Schools (1817) The Sociological Tendency in Education 383 monitors drawn from the more advanced students, and through a detailed system of organization and of method, it was possible for one teacher to direct a large number of pupils. With Oneteachei Lancaster the ideal, which he himself reached before he was h°yndl-Id^^^ twenty years of age, was for one teacher to control a school of children one thousand boys. Thus in the absence of any willingness on the part of the people adequately to support schools, with the madepos- govemment opposed on principle to contributing for such pur- schook^in poses, and with the religious bodies wholly unable to cope with cities; the needs of the times, the monitorial system made possible some general attention to public education. The Bell system found little or no footing in America, since it was connected wholly with the Church of England schools. The great service which the Lancasterian system rendered in our own country first as was in accustoming the people to schools for the masses of the ins^itu^io^ people, to contributing to their support as individuals, and in gradually educating the people to look upon education as a function of the state. In addition to this it introduced a better system of grading, since all Lancasterian schools were rigidly graded on the basis of arithmetic work, and also on the basis then as in- of spelling and reading. Hence promotion was possible in one su'"^'rt"d b subject when it was not in the other. Moreover, it brought in a public funds better arrangement and classification of material and a better ^j-oikd by organization and discipline of the school. The great defects dvii author!- of this system were that the work was most formal; that most of the instruction was extremely superficial; that the discipline was rigid and mechanical; and that the information gained was the result of formal memory work. There was absolutely no conception of the psychological aspect of the work and no intimation whatever of the newer, broader and truer concep- tion of education that was developing on the continent. In 1805 the Lancasterian method was introduced into New York City. Within a few years almost every city from Boston to Charleston, in the South, and Cincinnati, in the West, had its monitorial or Lancasterian schools. Lancaster himself came 384 Brief Course in the History of Education Develop- ment of most city school systems in first half of nineteenth century through the monitorial system Origin and development of the In- fant Schools in Great Britain The infant schools established in most American cities in first half of nine- teenth century to this country and assisted in the New York, Brooklyn and Philadelphia schools. In the third decade of the century, the system was introduced in New York and Boston into a liew type of schools, the newly founded high schools. For this and the two following decades the system was widely popular in the many academies throughout the country. As in the cas^ of the Fellenberg system, with which it was often combined, the system disappeared in consequence of the arousing of public opinion on the subject of education, of the growing material prosperity of the people and of their growing willingness to contribute more liberally to the cause of education. The Infant School Movement was of similar import. Origi- nating with a French country cure in 1769, these schools were soon introduced into Paris and became the progenitors of the maternal schools, so common in all French cities at present. In England the infant schools originated independently with Robert Owen about 1799 at New Lanark, Scotland, as a means of checking the evil effect of the factory system on children. The factories of England at that period employed a large number of children that were bound out to them by the poor commissioners, at five, six, and seven years of age for a period of nine years. As these children were employed from eleven to thirteen hours a day in the factory, and at the end of their apprenticeship were turned free into the ignorant mass of the city population, their educational condition can be imagined. The infant schools were contrived to meet this situation. In 1818 the new idea was carried to London by James Buchanan, the teacher of Owen's school, and soon in the person of Samuel Wilderspin found an enterprising exponent who was at the same time a voluminous writer. In 1834 "The Home and Colonial Infant School Society" was formed for the multiplication of schools based upon Wilderspin's ideas. Almost ten years before this time such schools had appeared in New York, and were soon imitated in most of the other large cities of the country. Even where public schools were established no provision was made 'llfV. li: V* fejX //' The Infant school: introduced into the United States, it)2o-i83o K London Dame School in 1870. Elementary Schools were not established BY the Government unttt^ that Year rhis drawing, made from life by a member of the parliamentary investigating committee, was of a chool above the average The dame had taught in this basement room for forty years and had aught the parents of many of the children then in the school. The Sociological Te7idency in Education 385 for children of the earhest years; the monitorial schools in most places similarly restricted their clientele. In the early nine- teenth century the public schools of Boston were forbidden to receive children who could not read and write. The Infant School Societies found abundant work to do in most cities. In many places, as in New York City, they were the progenitors of grew with the primary department of the public schools ; and to the present P"mary day, the independent organization of the primary department public school and the sharp division drawn for it in the school building is ^y^^ems but a survival of the distinct origins of the grammar and primary grades. Public School Societies in the United States. — All of these educational interests were promoted, and by far the greater part of educational opportunity was furnished, by the organization of citizens into quasi-public societies. The history of schools in one city will serve as a type. With the exception of Church schools, and a school for negroes founded in 1787 and supported by the African Free School Society, there were no free schools Such infant in New York City until 1805. During that year, under the toriarsdiods leadership of De Witt Clinton, the mayor of the city, a free at first sup- school society, later called the Public School Society, was organ- ^arltabfe ized. The aim of this institution was to offer educational op- organizations portunities gratis to the children of the poor who were not puXc ^ provided for by the existing Church schools. The Lancasterian societies method of organization and instruction was adopted. In 1827 an infant school society was formed for the support of schools for children from three to six. While the Wilderspin organi- zation was followed, there was an attempt to adopt the Pesta- lozzian methods. Within a few years these schools were in- corporated into the Public School Society as primary depart- ments. In addition to funds contributed by private parties and those raised by lotteries, the state, from 181 6, had contributed from the common school fund to the work of this society, and the city had made annual appropriations. In 1842 a city school board was formed and public schools were established under its 386 Brief Course in the History of Education The philan- thropic- religious schools re- placed by middle of nineteenth century by public schools Public school sys- tems first developed where state and Church were closely allied control. It was not until 1853 that the schools of the society were transferred to the control of the school board and a free public school system was really established. While the transi- tion was somewhat more tardily accomplished in New York than in other communities, yet every American city, except a few of New England, passed through a similar development. Public school societies, not always bearing this exact title, existed in Philadelphia, Buffalo, Albany, and even as far west as Cincinnati. With regard to common schools at least, the philanthropic- religious period was terminated by the middle of the nineteenth century, yet it is to be remembered that kindergarten and manual training schools have found their way into the public schools within a generation, largely through the channel of privately supported organizations. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATE SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. — In considering the somewhat tardy develop- ment of public, especially city school systems in our own coun- try, it is to be borne in mind that few other municipal services were at that time developed. Water supply, street lighting, street cleaning, fire protection, even police protection, were yet matters of private enterprise. When the absence of all experi- ence in any generous support of educational activities by taxa- tion is borne in mind, it is not to be wondered that the develop- ment of the idea of free public schools and the willingness to support them by general taxation were of slow growth. In aristocratic states, such as those of the Teutonic peoples, where the foresight of the ruling classes rather than the general intelli- gence and generosity of the people determined the situation, less opposition to the development of the modern attitude toward education would be found. But a more important factor than the aristocratic-social one was the ecclesiastical-political cne. Previous to the later part of the eighteenth century, it was the religious motive that controlled in education. Consequently only where the Church and state were closely united and where The German system of education aa exemplified in Prussio Elementary In which children ur two yeors of age or cared for during the day. For children of the la- Middle schools borin9 cla»'ae».till four yeare of aq 'a continuotion of the preceding The