4? <% Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress ft. *'<« ; http://www.archive.org/details/universalhistoryO : $will V -, ^ V> \ -^.^ vV ^ •< * o f c W ^ %'$ .C° < - ^, - ' J 'r A \> z A W v t »: IS ; .;:?! p*' ii': «"!' '""' T ! UNIVERSAL HISTORY, IN PERSPECTIVE. BY EMMA WILLARD SECOND EDITION, # PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNES & CO, 18 NORTH FOURTH STREET. 1845. INDEX TO THE MAPS V' Perspective Sketch of the Course of Empire Page 33 The First Settled Parts of the Earth 43 Palestine, or the Holy Land 52 Ancient Greece 58 - Ancient Italy * 98 The Roman Empire 138 Asia Minor 172 The Caliphate, or Empire of the Saracens 190 Middle Europe, exhibiting the Empire of Charlemagne 203 The Western Continent 291 The British Islands 329 Spain and Portugal 367 Countries around the Baltic 402 Holland and the contiguous Countries 413 United States 430 Central Europe, exhibiting the principal Campaigns of Napoleon . . 450 India and China 481 Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1844, by A. S. BARNES & CO., in the clerk's office of the District Court of the United States in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. (2) if PREFACE Universal history, as a science, is great in itself, great in its conse- quences on human conduct and happiness ; and, at this moment, particu- larly important to the citizens of our republic. The belief, that much experience in imparting knowledge would ena- ble the author so to arrange and illustrate this vast subject, as to make it less difficult to acquire and retain, was the moving spring which at first produced this work, and which now presents it to the public in an im- proved form. This volume offers, in the combinations of the subject- matter, and the arrangement by which it is presented, some original fea- tures ; and in its illustrations, we believe it will be found to solve the problem, what is the best form of presenting the grand outline of chro- nology. We refer, for this solution, to the plan, of which a sketch is presented in the frontispiece ; and which we call the Temple of Time ; and to the enlarged view of the floor-work of this Temple, contained in the Chart of " the Course of Time, or Picture of Nations." Here is addressed to the eye, on a small scale, a plan strictly scientific, (perspec- tive being an exact science,) which is to the whole of history, as it exists in time, what a small map of the world, with its few lines of latitude and longitude, is to the same science as it exists in place. If but few cities are set down on such a map, whoever understands geography, having any other city given with its latitude and longitude, can refer it to its true situation on the map, and thus know its position relative to other places. Such will our Temple of Time be, in respect to the dates of events to those who understand it; and persons already acquainted with history comprehend it at a glance. Such a help, the most profound and culti- vated mind need not despise ; for how often does it occur, that the con- templation of characters and events as they exist with others before or after them, leads to profound conclusions, concerning the causes and consequences of man's conduct and destiny. But to learn such a method in youth, to become accustomed thus to refer all events to a visible representation of time, where the whole subject of chronology is wrought into strict unity, and made sensible to the mind at a single glance, must be a lasting advantage. Of the maps contained in this work, we need say nothing, because the public are already perfectly aware of the importance of such illustrations 3 IV PREFACE. The repeated requests, that they might be inserted, from teachers who use our work in their schools, have led to their preparation. They con- tain, especially those which relate to the middle ages, names of places historically interesting, not easily found on other maps. In the written work, an attempt has been made to exhibit history in its proper relative proportions. The painter allows to objects in space less and less room upon his canvass, as those objects recede into the distance. Such is equally the order of nature in regard to objects as they exist in time. Yet the mountain which is distant must have more room in the picture than the dark valley that lies near. Thus tower Greece and Rome, amid the dimness of antiquity, and thus sink the dark ages, though nearer to the foreground. There are two methods between which, in a book for reading, not for reference merely, the writer must choose ; the ethnographical, by which nations are separately described, and the chronographical, by which the order of time is strictly preserved. When writers of universal history follow the ethnographical method, the reader is naturally led to consider contemporary events as consecutive, and to seek for some plan by which they may be placed together. This is to produce the chronographical arrangement which he is apt to think should have been followed by the writer. On the other hand, where the chronographical method prevails, the reader complains of a confusion arising from mingling together the histories of different nations, — selects the scattered parts belonging to each, and having put them together, produces the ethnographical plan. He now thinks that, because he has come to a good understanding of the sub- ject, his method alone is good • not reflecting that he has had the advan- tages of both. The truth appears to be, that history cannot be well under- stood, unless the reader can, with the one method, trace every great nation by itself through all its most important changes, and with the other, con- ceive himself placed in any of the most noted periods of time, and glance through the whole range of contemporary events. For such a comprehension of the subject, we refer to the illustrations already noticed ; where we have at the same glance both methods pre- sented to the eye. In the text, we have pursued either, or combined both, as the occasion seemed to require. When a nation has had little connec- tion with other nations, its history has been treated separately. When several nations have been blended, by reason of their relations with each other, as in case of war, their history, for the time, has also been thrown together. To make this book easy to teachers, questions are placed at the foot of each page. By the manner in which these are put, passages of history which, from the imperfection of language, cannot be clearly expressed with the brevity to which our limits confine us, are made perspicuous. PREFACE. V Important events are brought into bolder relief; and sometimes the learner is called on to consider what moral reflections the subject may suggest. The division of the work into numbered paragraphs confines the subject of each question, and thus aids both teacher and pupil ; while it will be an important advantage to such as shall not only use the book in classes for recitation, but also for daily reading ; — following the maxim, that " in a school, what pupils study they should read, and what they read they should study." To make this book convenient for reference, and a good family Uni- versal History, an extended chronological table is prefixed, and many dates are set down in a bold character on the margin. No good teacher would oblige his pupils to learn all of these ; but they will by mere inspection know where to find them when occasion shall require. To make this book more attractive to learners, and to give to teachers a sample of the kind of facts, which they will do well to acquire and relate to their classes, the room on the margin has been occupied by side notes enclosed in brackets. These, which the pupil is not generally required to learn or to remember, will, we hope, make the time of study pass pleasantly, and cause the book to be regarded as an agreeable companion. Universal history, as a science, is great in its consequences, as it forms the first study of the politician. No wise man presumes to form con- clusions concerning the future destiny of nations, without first acquiring a knowledge of the past. It is at this time peculiarly important to Ame- ricans ; because to them the world are now looking for a response to the grand question, " Can the people govern themselves ?" And, perhaps, the next twenty years will decide it for coming generations. Shall monarchy in its palaces, and aristocracy in its lordly halls, then exult, as it is told that America is passing through anarchy to despotism, — while mankind at large mourn, and reproach us that we have sealed their doom as well as our own, and that of our posterity ? Or shall we continue to be that peo- ple, which of all others heretofore, or now existing, possess the most equitable government ; and to whom national calamity is but as a phrase ill understood? A history of the past, no more extensive than that which is here presented, might make us understand that phrase, with a salutary fear; and it might teach our posterity what we as good citizens must desire them to know — the virtues which exalt nation^, and the vices which destroy them ; — that so they may practise the one, and avoid the other. September, 1844. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE AND INDEX. PART I. Ancient His- B. C. v «^'~ > ^ , *«** / 4004 The Creation, -.-',""" 2348 The Deluge, - " Division of Countries among Noah's Sons, 2300 The Tower of Babel, and the Confusion of Languages, 2267 Tyre founded, - - 2204 Babylon founded by Nimrod, - 2188 Egyptian Monarchy founded by Menes or Mizraim, 2159 Nineveh built, and the Assyrian Empire founded, 2085 Shepherd Kings, ..... 1921 Calling of Abraham, (from Haran,) 1897 Sodom and the cities of the plain destroyed, 1729 Joseph sold — 1706 Jacob goes down to Egypt, - 1571 Moses born. (He is the first of historians and lawgivers. 1491 Red Sea passed, ..... 1856 Argos and Sicyon founded, ... 1556 Athens founded. — 1522 Amphictyonic Council, - 1493 Letters brought into Greece, Page - 34 - 35 - 36 - 36 - 46 - 36 - 37 - 37 - 38 . 39 - 40 - 40 - 40 - 41 - 41 - 42 1491 Institution of the Passover, - - - - - 41 " The Moral Law given, - - - - - 43 1452 Moses dies. — (1453 Olympic Games begin.,) - - - 44 1451 Land of Canaan conquered and divided under Joshua, - - 44 1443 Joshua dies— Reign of the Judges begins, - - - 44 1400 Laws of Minos. — (1406 Deborah and Barak reign 40 years,) - 48 1400 Teucer first king of Troy.— 1359 (Gideon reigns 40 years,) - 49 1326 Theseus, -------- 48 1263 Argonautic Expedition, led by Jason, who succeeds by the aid of Medea, - 49 1250 Sesostris reigns in Egypt. He conquers the south-west part of Asia, - - - - - - - -46 1173 Siege of Troy begins.— (1148 Death of Eli— Samuel,) - - 49 1095 Saul made King, - - - - - - 45 1083 War of the Heraclidae, - - - - - - 50 1082 Cheops builds the first Pyramid, - - - - 46 (vii) Vlll CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Jlncient His. B. C. ^»^v^w 1055 David founds a kingdom, and is the greatest of sacred poets, " Ionian Colonies founded in Asia Minor, - 1045 Codrus dies— Medon first Archon, 1004 Solomon builds the Temple, .... Page - 45 - 51 - 51 - 45 980 Death of Solomon, - - - - - -52 975 Jews divided into the kingdoms of Judah and Israel, - - 52 914 Jehoshaphat's Alliance with Ahab, - - - - 54 870 Carthage founded by Dido, - - - - - 55 884 Lycurgus gives laws to Sparta, - - - - 55 886 finds the poems of Homer. (Four cities of Greece con- tend for the honor of his birth,) - - - - 55 (776 Beginning of the Olympiads.) (Cycles of four years,) - 752 Founding of Rome by Romulus. (The Sabine Women seized,) 89 747 Destruction of the first Assyrian Empire, - - - 59 " Tiglath Pileser king of Nineveh, - - - - 59 743 First Messenian war, - - - - - - 63 721 Shalmaneser carries captive the Ten Tribes, - - - 60 717 Sennacherib's host destroyed, - - - - - 60 716 Numa Pompilius, - - - - - - 89 710 Dejoces founds the Median Empire, - - - - 62 685 Second Messenian War, - - - - - - 63 677 Esarhaddon takes Jerusalem, - - - - - 60 672 Combat of the Horatii and Curiatii, - - - - 90 658 Phraortes conquers Persia, - - - - - 62 621 Laws of Draco, - - - - - - - 63 624 Laws of Solon, - - - - - - - 63 612 Nineveh destroyed, - - - - - - 62 609 MEGIDDO, Egyptians defeat the Jews, - - - 61 587 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem and destroys the first Temple, 61 585 He takes Tyre, - - - - - - - 61 560 Pisistratus makes himself Tyrant of Athens, collects the first Public Library of Greece, - - - - - 64 560 The rich Crossus is king of Lydia, - - - - 65 " Pythagoras' School at Crotona, - - - - - 76 559 Cyrus unites Media and Persia, - - - - - 65 548 THYMBEA — Cyrus is victorious and gains the wealth and king- dom of Croesus, - - - - -66 538 Cyrus takes Babylon — takes Jerusalem, - - -66 529 is killed in Scythia, - - - - -66 525-515 The second Temple built by Ezra and Nehemiah, - - 96 521 Hippias and Hipparchus, - - - - - - 65 510 The Council of Five Hundred take the place of the Senate es- tablished by Solon, - - - - - - 65 509 Expulsion of Tarquin from Rome, - - - - 91 496 Darius invades Scythia, and Megabysus, his general, conquers Thrace and Macedon, - - - - - 67 498 First Tribunes of the People at Rome, - - - - 93 494 Greeks take Sardis from the Persians and burn it, - - 68 491 Coriolanus joins the Volsci, - - - - - 93 490 MARATHON, Athenians under Miltiades, conquer the Persians under Mardonius, - - - - - - 70 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, IX Ancient His. B. C. p AGE . 484 Aristides banished, but recalled, - - - - -71 480 Xerxes' Great Expedition, - - - - - 70 " THERMOPYLJE, Leonidas sacrifices himself with 300 Spartans, 71 " SAL AMIS, The Grecian fleets defeat the Persian, - - 73 " Flight of Xerxes, - - - - - - 73 479 Mardonius burns Athens, - - - - - 74 " PLATJEA— MYCALE, Greeks defeat the Persians, and drive them from Europe, - - - - - - 74 470 River EURYMEDON, Cimon defeats the Persians, - - 75 451 Decemvirs created to compile laws for Rome, - - - 94 450 Cincinnatus Dictator, - - - - - - 95 449 Death of Virginia by the hand of her father, - - - 94 448 First Sacred War in Greece, - - - - - 77 445 Nehemiah rebuilds the walls of Jerusalem, - - - 96 444 Brilliant age of Greece. Pericles supreme at Athens — Phidias — Apelles — Herodotus, - - - - - - 76 440 Socrates teaches at Athens, - - . - - - 75 401 Xenophon's Retreat, - - - - - - 81 436 The Corinthian War, - - - - - . 77 431 The Peloponnesian War, - - - ( - - 77 414 Alcibiades. — Athenian disasters at Syracuse, - - - 79 408 Sanballat builds a temple on Mount Gerizim at Samaria, - 96 405 MGOS-POTAMOS, Spartans gain the ascendency over the Athenians, - - - - - - - 80 404 Thirty Tyrants at Athens, - - - - - 80 395 Veii taken.— Camillus, - - - - - 95 390 First descent of the Gauls under Brennus, take Rome, - - 95 " Plato teaches at Athens, - - - - - 75 380 Pelopidas delivers Thebes from the Spartans, - - - 82 371 LEUCTRA, Epaminondas, the Theban, defeats the Spartans, 83 367 Dionysius the Elder, - - - - - .105 362 MANTINEA, Epaminondas is killed, and Thebes loses supre- macy, - - - - - - - 83 330 Aristotle teaches at Athens, - - ' - - - 75 338 CHJEROISEA, Philip of Macedon makes himself master of Greece, - - - - - - - 85 334 GRANICUS, Alexander the Great defeats the Persians, - 86 333 ISSUS, Alexander again defeats the Persians — takes Damascus and Tyre — conquers Egypt, - - - -86 332 Alexander visits Jerusalem, - - - - - 97 332 ARBELA, Alexander defeats Darius, and becomes master of the whole Persian empire, - - - - -86 323 Death of Alexander the Great, - - - - 99 322 Death of Demosthenes, - - - - - -102 301 IP SITS, Antigonus and his son defeated by four of Alexander's generals, who now divide his empire among themselves, - 100 " Ptolemy assumes the government of Egypt, - - - 1-00 " Seleucus begins to reign in Syria, - - . - - 100 291 FORKS OF THE CAUDINE, the Samnites oblige the Ro- mans to pass under the yoke, ----- 104 290 Samnites subdued bv the Romans, - - - - 104 2 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Ancient His. B. C. PAGE v-^V"^-' 283 Etrurians conquered, ...... 104 280 P AND SI A, Pyrrhus defeats the Romans, - - -104 279 Second invasion of the Gauls, who finally settle in Galatia, - 102 275 BENEVENTUM, the Romans defeat Pyrrhus, and subjugate all Italy, - - 105 264 First Punic War, 106 260 Zadok founds the sect of Sadducees, - - - -119 251 The Achaean League — Arams, ..... 103 246 Arsaces I. founds a dynasty in Parthia, - - - 117 222 CLUSIUM, the Romans defeat the Gauls, and add to their do- minions Cisalpine Gaul, ..... 108 206 Philopaemen, the last general of the Achaean League, - - 103 219 Hannibal takes Saguntum, ..... 108 " Second Punic War commences, ..... 108 218 Hannibal's passage of the Alps, - 109 " TICINUS, Hannibal defeats the Roman army under the consul P. C. Scipio, - - - - - - - 109 " TR EB I A, Hannibal's second victory, - - - -110 217 Lake THRASYMENUS, Hannibal's third victory, - - 110 216 Fabius Maximus, - - - - - - 110 " CA.NNJE, 70,000 Romans slain, - - - - 111 202 ZAMA, Hannibal defeated by Scipio Africanus, - - 112 198 The Jewish Sanhedrim instituted, - - - - 118 192 THERM OP YLJE, Antiochus the Great defeated by the Romans, 112 168 PYDNA, Paulus Emilius defeats Perseus, and the Romans be- come masters of Macedonia, - - - - - 113 147 The Maccabees oppose Antiochus Epiphanes, - - -118 146 Third Punic War closed by the destruction of Carthage, - 115 " Corinth destroyed and Greece subdued by Rome, - -119 133 Attalus III. bequeaths Pergamus to Rome, - - - 116 133-121 The Gracchi, - - - - - - 121 121 Mithridates the Great becomes king of Pontus, - - - 117 112 Jugurthine War— Metellus— Marius— Sylla, - - - 121 102 AIX, Marius defeats the Teutones. K. 200,000; pris. 90,000, - 122 " VERONA, he defeats the Cimbri. K. 140,000 ; pris. 60,000 - 122 91 The " Social War" costs Rome 300,000 lives, - - - 122 86 CHMRONEA and ORCHOMENUS, Sylla defeats Mithri- datus in the First Mithridatic War, - - - - 123 87 Marius tyrannizes at Rome, - - - - . 123 86 Marius dies — Sylla returns to Rome to slaughter and destroy, 124 78 TARRACO, Sertorius in Spain defeats the Roman consuls. Perpenna assassinates him, ..... 124 " Spartacus in " The Servile War" defeated by Crassus, - - 124 69 TIGRANOCERTA.—68 ARTAXATA, Lucullus, the Roman consul, defeats Mithridates and Tigranes in the f • Second Mith- ridatic War," - - - - - - - 125 66 EUPHRATES, Pompey totally defeats Mithridates, - - 125 64 Pompey establishes the Roman power in Pontus, Armenia, and Judea. ... - 125 " Cataline's conspiracy defeated by Cicero, - - - 126 60 Julius Cjesar, Pompey, and Crassus, form the First Trium- virate, ....... 126 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 3C! Middle Hist. B. C. N «^~V*"^' 55 Caesar commands in Gaul — invades Britain, 54 Crassus invades Parthia — falls into a snare finally his life, .... 49 Caesar passes the Rubicon, 48 July 20, PHARSALIA, Caesar defeats the party of the Senate, commanded by Pompey, - 47 ZELA, Caesar subdues Pharnaces of Pontus, (" veni, vidi, vici.") -----... " Is made Perpetual Dictator, - " Causes Carthage and Corinth to be rebuilt, - 44 March 15, Caesar Assassinated, - 43 Second Triumvirate — Octavius, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, " Arsaces XIV. of Parthia, aids Brutus and Cassius, 42 PHILIP PI, Octavius and Antony defeat them, - 41 Cleopatra in her galley sails up the Cydnus to Tarsus, - 31 ACTIUM, Octavius defeats the fleet of Antony and Cleopatra, and subjugates Egypt, - - - " Octavius, with the title of Augustus, master of the civilized world, ....... *' Universal Peace, - - - - - • . 4 BIRTH OF JESUS CHRIST, - Page. - 127 loses his army, and - 127 - 129 130 131 131 131 132 134 134 134 134 136 136 137 137 PART IL A.D. Birth of Christ, (supposed 4 years before the vulgar era,) - 144 9 Herman, a barbarian, defeats Varus the Roman general, - 140 14 Tiberius succeeds Augustus, ..... 141 31 Crucifixion of our Saviour — His Resurrection, - - - 145 " Descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost, - - 145 34 Martyrdom. of Stephen, - - - - - - 145 35 Conversion of Paul, - - - - - - 145 37 Caligula succeeds Tiberius. — 41 Claudius, - - - 142 54 Nero — 64 First Persecution of the Christians, - - - 142 59 Sertorius Paulinus destroys the Druids in Britain. — Defeats queen Boadicea, ....... 149 64 Jews under Gessius Glorus rebel, .... 146 65 Martyrdom of St Peter and St. Paul at Rome, - - - 146 69 The Praetorian Guards kill Galba and make Otho emperor — Vitellius succeeds, .... . 143 " Vespasian, governor of Judea, made emperor, - - - 143 70 Titus takes Jerusalem.— 1,100,000 perish, - - -147 78 Julius Agricola defeats Galgacus in Scotland, - - - 149 80 Herculanaeum and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius. (Elder Pliny is suffocated by the noxious vapour.) - - 148 98 Domitian. — (95 Second Persecution of the Christians,) " to 117 Trajan carries the Roman empire to its greatest Jimit, 150 107 Third Persecution of the Christians, - - - - 150 " Martyrdom of Ignatius, (bishop of Antioch,) - - -150 Xll CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Middle Hist. A. D. Page v^-n^-^ 117 Hadrian relinquishes the conquests of Trajan beyond the Danube except Dacia, ------- 118 Fourth Persecution of the Christians, - 135 Final Destruction of the Jews, who revolt under Barochab— " the son of a star," ...... 138 Titus Antoninus Pius — a good and peaceful man, 161 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. His reign disturbed, and his life lost by means of barbarian inroads, . . . - 180 Commodus gives money to the barbarians to buy peace, - 193 Didius Julianus buys the empire of the Praetorians, " Septimius Severus restores military discipline ; builds a wall from Solway to Tyne, in Scotland, - 211-222 Four emperors — Caracalla and Geta, Macrinus, and the infamous Heliogabulus, - 212 Fifth Persecution of the Christians, under Caracalla, 222 Alexander Severus, (Julia Mammsea his mother.) His virtues vainly strive against a downward age, 226 Parthian empire, with the Arsacides, extinct. The Persian revives under the Sassanides, of whom Artaxerxes is the first, ------- 235 Maximtnus, the Gothic giant, (causes the Sixth Persecution of the Christians,) ------ 236-49 Roman emperors — the two Gordians, father and son, Maxi- mus and Balbinus — Philip the Arabian, 249 Decius. The Goths for the first time swarm upon the frontiers of the empire, ------- 250 Seventh Persecution of the Christians. — Decius, 253 Emilianus — 254 Valerian, ----- 257 Eighth Persecution of the Christians, - - - - 268 Valerian invades Persia and is made prisoner by Sapor, - 270 Nineteen usurpers — war, pestilence and famine swept away one half the inhabitants of the Roman empire. Claudius, a vir- tuous sovereign, succeeds, - " Aurelian contracts the empire on the north ; conquers the bar- barians, -----.. " CHALONS, defeats Tetricus, and establishes his authority over the west, -......_ 272 PALMYRA, defeats Zenobia and establishes his authority in the east, ....... 274 The Ninth Persecution of the Christians, ... 275 Tacitus, an aged and worthy senator, made emperor, 277 Florianus — Probus checks the barbarians, 282 Carus, Carinus, Numerian, - 284 Diocletian makes Nicomedia his seat — takes Maximianus as a colleague, who holds his court at Milan, 296 Diocletian humbles the Persians — makes Tiridates king of Ar- menia, - - - - - - 303 The, Tenth and most severe Persecution of the Christians, when Diocletian burns 600 in a church in Nicomedia, 304 Diocletian and his colleague abdicate, - " Constantius and Galerius succeed — several other emperors — great destruction of life by civil war, - - - 162-3 150 162 147 150 151 151 151 152 152 162 - 152 - 153 153 154 155 162 155 162 156 156 157 157 158 162 159 159 160 160 161 162 162 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Xlll A. D. Page 323 Constantine sole emperor, makes Christianity the religion of the Roman empire. Makes Byzantium (Constantinople) the seat of the empire, ...... 163 325 First Ecclesiastical Council at Nice, condemn the opinions of Arius, - - - - . . - - 164 (321 The heathen temples destroyed,) 337 Constantine, Constantius, Constans — sons of Constantine, but very inferior, .... . 164 360 Julian the Apostate. An able man. (Some reckon his con- tinued ill usage of the Christians as the eleventh and twelfth persecutions.) He restores paganism and vainly endeavors to rebuild the temple, ..... 165-6 363 Jovian. — 364 Valentinian and Valens. Christianity restored, 167 375 Gratian, - - - - . - -168 376 Valens allows the Visigoths, (1,000,000 in number— 200,000 war- riors,) who are driven by the Huns under Attila, to cross the Danube and settle in the empire, .... 168 378 ADRIANOPLE, the Visigoths under Fritrgern, aided by the Ostrogoths, defeat Valens with the loss of two-thirds of his army, - - - - - - - - 169 388 Theodosius, the last sole master of the Roman world. Domina- tion of the church, - - - - - - 170 395 Theodosius divides the Roman Empire into the Eastern and Western, - - « - - - - 171 402-3 POLLENTIA and VERONA. Stilicho the general of Ho- norius, (Western emperor,) defeats Alaric, leader of the Visigoths, - - - - . . -174 " Honorius removes his capital from Milan to Ravenna, - - 174 406 Invasion of the German nations under Radagaisus. Repulsed from Italy, but make themselves masters of Gaul, which is lost to the Roman empire, .... 174-5 410 Alaric takes and sacks Rome. Dies and is buried in the bed of a stream, ....... 412 Adolphus marries Placidia, and begins the kingdom of the Visi- goths on each side of the Pyrenees, .... 427 Genseric, leader of the Vandals, establishes a kingdom in Africa, - - - 428 Britain is abandoned by the Romans, .... 449 Hengist and Horsa, with the Saxons, arrive in Britain, - 452 CHALONS. Mi'ms defeats Atilla and the Huns, by the aid of Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, .... " Venice founded, ....... 453 The death of Attila, which ends the great empire of the Huns, - 455 Genseric takes and pillages Rome. Treasures and vessels of the temple of Jerusalem brought to Rome by Titus, shipped for Carthage and lost at sea, ..... 461-76 Count Recimer, the real sovereign, puts up several Roman emperors, of whom Augustulus Romulus is the last, 476 Odoacer, the chief of the Heruli, becomes king >f Rome, 496 Clovis converted to Christianity — founds the kingdom of the Franks. (Introduces the Feudal System,) - - - 187 175 175 176 185 185 177 219 177 178 179 179 XIV CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Middle Hist. A. D. Page v^^/-^/ 493 Theodoric the Great overcomes Odoacer, and founds "the king- dom of the Ostrogoths" in Italy, - 188 527 Justinian, emperor of the east, ..... 180 529 The first Monastery of the west at Monte Cassino, near Naples, 533 Justinian's Code of Laws, ..... 181 " Belisarius, his general, conquers Gelimer, and puts an end to the kingdom of the Vandals in Africa, .... 180 553 Narses, another of his generals, defeats Totila, and puts an end to the kingdom of the Ostrogoths in Italy, - - 181-89 " Kingdom of the Lombards founded by Alboin, - - - 189 609 Ina, king of the West Saxons, assembles the Wittegemot, the germ of the British parliament, .... 186 " Mahomet begins his alleged mission, - - - - 192 610 Heraclius, emperor of the east, invades Chosroes of Persia, who besieges Constantinople, ..... 183 622 The Flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, 633 The Caliphate embraces nearly all which the Romans had pos- sessed in the east, ...... 636 The caliph Omar conquers Egypt and destroys the Alexandrian library, ....... 651 Yezdegerd, the last of the Sassanides, defeated by the caliph Othman, and Persia becomes a part of the caliphate, - 661 Caliph Moawiyah invests Constantinople, - 667 The invention of the Greek fire saves the city from the Mahome- 193 194 195 195 197 197 196 709 The Saracens conquer the Moors of Africa, 713 XERES. Tarik, at the head of the Saracens from Africa, de- feats Roderick, the last of the Gothic kings, and makes Spain a part of the caliphate, ..... 714 TOURS. Charles Martel gains a great battle, and stops the progress of the Saracens, ..... 741 The Greek church from opposition to image worship, separates from the Roman or Latin church. (Final separation, 800,) - 198 754 Pepin takes the exarchate of Ravenna and gives it to the pope, which is the beginning of the popedom, 757 Abdalrahman holds his splendid court at Cordova, 774 Charlemagne defeats Desiderius and puts an end to the " king- dom of the Lombards," ..... 781 The infamous Irene restores image-worship in the Greek church, 785 Charlemagne subdues the Saxons. He conquers the Saracens in Spain as far as to the Ebro, - - - 196 196 202 197 201 198 . 202 800 The Coronation of Charlemagne, " Haroun al Raschid, sixth of the Abassides, caliph — his capital Bagdad. The Arabians in the east and in Spain, the most learned people in the world, - - - 827 Saxon Heptarchy united under Egbert, - - 841 Downfall of the Empire of Charlemagne, 842 Kenneth McAlpine unites the sovereignty of the Picts and Scots, 865 The Danish sea-kings begin to infest England, - 877 Alfred, totally defeated by the Danes, disguises himself, 203 223 208 204 214 208 209 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XV - 209 206 - 207 215 210 224 207 211 211 - 212 A. D. Page 878 ETHANDUNE. Alfred entirely defeats the Danes, - -209 900 Alfred dies, baring been the founder of British jurisprudence, lite- rature, and its naval power, 905 The Normans, under Rollo, take Neustria, afterwards called Normandy, ....... 912 Five German nations confederate and elect an emperor, i. e. Con- rad of Franconia, - - - . . 936 Otho the Great extends the German power over Hungary, Bo- hemia, and Italy, ...... 950 St. Dunstan establishes monachism in England, - 961 Ghazni becomes the seat of an empire of which Mahmoud is the most powerful sultan, ------ 987 Hugh Capet the founder of a new dynasty in France, 1003 Massacre of the Danes by Ethelred, which 1013 Sweyn avenges and becomes the first Danish king of England, - 1017 ASSINGTON. Canute defeats Edmund Ironside, and be- comes king of England — he marries Emma of Normandy, widow of Ethelred — conquers Norway and Sweden, - 1035 Sancho the Great unites the small Christian kingdoms in the north of Spain, ....... 1056 Henry IV. of Germany, and the popes engaged in the War of the Investitures, ....... 1060 Kingdom of Naples begun by Robert (Guiscard) of Normandy, - 1066 HASTINGS. William of Normandy conquers Harold, and be- comes the first of the Norman kings of England. About this time chivalry (knighthood) began in Normandy, i he Turkish family of Seljouk take the principal eastern pro- vinces of the caliphate. The caliphs lose their power, Hildebrand, (Gregory IV.) the most haughty of all the popes, humbles Henry IV. of Germany, .... " The Turks take Jerusalem and maltreat the pilgrims — they take all Asia Minor, ...... 1082 DUEAZZO. Robert Guiscard defeats Alexius Comnenus, 1090 " The Old Man of the Mountains" establishes the " Assassins," 1095 Peter the Hermit preaches a crusade against the Turks — pope Urban— Council of Clermont, .... 1096 First army of crusaders, under Walter the Pennyless, are de- stroyed, - - - 1099 Jerusalem taken by the crusaders, - 1074 1076 221 216 219 - 213 224 217 224 219 244 228 228 231 1100 The Commencement of the Crusades,* - - - 225 " The kingdom of Jerusalem founded, and Godfrey of Buillon, the principal leader, made king, ..... 231 1130 Scholastic Philosophy attains its highest point by the teaching of Peter Abelard, - - - - - - 294 1141 Popes and emperors of Germany carry on their wars for supre- macy, under the party watch-words of Guelphs and Ghib- belines, - - - - - - - 233 * In strictness, the era of the Crusades, like the Christian era, commenced four years before the time ordinarily reckoned. But it is much more convenient to the memory, and sufficiently correct, to state it at the beginning of the century. XVI CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Middle Hist. A.D 1145 1147 1154 1162 1164 1170 1172 1187 1188 1189 1192 1202 1215 1217 1215 1228 1209-! 1236 1240 1241 1248 1253 1265 1270 1273 1285 1282 1283 1296 1308 1314 1315 1346 1348 1355 Noureddin makes himself master of Aleppo, Damascus, &c, - The Second Crusade (to little effect,) by Louis VII. of France, Henry II., son of Maud (d. of Henry I.,) and Geoffry Plantage- net, head of the house of Plantagenet, - - Milan destroyed by Frederic Barbarossa, - Jenghiz Khan, the greatest of conquerors and murderers, Henry II. causes the death of Thomas-a-Becket, Henry II. conquers Ireland, - TIBERIAS. Saladin defeats the Christians and takes Jerusa- lem, which leads to the .... Third Crusade, undertaken by Richard I., Philip Augustus, and Frederic Barbarossa, ------ Siege of Acre, begun by Philip Augustus, Richard I. takes Cyprus, ------ AZOTUS. Richard, the lion-hearted, defeats Saladin, Fourth Crusade. Alexius Angelus asks the crusaders to rein- state his father at Constantinople. Dandolo, doge of Venice, and Baldwin of Flander3, take Constantinople, and Baldwin becomes the first Latin emperor, - Council at the Lateran, which directs secular princes to extirpate heretics, - - Fifth Crusade, by Andrew II. of Hungary, (fruitless,) Magna Charta, signed by king John, at Runnymede, Sixth Crusade, by Frederic II. of Germany, who makes him- self king of Jerusalem, - - - 23 Crusade against the Albigenses, Waldenses, and Vallenses, headed by Simon de Montfort— 1,000,000 killed, Paper money introduced from China into Italy, - Cimabue founds the Italian school in Painting, Hanseatic League, ...... Seventh Crusade, by Louis IX. (Saint,) — fruitless, The Sicilians massacre the French — ("the Sicilian Vespers,'') - The first regular English parliament, Eighth and last Crusade, by St. Louis and Edward I. Page - 239 234 236 233 243 237 236 - 239 239 240 240 240 241 - 297 - 245 - 257 - 445 - 249 - 292 - 296 - 245 - 249 - 250 - 259 249-59 Rodolph of Hapsburg (Guelph,) becomes emperor of Germany The founder of the house of Austria, Alponso VI. of Spain and the Cid take Toledo, - Edward I. conquers Wales, - - - He adjudges the Scottish crown to Baliol, Edward I. wages war against Scotland, and is opposed by Wal lace, who is taken and executed, William Tell shoots Gesler, and the Swiss rise against the Austrians, ------- BANNOCK-BURN. Bruce defeats Edward II., and frees Scotland, ....... MORGARTEN. The Swiss defeat the Austrians and establish their independence, ...... Rienzi attempts to restore the ancient republic in Rome, Great splendor of the Moorish kingdom of Granada. The Al- hambra completed, . . . - - Constitution of Germany, called the "Golden Bull," fixes the number of electors, and makes the electorates hereditary 245 273 259 260 - 260 246 262 246 283 - 273 - 247 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Mddle Hist. A. D XV11 Page 1346 1347 1356 1369 1384 1402 1414 1414 1416 1417 1419 1420 1424 (1438 1444 1453 1459 1460 1461 1467 1471 HALIDON-HILL. Baliol restored to the throne of Scotland^ by Edward III. and Scottish nobles, - CRESS Y. Edward III. of England defeats the French. (He claims, through his mother Isabella, the French crown, and his invasion begins a struggle of 140 years.) Artillery first used at the battle of Cressy, (on the side of the English,) . Edward III. takes Calais. (The six self-devoted burghers re" leased by the intercession of the queen Philippa ) POICTIERS. Edward the Black Prince (son of Edward III., defeats and makes prisoner John, king of France, Henry of Trastamara conquers Peter the Cruel. ' (His poste- rity, in two separate branches, govern Christian Spain till the two are reunited in Ferdinand and Isabella,) John Wickliffe, the great Reformer of England. (His followers called Lollards, are persecuted,) ANGORA. Tamerlane, who had overrun Asia, defeats Bajazel the Ottoman Turk, ..... John Huss, of Bohemia, proclaims the corruptions of the Romish church— is condemned (by the council of Constance) and burnt. (Huss goes to the council under the pledge of a safe conduct, which is shamefully violated,) - AGINCOURT. Henry V. conquers the French, '. Jerome of Prague is burnt for teaching the doctrines of the Re- formation, - . ■ . James I., the royal bard of Scotland, released from prison, John of Burgundy murdered in the king's presence, at the bridge of Montereau, - Treaty of Troyes, by which Henry of England is to marry Ca- therine of France and inherit that kingdom, - The " Maid of Orleans" delivers Charles VII. from the English Power, - - . . . . - - 254 Discovery of the art of Printing, when Laurence Roster of Harlaem, and in 1442 John Faust, performed imperfect speci- mens. John Guttenberg invented cut metal types, and in 1444, Peter Schaffer cast the first metal types in matrices, and was therefore the inventor of complete printing.) The Turks under Amurath gain a great battle over Ladislaus, John Hunniades and Scanderbeg, and establish themselves in Europe, - 288 Constantinople taken by Mahomet II., which is the final downfal of the Greek empire, - - . ... . 289 ST. ALBANS. The second battle in the " Wars of the Roses." The York, or white rose party, defeat the Lancaster, or red rose party, at the head of which is Margaret, queen'of Henry VI. 269 The republic of Florence subjugated by the Medici, . . 282 Louis XL humbles the French nobles, - - . .255 Charles the Bold, of Burgundy, the richest sovereign of Europe, 256 TE WKSB UR Y. The Yorkists, after many^battles of the white and red rose parties with alternate success, finally defeat Mar- garet and slay her son.— (1483 Edward V., 14 years old, king. His uncle, Richard, protector,) - . . .271 263 251 251 - 251 2"52 274 265 287 248 253 248 296 - 253 254 XV 111 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Modem His. A. D. Page 1476 GRANS ON— MOR AT. Charles the Bold invades, and is de- feated by the brave Swiss, ..... 256 1478 The Swiss erect a singular monument on the field of Morat, - 300 1479 Marriage of Isabella of Castile and Leon, to Ferdinand of Arra- gon, by which these kingdoms are united, - - 276 1480 The Inquisition established at Seville in Spain,' - -. -278 1481-92 War with the Moors of Grenada, which ends in the conquest of their kingdom by Ferdinand and Isabella, - - -280 1485 BOS WORTH-FIELD. Richard III. defeated and slain. Henry VII. crowned on the field. (He being a Lancasterian, marries Elizabeth the heiress of York, and thus ends the war of the roses.) - - - - - • - - " - 272 1486 Bartholomew IHas discovers the Cape of Good Hope, - - 304 1492 The Jews (about 160,000) banished from Spain, - - - 279 PART III. A. D. 1492 Discovery of America, - - - - - - 302 1493 Columbus' Second Voyage, contest with the natives, and bad conduct of the colonists, .... - 303 1494 Charles VIII. of France invades and takes possession of Naples, 309 1495 League of Venice against Charles VIII., - - - 309 " PARMA. Charles VIII. defeats the allies and returns to France, 309 1497 The Cabots, in the service of the English, the first discoverers of the continent at Labrador, - - - - - 304 " Alonzo de Ojeda, carries over Amerigo Vespucio, - - 304 1498 Vasco de Gama, in the service of the Portuguese, discovers the passage to India round the Cape of Good Hope, - - 304 " Columbus' Third Voyage. He discovers the continent, - -304 1499 Louis XII. of France, marries Anne of Britanny. Conquers Milan, - - - - ' - - - - 309 " Cabral discovers for the Portuguese, Brazil, - - -304 1500 Bovadilla sent out to supersede Columbus, who is' sent home in chains, -------- 305 " league of Partition, between France and Spain, for dividing Naples, - - - - - - - 310 1502-4 Columbus' Fourth and Last Voyage, - - - - 305 1503 Pope Alexander II. dies a horrid death by drinking poison he had caused to be mingled for another, - - - - 310 " Julius II., the warlike pope, succeeds him, - - - 310 1508 League of Cambray. Instigated by pope Julius II., by which Venice is basely crushed, ----- 310 1509 Henry VIII. of England marries Catharine* daughter of Ferdi- nand and Isabella, and widow of his brother Arthur, - - 322 1510 Holy League. The pope, the Venetians, Spanish and Swiss, league against France, .... - 310 « ' RA VENN A. The forces of Louis XII., under his nephew Gas- ton de Foix, defeat the allies, ----- 310 1512 Ferdinand, the Catholic, conquers Navarre from John D'Albret, 311 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XIX Modern His. AD t> ^' XJm Page 1513 FLODDEN-FIELB. James IV. of Scotland defeated by the English under Surrey, •---.„ 323 1515 MARIGNAN. Francis L of France, defeats the Swiss in the service of Milan and recovers that city, - . -311 1516 Charles V., grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Catholic, succeeds to the united crowns of Spain and Navarre, and in the right of his father to Austria, Burgundy, and the Low Countries, ---... 1519 Reformation begun by Luther in Germany, and Zu'nglius lr Switzerland, ----.._ 1520 Conquest of Mexico by Hernando Cortez, 1521 Luther appears before the Diet at Worms, 1522 Pope Adrian VI. (tutor of the emperor Charles V.,) undertakes to reform the church, ...... 1523 Christian the Wicked, expelled from Sweden by Gustavus Vasa, 1525 PAVIA. Francis I. defeated by the troops of Charles V., now made emperor of Germany. Francis carried a prisoner to Spain, ----.-._ 1526 Treaty of Madrid, by which Francis regained his freedom- violated — caused another war, - 312 1526 Second Holy league, against the emperor Charles V., - 312 1529 Reformers protest against the decrees of the Diets of Worms and Spires, and are called Protestants, .... 1531 iLeague of Smalkald. In which the protestant states of Ger- many form a political alliance, 1525-32 Henry VIII. seeks of the pope a divorce from his virtuous wife, Catharine of Arragon, that he may marry Anne Boleyn, which causes the English reformation, .... 1534-5 Shameful excesses of the Anabaptists, under Munzer, at Muhl- hausen— 50,000 lives lost— Munzer slain in battle, 1535 Charles V. defeats the pirates of the Barbary Coast ; releases 20,000 Christian captives ; takes Tunis, - . . 314 " Sir Thomas More executed for declining to give his opinion touch- ing the divorce, and the supremacy over the church claimed - 311 n - 317 - 307 - 318 319 348 312 319 - 320 324 320 by the king. Bishop Fisher also executed, - 1540 Ignatius Loyola obtains the sanction of the pope and founds the order of Jesuits, ...... 1542 HADDONRIG. James V. of Scotland defeats the English, but at Solway Moss his troops flee shamefully, and he dies of chagrin a few days after the birth of his daughter, afterwards Mary queen of Scots, - (1543 Died Nicholas Copernicus, a native of Thorn, in Poland, teacher of the true solar system,) 1543 Francis I. of France dies, leaving his crown to his son Henry II. 1544 Peace of Crespi. The French give up Italy and close the wars between Charles and Francis, - 1545 The Council of Trent, - - . . 1546 Ivan the Terrible, of the house of Ruric, czar of Russia, 1547 Edward VI. succeeds his father, Henry VIII.— 1549 Liturgy completed, ....... 1552 Peace of Passau, establishes protestantism, 1553 The bloody Mary, queen of England., - 320 325 ■ 323 321 315 321 393 326 322 326 XX CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Modern His. A. D. PAGE ^^~v~«^> 1555 John Rogers burnt at Smithfield as a heretic ; also the bishops Latimer, Ridley, Hooper and Cranmer, and nearly 300 others, 327 1556 Charles V. abdicates in favor of his son Philip, - 322 1558 Ferdinand I. succeeds his brother Charles V. as emperor of Ger- many, - - - -- - - - 345 1558 Elizabeth of England succeeds Mary, - - - -327 1559 Peace of Chateau CambresiSj .... 327 1559 Francis II., husband of Mary queen of Scots, succeeds Henry II. in France, 337 1560 Charles IX. succeeds in France,— his mother, Catharine de Medici, regent, - - - - - - - - 338 1561 Mary queen of Scots returns to Scotland, - - - 330 " John Knox heads the protestant reformers of Scotland, - -331 1563 DREUX. The catholics of France, under the dukes of Guise and Monfmorenci, defeat the protestants under Conde and Coligni, - 339 1565 Mary queen of Scots marries Darnley, - - - -331 1566 The Holy league, formed in France, for the extirpation of heresy, -------- 339 " Murder of Rizzio, 331 Murder of Darnley by Bothwell, whom Mary marries, - -331 The Netherlands revolt against Philip of Spain, - - - 334 ST. DENNIS.— 1569 JARNAC.—MONCONTOUR. Pro- testants, in France, defeated by the catholics, - 339-40 1567 1568 1568 Mary queen of Scots takes refuge in England after the defeat of her forces at Glasgow, - - - 1571 The Turks conquer Cyprus, ... - - 1572 August 17. Marriage of Henry of Navarre with Margaret, daughter of Catharine de Medici, - " August 24. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1572 In Poland, the accession of Sigismund II., the last of the dynasty of the Jagellons, ...... 1572 Sir Francis Drake circumnavigates the globe, 1574 Remorse and death of Charles IX. Succeeded by his brother the duke of Anjou, Henry III 1576 Kepler and Tycho Brahe, encouraged by Rodolph II., emperor of Germany, " The Jj& ague. (Wars occurring between the protestants, com- manded by Henry of Navarre, and catholics, Iby the Guises, called wars of the League,) - - - - - 1578 Queen Elizabeth grants to Sir H. Gilbert, the first patent granted by an English sovereign to lands in America, - 1579 Commencement of the republic of Holland in the union of seven provinces, ....... 1580 Portugal united to Spain, ------ 1587 Sir Francis Walsingham, by causing the Spanish bills to be pro- tested at Genoa, hinders the Spanish armada a year, - 1587 Mary queen of Scots executed, - 1588 Destruction of the Spanish armada, . . - . 1589 Henry III. assassinated, names as successor, Henry of Navarre, 332 346 341 341 333 - 341 - 345 341 334 335 337 333 332 333 342 ARQUES.— 1590 IVRY. Henry IV. defeats the leaguers, 342-43 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XXI Modern His. A. D. p AGE 1590 Henry IV. besieges Paris, which is relieved by the duke of Parma at the head of the Spanish army of the Netherlands, - - 343 1594 Henry IV. is reconciled to the church of Rome, and the catholics acknowledge his sovereignty, - 1598 Edict of Nantz, by which Henry satisfies the French pro testants, ...... " Peace of Vervins, between France and Spain, " Disinterested character and wise policy of Henry's prime minister, the duke of Sully, ..... 1603 Union of the Scottish and English crowns in James I. of England (VI. of Scotland,) who succeeds Elizabeth, 1605 The Gunpowder Plot. Lord Monteagle. Guy Fawkes, 1606 The independence of Holland established, 1607 Jamestown in Virginia settled by Capt. Smith and others, 1609 Hudson river discovered by Henry Hudson, 343 344 344 344 356 357 337 365 366 1610 1611 1612 1613 1614 1616 s fcl 1617 Q 1619 o K a; ft. 1620 345 354 353 - 349 393 366 354 358 1621 1625 1627 1628 1629 1631 1632 Henry IV. assassinated by Ravaillac, at the instigation of the Jesuits, ....... Louis XIII. (son) — his mother, the weak Mary de Medici, regent, ........ Nearly a million of Moors or Moriscoes expelled from Spain, The princes of Germany form the Evangelical Union, and make war upon Matthias, emperor of Germany, which proves the beginning of the Thirty Years 1 War, Michael Romanoff called to the throne of Russia, is the founder of a new dynasty, ...... New York settled by the Dutch.— 1615 Albany, Last meeting of the States General in France, previous to the re- volution, ....... The parliament of England assume an independent tone, Concini, marshal d'Ancre, assassinated by consent of Louis XIII. 355 Frederic V., elector palatine, (son-in-law of James I.) vainly at- tempts to withstand the united power of the house of Austria, 349 The Pilgrims (persecuted English dissenters) settle Plymouth, in America. They sign the first written constitution of Ame- rica before leaving their vessel, .... 365 PRAGUE. The elector palatine defeated by the imperialists under Tilly, ...... France, under the influence of cardinal Richelieu, unites with the hero of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus, - - - - Richelieu, in France, stirs up a war against the Huguenots, Charles I. succeeds his father, James I.,- ... Swedes and Finlanders settle Delaware, .... Salem in Massachusetts settled. — 1630 Boston, - Assassination of the duke of Buckingham, the unworthy court fa- vorite, - - - - .. Charles contends with parliament, being determined to reign ab- solute, ..---.-. LE1PS1C. Gustavus Adolphus defeats the imperialists, LUTZEN, Nov. 6. Gustavus Adolphus defeats the imperialists, but is slain, - - Maryland settled by a colony of catholics under lord Baltimore, - 349 350 355 359 366 365 360 360 350 350 366 XX11 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Modern His. A. D. PAGE ^-^"V"^' 1633 Accession of archbishop Laud, who carries the persecution of the puritans to a high pitch. (Old popish ceremonies revived. Clergy required to read in their churches the Book of Sports or Sunday Pastimes. Great numbers of ministers ejected. Hooker and others emigrate to America.) - - - 360 1634 NORDLINGEN. The imperialists defeat the confederates under Horn and Saxe- Weimar, - - - - - 351 1636 Hartford in Connecticut, and Providence in Rhode Island, settled, 365 1636 WITTS TOCK.— 1637 BRISAC—1640 CHEMNITZ.— BRANDEIZ. The Swedes under Bannier, with their con- federates, victorious, ------ 351 1638 The Solemn League and Covenant, formed in Scotland, against the prelatic tyranny of the English church, - - 361 " John Hampden takes a noble stand against the usurpations of the crown in England, ...... 360 1639 New Haven settled, - - - - - - 365 1640 Nov. 3. The Long Parliament convenes. Pym carries to the house of lords the impeachment of Thomas Wentworth, earl of Strafford. Laud is also impeached, - - - 361 " The house of Braganza reign in Portugal, - - - 354 " Montreal founded. The Jesuits go out from it to christianize the Indians, - - - - - - 378 " WOLFENBUTTEL.