coiArse of study m" middle schools ■ually termincrteft at 14 but som«tirrie'3 ont.ioee to 17. Tr gn aitionol S 1 & 2 ia_ a i« "> '] Elementary f Secqndory but riot officially recognized. The qovGrnmont re- Girls middle schools Gil-Is higher schools ymr fused to grant the ijirls gymnasiom at Breslou the privilege possessed by gymnosia for boys, vix, the certificote odmitting to the universities, the minister of public instruction saying in 1898 that the government intended university study' for vwLOmen to be the exception, not the rule. The course voriea widely and is not yet siiccessfully estoblished Teachers eeminanes in Berlin ond Gottingen. Secondory jc y 12 a li I,'' If n 6UF _2J U '^ '" " "\ I n ni Proqymnasia ' Fullclossicoi leoding to oil faculties of the university. f ' Latin^oo GreeK, lead inq to natural science rnodern language ond rnathematics of the ohilosophical faculty. No Latin or Greek, Iffading to naturol scTence and mathernat. ics of the philosophical faculty. Odmits to the next cidss in the gymnoeium. _ real-gyrnnasium. higher real-school. Minirrium course for q degree. Teachers seminaries connected with schools, gymnasia ond universHies. Chemniti technical echool, Soxonv Vorschulen the spec- ial prepar atoryclass 3 or the ordinary peoples schools YL Y WTEbMc nb Ho lb h Gymnasia'' T-feal-gyrnnasia'' Higher real-schools Real-prbgymncisia' Reol -schools Di-ntisti^ Faculties of the university Philosophy theology, Itaw , medicine Philosophy Theology Law Medicine Veterinary medicine Pharmacy Secondary* dustrial Polytechnica From Professional Education in Foreign Countries, BY H. L. Taylor The Trench system of education os exemplified in 'ft»(*i's Primary schools Elen-ientary Superior * M.other Infant 'Q3 the Creches keep the popi'ls till 3 the * Mother's schools rarely admit earlier than 2Vi.j and often keep them till Tin scho6l» of 3 to 6 dosses ^the last bo- coming ah infant class. ' Infant schools are few in'nurnber and connect the mother's schools with the ele- triuntary or replace them . Excim.forthe el. lary cert, is based on the middle course. Qt leo»t I yeorof thGSup. srior rec^uired for admis sup Technical C!pprentj< Technical, riat.bna SuRplerne donji "Qlx, Qnqers^Chalons^Clo'ny. pqrtsond tr :>d 'Modern bachelor's deqree admits to competitive ej:am-; Cornn mat ion.' Preparatory. Admission directly from polytechni Versailles. ' Grignon ,Rcnnes and ra ^ — Montpel lier. [ary ^drtsand 'StCy, Polytechnic ^m ulture agriculture ■Mormal 'Complementary course .Mational agrlcjlnstituti ' Elementary for men or womer». "Superior for nnen. Saint Cloud Superior for women ^ Fontenay ou^ Poses omiier c fee Uncer nd bridge nstruction. nstruction two ministries condominium condominium commerce com merce es commerce nmerce ,RarIs ninistry of war wor public works agriculture agriculture instruction instruction instruction Secondary.. UnderTninistry of pub! ic instruction and fine arts. Superior -J^ -li u ii a 21 For girls For girls For boySj modern For boys^classicol For boy3,nOrmal ^ ( Inf , rSormal at Sevres. Prepares for teaching Infar Infant ;Pre DeF 't of se Qdifnits t. i. RhelPhl, Qdjvnt Paris_,rue d'Ui m, bachelor's degree mode condary education Tor boys^normal, Paris, bachelor's degree classical n ghrls pchcrols :e facu Itie fatuities Dep't su^perior educ I Letters sect|Qg=Qareqotio Department of superior education . Fifteen state universities have fo'cu Itlea in Citi esos follows (Par, s,Besan9on,Bcrdeaux,Caen, Clermont, "(Marsei lies ISciince' H ccfrtiflcate <',lic.ncli,hc,oi|aigiers,Mar9eille5, c \ Me dicr e =r *■•• ( Nancy •■«' (Lyons^Tou louse. " (Nante3,T?ennes. rVharmocy * ^=^ plon c^rdiplor lOOf Tou Pre^parot.on for examination made in free dental schools. pent.str^ Under Ministry of ogrlculture. 3 schools. Olfort, Lyons ond|Veterlnary From Professional Education in Foreign Countries, BY H. L. TAYLOR The Sociological Tendency in Education 387 the Church desired to carry out some general scheme of edu- cation, did the latter attempt to develop and control systems of public schools. Germany. — Thus it happened that state systems of schools Public first developed in Germany; that, as a result, the philanthropic school sys- phase of school development was less prominent there because generally less necessary and was wholly of a supplementary and reforma- ^^veioped by tory nature. In Germany the politico-economic stage of school states development was first reached and most thoroughly carried out. And yet the politico-economic motive, while very definitely announced by Luther (pp. 195-7), came slowly into public acceptance. The first clear recognition of the conception that education lies at the basis of the economic prosperity, the political power, and the social well-being of a people was, as previously men- tioned, by Frederick the Great and other German monarchs of the later eighteenth century. It was not until 1763, at the close of the Seven Years' War, that Frederick could turn his The political great energies to the subject of education. In his General andeconomic School Regulations ^ of that year, school attendance was made recognized in compulsory, adequate training and compensation for teachers ^^^^^ig^^' were provided, proper text-books arranged for, methods im- early nine- proved, supervision secured, and religious toleration in edu- cation proclaimed. It was not until 1794 that the transition to the new basis was Development completed. In the school law of that year, which met with °/ ^^ ^^^s- prolonged opposition from the clergy and from large portions system dur- of the people, a variety of new principles were stated. All ^"^s the public schools and educational institutions were declared to and nine- be state institutions. All schools, whether private or not, were ^^^^^^ «^°- turies to be under the control and supervision of the state. All teachers of the gymnasien and higher schools were to be con- sidered state officers, and the appointment of such teachers * See Barnard's German Teachers and Educators, p. 593, for translation of the Regulations in full. teenth cen- turies 388 Brief Course in the History of Education Current tend- encies in the Prussian school sys- tem Develop- , ment of the public school system in France belonged to the state. No person could be excluded from a public school on account of religious belief, nor could a child be compelled to remain for religious instruction contrary to the faith in which he had been brought up. From 1808 to 181 1, under Von Humboldt and Von Schuckmann, the spirit and conduct of the elementary schools were revolutionized by the introduction of improved methods based upon those of Pesta- lozzi. General revision of the school laws of Prussia occurred in 1825, 1854, 1872. The tendency of these revisions as well as of subsequent minor changes has been toward the more general support of schools by the central government, with correspond- ing diminution of support from local and private sources; toward the complete abolition of tuition fees for the elementary schools; toward the centralization of the administration and supervision of schools at the expense of the rights of the local community; toward an improvement of the teaching staff and of the processes of instruction; and toward the complete elimi- nation of ecclesiastical influence. While local pastors are found in the great majority of local school boards, the sentiment of the school as represented by the teaching class is strongly in favor of the elimination of the one remaining form of ecclesi- astical control. The point to which other countries must give so much attention — the administration of an effective com- pulsory school law — has been on account of long experience almost automatically operative in Germany for more than a century. France. — Agitation for public education in France began with the campaign in public opinion against the Jesuits and with their expulsion (1764). Yet at the opening of the Revo- lution more than half of the men and three-fourths of the women of France could not sign their names. The early Revolutionary Assemblies received many reports on education ; the later Con- ventions passed many laws. But little in the way of execution was accomplished. In 1795 the National Normal School and The Sociological Tendency in Education 389 numerous secondary schools, The Central Colleges^ were estab- lishedV Conditions were so chaotic that Httle was accomplished and ' this little did not affect the one thing demanded by the Revolutionary sentiment, — universal, compulsory, free edu- cation. In 1806 was established the University of France, which included in itself, practically as a department of the national government, all secondary and higher education. Both Napoleon and the government of the Restoration neglected ele- mentary education. This was left to religious societies and monitorial schools after the plan of Bell and Lancaster. Public elementary education dates from 1833. At that time Guizot, origin in the Minister of Pubhc Instruction, proposed and carried into execu- second Ra- tion a law which established elementary schools of two grades, 1833 primary and grammar, in practically every commune. These offered tuition to the poor without expense; provided religious instruction and reserved to the government the right of appoint- ing teachers and determining their salaries. Primary education was made free in 1881 and compulsory in 1882; the present organic law establishing the most perfect system of centralized and state-controlled schools now in existence dates from 1886. Until very recently, however. Church schools were as numerous and more influential than the non-sectarian state schools. Until Present tend- 1882, rehgious instruction was given in all schools. All private ^"^"^^ schools are required to have the sanction of the state. Since 1 90 1 all religious congregations have been required to obtain authorization and legal recognition in order to carry on edu- cational work. The supplementary legislation of 1903 has practically closed all religious schools. England. — In England, the land of institutional evolution Development rather than of revolution, this transition to the politico-economic °^,3, state school system stage has been longest delayed and is yet far from complete, most recent The various philanthropic-religious school societies have been i^ England enumerated in connection with the movements from which they sprang. As in many localities of the United States, the first public support of education came in the form of grants to these 390 Brief Course in the History of Education church-school societies. Beginning in 1833, after a long con- troversy as to whether the government had any right at all to interfere in connection with education, the English government State aid to continued to grant annually an ever increasing amount to the sciMois since ^^hools maintained by the National Society and the British and 1833 Foreign School Societies. These grants were used chiefly for the erection of schoolhouses and upon condition of the right of government inspection. In practice none but clergymen were appointed inspectors; moreover, schools were required by law to give instruction in religion. As a result of parliamentary grants, teachers' training colleges were opened in connection with these societies in 1841 and 1844. Grants for pupil teachers, for books, for school supplies, were added within a few years. In 1 86 1 the system of distributing these grants according to the number of pupils that had satisfactorily passed the examina- tions given by government inspectors in specified subjects was adopted. This is the "payment by result" system, which pro- duced a formahzing tendency in the work of the schools and has State schools only recently been abandoned. The act of 1870 estabhshed the since 1870 £j.g|. elementary schools organized, supported and supervised by the state. These are the "board schools," controlled by local boards and supported partially by local taxation, which must be at least equal to the government grants. By the law of 1870 compulsory attendance regulations might be adopted by district school boards; but until there were schools, such laws would be superfluous. By the law of 1880 compulsory attendance under ten was provided for; by that of 1899 the age was raised to twelve, and by that of 1900 the local boards were permitted to raise the age hmit to fourteen. These two systems of state or "board schools" and church or "voluntary schools" remained side by side until 1903. In 1902 there were 5878 board schools with 38,395 teachers, to 14,275 voluntary schools with 29,283 teachers. The law of 1903 gave support to the voluntary or church schools from the local rates and thus unified the system. The opposition of the The Sociological Tendency in Education 391 people to such compulsory state support of church schools pre- Present tend- cipitated a violent political conflict and largely contributed to t'^'^^f v'^ the overthrow of the conservative government responsible for education the law. In 1906 a bill was introduced providing for local political control of all schools, with minority representation for the ecclesiastical organizations contributing a part of the school support for denominational religious teaching in schools where three- fourths of the patrons demand it, and for unsectarian religious instruction in all schools. The United States. Early Free Schools. — Many of the early Public school New England schools received their support from a variety of ^ew Eng- sources, such as the sale or rental of public lands, rental from land dates fish weirs, from ferries, from bequest and private gift, from sub- seventeenth scription, from local rates, and in nearly all cases from tuition century of students. Wherever in the colonies it was customary for the local or colonial government to assist schools by grants or by taxes, it was also customary for the schoolmaster to supplement this small allowance by tuition charges regulated for the most part by common custom. As the schools established by the towns required some previous training on the part of those entering them, usually the knowledge of the alphabet or the ability to read, "dame schools" of a most rudimentary charac- ter sprang up in great numbers. The government of the New England towns was a pure democracy, and the control of schools remained for a long time in the hands of the town meeting itself. Only gradually were powers delegated first to the selectmen and then, in the eighteenth century, to a school committee. Then the necessity for tuition fees from the pupil was replaced by a more generous assessment upon the town. Thus it hap- These town pened that in Massachusetts bv the middle of the eighteenth schools be- ^ ^ o came free century, and in other New England commonwealths shortly before the afterward, elementary schools were for the most part free. Revolution These early systems of public or free schools were largely due to the religious devotion of the New England people and to the practical identity of Church and state. 392 Brief Course in the History of Education The Horace Mann re- vival Results of this educa- tional re- vival This educa- tional revival was general, and resulted in the abolition of tuition in public schools The Educational Revival of the Early 'Nineteenth Century. — With the decline of the religious fervor and of the unanimity of religious belief in the later eighteenth century, interest in education declined also. The Latin grammar schools disap- peared ; private schools — the academies — took their place ; and the elementary schools became more minutely subdivided and less generously supported. The establishment of schools upon a politico-economic basis was a growth of the nineteenth century. Although this transition went on during the entire half century, it was concentrated in the period from 1835 to 1850, to which has been given the name of its leading agitator, Horace Mann (1796-1859). Since schools were very generally supported by local taxation in Massachusetts, the reforms striven for by Mann as secretary of the Massachusetts School Board (183 7-1 849) were the abolition of the small district schools in favor of the better-supported, better-taught, better-equipped and more centralized town schools, a better preparation for teachers, the establishment of normal training schools, a longer school term, school libraries, an enriched curriculum, improved methods of instruction, and the building up of a spirit of edu- cational enthusiasm among the people and of professional spirit among the teachers. The immediate results of the labors of this first great organizer of American educational forces were most encouraging. This educational revival was not confined to Massachusetts; there were many leaders as able and some, such as Henry Barnard, as prominent as Horace Mann. Chairs of education were established in several colleges. Though there had been one state superintendent of education before this time (in New York from 1813), many states now established such an office. A movement toward the concentration of administration of school affairs began. Educational magazines were established and a voluminous literature appeared. Educational commis- sioners were sent abroad by several states; common school funds were established; and, above all, some progress was The Sociological Tendency in Education 393 made, by the leaders at least, toward an appreciation of modem methods and the modem spirit in education. This latter came largely through a greater knowledge of and appreciation for the ideas and methods of Pestalozzi and of the German schools. Modern State Systems 0} Education. — As with Germany, The free there is no single system of education in the United States, but ^^^°f ^ ^^"^t " •' ' development an independent system for each state. Yet the outline and in many general characteristics of these systems are much the same. ^^^^^ The amalgamation, or development into consistent state sys- tems, was an outgrowth of the revival previously discussed and of the establishment of the free school idea. The final establish- outline ment of the idea of free schools in the modern sense of the term of the free , , schoolsystem was of quite recent occurrence, in JNew York the abolition of of American tuition in public schools was made by law in 1867. In New ^°°^,^'^" Jersey and Michigan it did not occur until the following year. In Peimsylvania the law was passed in 1837, and in Indiana it was embodied in the constitution of 1852. The free school system, thus developed, is constituted as follows : In every state the system of elementary schools offers instruction for seven, eight, or nine years, from the fifth or sixth year of age. In most states a secondary or high school course provides instruction for three or four additional years. In all except a few of the Varying de- extreme eastern commonwealths, state universities offering free f^^^^. °^ ^^' ncation tuition to all, or to all from within the state, are to be found. Varying degrees of unification exist among these parts of the school system or in the administration of any particular part of it, as that of the elementary schools. The same forces that worked toward the development of this system now work for the closer unification in administration. THE INDUSTRIAL TENDENCY. — The politico-economic EarUest types tendency until very recently has been dominantly political: it oftechmcai ^ ."^.