— 1645 THABOR. The Swedes, under Torstenson, victorious, ------ 1641 May 12. Strafford beheaded on Tower-hill, " The Long Parliament subvert the constitution by assuming so- vereignty, - 1642 The king attempts to take five members, but fails, and civil war ensues, -/- " EDGE-HILL. Indecisive. The first battle of the civil war be- tween the king and people of Great Britain. Several others indecisive, - ' - 1644 MARSTON-MOOR. The royalists totally defeated by the parliamentary leaders, Cromwell and Fairfax, 1645 NASEBT. Charles commands in person, and is finally and ut- terly defeated, - - - - - " MARIENDAL. The imperialists defeat the French under Tu- renne, - - - - - - 1646 NORDLINGEN.— 1647 ZUMMERHAUSEN The French under Turenne defeat the imperialists, ... 1647 Charles a prisoner to Oliver Cromwell, .... 352 362 362 - 362 - 363 363 - 363 352 352 364 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, closes the Thirty Years' War, 1648-53 Wars of the Fronde, in France, - 1649 Cromwell subdues the royalists in Ireland, 1650 May 21. The marquis of Montrose hung by the Scottish cove- nanters, ....... " July 15. Charles IL lands in Scotland and is proclaimed king, - " Sept. 3. DUNBAR. Cromwell defeats the Scots, 1651 Sept. 3. WORCESTER. Cromwell again defeats the Scots, when Charles' affairs becoming desperate, he disguises him- self and escapes. (Is concealed in an oak, &c.) 353 368 370 370 371 371 371 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XXI 11 Modern His. A - D - Page 1.653 Cromwell turns out u the Rump Parliament" at the point of the bayonet, and becomes protector of the commonwealth, • 371 " Naval war between England and Holland. Seven naval actions in a year. Dutch admirals, Van Tromp and De Ruyter,— English, Blake and Monk, ' - - . . 371-2 1654 Christiana, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus— resigns the crown of Sweden to Charles Gustavus, - .... 369 1657 Charles X. (Charles Gustavus,) conquers John Casimir of Poland. He is restored by the " Peace of Oliya," - - • -369 1658 Dunkirk conquered from the Spaniards by the French, and the Eng- lish, sent by Cromwell to their aid. It is yielded to the English, 369 1658 Aug, 12. Died Oliver Cromwell, .... 372 1659 Peace of the Pyrenees, between France and Spain, - - 369 16.60 Charles II. being brought back by general Monk, is peaceably received as king of Great Britain, — hence this period is quoted in English history as " the Restoration," - - -372 1661 Charles shows the faithlessness of his character in the failure of his engagements to the Scots in reference to. church matters, - 373 1662 Winthrop of Connecticut, son of the governor of Massachusetts, pleases Charles II., and obtains a liberal charter for Con- necticut, - - - ... . . 374 1664 Charles makes war with the Dutch.— New York taken by colonel Nichols, from the Dutch governor Siuyvesant, - - 374 1665 Terrible plague in London,— nearly 100,000 victims, - - 374 1666 Sept. 2, 3, 4 and 5,-13,000 buildings consumed by fire in London, 374 1667 Peace of Breda, closes the famous naval war between the Eng- lish and Dutch, 1667 Charles II. gives to Monk, (now the earl of Albemarle,) lord Shaftesbury, and others, a patent of the southern section of the American republic, ..... 1668 Peace of Aix-la-Chapeile, consented to by Louis XIV., be- cause the Triple Alliance, by England, Holland and Sweden, had been made against him. . The peace was soon violated by • Louis, with whom Charles II. makes a shameful secret league, '375 1672 SOLBAY. French and English against the Dutch under De Ruyter. A naval action, - - - , - - 376 " The two De Witts murdered by their countrymen, - - 377 1673 Marquette sails down the Wisconsin to the Mississippi, — discovers the mouths of the Illinois, Missouri,. Ohio, Arkansas, &c, - 378 " CHOCZIM. John Sobieski defeats the Turks, - -392 1674 SENEFFE, in Brabant. Prince of Conde commands against the prince of Orange. Indecisive — 20,000 killed, - - 377 " Turenne lays waste the Palatinate. (Worms and Spires suffer,) 377 1675-6 Great distress in New England on account of king Philip's war, 381 1676 A rebellion in Virginia, headed by Nathaniel Bacon, -' - 375 1678 Peace of Ximeguen. Holland retains her territories, - 378 1679 Scottish covenanters defeat Graham of Claverhouse at Drumclog", 381 " They are defeated by the duke of Monmouth at Bothwell-bridge, 381 1682 William Penn founds Philadelphia, - ' - - - 382 " Peter the Great becomes czar of Russia, - 393 1683 Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney suffer death for opposing tyranny, - - - - - - 381-2 - 374 374 XXIV CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Modern 1685 < < 1686 1688 1689 1690 1691 1692 1693 1693 1694 1697 378 382 - 383 379 Page VIENNA. John Sobieski, (a second Charles Martel,) defeats the Turks. The Mahometans thus stayed in their progress of conquest. - - - - - Charles II. succeeded by James II. - - James II. sends Sir Edmnud Andros to be governor general in New England, ------ league of Augsburg. Holland, Spain and England against France, - - - - ... The English Revolution, — when the people by rejecting James II. as their king, and calling in William III., prince of Orange, virtually changed their constitution, by setting aside the divine right of kings, and declaring that of an oppressed people to change their rulers, ------ 383 KILL1ECRANKIE. The Scots, under viscount Dundee, hold out for James — defeat the forces of William — Dundee slain, - 384 The BOYNE. The Irish, commanded by James in person, de- feated by the English under William, - - - - 384 Schenectady and other places destroyed by the French and - 385 French victorious. Also, 380 385 380 - 380 380 1698 1700 1701 Indians, SAL UCES.—FLE TJR US. BEACHY-HEAD, - Anne succeeds William III. - Off LA HOG UE.—S TEENKIRK. The English victorious W1DDIN. The French and Turks allied, defeated by the English, - 380 (Massacre of Glencoe in Scotland. Macdonald and many other highlanders were butchered in cold blood by the English after they had surrendered themselves and taken the prescribed oath,) NEER W1NDEN. King William of England commands against the French general Luxembourg, — is defeated, Turks take Belgrade, Upper Hungary, and are again the terror of Europe, - - - - Peter of Russia sets out on his travels in the suite of his favorite, Le Fort. Goes to Holland to learn ship building. William Penn visits him in London, ----- Peace of Ryswick. Pecuniary embarrassments oblige the French and English to make peace, and they mutually restore conquests, ZENTA. Prince Eugene, at the head of the German forces, defeats the Turks — their loss 30,000 — they never recover, and at the - Peace of Carlowitz, they relinquish some of their conquests, Treaty of Partition. England, France and Holland against Spain, -------- Second Treaty of Partition, against Spain, - Charles II. of Spain leaves his dominions to Philip of Anjou, grandson to Louis XIV., which gives rise to the wars of the Spanish succession, ... - - NARVA. Charles XII. of Sweden defeats the Russians, The Grand Alliance, by England, Holland, and Germany, to preserve the balance of power — it being thought it would be endangered if the Bourbons ruled in both France and Spain, - 395 - 380 380 381 386 386 386 396 387 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XXV A. D. Page 1702 The Alliance declares war against France, - - -387 ' ' Near the D WINA.—GLISSA U.— Charles XII. defeats Augus- tus king of Poland, ----- -396 " Mobile founded by d'Iberville, .... - 423 1703 HOCHSTADT. French under Villars defeat the allies, - 387 " Peter the Great founds St. Petersburg, - - - - 397 1704 BLENHEIM. The allies, commanded by Marlborough, gain a great victory over the French, who lose 40,000, - - 388 " Deerfield, in Massachusetts, destroyed, - - - - 391 1706 Peace of Alt Ranstadt, between Charles XII. and Augustus— in which the latter gives up colonel Patkul, who is executed, 397 1707 ALMANZA. The French and Spanish, commanded by the duke of Berwick, defeat the allies, ... - 389 1708 OUDENARDE. Marlborough defeats the French under Ven- dome, - - - - - - - - 389 1709 PULTOWA. Peter the Great defeats Charles XII., who flies to the Turks, - - - - - - - 398 " MONS. Marlborough and prince Eugene obtain a hard-fought field from Villars, the French commander, - - - 390 1711 May 21. At the PEUTH. Peter the Great rashly advances against the Turks, and is saved, with his army, by the czarina Catharine. Gives up his posts on the sea of Azof, - - 398 " Charles of Austria becomes emperor of Germany, - -390 " In England, queen Anne, no longer attached to the duchess of Marlborough, falls under the influence of the tories, and inclines to peace, ....... 391 1713 1714 1715 1718 1719 1720 1721 1733 1735 1740 1741 Peace of Utrecht. Closes the War of the Spanish Succession, 391 Death of queen Anne, and accession of George I. of the house of Brunswick, ...-..- 409 Peace of Rastadt, between Germany and France, - -391 PEES TON— SHEEIFF-M VIE. The forces of the pretender (son of James II.,) are defeated, ... -410 Peace of Passarowitz. The Turks cede to Austria Belgrade, part of Servia and Wallachia. They receive from Venice the Morea, 404 Death of Charles XII., and elevation of his sister Ulrica Eleonora to the throne of Sweden, ..... 399 Quadruple Alliance. England, France, Austria and Holland against Spain, ------- 404 Peter the Great sends an embassy to China, - - - 400 South Sea Scheme — a great speculating hoax, which is the means of much pecuniary distress, .... - 410 Peter takes the title of " Emperor of all the Russias," - - 400 War of the Polish succession in favor of Stanislaus Leczinski — who finally -relinquishes the crown to Augustus II., - - 404 The Pragmatic Sanction, to secure the Austrian succession to Maria Theresa, - - - - - 404 War of the Austrian Succession — Frederic II. of Prussia invades Silesia, - - . - - - - ' - 405 MOLL WITZ. Frederic victorious, obtains possession of Silesia, 406 League of Prussia, France, and Bavaria, against Maria Theresa, 406 XXVI CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Modern His. A. D. Page 1742 Peace of Breslau. Frederic II. violates the alliance, and makes peace with Maria Theresa, who cedes to Mm Silesia, 406 1743 DETTINGEN. English in alliance with the Austrians defeat the French. George II. commands in person, - - 406 1745 PRESTON-PANS.— FALKIRK.— The forces of the young pretender defeat the Royalists, - - . - ■ - 411 " Frederic II. again joins the enemies of Maria Theresa, and wins the battles of FRIEDBERG and SORR, - - -407 " In America the colonists take for England Louisburg, from the French, . - - - - - - 407 1746 CULL DEN. The friends of the young pretender totally de- feated by the duke of Cumberland, - .... -411 1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle closes the war of the Austrian suc- cession, or " Eight years' War," - - - -408 1750 Ohio Company chartered, ..... 423 1753 Major George Washington crosses the wilderness to bear a letter to the French commandant, ------ 423 1754 Congress meet at Albany — Franklin's plan of union rejected both in England and America, .... 423 1755 Earthquake at Lisbon, ------ 413 " BRADDOCKS-FIELD. Braddock's defeat and Washington's preservation, .--.... 425 " FORT EDWARD. Johnson and Lyman defeat the French under baron Dieskau, ------ 425 1756 The Black Hole of Calcutta, where Surajah shuts up his English prisoners to die for want of air, .... 421 '* "The Seven Years' IFar" begins, known in America as the French war, . - - - ... . 413 1757 Massacre of Fort William Henry, - - - - 425 " PLASSY. Clive defeats Surajah Dowlah, and the British em- pire of India is founded, - - - . - 421 " The French conquer Hanover, - - - - -414 " PRAGUE. Frederic victorious over the Austrians. — KOLIN. . He is defeated by them, - 414 1758 ZORNDORF. Frederic defeats the Russians.— HO CH- KIRCHEN He is defeated by the Austrians, - - 415 1759 CUNNERSDORF. Frederic defeated by the Russians and Austrians, - - - * V " * ^5 " LIGNITZ.—TORQUA. He defeats the Austrians, - -415 " HEIGHTS OF ABRAHAM. Wolfe defeats Montcalm. The conquest of all Canada, by the English, follows, - - 415 1760 Family Compact between the Bourbons of France and Spain, - 416 1762 Peter III. emperor of Russia. His wife Catharine, supposed to be concerned in his death, succeeds, - - - - 416 1763 Peace of Paris, between England, France and Spain. Canada given up by the French. Floridaby the Spanish to the English, 416-17 1765 The Stamp Act, - - 426 1771 First Partition of Poland, by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, - 418 1773 Tea thrown overboard at Boston, - - - - 427 1774 Louis XVI. becomes king of France. The kingdom overwhelmed with debt, - - - - - - - 436 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XXV11 His. A. D. Page 1775 LEXINGTON. First blood shed of the war of the American revolution, ....... 427 '■ June 15, Washington made commander-in-chief, - r 427 " June 17, BUNKER'S HILL, - - - - -427 " Montgomery and Arnold command an expedition against Canada. Montgomery killed, ...... 428 July 4, American Independence declared, - - - 431 August 27, BROOKLYN. Americans defeated, - -431 December 26-27, TRENTON. Washington victorious, - 432 January 3, PRINCETON. Washington successful, - - 432 BRAND YWINE.—GERMANTOWN. British victorious, - 432 BENNINGTON— STILL- WATER.— SARATOGA. Ame- ricans victorious, — Burgoyne surrenders his army, - 432-3 - 433 1776 1777 1778 1780 <( 1781 1783 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1793 Treaty with France, - MONMOUTH. Americans victorious.— SA VANNAH. They are defeated, ------- 433 CAMDEN. Cornwallis defeats Gates, - - - -433 GUILFORD C. H. Greene and Cornwallis, - - - 433 Sir Eyre Coote conquers Hyder Ali, and takes Seringapatam, - 422 YORKTOWN. Washington invests Cornwallis and captures his whole army, ...... 434 Peace of Paris, - - - - - - -434 Convention at Philadelphia frame the American Constitution, - 435 Terrible storm in France — causes famine and hastens the revolu- tion, - - - - - - - - 437 March 4, Washington and John Adams first president and vice- president, ....... 435 May 5, The states general convene at Versailles. The French Re- volution begins, - - - - - - 437 Oct. 5, The mob at Versailles — women crying, "bread ! bread !" 438 The " National Constituent Assembly" form a constitution, - 438 Escape of the royal family. Seized at Varennes and brought back to Paris, .... - - 439 The National Constituent Assembly dissolved, - - -439 Oct. 14, The Legislative Assembly convene in Paris. — Roland. — '• The Jacobins, - - - - - 440 March 20, The French declare war against the Austrians. La- fayette vainly seeks to save the king and constitution, - 440 Aug. 10, The Tuilleries attacked. The royal family take refuge in the Assembly, - - - - - - 440 Sept. 2, Having been threatened with desti-uction by the duke of Brunswick, the Parisians massacre the royalists, - - 441 Sept. 20, The French Republic begins, monarchy being abolished by the National Convention, ..... 441 Jan. 21, Louis XVI. beheaded. The "Infernal Triumvirate," "The reign of Terror," .... 441-2 The First Coalition against France. All the European powers except Sweden, Denmark and Turkey, - - - 441 VALMY. Dumourier defeats the allies. (Louis Philip dis- tinguishes himself.) - - - - - 441 Washington and John Adams re-elected president and vice-pre- sident, .--...-- 435 xxvm CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Modern His. A. D. Page 1794 The National Convention abolish the Sabbath, and attempt to over- turn Christianity, ...... 442 " Charlotte Corday kills Marat. Robespierre destroys Danton. The Convention guillotine Robespierre, - -'-" - 442 " In America — British retain forts. — Wayne's War, - - 435 " Jay's Treaty, - - - - - - - 435 1795 Nov. 1, The Directory formed.— Napoleon Bonaparte, 442-3 1796 Bonaparte's first brilliant campaign.— MONTE NOTTE— MILLES1MO—MONDOVI-LODI—LONA TO-CAS- TIGLIONE—MED OLA—R VERED 0—BASSANO— Caldiero*—ARCOLA, • - - - 443-4 1797 MONTE BALD O—RIVOLI, • - - -' -445 " Oct. 17, Peace of Campo Formio, - - - -445 1798 Italy, Switzerland and Holland, conquered countries, cut up into governments which the French called republics, - - 445 " THE PYRAMIDS. Bonaparte conquers the Mamelukes, -446 " ON THE NILE. Nelson with a British fleet totally defeats the French, - - - - - - - 446 " Second Coalition. England, Russia, Austria, &c, against France, ....... 446 1799 Bonaparte repulsed by Sir Sydney Smith at Acre, - - 446 " Nov. 11, Directory abolished. — The Consulate — Bonaparte first consul, -..----- 447 " Dec. 14, Death of Washington, - - - - 446 1800 June 14, MARENGO. Bonaparte defeats the Austrians under Melas, - - • - - - - - 447 " Nov. 3, HOHENLINDEN. Moreau defeats the Austrians, - 447 1801 Jan. 1, Peace of Imneville, between France and Austria, - 447 " Alexander succeeds Paul as emperor of Russia, - 448 1802 Peace of Amiens. (England agrees to restore Malta to France,) 448 " England refuses to restore Malta. French seize Hanover. Bri- tish blockade the mouths of the Elbe and Weser, - - 448 1803 Bonaparte appointed first consul for life, .... 448 1804 Napoleon's coronation, ..... 451 '* Third Coalition. England subsidizes Austria and Russia against France, - - - - - - 451 1805 Oct. 18, TJLM.— Dec. 2, AUSTERLITZ. N. defeats the Aus. 452 " TRAFALGAR. English defeat the French— Nelson killed, - 465 " Dec. 27, Peace of Presburg, between Austria and France, - 452 1806 Confederation of the Rhine, - - - - -452 " German Empire ceases to exist. The emperor Francis II. takes the title of emperor of Austria, .... 452 " Fourth Coalition. England and Prussia against France, - 524 " Oct. 14, JENA. Napoleon totally defeats the Prussians, - 452 " Dec. 26, Napoleon's Berlin Decree against neutral commerce, - 452 1807 The British Orders in Council, - - - - - 452 " Feb. 8, EYLAU.— June, FRIEDLAND. Napoleon defeats the Russians, ..----- 453 " Peace of Tilsit. (Napoleon strips Prussia of the kingdom of Westphalia for his brother Jerome.) ... - 453 * Those in capitals, Bonaparte's victories ; those in italics, his defeats. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XXIX Modern His. A.D. Page 1807-8 The English take possession of the Danish fleet, - - 453 " Napoleon sends an army to Portugal. The royal family emigrate to Brazil, - - - - - - - 453 1808 Napoleon meets Ferdinand, king of Spain, at Bayonne, and com- pels him to abdicate, ------ 454 11 The Spanish patriots defeat the French, - - - 455 11 VIMEIRA. English under Wellesley defeat the French, - 455 1809 C OR UNNA. English defeated. Sir John Moore's death, -455 " Fifth Coalition against France. England, Austria, &c, - 456 " ABENSBERG, LAND SHUT, ECKMUHL, Aspem, Es- sling, WAGRAM. Battles between the French, under Na- poleon, and the Austrians, - - . - - - 456 '* Peace of Vienna, — followed by the divorce of Josephine, and Napoleon's marriage to Maria Louisa, - - - 456 " TALAVERA. Wellesley defeats the French, - - -457 1812 America declares war against England, on account of spoliations of commerce, and impressment of seamen, - - -465 " Napoleon invades Russia with half a million of men, - -458 " Aug. 17, SMOLENSKO.— Sept. 7, BORODINO. The French defeat the Russians, ----- 459 " Sept. 14, The burning of Moscow, - - - -459 " Oct. 19, Napoleon begins his disastrous retreat from Russia, -459 " Nov. 28, Passage of the Berezina, - - - -459 " DETR OIT.— QUEENSTO WN. The Americans unsuccessful, 466 " At sea they take the Guerriere and Macedonian frigates, • 466 " Earthquake at Caraccas impedes the revolution, - - - 471 1813 The Massacre of FRENCHTOWN, - - - -466 " YORK.— LAKE ERIE.— Near the THAMES. Americans victorious, ------- 466 " The Sixth and Grand Coalition against France, - -460 " May 2, LUTZEN— May 19, BAUTZEN.— Oct. 15, Leipsic. Battles between the French under Napoleon, and the allied armies, .-....- 460 1814 March 31. The allies enter Paris, - - - - 461 " April 11. Napoleon abdicates. He goes to Elba. Louis XVIII. king of France, ...... 462 « « CHIP RE WA .—BR ID GE WA TE E.—PLA TTSB UR G BA Y. Americans victorious, .... 466 " British take Washington and burn the public buildings, - - 467 1815 Jan. 8, NEW ORLEANS. Americans, under Jackson, vic- torious, -------- 467 " Peace of Ghent, between England and America, - - 468 " March 1, Napoleon lands in France. His reign of a hundred days. -------- 462 " June 18, WATERLOO. Napoleon defeated by the allies under Wellington, J- - - - - - - 463 " July 15, Napoleon delivers himself to the English and is sent to St. Helena, - - - - - - - 464 " Brazil independent of Portugal. Pedro I. is king, - -469 " Americans chastise the Algerines, - 488 1818 Congress of Sovereigns ("Holy Alliance,") at Aix-la-Chapelle, - 484 XXX Modern His. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A. D. 1819 ' Manchester riots. Page of 400 Military execution or massacre persons, - 1819-20 American republic obtains Florida of Spain, 1820 George IV. succeeds his father, - - 1820-1 Struggles of the people in various parts of Europe for constitu- tional liberty, ..----•- 1821 May 5, Death of Napoleon at St. Helena, 1822 Congress at Verona. England takes a stand against the aggres- sions of the Holy Alliance, - " The Greeks having rebelled against the Turks, form a govern- ment, --.----- " Massacre of Scio. 70,000 killed and made prisoners, 1823 Iturbide having been made emperor of Mexico, is compelled to abdicate, ....... 1824 Lord Byron dies at Missolonghi, - - - - - 1825 Peace of Yandabu, by which England gains a portion of the Birman empire, ...... 1824-5 Lafayette in America. " The Nation's Guest," 1826 July 4, Death of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, - 1827 The Treaty of London. By which England, France, and Russia regulate the affairs of Greece, - " NA VARINO. These powers defeat the Turks and compel the sultan to liberate the Greeks, - 1829 Catholic Relief Bill passes the British parliament, 1830. William IV. succeeds George IV. in England, - " July 26-7-8, Three Days Revolution in Paris. Louis Philip made king, - - . - 1831 Pedro I. of Brazil, abdicates in favor of his son Pedro II., and goes to Portugal to establish his daughter Maria in that kingdom, ....... 1830-1 Attempted revolution in Poland, 1832 Reform Bill passes the British parliament, by which the "rotten boroughs" are disfranchised, and Manchester and other cities represented, - - - - - - - 480 " General Jackson vetoes the National Bank, - - -4911 " Belgium independent. Leopold made king, - - - 487/ " Peace of Adrianople, between the Turks and Russians. Ad- vantageous to Russia, ------ 485 " KONIEH. Ibrahim of Egypt defeats.the Turks. England and other powers prevent Egypt from becoming independent, - 4855 1833 Slavery abolished in the British colonies, - 4803 " In Spain, Ferdinand VII. succeeded by Isabella II. - - 4865 " Santa Ana at the head of affairs in Mexico, - - - 4722 " British interfere to protect their merchants in an unrighteous traffic in opium, and compel the Chinese government to pay a large indemnity, give up the island of Hong-Kong, &c 1834 Quadruple Alliance. England and France unite with Portu- gal and Spain to uphold constitutional government under the young queens Maria and Isabella II. - - - - 470 " A decree made in Greece to encourage female education, - 477/ 1835 The Florida War, - - 492 1836 March 2, Texas declares independence, - 478 489' 478 i 474 464 479 475. 475. 472 476: 481 489 i; 490) - 476 i 476 479) 480) 486'. 470 487; - 482. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XXXI Modern April 21, SAN JACINTO. The Texians defeat the Mexicans , and gain their independence, .... - 474 "Victoria succeeds William IV. in England, - - - 481 "The Revulsion." Great pecuniary distress in the American States, - - - - - - - 491 Napoleon reinterred in Paris, - - - - 488 Contest in' Rhode Island. " The People's Constitution," - 494 Death of president Harrison, .... -493 Thomas W. Dorr illegally elected governor, attempts to make war on the constituted authorities of Rhode Island, - - 494 The Ashbur&m Treaty, between England and America, - 493 The Greeks, by a bloodless revolution, obtain a constitution which limits the power of the king, - - - . 477 The "Free Church of Scotland," - - - -482 Study of the Chronological Illustrations. The Temple of Time (see Frontispiece) is the perspective delineation of a grand imaginary edifice, which represents the whole of Time from the creation of the world to the present day. Each pillar or column represents a century. The Christian era (or the birth of Christ) is here represented by a star # . Beginning at the distance of this star, from the foreground, the columns representing centuries are num- bered 1st, 2d, 3d, to 19th, which is the number of the present century. That is left not quite half finished, as now fl 844,) there remains T Y 1921. < OF ABRAHAM. CHAPTER I. The earliest History of Man. 1. The face of the whole earth,with a few exceptions, is now Ancient His known. The family of man is divided by natural distinctions, PERI0D L into different races ; and by the boundary lines of the countries chap. i. which they inhabit, into different nations, each governed by its n^-v~^> own peculiar laws. 2. If we take a map representing the entire world, and inquire concerning the length of time, which the nations it now presents have been known, we shall find in looking back to different The human periods, that by degrees, their names and places disappear. In race. A. D. 1491, the whole continent of America was, as to those back ng from whom we derive the knowledge of history, as though it through the were not. A little before the birth of our Savior, Great Britain, time, na- the land of our ancestors, was unknown, as was the whole of tl0 {l 1 ] 1 s e ^ g d _ u " the northern part of Europe, the southern part of Africa, and appear, the eastern part of Asia. If we go back 2000 years from the Christian era, no traces of inhabitants are to be found on the face of the earth, except a few comparatively small nations, near the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean sea. 3. Hence, even without referring to the sacred writings, we Probable j should conclude, that the human race probably had their origin a ~Je™w?th i in that region ; and calculating their progress from what is scripture ) known of later times, we should also conclude that they might Period I. Chap. I. — 1. What part of the face of the earth is now known? How is the human family divided by nature ? How by the bound- ary lines of countries? — 2. When was the whole continent of America un- known ? What countries were unknown at the birth of our Savior ? If we go back 2000 years from the Christian era, what inhabitants shall we find on the earth ? — 3. What inferences in regard to the origin and progress of man- kind should we derive from these facts ? 5 33 34 GOD CREATES. A ncient His . h ave been, supposing they commenced with a single family, about two thousand years from the period last mentioned, in coming to the state in which we then find them. But it is upon the sacred writings alone, that we depend for historical information concerning the creation, and first abode of the human 4004. race. These, the calculations of Scripture dates most approved by the learned, fix at 4004 years before the Christian era,* and ^of man. " m tne region east of the Mediterranean sea. Thus we find our confidence in the truth of the Sacred Scriptures, greatly strength- ened by a comprehensive view of universal history. 4. Those nations which have not possessed the Scriptures, have held traditions concerning gods and goddesses, and the origin of men and things, full of monstrous absurdities. Some Ridiculous men, calling themselves philosophers, have, in the pride of their uSsewho own fancied wisdom, rejected the Scriptures, and have under - rejee.tthe taken to make out systems of the world from conjecture; and, scriptures. ^ their ridiculous theories, they have made themselves the jest of succeeding ages. Supposing changes more miraculous than any related in Scripture-, they have not assigned any power, adequate to their production. .■ 5. Jn the infancy of the human species, God appears to have dealt with man, in a manner, different from the ordinary course g j of his providence, at the present day. An earthly parent is more ings with with his helpless and ignorant children, than with those who have Tnfancyof ex P ei *ience. The first duty which he teaches them, is implicit the race, obedience to his will ; and when he finds them wayward and disobedient, he chastises them, and sometimes, with severity. Thus, as the Scriptures inform us, did the Almighty Parent deal with man, in the infant state of his being. 6. Adam and Eve, whom God had created in his own image, pure and holy, disobeyed his command, and were driven from jhe trans- their first abode, the beautiful garden of Eden.f On the day of . punishment, their disobedience, the sentence of death was passed upon them. The man was condemned to earn his bread by the sweat of his brow; and the woman, who had been seduced by flattery and undue curiosity, to be the first transgressor, was punished with a double curse. Yet did God, in his mercy, then promise, that promise, of her seed should One arise, to bruise the head of the de- ceiver. Thus, according to Moses, the promise of a Savior * We follow the chronology of Archbishop Usher. t Some suppose Paradise to have been located in the lovely vale of Cashmire. The . Himmalah mountains, the highest in the world, tower above it. The four rivers mentioned in Scripture are supposed to be the Indus, the Ganges, Burrampooter, and Jihon. 3. On what must we depend for our knowledge of the creation and first abode of the human race ? How long is it since the Creation ? Where was the first abode: of man ? How is our confidence in the Scriptures affected by a comprehensive view.of history ? — 4r. What kind of traditions and theo- ries have been made by those who have not the Scriptures, or reject them ? — 5. How did God deal with the human race in their infancy ? — 6. Where is the garden of Eden supposed to have been ? (See note.) What sentence was pronounced on Adam and Eve for their transgression ? What promise of mercy was at the same time made to them ? GOD DESTROYS. 35 was coeval with the fall of man, and his need of a Re- Ancient His - deemer. period i. 7. We are informed that the life of man, before the deluge, CHAP « *• extended to ten times its present period. Most of the know- ^-^vx-/ ledge, now possessed by the human race, is derived from the experience and observation of the men who have lived before them ; but in those days there were no such stores of knowledge laid up. A life of several hundred years would give each man Longevityof time to learn much from his own experience, and thus facilitate ^S^ans! 1 " the general improvement of the race. Hence it seems very na- tural to suppose, that God should have allotted to men a longer period of existence at the first. As there are no authorities to consult on this part of history, except the sacred volume, which is, or should be in the hands of every one, we shall refer the student to that for particular facts ; mentioning only those which are more immediately connected with the course of events, as detailed by those historians, who, in distinction from the sacred, are termed profane writers. 8. The most remarkable of these events is the universal deluge ; when God, again, for the sins of mankind, smote the earth with a curse ; and swept away, at once, the whole of a B c wicked generation, who had filled the earth with violence. Yet 2348. when the fountains of the deep were broken up, and when those The Delu s e - who had climbed to the tops of the mountains were buried in the waste of waters, Noah, a righteous man, who had, in obe- dience to the command of God, prepared an ark for himself and family, rode safely over the mighty ruin. 9. The Scripture account of this awful event, is confirmed by the researches and discoveries of those, who have examined the structure of the earth. In thus pursuing the modern science of geology, they find evidences of former changes and convul- sions, not to be ascribed to any causes now known to be in operation. And, independently of any other testimony, they conclude that many centuries after the world was originally C onfirms g the peopled, animals and vegetables were destroyed by an over- BC JJJJJJ l whelming deluge. The great geologist, Cuvier, gives it as his opinion, that " the event cannot be dated much farther back than five or six thousand years." This coincides with the date of the deluge, as drawn from the Mosaic records. A farther source of evidence, is found in the traditionary accounts of nations holding no intercourse with each other. The Chinese, Greeks, Tradition Hindoos, and the American Indians, all agree in the general al80 ' fact, that in remote antiquity, there was an inundation, which overwhelmed the earth. 10. The ark of Noah rested on Mount Ararat, in Armenia. 7. Whence is most of the knowledge now possessed by the human race, derived ? What makes it natural to suppose that God allotted a longer dura- tion to human life at first ? — &. What was the occasion of the universal de- luge ? Who survived it ? — 9. What have we to confirm the Scripture ac- count ? Where does Cuvier, reckoning from geological appearances, fix the date ? What nations have traditions of a universal deluge? 36 THE SECOND FATHER OF MANKIND. Ancient His. PERIOD I. CHAP. II. 2300. Division of countries among the sons of Noah. Coincidence between prophecy and known facts. See Gen. ix. 25, 26, 27. Indefinite- ness of our knowledge of remote antiquity. 2300 Tower of Babel. The four earliest nations. When the dove had returned with the olive branch, to show that the waves of God's wrath were assuaged, the sole patri- arch of the human race went forth with his three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth, to take possession of his wide and solitary domain. 11. The Mosaic history informs us, that Shem and his de- scendants dwelt in Eastern and Southern Asia ; Ham and his posterity, Canaan and others, in Western Asia and Africa; and that the " Isle« of the Gentiles," meaning probably the Me- diterranean, European and Caucasian regions, were divided among the children of Japheth. Modern physiologists have classed the human species under three corresponding races, namely, the Mongol, the Negro, and the Caucasian. The Cau- casian race, in their progress, have conquered great portions of the territories, inhabited by the Mongols in Asia and America, while the Negro race are held in servitude by their brethren. 12. We cannot indeed tell exactly, what places on the earth's surface were designated by the names of the countries mentioned at very remote periods ; for it was not until ages after, that geography was cultivated as a science, or that accurate maps existed. The sacred historian, after speaking of the loca- tion of the descendants of Noah, informs us, that they all col- lected on the plain of Shinar with the impious design to build a tower whose top should reach to heaven. God confounded their language, and they then separated; wandering to distant countries. 13. We soon begin to find traces of such connections among particular families or tribes, as gave them the name of nations. The earliest mentioned are the Assyrians, the Babylonians or Chaldeans, the Egyptians, and the Jews. Some obscure ac- counts of Phoenicia also extend back to this period, and in Greece, Sieyon is supposed by some to have been founded. CHAPTER II. Assyria. — Egypt. Babylon 1- The name of Assyria was derived from Ashur, the son of founded by Shem, who was supposed to have been driven out of his pro- Nimrod. vinces by Nimrod, the grandson of Ham. Nimrod, is said to lO. Where did Noah's ark rest?— 11. What, according to the best cal- culations, were the respective locations of Noah's descendants ? How do mo- dern physiologists class the human species ? — 12. Can we tell exactly what places were designated by the names of the countries mentioned at this pe- riod? Why can we not?' What occasioned the dispersion of mankind after the deluge ?— 13. Which were the four earliest nations mentioned in history ? —13. Which were the next two ? What was the first city of Greece ? Chap. II.— 1. Whence is the name of Assyria derived ? GREAT STRUCTURES BUILT BY ENSLAVED MASSES. 37 have founded Babylon, about one hundred and fifty years after the deluge, and is believed to be the same with Belus or Baal, who was afterwards worshipped as a god. The kingdoms of Assyria and Babylonia, were at first distinct; but when Ninus, the son of Ashur, ascended the Assyrian throne, he conquered the adja- cent provinces, and rendered Babylonia tributary. Ninus com- pleted the magnificent city of Nineveh, which his father had begun. This accomplished prince, and his beautiful and highly gifted queen Semiramis, are treated in the marvellous records of historians, as the hero and heroine of the age in which they lived. 2. Ninyas, their son, being an infant, at the time of his fa- ther's death, Semiramis governed the kingdom. She extended her dominions by the conquest of Ethiopia, and carried the ter- ror of her arms beyond the Indus ; but her Indian expedition proving unsuccessful, she returned, with the loss of two-thirds of her army. She is said to have commenced many of those noble structures, that adorned and rendered famous the city of Babylon, which she made the capital of her kingdom ; and to have employed in the execution of her plans, the labours of two millions of men. 3. Ninyas, who succeeded Semiramis, was an indolent and ef- feminate prince; and is charged with the crime of being acces- sory to his mother's death. The Scriptures mention Am- raphel, king of Shinar, which was in the land of Chaldea, and Pul, who is supposed to be the father of Sardanapalus, and in whose reign the Ninevites repented at the preaching of Jonah. 4. EGYPT. — Menes or Misraim, the son of Ham, is supposed to have been the founder of the first Egyptian monarchy ; but of his immediate successors, nothing is known. Some ages had elapsed when Busiris, it is said, built Thebes, and made it the seat of his empire. That a most wonderful city, called by this name, was built, we know, for remains of it exist to this day ; but there are only traditionary accounts of its founder. We are told that Osymandias, another Egyptian king, erected magnificent edifices, adorned them with sculpture and painting, and founded the first library mentioned in history. Its title or inscription was, " The office or treasury for the diseases of the soul." At this period the Egyptians had already divided the year into twelve months, each consisting of thirty days and six hours. 5. Though little is known of the early history and internal revolutions of the kingdom of Egypt, yet it is considered as the Ancient His. 2159. Nineveh built by Ninus. Semiramis conquers Ethiopia. (It extended east of the Red sea.) 2065. Ninyas. 2188. Menes founds the first Egyp- tian mon- archy. Library of rolled MSS. in hierogly- phics. 1. Who is supposed to have been the founder of Babylon ? When was it founded ? By whom were Assyria and Babylonia united ? Who completed Nineveh? Who was the queen of Ninus ? What were the characters of Ninus and of Semiramis ? — %. Who were Amraphel and Pul ? — 3. W hat is said of Ninyas? — *. Who founded the Egyptian monarchy? When? Who is said to have found Thebes ? How do we know that such a city as Thebes really existed ? What is said of the first library mentioned in history ? How had the Egyptians divided the year ? 38 EGYPT GIVES SCIENCE TO GREECE. Ancient His , point where civilization began, and from whence the rays of period I. knowledge emanated to other portions of the earth ; particularly chap. ii. to Greece, through which channel, discoveries made by the ^~vv^ Egyptians have come to us. About 2085 B. C. Egypt is said to have been invaded by the Shepherd-kings from Arabia or ^w»?». Phoenicia, who conquered Lower Egypt, and Memphis, and vaded P bySie reigned over them two hundred and sixty years. From the ex- Shepherd pulsion of the Shepherd-kings until the arrival of Joseph, the Ings * son of Jacob, there is a chasm in Egyptian history. Note. — While it is held by historians of Christian countries, that Shemis the father of the Mongols, (i. e. the Asiatics and aboriginal Americans ;) Ham of the Negro race, and Japheth the Caucasian, (i. e. Europeans, and their descendants in America); it is maintained by Mahometan writers, that Shem is the progenitor of the Eastern nations — Hebrews, Persians, Ara- bians, and also of the Greeks and Romans, (to whom is assigned the do- minion of the world, and from whom all good is to proceed,) — that Ham is the father of the southern nations — Moors, Africans, and Indians, (to whom is assigned the lot of slavery, but they are to be beloved and cared for by the other races,) and that Japheth is the ancestor of the northern nations, Turks, Tartars, Germans, Chinese, Slavi,and native Americans. Though both accounts are in degree supposititious, yet, that of the Christian writers is the more probable, as better corresponding with natural divisions. A great question arises, how the differences, which are now found in the physi- cal and mental structures of the different races, have occurred, they having a common parentage. We believe, that God to suit his own wise purposes, miraculously changed the colour and structure of some of the first descend- ants of Noah. This supposes an omission of an important fact in the Scrip- ture history; but it leaves, in unquestioned veracity, the revelation we 5. Why is Egypt important in history ? Through what channel have the discoveries of the Egyptians come down to us ? By whom was Egypt invaded ? What part of Egypt did they conquer, and how long did they reign ? Abraham, about to sacrifice his son, takeB the lad from his unsuspecting mother. PERIOD II. THE CALLING FROM } B. C. c THE INSTITUTION OF THE PASSOVER TO 1491. OF ABRAHAM. AND THE EXODUS OF THE ISRAELITES. CHAPTER I. The Israelites or Jews. PERIOD II. CHAP. I. 1921. The man of faith re- 1. Descended from the stock of Shem, whom the prophetic -Ancient His benediction of Noah had set forth as more blessed than his brethren, Abraham, the progenitor of the Messiah, the father of the faithful, and the founder of the Jewish nation, dwelt in the country of the Chaldees; and retained, in the midst of an idolatrous and corrupt people, the knowledge of the true God. Journeying from thence with his family, his retinue, and his flocks, he rested for a time in Haran, where Terah, his father, ceives acaii died. Here, God called him, and bade him depart from his promise, kindred, and go into the land of Canaan, that he might behold a country, which his seed should inherit. The obedient Abra- ham went with his family, including his nephew, Lot; and so- journed in the promised land. 2. A famine compelled him to go into Egypt in pursuit of Between what dates does this period of Ancient History find its place on the Chronographical Picture of Nations ? What nations were known during this period ?* Chap. I. — 1. Who was the founder of the Jewish nation? From what stock was he descended ? Where did he dwell ? Where was he when God called him ? For what purpose was Abraham called to go into Canaan ? Who accompanied him? * We recommend to teachers to repeat these questions at the beginning of each Period. o9 40 FAITH, FORGIVENESS, AND COMPASSION. indent His. corn. On his return to Canaan, he divided the land with Lot, taking the plain of Mamre, and giving to Lot the valley of the Jordan. In an invasion of the dominions of the princes inha- biting this valley, by Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, (afterwards Persia,) Amraphael, king of Shinar, and others, Lot was taken prisoner. On this occasion Abraham armed his trained servants, and making a sudden and unexpected assault upon the con- querors, recovered Lot, the other prisoners, and the spoils. The limited extent of the tribes, which at this time are introduced into the records of history, may be estimated by the number Abraham led forth in this military excursion, which was only three hundred and eighteen. 3. Lot, by divine command, abandoned Sodom and the other wicked cities of the plain \ when they were destroyed by fire. Abraham removed from Mamre, and dwelt in Gerar, where he led a peaceful life, changing the place of his tent as the wants of his flocks and herds required ; claiming, however, the land of Canaan as his inheritance. 4. Abraham had at this time two sons ; Ishmael, from whom probably descended the wandering tribes of Arabia, and Isaac, his heir, whom, in obedience to God's command, he took from his fond and unsuspecting mother, to sacrifice upon mount Mo- riah ; but God having tested his faith, provided a victim in the place of the pious youth. 5. Jacob, afterwards called Israel, that son of Isaac who in- herited the promise, had twelve sons, among whom he distin- guished with blameable partiality, the young and amiable Joseph. Him, therefore, his brethren envied and hated ; and they sold him into Egypt. Here he became prime-minister to Pharaoh, the reigning king ; and when his father pressed with famine, sent thither his remaining sons to buy bread, Joseph, after, having, by seeming severities, made them sensible of his power, showed them, that he was too generous and noble to harbor revenge. Weeping, he said to the trembling company, " I am Joseph your brother ; be not grieved, God sent me before you." His father Jacob removed to Egypt, with his whole fa- mily, including Judah, in whose line was the Messiah. The Egyptians lightly esteemed their pastoral occupation, and Joseph assigned them, for a separate residence, the country of Goshen. 6. After the death of Joseph, the Israelites, though cruelly treated, greatly increased in number. A deliverer of the nation was raised up, in the person of Moses. The command of the king of Egypt had gone forth, to slay all the male infants of the Jews. Jochebed the wife of Amram gave birth to a son. She concealed him for a time; but at length, in pious trust, she com- 2. Why did he go to Egypt ? With whom did he divide the land of Ca- naan, and how did he divide it ? When Lot was taken prisoner what was the conduct of Abraham ?— 3. What befel the wicked cities of the plain ? Whi- ther did Abraham remove from Mamre ? — 4r. What sons had Abraham ? How did Jehovah test the patriarch's faith ? — 5. Which son of Isaac inherited the promise ? How many sons had Jacob ? Relate briefly the history of Jo- seph ? — 6. How were the Israelites treated in Egypt after Joseph's death ? PERIOD II. CHAP. I. 1912. Lot made prisoner by Chedorlao- mer is re- taken by Abraham. 1S9T Sodom destroyed. Abraham's faith is se- verely tried. 1?29. Joseph sold into Egypt. 1*06. Jacob goes to Egypt. 16*5. Joseph dies. 1511. Moses born. THE PASSOVER INSTITUTED. 41 mitted him to God. Having made a little ark or basket, she Ancien t gjfr put the child within it, and placed him among the flags on the period ii. brink of the river Nile. Miriam, his young sister, watched his CHAP - "• fate. The princess of Egypt, Pharaoh's daughter, came with ^^^^>^ her maidens to bathe in the stream. She looked upon the weep- ing child, with compassion and tenderness. She rescued him adopted by from the water, and at Miriam's suggestion, restored him for a ^aSter* season to the arms of his mother. The princess then adopted him for her son, and caused him to be educated in all the learn- ing of the Egyptians. 7. Moses was, doubtless, early made acquainted with the se- cret of his birth, for amidst the splendors of a court, he thought in bitterness upon the wrongs of his kindred. Seeing an Egyp- tian smite a Hebrew, his indignation broke forth, and he slew him. For this offence, he was obliged to flee from the face of Pharaoh ; and he went and dwelt in the land of Midian. Here God, who had heard the cry of the oppressed, spake to him 1494. from the burning bush, and gave him commandment to return The to Egypt, for the deliverance of his chosen people. Afterwards Isr pa S ! s tes he was made an instrument to perform many wonderful works through the in the sight of the Egyptians. At length, the severe judgments e sea * of God compelled Pharaoh to consent to the departure of the Hebrews. No sooner, however, had they left the country, than repenting of his permission, the impious monarch pursued them to the borders of the Red Sea. Here the man of God lifted his mysterious wand over the waters ; they parted, and the Israel- ites went forward, through the fearful pass. The Egyptians at- tempting to follow, the sea closed over them. 8. The passover, a Jewish feast, was by Jehovah's command, 1491. instituted in commemoration of the deliverance of the Israelites pasS ovlr in- from the last plague of the Egyptians ; and is the most remark- stituted. able of the types, which foreshadowed the future coming of the Savior of the world. CHAPTER II. Greece receives and sends forth Colonies. 1. Greece was originally inhabited by various tribes, of whom the Pelasgi and the Hellenes were the most powerful. The 1856- Pelasgi, a savage people, inhabited the Peloponnesus, and under f0 u n g d °^ Inachus, are said to have founded Jlrgos and Sicyon. The 6. Relate briefly the early history of Moses ?— T. How did the wrongs of his kindred affect him, and what did he do? To what land did he flee? What commission there receive, and in what manner ? Relate the manner of the exode, or departure of the Israelites. — 8. Give an account of the passover. 6 42 GREECE IN ITS EARLIEST STATE. Ancient His- PERIOD II. CHAP. II. ThePelasgi. The Helle- nes divided into four races. 1556. Athens founded. 1493. Letters brought into Egypt. more humane Hellenes, of whom Deucalion was leader, were originally, a small tribe residing in the north of Thessaly ; but becoming powerful, they spread themselves over Greece. The Pelasgi, driven from all their possessions, except Arcadia and the region of Dodona, are said to have migrated in various di- rections; — to Italy, and to Crete, and other islands of the Medi- terranean. Probably some of them resided in Thessaly, as a district of that country has always borne their name. The Hellenes were divided into four races, distinguished from each other by many peculiarities of language and customs. These were, the lonians, (of whom the principal were the Athenians •,) the Dorians, (of whom the principal were the Spartans ;) the JEolians, and the Jichaians. The traditionary accounts of these early ages represent them as in a savage state, wholly ignorant of husbandry. 