•^ -^-^ ' schools were is now becommg dominantly economic. The fact that the outgrowths basis for this early sociological movement was chiefly political °f™i^tary and mihtary can be illustrated by this one series of facts : with the exception of the school in connection with the royal mines 394 Brief Course in the History of Education at Freiburg, Saxony, the first institution for the higher educa- tion in engineering and other scientific lines was the Austrian Military School at Vienna, established by Maria Theresa in 1747; the French monarch followed with the school at Men- zieres within a year or two ; and Frederick the Great established a Ritter- Academie of a similar character in 1764. The first school for scientific and engineering instruction in our own country was at West Point (1802). The first technical instruc- tion of a public character in England was the outgrowth of the training of naval and military officers, and then not until the middle of the nineteenth century. Until recently the training for citizenship that has always been assigned as a chief function of state systems of schools has been along political and social lines. The aim of education was Somevoca- to prepare the individual to exercise the right of suffrage in- tionai prepa- telligcntly, to perform the duties of citizenship fully and honestly, saryinedu- to discharge the duties of office satisfactorily. At least in our own country, with its democratic social structure, the emphasis in public education has been largely from this point of view. For several decades past in Europe, and in recent times in our own country, a new interpretation of education for citizenship is being given. It is that education is to make the individual an economically productive social unit, and hence a valuable The eco- citizen. Especially in continental Europe, above all in Ger- o°trainin^^*^* many, has this tendency been long emphasized. The com- for citizen- mercial and industrial advance, and that means the political ^ ^ and social advance of the various nations during the past half century, has been in very vital relationship to their educational advance. England and America have just awakened to this fact; hence many radical changes are now being proposed, or even actually introduced into school work. Especially, in our large urban communities, with great numbers of foreign immi- grants, is it recognized that economic efficiency is one of the first essentials of good citizenship, and that such training must become a function of the school. cation for citizenship The Sociological Tendency in Education 395 On account of the greater intensity of industrial rivalry, Radical most European countries have responded more immediately to -n^chooi"^ this new demand than have we in America. Of all nations work in France has made most radical changes in this respect. Agri- ^^^°p® cultural instruction is given in every rural school, manual or technical training in every urban school. Needlework, cook- ing, horticulture, and in localities special technical subjects of local interest are taught. School museums, school gardens, school libraries, are more generally provided than in any other country, in the endeavor to relate the school immediately to practical life. In England among the subjects for which pay- ment is made by the government and which are quite generally adopted are cooking, sewing, manual training. Other subjects not so generally incorporated, but still subsidized, are domestic economy, laundry work, dairy work, cottage gardening, and "suitable occupations" adapted to particular localities. Dutch schools include instruction in dairying and various local indus- tries. The Swiss provide, either in the elementary schools or in supplementary schools, for technical training in every one of the industries peculiar to their country. In Germany the tendency to introduce technical subjects into the elementary grades has not been so general. Needlework has been generally accepted; manual training less so. But in Germany this tendency is seen at its best in the con- in Germany tinuation schools, night schools, and various types of secondary ^g';eat technical and trade schools of the greatest variety. It is in of technical technical instruction in higher fields that most progress has ^ndindus- ° 1 trial schools been made of recent years. But German schools are of a more of every practical kind than engineering schools of collegiate and uni- F^^^i^^^^ versity grade, that have been referred to previously. Technical veioped schools, offering training for almost all lines of industry and trade, have been established. Among these are schools of de- sign, of textile weaving, of pottery making and design, of dye- ing, and of all forms of practical chemistry. Of a more general character are those schools (the Baugewerkeschulen) that admit 396 Brief Course in the History of Education students of practical experience to courses dealing with the principles and practices of building construction, the nature of materials, mechanical and free-hand drawing, modeling, science, mathematics, etc. Many different types of these schools exist in all continental European states, but most numerously in Germany and Austria, and all are supported by the state. Some give direct training in the trades {Fachschulen). Less technical are the industrial schools {Industrieschulen and Gewerheschulen). The industrial and applied art schools (Kunstgewerbeschulen), and more important still the continuation schools (Fortbildung- schulen), continue the work of the elementary school along all these practical lines. School sessions are held week days, Sun- days and evenings. Allied to these are the commercial schools of secondary and even university grade. In this respect, as in all others, Germany, with its schools at Cologne, Munich and other places, was first in the field and ever in the lead. Little done in Exccpt in the cases of the scientific or engineering schools in the United connection with the leading universities and a few technicai in advanced and trade schools, usually of secondary grade and always under technical private auspices, little has been done in the United States. education ^ \ ^ . i ,. Progress is here being made along two lines. One is the direct Some city establishment of industrial schools, which will soon be incor- schooi sys- porated in the work of the public schools, at least as evening temshave ^ , . . added indus- schools. The Other is in the modified character of the manual trial and training instruction so generally given. This work, introduced schools. quite generally since 1885, fij"st in the secondary schools of our •^^°d ^^H^ larger cities and recently in the elementary grades of many of manual them, was first largely a training in processes of construction, training in analyzed into its parts. Its obiect for the most part was to both elemen- . ^ •' ^ ^ , tary and train the senses and to develop the power to work with objective secondary material. More recently still there prevailed the idea of Sloyd work, appealing to the interests of the child through the con- struction of a completed object and of something useful or ornamental in the home. But the present tendency seems to be definitely toward training in trade and craft processes. grades The Sociological Tendency in Edtication 397 Thus through the subject of nature study, study of agricul- ture, sewing, manual training in the grades; through com- mercial high schools, trade schools as yet supported by philan- thropic enterprise, commercial and industrial courses in high schools, evening schools, manual training high schools, in the secondary field; through colleges of commerce and schools of applied sciences, either initiated or projected in the higher fields, the educational system of the United States is responding to this most recent social demand upon education which has already such remarkable response in European countries. Thus is the politico-economic tendency shifting from the Relation of political to the economic basis in education. The significance Jjjfji™°p"y of the Froebelian philosophy of education in placing such in- tothiseco- dustrial and constructive work on a rational pedagogical basis "g^hnka" has been mentioned (p. 339). This oJIers the chief explana- tendency, tion of the fact that it is the Froebelian idea of education that is coming to prevail in the present. SUMMARY From the sociological view-point, education is the process of securing the stability and the betterment of society. The sociological view empha- sizes the importance of a proper selection of educational subject-matter as a chief means of preparing the individual for proper social life and has resulted in making education universal and free. All those who led in the practical aspect of the psychological tendency, contributed to the socio- logical view in their emphasis upon the moral or social aim in education. Pestalozzi and Froebel especially looked upon education as the means for social betterment. Those who led in the scientific movement also con- tributed to the sociological tendency in insisting that new material should be introduced into the curriculum and that education should meet the needs of modern life. The advanced statesmen of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century saw the relation of education to political and national welfare. Many of them recognized that the perpetuity of the new form of democratic government depended upon the education of the masses. During the nineteenth century, social and political thought and practice has been revolutionized with resulting changes in education. One of the earliest forms of this sociological interpretation agreed with the general 398 Brief Course in the History of Education scientific view in considering the function of education to be the general dissemination of knowledge. A second, and more practical, interpretation viewed education as one form of social control. A third, more abstract view, taterpreted education as the process of the social mind; — the processes of transferring the result of experience from generation to generation. From a somewhat similar view-point, education becomes the chief means of social evolution; the means by which man negates the law of non-inherita- bility of acquired characteristics and hands on to successive generations the accumulated experience of past ones. The concrete development of educational facilities in response to the ideas of the sociological tendency has been through two distinct phases: one that of schools founded from philanthropic and religious motives, and the second that of systems of public free schools established from economic and political reasons. Governments frequently contributed to schools during this first general period; but such schools remained under the control of churches or of quasi-public organi- zations. Both control and support of schools in this latter stage are political. The states of the Teutonic peoples began to develop such systems during the sixteenth century and perfected them in the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. While some of the New England colonies originated such systems earlier, in most of the American commonwealths they de- veloped gradually during the first half of the nineteenth century. In England this growth has dated from 1870. The most marked present tend- ency in these public school systems is towards the inclusion of various phases of vocational and industrial training as a preparation for citizenship and as a means of economic and social advance. Modem philosophical interpretation is furnishing a theoretical basis for these changes, which practical considerations have demanded. CIL\PTER XIV CONCLUSIONS : THE PEESENT ECLECTIC TENDENCY GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. —The educational thought Harmoniza- of the present seeks to summarize these movements of the recent ^°^ °^ ^"P' ■^ aples under- past and to rearrange and relate the essential principles of each lying these in one harmonious whole. The educational activity of the tendend present seeks the same harmony in reducing these principles to practical schoolroom procedure. The frequent changes in subject-matter, in method, in organization, bring their ovin e\"il5 and appear as curious phenomena to conser\'ative edu- cators of more stable societies. Yet they are recognitions that new principles have been formulated, new truths recognized, and that practice controlled by tradition or by principles derived Rationaiiza- from a partial riew alone must be readjusted in close accord ti^^of edu- cational prac- with the new truths derived from the ever expanding knowledge tices of life and of nature. FUSION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL, SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIO- Elements LOGICAL TENDENCIES. — To this eclectic -riew of education contributed to trus edec- the three tendencies in the educational thought of the eighteenth tic view by and nineteenth centuries have contributed. In the main the J^^.P^f^ logical tend- psychological contributions have related to method; the scien- ency: tific to subject-matter; the sociological to a broader aim and a better institutional machiner}\ And yet each movement has exerted some influence on method, on purpose, on organization and on subject-matter. The most prominent contributions of these movements can be summarized in a few sentences. From byRouseati; Rousseau came the idea that education is life, that it must center in the child and that it must find its end in the individual ]yyp^^^, and in each particular stage of his life. From Pestalozzi caine lozzi; 399 400 Brief Course in the History of Education by Froebel ; the idea that efficient educational work depends upon an actual knowledge of the child and a genuine sympathy for him; that education is a growth from within, not a series of accretions from without; that this growth is the result of the experiences or activities of the child; consequently, that objects not symbols must form the basis of the process of instruction; that sense perception, not processes of memory, form the basis of early byHerbart; training. From Herbart came the idea of a scientific process of instruction; a scientific basis for the organization of the curriculum ; and the idea of character as the aim of instruction, to be reached scientifically through the use of method and curriculum as defined. From Froebel came the true concep- tion of the nature of the child; the correct interpretation of the starting point of education in the child's tendency to activity; the true interpretation of the curriculum as the representation to the child of the epitome of the world's experience or of the culture inheritance of the race; and in general the first, and as yet the most complete, application of the theory of evolution to the problem of education. From the scientific tendency came the insistence upon a revision of the idea of a liberal education ; a new definition of the culture demanded by present life; and the insistence stronger than ever when reenforced by the socio- logical view, that industrial, technical and professional training be introduced into every stage of education and that it all be made to contribute to the development of the ]ree man, — the fully developed citizen. From the sociological tendency came the commonly accepted belief that education is the process of development of society ; that its aim is to produce good citizens ; consequently that every citizen must be educated; that this education is secured through the fullest development of per- sonality in the individual; that this development of personal ability and character must fit the individual for citizenship, for life in institutions and for some form of productive participa- tion in present social activities; in a word, that one must learn to serve himself by serving others. by the scien- tific tend- ency; by the socio- logical tend- ency Conclusions : Present Eclectic Tendency 401 CURRENT EDUCATIONAL TENDENCIES. — A more profit- Expansion of able and more concrete summary of the past can be made in Ju^'i^'^"'^^' terms of present tendencies. Most evident of all to the teacher are the many changes now being made in the curriculum. Such changes are chiefly an outgrowth of the sociological tendency, and are attempts to make the curriculum expressive of present social activities and aspirations. Following this there is the rationalizing effort to make educational method and the procedure of in- '^ "^^ ° > struction more definite, more scientific and more universally followed. This requires the further preliminary training of teachers and continuous professional study by the teacher and training of oversight by the supervisor throughout the teaching experience. ^^'^ ^^ ' This, above all, is the result of the psychological tendency. Connected with this change is the correlated tendency to closer articulation of subjects within the curriculum and of the vari- ous types of schools within the system. This is a result of the closer articu- recognition of the significance of education as a social process, sub°ect°^ and of the more scientific character of schoolroom work, and of the of types of more general attention to the administration and the perfection ^'^ °°^' of institutions. Hence there is at present a combination of psychological, scientific and sociological influences. The gro^ving centralization in school administration and the speciaiiza- more thorough and scientific school supervision are the results ^^°^^^^ of new economic conditions bringing about centralization in all lines of social activities and a specialization in all lines of work. The latest phase of this tendency to specialization is revealed in all the professions, among them that of teaching. This recognition results in another tendency, — the recognition of teaching as a ^ a^pro^^ vocation and as a profession with highc and more definitely fession; recognized standards. This recognition depends primarily upon two conditions; namely, the demand for higher qualifications by those who employ teachers, and the incorporation of instruc- tion in education and of training in teaching into the profes- educational sional work and cultural investigations of higher institutions of universities learning. 402 Brief Course in the History of Education The elimina- tion of reli- gious instruc- tion from the schools creates the problem of providing for religious instruction Expansion of work of school to meet new social needs One of the present tendencies gives rise to a new educational problem, and at the same time solves an old one. The complete secularization of schools has led to the complete exclusion of religious elements in public education, and the very general exclusion of the study or even the use of the Bible and of all religious literature. Thus the material that a few generations ago furnished the sole content of elementary education is now entirely excluded and the problem of religious education is presented. Little attempt at solution is being made and little interest seems to be aroused. The problem for the public school teacher comes to be quite similar to that presented by the Greek philosophers, to produce character through an edu- cation that is dominantly rational and that excludes the use of the supernatural or religious element. For our schools we have definitely rejected revealed religion as a basis for morality and seek to find a sufficient basis in the development of rationality in the child. Thus one most important phase of education is left to the Church and the home, neither of which is doing much to meet the demand. Another tendency is the expansion of the scope of school work. Much of the work recently included within schoolroom instruction is yet inadequately organized and hence indifferently presented. Unsatisfactory results follow. But undoubtedly the need is simply for more experience. What new social con- ditions have demanded, new school conditions must supply. The work of the school can no longer be restricted to the merest rudiments or instruments of learning. What is now demanded are the rudiments of living, the instruments needed for success- ful life in complex modem civilization. The most prominent phase of this tendency of the present is the incorporation of the industrial element in all school work. This argues a radical reshaping of our idea of education as well as of the instructing process. Education is to be broader, schoolroom instruction more helpful, more immediately practical, more directly re- lated to conduct, and hence more moral. Whether this is a Conclusions : Present Eclectic Tendency 403 general concession to materialism or not, is too large a problem to be discussed here. Whether it is, in any individual case, depends for the most part on the teacher. This new tendency which bids fair to increase far beyond present experience is wholly in answer to new social demands. And society must accompany these demands with a corresponding service, — Liberal sup 1-1 r 1 • 1 1 port of edu- liberality m the support of education greater than ever shown cation by before. The expenditures for education in the present are un- soaety precedented ; but they are not to be a precedent for the future. HARMONIZATION OF INTEREST AND EFFORT.