2. Ce crops, bringing a colony from Egypt, prevailed upon the inhabitants of Attica, to submit to him as their king ; he di- vided the country into twelve districts, founded the city of Athens, and established the Areopagus — a council of citizens chosen for their wisdom, and wealth, and to whom was en- trusted the power of punishing capital offences. 3. Phoenician colonies settled in Crete, in Rhodes, and in several parts of Greece. It is said by some, that they brought with them letters and music, and a more accurate method of computing time, than had hitherto been adopted. Most writers however, are of opinion, that letters were brought into Greece by a Phoenician colony under Cadmus, who settled in Boeotia, and founded the city of Thebes. Chap. IT. — I. Give an account of the Pelasgi. Find on the map oi Greece Argos and the several places mentioned. Give an account of the Hellenes. Into what races were they divided ? — 2. Give an account of the founding of Athens. What was the Areopagus ? — 3. Give an account of the founding of Thebes. When and by whom were letters brought into Greece ? Review of the Chapter. — Who was Inachus ? Deucalion? Cecrops ? Cadmus ? (It is recommended that teachers often question, as a review, concerning the characters mentioned in the lesson.) PERIOD III. FROM } B. C. THE INSTITUTION > 1491. ^ OF THE PASSOVER, TO THE DEATH I 980. $ CHAPTER I. OF SOLOMON. Palestine. — Phoenicia. — Egypt. 1. When the Israelites, under the guidance of Moses, left Egypt, they directed their course towards the land of Canaan. While they were encamped in the neighbourhood of Mount Sinai, God gave them the ten commandments, or the moral law, under the most awfully impressive circumstances. Moses, by his direc- tion, formed a civil constitution, and enacted laws for the na- tion. God, under his name Jehovah, was declared their king, and hence their government was a theocracy. Purity of reli- gious worship was the vital principle of their laws. To pre- sent an insuperable barrier to polytheism, they were totally for- Period III. — Chap. I. — 1. Whither went the Israelites? What occurred at Mount Sinai? What did Moses by God's direction? What was the Jewish government ? Why ? What was its vital principle ? 43 Ancient His. PERI'D Hi. CHAP. I. 44 JOSHUA. Ancient His- PERI'D III. CHAP. I. \fter forty years the promised land is reached. 1452 Noses dies. Joshua suc- ceeds Moses. Vindication of the Scriptures. 1451. Division of Canaan un- der Joshua. The Judges. bidden to intermingle with other nations, who, at this time,.| were universally idolaters. 2. After wandering forty years, during which the fathers of 1 the nation had descended to their graves, and their children had! become fitted by hardships to contend with the powerful tribes ; who were in possession of their promised inheritance ; — after they had acquired more knowledge of the God who protected I them, and had learned obedience to his laws, they were per- • mitted to emerge from the wilderness, and behold spread outt before them the object of their hopes, the land of promise. . After having obtained a victory over the Midianites, (one of the i tribes who inhabited this land,) and when in sight of the pro- mised inheritance, Moses died. He was the greatest of law- givers, the first of historians, and favored beyond all other men, , with direct communications from God. 3. Joshua succeeded Moses, and during a seven years' wai with the powerful tribes who inhabited Canaan* he led on the Israelites to conquest, and to the possession of a large portion of the country ; when, contrary to the divine command, which had directed the total extermination of the idolaters, and fatally for the future peace of the nation, the Israelites laid down their arms. 4. Impious men have spoken against this command of God given to the Jews. But he who creates, has a right to destroy, by storm or earthquake, or by the hands of such executioners as he shall choose ; and when he gives his commands to men amidst such awful signs as dividing a sea, leading them by a pillar of fire, and giving them bread from heaven, they have no right to dispute his will. Mankind are not, however, to derive hence, a license to persecute and destroy one another, on pre- tences of divine intimations, drawn from uncertain sources. 5. The Jews soon surveyed the land, and divided it among the tribes. At the death of Joshua, no successor being appointed, the government was exercised by chiefs, called Judges. This people now reaped the fruits of their disobedience to the divine commands. They not unfrequently relapsed into the idolatry of the surrounding nations, and when compelled to contend with the tribes who dwelt within their borders, were repeatedly delivered into their hands. * These tribes were numerous. Among those frequently mentioned in Scripture are the Midianites, the Amorites, the Jebusites, the Hivites, the Hittites, the Amalekites and the Philistines. This latter nation, who in the days of the Judges conquered the Israelites, are supposed by some to have been a colony from Egypt. They were a sea-faring people, and worshipped a sea-god, Dagon. 1. Why were the Jews prohibited intercourse with other nations? — 2. What was the length of their sojourn in the wilderness ? What had hap- pened during the time ? What good purpose was effected by these hard- ships ? What is said of Moses ? — 3. Who was leader of the Israelites after his death ? What did the Jews in regard to the idolatrous inhabitants of the country ? — 4:. Why were the Jews right in obeying the commands of God, to destroy the heathen idolaters ? Does this justify fanatical men, who pre- tend to inward revelations, in doing similar acts ? — 5. What did the Jews with the conquered territory ? What happened at the death of Joshua? THE ROYAL POET. 45 6. The reign of the Judges continued about 460 years. The most renowed among them were Deborah and Barak, Gideon, Jephthah, and lastly, the prophet Samuel. In his days, the re- bellious Israelites demanded a king, and Saul was appointed. He carried on wars with the Amalekites and with the Philistines, to whom the Israelites had previously been forty years in subjection. 7. On his death, David, the son of Jesse, who had distin- guished himself in the Philistine wars, was called to the throne of Judah. This young man united qualities seemingly incom- patible. He was beautiful almost to effeminacy, and at the same time terrible in arms. He was cool and deliberate in counsel ; yet possessed of such tender sensibility, that he keenly felt all the emotions of love, friendship, parental fondness — and, finally, of that best affection of the heart, devotion to his God. His accomplishments were no less various, combining a pro- found knowledge of war and politics, a skill in music that could calm the madness of Saul, and a talent for poetry, which in the department of sacred song, has, to this day, never been equalled. To this talent, directed by inspiration, we owe the inimitable Psalms. Such was David, beloved by God and man. Yet even he sinned ; but being rebuked of God, by the prophet Nathan, he humbled himself, and bitterly repented. Hence we find, in his devotional poems, a deep strain of penitential humility. 8. David becoming sole monarch of all the tribes of Israel, he restored the purity of worship, which, under Saul, had de- clined. He took Jebus, a strong fortress, which had remained in possession of the Jebusites, and on its site he built the city of Jerusalem, in which he resided. He conquered the Philis- tines, Edomites, and Moabites. He made Syria a Jewish pro- vince, and extended his frontiers to the farthest limits of the pro- mised land. He formed an alliance with the Tyrians, and from them obtained many valuable articles of merchandise. He made many costly preparations for building a temple for the worship of God ; but left the execution of his design, to Solomon, his son and successor. 9. Solomon early made wisdom his choice ; and while he kept it, his nation was elevated to its utmost height of splendor and power. He was surrounded by bold and designing ene- mies, but he triumphed over them. His foreign treaties se- cured the peace of his kingdom ; and his alliance with Hiram, king of Tyre, furnished many of the splendid decorations of his magnificent temple. In his later years, Solomon fell into the sins of licentiousness and idolatry, and thus lost the favor of God, and brought distress upon his country. Ancient His. PERI'D III. CHAP. I. 1055, David reigns over Judah. David in some re- spects the most re- markable of kings. 1048. Reigns over all Israel. He founds Jerusalem. 1004 Solomon builds the temple. He falls into sin and loses his prosperity. 6. How long continued the reign of the Judges ? Which were the most eminent ? Give an account of Saul? — T. Who was David ? What was re- markable in his character ? What in his accomplishments ? By whom was David rebuked? Was he too proud to repent? — 8. What did David be- come ? What acts did he perform ? Who succeeded him ? — '9. What ac- count can you give of Solomon during the different parts of his reign f What did Solomon procure of Hiram ? Who was Hiram ? 46 THE PYRAMIDS. Ancient His. PERPD III. CHAP. I. (»26T Tyre found- ed, accord- ing to Dr. Hales.) Sidon, the oldest city, eclipsed by Tyre. Lake Moeris. Sesostris about 125©. His great empire and edifices. 1183. Ramases. 1082. Cheops builds the first pyramid. 10. Jerusalem had become enriched by the residence of the court, but the country around was impoverished. At length, Solomon had the mortification of losing Syria ; which threw off the yoke of Israel, and became an independent nation. The peace of his declining days was farther disturbed by the insur- rection of Jeroboam and the Edomites. He died after a reign of forty years. 1 1. Phoenicia, was the earliest commercial nation, and was at this period powerful and wealthy. The Phoenicians excelled in manufactures of various kinds. They monopolized the trade of the west, and are supposed to have visited Britain. They had colonies in Sicily, the north of Africa, and the Persian Gulf. Some attribute to them the invention of letters, which, it is believed, they carried into Europe. Tyre, the capital, was in its most flourishing state between 1000 and 332 B. C. The several cities of Phoenicia possessed independent kings, but they united in a league or confederacy. 12. EGYPT. — In the reign of Moeris, who is regarded as the wisest of the Egyptian kings, the lake Moeris is said to have been excavated. This is one of the most wonderful works of Egypt, and was designed to remedy the inconvenience arising from the irregular inundations of the Nile. It communicated with the river by a canal, having sluices which opened or shut either the canal or the lake, as there was occasion. Sesostris is the most renowned of the kings of Egypt, and in his reign the empire reached its utmost extent. He first conquered Ethio- pia, and then overran all the southern part of Asia as far as India. Some believe him to be the same, with that Pharaoh, who in the pride of his power refused to let Israel depart, and was swallowed up in the Red Sea ; but he is generally regarded as much later. To Sesostris is attributed the building of the great sepulchral temple at Thebes, and many other of those wonderful monuments of antiquity, of which the astonished tra- veller still finds the stupendous remains. 13. Ramases or Proteus, is mentioned as a king who kept a sumptuous and hospitable court. Cheops is regarded as the builder of the first pyramid ; Shishak, the invader of the Jews, as that of the second, and Mycerinus, of the third. The Egyp- tians were, as the inhabitants of India now are, divided into castes. Of these, the lowest were herdsmen, and the highest were priests. These, we have reason to believe, had one reli- gious belief for themselves, and taught another to the people ; thus making wicked merchandise of that religious sensibility, which God has given to man, as an evidence that there do exist lO. What happened to Solomon in his later years ? How long was his reign?— 11. What account can you give of Phoenicia? In what did the Phoenicians excel ? Where did they go, and what invent? What can you say of the capital ? — 12. What were the most distinguished kings of Egypt during this period ? For what was the reign of Moeris distinguish- ed ? What can you say of Sesostris? — 13. What of Ramases? What kings erected the pyramids ? How were the Egyptians divided ? What ac- count can you give of the priests ? FABULOUS GODS OF THE ANCIENTS. 47 spiritual influences, and supernatural powers. The idolatry Anctent H ™- which the Egyptian priests taught the people was of a gross perpd hi. kind. One of their gods, Jlnnubis, was represented with a dog's CHAP - n. head ; another, Apis, was worshipped in the form of an ox ; v -^ i ^v^%^ Isis, in that of a cow; and Osiris was often pictured as having the face of a foul-bird. CHAPTER II. Greece. — Troy. 1. The early history of the ancient world is so intermingled with fable, that it is impossible to separate truth from falsehood. The mythology of the Greeks was in part borrowed from that The Greek of the Egyptians ; and in part, the production of their own vivid Mythology. fancy, aided in some cases, as in that of the demi-gods, by tra- ditionary exploits. The Greeks, and afterwards the Romans, regarded as the oldest of the Superior Gods, Saturn, or Chro- nos, signifying in Greek, " Time," who was the son of Uranus, the heavens, and Titaea, the earth. Janus, under whom, with Sa- turn, was the golden age of peace, had a temple at Rome, which was shut whenever peace actually occurred. Rhea, was the wife of Saturn. Jupiter, the king of gods and men, dethroned his father Saturn. He held his court on Mount Olympus, in Thessaly, The supe- with his wife, the proud and jealous Juno. Besides these were se ye nt f e n S j n Neptune, god of the sea ; Apollo, the ruler of the sun, and god number, of music, poetry, and eloquence, with whom were associated the Nine Muses ; Diana, goddess of the moon and of chastity ; Minerva, goddess of wisdom, especially worshipped at Athens; Mars, god of war; Venus, goddess of beauty and love; Vul- can, god of artists who mould iron by fire ; Mercury, the swift winged messenger, patron of those who get wealth, whether by honest or dishonest means ; Bacchus, the inebriate god of wine ; Ceres, goddess of harvests; Vesta, of fire; and Pluto, the god and judge of Hades, or the place of departed spirits. 2. As Inferior Gods, the ancients reckoned Sol, the sun; Luna, the moon ; Nox, the night ; Aurora, the morn, with many other natural objects and general ideas, such as Fortune, indefinite &c. There was much that was highly poetical in this system nu ™ ber °f of idolatry, but unhappily, it was baneful to the virtue of the 'gods?' nations, whose common people (but not their philosophers) be- lieved in, and worshipped such a motley set of immoral divinities ; Chap. II. — 1. Can we now separate the true from the false in ancient story ? From what did the Greeks derive their mythology ? How many (count them,) are there of those they called superior gods ? Give the name and character of each ? — 2. What were reckoned among the inferior deities? "What can you say of this system of idolatry ? 48 THE DEMIGODS. THE FOUR GAMES. Ancient His. PERI'D III. CHAP. II. The priests. 1326. Theseus, makes Athens a re- public. In- stitutes the Isthmian games. Hercules. The four public games. 7T6 Greeks begin to reckon by Olympiads 1400. Laws of Minos. " all of whom," said Mr. Perdicaris, an eloquent Greek, " were believed to have committed crimes, which, had they been perpe- trated in Connecticut, would have sent them to the State's pri- son." There were priests dedicated to the service of particular divinities, but they were not, like those of Egypt, a separate and distinct class of persons. The same man was often, at the same time, a priest and a military commander. 3. The first of the demigods was Theseus, who it is said went about slaying monsters, and performing other wonderful deeds, sometimes of heroism and sometimes of perfidy. Acts of poli- tical importance are, however, ascribed to him. He is said to have introduced into Athens a republican government, and to have delivered that city from a barbarous tribute exacted by the king of Crete, of seven youths and seven virgins, sent to that island once in nine years, to be sacrificed. He instituted the Isthmian games. Hercules was, however, the most renowned of all the demigods. He is represented as the personification of masculine strength, with a lion's skin over his shoulders, and a club in his hand, in honor of his slaying the terrible lion which infested the Nemean forest This was reckoned the ca- pital exploit of his " twelve labors." 4. The public games formed a part of the religious ceremo- nies of the ancient Greeks. The four principal were, the Olympic, celebrated at Olympus once in four years, in honor of Jupiter Olympus. The Olympic games were instituted in re- mote antiquity, by whom is uncertain, but it was not until 776 B. C, that the Greeks began to reckon time by Olympiads, one Olympiad being four years. The Pythian games were in honor of Apollo Pythius ; the Nemean were celebrated once in two years, and the Isthmian, on the isthmus of Corinth, in honor of Neptune, once in four years. The exercises consisted in racing, wrestling, boxing, &c, and success in them was an object of the highest ambition. The prize awarded to the victor was a simple wreath. In the Olympic games it was composed of wild olive, in the Pythian of laurel, and in the others of parsley. 5. The laws and institutions ascribed to Minos, who called himself the son of Jupiter, and reigned over Crete, were reck- oned as models of wisdom among the surrounding nations. Attica, freed from the bloody wars which disturbed the other states of Greece, made more rapid advances towards civilization. On account of the security of its situation, it became a refuge for the wealthy from all parts of Greece, and the increase of its population early enabled it to send colonies into Asia. Am- 2. What difference was there between the priests of the Greeks and the Egyptians ? 3. Who was the first of the demigods ? Who the most re- nowned ? — 4r. What were the public games ? Give an account of the Olympian ? Of the three others ? In what exercises did the combatants contend at the games ? What was the prize of victory ? — 5. Who was king of Crete ? What was the reputation of his laws? What account can you give of Attica at this time ? HISTORY AND POETIC TALES. 49 phictyon, the third king of Athens, established the celebrated Ancient Hh. Amphictyonic Council. This was a confederacy of twelve perpd hi. cities, whose petty princes met at Delphi, twice a year, to con- ch ap. n. cert measures for their common safety, and to settle disputes s 752. ^ OF ROME, BY ROMULUS. CHAPTER I. The Hebrews, or Jews. 1. The history of the Jews is always interesting to Chris- Ancient ms tians, from its association with that religion from which our most assured hopes of immortality are derived ; but at this pe- riod it is so, of itself considered. The wonderful genius of David had extended, the Hebrew dominion from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean, and from Phoenicia to the Red Sea. He had also amassed large treasures, so that Solomon was the most powerful and wealthy prince of his age. The alliance with Tyre, introduced a commerce, which enriched the capital and the court ; but it brought habits of luxury, and the people were grievously taxed. Rehoboam, the son of Solomon ascended the throne. The people pressed him to redress their griev- ances. He replied, " My father made your yoke heavy, but I will add to your yoke." Ten tribes revolted • they recalled Je- roboam, the son of Nebat, who after an unsuccessful insurrec- tion during the life of Solomon, had fled into Egypt, and de- clared him their king. Thus the Hebrew nation became divided into the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel. PERI'D IV. CHAP. I. Alliance with Tyre. Rehoboam. Chapter I. — 1. Why is the history of the Jews interesting to Christians ? Who extended the Hebrew dominion? How far? How does it appear that David was economical ? What effect had the alliance with Tyre upon the Jewish nation ? Who succeeded Solomon ? What was his character ? What petition did he receive ? How reply ? 53 Israel sins. Judea in- 54 THE KINGDOMS OF JUDAH AND ISRAEL. - Ancient His . 2. Prophecy had foretold, that the Messiah should be born of perpd iv. the tribe of Judah, and of the family of David. Besides that chap. i. tribe, there remained to Rehoboam, the representative of this family, only the tribe of Benjamin ; the other ten under Jero- boam, constituting the kingdom of Israel. Of these two king- doms, although Jsrael was the larger, and more populous, yet Judah, possessing the chief city, was the richer ; and their power being nearly equal, their contests were obstinate and destructive. 3. Jeroboam, fearing that the national worship at Jerusalem would draw away his subjects, " caused Israel to sin," by estab- lishing in his kingdom a species of idolatry. Judea was in- vaded by Shishak,* king of Egypt, who pillaged the temple and the king's house, and carried away the spoils. After a reign of seventeen years, Rehoboam was succeeded by his son Abijah, vaded by the who, in an attempt to recover Israel, obtained a victory over Je- Egyptians. ro boam. Asa, his successor, opposed idolatry and encouraged the subjects of Jeroboam to return to their obedience, and to 955. come up to the great national feasts at Jerusalem. During the reign of this pious prince, Judea was peaceful and prosperous. 4. The Israelites receded farther and farther from the religion of their ancestors. Samaria was founded, and made the capital of Israel, by Omri. Syria had become independent, and Ben- 91§. hadad, its king, declared war against Israel, but he was repelled Baal, the by Ahab the son of Omri, a powerful but wicked and idolatrous idol, set up king. Elijah fearlessly encountered four hundred priests of f °by Ahab iP Baal, tne Phoenician idol set up for worship by Ahab : and al- though God, by sending from heaven upon Elijah's sacrifice, the fire for which he prayed, accredited him as his prophet, still he jehosaphat was not regarded. Asa, king of Judah, after a long reign, was ^fiiance succeeded by his worthy son, Jehosaphat, who entered into with Ahab. an alliance with the king of Israel, and married his son Jehoram to Athaliah, daughter of Ahab. 5. Jehu, who had succeeded to the throne of Israel, determin- ing to extirpate the family of Ahab, slew among others, Aha- ziah, then king of Judah and son of Athaliah. This cruel wo- cmeity. man now caused her son's children to be put to death, that she * According to learned conjecture, of Egyptian antiquities, this king had two daughters. The elder, remarkably beautiful, was that " sister spouse" of Solomon, to whom it is supposed the Canticles were addressed, and the other subsequently became the wife of Jeroboam. The sons of Shishak, the "angry brothers" of Solomon's wife, were, it seems, displeased that their sister was subordinate in the harem to the mother of his heir, and this, it is conjectured, led to the Egyptian invasion. 1. Who was Jeroboam? Who made him their king? What two na- tions now existed in Judea ?— % Of how many, and what tribes was each composed ? What advantages did each possess ? — 3. What is further related of Jeroboam ? What disastrous invasion of Judea is related ? Who was king of Israel next after Rehoboam ? Who next, and what was his char- acter ? — 4. What was the condition of the kingdom of Israel ? What became its capital? By whom founded? Who invaded that kingdom? By whom was it defended ? What idol was set up ? By whom ? What pro- phet opposed this impiety ? Who was Jehosaphat ? What alliance was entered into? — 5. What was done by Jehu 914. 55 might reign in Jerusalem. But the design of God, that of - Ancient in* . the seed of David should come the Messiah, was not thus to perpd iv. be frustrated. One infant was saved from the massacre by the chap. ii. compassionate Jehoshaba, wife of Jehoida, the high priest. He ^-^"^^w was concealed for six years ; and at the age of seven, proclaimed king in the temple, by the name of Joash. Athaliah heard the shout, and rushed into the temple, crying treason ! treason ! But she was seized and put to death. Several bloody wars took place, between Israel and Syria, during one of which occurred the distressing siege of Samaria. Her grand- son Joash made king. CHAPTER II. Carthage. — Greece. 1. About this period, a colony of Phoenicians from Tyre, under Dido their queen, settled on the shores of Africa, and built Carthage. As this event happened so much later than the destruction of Troy, the story cannot be true, which is told by Virgil, of the visit to this queen of iEneas, who had escaped from the flames of that city. 2. Sthens was now under the government of hereditary archons, and was gradually acquiring power and rank among the states of Greece. . Lycurgus was of the family of the Her- aclidae, and commonly reckoned the tenth in descent from Her- cules. By his magnanimity in preserving the crown of Sparta for the infant son of a deceased brother, when it was offered to himself, he obtained among the people great and deserved popu- larity ; and during the minority of his nephew, the government was placed in his hands. He gave to Sparta a new and singu- lar constitution, the chief aim of which was to banish luxury, instil public spirit in the place of private interest, and to increase the power of the state, by making it a nation of soldiers. 3. Lycurgus procured a new and equal distribution of land. He compelled every citizen to eat at a public table, where the food was of the simplest kind, and the conversation grave and instructive. He banished commerce and all superfluous arts from Sparta; and forbade the use of any other money than iron coin. He established a senate of twenty-eight members, to be elected by the people, over whom the two kings of Sparta were to preside; also an assembly of the people, which had the power of repealing or sanctioning the decrees of the senate. 4:. Relate the history of Joash ? Chapter II. — 1 . Who was Dido ? For what is she distinguished ? What has Virgil related ? Why can this not be true ? — %. What was the condi- tion of Athens during this period ? Who was Lycurgus ? How did he be- come popular in Sparta ? What did he give to Sparta ? — 3. What were the principal of his institutions ? sm Carthage founded by Dido. Athens. 884. Lycurgus, a Spartan prince. Laws of Lycurgus tend to make a na- tion of sol- diers. 56 THE FAMOUS CONSTITUTION OP LYCURGUS. Ancient His. PERI'D IV. CHAP. II. The Spar- tans sacri- fice private to public virtue. Self-devo- tion of Lycurgus. 886. Lycurgus finds the poems of Homer. Death of Ly- curgus. The children of the Spartans were taken from their parents as the property of the state; the males were trained to arms, and the females rendered hardy and vigorous by exercise and tem- perance. Mothers were taught to rejoice when their sons fell in defence of their country ; and courage was placed first among good qualities. The Spartans were allowed neither fleets nor walls. 4. The institutions of Lycurgus were far from promoting those social affections and domestic virtues, so essential to indi- vidual happiness. The youth were directed to steal messes, herbs, &c, from the public halls and gardens ; but, if detected, they were severely punished. The design was, by teaching them to become dexterous and cunning, to render them more fit for the stratagems of war. A boy having stolen a young fox and hid it in his bosom, suffered it to tear out his vitals, rather than bear the detection of his theft. The Lacedaemonians were for- bidden to follow agriculture, or to cultivate mechanic arts. All servile offices were assigned to the Helots* or slaves, who were treated with great severity. Having bound his countrymen by an oath, to observe his laws until he returned, Lycurgus left Sparta, and returned no more ; thus seeking to insure the per- manency of his institutions by a voluntary banishment. During the 500 years in which the Lacedaemonians adhered to these laws, they were a powerful people. 5. Lycurgus having labored for the good of his own state, travelled over the other portions of Greece. Journeying to Asia, he beheld, with delight, the prosperous condition of the Asiatic colonies. There he discovered the poems of Homer, which he made known to the Dorian conquerors of the Pelo- ponnesus. These poems constitute one of the greatest wonders of mankind. By them we see poetry, the chief of human arts, brought forth at once in its full perfection, by a poet whose birth-place is unknown, and who was probably poor and ob- scure; — yet to whom, the geography of Greece and Asia Minor was certainly known, and probably its early history. 6. According to Plutarch, Lycurgus committed suicide, putting an end to his life by severe abstinence ; but Lucian says, he died a natural death at the age of eighty-five. * These were so called from Helos, a Laconian town, subdued by the Spartans, who took the inhabitants prisoners, and reduced them to the con- dition of slavery. Other slaves were afterwards called Helots. 3. What was the character of these institutions in regard to patriotism or the love of country ? — 4. What in regard to individual happiness and virtue ? What was forbidden to the Spartans ? By whom were servile offices to be performed ? Why were they called Helots ? (See note.) What method did Lycurgus take to ensure permanency to his laws? — 5. What did he observe in Asia Minor ? What did Lycurgus discover ? What do these poems constitute ? — 6. What accounts are given of the death of Lycurgus ? Romulus marking out the limits of Rome. PERIOD V. FROM B. C. THE FOUNDATION £ T52. ^ OF ROME, BY ROMULUS, TO l 323. J, THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. CHAPTER I. Assyria. — Judea and Israel. — Egypt. 1. The sovereign power of Assyria was in the hands of the profligate Sardanapalus, the last and worst of an effeminate race of princes, when Arbaces, governor of Media, and Belesis, governor of Babylon, headed a revolt of the oppressed and mur- muring people. Sardanapalus, besieged in Nineveh, his capi- tal, and too weak to attempt defence, ordered the erection of a funeral pile in his own palace, on which he burnt himself with his wives and treasure. Thus ended the first Assyrian empire ; having existed more than 1450 years. 2. Upon its ruins were raised three kingdoms, Babylon, Me- dia, and Nineveh, or Assyria. Belesis, or Nabonasser, was the first monarch of Babylon; and to him succeeded Merodach Ba- ladan. Tiglath-Pileser was the first king of Nineveh after the destruction of the ancient Assyrian empire. He was solicited for aid by Ahaz, when Judea was invaded by the kings of Israel and Damascus.* He immediately marched an army into Pales- * Syria was not, strictly speaking, a kingdom, for the small cities of which it was composed were not connected under one government; but just before this period, its chief city, Damascus, had subjected most of the smaller cities, and was formed into the kingdom of Damascus. Period V. — Chap. I. — 1. What is said of Sardanapalus? What hap- pened in his reign ? — 2. What three kingdoms are mentioned ? From what empire were they formed ? Who were the first kings of Babylon ? Ancient His, PERIOD V. CHAP. I. Tiglath-Pi- leser sub- dues all east of the Jordan. 60 THE ASSYRIANS DISTRESS THE JEWS. Ancient His. PERIOD V. CHAP. I. 721- Shalmane- ser carries away the ten tribes. 717. Senna- cherib. Hezekiah. Miraculous destruction of Senna- cherib's host. 796. Manasseh. 677- Esarhaddon takes Jeru- salem, but restores it. tine, invaded Syria, possessed himself of Damascus, subdued Hosea, the king of Israel, took possession of all the lands on the farther side of Jordan, and even exacted tribute from Ahaz. . Thus this king, in freeing Judah from the Syrians and Israelites, , had introduced a more dangerous enemy. 3. The throne of Assyria was next occupied by Shalmane- • ser. He besieged Samaria, which after enduring unexampled I horrors from famine, was compelled to surrender; and the ten i tribes now suffering the punishment of their continued idolatry ■ and disobedience, were carried into captivity. Great numbers i of them were transplanted into a mountainous region in the in- • terior of Asia ; and from this time history is silent with respect ; to the fate of these lost tribes. 4. Shalmaneser next besieged the wealthy city of Tyre. , This siege, in which the Tyrians resisted him with the most invincible courage for five years, at length came to an end by his death. Sennacherib, who succeeded him, demanded of ' Hezekiah, the reigning king of Judah, a heavy tribute. After ' this, he marched a powerful army into Egypt, and besieged Pe- lusium. The Egyptians checked his progress by a vigorous re- • sistance. He returned and sent again to Hezekiah, demanding the surrender of Jerusalem. The inhabitants were in conster- nation. The fate of the ten tribes was vivid in their recollec- tion, and they looked fearfully forward to the destruction of their beloved city. The prophet Isaiah exhorted the king to trust in the God of Israel, assuring him that the power of the Assy- rian should be broken. At midnight the Lord sent to the camp i the angel of death; and in the morning one hundred and eighty- five thousand of the proud Assyrians lay dead on the plain. The humbled Sennacherib hasted to return to his capital, and was soon after assassinated. 5. Hezekiah was succeeded on the throne of Judah by his son, the imperious and profligate Manasseh. Esarhaddon, son of Sennacherib, and monarch of Assyria, taking advantage of the internal troubles of Babylon, made himself master of that city, and reunited it to the Assyrian empire. Syria and Palestine, after the defeat of Sennacherib, had thrown off their allegiance. Esarhaddon recovered them, and then removed from their coun- try the remnant of the Israelites ; transplanting at the same time into the cities of Samaria, an idolatrous people from the coun- tries beyond the Euphrates. He took Jerusalem, and carried away prisoner Manasseh, the wicked king of Judah ; but after a few years he released him, and restored to him his kingdom. 6. Jo si ah restored the purity of the national worship, re- paired the temple, and extirpated idolatry from the land. But 2. Give some account of Tiglath-Pileser in connexion with Jewish his- tory. — 3. Who succeeded him on the throne of Assyria ? For what memo- rable events of Jewish history is his reign remarkable ? Is any thing now known of the " ten tribes ?" — 4:. Give an account of the siege of Tyre. What account can you give of Sennacherib ? — 5. What was the character of Manasseh ? Whom did he succeed ? What was done in reference to the Jews in his reign, by the Assyrians ? DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 61 his virtues suspended for a time only, the fatal decree, which indent His. had gone forth against a rebellious people, la the wars be- period v . tween Necho, king of Egypt, and the Assyrians, Josiah opposed chap. i. the passage of the Egyptians through Judea. A battle was ^~v~^ fought between him and the Egyptian king in the valley of Me- f>©9. giddo. The Jews were overthrown and Josiah mortally meqiddo wounded ; when N echo marched to Assyria, and conquered se- defeat ije veral cities. He then returned to Jerusalem, took the city, de- Jews, throned Jehoahaz, the youngest son of Josiah, and made Je- hoiakim king. The success of Necho, in his war against the Babylonians, encouraged the Syrians and Jews to throw off the Assyrian yoke. 7. Nebuchadnezzar, who was at this period associated with his father, Nabopolassar, in the government of Assyria, was the most powerful prince that had yet reigned over the Nebuchad . Assyrian empire. He recovered from the Egyptians, Carche- nezzar mish, an Assyrian city, which commanded the passage of the ^uSem?" Euphrates, and which Necho had taken. He then marched against Syria and Palestine, and reunited both provinces to his dominions. He took Jerusalem, and carried away many cap- tives and much treasure, including the sacred vessels of the temple. 8. Mattaniah or Zedekiah, the third in succession from Je- hoiakim, revolted from the Assyrians. Nebuchadnezzar reap- ~~~ peared before the walls of Jerusalem. The inhabitants, expect- He takes the ing succor from Egypt, maintained an obstinate resistance for clt y q"^ 6 ," nearly a year. The city was at length taken by storm, when first temple, the vengeance of the Babylonians was wreaked upon its inha- bitants. The children of the Jewish king were murdered in the presence of their father, his eyes were put out, and he was carried captive to Babylon. The inhabitants and the remaining treasures were carried away; and the temple, the dwellings, and the fortifications levelled to the dust. 9. Four years after the destruction of Jerusalem, Nebuchad- 5S5. nezzar besieged Tyre. But . not until thirteen years did he p^nfiL make himself master of that strong and opulent city. During Takes Tyre, the seige, the inhabitants retired with their most valuable effects, to an island not far distant, where they built the new city of Tyre. Nebuchadnezzar next invaded and subdued Egypt, Ravageg which though among the most powerful and warlike of the Egypt. ancient nations, was now rent by intestine divisions, and weakened by rebellion. The footsteps of his army were every where marked with such horrible devastation, that forty \ s punished years were not sufficient to repair their ravages. On his return ^Jjj^j to Babylon, his mind being lifted up, and his heart hardened 6. What king of Judah restored the national worship? In what battle was he mortally wounded? Give some account of Necho. — T. Who were the kings of Assyria ? — &. What account can you give of Nebuchadnezzar's acts in reference to the Jews? — 9. What of Nebuchadnezzar's conduct in regard to the Phoenicians? What in regard to Egypt? What happened on his return to Babylon ? 62 THE MEDES CONQUER ASSYRIA. Ancient His. ?10. Dejoces founds Media. 658. Phraortes conquers Persia. 634. Cyaxares. The Scythians Invade Media. The kingdom of Lydia ap- pears in his- tory. 612. Nineveh destroyed. with pride, the Almighty deposed him from his kingly throne, and drove him from the dwellings of men. His body was wet with the dew of heaven, and he ate the food of beasts, until he knew " that God ruleth over the kingdoms of men." 10. MEDIA. — Dejoces established the first monarchy of Me- dia. His efforts were directed to the improvement of the savage and licentious manners then prevailing among the people ; and dur- ing a reign of fifty-three years, he preserved the nation in peace. He founded the city of Ecbatana, and made it the capital of his kingdom. Dejoces was succeeded by his son Phraortes, who extended the kingdom of Media, by the conquest of Persia ; and subjected to his dominions almost all Upper Asia, from Mount Taurus to the river Halys. Cyaxares, his son and successor, invaded Assyria, defeated the Assyrian army, and laid siege to Nineveh. . But he was recalled by a danger which threatened his own kingdom. 11. The Scythians were a barbarous nation, who inhabited the north of Europe. They were unacquainted with the arts and sciences, ignorant of agriculture, and without settled habita- tions. Like other nomadic tribes, they wandered from country to country, as the wants of their families and flocks required, removing their wives and children in a kind of wagons covered with the skins of animals, which, when they settled, formed their simple habitations. 12. This formidable people had invaded Media, and threat- ened to overspread all Asia. Cyaxares hasted to the relief of his subjects, but was vanquished by the barbarians. For twenty- eight years they spread desolation through all Upper Asia. At length the Medes invited the principal Scythians to a feast, where they were made intoxicated, and in this condition many were massacred. The remainder fleeing to the sovereign of Lydia, (a kingdon now rising to consequence,) he afforded them protection. This embroiled Cyaxares in a war with the Lydi- ans, which, after five years of nearly equal success on both sides, was terminated by peace. 13. Cyaxares no sooner found himself established in his king- dom, than his thoughts reverted to his favorite enterprise, the destruction of Nineveh. He entered into an alliance with Na- bopolassar, who had revolted from the .king of Assyria, and es- tablished himself as an independent king in Babylon. Their united armies laid siege to Nineveh, and effected its entire de- struction. Saracus, the reigning king, was killed, and Cyax- ares soon made himself master of all the other cities of the kingdom. lO. Who was Dejoces? Phraortes? Cyaxares? — 11. Give an ac- count of the Scythians. — 12. Give an account of the Scythian invasion. Of the means taken to expel them. How was a war with Lydia brought about ? How long did it continue ? — 13. Give an account of the destruction of Nineveh. CHAPTER II. Greece. 1. The Spartans, under the laws of Lycurgus, had increased in power, and become the terror of the surrounding states. The Argives, (people of Argos ;) the Arcadians, and especially the Messenians, suffered from their ambition. The first war with Messenia continued twenty years, during which the Spartans entirely subdued that people. For forty years they retained them in bondage. 2. At length, Aristomenes arose and attempted the rescue of his country. After having fought three years, with great bravery, and defeated the Spartans in several engagements, Aris- tomenes w T as forced to throw himself into Eira, a strong fortress near the sea. Here he had maintained himself during a siege of eleven years, when the Lacedaemonian commander, discover- ing, on a stormy night, a post which had been deserted by its guard, occupied it with his troops. Aristomenes struggled two days and three nights to regain it. Finding himself foiled, and the people suffering with hunger, he formed a column, in the centre of which he put the women and children, and resolutely demanded a passage out of the place. His enemies saw that he was rendered desperate, and suffered him to retreat to Arcadia. A part of the Messenians were made Helots or slaves, a part received the protection of their allies the Arcadians, and many migrated to Italy and Sicily, and there founded Rhegium and Messina. Sparta was now the chief state of Greece. 3. Athens was gradually assuming a republican form of go- vernment. After a succession of twelve hereditary archons, the term of office was limited to ten years, the archons still to be chosen from the family of Codrus. Nine archons were subse- quently chosen in place of one, and the term of office limited to one year. These nine were at first elected by the voluntary suffrages of the people, afterwards by lot from among the no- bles. Faction and discord prevailing, a reform was needed, and a code of laws, termed the bloody code, was made by Draco. By this, the smallest offence, and the most heinous crime, were alike punished with death or banishment. 4. Thirty years after Draco, when the Athenians, by the rigor and injustice of his laws, were plunged into confusion and misery, the wise Solon was appointed archon, with the power of reforming the state. His first attempt was to settle the quar- rels between the rich and the poor. In order to remove the Ancient His. PERIOD V. CHAP. II. T43. 685. Second Mes- senian war. Aristomenes the patriot chief. Italian and Sicilian colonies. 621. Draco forms a code of laws. 624. Laws of Solon, one of "the seven wise men of Greece." Chap. IT. — 1. What was the condition and conduct of the Spartans ? How long was their first war with the people of Messenia ? How did it termi- nate?— 2. Give an account of the second Messenian war.— 3. What changes occurred in the government of Athens? What were the laws of Draco called? Why? — 4:. What was the effect of " the bloody code ?" 63 64 PISiSTRATUS TYRANT OF ATHENS. Ancient His. PERIOD V. CHAP. II. Solon di- vides the people into 594. Power of the Areopa- gus in- creased. 56©. Pisistratus disregards the laws of Solon. He collects the first pub- lic library at Athens. evils which arose from the debts of the poor, and the power of their creditors, he lowered the interest of money, raised its no- minal value, and deprived creditors of power over the persons of debtors, or those of their families. He extended the right of property beyond the death of the owners, allowing them to dis- pose of their estates by will. He divided the people into four classes according to their wealth. Only the first three classes, composed of the rich, could hold public offices ; but the fourth had an equal vote in the assembly of the people. 5. The nine archons were continued as chief magistrates, but associated with them was a council or senate; and nothing could be brought before the people which had not been first dis- cussed in this body. The members of the senate were chosen annually by lot, from the first three classes of citizens, and con- sisted of four hundred persons. The assembly of the people comprised the four classes of citizens, and possessed the power of deciding upon war or peace, of choosing the magistrates, and of deliberating upon the subjects proposed by the senate. So- lon restored and augmented the power of the Areopagus,* mak- ing it the supreme court of judicature. It was composed of those who had held the office of archon with honor and dignity, and its members retained their place for life. The reputation of this court for justice and integrity was so great, that it is said even the Romans, who were now rising to power, referred causes to its decision. 6. But these wise regulations did not long restrain the rest- less spirit of the Athenians. Pisistratus, a descendant of the ancient kings, and a relation of Solon, by his insinuating man- ners, and great pretences to zeal for the people, made himself the most popular man in Athens. Appearing one day in the market-place, bloody and covered with wounds, he declared he had received them from his enemies, by whom he had been waylaid. The people believed that his life had been thus ex- posed for the public good, and a guard of fifty soldiers was granted him. Soon after this, he augmented the number, seized the Acropolis, and exiled all who would not submit. Thus he made himself tyrantf of Athens. He was twice expelled, but finding means to reinstate himself, he reigned seventeen years in peace. He governed in a mild and equitable manner, not at- tempting any farther alterations in the constitution of Solon. He established a public library, and made the Athenians ac- * Plutarch attributes the origin of this high tribunal to Solon; but from other authorities it would appear that it existed, though with inferior powers, in the time of Draco. t The Greeks employed the word tyrant, in a sense different from its modern acceptation. With them, it denoted a person who had obtained the sovereignty in a republic, but it had no reference to the abuse of power. 4:. Give an account of Solon. Of his edict to help the poor ? Of that in reference to wills ? Respecting the divisions of the people ?— 5. What did Solon direct in regard to the archons ? What with respect to a senate ? What respecting an assembly of the people ? What concerning the Areopagus ? — & Who subverted the laws of Solon ? Give an account of him. RISE OF THE PERSIAN POWER. 65 quainted with the poems of Homer, which he collected, and or- Ancien t His dered to be read at the public feasts. period v. 7. Pisistratus was succeeded by his sons, Hippias and Hip- °hap. hi. parchus. Their united reign, at first popular, was, after a few s^^v**-' years, terminated by the assassination of Hipparchus, at a reli- gious festival. From this time, the government of Hippias ex- hibits a jealous and cruel policy. The Alcmseonidae, a power- 521. ful family, who had been banished from Athens, united with H^parchu^ Cleomenes, the reigning king of Sparta. They advanced with a large army, and joined by other exiles who had suffered from the cruelty of Hippias, laid siege to Athens. Hippias and his family fled from Attica and went to Sardis, then under the government of Darius, king of Persia, who espoused his cause. 8. Clisthenes, one of the Alcmeeonidse, succeeded to power. He undermined the constitution of Solon, by introducing certain 51©. alterations pleasing to the populace. He increased the number ^l^"^ 9 of tribes from four to ten, and enacted that fifty should be council of chosen from each tribe to constitute the senate, from this time, fiv d e r ed "" called the council of Jive hundred. CHAPTER III. Persia.— The empire of Cyrus. Section I. 1. Persia, until the time of Cyrus, consisted of twelve tribes, who inhabited only one province of the vast territory which has since borne this name. Of these tribes, the Pasargadae, to which Cambyses, the father of Cyrus, belonged, was the most noble. The power of Asia was at this time divided between Babylon, Media, and Lydia. Crcesus, the king of Lydia, was 56©. renowned for his wealth. With the exception of Lycia and E xtentof'his Cilicia, his dominions extended over all Asia west of the Halys. kingdom. Babylon, under the successors of Nebuchadnezzar, had been declining in power. 2. Cyrus was the son of Cambyses, a Persian noble, and Mandane, the daughter of Astyages, king of Media. The Per- sian tribes united in him, as their chief or king, and he effected 559- the union of the Persian and Median kingdoms. The victories c ^[^ ^Hl of Cyrus over the Armenians, aroused the jealousy of the neigh- Persia, boring sovereigns. A coalition was formed between the kings T. Give an account of his successors. — 8. Who next rose to power, and how did he alter the laws of Solon ? Chap. III. — 1. Between what three kingdoms was the power of Asia divided ? What can you say of Crcesus and his dominions ? What of Ba- bylon ? — 2. Give aii account of Cyrus ? 9 66 GREAT PERSIAN EMPIRE UNDER CYRUS. Ancient His. PERIOD V. CHAP III. 548. THYMBRA Cyrus victorious over the allies. Belshaz- zar's feast. Daniel prophesies. 538. Belshazzar slain. The temple at Jerusa- lem rebuilt. 5*19. Cyrus killed in Scythia. Cambyses succeeds him. of Babylon, Egypt, and Lydia, and a battle fought between the Persians and the allied forces at Thymbra, a city of Lydia, in which the fortune of Cyrus prevailed. He soon made himself master of Sardis, the capital of Lydia, seized upon the vast riches of Crcesus, took him prisoner, and put a period to his kingdom, obliging his people to adopt the Persian costume and manners. In his distress the fallen monarch called out " Solon! Solon !" In his prosperity he had received a visit from that philosopher, who would not call him happy, because he lived ; and no man living could tell what dangers he might yet experience. 3. Having reduced all Asia Minor, Cyrus carried the war into the Babylonian empire, and in a pitched battle, defeated Bel- shazzar, who retreated to his capital. The conqueror then sat down before the city. Knowing what passed within, he ordered his men, on a certain evening, to open the great recep- tacles, prepared by former sovereigns to draw off the water of the river in seasons of inundation. Thus the channel of the Euphrates was drained. Belshazzar, secure in the strength of his city, had that night made a great feast for his nobles, and in the disorder of the festival, the gates of brass, which had closed the descent to the river, had been left open. The troops of Cyrus, passing into its bed, were soon in the heart of the city. In the meantime, the effeminate monarch had been awaken- ed from his dream of pleasure and security, by a mysterious appearance. A hand had written on the wall in characters of divine vengeance — " Mene tekel." Daniel, severe in youthful sanctity, fearlessly read to him their prophetic import, " Thou art weighed in the balance, and found wanting." At this dread moment, the troops of Cyrus were at hand, to verify the words of the prophet. Almost without resistance, they took the city, and slew the sentenced Belshazzar. 4. Cyrus 'permitted the, Jews, who were still in captivity in Babylon, to return to Jerusalem., and not only assisted them in rebuilding their temple, which had been destroyed by Nebuchad- nezzar, but restored its sacred vessels. The dominions of Cy- rus extended from the river Indus to the JEgean Sea, and from the Caspian and Euxine Seas, to Ethiopia and the Sea of Arabia. He was a great and virtuous king, and his name was long held in reverence among the nations of the east. He was killed in an expedition against the Scythians. 5. Cambyses, his son, succeeded him. This cruel prince ex- tended his dominions by the conquest of Egypt, whose king he put to death. From a jealousy of his brother Smerdis, he or- dered his assassination. During the absence of Cambyses, a 2. On what occasion was the battle of Thymbra fought? What fol- lowed? What reminded Crcesus of Solon? — 3. Where did Cyrus next carry the war ? Relate the manner in which the Persians entered Babylon. Relate what happened to Belshazzar. — 4. What favours did the Jews re- ceive from Cyrus ? What was the extent of the empire of Cyrus ? What was his character ? How did he lose his life ? — 5. What was the name and character of his successor ? THE PERSIANS INVADE THE SCYTHIANS. 67 Magian, calling himself Smerdis, pretended to have escaped the intended assassination, and seized upon the throne of Persia. The imposition was at length discovered, and the impostor de- throned and killed. 6. The royal family becoming extinct by the death of Cam- •byses, Darius Hystaspes, a Persian nobleman, was raised to the throne. He recovered Babylon, which had revolted, and then collected a formidable army for the invasion of Scythia, taking as allies some of the Asiatic Greeks. He passed into Europe, and crossed the Danube on a bridge of boats. This he left in charge of his Greek allies, with permission, if he did not come back in three months, to destroy the bridge, and return to their country. The Scythians, on learning that Darius had crossed the Danube, sent away their wives and children with their flocks, to the northern part of their country. They then laid waste the region through which the Persians must pass ; consuming the forage, and destroying the wells and springs. Having done this, they marched towards their enemy, not with the view of giving him battle, but of drawing him into an am- buscade. Darius advanced ; at length a herald from the Scythian prince appeared, bringing to him a present of a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows. One of his officers expounded the enig- ma, which the messenger refused to do. " Know," said he, " that unless you can fly in the air like birds, or hide yourself in the earth like mice, or swim the water like frogs, you shall in no wise be able to escape the arrows of the Scythians." 7. The Persian army, amid the barren steppes of the north, and annoyed by the wily enemy, becoming disheartened, their monarch was compelled to relinquish his imprudent enterprise, and retrace his steps towards the Danube. The Persians, hav- ing as usual lighted fires in their camp, the Scythians did not discover their retreat till morning, when they despatched envoys to persuade the Greeks to destroy the bridge, they had been left to guard. Being acquainted with all the passes, they arrived before Darius. A consultation of the Grecian chiefs was held, many of whom, believing that the destruction of Darius would procure the future independence of their own states, were in favor of destroying the bridge. Other counsels prevailed; but this treachery was made known to Darius, and was one cause of his subsequent hostility to the Greeks. He recrossed the Danube in safety, and leaving Megabysus, one of his gene- rals, with part of his army, he retired with the rest of his troops to Sardis. Macedonia and Thrace were conquered by Mega- bysus, and added to the Persian dominions. 8. The Ionians of Asia, who had for some time been subject to the Persians, headed by Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus, re- Ancient His. PERIOD V. CHAP. III. 496. Darius invades Scythia. Present of the Scy- thians to Darius. Darius re- turns, but leaves an army 496. Persians conquer Thrace and Macedonia.- 5. What were some of his acts V — 6. Who succeeded him ? What were his first measures? What did the Scythians when their country was invaded ? How was their present explained ? — T. Relate the circumstances of Darius' retreat. What cause of hostility to the Greeks did he find? What general did he leave in Europe ? What countries did he conquer ? 68 PERSIANS AT WAR WITH THE ASIATIC GREEKS. Jlncient His. PERIOD V. CHAP. III. Asiatic Greeks re- volt. 494. Greeks burn Sardis. Are defeated. Miletus be- sieged. Naval vic- tory of the Persians, and Destruction of MILETUS. Mardonius invades Greece. His fleet wreck- ed at Mount Athos. volted from Darius, and despatched ambassadors to the several states of Greece, to implore their aid. Cleomenes, king of Sparta, refused to engage in the war ; but the Athenians, offended with Darius for having taken part with Hippias, their banished king, now willingly entered into an alliance with the Ionians. To render the revolt against the Persians more formidable, by engaging the people heartily in their cause, Aristagoras -travelled through all Ionia, prevailing upon the tyrants to restore freedom to the cities, of which he himself set an example by liberating Miletus. 9. In the third year of the war, the Ionians collected a fleet, and sailed for Ephesus. Leaving their ships at that place, they marched to Sardis, which they took, and having driven Arta- ph ernes, the cruel Persian governor, into the citadel, they set fire to the city. They then marched towards Ephesus, but the Persian and Lydian armies overtook and defeated them with great slaughter. The Athenians escaped to their ships, and re- fused to engage any further in the war. 10. Miletus being the centre, and most important city of the Ionian confederacy, Artaphernes concentrated his forces, and besieged the place. The Ionians, with a fleet of three hundred and fifty-three vessels, determined to engage the Persians at sea ; who with a naval force far superior to theirs, were lying near the besieged city. So skilful were the Greeks in maritime affairs, that the Persian commander dared not hazard an engagement until he had first sought to corrupt the different squadrons of which the Ionian fleet was composed. He promised indemnity to those countries whose vessels should forsake the Ionian cause, and threatened utter destruction to the places, whose fleets should adhere to it. All, but the Samians, stood firm in their devotion to the common cause. Their admiral, in the commencement of the battle, gave the signal for flight, and of their sixty ships, forty-nine deserted. The Samian people dis- approved his treachery, and ordered the names of the eleven captains who disobeyed his commands, to be honorably re- corded on a pillar erected by the commonwealth. Though the Ionians and most of the allies fought with bravery, the battle was lost. Miletus was soon after taken by assault; its inhabit- ants put to the sword, and its dwellings and temples burned. Devastation was spread through the towns and country, to the shores of the Hellespont. 11. Artaphernes was recalled, and succeeded by Mardonius, a young nobleman, who had married a daughter of Darius. He was directed, with a large army and a powerful fleet, to carry the war into Greece. His land army crossed the Hellespont, 8. Who revolted from the Persians ? From whom did they seek for aid, and with what success ? What measures were taken by Aristagoras ? — 9. Relate the naval operations of the war. What city did the Greeks burn ? What followed ? How did the Athenians bear this reverse ? — lO. What is said of Miletus ? By whom was ii besieged ? Relate the naval battle. Its result.— >1 1 . Who succeeded Artaphernes ? THE FIRST PERSIAN INVASION OF GREECE. 69 and marched into Macedonia and Thrace. His fleet, in indent ms. doubling Mount Mios, was exposed to a violent storm, in which period v three hundred ships, and twenty thousand men were lost. The chap. iv. season was advanced, and the Persians for the time relinquished ^^^v-^^ the enterprise, and returned to Asia. CHAPTER IV. Greece.' — The Persian War. 1. Greece was at this time composed of a number of small and independent states, connected with each other by no bond of interest or obligation, but often engaged in feuds and hostili- ties. Sparta and Athens, having obtained a pre-eminence over the other states, were ever jealous of each other. The Persian invasion for once united them, a national spirit awoke, and laid the foundation of future greatness. The year following the in- vasion of Mardonius, Darius sent heralds into Greece, demand- ing of all the cities earth and water, the usual form in which the Persians exacted submission. Thebes, iEgina, and many of the cities and islands submitted \ but Athens and Sparta re- sented the demand, and in the one place the heralds were thrown into a cave, in the other into a well, and bade to procure there the earth and water which they wanted. 2. Darius, in the meantime, had made vigorous preparations for the war. Datis, with Artaphernes, son of the former go- vernor of Lydia, was appointed to succeed Mardonius. They departed from Asia Minor with a fleet of 500 ships, and an army of 100,000 men. Having taken the islands of the iEgean Sea, they proceeded to Etruria, a city of Euboea, which had greatly incensed Darius by its participation in the Ionian war. Having reduced the city to ashes, and sent the inhabitants in chains to Persia, the Persians, under the guidance of Hippias, the banished king of Athens, advanced towards Attica, and landed on the narrow plain of Marathon. 3. The Spartans, from some superstitious fears, were unwil- ling to join the little band of Athenians till after the full moon. In Miltiades, the Athenians possessed a commander capable of directing the energies of the republic, and infusing into the breasts of the people the ardor of his own self-devoting spirit. He had formerly been tyrant of the Chersonesus, and having II. Relate the circumstances of his invasion ? . Chap. IV. — 1. Of what was Greece composed ? Which states were at the head of Greece ? In what manner did the Persians demand submission ? How did the several states answer them ?— 2. Relate the military arrange- ments of Darius. The number of his ships ? His troops ? Their progress until they arrive at Marathon ?— 3. What forces on the part of the Greeks opposed this formidable army ? 491. Darius ex- acts sub- mission of Greece. Datis and Arta- phernes. Persians land in Attica. The Spartans are tardy. TO MARATHON. Ancient His. PERIOD V. CHAP. IV. Greeks 10,000. Persians 100,000. 490. MARA- THON. Persian loss, 12,000. Greek loss, only 200. A soldier runs from Marathon to Athens. 48S. Miltiades dies in prison. 481- Xerxes pre- pares to invade Greece. 480 He Invades Greece. accompanied Darius in his Scythian expedition, was acquainted with the Persian mode of warfare. This intrepid man did not even await the approach of the Persians, but marched onward to Marathon with only his little army of 10,000 heroes, and prepared with alacrity for the encounter of the Persian host, which was ten times his own in number. 4. The strength of the Persian army consisted much in its cavalry, and the prudent Miltiades had drawn up his forces on a narrow plain, where calvary had no opportunity for action. Datis, the Persian commander, was aware of his disadvantage- ous position, but trusting to the superiority of his forces, con- cluded to hazard an engagement. On the signal for battle, the Athenians advanced running, at once engaging the enemy in close fight. The whole Persian army retreated in disorder to their ships. The Athenians pursued, slaughtered 12,000, set many of the ships on fire and took seven. An Athenian sol- dier, finding the victory secure, left the field of battle covered with blood, and such was his exhaustion on reaching the city, that he could only exclaim, " Rejoice, rejoice, the victory is ours," when he fell dead at the feet of the magistrate. 5. Miltiades now obtained of the Athenians a fleet of seventy ships, with the design of punishing those islands which had fa- vored the Persians. He laid siege to Paros, but having received a dangerous wound in attempting to enter the town, he raised the siege and returned to Athens. On the accusation of one of the citizens, this benefactor of Greece was tried for treachery in raising the siege. He was fined fifty talents, and, being unable to pay this sum, was thrown into prison, where he died of the wounds which he received in the service of his ungrateful country. 6. Darius was occupied for three years in preparing a more powerful armament, intending to lead the expedition in person; but dying, Xerxes, his eldest son, succeeded him. Xerxes subdued the Egyptians, who had revolted, and then continued the vast preparations made for the invasion of Greece. After four years, in which he had gathered an army from every part of his extensive empire, he commenced his march towards the Hellespont. He passed the winter at Sardis, from whence he sent heralds to all the Grecian states, except Athens and Lace- daemon, demanding earth and water. The Thessalians and some others submitted. 7. In the spring, Xerxes, at the head of an army, said to have been greater than was ever collected either before or since his time, advanced towards Greece. A bridge of boats had been made at a monstrous expense, for the passage of the host across the Hellespont. The width of the strait and the rapidity of the cur- rent were not sufficiently considered, and the undertaking proved 3. What account can you give of Miltiades ?— *. Describe the great battle of Marathon. — 5. How was Miltiades treated ?— S. What was done by Darius ? What were the first measures of his successor? What was done by Xerxes in relation to the invasion of Greece ? THE GREAT ARMY OP XERXES. 71 as useless as it was difficult and dangerous. The bridge was destroyed by a violent storm, and Xerxes, in a fit of passion, ordered the workmen to be put to death, and the rebellious sea to be scourged with three hundred lashes, and chains to be thrown into it. A second attempt succeeded ; a bridge was completed, and the army occupied seven days and seven nights in the passage. Having crossed the Thracian Chersonesus, and arrived at Dor, Xerxes reviewed his army. His infantry amounted to 1,700,000, and his cavalry to 80,000. His fleet, when he left Asia, consisted of 1207 vessels, of three banks of oars, each carrying 300 fighting men. The European nations had added to his fleet 20 vessels, each carrying 200 men ; be- sides which, there were small galleys, transport ships, and ves- sels carrying provisions, amounting in all to 3000. 8. Great was the terror of the Greeks. Athens and Lacedae- mon sent ambassadors to Gelon, the principal tyrant of Syra- cuse, — to Argos, and to the Jsles of Corcyra and Crete. From each an unfavorable answer was returned. The Athenians next consulted the oracle of Delphi. The answer was, that when all else was destroyed, their wooden walls might preserve them. This, Themistocles, who now took the lead in Athens, inter- preted to signify their ships. After the battle of Marathon, that profound politician, foreseeing the probable re-invasion of his country, had sought to increase the maritime power of Athens. At his suggestion, the revenues of some silver mines, which had usually been distributed among the people, were applied to the building of a hundred galleys. On the first alarm they had doubled their number of ships, and they now appointed The- mistocles to the command. Eurybiades, a Spartan, was com- mander-in-chief of the whole naval force of the allies. 9. In the present danger, Athens and iEgina had become re- conciled, and all internal divisions were healed. Themistocles joined in soliciting the return of Aristides, whose banishment he had been active in procuring. Aristides had, in the war with Darius, been of great service to the state, and by the spotless integrity of his character had acquired the surname of the Just. While the question of his banishment was pending, he heard a citizen, who did not know his person, speak of voting against him. " Why ?" said the good man, "what evil has Aristides done to you ?" " I am tired," said the citizen, " of hearing him called the Just." He then went into voluntary banishment, but returned at the invitation of his country. 10. The Persian king marched at his ease, through Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaly. The cities through which he passed prepared for him splendid entertainments; and Xerxes believed he had but to march over the necks of a prostrate people. Ancient His. 480. Xerxes reviews his army. Themis- tocles the author of the naval power of Athens. 484. Aristides banished by the Ostracism (So called) from the Greek word signifying oyster, be- cause the people wrote the name of the person whom they wished to banish on shells. The man whose name was written on the great- est number of shells was banished.) 7. Relate Xerxes' passage of the Hellespont. The size of his army? Of his fleet ? — 8. What measures were taken by the Grecians ? How did Themistocles persuade the Athenians to increase their navy ? Who were the naval commanders ? — 9, What account can you give of Aristides ? 72 LEONIDAS. Jlncient His. PERIOD V. CHAP. IV. 48©. Persians repulsed at THERMO- PYLJE. Death of Leonidas and 20,000 Persians. 48© The Persian fleet. Leonidas, the king of Sparta, met him at the pass of Thermo- pylae,* with only five thousand regular troops. Xerxes, hearing that the Spartans had taken possession of this narrow pass, sent to them that it was the Athenians only, with whom he was at war, and he desired that they would lay down their arms. " Tell him to come and take them," said Leonidas. The Per- sians attacked, and were repulsed with great slaughter by the Grecian phalanx.| During three days the Persians made re- peated attempts, but the Spartans kept the pass. At length a treacherous Greek showed them a secret path, which led to the top of a mountain overlooking and commanding the Spartan position. Leonidas now determined to sacrifice himself and his Spartans, believing that their devotion would show the Per- sians with whom they had to contend ; and his example enkin- dle the enthusiasm of his countrymen. Besides, the oracle had declared that either Sparta or her king must perish. Reserving his three hundred Lacedaemonians, who were emulous of shar- ing his fate, he dismissed the others. Without a hope either of conquest or escape, this little band advanced to the onset, determined that their lives should cost their enemies dear. Leonidas was one of the first who fell. His soldiers, roused to fury, rallied around his body, and fought till 20,000 Persians were slain. Only one of the three hundred remained to carry the news. Sparta despised him, while she rejoiced over her patriot sons, who so nobly died in her defence. 11. The fleet of Xerxes had encountered a terrible storm, which had destroyed hundreds of his vessels. It had followed the movements of the land forces, and lay near them, on the northern coast of Euboea, and was still superior to the Grecian in strength. Several engagements took place between them, which, though not decisive, were favorable to the Athenians, and served to animate their spirits. News of the battle of Thermopylae, induced the Grecian fleet to withdraw from the neighborhood of the Persian, which now took possession of Euboea. Xerxes, advanced through Phocis, burnt its cities, and laid waste the country. 12. The Peloponnesians, forgetful of the claims of their al- lies, set about fortifying their peninsula by a strong wall ex- tending across the isthmus from the gulf of Corinth to the gulf of Athens. When the Athenians found themselves deserted, * This was a narrow pass between Mount CEta and the sea, leading from Thessaly into Phocis. It derived its name from two Greek words, thermce, warm springs, of which there were several near, and pylce, gates. Through this narrow way, not wide enough for two chariots to pass each other, the Persian land forces were obliged to march on their way to Attica. t A square battalion, or body of soldiers, with their shields joined and pikes crossing each other ; and so closely arranged in rank and file, as to render it exceedingly difficult to break it. It sometimes consisted of 8,000 or 10,000 men, but frequently of a smaller number. lO. Relate the conduct and fate of Leonidas. Where was Thermopyhe ? — 11. Relate the naval operations. The progress of the Persian fleet and land army. — 12. What circumstances preceded the destruction of Athens ? THE FLIGHT OF XERXES. 73 they abandoned their city. Almost all the male citizens went on board the ships, piously trusting, through faith in the oracle, to their u wooden walls." The protection of the city was so- lemnly committed to Minerva, and the women and children were sent to Salamis and iEgina. Xerxes advanced and took Athens ; he burnt the citadel, and slaughtered the few remaining citizens who had valiantly defended it. The finest paintings and statuary he sent to adorn Susa, now the capital of his own dominions. 13. Eurybiades, with most of the confederates, desired to re- treat with the Grecian navy, near to the isthmus of Corinth, where the Grecian land forces Avere stationed. But Themisto- cles urged the necessity of maintaining the advantageous posi- tion which they occupied in the narrow strait of Salamis. At the same time, to oblige the Greeks to fight, he used a strata- gem, which brought the Persians to threaten them at both ends of the strait. Aristides, who was at JEgina, on learning the movements of the Persians, procured a passage to Salamis. On his arrival, the officers were discussing the expediency of a retreat, but he informed them that the entrances of the strait were already in the hands of the Persians. 14. Nothing was left to the Greeks but united resistance. The Persian fleet was far superior in numbers to theirs. The land army, with Xerxes at its head, was drawn up on the Attic shore. The vain monarch, confident that he should but witness an easy conquest, was struck with astonishment and dismay when he found the valor of the Greeks prevailing, and at length beheld the destruction and flight of his mighty armament. Alarmed for his personal safety, he was seized with an eager desire to escape from a country, where victory itself had been to him scarcely more than another name for defeat. Fearing, from secret advices, that his bridge across the Hellespont might be destroyed, he hastened to depart, leaving 300,000 of his best forces under Mardonius, by which he still hoped to subjugate the country. 15. The Greeks pursued, as Xerxes fled before them, for forty-five days, during which, his army suffered great distress from famine. At length disease appearing among them, he left them behind, and with only a few attendants hurried forward. Finding his bridge across the Hellespont destroyed, he did not delay in order to chastise the sea a second time, but crossed it in a small fishing boat. The remains of the Persian fleet were stationed at Samos, to prevent the revolt of some of the pro- vinces of Asia Minor. Mardonius with his troops retired for winter quarters into Thessaly. 16. The Carthaginians, who, followed the steps of the Phoe- nicians, from whom they sprang, had made themselves a wealthy Ancient His. PERIOD V. CHAP. IV. The Greek fleet suc- cessful b}' means of Themisto- cles. 480. SALAMIS. Defeat and flight of Xerxes. Mardonius remains. Xerxes humbled, recross€s the Helles- pont. 12. What attended it ? — 13. What circumstances led to the battle of Salamis? — 14-. What was the position and conduct of Xerxes? — 15. Re- late his flight into Asia. What army did he leave ? 10 74 THE PERSIANS TWICE DEFEATED. Jlncient His. PERIOD V. CHAP. IV. 4T9. Mardonius burns Athens. Battle of PL ATM A. Mardonius slain. Of MYCALE. Persian loss 40,000. and powerful maritime nation. They believed that the Greek colony in Sicily might, at this time, be made an easy prey, as they could hope for no assistance from the mother country. They therefore sent out a fleet which landed an army on the island. Gelon, the powerful tyrant of Syracuse, command- ing in person, defeated the Carthaginian land forces ; while his brother Hiero, who commanded the Sicilian fleet, obtained a victory at sea, on the same day, as is generally believed, that the Greeks defeated the Persians at Salamis. 17. The following spring, Mardonius sent an embassy to persuade the Athenians to separate themselves from the Grecian confederacy. The Spartans, now fearing the effect of that selfish policy which had left the Athenians to struggle alone, des- patched messengers to assure them of their determination to send them immediate succors, and beseech them not to sacrifice Grecian freedom to the security of their own city. To the emissaries of Mardonius, Aristides, who was now at the head of affairs, returned a respectful but decided negative ; and of the Spartans he requested to send their promised forces into Boeo- tia, to prevent the retaking of Athens. Mardonius, on learning the result of his negotiation, advanced into Attica, laying waste the whole country. The Athenians receiving no succors from their allies, again abandoned their city, and they now retired to Salamis. Mardonius consigned Athens to destruction, burn- ing and demolishing whatever had been spared the preceding year. 18. Mardonius retired into Bceotia, near the city of Thebes, whose inhabitants were in the Persian interest, and where larger plains would enable him to employ his cavalry with greater advantage. The Grecian forces, amounting to 70,000 men, under the command of Pausanias, king of Sparta, and Aristides, the Athenian general, pursued him. Here occurred the memorable battle of Plataea, where the Greeks obtained a splendid victory. The remains of the Persian fleet were at the promontory of Mycale ; the ships were drawn ashore, surrounded by a rampart, and guarded by 60,000 men. On the same day of the victory at Platsea, the Greeks, commanded by Xantippus, attacked and defeated them, carried the rampart, and burned the Persian fleet. These two successes delivered Greece for ever from the most formidable invasion of which history makes mention. 19. Thrace was about this time subjugated by the confede- rated Greeks, under Pausanias and Cimon; and Byzantium,* the capital, with its rich treasures, fell into their hands. Although the Persians had been forced from Europe, yet the confederated * Byzantium, afterwards Constantinople, was founded B. C. 658, by a colony from Argos. 16. What attack was made on Sicily? How was it repelled? — IT. Re- late the circumstances of the second capture of Athens. — 18. Give an ac- count of the battle of Plataea. Of Mycale. GREECE, HEAD OF THE NATIONS. 75 Grecian powers now followed them into Asia, with intent to •*««««* His . set the Asiatic Greeks free from their dominion. Xerxes had period v. been succeeded by his son Artaxerxes, who had collected a chap. v. large naval force at the mouth of the river Eurymedon, and a ' land force on its banks. A Greek expedition, under Cimon, at- tacked and defeated the fleet. Then Cimon, decking himself and some of his followers in rich Persian dresses, and going aboard Persian galleys, sailed up the river, and were gladly re- ceived in the camp of their deceived enemy; who, thus taken by surprise, were in their horror and amazement easily overcome. The spoils of the camp were immense, and riches now flowed in upon Greece. CHAPTER V. Greece. 1. The glory of the Greeks was now at its meridian splendor. Having become the terror of surrounding nations by their suc- cess in arms, they became not less their admiration for excel- J^eihTarts lence in the arts, and in the pursuits of philosophy. But their and utera- ancient mythology, although it furnished a splendid imagery to ture - the poet, yet as it taught the worship of divinities, who accord- ing to popular belief were murderers, thieves, and adulterers, it therefore exercised an injurious effect upon the public morals. Hence arose different sects or schools of philosophy, embody- ing purer and better systems. 2. These schools were held at Athens, Of all the ancients, Teacherg Socrates, in his doctrines of the unity and perfections of the of the Deity, and the immortality of the soul, comes the nearest to philosophy. Christianity. Some regard him as inspired. He affirmed his belief that a spirit attended him. Plato, his scholar, taught 440. the unity of the Godhead, the immortality of the soul, and Socrates - man's moral obligation to conduct in a manner worthy of the high dignity of his nature. Aristotle, the most distinguished p .^ 9 ®' of the pupils of Plato, was the founder of the Peripatetic school, ^J the g l whose doctrines concern the physical nature of men and things, Academy. and deal much in the subtleties of logic. Zeno, the founder of the Stoics, taught that virtue, not happiness, is the chief good, — 3 *»©. ^ the object and aim of man's existence. The Egyptian priests, the Lyceum. although they led the people to worship many gods, yet secretly 19. Give an account of the battle of the Eurymedon. Chap. V. — 1. What was the state of Greece at this period ? What was the character and spirit of their mythology ?— 2. What was held at Athens ? What account can you give of Socrates ? Of Plato ? Of Aristotle ? Of Zeno ? What double-dealing was practised by the Egyptian priests ? Who was their scholar ? What did he teach to his scholars ? How ? What difference was there in the manner of the Athenian sages ? 76 THE AGE OF PERICLES. Jlncient His. PERIOD V. CHAP. V. 560. (Pythagoras had such au- thority that his school became a lit- tle nation. He enjoined silence for the first five years ; then he al- lowed schol- ars to ask questions if they would say "much in little.") 444. Pericles without a rival. His good and bad qualities. The great sculptor Phidias died 432- (Apelles the great pain- ter, lived about the same time.) 444. Roman deputation. Herodotus. (Aristopha- nes, a writer of comedy and satire, lived about this time.) to their pupils, they taught that there was but one God. Pythago- ras, who had received from them their doctrines, taught this to his scholars at his famous school of Crotona, in Italy, but pri- vately. The democratic philosophers of Athens taught public- ly for the good of mankind at large, whom they respected, what they themselves believed. 3. The elegant arts of poetry, painting, sculpture, and archi- tecture, were also at this period carried to a perfection never yet equalled in any other age or country. Much credit for pa- tronizing the arts and sciences is due to Pericles, who now obtained ascendency in Athens, and preserved his authority for the forty years comprising the golden period of Athenian his- tory. 4. Though born and nurtured in the aristocracy, yet he artfully joined the democratic party to undermine the influence of Aristides and Cimon. Aristides died, Cimon was ban- ished, and Pericles ruled without a rival. Content with the substance of power, he forbore to excite envy by its pomps and titles. When he spoke, it was with force and eloquence. His ad- ministration was just and equitable; but still he was more his own, than his country's friend. He corrupted the people by treasures, which he removed from Delphos to Athens. He caused the city to be embellished by splendid buildings, and superb statues, executed by Phidias.* The envy which he shunned himself, he thus drew upon Athens, from the other Grecian states, and in this manner paved the way for attacks from without ; while by flattering the lowest of the people, he weakened the force of the laws, undermined the internal con- stitution of the state, and rendered it unable to make a vigorous resistance. 5. Such was the reputation for wisdom, which Athens had at this period acquired in distant countries, that a new nation, rising in the west, sent deputies to obtain the laws of Solon. This nation was Rome, destined to be the conqueror of Greece. About this time, Herodotus, the "father of history," read his work to a public assembly at Athens, and received flatter- ing honors. Eschylus and Sophocles carried the Greek drama to its perfection. Though Greece was thus esteemed by other nations, j^et her states, wanting a well defined system of confe- deracy, were no sooner delivered from foreign pressure, than * His statue of Minerva was the pride of Athens ; but when he was ban- ished he made for the people of Elis a still nobler monument of his art, the statue of Jupiter Olympus, reckoned one of the wonders of the world. A temple of Minerva, situated on the Acropolis, was said to have been the most beautiful building ever erected. It was of pure white Pentelican mar- ble. It was called Parthenon, because erected to a virgin goddess. Phidias was the chief architect. 3. In what besides philosophy did the Greeks excel ? Who patronized the arts and sciences ? — 4. Give an account of Pericles and his administra- tion. — 5. What nation sent to Athens for laws? What historian appeared at this time ? What tragic poets ? What effect had foreign wars upon Greece ? Give some account of the works of Phidias. (See note.) 448. The first Sa- GREECE DIVIDED AGAINST ITSELF. 77 they exhibited a tendency to disunion among themselves, indent ms. Athens and Sparta struggled for supremacy, and the other states period v. for independence ; and petty wars soon succeeded the great Per- chap. vi. sian conflict. v-**~v-" ^»«-' fleet against Syracuse, which had favored the Spartan cause. The most powerful and splendid armament which had ever sailed from Athens, was fitted out, and Alcibiades and Nicias appointed chief commanders. The night previous to the de- Tj nfortunat parture of the armament, some outrages having been committed Sicilian upon the images of Mercury, which the Athenians discovered war ' after it had sailed, suspicion rested upon Alcibiades. Being sum- moned home for trial, he left the fleet, fled to the Peloponne- sus, and joined the Spartan cause. 6. Syracuse had sent to Sparta, imploring aid against Athens. Alcibiades, determined to make Athens feel his resentment, had pleased the Spartans by conforming to their plain dress and se- vere manners, and he now artfully wrought upon their fears and their pride; and persuaded them not only to send supplies into Sicily, but to make a fresh incursion into Attica. The Athe- 414. nians laid siege to Syracuse. A powerful Spartan force under ^featedat Gylipfus arrived. Nicias wiote home for reinforcements, Syracuse. which were sent out under Demosthenes, a relative of the. celebrated orator. The two generals were unable to sustain the siege. Battles were fought by sea and land, in which the blood and treasure of Athens perished. In attempting a retreat, both Nicias and Demosthenes were taken prisoners and barba- rously slain. 7. The Athenians were in dismay at the news of these disas- ters ; and the condition of the republic seemed desperate. Their treasury was exhausted, their navy almost destroyed, and their The Per- allies ready for revolt. Yet the spirit of the people sustained ^La^eds- them, and energetic measures were speedily employed to re- monians trieve their affairs. They might have succeeded, had they not m 2»y # found a new source of power to encounter, in the gold of Per- sia, which had found its way into the hands of their enemies. The satraps of Lydia and of the Hellespont, persuaded by Ly- sander, an accomplished Spartan, furnished them with power- ful supplies. 8. Meanwhile, Alcibiades finding himself suspected at Sparta, had visited Sardis, and, ingratiating himself with Tissaphernes, Alcibiades the satrap of Lydia, had rendered him favorable to Athens. At c P oiicy S and S the same time he offered his own services to his dejected coun- retrieves try. He was recalled and appointed general. Under his guid- of Athens. ance the Athenian fleet was repeatedly victorious ; Byzantium was taken, and the Athenian supremacy in Ionia and Thrace established. 9. About this time the Athenian fleet, during the absence of Alcibiades, and contrary to his orders, engaged at Notium 5. What disastrous war did he promote? — 6. What treachery to his country did he practise? Give an account of the Sicilian war? — 7 . What was the condition of Athens ?— 8. What part did Alcibiades now act ? so SUPREMACY OF SPARTA. Ancient His. PERIOD V. CHAP. VI. 405. &GOS- POTAMOS. Spartans defeat the Athenian fleet. Athens taken. 405. End of the Peloponne- sian war. 4©4. The thirty tyrants. Socrates. 401. The thirty tyrants expelled. Lysander, the Spartan admiral, and was defeated. This drew upon Alcibiades the wrath of the inconstant populace. He was dismissed from the command without trial, and again became an exile. Having retired to a village in Phrygia, the Spartans in- stigated the Athenians to destroy him. They sent soldiers, who set fire to his house in the night. As he attempted to es- cape, the soldiers fearing to approach, killed him with arrows. One woman, alone, had sufficient regard for him to give his body a decent burial. 10. After various turns of fortune, Lysander again obtained a decisive naval victory. He entirely destroyed the Athenian navy and reduced their allies to submission. He then blockaded Athens with his fleet, while at the same time it was besieged by land, with the whole strength of the Peloponnesian forces. Fa- mine at length compelled the Athenians to surrender, and accept such terms as their conquerors saw fit to impose. The walls of Jlthens were destroyed; its ships, with the exception of twelve, given up ; its exiles restored, and its government changed to an oligarchy under thirty rulers. . 11. Sparta now ruled Greece, yet the constitution and laws of Lycurgus, under which she had risen to consequence, had become subverted by Persian gold and other causes of corrup- tion ; and the self-sacrificing spirit of public virtue had passed from a degenerate people. From the effect of the laws of Ly- curgus, the power of education may be inferred. If it could lead men to form and preserve, for so long a period, characters contrary, in some respects, to reason and nature, much more might it establish them in the reasonable practices of true reli- gion and virtue. 12. The chief power in Athens being vested in persons sup- ported by the Lacedaemonian interest, the most cruel and arbi- trary measures ensued. Critias, the chief of the thirty tyrants, had formerly been banished from the city, and he now sought to gratify his revenge by shedding the blood of his countrymen. Yet amidst the scenes of tyranny, murder and profligacy which reigned in Athens, one individual shines forth with the lustre of virtue. Socrates, the philosopher, conforming his practice to the principles of morality which he taught, resisted the torrent of vice, with calmness and intrepidity. 13. The reign of the tyrants could not long continue. The same year in which it was established, the virtuous Thrasybu- lus, at the head of a number of his exiled countrymen, entered the city, attacked and defeated the tyrants. Favored by a Spar- tan party under Pausanias, the king, he procured the banish- ment of the tyrants, and the restoration of Solon's constitution. But the better spirit of Greece had departed. The tyranny of 9. What happened at Notium ? What was the consequence to Alcibia- 3 0F ALEXANDER, THE BIRTH TO OF CHRIST. CHAPTER I. Empire of Alexander after his death. 1. After the death of Alexander, his vast empire presented a scene of unceasing tumult, confusion, and bloodshed. His generals, bold, ambitious, and unprincipled, were each eager to seize a share of the mighty wreck. The rights of his infant son, Alexander, and of his brother, Aridaeus, afterwards called Philip, were acknowledged, and they were styled kings." Their power, however, existed only in name. The dying monarch being asked whom he desired should succeed him, replied " the most worthy." He gave his ring to Perdiccas, who was made commander-in-chief. Conflicting interests and mutual animosi- ties, produced constant wars and assassinations. The only character of virtue sufficient to shed a ray of moral light on this dark picture, was Eumenes, who alone was faithful to the in- terests of the royal family. In fact the first twenty years from the death of Alexander present a tissue of intrigue and crime, unsurpassed in the history of the world. His wife, his mother, his son, and all the other members of the royal family, were murdered. Perdiccas shared the same fate. Ancient His. PERI'D VI. CHAP I. 323. Empire of Alexander after his death. Horrible anarchy and wickedness. The royal family and Perdiccas murdered. Period VI. — Chap. I. — 1. What was the condition of Alexander's em- pire after his death ? What the character of his generals ? What male re- lations did he leave ? What was the fate of all his family ? Who alone was faithful to the royal family ? 99 100 END OF Ancient His . o A league was at length formed between four of the gene- PERi'D vi. rals, Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Cassander. A battle was fought in which they obtained a victory over Anti- gonus, and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes, who had for some time held the chief authority. The empire, was now di- vided into four parts, and one part assigned to each of the four generals who formed the league. 1st, Ptolemy assumed the tigonus' and regal power in Egypt ; 2d, Seleucus, in Syria and Upper Asia ; ins son. 3^ Lysimachus, in Thrace and Asia Minor as far as Taurus, and 4th, Cassander took as his share Macedonia. 3. EGYPT. — Under Ptolemy, surnamed Soter, or Savior, Alexandria, which he made his capital, rapidly rose, until it 301. became the seat of commerce and the sciences. He protected Ptolemy So- the national religion, which procured him the love and submis- Yhegwe^n- s * 011 °f hi s people; while his kind and courteous behavior to mem. foreigners drew multitudes, especially of Jews, to his capital. 283. ^ a ^ tne successors of Alexander, Ptolemy alone was fitted to build up an empire, and though sometimes drawn into the wars of the other princes, he generally preserved Egypt in peace, and transmitted the kingdom entire. p. Phiiadei- 4. His reign, with that of his two immediate successors, Pto- P 24^ s lemy Philadelphia, (the most magnificent of the family,) and P.Evergetes Ptolemy Evergetes, comprised a whole century; during 222. which, Egypt a second time became the seat of learning. The famous Library of Alexandria was collected, and the city thus made the resort of the learned from every part of the world. After Ptolemy Evergetes, the race became degenerate, and the Romans obtained an ascendency. The beauty, talents and crimes of Cleopatra, a female representative of the Ptolemies, rrhisversion again brought them into notice. The Jews were subject to the from the af- Pt°l em i es until the time of Antiochus the Great. Numbers of leged fact them were brought to Alexandria, where they made great pro- ^erfoccu- gress in sacred literature, and completed the Greek version of pied in the Sacked Books called the Septuagint. 5. SYRIA. — Seleucus, the founder of the dynasty of the Se- leucidce, obtained after the battle of Ipsus the government of the extensive provinces of Alexander's empire in Asia, except. Pales- tine, and the country adjacent to Egypt, which were governed by Nicator. Ptolemy. In the early part of his reign he made Babylon the seat of his empire. He marched to the Indus, to recover the countries which Alexander had there conquered ; but was met by Sandrocottus, a native sovereign, with an army of 600,000, 2. What league was formed ? How was the empire divided ? Who had the part numbered first, and what was it ? The same of the second ? Third ? Fourth? — 3. What can you say of Alexandria? Of Ptolemy? Of the condition of Egypt under this king? — 4r. Who was his successor? Who his ? How long did these three kings fill the throne, and at what time ? What was collected? Who would naturally come to Alexandria ? What was the character of the succeeding Ptolemies? What progress in sacred literature was made by the Jews of Alexandria? — 5. What were the royal successors of Seleucus called ? What did they obtain ? What account can you give of his expedition to India ? 301 Seleucus SYRIA IN ITS MOST FLOURISHING STATE. 101 and a prodigious number of elephants. Seleucus* agreed to - ^g*g H ^. leave him in quiet possession for 500 elephants, which he re- perpd vi. ceived. He was then called to the east, to resist the aggressions chap. i. of Lysimachus. He conquered him, and thus acquired large ac- ^-^v^^/ cessions to his empire. He extended commerce, and built seieu- " cities, of which Anlioch, in Syria, was the principal. This city ^tor" he made his capital. dtej 6. Antiochus Soter attempted some new conquests, but be- ing unsuccessful, he weakened his kingdom. Antiochus, im- Antio- piously called Theos, or God, his weak and vicious successor, ter d." was wholly under the dominion of vain and infamous women, *2U'2. and the palace was a scene of revelry and murder. The eastern Ant j _ provinces did not fail to profit by the occasion, and Parthia and ch us Bactria became independent monarchies. The kingdom of Per- *J46 .' gamus was founded by Attalus. Of the sovereigns of Syria Seieu- immediately succeeding, some were of the house of Seleucus, ^aiini- and others were not. ucus,)d. 7. The glory of this family revived in Antiochus III. the *~***- i Great. He made an expedition into the east, and while he Seieu- formally relinquished Parthia and Bactria to separate sovereigns, (CemiL he regained, by their assistance, other provinces of Upper Asia, nus,) d. He wrested from the Ptolemies the countries which they pos- ***»• sessed east of the Mediterranean, and meditated the conquest of Antio- Egypt itself. He received the banished Hannibal at his court; JjjJitJJ and could these two men have cordially united, they might per- IS 1 ?. haps, have given a new direction to the current of events. The history of Syria is henceforward involved in that of the Roman commonwealth. 8. MACEDONIA AND GREECE.— Alexander had left the government at home to Antipater, the faithful counsellor of his father and of himself. On the death of the conqueror, the Ant yater European provinces were assigned to him. On his decease, a cassander state of war and anarchy ensued. Cassander, by the battle of 296- Ipsus, which established the league of the four generals, became fjjjj an" king of Macedonia and a part of Greece. After his short reign, Alexander. the feeble princes, his sons, suffered the kingdom to fall into Alexander * Seleucus, to strengthen himself in power, married for his second wife, 204. Stratonice, the daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes. The consuming pas- sion of his son Antiochus Soter for this beautiful woman, which had thrown him into a disease — the physician's discovery of this by the change of his patient's pulse when Stratonice appeared — the resolution of the father to re- linquish his wife to his son — are passages of history which deeply fix them- selves in the memory ; and while we admire the magnanimity of Seleucus, we cannot but be shocked at the little heed which was given to the sacred- ness of marriage, and the brutal tyranny of the times in regard to women ; when men considered their wives as their property, to keep or give to an- other, at their capricious pleasure. 5. By conquering Lysimachus what countries did he gain? What things did Seleucus, more serviceable to the world than war and murder ? Name the Selucidae from Seleucus to Antiochus the Great ? (See margin.) — 6. What time did their united reigns occupy ? In whose reign did Bactria and Parthia become independent ? What kingdom was founded ? — T. Who re- vived the glory of the Selucidoe ? What are some of his acts? — 8. What account can you give of Antipater ? Of Cassander and his sons ? 