— The Dominance eclectic character of present educational thought and practice aryidea/a' is shown by the endeavor made to unify the elem.ents of interest period of and effort in theory and in schoolroom procedure. The long ^' period of peace, during which the conception of education as effort or as discipline prevailed, was succeeded by that period of conflict between the idea of education as discipline and the idea of education as a natural process determined wholly by the interests of the child. Both practical experience and followed by further theoretical investigation are showing that the interpre- conflict with tation of education from the point of view of interest alone is paturaiistic as partial as the old interpretation of education as discipline. troUedby Consequently the present tendency is one of reconciliation, of interest interest and effort, as the basis of educational practice. The period of conflict occupied the second half of the eighteenth and 7"^^ present • n 11 <• 1 • rr-ii • 1 <■ Isapenodof practically all of the nmeteenth century. The period of recon- reconciiia- ciliation in our own country is practically that of the present tionofin- generation. effort Interest is essential as the starting point of the educative process; effort is essential as its outcome. The purpose of appealing to the interest of the child is to lead him to the point where he will put forth effort to master the unsolved problems, the undetermined relationships of his environment, whether of the schoolroom or of life. The object of the old education of effort was to develop in the child the power of voluntary atten- tion, of application, of strength of wiU, that would enable him 404 Brief Course in the History of Education Interest the to Overcome the obstacles or to accomplish the tasks of each pi^nt"^ effort day's experience. The object of the new education of recon- or power of ciliation is to reach the same end through immediate appeal to tent^nthe^" Spontaneous attention and to the native interests of the child, outcome The old was valid only for the comparatively few who were of such native ability as to profit by the training. The new, by This view building upon the essentials of human nature itself, seeks to object of secure that development for all. In both, the purpose is to educatioa produce that motivation in moral judgment and that power by aU of accomplishment in action, the combination of which is character. Neither in- Neither interest nor effort is an end in itself; neither interest effort a°^ nor effort alone is a sufficient guide to the educative process, sufficient Interest is the condition of mind arising out of the child's own ^"'^^' powers and needs in response to stimuli from his environment. Effort is the other side of the same situation and represents the discharge in response to the stimuli, — a response that calls for but are two a greater expenditure of energy than can be sustained by the same process Original cxciting interest. What is aimed at in education through a combination of both interest and effort is the production of a The resuh is type of mind that includes power of rational insight, of delibera- character ^j^^^ ^^ independence of judgment, of firmness of decision, and of effective action. To secure this, both interest and effort must be depended upon or called forth in the educative process. The problem The problem of the schoolroom, then, is neither by authority sdiodroom to hold the child to the mastery of certain tasks which are un- interesting in themselves and from which his attention is with- drawn the moment the external pressure is removed, and thus to develop will power and moral character; nor, on the other hand, is it the work of the school so to surround the needed activities or learning processes with factitious interests as to sugar coat the pills of schoolroom tasks. The harmonization of the problem of effort and interest consists in so relating the tasks of the schoolroom to the real life of the child, by drawing them directly from the activities of the child and of society, that Co7iclusions : Present Eclectic Tendency 405 he grows into his fuller adult self through assimilation into his is to relate own personality of that which is, and which he recomizes to be, f^^cation to ^ -^ ° Lie and thus an essential part of the life of society around him. This activity secure both is effort: interest consists in arousing in the child the realiza- interest and . , . effort tion of its vital relation to his own life. Personality is expanded and character produced as this possible relationship is developed into a normal and an abiding reality in the life of the individual. THE MEANING OF EDUCATION, as conceived in the pres- ent, is found in this harmonization of interest and effort. This is but another attempt to solve the problem of the individual and of society, which, as we have seen, has been the educational problem as it has been the ethical problem, from the beginning of human life. How is the individual to be educated so as to secure the full development of personality and at the same time preserve the stability of institutional life and assist in its evolution to a higher state ? It is the old problem of securing The problem both individual liberty and social iustice. Interest and effort ?^ education •' ■' IS the old give in modem form Aristotle's problem of well-being and well- problem of doing. Interest, representing the emphasis or the factor of in- f-djustmg the dividualism, is an outgrowth of the naturalistic movement of society, so as the eighteenth century. The education of effort is the survival |°j)v^i^^^f in conservative circles of the old education of authority ex- liberty and pressive of the religious and social views prevalent since the gtabmty and Reformation period. These views have survived longest in justice educational institutions that are controlled by religious denomi- nations or by certain dominant classes in society, as in the English public schools and universities. The definitions of education throughout this earlier period Dominance were given in terms of training for institutional or social life uaiistic'factor (Chapter IX). The definitions of education acceptable to the in nineteenth new thought of the nineteenth century were those couched in definitions terms of individual development, as that of Pestalozzi (Chap- ter XI). The meaning of education, as at present conceived, is found in the attempt to combine and to balance these two elements of 4o6 Brief Course in the History of Education Recent tend- ency toward emphasis on social factor Present thought aims to harmon- ize both factors in definitions of education A similar meaning given to education by current practice individual rights and social duties, of personal development and social service. The meaning of education in the present finds its vi^hole significance in this very process of relating the indi- vidual to society, so as to secure both development of personality and social welfare. It is true that for the last two decades the tendency in thought, in reaction to the extreme emphasis on interest and on individualism, has been to stress the social factor. Education has been defined as preparation for citizen- ship, as adjustment to society, as preparation for life in institu- tions, as the acquisition of the racial inheritance. But definitions more acceptable to present thought seek to combine both factors and to find a harmonization of them in the nature of the educational process. Thus Professor James, from the psychological and hence individualistic point of view, defines education as "the organization of acquired habits of action such as will fit the individual to his physical and social environment." President Butler's view emphasizes the socio- logical aspect but gives both elements. It is that education is the "gradual adjustment of the individual to the spiritual pos- sessions of the race." Professor Home's definition clearly re- veals this eclectic tendency as including the psychological, the scientific, and the sociological elements in our present thought of education. This definition is as follows: "Education is the superior adjustment of a physically and mentally developed conscious human being to his intellectual, emotional and voli- tional environment." Professor Dewey defines education as " the process of remaking experience, giving it a more socialized value through increased individual experience, by giving the individual better control over his own powers." Here both in- dividual and social factors are emphasized and harmonized. From whatever line of investigation the problem of education is now approached, its meaning is given in some terms of this harmonization of social and individual factors. It is the process of conforming the individual to the given social standard or type in such a manner that his inherent capacities are developed, Conclusions : Present Eclectic Tendency 407 his greatest usefulness and happiness obtained, and, at the same time, the highest welfare of society is conserved. THE CURRICULUM. — The curriculum is no longer a sacred The curricu- inheritance, possessing absolute and permanent validity, the e^om^of contents of which the child must master in order to attain to the racial an education and to be admitted to the charmed circle of the ^i^'^ye'f' cultured. The curriculum becomes but the epitomized repre- enters with sentation to the child of this cultural inheritance of the race, — ^^^^ ^ of those products of human