102 THE LAST KING OF MACEDONIA. Ancient His. sucrl a distracted state, that Alexander, then king, called to his peri'd vi. aid Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and Demetrius Poliorcetes. chap. t. Demetrius learning some time after, that Alexander was plotting his assassination, killed him and usurped his throne. Pyrrhus expelled him. He, again, was supplanted by Lysimachus of Thrace, who, like the others, retained his power but a short period. Family quarrels brought on a war with Seleucus Ni- cator, and in a battle in Phrygia, Lysimachus was defeated and slain. The whole of Asia Minor and Syria was now united to Macedonia and Thrace. Seleucus proclaimed himself king, but on his passage into Europe he was assassinated. 9. Ptolemy Ceraunus, his murderer, who usurped the throne of Macedon, was soon deposed and slain by the Gauls. In three successive invasions these northern barbarians overran Thrace and Macedonia, penetrated to the temple of Delphi, and threatened to lay waste all Greece. They were at length ex- pelled from Greece, but made a settlement in Thrace, which was thus lost to Macedonia. They settled also in Galatia. 10. Antigonus GoNATUS,the son of Demetrius, successfully A Goifa°tus S contested the throne of Macedonia, with Alexander, the son of dies Pyrrhus, that great commander having been killed in an attempt Ph?i?*di'es on ^ r g os - Antigonus during a reign of forty years sought to 119. recover the country from its ruinous condition. After his death PYDNA. this monarchy declined. Philip, who reigned some time after, Th^Ro- was in l ea g ue witn Hannibal against Rome. He made war to mans defeat subdue the other states of Greece who had fallen from the Ma- thf lastking cedonian dominion. He cruelly put to death his amiable son of Macedon. Demetrius, and paved the way for what happened in the reign of Perseus, his successor, — the subjugation of Macedonia to the Roman power. 11. ATHENS. — On the death of Alexander, the Grecian states combined against Antipater, who on this occasion appeared in ■©emps- arms against the Athenians, when they submitted. He demanded tnenes. the orators. Demosthenes, to avoid falling into his hands, fled 32 ^' to a neighboring city and killed himself by poison. Antipater dying, Ptolemy and Cassander sent Demetrius Phalereus, i^SSaiTcy wno ruled Athens ten years. From his rule they were set free in the case by that elegant and accomplished prince, Demetrius Poliorcetes, ^iorcetes?" who had been sent by his father with a large fleet. After hav- ing been worshipped as a god by the Athenians, he was recalled, and with his father lost the battle of Ipsus, when the Athenians refused to receive him. 12. Yet it was in these degenerate days that the venerable An goocf he Phocion lived, whose virtues Alexander had respected,, and at- Phocion. tempted to reward by lavish presents ; none of which, that in- 8. Who were invited to his aid by Alexander ? What followed previous to the battle of Cyropedium ? What, is here related of Seleucus Nicator ? — 9. What was done by the Gauls ?— lO. Where was Pyrrhus killed ? What is related of Antigonus? — 11. What course did the Athenians take on the death of Alexander ? Give an account of the death of Demosthenes. On what occasion was Athens visited by Demetrius Poliorcetes? How did the Athenians treat him ? GRECIAN LIBERTY MAKES A LAST STRUGGLE. 103 dependent Athenian would accept. He never sought prefer- ment, but he was forty-five times chosen general. So much was he in the habit of exposing vice with severity, that generally some persons felt themselves reproved. Once, when all ap- plauded, he turned in surprise to a friend, and asked, " Have I inadvertently let some bad thing slip by me unreproved ?'' He was ever the protector of the unfortunate, yet the Athenians condemned him. After he had taken the poison by which he was to die, he charged his son to forgive his destroyers. 13. THE ACH^AN LEAGUE.— Achaia made the last struggle for Grecian freedom. A union of twelve Achaean cities, pos- sessed of democratical governments, and leagued on terms of perfect equality, had existed from the early ages of Greece until the death of Alexander the Great ; but the confusion and troubles of the subsequent period had caused its dissolution. A leader now arose in Aratus, a native of Sicyon, who united the scat- tered portions of the league, of which he was made general, and to which he soon added Corinth and Megara. 14. Sparta, corrupted by intercourse with Persia, had departed widely from the institutions of Lycurgus. Agis, one of the best and most amiable of its kings, had attempted a reformation, but Leonidas, his colleague, caused him to be betrayed and assassi- nated; and obliged his widow, Ariatis — wealthy, and renowned for wisdom and beauty, to marry Cleomenes, his son. She revered the memory of Agis, and, by her discourse, led Cleo- menes to admire his character, adopt his plans, and make a similar attempt to revive the ancient constitution. The power of the king had been swallowed up by that of the Ephori. He determined, if possible, to restore it. This was opposed by the league, and a war ensued, in which the Achseans called to their aid Antigonus of Macedon. A battle was fought, which Cleo- menes lost. He fled to Egypt, where he was retained a prisoner by Ptolemy. 15. Sparta received its independence as a gift from Antigonus, and in the contest between its succeeding kings and the Ephori, it fell into anarchy and became the prey of tyrants. In a war with the iEolians, called the " Social war," the Achaeans asked aid of Philip III. of Macedon, whose kingdom had, after an in- terval of peace, become powerful. The iEolians were joined by the Spartans, and, fatally for the independence of Greece, by the Romans, who, after the Carthaginian wars, subjugated the whole country. After the death of Aratus, another general arose among the Achaeans, who, in the iEolians wars, more than supplied his place, Philopcemen was deserving of a bet- Ancient His. PERI'D VI. CHAP. I. Phocion's plain speak- ing. 251. League be- tween Argos, Si- cyon, and other cities renewed. Attempt to restore the constitution ofLycurgus. 222. SELLASIA. The Achae- ans and Macedo- nians defea the Spartans 220. War be- tween the iEtolians and Achaeans. 211. .Etolians form a league with the Romans. 206. Philo- pcemen. 12. What account can you give of Phocion? — 13. What is said of Achaia ? Of the Achaean league ? — 14. What was the condition of Sparta? What attempt was made by Agis ? What was done by Leonidas ? What was Cleomenes persuaded to undertake ? What was the result of his at- tempt ? — 15. What now became the condition of Sparta ? What war again set the Grecian states to destroying each other ? What foreign power did they suffer to interfere in their domestic quarrels ? What can you say of Philopcemen? 104 THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. Ancient His. t er a g e> g u t the valor and patriotism of a single man could peri'd vi. not now avert the destiny of Greece. CHAPTER II. 293. Census. 272,300 citi- zens (males) of military age. 291. Roman army pass under the yoke. 29©. Samnites subdued. 283. Etrurians conquered. The people ofTarentum invite Pyrrhus. 2S0. PJ1NDO- SIA. Pyrrhus de- feats the Romans. Rome acquiring new territories. 1. During the war for the conquest of the Latin states, the people of Samnium had joined the Romans, but becoming jea- lous of their increasing power, they first withdrew from their alliance, and afterwards formed a league with several kindred tribes against them. In the wars which ensued, success was various. A Roman army, under the command of the consuls, Titus Veturius, and Spurius Postumius, was decoyed into a defile at the forks of the Caudine river, and there surrounded by the Samnites, so that either escape or battle was impossible. The whole Roman army, including the consuls, could obtain deliverance on no other terms than to pass unarmed, and almost naked, under the yoke.* Then making an agreement of peace, they were allowed to return. 2. This indignity produced, in the breasts of the haughty Romans, irreconcilable hatred towards the Samnites. The senate and assembly of the people did not consider themselves bound by the treaty, but raised a formidable army to renew the war. In the battles which followed, the Romans sought to wash away their disgrace in the blood of their enemies, and the fierceness of their encounters surpassed any thing in the previous history of Rome. They conquered Samnium, and after this no power in Italy remained capable of resisting them. The Etrurians were next vanquished. The Tarentines became hos- tile, and invited to their assistance Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. He found, on invading Italy, that he had not the enervated Persians to cope with, but a people who, it is probable, would have checked Alexander himself. His first battle with the Romans was at Pandosia, and though fiercely contested, the military skill of Pyrrhus finally triumphed, but he said " another such victory would ruin him ;" and the polished Greeks, astonished at the tactics of the Romans, remarked, "These barbarians are by no means barbarous." 3. Pyrrhus ravaged the country, took the camp of the Romans, and marched towards the capital. When within fifteen leagues., * The yoke was a kind of gallows, composed of three spears, two being fixed in the ground, and the third laid across on the fop of the others. Chap. II. — I. Relate some of the early incidents in the war between Rome and Samnium. — 2. Why did it prove to be unwise in the Samnites. to treat their foe with indignity ? What king came to assist the enemies of Rome ? What battle did he gain ? THE TYRANTS OF SYRACUSE. 105 he despatched an ambassador with terms of peace. The senate intrepidly replied that no terms would be received until the army of Pyrrhus should be withdrawn from Italy. Fabricius, a citi- zen of great worth, but poor, was sent ambassador to procure the ransom of the Roman prisoners. Pyrrhus attempted to bribe him, but found him incorruptible. He next showed his terrible elephants, but the Roman was as little moved by fear as by avarice. The physician of Pyrrhus sent him proposals for destroying his master by poison. Fabricius informed his enemy of this treacherous purpose. Pyrrhus, touched with admiration and gratitude, released the Roman prisoners without ransom. 4. A Sicilian deputation now imploring his aid against the Carthaginians, Pyrrhus abandoned Italy, and passed over to Sicily. Here he was at first successful, but after having relieved the Sicilians, he assumed such a haughty control over them, that he lost their affections. The Tarentines, now reduced to distress by the Romans, soliciting his aid, he again embarked for Italy. He was totally defeated and compelled to return to Epirus. The Romans had now made themselves masters of Italy, but the relations sustained by the conquered nations to Rome were various. Some were merely allies, retaining their internal constitution, but obliged to pay tribute, and furnish auxiliary troops when demanded ; others were compelled to re- ceive Roman magistrates, annually elected. 5. SICILY. — -After the expulsion of the Athenians, the Sicilians were invaded by the Carthaginians and lost Agrigentum and two other cities. Dionysius, the Sicilian general, conducted the war against them with ability, and acquired the confidence of the people. Abusing it, he became the tyrant of Syracuse. He was of so suspicious a temper, that he caused a room to be made for confining prisoners, from which, as from the human external ear to the tympanum, sound could be conveyed to an apartment where he sat to listen to their conversations. Thus knowing himself disliked and fearing danger, he cruelly destroy- ed the lives of his subjects. Damocles flattered him. " Thou shalt," said the tyrant, " taste the sweets of royalty." At a magnificent banquet, the courtier sat and feasted, when looking above him, he saw a sword hanging by a hair. 6. His son, Dionysius the Younger, succeeded him, and was a still more execrable tyrant. His cousin Dion, and afterwards the amiable Corinthian, Timoleon, overthrew him. But the Syracusans had not sufficient virtue to keep their recovered freedom. Agathocles, a man of low origin, but of talents and military renown, seized the sovereign authority. He, dying childless, affairs fell into confusion, and Pyrrhus was called over Ancient His. PERI'D VI. CHAP. II. Virtue of Fabricius and grati- tude of Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus goes to Si- cily, but returns. 275. BENE- VEJfTUM. Romans defeat Pyrrhus. Dionysius I. The EIder,d. 367. Dionysius II., the Younger. Dion. 300. Timoleon. 344. 3. What followed this battle ? What account can you give of Fabricius ? —4:. Where did Pyrrhus next go ? On his return what battle was fought ? — 5. What was taken from the Sicilians ? By whom ? What account can you give of the elder Dyonisius? — 6. What two remarkable persons over- threw at different times the younger Dionysius ? Give some further account of the history of Sicily. 14 106 THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. Ancient His. PERI'D VI. CHAP. II. First Punic war begins by the iniquitous interference of the Romans 2®5. Romans take Agri- gentum. Carthage mistress of the sea. Romans build a navy. 26©. First naval victory of the Romans. 25T Romans ain ix se- cond naval victory. 256. Without the city of CAR- THAGE. Xanthippus defeats Reguius. to reduce them to order, but in vain. Hiero, a descendant of Gelon, then obtained the regal authority. 7. Pyrrhus was carrying on the war with the Carthaginians, and had obtained some advantages, when the appearance of a new enemy united the Syracusans and Carthaginians, for a time, in a common league. A body of mercenary troops, called the Mamertines, whom Agathocles had employed in his wars, en- tered Messana as friends ; but murdered the inhabitants, and ob- tained forcible possession of the city. The Carthaginians and Syracusans were invited to aid the Messanians, while the Ma- mertines applied to the Romans. Justice inclined the Roman senate to hesitate, but did not deter them from yielding to the stronger dictates of ambition, which prompted them to interfere, that they might turn the dissensions of their neighbors to their own advantage, They sent troops to the aid of the marauders, And thus commenced the first Punic war. 8. Hiero soon changed sides, united himself with the Romans, and formed with them a plan for the expulsion of the Cartha- ginians from Sicily. Agrigentum, after a siege of several months, fell into the hands of the Romans. During this siege they per- ceived the necessity of a navy, to contend successfully with Carthage. This nation was now mistress of the sea, and at the height of its power, possessing a large portion of Africa, Spain, and Sicily, with Sardinia and other islands. But Rome had a more free constitution ; her warlike citizens fought their own battles, while those of Carthage were intrusted to men of other countries, who served for pay. A Carthaginian galley had been taken which served the Romans as a model, and with incredible industry, they set about building a fleet. To inure their men to naval exercises, benches similar to those of the galleys were prepared on land, where they were taught to perform the action of rowing. In two months the fleet was equipped, and Duil- lius, the commander, sailed in pursuit of the enemy. The two fleets met, and the Romans obtained their first naval victory. 9. A project was formed for transferring the war to Africa. To prevent its execution, the Carthaginians hazarded, and lost, another naval engagement, which took place off the coast of Sicily. Regulus, to whom was committed the African expedi- tion, landed and took Tunis, where he encamped. The Car- thaginians received a reinforcement from Greece, commanded by Xanthippus, a Lacedaemonian of great military skill. Re- gulus was defeated and taken prisoner. The Carthaginians, tired of the war, sent Regulus to Rome, to offer terms of peace ; but bound him by oath to return, if the terms offered were not accepted. By the advice of Regulus, the Romans rejected 7. How did the first Punic war commence ? — 8. What was the course of Hiero? What was the condition of Carthage? What advantages had the Romans ? How did they proceed in procuring a fleet ? What success had they ? — 9. What naval battle occurred ? Give an account of Regulus. Who was Xanthippus ? ROME UNRIGHTEOUSLY GRASPING. ior them. He returned a willing prisoner, and was barbarously tortured and destroyed. 10. The war was for some years carried on mostly at sea, and with so equal advantage, that there was no prospect of peace. At length a decisive victory was obtained by Lutatius, the Roman admiral, over the Carthaginian fleet. The Romans became masters of the sea, and deprived the Carthaginians of the means of conveying succors to their Sicilian cities. They then made peace on condition of abandoning all their posses- sions in Sicily, paying the Romans a large sum of money, and restoring their prisoners without ransom. The Carthaginians thus exhibited a character the reverse of that of their enemies ; who never, in the most disastrous days of the republic, pur- chased safety by submission to a foreign foe. Peace was hardly concluded, when the Carthaginians were involved in a war with the mercenaries, whom they had employed. Though finally victorious, the republic was greatly exhausted. The mercena- ries in Sardinia, catching the spirit of insurrection, rose, mur- dered their Carthaginian rulers, and obtained possession. The Romans, regardless of the peace with Carthage, interfered, and made themselves masters of the island. The Carthaginians re- monstrated, but unable in their present weakened state to sup- port their right by arms, they were obliged to submit to a second treaty, in which Sardinia was ceded to Rome. But the injus- tice which the Carthaginians thus suffered, rankled in their minds ; and to this the second Punic war, though delayed some years, may be traced, 11. The Carthaginians sought compensation for their late losses, by extending their conquests over Spain. Here also the Romans jealously interfered, and a treaty was forced upon them restricting their conquests to the further side of the Iberus These wrongs to his country were keenly felt by Hamilcar the Carthaginian general in Spain. He had with him a son Hannibal, a noble boy, whose heart he filled with the impla cable enmity which burned within his own ; and at the age of nine, he made him swear, upon the sacred altar, eternal enmity to Rome. This he was to declare when he could find or make a fitting occasion. Hamilcar, and his son-in-law, Asdrubal, commanded in Spain seventeen years. Most of the southern part of the peninsula submitted to their arms. To secure their conquests, Asdrubal built the city of New Carthage, or Carthagena. 12. After the close of the first Punic war, Rome sent a fleet into the Adriatic, to put a stop to the depredations of the Illyrian pirates. This fleet secured the dominion of the Adriatic, and conquered a part of Illyria. The Grecian cities which had suf- lO. What victory was obtained ? What great advantage did this victory- give to the Romans ? On what conditions did the Carthaginians make peace? On what occasion did the Romans deprive Carthage of Sar- dinia? — 11. What conquests did the Carthaginians make in Spain ? What treaty was forced upon them ? What did Hamilcar in regard to his son? What city was built by the Carthaginians ? — 12. What righteous enterprise was nov/ undertaken by the Romans ? What did they gain ? Ancient Hi*. PERI'D VI. CHAP. II. Carthage. Mercenary 231. The Romans seize Sardinia. Rome restricts Carthage. 23T Hannibal swears enmity. Asdrubal builds Car- thagena. 201. TheRomana destroy the Illyrian pirates. 108 HANNIBAL. Ancient His. fered greatly from the piratical incursions of the Illyrians, hailed peri'd vi. the Romans as deliverers, and vied with each other in doing chap. ii. them honor. The Gauls had frequently, since the destruction v ^ r ~ v ^»- / of Rome by Brennus, made irruptions into the Roman provinces, having joined both the Etrurians and Samnites. The north had, 222. however, remained quiet for some time, and as yet the Romans clusium. had not crossed the Po. Another irruption of the barbarians unde^K- now took place, and a bloody war ensued, in which Emilius lius defeat defeated them at Clusium, drove them beyond the Po, and Cis- alpine Gaul was added to the Roman dominions. 13. On the death of Asdrubal, Hannibal obtained the com- mand of the Carthaginian army in Spain. Bent on executing the **?• plan meditated by his father of humbling the pride of Rome, takeTsa- his first act was to besiege Saguntum, a city of Spain, under gumum. Roman protection. Ambassadors were despatched, first to Han- monstrate. nibal, who refused on some frivolous pretence to admit them to an audience ; then to the senate of Carthage, from whom they received no satisfaction. Meanwhile Hannibal prosecuted the siege with vigor, and at length took the city. 14. SECONE> PUNIC WAR.— The fate .of Saguntum was no sooner known at Rome, than a war was declared, of which Hannibal determined to make Italy the seat. With this view he SJ18. prepared to pass the Alps \ an achievement which the Romans cSTesefthe believed to be altogether impracticable. He had previously Pyrenees in taken measures to secure the favor of the nations through whose the spring. terr i tor j es ^ must p ass . having distributed gold with an un- sparing hand among the barbarian chiefs. Early in the spring he commenced his march. Having reduced the nations which lay at the foot of the Pyrenean mountains, he here left his general, Hanno, with a sufficient force to guard their narrow passes. He also dismissed about ten thousand of his troops, sending them home with a view of securing their good will. Passes 15. The Gauls, being informed that the war was against Italy, TransSpfne not oru y allowed Hannibal to pass through their territories, but Gaul during aided him on his way. On his arrival at the Rhone, however, the summer. ^ f oun d the nations who dwelt on the opposite side, drawn up His passage to prevent his passage. He sent a detachment of troops farther RhonVdJs- U P tne river, who crossed it in secrecy, and then came down puted. upon the rear of the Gauls, who, finding themselves surround- ed, immediately dispersed. Publius Cornelius Scipio and Tiberius Sempronius were the Roman consuls for this year. To the former was assigned Spain ; to the latter Africa and campaTthe Sicily. Scipio departed for his province, but finding that Han- mouth of the nibal had alleady crossed the Pyrenees, he stopped and pitched his camp at one of the mouths of the Rhone. 12. What did the Grecian cities ? Give an account of the war with the Gauls. — 13. What did Hannibal on obtaining the command in Spain ?— 14. What was done in Rome when this was known ? What was Hannibal de- termined to do? What were his previous measures? — 15. How did Han- nibal succeed in passing through Transalpine Gaul ? What happened at the Rhone ? What account can you give of the Roman consuls ? Hannibal's passage of the alps. 109 16. Hannibal, determining to avoid a battle, withdrew his forces from the sea, and followed up the waters of the Rhone until he arrived at the foot of the Alps. Here the hearts of the most courageous grew faint. The mountains with their snowy tops penetrating the clouds — the naked and apparently inaccessible cliffs over which their path must lie — 'the hostile Gauls, hovering on the precipices which hung over their heads, and ready on their attempt to ascend, to precipitate them into the depths below — all these were objects calculated to fill them with dismay. Hannibal used every art to animate their courage. Having ascertained that the mountaineers abandoned the pass at night, he, with a small party of light troops passed rapidly through it, making himself master of the eminences on which the Gauls had, during the previous day, been posted. At early dawn, the army commenced its ascent. The Gauls perceiving it, hastened to their usual post, but to their surprise, beheld it in possession of their enemy. The mountaineers now pressed into the defile by various circuitous routes, spreading terror and confusion in the army, until Hannibal was compelled to leave the eminence in order to disperse them. 17. The army at length gained the first pass, but they met new difficulties; sometimes, falling into ambush through the treachery of guides ; again, led through bewildering tracks, and over wrong roads; now, intercepted by large bodies of the hostile Gauls in battle array ; then, shuddering as tremendous rocks were rolled from the precipices above, crushing in theii onward course both man and horse. But Hannibal pursued his way, until on the ninth day he completed the ascent. Snow now fell upon the mountains, which increased the dangers of the way. The army, dejected and dispirited, hopeless of any termination of their toils, were sinking into utter despond- ency, when Hannibal led them to a projecting eminence, and ordered them to halt. Here they looked down and beheld the valley of the Po, stretching out before them in all its beauty and luxuriance. Hannibal lost 30,000 men, and employed fifteen days in the passage of the Alps ; and it was five months from the time of his leaving New Carthage, before he arrived in Italy. 18. Scipio had returned from the Rhone, and encamped with his legions at the Ticinus. Here Hannibal attacked and van- quished him. In the heat of the battle the consul was wound- ed, and would have been killed ; but his son, a youth of seven- teen, sprang forward and saved his life. That youth it was, who, sixteen years afterwards, conquered Hannibal at Zama. The desertion of a large body of Gauls from the Romans was the consequence of this defeat. Scipio apprehending a general 16. What did Hannibal do to avoid a battle ? What difficulties presented themselves when the army arrived at the foot of the Alps ? How did Han- nibal gain the first pass? — 'IT. After this was gained, what next occurred? How long was Hannibal in crossing the Alps, and what number did he lose ? — 18. Give an account of Hannibal's first victory in Italy. Ancient His. PERI'D VI. CHAP. II. Hannibal manoeuvres to avoid Scipio i 218. Hannibal's perilous pas- sage of the Alps late in the autumn. Hannibal arrives in Italy. Lost nearly half his army. 218. TICIJVUS. Hannibal defeats P. C. Scipio. Young Scipio (af- terwards Africanus) saves his father. 110 THE ROMAN WASHINGTON. Ancient His. PERI'D VI. CHAP. II. Lake THRASY- JfEJTUS. Hannibal ain victo- rious 216. Fabius Maximus, dictator. Fabius lays waste the country. Hannibal also deso- lates it. Mouth of the IBER US. Cneius Scipio gains a naval vic- tory. revolt, removed his camp to the river Trebia. Sempronius had now joined his colleague, and the two consuls, with the whole strength of the Roman army, were ready to oppose the future progress of the Carthaginians. Another battle was fought at Trebia, where the fortune of Carthage again triumphed. When the news of a second defeat of a consular army was brought to Rome, the whole city was in consternation, but no sound of submission was heard. 19. The passage of the Carthaginians over the Appenines, on account of a severe storm, proved nearly as destructive as that over the Alps. Yet, early in the spring, Hannibal was again prepared for battle. Drawing the consul Flaminius into an ambuscade near lake Thrasymenus, a dreadful conflict ensued. The Romans, surrounded by woods and morasses, and pressed on all sides by their enemy, fought with desperation. An earth- quake, which overthrew many of the cities of Italy, and turned rivers out of their courses, passed unnoticed by the furious combatants. The genius of Hannibal again prevailed. 20. The Romans now felt the terrors, which they had so often excited. The appointment of a dictator was regarded as almost their only hope. The prudent Fabius Maximus, with whom the American Washington has been compared, was elected to the office. He first paid solemn attention to religious rites; he next ordered the inhabitants dwelling in insecure towns, to re- move to places of greater safety ; and those of the country through which Hannibal must pass, to leave their homes, having first burned their houses, and destroyed whatever could afford subsistence. He avoided a battle, hovering near the enemy, checking their depredations, and destroying their supplies. Hannibal, finding his measures to draw Fabius into an engage- ment ineffectual, wreaked his sworn vengeance upon Rome, by laying waste her fairest possessions. When the Roman army beheld, from the tops of the mountains, the beautiful vale of Campania wasted by fire, its elegant villas smoking in ruins, and desolation spreading on every side, distrust of the motives and policy of their commander, which had before lurked in their hearts, broke forth into open murmurs. 21. While these events passed in Italy, the Romans, under Cneius Scipio, obtained a victory over the Carthaginian fleet near the mouth of the Iberus, after which, several of the nations ad- jacent to that river submitted to them. Although Fabius had pursued such measures as had preserved the Roman army en- tire, yet cabals were formed against him, and he was accused of wanting energy. The sole authority was taken from him ; ye* his counsels so far prevailed, that for two years, Hannibal was not able to bring the Roman army to a general battle. When, 18. Give an account of his second. — 19. Of his third. What natural phenomenon occurred during this battle ? — 20. What can you say of Rome at this time ? What of Fabius Maximus ? What policy did he pursue ? — 21. What victory did Cneius Scipio gain ? What was done with respect to Fabius Maximus ? THE YOUNGER SC1PI0. Hi however, Caius Terentius Varro attained the consulship, a Ancieni Hi ^ different course was pursued. Hannibal drew him into an en- perpd vi. gagement at Cannae. There the flower of the Roman youth CHAP - "• lay dead, upon the most disastrous of the battle-fields of Italy. s -*~ v ^v*> Hannibal, instead of proceeding directly to Rome, sought first 216. to reduce Lower Italy. The most powerful of its nations HamJimi" submitted to his arms, or sought his alliance. Having estab- victorious. lished his quarters in Capua, the luxurious habits and effeminate 70,poo"three manners which his soldiers there acquired, are assigned as the ^fJ^J,^ prime cause of his subsequent decline. Envy and jealousy had taken from also arisen against him at home, and the recruits, which were ^th" Ro- expected from Carthage, were withheld. man knights 22. \a expectation of aid from Philip V., of Macedonia, with Hannibal whom he had formed a treaty, and of succors from Spain under commits a the command of his brother Asdrubal, Hannibal now acted error, merely on the defensive. The policy of Rome furnished Philip with employment, by stirring up enemies against him in his own H annibai country, in the meantime, the Romans were regaining their remits his strength ; new legions were formed, and the spirits of the nation Udmeie- revived. Capua was at length taken from Hannibal ; and though vives - he had marched boldly to Rome, yet, when he learned, that while encamped before one of its gates, his presence had in- spired so little terror that recruits for the army in Spain had 2© 1 ?- passed out of another, he retired in chagrin. Asdrubal,* his jmztau- brother, having effected the passage of the Alps, and arrived in RUS A the north of Italy, was met, defeated by the Roman armies, and featthe S Car" slain. His severed head was thrown into the camp of Hanni- th J? i j^J^ bal, who exclaimed in agony, " It is done ; I have lost all my 56,obo. r. good fortune, and Carthage all her hopes." ,oss 800 °- 23. Meanwhile the younger Scipio had, by the terror of his arms, re-established the Roman power over the territories of Spain, and, by his engaging virtues, won the hearts of the peo- ple. The Celtiberians, a warlike people, were gained by his generous dismissal of a beautiful princess betrothed to their leader. So great was his renown, that after his return to Italy s^pS^S- he was elected consul, though under the age prescribed, and vers Spain, having Sicily assigned as his province, he had the power grant- an Africa. eS ed him of carrying the war into Africa at his pleasure. He accordingly invaded Africa, where his success compelled the Carthaginians to recall their forces from Italy. 24. The grief of Hannibal, when he received the mandate to return, was extreme. On his arrival at Carthage, he took the command of the army, and advanced five days into the country, * There were four Carthaginian generals by this name. One was the brother-in-law, and one the brother of Hannibal. 561. Describe the battle of Cannes ? Did Hannibal follow up his victory by proceeding to Rome ? What course did he take ? — 22. From what quarters was Hannibal expecting aid ? What were the reasons that he did not receive it ? By whom, and with what result was the battle of Metau- rus? — 23. Give an account of the younger Scipio? Why was Hannibal recalled ? 112 END OF THE SECOND PUNIC WAR. Ancient His. w hen he encamped at Zama. A battle ensued, in which, though peri'D vi. the valor of the Carthaginians sustained their reputation, the chap. hi. Romans obtained a complete victory. Scipio advanced towards ^^~v~v^ Carthage; but at Tunis he was met by ambassadors. The 202. terms imposed by the conqueror, though severe, were accepted Sc^fofcaii- by the disheartened senate of Carthage. The Carthaginians ed Africa- agreed to relinquish their possessions in Spain, and thenceforth n Hann1bai! s to restrict their power to Africa ; to deliver up the Roman pri- soners ; to destroy their navy, and to pay tribute to Rome. ?^' h 25. Carthage, thus deprived of its foreign possessions, and second Pu- its navy, though enjoying its own constitution, and the name nicwar. Q f an independent republic, was effectually deprived of all means of thwarting the boundless ambition of Rome. Even „ K1 . on the side of Africa its power was soon checked. Masinissa, Humbled . ■ v ■ ■•. !L \ i • -• i i n • i i condition of prince of Numidia, who had aided the Romans in the late war, Carthage. was ^ them established in his kingdom ; and being declared an ally of Rome, the Carthaginians were obliged to remain at peace with him. CHAPTER III. The progress of the Roman Power. 1, GREECE.— The Romans had drawn the .^Gtolians, and 3toa£JJ2JJ subsequently, several other Grecian states, into a league of army into alliance. Some of the Grecian cities were dissatisfied with the Greece. terms G f the peace with Philip of Macedonia, which followed the " Social War." The Romans were hostile to Philip, on account of his treaty with Hannibal, and they introduced an army into Greece, commanded by the consul Acn.ius. 2. Antiochus the Great was on the throne of Syria. To him Hannibal in Hannibal, exiled from his ungrateful country, fled. He pointed Asia * out the grasping ambition of Rome, which he invited Antiochus to oppose by carrying a war into Italy, offering to command an advanced army, until the monarch could arrive. The Car- 192- thaginians had the meanness to inform the Romans of the move- thermo- ments of Hannibal. Fortunately for Rome, Antiochus did not pylje. t a k e nis advice ; but himself marched an army into Thessaly Aciiius de- took several cities, and proceeded to the pass of Thermopylae, fea hus A of " wnere he was met and defeated by the Roman army under Syria. Aciiius. He escaped with a very few of his troops to Chalcis, 24. Give an account of the closing battle of the war ? What were the conditions of peace ? 25. What was now the situation of Carthage ? Chap. X. — 1. What measures were the Romans taking in order to sub- jugate Greece? — 2. To what was Antiochus of Syria advised ? How was Hannibal treated by his country ? What was done by Antiochus ? Where was he defeated ? What did he then ? THE GREAT ROMAN EMPIRE FORMING. 113 from whence he returned to Asia. The cities and fortresses, of which he had obtained possession, surrendered to the Romans. 3. The next consul, Lucius Scipio, carried his arms into Asia, fought, and conquered Antiochus. He now sued for peace, which he obtained only by resigning his claims in Europe, and by the cession of all Lesser Asia, as far as Mount Taurus, and the surrender of half his ships. With a show of magna- nimity, the Romans freed the Greek cities of Asia Minor, dividing the remainder of the conquered lands between their allies. But their moderation was only in appearance. In reality, they now held sway from the Atlantic to the Euphrates. After the peace with Antiochus, the persecuted Hannibal fled to Prusias, king of Bithynia. The Romans demanded him, and he, whose great, but misguided talents, had been employed for the destruction of his fellow-beings, now, far from home and friends, raised his hand against himself. 4 Philip V., of Macedonia, was extending his power, and waiting an occasion to make war upon the Romans. The con- dition of his young son, Demetrius, whom he had been com- pelled to surrender as a hostage, and who was now at Rome, for a time delayed the hostilities of the father. At length he received him. The amiable youth had become attached to the Roman people, and his innocent expressions were attributed by his elder brother, Perseus, to treasonable connexion with the enemy of his country, — a design to dethrone his father, and sup- ported by the Romans, to become monarch in his stead. By order of Philip, he was secretly put to death. Too late, the repentant father found, that he had sacrificed an innocent son, to a base and jealous deceiver. Struck with remorse, he died, and left his crown to the unworthy Perseus, who sought everywhere to stir up enmity against the Romans. But after war was de- clared, his avarice prevented him from affording much aid to his allies. The Romans, on their part, did not pursue the contest in Greece with their usual vigor, till at length, Paulus Mm\- lius, being elected consul, obtained a decisive victory over Perseus. Perseus fled, was pursued and taken ; and with his family carried captive to Rome. Macedonia was now a Roman province. 5. A triumph, as was the case in great successes, was now granted, by the Roman senate, to the conqueror. History gives no account of any exhibitions of human vanity, equal to the triumphs of the victorious generals of Rome. On this occa- sion, three days were consumed in gorgeous processions, in which the spoils of the vanquished were paraded through the streets, with splendid military show, and martial music. Last Jlncient His. PERI'D VI. CHAP. III. Hannibal commits suicide by poison. Demetrius. His melan- choly fate, 168. PYDJVJi. Paulus iEmilius de- feats Per- seus. 165- Triumph of Paulus JEmilius. 3. Give an account of the battle of Magnesia? What was its conse- quence on the Syrian power ? What was now the extent of the Roman authority ? What was the fate of Hannibal ? — 4. Relate the history of De- metrius ? What was the course pursued by Perseus ? By whom was the battle of Pydna fought? What was its consequence? — 5. Describe the triumph of Paulus iEmilius ? 15 114 THE WICKED DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE. Ancient His. PERPD VI. CHAP. III. 166. War be- tween Syria and Egypt. Romans in- terfere. 149. Cato urges the destruc- tion of Car- thage. Utica sur- rendered to Rome. The cruelty of the Ro- man senate to an hum- bled rival. came Paulus iEmilius in his pompous chariot, blazing with gold and purple. Behind the triumphal car of the victor, on foot, and clothed in black, followed the conquered king, with his little children, holding forth their hands, and imploring the pity of the spectators. This, says Plutarch, the children of Perseus had been taught to do, for they were too young to feel their miserable degradation. When Perseus begged of his conqueror to be spared this degrading exhibition, iEmilius replied by hint- ing to him, that he might spare himself by committing suicide. Paulus iEmilius was however regarded as a man of moderation ; but his day was before that of Christianity. The miserable Perseus ended his days in a Roman prison. 6. Antiochtjs Epiphanes, now king of Syria, was success- fully engaged in a war with Egypt, whose kings, Ptolemy Phi- lometer, and Ptolemy Physcon, requested the interference of the Pvoman senate. They sent ambassadors, requiring of the Syrian prince, in an authoritative tone, to restore the places which he had taken from the Egyptians. Such was the terror of the Roman name, that he felt himself obliged to submit to the imperious mandate. 7. THE THIRD PUNIC WAR.— Fifty years having elapsed since the close of the second Punic war, the industrious Car- thaginians had repaired their ruined city, so that it began to ex- hibit traces of its former splendor. Cato, the censor, an aus- tere man, now in his dotage, having had occasion to visit Carthage, and not receiving all the attention to which he thought himself entitled, gave to the senate, on his return, such accounts of its growing power, that he awakened their jealousy ; ending all his speeches, no matter on what subject, by saying, "and in my opinion, Carthage must be destroyed." Pretexts were soon found in a dispute which arose between a Roman ally, Masi- nissa, king of Numidia, and the Carthaginians. While the se- nate were deliberating on the expediency of immediate war, deputies were received from Utica, the second city of Africa, and in the neighborhood of Carthage, surrendering their city to the Roman power. 8. Having now a convenient depot, the senate no longer he- sitated to send a fleet to Africa, although the Carthaginian am- bassadors at Rome made offers of satisfaction and submission. No sooner was it known at Carthage that the Roman fleet had arrived at Utica, than ambassadors were despatched thither also, to make all necessary concessions to obtain peace. The Ro- mans demanded that the munitions of war should be conveyed from Carthage to the Roman camp. The Carthaginians gave them up ; but the means of defence were no sooner removed from their city, than their ambassadors were informed that it 5. What was the fate of Perseus ? — ©. How was the quarrel between Syria and Egypt adjusted?— T. What was, at this period, the state of Car- thage ? What account can you give of Cato ? What pretext did ihe Ro- man senate find for sending an army to Africa ? — 8. How did the Romans proceed with the Carthaginians? FALL OF CARTHAGE. 115 PERI'D VI. CHAP. IV. was the will of the Roman senate that Carthage should be de- ■ggg His. stroyed ! and that they commanded all the citizens to depart. With astonishment and grief, the ambassadors supplicated mercy. They could only prevail to obtain permission to send another v-^v^/ embassy to Rome. The deputies went and returned, and con- firmed the barbarous decree. 9. The citizens, in despair, resolved to defend themselves to the last extremity. The delay of the Roman consuls, who ap- prehended no resistance from a disarmed city, afforded the Car- thaginians an opportunity to prepare for the siege. The tem- ples, palaces, and markets, were converted into arsenals, where The men and women worked day and night in the manufacture of Despair and arms. But these efforts only delayed a fate, which the unhappy e people, people could not avert. After a bravely sustained siege of three years, Carthage capitulated, with no other condition than that the 146. lives of those who were willing to leave the citadel should be Carthage spared. The city, which had existed for 700 years, and which at the commencement of the war contained 700,000 inhabitants, was now reduced to ashes. CHAPTER IV. The East. I. PERGAMUS, a city of Mysia, took advantage of the war of Seleucus with Lysimachus (both of whom claimed it,) to assume independence. The weakness of the Seleucidae, enabled the inhabitants not only to maintain it, but to add to their territory the surrounding country. Attalus I., a prince of noble character, laid the foundation of the monarchy. He was the ally of Antiochus the Great, and at the same time, the friend of the Romans. His son, Eumenes J J., took part with the Romans against Antiochus, and when they had vanquished that king, they gave to Eumenes almost all his dominions in Asia Minor, and he became an "ally," which signified little else than a servant of Rome, to be protected in danger, but to be carefully watched, and punished if not found in the ways of obedience. Thus Pergamus nominally had her territory ex- tended, but virtually lost her independence. Pergamus had be- come, next to Alexandria, the most distinguished seat of arts and literature. A rich library was collected, which Antony 9. How did the cruel conduct of the Romans affect the citizens of Car- thage ? Were their efforts availing ? How long had Carthage continued ? How many inhabitants did it contain at the commencement of the war ? Chap. IV. — 1. What two of Alexander's generals claimed Pergamus? What account can you give of Attalus I. ? Of Eumenes ? Of Attalus III. ? What is said of the progress of the Roman power in this kingdom ? What of Pergamus in regard to literature ? Its library ? Pergamus becomes an ally of Rome What an ally of Rome meant. 133. Pergamus a seat of science. 116 PYRRHUS A GOOD GENERAL— A BAD KING. Ancient His. PERI'D VI. CHAI'. IV. Romantic history of Pyrrhus. (From Pyr- rhus the Romans learned how to fortify a camp.) Maternal af- fection inspires courage. Pyrrhus is killed. 272. 146. These states indepen- dent. 184 Prusias sub- jugated by Rome. Mithridates II., killed by Antigonus. afterwards carried to Alexandria as a present to Cleopatra, At- talus III. gave, by will, the kingdom of Pergamus to Rome, and the senate made it a Roman province under the name of Asia. 2. Rhodes became a republic, and enjoyed, for a hundred years, a splendid period of liberty, commerce, and naval power. Epirus was an independent kingdom as far back as the Trojan war; but it makes no figure in history till the time of Pyrrhus II. Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great, was the daughter of Neoptolemus, a descendant of Achilles, and one of the predecessors of Pyrrhus. His relationship to such heroes inspired the ardor to acquire similar renown. His father having been deposed, Pyrrhus was carried in his infancy to the king of Illyria, who adopted him, and, with an army, placed him on the throne of Epirus at the age of twelve. 3. At seventeen, he was expelled from his dominions. Ap- plying to Demetrius Poliorcetes, he was by him sent to the court of Ptolemy, in Egypt. Here he so ingratiated himself with queen Berenice, that he received the hand of her daughter An- tigone, and aid from Ptolemy to reinstate him in his kingdom. But he had not the wisdom to remain there, and take care of his subjects. He went first to Macedonia, where he was engaged in wars with his brother-in-law Demetrius, and his son Anti- gonus ; and next, he passed over into Italy, to head the Ta- rentines in a bootless war with the Romans. He was finally killed in an attack on Argos, by a tile thrown from a window, by a poor woman, who in the battle saw him about to slay her son. The last sovereign of the race was Deidamia, his grand- daughter. A republic of short continuance followed; and lastly, Epirus fell, with the rest of Greece, under the dominion of Rome. 4. BITHYNIA and PAPHLAGONIA were formed into se- perate states, and had their kings during the Persian power. Bias, the reigning king of Bithynia, defended himself success- fully against Alexander, as his son and heir did against his suc- cessors. Hannibal took refuge with Prusias II., who, advised by him, made war successfully upon Eumenes. Nevertheless, he was about to deliver him to the Romans, when Hannibal prevented it by a voluntary death. The Romans invaded, and, in fact, subjugated the country ; but to keep up a show of jus- tice, Socrates, the last king, was persuaded, or forced, to give his empire by will to Rome. 5. PONTUS was, during the present period, governed by princes subordinate to the Persian monarchs, but deriving their descent from the same stock. Mithridates II., the fourth of these, submitted to Alexander, and after his death, to Antigo- nus, but was by him distrusted and slain. His son Mithridates 2. What can you say of Rhodes ? Of Epirus ? Give some account ot* the lineage of Pyrrhus? Of his early years ? — 3. Of his life until his going to Italy' Where, and how did he die? — 4:. What were formed into separate states? Who was Bias, and what did he and his son ? — 5. Give an account of Pontus ? PARTHIA UXCONQUERED. 117 JII., after the battle of Ipsus, became independent. The terri- tories of the kingdom were gradually enlarged. The Seleucidee had lost ground in their endeavors to subdue it, till Antiochus the Great, taking a wiser course, conciliated the Pontians, and married the daughter of Mithridates. The long reign of Mi- thridates VI. (the Great) presents, in its earlier portion, the most glorious period of this kingdom ; in its middle course, we find three disastrous wars with Rome •, and at the last we wit- ness, with regret, this unfortunate king, — his independent mind alone unconquered, roaming, like the hunted lion driven from his lair, seeking friends, and finding none. At length he was ruined by his own son, and Pontus passed into the hands of the Romans. 6. ARMENIA, (afterwards divided into Armenia Major, and Armenia Minor,) was a province of Syria until the victories of Rome over Antiochus the Great', when his governors united in throwing off subjection. Armenia Major, east of the Euphrates, was ruled during a succession of reigns by the family of Ar- taxius, one of these governors. Tigranes, who married the daughter of Mithridates, and was the most renowned of the fa- mily, was obliged, on account of the services he had rendered his father-in-law, to cede the greater part of his territory to the Romans, and Armenia Major became a Roman province. Ar- menia Minor retained its independence till after the Christian era. 7. CAPPADOCIA, like Pontus, was, during the Persian power, governed by princes descended from the kings of Persia, and dependent on them. Like that country also, it fell under the dominion of Alexander, and afterwards that of his succes- sors, but freed itself during their wars. Ariathus VN. married Laodice, the sister of Mithridates the Great, who caused the death of his brother-in-law and his immediate heirs, and placed on the throne his own son. The Romans, under Sylla, came in, to settle these disorders, made a nominal king, but kept the real power in their own hands. 8. PARTHIA, was a large kingdom, which, at its extent, embraced the countries between the Euphrates and the Indus, and comprehended the heart of the ancient Persian empire. The Parthians Avhen they broke from the Selucidae in the time of Antiochus II., were under Arsaces I. He was the founder of the family of Arsacidae, which for a long time governed the country. Though this became a nation so powerful that it was able to check the conquests of Rome on the east, yet little is known of its history, except as it came into conflict with that power. The Parthians, so often invaded by the Romans, ac- quired a dislike to strangers, and blocked up the former channel Ancient His. PERPD VI. CHAP. IV. The Arme- nians rebel against Syria. 63. The Romans subjugate Armenia Major. 13©. Ariathus marries Laodice. Romans supreme. 94. 246. 1 Arsaces I. &> 54. I* Crass us tn invades \i Arsaces P XIV. j k 5. Give a more particular account of the most famous of the sovereigns. —6. What account can you give of Armenia? — T. What of Cappadocia? What act of injustice and cruelty is here related of Mithridates ? What did the Romans? — 8. What countries were included in Parthia? What can you say of Arsaces ? What can you say of Parthia in reference to the Ro- man power ? 118 THE ASMONEAN FAMILY. Ancient His. PERI'D VI. CHAP. IV. 203. The Jews favored by Antiochus. 198. The Sanhedrim. 14?. The temple despoiled by Antiochus Epiphanes. 3 ». I o SO 9 s o (The name Macca- bee arose from the letters M. C C. B.J. which Judas bore on his stan- dard. They are the initials of He- brew words, signify- ing, "Who among the gods is like unto thee,Je- hovah!" of commerce from the west to the east, by refusing to permit people from other nations to pass through their territories. Hence the East India commerce made its way through Palmyra, and enriched the country around that city. 9. BACTRIA shook off the yoke of the Syrian kings under its Greek governor, Theodatus, afterwards king, not only of Bactria, but SOGDIANA. One of his descendants, Demetrius 3 was invaded by Antiochus the Great, but the invasion ended in a treaty ; Antiochus giving him his daughter in marriage. He extended the Bactrian kingdom, by the conquest of Northern India and Malabar. Arsaces VI., conquered Bactria and an- nexed it to Parthia. 10. JUDEA. — After the death of Alexander the Great, Judea was added to Syria, and during the wars of his successors, it fell under the dominion of the Ptolemies of Egypt. When An- tiochus the Great was on the throne of Syria, the Jews volun- tarily submitted to him, and assisted him in driving away the Egyptian troops. Grateful for this service, Antiochus confirmed them in all the privileges of their peculiar religion. The Jewish priesthood had continued in unbroken succession; and 198 B. C, mention is made in history of an ecclesiastical senate, or Sanhedrim. 11. Judea flourished, and was scarcely more than nominally subject to the king of Syria. Wealth had accumulated, parti- cularly the treasures of the temple. Antiochus Epiphanes so managed, as to get into the priesthood creatures of his own, who dispensed it to him in presents. The Jews revolted. An- tiochus took Jerusalem, and began a horrid extermination of the worshippers of Jehovah, Headed by the illustrious family of the Maccabees, the people made successful head against their oppressors. The first of these, was the father, Mattathias, the second was his valiant son Judas Macca- b.;eus. He defeated the generals of Antiochus in several battles, and obtained the friendship of the Romans. 12. The third of the illustrious Maccabees, was Jonathan Maccabeus, who, attaining to the dignity of high-priest, was acknowledged as the head of the nation, even by Demetrius II., now king of Syria. The fourth of the Maccabees was Simon, who succeeded his brother in the high-priesthood, and in con- sequence of military services to the king of Syria, was freed from tribute, and received the title of prince. His son John Hyrcanus succeeded to his dignities, and not only maintained his independence, but renewed the connexion with Rome. He took advantage of the decline of the Syrian power, and con- 8. How did Palmyra become wealthy ? — 9. Give an account of Bactria, and observe whether Rome conquered it.— lO. Under what masters did Judea at this time fall ? At what time do we hear of an ecclesiastical court ? 11. What connexion had Judea Math the Selucidae ? Who was the first of the Maccabees ? The second? — 12. The third? What account can you give of Judea in his time? What account can you give of John Hyrcanus ? Why were this family called the Maccabees ? (See note.) ROME ASPIRES TO UNIVERSAL DOMINION. 119 quered Samaria and Idumea. With his death „the heroes of this Anci ™t -Hfc. family have an end, and many troubles begin. 13. The Pharisees were a sect whose name implies " set apart ;" and they had, from their sanctimonious observances, gained much authority with the people. Zadok, a Jewish phi- 260. losopher, disgusted with their pretensions, founded a sect called founder of Sadducees, which went to the opposite extreme in matters of the sect of religion, denying the immortality of the soul, and the agency of Sadducees * spirits in human affairs. These two sects, formerly at variance HO. only in matters of religion, now became violent political parties. Pharisees Two sons of Hyrcanus, in deadly hostility to each other, opposed to successively occupied his place, but the race had become dege- them- nerate; — stained with' cruelty, disunion, and bloodshed. The 453. Romans came in, as arbitrators, and that, with them, was to rule Pompey as masters. They imposed a tribute upon the Jews, sent Aris- ^"burn^to" tobulus, a grandson of Hyrcanus, with his family, prisoners Rome, to Rome, and appointed one of his opponents, Antipater, as 48. procurator, or Roman governor, of Judea. He adhered to ^JeHa-' Rome, and when his patron, Julius Caesar, was assassinated, his mean > second son Herod gained the friendship of Mark Antony, ffi&miiyof He was afterwards by the triumvirate made kino; ; and although Herod, with , •', , I'-ii /. ,, -r-r & , which farni- a suspicious and cruel man, he obtained the name of "Herod iy "the the Great." By the generosity of the Roman sovereign, his p^ted^rom kingdom gradually extended, till it embraced all Palestine, with Judah.") Idumea ; and from these countries he was allowed to collect revenue without tribute. It was in the last year but one of his reign that our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ was born. 14. THE ACHiEAN LEAGUE.— Troubles having arisen between the members of the Achaean League, which had till this time, preserved a shadow of liberty, the Romans availed themselves of the opportunity afforded by their dissensions, for dissolving it. An embassy was sent to Corinth, with orders to ^scheme?" separate as many states as possible from the league. When, to execute their commission, they called on the league to surrender those places in the Peloponnesus, formerly occupied by the Macedonian king, the Corinthian multitude became so furious as to insult the ambassadors, who were obliged to flee from their violence. This furnished the Romans with a pretext for war. The Achseans, although heroic in their efforts to restore the freedom of Greece, did but perish in the attempt. Crito- Greece sub- laus, their general, was defeated, and in the same year that jugated. Carthage was burned, Corinth was also taken and destroyed ; and Greece, under the name of Achaia, became henceforth a Roman province. 15. SPAIN. — Wars with the native tribes had been waged by the Romans, since the expulsion of the Carthaginians. Cato the Censor had at one time reduced Hither Spain ; but the 13. What history can you give of the Pharisees and Sadducees? Of Antipater? Of Herod? Of the conduct of the Romans to the Jews?— • 14:. What course did the Romans pursue in regard to the Achaean league ? How did the war terminate? 120 THE SIN AND CURSE OF AMBITION. Ancient Ms. contest was soon renewed, and carried on with such success by perpd vi. the natives, as to give even the Roman soldiers a dread of going chap. v. thither. Viriathus, a native Lusitanian, was raised to the su- preme command of his nation, and uniting the various tribes of Hither and Farther Spain under his command, he proved a formidable foe. The Romans' at length triumphed over him-, not in open warfare, but by hiring his servants to murder him. This act proclaims the degeneracy, which had already taken place in the Roman character. CHAPTER V. Moral degeneracy of the Romans. — Domestic troubles. 1. Thus, by the arts or arms of Rome, the last feeble glim- mering of Grecian liberty had been extinguished : Carthage lay smoking in ruins ; Syria had bowed in humble submission, and Spain had found her native valor unavailing. The Romans Corruption drew me wealth of these vast and remote nations into their of public own treasury, and from this period bribery and corruption Consequent swayed the senate at home, while extortion and oppression disorders, marked the administration of the provincial governments abroad. 2. Rome was divided into aristocratic and democratic parties, whose contests were more destructive than the ancient dissen- (it is said by sions between the patricians and plebeians. The great power theTiavSn °f tne senate na d given rise to a family aristocracy, odious to Rome were the people. A law was passed called Licinian, from Licinius of thepppu- Stolo, whose object was to restrict the possession of public 'lav "' t°° ^ anc * to ^ ve nun clred acres. This for a while restrained the once put to avarice of the wealthy, and enabled the poor to obtain farms cause^neof at m °derate rates. But at length this law was disregarded, and their num- the rich secured the public lands, which were cultivated by pected of 3 slaves, of whom the patricians possessed incredible numbers ; murdering the prisoners made in tear being often sold, or given away, as ter. in such such. Thus, the soldiers who were called on for military ser- th^Romans v ^ ces '> were °f ten teft without the means of procuring a liveli- of their hood, while the rich enjoyed the fruits of all their victories and slave b.) con q Ues t s . 15. What was the conduct of the Romans in regard to the unoffending natives of Spain ? Give some account of the Lusitanian leader. You have now seen how the Roman senate extended their empire — do you believe that the Righteous Ruler of the universe could look with approbation upon their conduct ? Review the chapter, and examine the map for the follow- ing questions. What countries had Rome conquered ? Chap. V. — 1. What was now the extent of the Roman territories? — %. Into what parties was Rome divided ? What had given rise to family aris- tocracy ? What was the law which Licinius Stolo procured? Did this long remain in force ? How was the land of the rich cultivated ? Had the patricians many slaves? What circumstance shows that they feared the slaves ? How were the common soldiers situated ? MARIUS AND SYLLA. 121 3. An agrarian law was proposed by the tribune of the peo- ple, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. He proposed to improve the condition of the poor by a juster distribution of the public lands ; and not, as some have supposed, by taking the private property of the rich, and giving it to the poor. The law first proposed was mild in its character. But the enthusiasm of the populace, who began to look forward with hope, and the ob- stinacy of the nobles in defence of their usurped privileges, brought on violent measures. At length the Licinian law was renewed. Gracchus then made a further proposal, that the treasures of Attalus, left by will to Rome, should be divided among the people. The nobility resisted ; sedition ensued, and Tiberius, with three hundred of the citizens, fell victims. 4. Although the leader was destroyed, the party was by no means crushed. Tiberius had made the people feel the power of their tribunes, and they resolved to exercise and increase it. Caius Gracchus, a brother of Tiberius, some years afterwards obtained the office. He proposed several laws which tended to diminish the power of the senate, while they increased that of the people. But his opponents raised a tumult, in which Caius was slain, with three thousand of his friends. Thus the aristo- cratic party finally triumphed over the people. They procured the repeal of the agrarian laws, confiscated the goods of Caius, and prohibited his family from wearing mourning. But the me- mory of the Gracchi, was revered by the people, who afterwards erected statues to them, in the most public part of the city. 5. THE JUGURTHINE WAR.— Micipsa, who had suc- ceeded his father Masinissa on the throne of Numidia, had at his death left his kingdom to his nephew Jugurtha, conjointly with his sons Hiempsal and Adherbal. Jugurtha dethroned the sons, assassinated Hiempsal, and seized the whole kingdom. Adherbal fled to the Roman senate, and appealed to them. Had they acted promptly, they would for once have had a good cause. But they suffered Jugurtha's arts and bribery to produce delay — and the death of Adherbal. Then the senate sent the con- sul Metellus into Africa. This brave man was bringing the war to a favorable termination, when Marius, a new demagogue, who by his valor and abilities had obtained the favor of the people, was appointed to the chief command. Bocchus, king of Upper Numidia, the son-in-law of Jugurtha, privately offered to deliver him up to Sylla, who was an officer in the army of Marius. Sylla went to the camp of Bocchus, where Jugurtha was given into his hands. The ambitious Sylla had a seal made representing the exploit, and thenceforth claimed the honor of terminating the war. Thus began the quarrel between Marius and Sylla. Ancient His. PERPD VI. CHAP. V. 112. War with Jugurtha. Metellus is supplanted by Marius. He by Sylla. 3. What family made an effort, to deliver the people from this oppression ? What did T. S. Gracchus propose? How did he perish?— 4. What was afterwards done and suffered by Caius Gracchus? — 5. Who was Jugurtha ? How happened the Romans to make war upon him ? Give an account of the war. 16 122 ROME IN DANGER FROM BARBARIANS. Ancient His. PERI'D VI. CHAP. V. Marius buys the sixth consulate with money. Metellu3 is banished. Afterwards recalled. Marius dares not remain in Rome. 91. Tlie Social or Marsian war. Costs 300,000 lives. 6. The genius of Marius procured a triumph for the plebeians, he being the first of their number made consul. The Cimbri and the Teutones poured down from the north in alarming multitudes. Half a million had collected and were moving to- wards Rome. Proceeding through Helvetia, they were joined by the Celtic and Helvetic tribes. They attacked Roman Gaul. The senate sent, during four years, three armies against them who were defeated. Then they made Marius a second time consul. Near Aix in Provence, he defeated the Teutones, and near Verona, the Cimbrians. Thus were already begun those barbarian incursions, which proved the final ruin of Rome. 7. Marius having delivered Rome from foreign foes, returned to disturb her domestic tranquillity. He obtained a sixth con- sulate. Metellus, whom he had supplanted in the Jugurthine war, possessed an inflexible integrity, — the spirit of better days. Marius hated, and determined to ruin him. Associating with himself Saturnius, a tribune of the people, they procured laws to be passed, increasing to an alarming degree the power of the democracy. Metellus opposed them and was banished, though afterwards recalled. The insolence' and crimes of the popular party now knew no bounds. Marius, although at first he encouraged them, was at length obliged to call out a body of soldiers to suppress the riot. Thus he incurred their ill- will. Hatred already existed between him and the senate. Sylla, his implacable enemy, was rapidly increasing in popu- larity, and Metellus, whose banishment he had procured, was recalled from exile. Marius, foreseeing evil, withdrew from Rome. Other and pressing dangers for a while occupied the nation, and gave the factious spirit of the citizens employment without the walls of the city. 8. The Italian allies of Rome had, from time to time, been flattered with the hope of obtaining citizenship,* until, despair- ing of the accomplishment of their wishes, and driven by con- tinued oppressions, they formed a league among themselves^ which threatened to subvert the power of Rome itself. This contest was marked by frequent and bloody battles ; victory sometimes declaring in favor of the allies, sometimes for Rome. The war was finally terminated by concessions on the part of * The term citizen, in its common meaning, signifies an inhabitant of a city vested with its freedom and liberties. In Rome the term became ex- tended. Those who lived in other parts of the commonwealth received from the senate the title of Reman citizens, as a reward for services, or as a matter of favor. Hence the distinction was considered highly honorable. Besides, some privileges were connected with it. The Roman citizen could not be scourged, andjie had a right, in cases of criminal prosecution, to ap- peal to Rome and be judged there. 6. How did Marius obtain a triumph for the plebeians ? What incursion of barbarians occurred ? What were their numbers ? What was done to check them ? What was done by Marius ? What numbers of them were killed, and what made prisoners ? What was done with prisoners ? (See paragraph 2.) — 7. What was the conduct of Marius on his return ? What was done by his rival ? Relate what next happened to Marius ? — 8. Give some account of the Social war ? SYLLA RULES ALONE. 123 the Romans; the allies eventually obtaining all the privileges which they demanded. 9. Mithridates the Great, during his conquests in Asia Minor, had given indications of hostile views towards Rome, by put- ting to death great numbers of the Roman citizens of Lesser Asia. The factions in Rome were still distracting the republic. During the Marsian war, in which both Marius and Sylla had been employed, Sylla had increased in popularity, and Marius had declined. War with Mithridates being declared, Marius procured himself to be chosen to conduct it, but the army re- fusing to obey him, the command was transferred to Sylla. 10. Open war between the rivals ensued. The fortune of Sylla triumphed ; — Marius was driven into exile, and in Cam- pania he was seized by Sylla's emissaries and dragged to a pri- son in Minturnas. A Gaul was commanded to cut off his head in prison. Entering the dungeon, he met the terrible look and voice of the stern man — " Darest thou kill Caius Marius ?" The Gaul at these words dropped his sword and went forth, declaring that he could not do the deed. The people, amazed, took the part of the prisoner. He was released, and escaped to Africa, a price being set upon his head at Rome. ] 1. Sylla departed for Asia, but not until by his cruelties he had made himself odious to all parties at home. The Grecian cities, with the exception of Athens, which had declared for Mithridates, opened their gates to the Roman army. Sylla be- sieged that city and took it. He violated the temples of Greece, and made himself master of their treasures, which he distributed with lavish profusion among his soldiers ; thereby attaching them to his service, but corrupting the army. Near Chseronea in Bceotia, and at Orchomenus, in Thessaly, Sylla obtained vic- tories over the forces of Mithridates, who was. at length com- pelled to sue for peace. All claims to Cappadocia, Bithynia, and Lesser Asia, were relinquished ; and on these terms Mithri- dates was declared a friend and ally of the Romans. 12. But while Sylla was thus triumphing in the east, a revo- lution was effected at Rome. The consul Cinna, of the party of Marius, after the departure of Sylla, having resorted to the former measures of the Marian faction, was expelled by his col- league Octavius. He now raised an army, recalled Marius, defeated the army of the senate, and entered Rome triumphant. Massacres and horrors followed the entrance of the vindictive Marius. Rome, deluged with the blood of his victims, turned her eyes towards the victorious Sylla. Marius heard with ap- palling dread the approach of his enemy. He sickened and died, and Rome rejoiced at the event. Young Pompey, who was rising into consequence, and had the command of some Ancient His. PERPD VI. CHAP. V. 88. First Mithridatic war. Power of the eye and voice. Sylla takes Athens. 86. CHJERO- NEA. Sylla de- feats Mith- ridates, and at ORCHO- MENUS, He submits. Marius re- turns to Rome to wreak hi3 vengeance. 86. Death of Marius. 9. Give an account of the beginning of the Mithridatic war. — 10. What occurred to Marius?- — 11. Describe the course of Sylla in Greece. What were the conditions of peace granted to Mithridates ? — 12. What had hap- pened in Rome ? What did Marius on his return. 124 ANARCHY THE FORERUNNER OF DESPOTISM. Ancient His. 83. Sylla re- turns to exercise his cruelty. *8. Death of Sylla, The great number of victims of the wars of Marius and Sylla. Sertorian war. TARRA- G0JTJ1A Sertorius defeats the Romans, t Ancient name Tarraco. The Servile war, troops, with most of the leading citizens, declared for Sylla; who entered Rome like a triumphant conqueror. 13. He had now overcome his enemies. The senate and peo- ple soon learned, that they had only exchanged one tyrant for another still more bloody. He caused lists of such persons as he disliked, to be put up in public places, offering rewards to those who would kill them. These lists of proscription were daily renewed. Whoever favored a proscribed person, although his own father or nearest relative, was himself devoted to death ; while those who destroyed their friends received ample rewards. The streets were filled with the dead. On one occasion, seven thousand persons were assembled in a small place, and there put to the sword ; while the insulted senate, sitting near, were compelled to listen to their groans. To such degrading tyranny was Rome, the mistress of the world, compelled to submit; and thus were her cruelties to Carthage, and other fallen ene- mies, visited upon her own head. 14. Sylla had declared himself dictator ; and in this capacity, he modified the laws to suit his own purposes. Afterwards he voluntarily abdicated his power, and although he escaped the chastisement which he deserved, from human hands, yet God smote him with a most loathsome disease, of which he died. In the wars of Marius and Sylla, thirty persons of consular dig- nity, two hundred senators, and 150,000 Roman citizens are said to have perished. Sertorius had been an officer under. Marius. He escaped from Sylla, and in Lusitania collected 10,000 soldiers, with whom he made head against Metellus and Pompey, with 120,000 ; gaining a victory at Tarragona. At length Perpenna, his lieu- tenant, assassinated him at a feast. Amidst the disorders of Rome, some Thracian gladiators, headed by the gigantic SPARTACUS,ran away from their masters, and posted themselves strongly in the hills, near Capua. Slaves and the oppressed joined them, till, with an army of 70,000, Spartacus for a time was the terror of Italy. While Crassus commanded against him he was defeated and slain. CHAPTER VI. Rome passing from anarchy to despotism. Second *• * N tne east ' anotner war w i tn Mithridates had broken Mithridatic out. The consul Lucullus had obtained the command in that war - quarter, and conducted the war with such vigor and ability, that 13. Relate some of the cruelties of Sylla. — l*. What number of victims is it supposed lost their lives in these civil wars ? Give an account of the Sertorian war. Of the Servile war. POMPEY CONQUERS MITHRIDATES. X25 the second year he compelled Mithridates to fly to his son-in- • jgjg His - law, Tigranes, king of Armenia. Tigranes, although he had perpd vi. before neglected to afford him any aid, now refused to deliver chap. vi. him up. Lucullus, therefore, carried the war into Armenia. ^*^v-^^ At Tigranocerta, and Artaxata, the army of Lucullus obtained ©9- victories over the allied forces of these kings j but a mutiny ™certjl~ among the Roman soldiers embarrassed his movements, and ©§. enabled Mithridates to recover his strength. ^ata* 2. A party adverse to Lucullus had arisen in Rome. Pompey Loss of the had been successful in the war in Spain ; he had conquered the loolwo^foot pirates of Cilicia and Isauria, and now was gratified by being 55,6oo horse.' sent, with an army of 30,000, to supersede Lucullus, and thus have the glory of being opposed to Mithridates, the most power- ful and able general with whom the Romans had contended Pompey in since the days of Hannibal. With the aid of Tigranes, he had the East. already reconquered most of his territories. His policy was U avoid a general battle, but to hover near the Romans, and by in- tercepting their convoys, to distress and reduce them. 3. Pompey felt the effects of these measures, and departed from Pontus into Armenia, determined to reduce that province, or force Mithridates to battle, in order to relieve it. Mithri- dates followed with his army. Pompey, failing to draw him «« into an engagement, besieged him in his camp for fifty days. jveartheEU- Mithridates, reduced to distress, at dead of night attacked the P ^^^f s ' Roman guards, broke through their entrenchments, and gained Pompey to- the open country. Pompey pursued, and finding unguarded Mandates passes, sent detachments, which secretly gained commanding .and positions in the rear of the Pontians. He then surprised thei* i ^ ia - neB - camp at night. Thus surrounded, they suffered a total defeat. Mithridates escaped with 800 horse ; but even this remnant of his army forsook him and fled. With only his wife, his daugh- ter, and one officer, he sought the court of Tigranes, who now refused him a shelter ; and he pursued his melancholy way till he found a home among the more generous Scythians. 4. Pompey made Tigranes, by treaty, a Roman ally, in other words, a Roman subject. He then went northward in pursuit of Mithridates. After two years of war with the Scythians and ©4. 63. hardship to his troops, getting no clue to the abode of his un- maSthe fortunate enemy, Pompey retraced his course to Pontus, and Romans mas- reduced those places which remained faithful to the absent ^Lmtni monarch. After these victories, Pompey received the submis- Judma. sion of twelve kings. He then carried his arms into Syria, con- quered Judcea, and penetrated to Arabia. 5. After Pompey's departure, Mithridates issued from his con- cealment, and appearing in Pontus at the head of an army, made Chapter VI. — 1 . How did Lucullus conduct the second Mithridatic war?— . %. What is said of Pompey? What of Mithridates? — 3. Give an account of the movements of the contending parties. What did Mithridates after the battle ? —4. What was done by Pompey in respect to Tigranes ? How did he next extend the Roman power ? — 5. Give an account of the third Mithridatic war. What did Pharnaces become ? What was done in Rome on Pompey's return? 126 THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. Jlncient His. PERPD VI. CHAP. VI. man power over Pontus. 64. Conspiracy of Catiline defeated by Cicero and Cato. ©©. First Trium- virate under Caesar, Pom- pey, and Crassus. 54. Crassus pro- ceeds to- wards Par- thia. He sa- crilegiously plunders the Jewish temple. himself master of several important places. But his officers mutinied, and in vain he asked the aid of the Scythians. His son Pharnaces, availing himself of the disaffection of the army, proclaimed himself king. Mithridates, in despair, committed suicide. Pompey, after declaring Pharnaces an ally to the Ro- mans, returned to Italy. Rome rejoiced in his success, and on the proposal of Cicero, the greatest of Roman orators, twelve days were set apart for thanksgiving to the gods. 6. On his arrival in Italy, Pompey disbanded his army, to the great joy of the senate, who feared he would retain it, and after the examples of Marius and Sylla, make himself absolute in power. Rome was however unquiet. Cataline and his asso- ciates had formed a horrible conspiracy. Their intention was to extirpate the Roman senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on fire. Through the eloquence and patriotism of Cicero, thence called the " father of his country," aided by the honest and philosophical Cato, the dreadful plot was detected, and the conspirators punished. 7. But the master spirit of the times was Julius Caesar, who had just returned from a successful war in Spain. Concealing his boundless ambition, he was now at Rome, paying court to the ladies, and acting the intriguing demagogue. Crassus, by assuming popular manners, by increasing his great wealth, and by constantly making himself useful by his money, to those who needed his aid, had, with far inferior talents, acquired power and influence in Rome equal to those of either Caesar or Pompey. Crassus and Pompey were at variance. Caesar art- fully reconciled them, and the three formed a union, dividing between themselves, under the nrnne of the triumvirate, the supreme power of the commonwealth. Caesar, at his desire, was appointed to undertake an expedition against the Gauls. He be- lieved that in the five years allotted to him, he would be able to form and discipline an army, which would put within his reach the absolute power at which he aimed. The succeeding year, Crassus was to govern Asia, while Pompey remained at Rome at the head of the affairs of Italy, Africa, and Spain. 8. A treaty with Parthia had been entered into by Lucullus, and renewed by Pompey, the terms of which that nation had faithfully kept. But Crassus, wishing to increase his wealth, and to equal the military fame of his rivals, undertook against the Parthians an unprovoked and unrighteous war. At the head of the Roman legions, he passed through Syria and Judaea, plundered the temple at Jerusalem, crossed the Euphrates, and reduced many towns of Mesopotamia, 6. How did Pompey recommend himself to the Roman senate ? Give an account of the horrible conspiracy which had been formed. To whom was its detection and punishment owing? — T. Who was, however, the masterspirit? What appearance did he now put on? How did Crassus become powerful? Who and w hat was the first triumvirate? How did the three divide the Roman power between them ? — 8. What right had the Romans to attack the Parthians? What sacrilege was committed by Crassus ? a snare. THE PARTHIANS DESTROY A ROMAN ARMY. 12? 9. The Parthians rose in arms, and while Crassus with his army indent His. was in winter quarters, they retook the places which he had con- perpd vi. quered. When he recommenced his march, they provided him chap. vi. with an artful adviser in Ariamnes, a wily Arabian chief, to ^-v-^^ whom Crassus gave ear, caught by his great pretences of friend- Hfi fa,ls imo ship and gratitude to the Romans, for services rendered his fa- ther. Deaf to the remonstrances .of Caius Cassius, an able general, and of other officers and friends, who knew the Par- thian mode of warfare, he persisted in keeping the open plains of Mesopotamia. For some time the march of the army was through a fertile and well watered country, where the wants of the soldiers were easily and fully supplied. Soon, however, the scene changed, and they entered upon dry and sandy plains, where neither stream, nor tree, nor plant, appeared. A hostile army lurked all around them, and now sure of their prey, openly attacked them. The Romans fought bravely, but in ^ckeTb vain ; whether advancing, or retreating, the discharge of the the Par- y Parthian arrows was equally effective. The army of Crassus, ^Jotf"* 1 surrounded on all sides, was reduced to the greatest extremity ; a large division was totally defeated ; and his son, who com- manded it, slain. 10. Crassus effected a retreat, and threw himself into Charrce: thither he was pursued by Surena, the. Parthian general, and 53. fearful of an assault, he determined, unknown to the inhabitants, ^aules! to leave the city. His design was discovered by Surena, and Roman loss, again a guide was suborned, who led him into marshes, where P ri s . 10,006. he was overtaken and finally slain. Of all his army, only 500 horse, under the command of Cassius, escaped. 11. C^sar had at first received the government of Gaul for five years, but at their expiration, he was involved in wars with 55, the barbarians, and other five years were added to the time. Jninw cae- During this period, his daring achievements, his adventurous obtammg spirit, his personal toils and exposures, exhibited military ta- p aul - lents equal, if not superior, to those of Alexander, and of Han- talents! nibal. To these he added, what neither of them possessed, the polish of the finished scholar. The commanding powers of language were his, whether he chose to exert them in speaking or in writing. He had in his youth pursued his education in "education Greece, whither Cicero, Cato, and other eminent orators, at this nlvSsk golden period of Roman eloquence, resorted for instruction; the Romans. Romans thus ceding the nobler palm of the arts of peace, to ;he nation whom they had mastered in war. 12. The expeditions of Caesar brought to the notice of the Romans, places which they had not before known. Thus they connect with him, even us, the Anglo-Americans. By Julius Ccesar the Romans were first led to Britain, the land of our progenitors. The language he spoke became in part incorpo- 9. Relate the history of his march, and observe whether he prospered ? — IO. How did Crassus finally meet his doom ? — 11. What did Caesar at this ume ? How did Caesar excel Alexander and Hannibal ? Where did he go for his education ? In what respects did the Romans cede to the Grecians ? Greece re- sorted to for 128 POMPEY AND CiESAR. Ancient His. ra ted with that of the native barbarians, when his countrymen. peri'D vi. following his footsteps, subjugated the island ; and this mingled chap. vii. language, farther modified by the Saxon and Norman French, is v-a^v-"^ that which our mothers taught us in our cradles. Caesar twice Cjesar visits invaded Britain. In his sanguinary course, he enlarged the Vnvades bounds of the Roman empire in Gaul, and found tribes, of new Germany. an( j singular appearance. He also invaded Germany, and had bloody battles with its wandering natives, who were distin- guished by peculiar customs. They dwelt not in cities, and they paid religious veneration to women. CHAPTER VII. Rome the prey of ambitious citizens. First trium- virate dis 1. On the death of Crassus, the first triumvirate was dissolved, and Pompey and Caesar were left to contend for the supremacy. Julia, the amiable daughter of Caesar, whom he had given in solved, marriage to Pompey, had proved a bond of union between these two ambitious spirits ; but she was now dead, and Pompey mar- ried Cornelia,* of the family of the Scipios, and the widow of Cffisar and tne son °f Crassus. Animosities between them, fatal to the Pompey peace of Rome, were now beginning to appear, which Cicero vainly attempted to reconcile. Pompey enlisted the senate and the people on his side. Caesar, on the other hand, was the idol of his veteran army. 2. Pompey obtained a decree from the senate, commanding ^Q Caesar to disband his troops ; and Mark Antony, a tribune, fled Caesar com- to Caesar's camp at Ravenna, with the news. To obey the T & h™H £?«, mandate, would be to put himself in the power of his rival. To disband his ' .::•,•. r - .. . r . . , T , army. advance with his army, and pass the river Rubicon, the bound- * Cornelia, was beautiful, amiable, well versed in polite literature, played the lute, and was also acquainted with geometry and philosophy. The condition of women among the ancients was, however, degrading. Their fathers or brothers, without consulting their affections, gave them in marriage, as it suited their own ambitious purposes. When Caesar wished for a political connexion with Pompey, Julia, who was on the eve of a mar- riage to another, must be given to him. Formerly, when Sylla wished for the same connexion, he took his step-daughter, Emilia, from her husband, and obliged the young Pompey to divorce his first wife Anstitia, and marry her. Men divorced their wives at pleasure. Even Cicero, in his old age, divorced Terentia, the mother of Tullia, for whose death he mourned so im- moderately, and married a young heiress, who was his ward. Men, as fa- thers, have been more generally just to women, than as husbands. 12. The English language which we speak is partly derived from the Latin — Can you tell how it became so ? What are you told of Caesar's in- vasion of Britain, and of Germany ? Chap. VII.— 1. How was the first triumvirate dissolved? Whom had Pompey on his side ? Whom had Caesar? — 2. What decree did the senate pass ? How did Caesar hear of it ? CffiSAR DICTATOR. 129 ary of his province, would be setting at defiance the power of indent m*. the senate. Taking 6,000 soldiers, he advanced with an agitated perpd vi. mind, paused all night, riding to and fro, on the brink of the in- chap. vii. terdicted stream, then, at dawn, he dashed forward, and as he v -*'~ N ^ > w passed, he exclaimed, " the die is cast." The celerity of his movements surprised his enemies. Pompey, not being in force to 49. meet him, fled from Rome, first to Capua, and afterwards to Casar passes Brundusium. Caesar, by the departure of Pompey, was left in the Rubuon - possession of Italy, and soon entered Rome. Collecting the members of the senate, he attempted to justify his conduct, and made proposals of peace, while, at the same time, he continued his preparations for war. To facilitate these, he entered the treasury, and took an immense sum, telling the tribune who op- posed him, and plead the violated rights of his country, that "arms and laws did not flourish together." 3. Appointing lieutenants over the different provinces, with legions at their command, and leaving Mark Antony com- mander-in-chief in Italy, he proceeded in person to reduce Spain ; reduces where the army was in the interest of Pompey. Having, with Spain, great hazard, effected this, he returned to Rome, leaving one of his lieutenants to command in Spain. The patriotic citizens of Rome knew not how to act. Cicero said, "Caesar is the abler The citizens man, but Pompey has the better cause." Believing thus, he and mus t t ne J r oose most of the senators, magistrates, and distinguished citizens, left master. Rome to follow the fortunes of Pompey. 4. Caesar assembled his friends and the citizens which re- mained 5 and the praetor, Lepidus, nominated him dictator, He c^sar htld the office but eleven days, during which he made some dictator, improvements in the government. He filled the vacant offices with his friends. Himself and one of his partisans he procured to be appointed consuls. He next invested Pompey's forces in Brundusium; but he escaping the snare, crossed the Adriatic into Greece. Caesar embarked from Brundusium with a part of his army, leaving the remainder under Antony, to follow ; but their delay, and the danger of their being intercepted by Pompey's Cssar foi- fleet, induced him to make overtures for peace. They were re- lows Pom ~ 7 _■■ . ~ . . , , x _ J ' ' ■ . pey across jected. Caesar, impatient to learn the cause of Antony's delay, the Adriatic attempted to cross the strait in a fishing boat, telling the master, affrighted by a storm, " Fear not, thou earnest Caesar and his fortune." Mark Antony having arrived with the remainder of his troops, Caesar besieged his rival in camp at Dyrrhachium. But Pompey forced him from his position with loss; then, as Caesar retreated, he followed him into Macedonia. 5. Pompey's army far exceeded Caesar's in number : and in his camp were almost all the friends of Roman liberty — Cicero, Cato, and his son-in-law, the patriotic Brutus. The two ar- mies were drawn up on the memorable plain of Pharsalia. 58. Give the history of Caesar's movements ? — 3. What were Caesar's next, measures ? What course did the most patriotic Romans now take ? Where did they go, being with Pompey? — 4. What were Caesar's measures? What was done at Brundusium ? What at Dyrrhachium ? 17 130 THE FALL OF POMPEY. Ancient His. PERPD VI. CHAP. VII. 48. July 20. PHARSA- LIA. Caesar de- feats Pom- pey. Loss of the vanquished, k. 15,000, pris. 24,000. The fate of Pompey. Ingratitude of Ptolemy. Grief of Cornelia. Cffisar es- pouses the cause of Cleopatra. Death of Ptolemy. They who had sat together in council, shared the same social repast; perchance, drawn their infant sustenance from the same maternal breast, joined in unholy strife. Pompey fought his country's children, not as he had fought her foes; and Caesar was victorious. As soon as Pompey perceived that his cavalry were defeated, he retired to his camp in despair, and sat down. When the whole army was routed, and he was informed that Caesar was approaching to storm the intrenchments, he ex- claimed, " in my camp too," and laying aside the insignia of office, he prepared for flight. 6. Pompey, now a wretched fugitive, passed by Larissa, and in the vale of Tempe, he who could so lately command the at- tendance of suppliant thousands, prostrated himself to taste the running stream, and was glad to rest his wearied limbs in a fisherman's hut. In the morning he embarked on the Peneus in a small boat: but coming up with a ship of burden com- manded by a Roman, he was welcomed and carried to Mity- lene, where the affectionate Cornelia, expecting her husband as the master of the world, was told that if she wished to see Pom- pey with one ship, and that not his own, she must hasten When she approached, he ran and caught her in his arms, as she was falling in a fainting fit. Yet it Was her husband's fate, and not her own, that affected her ; and she ingeniously sought to blame herself for his ill-fortune. 7. With one small galley, they embarked for Egypt, to seek the protection of Ptolemy. On their arrival at Alexandria, the base counsellors of the young king advised him to assassinate Pompey, in order to obtain the favor of Caesar. Accordingly, a boat was sent off to the galley, as if to take him to the city. Cornelia, looking after him as he moved from her, saw the as- sassin stab him through the body ; and her shriek of agony was heard upon the shore. Caesar pursued Pompey to Egyyt ; but when his head was presented to him, he turned away with ab- horrence, — wept the fate of his former friend, and caused his murderers to be punished. 8. The crown of Egypt was in dispute between Ptolemy, the acknowledged king, and Cleopatra, his sister. The claims of Ptolemy had been upheld by the Roman senate, and Cleo- patra banished. To lay her cause before Caesar, she hastened to Alexandria. Caesar was charmed, as by an enchantress, and he summoned Ptolemy to appear before him. At the instigation of his minister, he disregarded the summons, and despatched an army of 20,000 men to besiege Caesar in Alexandria, who, at- tended by only 4,000 troops, was in imminent danger. At length, reinforcements arrived, with which he attacked and car- ried the camp of Ptolemy ; who, in attempting to escape, was drowned. Caesar settled the crown upon Cleopatra. 5. Describe the battle of Pharsalia ? What was the loss on the side of the vanquished ? — 6. What was the course of Pompey after the battle ? — 7. What occurred after he reached the shores of Egypt? — 8. Who was Cleopatra ? What course did Caesar take to uphold her claim ? CATO AND HIS LITTLE SENATE. 131 9. The war was closed, but the conqueror lingered. At An ™nt His. length he was aroused by intelligence of the revolt and con- perpd vi. quests of Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates. According to his chap. vn. own account, he u went, saw, conquered ;" and having appointed Mithridates of Pergamus, who had succored him in his distress at Alexandria, to be the successor of Pharnaces, he embarked for Italy. He found, on his arrival at Rome, that during his ab- sence, he had been created dictator for one year, consul for five years,- and tribune of the people for life. 10. The remaining partisans of Pompey, including several senators, after their defeat at Pharsalia, passed over to Africa, under Metellus Scipio, Cato, and Juba, the son of Hiempsal, who was dutiful to the last to the senate of Rome. The only senate at independent members of that once august body, now collected Utlca - in Utica, where Cato presided. Caesar sought them, and de- feated in battle their military force. Juba and one of his gene- rals killed each other in despair. Scipio, who commanded the 46- army, was slain ; and Cato, the most virtuous and patriotic of rel „* t S anti the Romans, seeing that all hope was lost, having read and destroys the commented on Plato's work on the immortality of the soul, ^fjJJJSIa* with philosophic composure committed suicide. Caesar, on his liberty, return to Rome from this expedition, was honored with a splendid triumph, which lasted four days ; the people, with base flattery, hailing him as the father of his country. 11. The sons of Pompey, yet unsubdued, held Spain, and were in a condition for war. Caesar went thither, conquered, and returned. He had now triumphed over all his enemies, and was supreme in Rome. His sway, unlike that of Marius and Sylla, was mild and equitable ; — liberal to his friends, kind and Cesar's ad- forgiving to his enemies. He made salutary laws. With the "^SS?" aid of learned men he reformed the calendar, and thus showed the advantages of learning in conditions of power. He caused Carthage and Corinth to be rebuilt, and sent out Roman colo- nies to repeople them. He planned a war with Parthia, in order to extend the empire, and to revenge the death of Crassus. 12. Had Caesar been ambitious only, and not vain, had he been content with the substance of power, without the childish desire of its show, he might, probably, have lived, and been a 45. blessing to his country, The constitution had long since been Cfesar, not subverted by a degenerate people. Rome, without republican with^he virtues, could not be a republic. It only remained to choose substance of her master, and doubtless, Caesar was the fittest man. But wounds'the Caesar wished to be called king, and to wear the insignia of Ro^byhis royalty, which was galling to the pride of the Romans ; and love of when Mark Antony and others crowned his statue, and spoke show * 9. Give an account of his expedition to Asia. What honors awaited him at Rome? — IO. Who were assembled in Utica? What was the fate of Juba? Of Cato? — 11. Describe the conduct of Caesar as supreme in power. — 12. What error as a politician did Csesar commit ? If our citi- zens and rulers cease to have republican virtues, what do you suppose will be the fate of our republic ? 132 CAESAR MURDERED. Ancient His. PERI'D VI. CHAF. VIII. Conspiracy against Cffisar. The sooth- sayer. 44. 15th March. Casar falls. Caesar's achieve- ment*. Human de- struction. of his coronation, murmurs arose. The thoughtful Cassius, the envious Cinna, and others, were stirring up a hatred against him which aimed at his life ; and at length they gained the man who, since Cato, had more devotion to his country than any other Roman. This was Marcus Brutus, who had fought against Caesar at Pharsalia, been pardoned by him, loaded with favors, and adopted as a son. " Loving Caesar much, he yet loved Rome more ;" and by a misguided patriotism, he joined the conspiracy, in which sixty senators were engaged. 13. The ides, or fifteenth of March, was the day appointed for the execution of the murderous deed. The night preceding, Calphurnia, the wife of Caesar, was warned in a dream ; and would fain have persuaded him not to go that day to the senate. Caesar, as he passed a soothsayer, who had foretold that the ides of March would be fatal to him, said triumphantly, " The ides of March are come.'" " But not gone," was the reply. On account of the alarm Calphurnia's dream had given him, he of- fered sacrifices before going to the capitol. The omens were inauspicious, and he thought to adjourn the senate, but one of the conspirators asked " If he would bid them go, and come again when Calphurnia had better dreams ?" He then took his accustomed seat. A friend gave him a paper, containing an ac- count of the conspiracy, which he desired him to read instantly. As he held it in his hand, the conspirators pressed around him with petitions. At length Cinna gave the signal, by pulling his robe. At the moment, all drew their swords and fell upon him. He defended himself at first, but seeing Brutus about to strike, he exclaimed, " And you too, my son !" Then wrapping his man- tle about his head, he fell, pierced with many wounds. 14. Thus died, in the 56th year of his age, a man, who, it is said, conquered 300 nations, took 800 cities, and in different battles, defeated 3,000,000 of men, of whom 1,000,000 were killed in fight. Great as he was, he was a man of blood, and in blood he fell. CHAPTER VIII. Rome under the second Triumvirate. ™„ •«**. !• The conspirators retired at first to the capitol, but the foh rators at (owing day they appeared in public, and addressed the people, fir iested!° wno seemed to listen with composure. The senate passed a 155. Describe the conspiracy which was now formed. — 13. Give an ac- count of Caesar's death. — 14:. How many nations had he conquered? Cities? How many men were defeated, and how many slain in his wars? Chap. VIII. — 1. What course was taken by the conspirators after Caesar's death ? OCTAVIUS, AFTERWARDS AUGUSTUS. 