experience which yet enter into the higher and better life of man and which the present generation esteems to be of value to the individual and of worth to society as a whole. Such an appraisement of the values of life must Consequently change from generation to generation, if there is to be progress ch^n^gfrom in life ; if life in the present has any value in itself beyond mere generation existence, culture cannot be the same for the twentieth century ti'on^^'ufe that it was for the eighteenth. The formal statement of the changes elements of character must remain much the same; the con- crete content must vary as life varies. The curriculum must Thecurrfcu- present to the child in idealized form, present life, present }^™siioui«i . ... . . . "^ present social activities, present ethical aspirations, present apprecia- life.ideai- tion of the cultural value of the past. Only as a part of present ^^ life, that is only as it touches the present life of the child through the life of society, can it call forth that interest which is essen- tial to the educative process. Hence as a result of the his- torical studies we have pursued, it appears that the curriculum must be adjusted constantly, though very gradually, so as to reorganize the old culture material and to include the new. The curriculum is the child's introduction to life, as schooling is the preparation for it. The curriculum, then, must really introduce to life as it is and as it should be; the school should actually prepare. METHOD. — Method is the process of using this culture Definition of material so as to produce the desired development of the child. ^^^°^ This development must include the expansion of his own powers, the creation of control over them and the direction of them to 4o8 Brief Course i7i the History of Educatiofi the necessary, to the useful, and to helpful social activities. ]\Iethod is the guidance of the child in his acti\dties by the teacher so that he may incorporate into his ovim- experience that portion of the experience of the race which, to those who have the direction of his education, seems valuable; that is, suitable for his stage of development and similar in complexity to his own interests and activities. The sole effort of the teacher should be directed toward the guidance of this process; his sole interest should be in the expanding consciousness of the child, in furnishing experiences appropriate to the power of the child and properly related to his interests and activities. The teacher should be so equipped by previous training that he can give un- divided attention to this process. Hence the necessity of method^ as the term is ordinarily used. This method should be pos- sessed by the teacher, but it is of most value when most un- consciously used. Method in the broader sense requires upon the part of the teacher a knowledge of the child; a knowledge of his existing interests, activities and possessions; a mastery of the material or the subject-matter dealt with; an under- standing of the process through which the child incorporates the novel experience into his own; and an ability to use and to make subordinate the machinery of the schoolroom and the technique of the process of instruction. This last alone is con- sidered method par excellence, but it is only one phase of method. Thus, in this broader eclectic view% as shown by historic survey, psychological method, scientific method, sociological method, schoolroom method or technique, are all included and should be considered as essential in the preparation of the teacher for his work. THE PERMANENT PROBLEM. —The problem of education is to transmit to each succeeding generation the elements of culture and of institutional life that have been found to be of value in the past, and that additional increment of culture which the existing generation has succeeded in working out for itself; to do this and also to give to each individual the fullest Conclusions : Present Eclectic Tendency 409 liberty in formulating his own aims in life and in shaping his own activities to these purposes. The problem of the educator The problem is to make the selection of this material that is essential in the °^ ^^ ^^"' cator hfe of the individual and essential to the perpetuity and progress of society, to construct it nto a curriculum, to organize an in- stitution to carry on this great process, and to formulate the rules and principles of the procedure which actually accomplish the result. The problem of the school is to take the material The problem selected by the educator, to incorporate it into the hfe of each ° e s 00 member of the coming generation so as to fit him into the social Hfe of the times, to enable him to contribute to it and to better it, and to develop in him that highest of all personal possessions and that essential of a life satisfactory to his fellows and happy in itself, v/hich we term character. Character in this sense demands on the part of the individual a loiowledge of the best of the past and the present upon which to base rational action; sympathy for one's fellows and a good will that will give the proper motive to conduct; and a power of accomplishment, of turning ideas and motives into deeds, that will make efficient members of society. The problem of society is to maintain Theeduca- this expanded work of education liberally and effectively, and [g^ o/'^"'^ by more generous support to remove the teaching profession society from those competitive conditions which tend to reduce its effi- ciency to the lowest rather than the highest standards, and which tend to base the remuneration and social reward of the teacher upon such conditions as prevail in the workshop and the market rather than those which operate in the professions. Based upon The problem his knowledge of this culture product of hfe and of the method °^ *^^ , , , ^ teacher of incorporating it into the lives of the young, guided by his sympathy for the child and his good will for society, the problem of the teacher is to develop character in the child out of the ma- terial and the processes furnished by the school. To do this, year after year, with each individual of the group which falls to his or her lot, is the ever solving, but never solved, problem of education. INDEX Abclard, 135. Academies, 250, 251. In England, 364. In America, 365. Academy of Pennsylvania, 252. Agricola, Rudolph, 173. Albertus Magnus, 136. Alcuin, 126. Alexander of Hales, 136. Alexandria, Universily at, 77. Altdorf, 199. Animism, 5. Ansdbn, 135. Anthony, St., iii. Aquinas, 136. Summa Theologioz of, 132. Aristotle, 29, 6& S. Influence of, 72. Ascham, 221. Aim, 224. Content, 225. Method, 225. See also 179, 182. Athanasius, iii. Athenian Education, 40. Content, 44. Method, 51. Moral purpose in, 50. Organization, 40. Public Education, 42. Athens, University at, 76. Augustine, 107, 122. Austrian i-IIlitary School, 394, Bacon, Francis, 230. Aim, 232. Influence of, 232. Method, 234. Place in education, 237. Subject-matter, 232. Baccalaureate, 144. Barzizza, 163. Basedow, 297. Basil, St., 106. Bell, Andrew, 382 f. Benedict, St., Rules of, 112 ff. Beranger, 135. Boccaccio, 165. Boethius, 123. Bologna, University of, 140, 142. Bonaventura, 136. Brahmins, 19, 20. Brethren of Christian Schools, 212. Burgher Schools, 137, 180. Calvin, 195. Cambridge, 140, 141. Capella, 122, 123. Cassiodorus, 124. Caste system, 19. Catechetical Schools, 108, 109. Catechurnenal Schools, 108. Cathedral Schools, 109. Central Colleges, in France, 389. Chantry Schools, 136. Charlemagne, 123 2. Cheever, 187. Chinese Education : As a type, 23. Content, 12 ff. Examination System, 16. Method, 17. Organization, 15, Chivalry, 147 ff. Educational System of, 149. Ideals of, 147. Origin of, 147. Chrysoloras, 165. Chrysostom, 106. Ciceronianisrn, 166, 172. Clement of Alexandria, ic6, 108. Colet, 182, 186. Colonial School Systems, 211, aia. Comenius, 238 ff. Aim of Education, 239. Content of Education, 239. Method, 240 f. Texts, 242. Comte, August, 377. Conceptualism, 135. Confudan text, Sekctkin from, 13. Confucius, 12, Court Schools, 182. Crusades, 139. 11 Index Dante, 163. Degrees, 143. De Oratore, 87, 96. Dialectic Schools, 75. Disciplinary Education, 254 ff. Dominicans, 153. Duns Scotus, 136. Eclectic Tendency, 399 ff. Ecoles Maternelles, 347. Education, as Recapitulation, 25. Elective studies, 362. Elementary Schools, 366, 367. Entile, 284. Enhghtenment, The, 274. Ephebe, 42. Episcopal Schools, 109. Erasmus, 176, 217. Seealso 166, 172, 182. Ethics, The, 72. Eton, 185. Faculties, 142. Fellenberg, 382. Five formal steps in recitation, 328. Franciscans, 153. Francke, 249. Franklin, 373. Franklin's Academy of Pennsylvania, 252. Frederick the Great, 373, 387. Free Schools, 391. Friars, 153. Froebel, 330, 371. Life and works, 330. Doctrine of Development, 334. Doctrine of Self-activity, 335. Influence on Education, 338, 346. Froebelian Movement, 329. Fiirstenschulen, 183. Gottingen, University at, 252. Grammar Schools in America, 186. Grammatists, Schools of, 88, 91. Great Didactic, 246 f. Greek Education: Cosmopolitan Period, 73. Historic Period, 33. Homeric Period, 31. In Athens, 40. In Sparta, 34. Theorists, 59. Transitional Period, 52. Greek Educational Theorists, 59. Gregory of Nazianzus, 106. Guild Schools, 156. Gymnasien, 183. Halle, University at, 252. Hecker, 250. Hegius, 175. Herbart, 319, 371. Life and vsrork, 320. His psychology, 320. Method, 325. Correlation, 326. Herbartian Influence, 345. Herbartian Movement, 319 f» Hindu Education, 19. Horace Mann, 344. Horace Mann Movement, 392. Humanistic Education, 170. Humanistic Realism, 216. Effect of, on schools, 220. Humanistic Schools, 180. Humanists : English, 179. German, 175. Huxley, Thomas, 358. , Illumination, The, 274. Industrial Schools, 396. See also 393 ff. Infant Schools, 384. Interest and Effort, Theory of, 403, Irens, 37. Irnerius, 140. Isidore, 124. Janua Linguarum, 242. . Jefferson, Thomas, 374. Jerome, St., 107, in. Jesuit Order, Schools of, 202. Jewish Education, 21. Joannes Duns Scotus, 136. Joannes Scotus Erigina, 