133 decree, which, though it confirmed the acts of Caesar's dictator- - * Mciew * His - ship, bestowed such offices upon the conspirators, as might be peri'D vi. regarded as an approval of their deed. But with misjudging CHAP - vni. moderation, they permitted Mark Antony, an eloquent man, ^^^y^s^/ whose dangerous character was a singular compound of politi- cal design and ardent passion, to bring forward the dead body of Caesar for a public funeral. Antony touched the national pride of the Romans by enumerating Caesar's achievements, and 4L4. their sensibilities by declaring his acts of kindness. With the Antony's' genuine tears of bereaved affection, he showed them "sweet oration at Caesar's wounds ;" and with the art of the politician read them funeral, his will, wherein he manifested his love to the Roman people by bequeathing them money. The deep feelings of sorrow thus excited by the orator, were artfully turned to rage against those who wrought his death. The people rose in their mad- ness ; and the conspirators, to save their lives, fled from Rome. Conspira- Brutus and Cassius went to Athens, where the Greeks, honoring tors flee * them for their love of liberty, received them cordially ; and they applied themselves for a time to the study of philosophy. Bru- tus had already imbibed from Cato, the sublime devotion to virtue which characterized the Stoics. 2. Antony had brought the senate into many of his measures. A new aspirant now appeared in Octavius, grand-nephew to Ju- lius Caesar, whom he had adopted as his son, giving him the name of Caesar, and making him his heir. He had been pursuing his studies in Greece, but on learning his uncle's death, he posted to Rome. Antony, though at the head of affairs, had neglected to ^ainJKie pursue the conspirators. He now withheld from Octavius the favor of the fortune bequeated him by his uncle, that he might not have P e °P le - the means of acquiring popularity. Octavius, seeing his design, secured the favor of the people, by selling his patrimonial es- tate to pay Caesar's legacy. Cicero, regarding him as less dan- gerous than Antony, aided him by his great influence. 3. The senate sent to Antony, who was now in Gaul at the „ cicero .» s head of an army, certain orders, which he thought proper to influence disregard ; whereupon they despatched Octavius, with a force to e JJjp l0 y n h*m. reduce him to submission. An engagement took place in Cis- alpine Gaul., in which Octavius was successful. Lepidus, an octavius unprincipled man, was in command of an army in Farther Gaul. ^ n [o n ts To his camp Antony fled, but was ill received by the general. Feeling his life in danger, he appealed to the army. He was t ^ r B n u JJjJ manly and graceful in person, persuasive in speech and manners — affairs of the friend of Julius Caesar, and he appeared among the soldiers AT £™? d * 3 nd in distress. They espoused his cause, and Lepidus now felt that Antony had become his master. 4. Octavius had the command of the forces of the senate, but he had suspicions of the attachment of that body to himself, and 1. Give some account of Caesar's funeral. Whither did the conspirators flee ? What philosophical sect did Brutus belong to ? — 2. Give an account of Octavius. — 3. Describe his expedition against Antony. What sudden turn in Antony's affairs occurred ? 134 THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE. Ancient His. PERI'D VI. CHAP. Villi 43. Nov. 27- The second Triumvirate, Octavius, Antony and Lepidus. (Fulvia, the wife of An- tony, whom Cicero had censured, took his se- vered head, and ran her bodkin through his tongue. Dec. 7.) Arsaces XIV. aids Brutus and Cassius. 42. PHILIPPI. Brutus and Cassius defeated. 41. Cleopatra's celebrated galley sails up the Cydnus to Tarsus. thought the destruction of Antony would be but a prelude to his own. When, on making application for the consulship, his suit was rejected, he no longer hesitated upon his course, but pri- vately sent to Antony and Lepidus, proposing terms of recon- ciliation. They gladly embracing his proposals, the three met on a little island in the Rhine, where, uniting their military force, they formed the second triumvirate. 5. The first business of this iniquitous league was to make a proscriptive list, in which each gave up many friends, in order that the others might agree to the destruction of his enemies. This bloody catalogue contained the names of three hundred senators, and two hundred knights. Octavius gave up to the hatred of Antony, the virtuous Cicero, the friend of his country and the pride of Roman eloquence. He was pursued and mur- dered. The estates of the proscribed were seized and given to their murderers. 6. The triumviri prepared for war with Brutus and Cas- sius, who by this time had collected a considerable force. Brutus had travelled into Asia and there made friends. Arsaces of Parthia gave him aid. Brutus, troubled in mind, one night while in Asia, saw, or seemed to see, a terrible spectre, who said " I will meet thee again at Philippi." Said Brutus, " I will meet thee there." The Roman students at Athens embraced his cause ; the friends of the commonwealth, and the partisans of the sons of Pompey, who were still scattered in various parts of the pro- vinces, flocked to his standard. The hostile armies met at Philippi, in Macedonia ; and again the thousands of Rome stood arrayed against each other. The battle was fought bravely. While Brutus proved victorious over Octavius, Antony com- pletely routed the troops of Cassius, who, ignorant of the suc- cess of his colleague, fell upon his sword. Brutus collected the forces of Cassius, and after twenty days, he ceded ,to the importunity of his troops, and hazarding another battle, he was totally defeated. Witnessing the irreparable loss of his army, and determining not to survive the liberty of his country, he also committed suicide. 7. On the death of Brutus, the party of the conspirators was no longer formidable ; and the Roman empire was completely subjected to the triumviri. ' Octavius returned to Italy, where Lepidus still remained. Antony went into Asia, where he re- ceived the homage of its various kings, collected the revenues, and regulated the affairs of provinces and tributary nations, as his caprice might dictate. At Tarsus, for some alleged of- fence, he summoned to appear before him the fascinating queen of Egypt. Knowing that Antony affected at times to personify 4. What induced Octavius to plan the second triumvirate ? Give an ac- count of its formation. — 5. What shocking feature had this league ? How many were proscribed? Whose murder is particularly noticeable? — 6. Give an account of Brutus. Of what troops was his army composed? Describe the battle of Philippi. The fate of Brutus. — T. Had the triumviri still any enemies in the field ? CLEOPATRA AND OCTAVIA. 135 Bacchus, the god of wine, Cleopatra came to him in the cha- racter of Venus, sailing up the river Cydnus, in a galley deco- rated in the perfection of art and elegance. Antony, at her invitation, came to her galley, and was charmed to his ruin. He accompanied her, on her return to Alexandria, where, sunk in effeminacy, he forgot public affairs. 8. Octavius assiduously employed himself in attaching the veteran troops to his person, and in bringing the whole nation to regard him as its head. Italy was, however, the scene of want and misery. Sextus Pompey, who had made himself master of Sicily, infested the sea with his fleet, and prevented the importation of corn ; while multitudes of women and child- ren, deprived by the appropriation of the lands to the soldiers, of home and subsistence, crowded the temples and the streets. Multitudes of husbandmen and shepherds flocked to Rome, to excite the compassion of the conqueror. Among the suppliants, the poet Virgil alone found favor, and was permitted to retain his patrimonial estate at Mantua. 9. Antony, roused by the representations of his friends, tore himself from Egypt, and returned to Italy. Octavius met him, and by mediation of friends, and mutual policy, they became re- conciled. In making their bargain, the noble Oct a via, the sister of Octavius, was given, in the traffic, to be the wife of the lover of Cleopatra ; and another division of the empire was made. Octavius took the command in the west ; Antony in the east ; while to Lepidus was assigned Africa ; and to Sex- tus Pompey, who had now acquired considerable power, the Peloponnessus and the islands of the Mediterranean. Difficul- ties between Antony and Pompey soon arose, which resulted in the destruction of the latter. Lepidus, thinking this a good op- portunity of adding Sicily to his possessions, drew upon himself the indignation of Octavius, who by secret intrigues procured the desertion of his army, made him prisoner, deprived him of all authority, and banished him. 10. Antony, by the influence of Octavia, for three or four years, kept terms with Octavius. He at length undertook to conduct a war against the Parthian s, at the head of 60,000 foot and 10,000 horse. He marched into Parthia, suffered de- feats by his imprudence, and retraced his steps, after having lost one-fourth of his army. Influenced by his blind passion for Cleopatra, he hastened to Egypt, which again became the scene of his dissipation and folly. He bestowed on Cleopatra and her children, first Phoenicia, Cyrene and Cyprus, and afterwards all Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus j and the ambitious queen thought, as was known in Rome, that she should yet " give law in the capitol." 11. The wrath of Octavius, now sanctioned by the people, Ancient His- PERI'D VI. CHAP. VIII. Policy of Octavius. Miserable condition of Italy. Antony returns to Italy. New divi- sion of the empire. 36. Peath of Sextus. Lepidus put aside by Octavius. Antony's unsuccess- ful war against the Parthians. 8. What was the condition of Italy? What can you say of Virgil ? — 9. In this paragraph four principal actors are mentioned — tell what was done by each — 1st, Octavius ; 2d, Antony ; 3d, Lepidus; 4th, Sextus Pompey. — lO. Trace through the tenth paragraph the course of Antony. 136 ROMAN REPUBLIC ENDS THE EMPIRE BEGINS. Ancient His was ready to break forth. Octavia had borne to Antony two peri'd vi. daughters. She had kept his house in patrician hospitality at chap. vin. Rome, and there entertained his friends ; and although she knew 'v^~ v v^*»^ his crimes against herself, had taken to her home and edu- Antony cated his children by his first wife Fulvia. She now set out Octavia, di- to visit, and, if possible, to save him. Antony forbade her ap- a^ndmaJrle's P roacn ? publicly divorced her, and married Cleopatra, But cieopatra. his fall was at hand. Octavius attacked, and totally de- feated him in a naval engagement, near Actium. Early in actium. tne action, sixty vessels, which Cleopatra commanded in octavius person, fled, and Antony immediately followed. His fleet was Antony^nd easily defeated, and after a few days, his land forces, which had cieopatra. Deen drawn up on the adjoining shore, surrendered, without striking a blow. 12. Antony and Cleopatra repaired to Egypt, whither Octa- vius followed. Antony despairing of his fortunes, and deceived by a false report of the death of Cleopatra, committed suicide. Death of Octavius was desirous of conveying her to Rome ; but to pre- cfeopatra. vent it, she exposed herself to the bite of an asp, which pro- cured a lethargic death, without disfigurement. When the mes- senger of the conqueror came to take the celebrated queen to grace the triumph of his master, he found her elegantly reclined upon a sofa, — but dead. Of her two maids, one lay dead beside her, and the other dying. Egypt was from this time a Roman province. 13. Octavius, on his return to Rome, was hailed with accla- mations, and flattered by a gorgeous triumph. The obsequious senate, whose vacancies he now filled with his own creatures, no longer laid claim to independence ; and Rome henceforth he- n?wAu"us- came a monarchy. With the recent fate of Julius Caesar before tus, sole him, he could not but be aware of the dangers with which he ^KSers " was surrounded. He wisely avoided the vain show of power, the govern- and sought to cover his usurpations by names acceptable to the wisely, people. At first he called his office the tribunate, and received it for ten years ; after which it was renewed, and, at length, he took the titles of Augustus and Emperor. He assiduously courted the favor of the people, continuing to all the magistrates their old titles and offices, although the effective power of every of- fice centred in himself. Counselled by his wise minister, M^ce- nas, and conversing freely with Virgil and Horace, he became the framer of salutary laws, and the patron of arts and letters. 14. The world was now in a situation altogether peculiar — ^fwhaTi" different from any thing before or since. The nations were ga- now the Ro- thered into one. The Roman Empire embraced the best parts of man mpire. £ ur0 p e ^ A^ia, and Africa. Jts revenues were immense. A great 11. Describe the conduct and ill usage of Octavia. The battle between Octavius and Antony. — 12. Give a history of Antony's death. Of Cleo- patra's. — 13. In what respect did Octavius conduct more wisely than his uncle ? What powers did he exercise ? What titles at length bear ? Who was his wise minister ? With whom did he converse, and what become ? — 14r. What was peculiar in the situation of the world at this time ? peace. THE GREATEST EVENT IN THE COURSE OP TIME. 137 army was kept on foot and distributed in different provinces. J * 7tcien * His - The praetorian and city cohorts, afterwards so powerful and peri'd vi. dangerous, consisted of 10,000 men, and formed a guard for the chap. vm. Emperor ; to whose title, the senate now added that of " Father v-^-vv^ of his country," The king of Parthia sent to him the spoils of the army of Crassus, and the kings of India sought his friend- ship. The Spanish nation, being now, for the first time, com- u "*™' sal pletely subdued, and insurrection of the German tribes having been quelled, the temple of Janus, which was shut only in profound peace, and which had remained continually open since the reign of Numa Pompilius, was closed. At this period it *• H - s. was that the " Desire of all Nations," the " Prince of Peace," JESUS CHRIST, The Savior of men, was born at Bethlehem, in Judaea. 14:. What army was formed within the city of Rome? What was sent by the king of Parthia to Augustus ? What temple was shut ? How long had it remained open ? What personage, above all kings and potentates, now came " to visit the earth in great humility ?" 18 MIDDLE HISTORY. FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. The Birth of Christ PERIOD I. FROM L>. i OF 3HRIST THE DIVISION OF TO I 395. £ THE ROMAN EMPIRE, CHAPTER I. The Roman Empire- 1. The treasures of the world poured into Rome ; and stately Middle Hist. monuments, splendid buildings, literature and the fine arts, all PERIOD j marked an age of luxury. But the liberty of the people had be- chap. i. come extinct. The spirit of the republican institutions had de- v^^-s^^/ parted, and a military despotism had usurped its place. Here Condition of and there, perhaps, a spark of the old Roman spirit might kindle th |mSf n in the breast of some solitary patriot, but it was soon smothered. The memory of the aged carried them back to the scenes of Middle History. — Period I. — Chap. I. — Point out on the map of the Roman empire the countries which it included. — 1. What was the condition of the Roman empire ? 139 140 AUGUSTUS. Middle Hist. PERIOD I. CHAP. I. Great abilities of Augustus. 30 legions in the Roman army. 12,500 made a legion. 11 legions on the Danube, 5 on the Rhine, 1 in Spain, 3 in Britain, 2 in Egypt. Praetorian guards, 20,000. A. D. 9. Between the Rhine and the JVeser. Herman, a barbarian chief, defeats the Romans un- der Varus, whose loss is 40,000. horror which marked the days of Marius and Sylla, while they knew not freedom, but by history and tradition. The young thus learned to turn with disgust from the prospect of a renewal of civil wars, and welcomed peace and quiet, though purchased by the surrender of the sovereign power into the hands of one individual. 2. Augustus had a wide grasp of mind, by which he pene- trated far into consequences. He had industry and observation to learn for himself the truth of the circumstances and charac- ters which surrounded him ; and he was as prompt to do, as he was quick to know. Hence he presents the sublime specta- cle of one mind, ruling and reducing to order, a vast scene of chaos, such as was the Roman empire at his elevation. 3. The emperor made a new arrangement of the provinces, which had before been governed by supreme magistrates, commissioned by the Roman people, and named praetors. He now divided between the senate and himself the authority over the whole empire. But in order to keep in his own hands the entire power over the army, he took as his share, all the foreign pro- vinces, and left to the senate the Italian states. These they ruled by proconsuls, with only civil authority. Augustus governed the remainder of the empire, by dividing his army of 400,000 men, and stationing them in such provinces as he chose, under generals of his own appointing, who were dictators, each in his province. The camps of these standing armies were often chosen in the valleys of the great rivers, and they soon became cities. The fleet was manned by 50,000 men, and these were easily transported from place to place at the emperor's pleasure. He instituted as his own guard, ten cohorts of 1,000 soldiers each, who were called the praetorians ; and this number he soon doubled. 4. The policy of Augustus inclined him to peaceful measures, and he wisely considered the danger of extending the empire. His tranquillity was, however, disturbed by a disastrous war in Germany, in which Varus, his general, suffered a signal de- feat. To establish his authority, and secure the succession in his family, he associated with him in the government, Marcel- lus, the son of his excellent sister Octavia, by her first marriage, to whom he gave for a wife, Julia, his only child. Marcellus dying, Julia was bestowed on Agrippa, (a general to whom Au- gustus owed important military successes ;) when she became the mother of two sons and three daughters. She was a pro- fligate woman, and Augustus, whose own moral character was 2. What in regard to abilities was the character of Augustus ? — 3. What new arrangement did he make respecting the provinces ? — How did the senate rule the Italian states ? How did the emperor govern the remainder ? What numbers were in the Roman standing army ? The navy ? What number constituted a legion ? (See note.) How many legions were there, and how distributed ? Give an account of the praetorian guard. — 4:. To what did the policy of the emperor incline him ? What disturbed him ? Who was Marcellus ? Julia? Agrippa? MORAL DARKNESS. 141 not good, was at length obliged to banish her from his court.* Middle Hist, He had married Livia, the mother of two sons, Drusus and Ti- period i berius. The former, recovering the German provinces, received chap. i. the name of Germanic us. Livia was unprincipled, artful and in- v^-v-'w triguing. Having great influence over Augustus, she secretly sought to elevate her own sons above the members of his family. 5. Augustus associated Tiberius with himself in the adminis- tration of the empire, but required him to adopt Germanicus, the son of his brother Drusus Germanicus, now dead. These things being done, Augustus died in the deep secrecy of the palace. The manner and exact time of his death are unknown ; the circumstances were, however, such as gave rise to suspi- cions, that he was poisoned by Livia. 6. Tiberius, who, at the death of Augustus, was in possession of the imperial power, though an able general, was a hypocri- tical, sensual, and cruel tyrant. Yet at first he dissembled, and appeared to govern with moderation ; but the mask soon drop- ped. The fame of Germanicus, who, at the death of Augustus, commanded in Gaul, excited his jealousy. He was recalled, and transferred to the command of Syria, where Tiberius pro- cured his death by poison. Livia enjoyed but little the eleva- tion of her favorite son. He was jealous of her power, dreaded her genius, treated her with neglect ; and when she died, he denied her funeral honors. 7. He removed his court from Rome to the island of Capreae; but in the midst of brutish sensuality and continual intoxication, he kept, as it were, a demoniac eye on the affairs of Rome ; — knew every thing which passed ; detected every conspiracy ; and while the companions of his vices were quaffing with him the cup of intoxication, he, perhaps, was plotting, with impenetra- ble dissimulation, to destroy them. Conspicuous virtue was a mark for vengeance. Fearing the friends of those he destroyed, he removed them also. Even the mother's mourning for her slaughtered son was in his eyes a crime deserving death. The senate, to whom he transferred all the political rights of the people, had become degraded, and thus obsequiously sanctioned his acts, and offered the incense of perpetual flattery, to the man who filled their streets with blood. It was under the adminis- Profligacy and in- trigues of the palace. 14. Death of Augustus. (Tiberius marries Julia, wi- dowed daughter of Augustus, and starves her to death.) 31. (Tiberius detects the conspiracy of his favor- ite Sejanus, and puts him to death.) The senate's power annihilated. * The female character in Rome, as well as that of the men, had become profligate in the most shameful degree. Augustus, in the conduct of his daughter, was justly punished for his own sensual crimes. Becoming ena- mored of Livia, the wife of another man, in order to marry her, he divorced Scribonia, the mother of Julia. Three months after this marriage, Tibe- rius, the son of her first husband, was born. 1c. What was the character of Livia? Who were her sons?— -5. Who was Germanicus ? What account can you give of the death of Augustus ? — 6. Give an account of the beginning of the reign of Tiberius. How did he treat Livia? — T. Did he while at Capreae understand the affairs of Rome? Was it bad citizens whom he destroyed, and real crimes which he pun- ished ? What had he done to gratify the senate ? What was at this time their character and condition ? 142 TIME OF THE CRUCIFIXION. Middle Hist. PERIOD 1 CHAP. I. 3T Death of Ti- berius and and acces- sion of Caligula. 41. (Claudius is ruled by Messalina, his infa- mous wife, and after her death by Agrippina his new wife, the mother of Nero.) 54. (Agrippina murders Claudius to make way for her son Nero, who kills her.) 64. First perse- cution of the Christians. (Nero mur- ders the re- maining members of the family of Caesar, and finally him- self, the last of the race, June 11.) 68. tration of this most debased of men, that our Lord Jesus Christ was crucified in Judea, 8. Tiberius adopted Caligula, the son of the good Ger- manicus, but not the heir of his virtues ; and said he raised " a serpent for Rome, and a Phaeton to burn the rest of the world." Caligula, eager to obtain the imperial dignity, was declared em- peror, while Tiberius was supposed to be in the agonies of death. But the tyrant opening his eyes, the party of Caligula threw the bed-clothes over his head, and stifled the reviving spark of existence. 9. Caligula wished that " the Roman people had but one neck, that he might despatch them at a blow." His conduct ac- corded with the disposition here expressed. After a reign of nearly five years, he was murdered, and the stupid Claudius, the brother of Germanicus, was raised by the praetorian cohorts to the imperial throne. Although vice pervaded the capital, there were able generals abroad, and victory crowned the arms of the legions, especially in the wars with the Parthians and Britons. 10. Nero, whose very name is used to signify all that is base and cruel, was raised to the empire. On his first accession, he revived the hopes of the people, by giving promise of a just and peaceful reign ; but the illusion was soon dissipated, and the murder of his tutor, the philosopher Seneca, his brother, his wife, and his mother, displayed the relentless tyranny of his character. He gave loose to the most licentious passions ; and subserviency to his pleasures proved the only passport to his favor. Professing himself a .patron of the fine arts, he aspired to the character of a poet, and degraded the dignity of the em- pire by appearing as a public actor on the stage. The discovery of repeated conspiracies, increased his maliciousness and jea- lousy. The city presented a scene of blood, and funerals darkened the streets. 11. The Christians, who had now become numerous in Rome, were the peculiar objects of his hatred. To amuse him- self with such a spectacle as Homer related in the burning of Troy, he caused Rome to be set on fire , then charged the crime upon the Christians, and devised means for their punishment. While the city was burning, he was engaged in revelry and dancing. He decorated his person, sang, played the lyre, and was, in short, the leading coxcomb of his time. He corrupted the high born youth of Rome, making them the companions of his revels. Flatterers and sycophants thronged around him ; and he was pleased when they told him that he was the great- est of poets, and that his voice was " divine melody." The 8. Give an account of Tiberius' successor. Of the manner of his suc- cession. — 9. What speech of Caligula shows his character? Who suc- ceeded him? — lO. Give an account of Nero. — 11. What fact respecting the Christians now becomes apparent ? On what pretence did Nero seeK to destroy them? (What may be presumed concerning the character of the Christians, when such a man as Nero hated them?) POWER OP THE PRAETORIANS. 143 discovery of a design which he had formed for destroying the MwMejnst. senate, and again setting fire to the city, produced a general re- volt The senate aroused and pronounced sentence of death against him. Different armies named each its own generals to succeed him. He fled from the capital to a villa owned by one of his favorites, where he put an end to his life. 12. The whole Roman empire now presented a scene of dis- cord. The military force, with which Augustus had kept the world in awe, now, in weaker hands, recoiled upon the mon- archy. The soldiers had learned their power, and the senate could only assent to their decisions. In two years, four gene- 69. rals were successively raised to the sovereignty by their respec- The n prieto- tive armies. Three of them were displaced and murdered, rians kin Galba, the first of these, was commander of the military forces se^up^otho. in Spain, when, at the age of seventy-three, he was proclaimed emperor by his legions. The senate confirmed their choice; and a promised donation to the praetorian cohorts, secured their concurrence. By parsimoniously withholding the promised do- native, and attempting to enforce rigid discipline, he alienated the praetorians. They soon proclaimed Otho, who had com- manded in Lusitania. A bloody tumult succeeded, in which Galba and his friends were murdered, and Otho elevated to the throne. 13. Vitellius, to whom Galba had committed the command of the German legions, was by them already proclaimed empe- ror, and was marching towards the capital. His forces met and bedria- defeated those of Otho, who committed suicide. Vitellius en- V itdiTufde- tered Rome as a conqueror, and a horrible scene of carnage en- feats otho. sued. Mean while, the legions of the east declared for Vespa- sian, who commanded in Judea. Those in Syria, Egypt, and Illyricum espoused his interest. After a bloody civil war Ves- pasian was raised to the imperial throne. This proved the commencement of a new order of things. His authority was recognized by the senate, and peace and order were restored to the suffering community. Vespasian directed his earliest efforts 70. to the regulation of the finances, the enforcement of discipline pro^es'l" in the army, and the subjection of rebellious provinces. Some g° od sove- of the Germans and Gauls had united in an attempt to throw off re r l f?t s an?" the Roman yoke, and the success of their arms spread the ter- restores. ror of their name even to Rome itself. The generals of Vespa- sian were at length victorious, and reduced the Germans to submission. 11. Relate the manner of Nero's death. — 12. What was now the con- dition of the empire ? Give an account of the first of the generals raised to be emperor by his army. How did Galba lose the favor of the soldiers? Give an account of his successor. — 13. Relate the contest between Otho and Vitellius. By whom was Vitellius succeeded ? Give an account of the administration of Vespasian. CHAPTER II. Rise of Christianity. — Destruction of the Jewish nation. Middle Hist. PERIOD] CHAP. II. The New Testament our charter and our chart. Our Savior born of the VirginMary, 4 years be- fore the vul- gar era. B. C. Herod made king by M. Antony. 38. Flees to Rome. 3?. Takes pos- session of Judea. IT- Rebuilds the temple. Cuts off all the Asmo- nean family. Murders the innocents. A. D. 29. John the Baptist be- headed. 1. The New Testament is regarded, by the Christian, as the charter of his everlasting inheritance, and the chart of his course. Its undesigned coincidences with profane history, form no small element in the proof of its veracity. It assumes, and truly, as we know from profane writers, that there existed in Judea, at the time of our Lord's advent, a strange admixture of authorities, Roman and Jewish, secular and ecclesiastical. We have seen who was that " Caesar Augustus," that sent forth his edict and taxed the world, when she, the most honored of the human race, was by Providence conducted to a manger in Bethlehem, that the Son of God and man might be brought forth in that lowly place, to show that the pomp of this world detracts from moral grandeur ; whose essence is voluntary suffering, en- countered not for ourselves, but others. 2. King Herod was the son of Antipater, an Idumean. He was by Julius Caesar made procurator of Judea, and with him the sceptre departed, as foretold, from Judah to foreign princes. Herod, perceiving the greatness of the Roman power, paid his court to Mark Antony, and was by him raised to power. The Jews rebelled against him. He fled and took refuge with the Triumviri at Rome. They received him graciously, and by the favor of Augustus, he was appointed king ; when he returned and took possession of Jerusalem and Judea. He built several cities, rebuilt the temple, and was called by men " the Great ;" but he was a wretch in cruelty. To cut off' the remaining blood of the Maccabees, he murdered a beautiful wife, Mariamne, two sons of his own and hers, — her mother, brother, and grandfa- ther. This man, of whom the emperor Augustus said, " it is better to be Herod's swine than his sons," feeling still insecure, when he heard that a child was bom who was to fill the throne of David, sent forth his executioners, to whose poniards the shrieking mothers of Bethlehem were forced to yield their infants. 3. On the death of Herod, his three sons, Archelaus, Philip and Herod Antipas, were appointed over different parts of his kingdom. Herod Antipas beheaded John the Baptist, after that prophet had fulfilled his mission, by proclaiming that a new and heavenly kingdom was to be ushered in ; and identi- Chapter II. — 1. How is the New Testament regarded by Christians? What forms an element of the proof of its historic truth ? What does it as- sume in which profane writers agree? What might have been the Divine purpose in the lowliness of the place in which our Savior was born? What prophecy was now fulfilled?— 2. Give an account of the parentage of Herod. What were the steps by which he rose to power ? What his acts and character ?— 3. What occurred after the death of Herod ? What mis- sion did John the Baptist fulfil ? 144 CHRISTIANITY. 143 Middle Hist. fying Jesus, by whom it was to come. After various changes, _ Judea and Samaria were annexed to Syria under procurators, period i. subordinate to the Syrian governors ; of which Pontius Pilate, chap. ii. by whom Christ was given up to be crucified, was the fifth, ^^v-^^ He is represented by historians as a cruel man, and an unjust tl% judge; considering more, what he himself should gain or lose 2SK£ot£ in money, or in popularity, than the right of the case to be de- rat or, a bad cided. He permitted many cruelties against the innocent, which man " at length so disturbed the peace of Judea, that complaint was made to the Romans. He was deposed by Vitellius, and sent to Rome for trial. Caligula banished him to Gaul, where, in want and misery, he committed suicide. 4. Although the Jews were, in temporal affairs, under the Ro- mans, yet, in regard to religion, they sternly maintained their in- dependence. Their " chief priests and elders," formed an ec- clesiastical council, with the high-priest at its head. This ?1._ tribunal it was who first accused Christ to Pilate, of a state r ofour° n offence, that of seeking to make himself king in the room of Savior. Caesar ; and then, with the fatal imprecation, " let his blood be on us and on our children," they put him to the death of the cioss for alleged blasphemy, because he declared himself the Son of God. But, on the third day, he rose from the dead. . 5. His followers, few and unlearned, after seeing him ascend, obeyed his command, by remaining at Jerusalem till the Holy des J e h n e t of Ghost, the promise of the Father, was sent down. A miracu- theHoiy lous change came over them ; and now the timid and igno- day of°Pen- rant fishermen of Galilee, who but lately denied their master, or tecost. forsook him and fled, stood forth before the astonished multi- tudes, gathered from different nations at Jerusalem, and pro- X^meefa claimed to each in his own tongue, what they had heard and change. seen of Him who was the Word of Life manifest in the flesh ; whom, said Peter to the members of the Jewish Sanhedrim, " ye have taken, and with wicked hands have crucified and slain, whom God hath raised up." 6. That he was risen from the dead, the apostles, especially, Peter and John, proved by wonderful miracles wrought in his name,* so that many believed. The Jews began to treat the ser- 34. vants of Christ as they had treated their master. Stephen was ^sSjJ™ stoned. A young man, named Saul, stood by, consenting to his death. He was of a resolute, determined mind, and thinking to do God service, he persecuted the church even to strange cities. To this honest, but erring man, the risen Savior revealed him- Coj ^^' sion self in glorious light. As soon as he knew his Lord's will, he of st. Paul. was ready to perform it ; and from henceforth we find him more * The whole book of the "Acts of the Apostles," was once entitled "the Demonstration of the Resurrection." (See Adam Clark's Commentary.) 3. Give an account of Pontius Pilate, — 4. What was the situation of the Jews in regard to ecclesiastical affairs? What double dealing course did the Sanhedrim pursue in regard to their accusation of our Lord? — 5. What course did the disciples of our Savior pursue after his ascension ? — 6. Relate the earliest steps in the spread of Christianity. 19 146 THE FIRST PREACHERS OF THE GOSPEL. Middle Hist. PERIOD I. CHAP. II. The apostles made to know that the new dis- pensation applies to the Gentiles. 62. (Martyrdom ofSt. James. 65. Martyrdom of St. Paul and St. Peter.) 64. Gessius Glorus causes the Jews to rebel. 69. Titus besieges Jerusalem. abundant in the labors of the gospel, than all the other apostles. 7. For a time the word was preached only to the Jewish nation, all others being called Gentiles, and counted by them as unworthy to hold any intercourse with God's chosen people. This dispensation was miraculously changed. A devout Ro- man centurion learned from an angel that his prayers and alms had ascended, and that he must send for a teacher divinely com- missioned. When he appeared, Cornelius would have worship- ped ; but Peter said, " stand up, I also am a man." Cornelius believed, received the spirit, and was baptized ; and thus the wall of partition between Jew and Gentile was broken down. 8. After this, St. Paul carried Christianity into Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy. He, with the other apostles, relinquished all that makes men love this life ; — went forth suffering stripes, fast- ings and imprisonments ; every where gentle, no where resist- ing with violence, not even when death and torture were before them ; — preaching alike to the rich and the poor, to flee from the wrath to come, and lay hold on eternal life. Thus was Christianity established, by men who exulted in the flames of martyrdom, there finishing their earthly course with joy. 9. Herod Agrippa, the grandson of Herod the Great, received from Caligula the title of king, and from Claudius the domi- nions of his grandfather. The Jews, but partially subjected, proved troublesome to the Romans. An outbreak occurred on the occasion of an attempt by Caligula, to desecrate the temple by placing in it his own statue ■ but an open revolt was caused by the rapacity of Gessius Glorus, who was placed over the Jews by Nero. Vespasian commanded the Syrian legions, and obtained repeated victories, at length making himself master of all their strongholds and fortresses, except Jerusalem. Re- called to Rome, to accept the imperial purple, he left his son, Titus, to conduct the war in Judea. 10. He began the siege at the passover, when the Jews, from every nation, were gathered within the city. They were divided into three factions, each with the most rancorous hatred of the others. With the Roman army at their gates, they still continued the fury of their contentions, their outrages, and murders. Every part of the city was filled with pollution and massacre. The religious ceremonies, indeed, were not suspended, but even in the temple, the blood of the citizens mingled with that of the sacrifices. Thus " the abomination of desolation," stood in the holy place, and called down the vengeance of a righteous God. War without, deadly feud and starving famine within, caused a 7. What did the Jews universally believe respecting other nations ? How did Christ's followers learn that his religion was not for the Jews alone ? — 8. Into what countries was Christianity introduced and in what manner ?— 9. Mention some particulars concerning " king Agrippa." What was the temper of the Jews towards the Romans ? What Roman general began the war ?— lO. Give an account of the measures of his successor ? What was the condition of the Jews in Jerusalem ? JERUSALEM DESTROYED. 147 scene of " tribulation such as was not since the beginning of the ■*&<&**« m s t. world, no, nor ever shall be." 11. Titus made the Jews repeated offers of pardon and pro- tection, on condition of surrender, but they resisted with inflexi- ble obstinacy. Tacitus, the great Roman historian, remarks, " that they were misled by an ancient prophecy, which foretold, daughter of that in this very juncture the power of the east would prevail ^wrote over the nations, and a race of men would go forth from Judea, his life.) to extend their dominion over the rest of the world."* The Christians, when they saw " Jerusalem encompassed with ar- mies, and a trench cast round about her," remembered the pro- phetic words of their Lord, and fled to the mountains. 32. The Romans stormed the city — the Jews fighting with the most determined bravery. The Roman arms obtained no •?©. advantage in the first assault. In the second, which continued Jerusalem three days without intermission, a part of the walls were level- by The" 3 led, and a portion of the city taken. The Jews, driven from Roma ns. one part, retreated to another, and still maintained the fight. At length the temple alone remained. This, Titus resolved to save, but the sentence of its destruction had been pronounced by a higher Power. The Jews crowded into it, and thither the The temple Romans pursued them. In the dreadful uproar, a soldier threw bunit - a lighted torch, which caught upon the wood work, — was com- municated, and soon enveloped in flames the whole of that beautiful and venerable fabric ; and so complete was its final de- struction, that " not one stone was left upon another." 13. Josephus, the Jewish historian, estimates the number which perished during the siege, at eleven hundred thousand, nanfof the The Jews no longer held the rank of a nation, and Judea was en- J d e e ^™ed e tirely subjected to the Roman power.* Its inhabitants have, for and driven more than seventeen hundred years, been scattered over the face re^olt"^?,) of the earth, without ever amalgamating with the various nations of Barochaii with whom they make their residence ; thus constituting one of a star?') of the strongest proofs of the divine authority of the Holy Scriptures. * "Not understanding," observes the historian, that "this referred to Vespasian and his son Titus." Tacitus, equally blind with the Jews, did not himself understand that this race of men were to be the heralds of a peaceful religion, which was destined, in the fulness of time, to spread its heavenly dominion over the whole earth. 11. What offer did Titus make? Why, according to Tacitus, did they not accept ? What did the Christians remember and do ? — 12. Give an ac- count of the final destruction of the city. — 13. What was the number killed ? What now is the condition of the Jews ? CHAPTER III. The Roman Empire. Middle Hist. 1. Vespasian reigned ten years ; most of which were passed in tranquillity. He was the first Roman emperor who had died without violence, unless we except Augustus. Titus, who was styled " the delight of mankind," succeeded his father, and sustained the character of a virtuous and beneficent prince. He is one of the rare instances, in which elevation in rank produces improvement in virtue. His efforts were directed to the hap- piness of his people. The zeal with which he engaged in noble undertakings, may be learned from the regret which he expressed, when, on reviewing the events of a day, and finding no good deed performed, he exclaimed, " O my friends, I have lost a day." His reign of two years was prosperous in all that depended upon himself, although marked with several disas- gQ trous events. One of these was the great eruption of Mount Hercuia- Vesuvius, which desolated a considerable portion of the coun- Po eum ifd d tr y? an d ' buried in ruins Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae. stroyed. The elder Pliny, desirous to observe the phenomenon, went so Th near the crater, as to be destroyed by the volcano. A fire broke piiny goes out in Rome, which for three days raged with fury, and de- voteanoand stro y e d a great portion of the city ; and a pestilence spread its fails into the ravages, which in its most destructive period swept from Rome crater. iq,000 persons in a day. Titus repaired from his treasuries the loss by fire ; and his kindness and compassion comforted the hearts of his afflicted people. 2. Domitian, brother of Titus, succeeded him. He was cruel, frivolous, and blasphemously vain ; causing himself to be 81. styled God and Lord. He once assembled the senate to debate Domitian. on the question, in what utensil it was best that a certain fish should be dressed. Once, in mockery, he invited the senate to a feast; and when arrived at the palace, they were by his order conducted to a gloomy subterraneous hall, lighted by dim tapers — His cruelty hung with black, and provided with coffins, on one of which, each and sname- g ue st saw his own name inscribed. Soldiers with drawn swords V1 y ' came in upon them and threatened their lives. After this, which the emperor esteemed a good joke, he let them depart. His chief amusement was catching flies, at which he was very ex- 'thTiastof S P ert - He, however, engaged in war, on an alarming invasion of the Cssars. the Dacians ; but it was only to buy a shameful peace by a tribute. 3. BRITAIN. — Julius Caesar found this island inhabited by forty different nations of the Celtae or Gauls, and partially sub- Chap. III. — 1. Of what is the emperor Titus a rare instance? How did he manifest a right disposition ? What disasters occurred in his reign ? — 2. Give an account of Domitian. — 3. What inhabitants did Julius Caesar find in Britain ? 148 AGRICOLA CIVILIZES THE BRITONS. 149 clued it. The Romans under Claudius, and Platinus, his gene- Middle Hist . ral, defeated, in several battles, the natives under Caractacus. The gallant chief often rallied, but was finally overcome. Under Nero, Sertorius Paulinus was sent over to complete the conquest of the island, which he found a difficult under- taking. He attributed the obstinate valor with which the natives resisted, to the dark and gloomy superstition by which their 59. Druid priests enshrouded and governed them. They practised Sertorius their mysterious rites, sometimes gory with human blood, in the deep recesses of dark groves, — by huge stones, strangely piled together. Thus they inspired the feeling of religious awe, and subjugated the minds of the people ; to whom the Romans did great service in delivering them from this tyranny over the soul. Paulinus destroyed the sacred seat of the Druids in the island of Mona or Anglesea. 4. On his return to Britain* he met queen Boadicea, who hav- ing been grievously wronged by the Romans, had exerted such wonderful energy and eloquence, that she had collected, from ^Jjgjj* different British nations, an army of 250,000. Paulinus defeated Boadicea. her, and she committed suicide ; when the Romans tarnished ^sojooo? 83 ' their victory by the cruel slaughter of the vanquished. Ju- lius Agricola, who was sent to Britain by Vespasian, de- feated, near the Grampian hills, the brave Galgacus, and subdued the country to the friths of Clyde and Forth, between ?8- which he constructed a chain of forts. He civilized the native fends th?" inhabitants, by persuading them to adopt the costume, language, *gjg g; and manners of the Romans. Agricola's fame excited the mean tain to its envy of Domitian, who recalled, and probably poisoned him. ^iJJJjf* The tyrant fell by a conspiracy, and the whole nation rejoiced. The senate, — perhaps remembering the graves by which he had frightened them, would not allow his body to be buried. Quin- tilian was, at this period, teacher of eloquence in Rome, and the first who received a public salary. . 5. Nerva, at the age of seventy, succeeded Domitian. He made by- is distinguished for his amiable and benevolent character. Find- vTrnoi of" ing the weight of the empire too great for his advanced age, he Bithynia, associated Trajan in the government, and designated him as Remarkable his successor. The character of Trajan is one which historians letler re ; 1 i- mi..-, i •• ,tv i • j spectin? the unite m applauding. The wise Plutarch was his preceptor, and christians.) the younger Pliny, one of the most lovely characters which 98- Rome has produced, was his intimate friend. Although a war- ext g n ^ s an the rior, and a conqueror, Trajan governed with moderation and Roman em- equity; and so established himself in the affections of his sub- plate's? jects, that it was customary in succeeding times, on the eleva- limits. 3. What was done in the reign of Claudius ? To what did Sertorius as- cribe the obstinate resistance of the Britons? Where did the Druids prac- tise their rites? What did the Romans destroy, and wherein did they do service to the Britons ? — *. What happened on the return of Sertorius Pau- linus from Mona ? Give an account of Agricola. How did he civilize the Britons ? What further can you relate of Domitian ? Who was Quintilian ? — 5. Give some account of Nerva. What illustrious author was said to have been Trajan's preceptor ? His friend ? What was the character of Trajan ? 150 TRAJAN AND THE ANTONINES. Middle Hist. 10% The Christians persecuted. 10% Martyrdom of Ignatius. 11*. Trajan dies at Seleucia, on his re- turn from the east. Hadrian. 135. (Judea's last revolt and final de- struction.) 138. Antoninus Pius. Virtue, peace and prosperity. 161- Marcus Au- relius Anto- ninus, the philosopher, i. e- accord- ing lo ety- mology and ancient meaning, a lover of wisdom.) tion of an emperor, to wish him " the felicity of Augustus, and the virtue of Trajan." His military achievements restored the lustre of the Roman arms. He conquered Dacia, and at the head of his legions, crossed the Euphrates and Tigris, and re- duced Mesopotamia to a Roman province. He marched through tracts of country where the Roman arms had never before been known, penetrating even to India. On his return, he esta- blished a king upon the Parthian throne, and appointed lieute- nants in various provinces. 6. Historians have censured his policy in enlarging the bound- aries of the empire, and his inhumanity, in persecuting the Chris- tians, leaves a blot upon his otherwise untarnished fame. He had made laws against them, ordering that they should be put to death when found, but should not be sought after. On his visit to Antioch, the venerable Ignatius, bishop of that city, presented himself to the emperor, — owned, and vindicated the faith of Christ. Trajan imprisoned him, and sentenced him to be thrown to the wild beasts at Rome. Animated with the prospect of a martyr's crown, he went joyfully thither, and suf- fered death by the lions of the amphitheatre. Trajan died at Seleucia. 7. Hadrian, the succeeding emperor, returned to the pacific policy of Augustus ; and with the exception of Dacia, he even relinquished the conquests of his predecessor. This, and the two succeeding reigns, have been pronounced the happiest days of the Roman empire. The laws of Hadrian were salutary, and his administration excellent. He secured the future prosperity of the nation by appointing a worthy successor. 8. This was Titus Antoninus, afterwards surnamecl Pius. When he ascended the throne, he found the various departments of government moving on in regularity and order, and the whole empire in prosperity and peace. His reign of twenty-three years flowed on in the same calm and happy course. Averse to war, the circumstances of the state permitted him to indulge his love of peace ; while his renown for wisdom procured the admiration of the barbarians, who, in their differences, resorted to him as arbiter. In his reign, the persecution of the Chris- tians ceased, and all classes of his subjects reposed in peace, trusting in the justice of their sovereign. 9. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, who succeeded Titus in the imperial government, had acquired, by his attachment to science, and philosophy, the name of the Philosopher. The situation of the empire, however, did not permit Aurelius to in- dulge in his favorite pursuits, or pass his days in contemplative retirement. The camp required his presence ; for the peace of 5. Give an account of Trajan's administration. — 6. What laws had he made respecting the Christians ? Give an account of Ignatius. In what respects has Trajan been censured for impolicy ? For cruelty? — 7. What was the happiest period of the Roman empire ? What account can you give of Hadrian ? — 8. What of his successor and the state of the empire ? — 9. What was the name and character of the successor of Antoninus Pius ? THE PRAETORIANS SELL THE EMPIRE. 151 the empire was now disturbed in its various borders. In Asia, fjgffg Hist - the Parthians rebelled against the sovereignty of Rome, as did the period i. barbarians on the Rhine and the Danube. Aurelius sent his chap. hi. generals against the Parthians, and in person conducted the war ^-*~v-<«^ against the hordes of the north. The Parthians were defeated, T he Empire i ,,,..., . r • a involved in and many of their cities taken. After many campaigns, Aure- wars with lius unhappily fell a victim to the hardships of barbarian ^J^SSi? warfare. 10. With the reign of Aurelius, the prosperity of the empire ceased; and from the accession of his son Commodus, its de- cline may be dated. A more striking contrast never was pre- sented, than in the characters of the father and son. Aurelius ISO. had taken him to aid in command against the barbarians 5 and ^"JJ 1 ™' on his death, despite good advice, Commodus purchased a money to the peace, that he might give himself up to the voluptuous pleasures t o purchase of Rome. There he became a foul and loathsome debauchee ; P eace - and, outraging all the honorable feelings of the Romans, he fought as a gladiator, in public spectacles, for the amusement of the vulgar. 11. Conspirators put him to death, and raised Pertinax, prefect of the city, to the imperial throne. The praetorian guards murmured at the elevation of a man of whose virtue they were assured, and who, educated in the school of Aurelius, was little likely to yield to their disorderly demands, or shower 193. upon them the profuse liberality of Commodus. His attempt to a virtuous reform the financial system increased their hatred, and in less JJJSJtjecti' than three months from the time they swore allegiance, a sedi- tion broke out in the camp. Two or three hundred of the The Pra5to _ guards rushed in arms to the palace, where Pertinax, securely rians offer relying on his innocence and their oath, was inhumanly mur- l whoever 10 dered. A most disgraceful scene succeeded. Returning to the win give . * 1 v -i ? /. -f» • 1 1 jj 7 them most camp with the head of Pertinax borne as a trophy, the guards money. now offered the Roman world to the highest Udder. 12. The wealth of Didius Julianus, a vain and voluptuous senator, enabled him to meet the demands of the rapacious prae- torians, who immediately completed the contract, proclaimed him emperor, took the oath of allegiance, and escorting him to , i ' ill- -ii • f. "ii* Didius Jul*. the palace, surrounded him with the ensigns ol imperial dig- a nus. nity. The obsequious senate, though attached to Pertinax, yielded to the occasion, and ratified the election of the praeto- rians 5 — but the indignant legions of Britain, of Illyricum, and Syria, each proclaimed its respective general, as more worthy of the empire. Severus, who was in Illyricum, at the head of hardy and disciplined forces, accustomed to contests with the warlike barbarians of the north, advanced towards Rome. By his contiguity to Italy, and the celerity of his movements, he anticipated his rivals, and in sixty-six days from the elevation 9. What disturbances arose ? — 10. Give some account of Commodus. — 11. Of Pertinax. What degrading measure was taken after the death of Pertinax 1—12. What account can you give of Didius Julianus ? 152 ALEXANDER SEVERUS. Middle Hist. The wall of Severus made in Britain. 211. Caracalla murders Geta in the arms of their mother, Ju- lia Domna. Taxation. The provinces nurmur. 217- Macrinus. 218. Helioga- balus, the most de- based of all the Roman emperors. 222. Alexander Severus. (He is carefully educated by Julia Mam- mo, his discreet mother.) of Julianus, without drawing a sword, he was proclaimed em- peror at Rome. The praetorians abandoned the victim of their venality ; the senate deposed him, and he was executed like a common criminal. 13. Four years of civil war succeeded, during which Seve- rus, with a military talent approaching to that of Julius Ceesar, triumphed over his rivals ; but he treated them with shocking cruelty. He degraded and banished those praetorians who had been engaged in selling the empire. A war with the Caledo- nians, which he led in person, occupied him in his later years. To keep out the barbarians from the north, he rebuilt with stone, a wall which Hadrian had made from Solway Forth to the mouth of the Tyne. He died at York. His sons, Cara- calla and Geta, then in Britain, were declared joint emperors. Caracalla murdered his brother, whom their mother attempting to save, he wounded her in the arm. He thus obtained sole possession of the throne. His whole reign was stigmatized by deeds of blood and infamy. 14. Caracalla extended the Roman citizenship to all the pro- vinces. The tribute received from the provinces, which Gibbon estimates at a sum equal to about 100,000,000 of dollars, was represented by Augustus as not sufficient for the purposes of government, and he artfully contrived to make the Roman citi- zens submit to taxation by impost. Succeeding emperors had increased their burdens ; and Caracalla extended the right of citizenship, in order to impose on the foreign provinces the taxation of the citizen, while he failed to relieve them from the tribute of the stranger. They felt the double burden, and their discontent was one of the causes of the decline of the empire. Caracalla was assassinated in Syria, at the instigation of Macri- nus, praetorian prefect. Macrinus was raised to the throne, but shortly deposed, and Heliogabalus, a reputed son of Caracalla, was invested with the sovereignty. His short reign of four years was one of unmingled infamy. His violent death, the merited punishment of his crimes, again left the imperial throne at the disposal of the army. 15. Alexander Severus, the cousin of Heliogabalus, was invested with the purple. Amiable, just, and humane, his reign is like a beam of light amidst surrounding darkness. He in- herited from nature a happy disposition, and a superior intel- lect, and was educated by a careful mother. Amidst the cor- rupting influences of regal authority, he was an example of industry, sobriety, and regularity of life; an elegant scholar, an affectionate son, a wise statesman, and an able general. He restored to the senate many of their rights, reduced the tribute of the provinces, and sought to enforce discipline in the army. But the military had become too strong for his curbing hand. 13. Give an account of the reign and character of Severus. Of his acts in Britain. What happened on the death of Severus ? — 14. Why did Ca- racalla extend the right of citizenship? Who were his successors? — 15. Give an account of Alexander Severus. THE ANCIENT PERSIAN MONARCHY REVIVES. 153 Ulpian, the wisest and most beloved of his counsellors, had in- curred the hatred of the guards, for attempting to bring them to order. They sought his life, and pursued him to the presence of the emperor. Alexander commanded, entreated, and covered his friend with his robe, but the audacious murderers stabbed him through it. 16. Alexander went into Asia to conduct a war against the Persians. While he lay at Antioch, a portion of his army revolted. Appearing in the midst of the infuriated soldiery, " Be silent," said he, " in the presence of your sovereign." " Reserve your shouts for the enemy, or I will no longer allow you to be soldiers." They brandished their swords, and rushed towards him. " Keep your courage," said he, " for the field of battle." They persisted in their dangerous demands, and again he spoke : u Citizens, no longer soldiers, lay down your arms, and depart to your respective habitations." The boisterous ele- ments of sedition sunk into grief and shame, and the soldiers obeyed. After a time he restored their arms ; and this legion, ever after, were devoted to his interest. 17. The ancient monarchy of Persia had at this period re- vived, under a chief named Artaxerx.es. Repeated, and long- continued wars with the Romans, had weakened the Parthian power. Of this, Artaxerxes availed himself, to produce a gene- ral revolt of the Persians. A bloody battle ensued, in which Artabanus, the Parthian king, was defeated, and the Persians restored to the sovereignty of the east. Claiming all Lesser Asia as the successor of Cyrus, the Persian monarch came into col- lision with the Roman empire. The event of the war was, at least, so far unsuccessful to the Romans, that Artaxerxes re- tained the countries which he had conquered. Hardly had Alexander returned from the Persian war, before he went north to encounter a vast swarm of barbarians, who threatened to overwhelm the empire. In his camp on the banks of the Rhine, while successfully pursuing the war, this prince, too good for the age in which he lived, fell, with his mother, a vic- tim to another mutiny of the soldiers, fomented by Maximinus, an ambitious aspirant to the throne. 18. Maximinus was born in Thrace. His father was a Goth, and his mother an Alan. Thirty-two years before, Seve- rus, halting his army in Thrace, to celebrate games at wrestling, the young barbarian, Maximinus, of the gigantic height of eight feet, and of size and strength in proportion, presented himself, and, in a rude d'alect, asked to be admitted as a competitor. His prodigious exploits astonished the emperor ; and he permitted him to enlist as a common soldier. From thence he rose by degrees, till he attained a high command in the army. But without gratitude or mercy, he had nothing but brute force to Middle Hist. Alexander's dignity and presence of mind. 226. Revival of the ancient Persian mo- narchy under the Sassanides. Artabanus, the same aa Arsaces xxx. Romans at war with the Per- sians. War with the Ger- mans. Death of Alexander Severus. 235. Maximinus the Gothic giant. 15. What example is given of the lawless insolence of the soldiers ? — 16. On what occasion of revolt did Alexander curb them with dignity? — IT. What is here said of Persia ? In what wars was Alexander Severus en- gaged? — 18. Give an account of Maximinus. Maximinus, 154 CIVIL WARS. Middle Hist, recommend him. He persuaded the soldiers that Alexander was _ effeminate. They slew him, and proclaimed the barbarian em- peror. He was suspicious of contempt from the well-born and learned, and he hated and destroyed them. The senate refused to sanction the nomination of the army ; and though Maximums continued the German war with success, his cruelties created disaffection, which, when he made the taxes of the provinces in- tolerable, broke into revolt. 19. In Africa, the proconsul, Gordian, a man of eminent vir- tues, was, together with his son, proclaimed emperor ; and the Gordian'and election was ratified by the senate. The governor of Mauritania (soonsTam,) espoused the cause of Maximinus, attacked and defeated the Maximus' Gordians, who both perished in battle. The senate, desperate nus, an* em- on hearing this, nominated two of their own number, Maximus perorsatthe an( j Balbinus. The news of these proceedings roused Maxi- minus to fury. At the head of his legions, and breathing ven- geance on his foes, he advanced upon Italy : but here he found a wasted and desolated country. By the care of the senate, all Death of provision and forage, and all the inhabitants were removed. He Maximinus. laid siege to Aquileia. His army, suffering from fatigue and fa- mine, became mutinous 5 a conspiracy was formed, and the bar- barian was slain in his tent. The virtuous reign of Maximus and Balbinus was short and insecure. The nation, indeed, re- joiced in the destruction of Maximinus ; they undertook re- Death of formation, but the real sovereigns of the Roman empire, the Maximus praetorian guards, were refractory, and declared they would not Baibkms. acquiesce in any choice made by the senate. They slew Maxi- mus and Balbinus, and proclaimed young Gordian, a descend- ant of one of those who fell in Africa. 20. In the east, the Persians continued to encroach upon the empire, and had already invaded Mesopotamia. Gordian marched against them, and had compelled them to retreat from the Ti- 244. gris, when his sudden death checked the progress of the Roman SesTo^To arms. Philip, an artful Arabian, who by his abilities had risen the death of to j, e prefect of Rome, was immediately proclaimed emperor by benefactor!) the army. The Pannonian legions revolted, and invested their general, Decius, with the purple. The rival emperors met in quersPhMp" battle at Verona, where victory declared for Decius • and Philip, after a reign of five years, lost his crown and his life. 19. Give an account of the Gordians, father and son. Whom did the senate proclaim ? What was the fate of the Gothic giant? What part was taken by the praetorian guards ? Who succeeded Maximus and Balbinus ? — 20. What was done by Gordian ? What can you say of Philip ? Persian war. CHAPTER IV. Decline of the Roman Empire. 1. The Goths, supposed to come from the Scandinavian re- gion, now, for the first time, poured down upon the empire. Crossing the Danube, they entered Thrace, and spread devasta- tion and ruin on all sides. Decius marched against them, and after a struggle of two years, this monarch, worthy of better times, perished in battle. Gallus, his general, was made em- peror. He purchased a peace with the barbarians, that he might return to the ease and luxury of the palace, — thus reveal- ing the weakness and the wealth of the empire, and taking the surest course to incite other invasions, Nor did the hardy and rapacious barbarians linger long ; and while the Goths and other hordes made attacks on the north, Persia menaced Syria and the other provinces in the east. 2. jEmilianus, one of the generals of Gallus, routed the Goths and pursued them beyond the Danube. His praise was every where heard, while Gallus was despised. So strong is ambition hi man, that JEmilianus coveted the imperial purple, stained as it was with the blood of so many emperors, and worn but as a prelude to assassination. He was proclaimed by his troops, and met the army of Gallus at Spoletto. The soldiers of the emperor mutinied, murdered him, and confirmed the succes- sion of iEmilianus. Valerian, who in the reign of Decius had been appointed censor by the senate, and had faithfully executed many offices of trust, now, at the age of sixty, appeared at the head of an army of superior strength, as a competitor for the regal power. The soldiers of iEmilianus, after he had reigned four months, despatched him, to make way for his more power- ful rival. 3. Valerian stood high with all; but age had impaired his mind, or the people had been deceived in his character. With the blindness of parental affection, he left in his place, while he departed to the war in the east, his son Gallienus, who pos- sessing genius without judgment, was excellent in poetry, ora- tory, cookery, and gardening; but contemptible in war and government. The empire was attacked on all sides. The Franks, the Jilemanni, the Goths, and the Persians, hovered on the different frontiers, and threatened it with destruction ; while Gallienus amused himself in Rome, held mock triumphs, — smiled, and made witty speeches when he heard the news of Rome's disasters. 4. The Franks, from whom are descended the modern French, Middle Hist. PERIOD I. CHAP. IV. 251. Gallus. Weak and inert. 253. JEmilianua supplants Gallus. 254. Valerian and his con- temptible son Gallie- nus. Chap. IV. — 1. Give an account of the Goths. Of the movements of Decius. What was the name and conduct of his successor ? — 2. Give an account of iEmilianus. — 3. Give some account of Valerian. Of his son. By what nations was the empire now attacked ? 155 156 A MOIETY OF THE PEOPLE SWEPT AWAY. Middle Hist. 268. War with Persia. Sapor de- feats Vale- rian and treats him basely. (Sapor is 6econdofthe Sassanides.) Said to have been "thirty- tyrants." Nineteen can be traced. Miserable condition of the empire. Claudius. had always defied the Roman arms ; indeed they received the name of Franks or Freemen, from their love of independence. They now spread terror and consternation through the provinces of Qaul and Spain; and they passed over into Africa, and threatened the province of Mauritania. The Alemanni, whose name, signifying all men, expressed their great numbers, were a warlike race inhabiting Germany. They crossed the Danube, passed the Rhaetian Alps into the plains of Lombardy,— advanced to Ravenna, and alarmed the capital. Gallienus sent his lieu- tenants against the Franks, but remained in Milan to amuse himself there, whilst on the senate devolved the task of provid- ing for the defence of Italy from its formidable enemies. 5. On the throne of Persia was Sapor, the son of Artaxerxes. He had compelled the Armenians, allied to Rome, to submit to his power, and advanced upon the Roman provinces. Valerian, marching to oppose him, intimidated the Goths, who were in possession of the Euxine, in Asia Minor, and for a time they withdrew. The emperor then passed the Euphrates, and was betrayed into a situation near Edessa, where his army was sur- rounded by that of the Persians. Affecting to consent to a parley, Sapor made him prisoner. He was the first Roman emperor, who suffered that disgrace. His army surrendered, and the haughty Persian spared him no indignities, mocking him, and treading on his neck ; at length the aged emperor sunk be- neath his fate and died, while Sapor spread the terror of his arms through Syria and Cilicia. 6. Neither the death of his father, nor the distress of the em- pire, interrupted the amusements of Gallienus. But the disaf- fection of his people sometimes roused him to direful revenge. In one instance, he commanded the governor of a province to exterminate all the males. Usurpers, encouraged by the dis- contents of the people, started up in every direction. A fancied resemblance between this period and that of the Athenian ty- rants, gave rise to the assertion that there were thirty claimants in Rome for the imperial purple. Nineteen only can be traced, and all these died by violent means. Gallienus at length fell. 7. At this deplorable crisis the Roman empire seemed lying in hopeless ruin. The civil wars caused by the several usurpa- tions, the contests with the barbarians, and their devastations, together with famine and pestilence, say the historians, had swept from the face of the empire one half of its inhabitants. But, from the course of history, we may infer, that the pride of the Romans had been humbled, and that virtue, so often the child of adversity, was now the fruit of their miseries; and in Claudius, who was next placed upon the throne, Rome 4. Give an account of the Franks — of the Alemanni. — 5. Who was Sapor? Give an account of the war between him and the Romans. — 6. What was the consequence of the foolish behaviour of Gallienus ? — T. What was now the condition of the empire ? What was the character and conduct of Claudius ? ROME REVIVES. 157 once more possessed a sovereign suited to her wants. His jgjjg Hist - first efforts were directed to restore order to the army, and prepare for the expulsion of the barbarian invaders. In his reign of two years, he defeated the Alemanni; and obtained so great a victory over the Goths, who had passed over into Greece, as to obtain the appellation of the Gothic Claudius, 8: Claudius died of the plague, and was succeeded by Aure- lian, whose great military abilities for a time stayed the de- struction of the Roman empire. The barbarians, though repulsed by Claudius, were ready to resume their depredations. The jj 1 ?©. provinces of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, were in a state of revolt; Aureiian. and Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor, acknowledged the sway of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. She was the widow of Odena- tus, a general who had humbled the pride of the haughty Sapor. Aureiian, after disciplining his army, obtained some advantages over the Goths, and entered into a treaty, by which he guarantied them a safe retreat into their own country, on condition of their furnishing the Romans with a body of two thousand auxiliaries, consisting of cavalry. Finding it difficult Se wmhern to defend so extensive a frontier, he withdrew the Roman forces limits of the from the ancient Dacia, removing the greater part of the Dacians withinthe to the southern side of the Danube ; thus adding strength to Danube, the province of Moesia, which now received the name of Dacia. A part of the inhabitants of the old province, how- ever, chose rather to remain in subjection to the Goths. 9. While Aureiian was thus engaged, the Alemanni made an irruption into Italy, and extended their devastations from the defeats the Danube to the Po. The emperor hastened to meet them, and Alemannl - after three battles, drove them from Italy. He next quelled chjilojvs. an insurrection headed by Tetricus, who held command over Aureiian es- Gaul, Spain, and Britain. In a bloody battle, fought near Cha- ta au tnority la Ions, Aureiian was victorious. The whole empire, with the over tne exception of those provinces which owned the sway of Zeno- bia, now acknowledged him as its sovereign. 10. Of the early history of Palmyra, whose ruins afford the modern traveller an object of wonder and admiration, little is known. By some, it is supposed to have been the Tadmor of the desert, built by Solomon. But, that so splendid a city should have risen in the midst of a barren waste, can be ac- Palmyra, counted for, only by its situation, as lying between the Persian riumoftne Gulf and the Mediterranean sea; thus constituting an emporium for the merchandise conveyed in caravans from India to Eu- rope. In the contests between the Romans and Parthians, Palmyra maintained its independence, until the victories of Trajan; after which, it sunk into a Roman province. In the war which Sapor waged with the Romans, and in which the emperor Valerian was made prisoner by the Persians, Odenatus, 8. What was the character of Aureiian ? What enemies had he to con- tend with ? What course did he pursue ? — 9. Give an account of his war with the Alemanni. With Tetricus. — 10. What is known and supposed of Palmyra ? eastern trade. 158 ZENOBIA. Middle Hist. 269. Zenobia conquerB Egypt. 2?2. Is con- quered by Aurelian. Longinus put to death. the prince of Palmyra, was the only eastern ally who rendered the Roman empire any service. He made an attempt to recover Valerian, which though unsuccessful, harassed the Persians, and prevented the further progress of their arms. To reward his service, Gallienus declared him his colleague in the empire, but he was assassinated by his nephew. 11. Zenobia, his widow, immediately after his death, as- sumed his authority, and conquered Egypt, from whose ancient Macedonian kings, she claimed to be descended. Such was her reputation, that Persia, Armenia, and Arabia, dreaded her power, and courted her favor. Her sway extended over Syria, and she assumed the splendid title of " Queen of the East." Zenobia is represented as the personification of mingled loveliness and ma- jesty. These blended harmoniously in her face and figure, in the sound of her voice, and in the powers of her mind ; which were improved by the education she had received from the cele- brated Longinus. She was mistress of the learned languages, versed in the poetry of Homer, and in the philosophy of Plato. Tn conduct she was prudent or firm, economical or liberal, as the occasion demanded. 12. But she had to cope with the superior force of the em- pire, and the military skill of the first captain of the age. Yet Aurelian writes of her, " The Roman people speak with con- tempt of the war, which I am waging against a woman. They are ignorant both of the character and fame of Zenobia. It is impossible to describe her warlike preparations and her despe- rate courage." This he writes after he had defeated her, at the two battles of Antioch and Edessa, and while he was prosecut- ing the siege of Palmyra. Here, reduced to the last extremity, Zenobia undertook to escape by flight, but she was taken pri- soner, and conveyed to the camp of Aurelian. The monarch reserved her for his triumph. He allowed the few Palmyrenes who had escaped the desperate siege to rebuild the city ; but he stained his glory by putting to death the wise and amiable Longinus.* 13. Aurelian on his return was gratified by a splendid triumph, in which the beautiful Zenobia, covered with jewels, and bound in chains of gold, followed his triumphal car on foot. Yet he afterwards gave her a beautiful villa at Tivoli, * Gibbon, on the authority of Vopiscus and Zosimus, two writers, whom he takes the liberty to disbelieve whenever they tell improbable stories, says that Zenobia imputed her obstinate resistance to Longinus — a poor excuse for the conduct of Aurelian, if true. But the story is not only inconsistent with the whole tenor of her character, but it supposes her to act thus with- out any motive. What had Zenobia to gain or to lose by attributing her con- duct to Longinus ? She had already lost all but her life, and the descendant of the family of Cleopatra knew too well that the " Queen of the East" would be preserved by the conqueror as the proudest trophy to grace his triumph. lO. Give an account of Odenatus.— 11. Of Zenobia.— 12. What ac- count did Aurelian give of her? What was the event of the siege of Pal- myra ? Why is the story of Zenobia' s betraying Longinus improbable ? (See note.)— 13. What exhibition of vanity had the conqueror on his return ? THE ROMAN CHARACTER IMPROVED. 159 where she found an honorable seclusion. After his triumph, Aurelian advanced towards Asia with the design of humbling the pride of Persia. On his march, near Byzantium, he was assassinated in a sudden frenzy of the soldiers. An interreg- num of eight months succeeded his death. The legions re- pented the rashness which had deprived them of an able, though severe commander, and humbly requested the senate to appoint a successor. The senate, struck with such unwonted respect from the military, referred back the choice to the army. Three times the reciprocal offer was made, and rejected; meanwhile, the whole Roman world remained tranquil. 14. The senate at length chose one of their number, vene- rable for virtue and years, Tacitus, a descendant of the histo- rian. He remonstrated against the choice. " Are these limbs, Conscript Fathers," said he, " fitted to sustain the weight of armor, or to practise the exercises of the camp ?" But resist- ance was vain. He was forced to assume the sovereignty. His election was ratified by the legions in France, whither he pro- ceeded. The Scythians had invaded the Asiatic provinces, — he led his troops against them and obliged them to return ; but he sunk under the accumulated cares and hardships of a military life, and after an energetic reign of six months, died in Cappa- docia. Florianus, the unworthy brother of Tacitus, waited not for the voice of the senate, but with indecent haste ascended the throne. He found an able and powerful rival in Probus, the general of the armies of the east, who took it upon him to avenge the insulted senate. Florianus fell, and Probus already, in effect, master of the empire, submitted his cause to the senate ; who, delighted with his respectful behavior, confirmed his power. 15. The barbarians of Germany, taking advantage of the in- terregnum which succeeded the death of Aurelian, had renewed their devastations in the provinces, and destroyed many flourish- ing cities in Gaul. Probus drove back the Franks, recovered the cities, and vanquished the gloomy Lygii, a people residing near the frontiers of Poland and Silesia. "Their shields," says the historian Tacitus, " are black — their bodies painted black. They choose for the combat the darkest hour of the night. Their host advances, covered as it were with a funereal shade, nor do they often find an enemy capable of sustaining so strange and infernal an aspect." Yet the disciplined legions of Probus discomfited these spirits of the night, nor were they afterwards known in history. Probus carried the war into Germany also, and compelled the barbarians to sue for peace. To guard that frontier, he erected an extensive stone wall, strengthened by towers. This good emperor, perceiving that the idleness of the army had been a fruitful source of disorders, exercised the Middle Hist. Mutual defe- rence of the senate and the military. 2?5. Tacitus an aged and worthy senator, succeeded by an un- worthy brother. 2W Barbarian devasta- tions check- ed by the good Probus. 13. What more can you say of him? What occurred on his death?—. 14:. Give an account of Tacitus. Of his immediate successors. — 15. What enemies had Probus to encounter? What was the result of his ope- rations ? For what did the soldiers assassinate him ? 160 FOUR EMPERORS ONE RULING MIND. Middle Hist. PERIOD I. CHAP. IV. 2S2. Carus. Carinus and Numerian. Carinus a Nero on a small scale. 2S4. Diocletian makes new arrange- ments. Two empe- rors, Dio- cletian and Maximia- nus ; and two Csesars, Galerius and Con- stantius Chlorus. Seat of go- vernment removed from Aome. Power of the senate diminished. legions in planting vineyards, and in other useful labors. They murmured and assassinated him. 16. Carus, the praetorian prefect, was raised by the army to the vacant throne. He associated with him in the government, his two sons, Carinus and Numerian, He left the west under the charge of Carinus, while Numerian accompanied him to the east, in an expedition against Persia. Carus had advanced to Mesopotamia, and made himself master of the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, when his death, said to have been occasioned by lightning, put an end to the war, as the superstition of the legions would not allow them to proceed farther. Numerian died by the hand of an assassin, during the return of the army from Asia ; and Carinus, dwelling in Rome, displayed a poor imitation of Nero — his profligacy, without his taste. The le- gions of the east conferred the imperial power on Diocletian, who, from being an obscure peasant of Dalmatia, had risen by merit to the command of a Roman army. The soldiery of the west adhered to Carinus. A battle was fought in Mcesia. The troops of Carinus were on the point of obtaining the victory, when his assassination, by a tribune whom he had deeply wronged, left to Diocletian the undisputed sovereignty. 17. Diocletian possessed that pervading energetic mind which controls circumstances and events; and his accession is an era which marks the beginning of a new system of govern- ment, perfected in the reign of Constantine. To the military despotism which had so long governed the nation, now suc- ceeded the despotism of the court. Diocletian early associated with himself in the cares of government, his friend and fellow- general Maximianus, and gave him an equal share of the im- perial honors. For the better administration of the government, he then chose two colleagues. One was Constantius Chlorus, adopted by Maximianus ; the other, Galerius, adopted by him- self, to whom were committed a share of the sovereign autho- rity, and who were to be the successors of the emperors. On these colleagues he conferred the titles of Caesar. They had the command of the provinces of the Rhine and the Danube, while the two emperors reserved for their immediate superin^ tendence, Africa, Italy, and the east. Maximianus resided in Milan, and Diocletian in Nicomedia. 18. These measures, by depriving Rome of the presence of its emperors, served to diminish the power of the senate, and to sink into oblivion all those republican titles, to which the Ro- mans even yet fondly clung. At such a distance, it could not be expected of the emperors, to apply to the senate for the rati- fication of their decrees ; and the power which had belonged 16. Who were the succeeding emperors? Give an account of Carus. Of Numerian. Of Carinus. — IT. What was the intellectual character of Diocletian ? What change did he begin ? How did he distribute the go- vernment of the whole empire to himself and three others ? Where fix the two principal seats ? — 18. How did these arrangements affect the senate and people of Rome ? BEGINNING OF MODERN COURT ETIQUETTE. 161 to them only when at the head of the army, now came to Middle Hist - be exercised by them upon all occasions. Diocletian intro- duced into his court the pomp and ceremony of the oriental monarchs ; and unlike the former emperors, to whom access might at any time be obtained, he kept himself at an elevated distance, and was approached only with prostration- In thus substituting the manners of Persia for those of Rome, the supe- rior mind of Diocletian was probably actuated by other motives than those of vanity. The monarch would thus be less ex- posed to the rude license of the soldiers, and might avert the fate of his predecessors. The administration of justice by the emperor was rigorous •, and his military achievements relieved the empire, for a time, from numerous foreign invaders. 19. In the preceding reign, Britain had been dismembered from the empire, by the rebellion of Carausius, a naval com- ^JJJ^jJJ? mander, who was now acknowledged sovereign of the island, gation. He had taught the inhabitants the rude navigation of the day. To Constantius was assigned the reduction of this province, 29©. now greatly valued by the Romans. Civil war had, ere his ar- Re j^ 1 i [ 1 ^ in rival, completed half his work. Carausius had been assassi- quelled by nated, and a new usurper reigned. The inhabitants readily Canstantm8 - returned to their allegiance, and after a separation of ten years, were glad to be again under the mild protection of the Roman empire. 20. Galerius kept the Goths in check ; Maximianus quelled insurrections which had arisen in Africa, while the superior genius of Diocletian was directed to the Persian war. The dis- grace inflicted on Rome by the proud Sapor, in the person of the venerable Valerian, was as yet unatoned for. The Romans formerly exercised, as a right, the honor of nominating the king of Armenia. Sapor had subjected this province. Tiridates, son of the king of Armenia, had been preserved, while an in- Diocletian fant, from the wreck of his father's fortune, and protected by g| ve9 Arme- the Roman emperors during his minority. As he had now ar- king, rived at manhood, Diocletian declared him the sovereign of Armenia, and sent him to claim the throne of his father. The Armenians hailed their native prince with every demonstration of joy, having now been ninety -six years under the Persian government, and nobles and people flocked to his standard. 21. Persia, being at this time embroiled in civil war, had little leisure for the affairs of Armenia, and for a while the arms of Tiridates triumphed. When, however, the civil contests had ended in the elevation of Narses to the Persian throne, Tiri- dates found himself unable to cope with so powerful an adver- sary, and had recourse to Roman aid. Diocletian seized the Diocletian favorable opportunity of humbling, in Persia, the only remaining Persians. * rival of the empire. His arms triumphed, and Persia was com- 18. Describe the court of Diocletian. — 19. What is said of the rebellion in Britain ? — 20. What was the state of things in the east ? — 21. Give an account of the Persian war. 21 162 CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. kiddie Hist, pelled to sue for peace. In the treaty the Roman boundaries " were somewhat extended, the Armenian prince was acknow- ledged, and the dependence of Armenia upon Rome established. 22. After the termination of this war, Diocletian, who had not visited Rome since his elevation, repaired to the city, where he enjoyed a splendid triumph, — memorable as the last of these gorgeous exhibitions of human vanity. In the twenty-first year of his reign, not long after his triumph, and when the empire 3©4. had been delivered from its foreign enemies, and restored to an^Maxinli- P eace 5 Diocletian formally resigned the imperial power, and re- anus resign tired with philosophic calmness to the enjoyment of an elegant SlTtheTwo retreat in Dalmatia. He had prevailed on Maximianus to resign csesars, his power also ; and the abdication of the two emperors, the one consujmius - n 3viila.ii, the other in Nicomedia, took place on the same day. Gaierius. 23. Diocletian's great name is stained by the most cruel of all the persecutions of the Christians. Of the ten persecutions, the first was (A. D. 64,) under Nero; the second, (95,) under Domitian: the third, (107,) under Trajan; the fourth, (118,) under Adrian ; the fifth, (212,) under Caracalla ; the sixth, (235,) The ten per- under Maximinus ; the seventh, (250,) under Decius ; the eighth, (257,) under Valerian ; the ninth, (274,) under Anrelian ; the : tenth and most severe was begun on Christmas day, (303,) under Diocletian, when in the city of Nicomedia, then the cruel under seat of Diocletian's court, six hundred of the despised followers Diocletian, f Q^ist assembled to celebrate his nativity. The emper secutions. or gave the horrid order to bar the doors, and set the building on fire ; and his executioners, fearing man more than God, enclosed them living within their funeral pyre, where their bodies all perished. 24. Constantius, who, with Galerius, was now elevated to mi^cie* tne ran k °f Augustus, retained it but fifteen months, when he tian's noble sickened at York. Constantine, his son, hastened from Nico- jScnaand niedia with secresy and celerity, and arriving before his death, her mother W as appointed his successor. The army in Britain saluted him ^uted be S - e " Augustus and emperor ; — Spain and Gaul ratified the nomination. Ca fu S e cUo ^ ne mnaD i tants °f R°nie felt more than ever the weight of the marry one taxes which were levied with merciless severity upon them, and perors Se e iSe were indignant at the continued absence of the emperors from plead for the imperial city. The senate, and the praetorians, whose power ^ahi, and m Diocletian had almost annihilated, joined in a conspiracy with died with the citizens against Galerius, and Maxentius, the son of Maxi- mianus, was invested at Rome with the imperial dignity. The grief.) Great de- struction of restless spirit of Maximianus could not submit tamely to the byT^years retirement to which Diocletian had doomed him ; and he now of civil war. came forward to lend his name and aid to the party of his son, 22. What occurred at Rome on the return of Diocletian ? What further can you relate of this emperor and his colleague ? — 23. What is a deep blot on his character ? Give an account of the ten persecutions. — 24b. Who were left emperors ? Where was Constantius when he made his son his succes- sor ? What number of emperors were now in the field, and what was the state of the empire ? What account can you give of Valeria ? (See note.) CHRISTIANITY MADE THE RELIGION OF THE EMPIRE. 163 assuming to himself the exercise of imperial power. Two other jggg Hist. claimants appeared, and Rome now felt the evils of a divided government. No less than six emperors, at enmity among themselves, shared the sovereign power. These dissensions led to bloody and destructive civil wars. After a period of eighteen years, the genius of Constantine triumphed over all his rivals, and he remained sole master of the empire. CHAPTER V. The Roman Empire from the adoption of Christianity. 1. Constantine possessed a lofty and majestic stature, a bold, open countenance, and a graceful deportment. His con- stitution was made healthy by vigorous exercise in youth, and preserved by temperance and sobriety in later life. In business he was indefatigable, and he looked with a vigilant eye upon S&S- the affairs of government ; while, by rendering kindness to all constantine who approached him, he secured love, at the same time that varies in his talents and virtues commanded respect. Such was Con- cumstancea" stantine while dangers surrounded him ; but when released from fear, and placed above responsibility, his character seems to have fallen from its elevation. Among other unworthy acts,, he is charged with jealous cruelty to his son. 2. Two events mark the boldness of his genius, and render his name memorable. The one was his removal of the seat of improved 1 the Roman empire to Constantinople; the other was his a af t " r a Jh e d adoption of Christianity as the religion of the empire. Whether emperor. Constantine embraced it from conviction of its truth, or from o«a policy, is matter of dispute. Certain it is, that this religion, Christianity though receiving from the Roman power only silent obloquy, nlo^of th~ or active persecution, had extended among the people; so that Roman Constantine strengthened himself in the affections of the soldiers em P ire - by adopting it. At this period too, Christianity might number more writers of talent and literary abilities than paganism. So- ciety had in its morals assumed a new and more healthful tone, it had be- Women, taught that they were co-heirs with men in the bless- c H gi e on h o f r |" ings of the gospel, felt their equal value as immortal beings, and great por- thus learned to respect themselves, and insure the respect of people.*" '"a men. When such had become the influence of Christianity in majority of the realm, worldly ambition pointed to the course which l e w °ere ler8 the emperor pursued in declaring himself a Christian ; and Cn «stians." Chap. V. — 1. What was the character of Constantine? — 2. What two events rendered his name memorable? What had Christianity up to this period received from the Roman power ? Why was it a matter of policy with Constantine to profess it ? Did he show himself a true disciple of Christ in making Christ's kingdom a kingdom of this world ? 164 CHRISTIANITY DEBASED BY WORLDLY EXALTATION. Middle Hist. PERIOD I. CHAP. V. 325. Arius con- demned in the Council of Nice. The princi- pal argu- ment stated in form. If Chris- tianity is false, the apostles were either deceived or deceivers. They could not have been de- ceived, they were not deceivers, therefore Christianity is not false, i. e. it is true. surely it was not in the spirit of Christ, who said, " My king- dom is not of this world," that Constantine made it the religion of the empire ; — and from henceforth we find its heavenly influence sullied by mingling with earthly things. He made a new divi- sion of the Roman world into four Prefectures, which were subdivided into diocesses, and these into provinces. No parti- cular bishop was regarded as head of the whole church, but the emperor was such in point of fact. In this capacity he called the first ecclesiastical council, or collection of bishops at Nice, he having, in the controversy between Athanasius and Arius, taken sides against the latter. The council in this respect agreed with the emperor. 3. If after the period of Constantine, it shall appear that human passions, and natural causes, contributed to the extension of a religion, whose divinity is attested by a severe and holy purity before unknown to the world, let it be remembered that what had previously occurred, leaves a chasm in the chain of human means, by which Christianity was established, that cannot be supplied but on the supposition of divine agency. It is in vain that infidelity seeks to shake our faith, by saying that when men were offered eternal life, on condition of their abandoning the pleasures of this, they accepted the offer, because it was an ad- vantageous bargain ; — so long as they utterly fail in explaining how the apostles andjirst teachers of this religion got their own invincible faith, that the doctrine was indeed true ? a faith which made them disregard labor, sufferings, and death. Of this no account exists but in the New Testame v > 4. On the death of Constantine, his dominie fere divided between his three sons, Constantine, Constat ;' ;, and Con- st an s. The youth of these princes was not, like' 'that of their father, spent in improving exercises, but in the effeminacy of a 33T Cruelty and Constan- court. He knew that he had his fortune to make ; they felt tine's suc- cessors. (Eusebius, the father of ecclesiasti- cal history, was tutor to Crispus, whom his father Con- stantine put to death.) that theirs was secured. Hence their administration wanted the vigor of his, while they imitated his ambition and cruelty. During the first year of their reign, two uncles and seven cousins were sacrificed to their jealous fears. With the exception of Gallus and Julian, sons of the brother of Constantine, whose youth and feeble constitution alone saved them, these princes destroyed all the male members of the Constantine family ; and they at length turned their arms against each other. 5. Constantine, who governed the eastern portion of the em- 2. What effect had his measures on Christianity ? How did he divide the empire ? Who was not regarded as head of the whole church ? Who was so in fact? What assemblage did he convene? On what occasion? — 3. Suppose infidels should show that human passions and natural causes had something to do in establishing Christianity, what might still be said of its morality ? When we go back to the time of the apostles, can we find still a chain of human means sufficient to spread such a self-denying scheme ? Suppose an unbeliever, like the historian Gibbon, says that men embraced Christianity because it offered them an advantageous bargain, will this shake our faith ? How is the principal argument for the truth of Christianity stated ? — 4:. How were Constantine's dominions divided? How was the govern- ment administered ? JULIAN THE APOSTATE. 165 pire, found himself early involved in a Persian war. The fame of his father had, during his life, checked all encroachments on the eastern provinces. Sapor, the grand-son of Narses, was now on the Persian throne, and had, for several campaigns, waged a successful war upon the provinces. Constantine marched against him — the Persian arms triumphed at Singara. The monarchs at length withdrew their forces, and a peace was concluded. After Constantine's return, a dispute between him and Constans ended in his violent death; and left Constans sole master of the west. He maintained his authority for ten years, when he fell a victim to the ambition of Magnentius, the general of the Gallic legions, who assumed the purple. Con- stantius, to secure the undivided sovereignty of the empire, fought a bloody battle with Magnentius and defeated him. Of the ve- teran soldiers of the empire, 54,000 were left dead upon the field; and Magnentius, despairing of the crown, put an end to his life. 6. The civil wars had given the barbarians an opportunity of renewing their depredations upon the frontier provinces. The Franks and the Alemanni had devastated Gaul. Flourishing towns were laid in ashes, and the inhabitants compelled to flee from the country to the fortified cities, where they were obliged to depend for subsistence upon the scanty supply of grain raised within the walls. In the east the Sarmatians had passed the Danube, and the Persian monarch, now returned from a victo- rious expedition against the Scythians, again threatened the pro- vinces of Asia. Constantius found himself unequal to the weight of t 1 I empire, and was constrained to look for some one with who • :?.■ divide its cares. His cousin Julian, now the only rem g member of the Constantine family, had been left to puicde his studies in obscurity, among the Grecian phi- losophers. Constantius appointed him Caesar, and gave him command of the provinces of Gaul. He conducted in person the war with the Sarmatians, whom he defeated and compelled to sue for peace. 7. Julian, (called the Apostate from his having forsaken Chris- tianity,) whose abilities for action had been despised on account of his love of study, showed himself an able general, in a suc- cessful contest with the Franks and Alemanni. The fame of his hardy perseverance and successful enterprise, spread through the empire, and increased the already awakened jealousy of Constantius. He issued an order, commanding a large detach- ment of the veterans who were under Julian, to march to the aid of the eastern legions. The troops, reluctant to enter upon what they deemed a foreign service, and unwilling to leave a general whom they loved, for an emperor whom they despised, refused obedience, and at once proclaimed Julian emperor. With feigned reluctance he accepted the crown, and to enforce Middle Hist. 34©. Constans, sole empe- ror of the west. Constantius reigns Barbarian depreda- tions in Gaul. The east threatened. Julian made Csesar. Tht Sarmatians defeated. 360. Julian an example of a man pos- sessing ta- lents both for study and action. 5. Give an account of the Persian war. Of Constans. Of Magnentius. — 6. What was the effect of the civil wars ? How was the empire attacked ? Who was Julian ? — T. How did Julian manifest his character? On what occasion was he proclaimed emperor ? 166 PAGANISM RESTORED BY JULIAN. Middle Hist, ^jg c i aim? marched with secrecy and despatch to the attack of Constantinople. Constantius, relinquishing the Persian war, marched to meet him ; but his death relieved the empire from