128, 135. Justin Martyr, 106. Kindergarten, 341. Knox, John, 195. Lancaster, Joseph, 382 f. Laws, The, 66. Leonard and Gertrude, 310. Liberal Education, 28, 168, 353. Lilly, WiUiam, 186. Literators, Schools of, 88, 90. Locke, 261 ff. Luther, Martin, 195 f. Lycurgus, Constitution of, 35. Madison, James, 375. Marburg, University of, 199. Index 111 Maria Theresa, 373. Medieval Education, loi. Melanchthon, 197. Millenary Classic, 14. Milton, John, 219. Monasticism, no. Monitorial System, 382 f. Montaigne, 221. His conceptions of education, 223. Mulcaster, 230. Naples, University at, 130. National Normal Schools, in France, 388. "Nations," 141 f. Naturalistic Movement, 273 ff. New Greek Education, 52. Content, 57. Method, 58. New Humanism, 269. New humanistic movement, 363. Nominalism, 131, 136. Orbis Pictus, 245. Oriental Education, 23. Origen, 106, 108. Organon, The, 72. Oswego Movement, 344. Oxford, 140, 141. Pantaenus, 108. Paris, University at, 140. Paul, St., School of, 185. Pennsylvania, University of, 252. Pestalozzi, 309, 370. Work at Stanz, 311. Work at Burgdorf, 311. Influence on Education, 312 ff., 342. Pestalozzian Movement, 307. Peter the Lombard: Sententia, 132. Petrarch, 163. His work, 164. Philanthropic-Religious Movements, 381. Philanthropinum, 299. Philosophical Schools, 75. Plato, 63 ff. Influence of, 67. Politics, The, 70. Port Royal Schools, 206. Primitive Education: Animism, 5. Content, 7. Education through play, 2. Initiation ceremonies, 3. Method, 9. Primitive Education : Continued Significance of, i. Subject-matter, 9. Psychological Movement, 303. Effect on Schools, 342. Public School Society, 385. Public Schools, English, 185 f. Quintilian, 122. Rabanus Maurus, 127. Rabelais, 217. Ratio Studiorum, 202. Ratke, 237. Real-gymnasium, 363. Realism, 131, 215 ff. Humanistic, 216. Social, 220 f. Real-schulen, 250, 363. Recapitulation, 11. Reformation, 189 ff. Content, 193. Educators, 194. Institutional effects, 194. Types of Schools, 198. Renaissance of Sixteenth Century, 160 ff. Education of, 174. Educational Meaning, 167. In Italy, 163. In the North, 165. Renaissance of Thirteenth Century, 150. Republic, The, 65. Reuchlin, 175. Rhetors, Schools of, 74, 89, 92. Roman Education, 81 ff. Decline, 96. Early Period, 87. Educational Writers, 95. Imperial Period, 90. Introduction of Greek Schools, 88. Library, 93. Method, 85. Universities, 93. Rome, University at, 93. Roscellinus, 135. Rousseau, 280. Influence of, 291 f. Salerno, 139. Saracens : Their learning, 154. Influence of, 154. Saxony, School System, 208. Scientific Tendency, 350. In the Schools, 360. IV Index Scholasticism, 128 £f. Content, 130. Merits and Demerits of, 137. Purpose, 129. School of the Mother's Knee, 245 f. Schoolmen, 136. Scotus Erigina, 128, 135. Sense-realism, 226 ff. Effect on Schools, 248. Sententix, 132. Seven Liberal Arts, 121 ff., 127. Sic ei Non, 135. Social Contract, 283, 284. Social-realism, 220 f. Society of Jesus, 202. Defects and Decline, 205. Influence of, 203. Methods, 205. Organizations, 203. Preparation of Teachers, 204. Schools of, 202; Subject-matter, 204. Sociological Movement, 369. Socrates, 29, 60. Influence of, 62. Socratic Method, The, 61. Sophists, 55. Spartan Education, 34. Content, 37. Moral Training, 38. Organization, 36. Spencer, Herbert, 355 ff. Spener, 249. St. Paul's School, 185. Strassburg, 184. University at, 199. State Systems of Schools, 387 ff., 393. Studium generale, 141. Sturm, 183. Summa Theologicce, 132. Thomas Aquinas, 136. University of Alexandria, 77. University of Athens, 76. University of Gottingen, 252. University of Halle, 252. University of Naples, 139. University of Paris, 140. University of Pennsylvania, 252. University of Rome, 93. Universities, 138 ff. Contents of Studies, 144. Degrees, 143. Faculties, 142. Founding of, 139. Influence of, 145. Methods, 144. Nations, 141. Oflicials of, 142. Organization, 140. Origin of, 138. Privileges, 141. Universities during Reformation period, 198. Universities of Renaissance, 181. Universities under Realism, 252. Varro, 121. Vedas, 20. Vergerius, 168. Vestibulum, 244. Vespasian, Library of, 93. Vittorino da Feltra, 174. "Wandering Scholars," 157. Ward, Lester F., 377. Washington, George, quoted, 373, Wessel, 175. West Point, 394. William of Champeaux, 135. William of Occam, 136. Wimpfeling, 176. Winchester, 185, 186. Wittenberg, University of, 182. Melanchthon's work at, 198. Wiirtemburg School System, 208. Zwingli, 195. 'T~*HE following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects IV Index Scholasticism, 128 ff. Content, 130. Merits and Demerits of, 137. Purpose, 129. School of the Mother's Knee, 245 f. Schoolmen, 136. Scotus Erigina, 128, 135. Sense-realism, 226 ff. Effect on Schools, 248. SententicB, 132. Seven Liberal Arts, 121 ff., 127. Sic et Non, 135. Social Contract, 283, 284. Social-realism, 220 f. Society of Jesus, 202. Defects and Decline, 205. Influence of, 203. Methods, 205. Organizations, 203. Preparation of Teachers, 204. Schools of, 202; Subject-matter, 204. Sociological Movement, 369. Socrates, 29, 60. Influence of, 62. Socratic Method, The, 61. Sophists, 55. Spartan Education, 34. Content, 37. Moral Training, 38. Organization, 36. Spencer, Herbert, 355 ff. Spener, 249. St. Paul's School, 185. Strassburg, 184. University at, 199. State Systems of Schools, 387 ff., 393. Studium generate, 141. Sturm, 183. Summa Theologies, 132. Thomas Aquinas, 136. University of Alexandria, 77. Uniyersity of Athens, 76. University of Gottingen, 252. University of Halle, 252. University of Naples, 139. University of Paris, 140. University of Pennsylvania, 252. University of Rome, 93. Universities, 138 ff. Contents of Studies, 144. Degrees, 143. Faculties, 142. Founding of, 139. Influence of, 145. Methods, 144. Nations, 141. Officials of, 142. Organization, 140. Origin of, 138. Privileges, 141. Universities during Reformation period, 198. Universities of Renaissance, 181. Universities under Realism, 252. Varro, 121. Vedas, 20. Vergerius, 168. Vestibulum, 244. Vespasian, Library of, 93. Vittorino da Feltra, 174. "Wandering Scholars," 157. Ward, Lester F., 377. Washington, George, quoted, 373. Wessel, 175. West Point, 394. William of Champeaux, 135. William of Occam, 136. Wimpfeling, 176. Winchester, 185, 186. Wittenberg, University of, 182. Melanchthon's work at, 198. Wiirtemburg School System, 208. Zwingli, 195. npHE following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects A History of Education in the United States By EDWIN GRANT DEXTER, Ph.D. Professor of Education in the University of Illinois $2.00 net This new work has been prepared in the belief that the greatest need ol the student of our educational history is a cottsiderable mass of defi?iite fact upon which to base his own generalizations, or with which to interpret those of others, rather than extended philosophical discussions of historical trend. Current educational literature is rich in the latter, though comparatively barren of the former. The present book deals, therefore, with the fact rather than with the philosophy of education in the United States. It contains an exceptionally valuable equipment of references and bibliographies. The Philosophy of Education By HERMAN HARRELL HORNE, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy in Dartmouth College $1.50 net This volume is a connected series of discussions on the foundations of edu- cation in the related sciences of biology, physiology, sociology, psychology, and philosophy. It is not another of the many current manuals of practice, but a thoroughgoing interpretation of the nature, place, and meaning of education in our world. The newest points of view in the realms of natural and mental science are applied to the understanding of educational problems. The ireld of education is carefully divided, and the total discussion is devoted to the philos- ophy of education, in distinction from its history, science, and art. The con- ceptions of evolution, society, and genetic psychology shed their light upon educational phenomena, yielding in the end a comprehensive definition of what education is. The various conflicting modern educational opinions are organ- ized to a considerable extent, and are made to appear as partial truths of a common system. The whole is suffused with the spirit of an idealistic philos- ophy in which education is finally made to yield its ultimate meaning as to th? origin, nature, and destiny of man. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK Source Book of the History olf Education FOR THE GREEK AND ROMAN PERIOD By PAUL MONROE, Ph.D. Adjunct Professor of the History of Education Teachers College, Columbia University Cloth 1 2 mo $2.25 net " I have decided to recommend it to my class in the History of Educa- tion as the basis of their v/ork for this fall term. I regard the material as very carefully and judiciously selected — by far the best book of extracts with which I am acquainted." — Dr. Wm. J. Taylor, Lecturer on the History of Education, Yale University. A Modern School By PAUL H. HANUS Professor of the History and Art of Teaching, Harvard University Author of " Educational Aims and Educational Values," etc. $1.25 net rhe chapters of which this volume consists, except the last, deal with various phases of one central theme : the scope and aims of a modern school, and the conditions essential to its highest efficiency. The last chapter offers some testimony on the working of the elective system, — a contemporary question of great importance to both schools and colleges, — but the testimony offered pertains only to the college. The first chapter deals specifically with the secondary school; and in it the author has endeavored to extend and strengthen certain conceptions set forth m his earUer book. The next seven chapters contain a fuller treatment of cer- tain topics than was appropriate or expedient in the first chapter, and discuss the internal and external conditions essential to a high degree ot success in the work of any school. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK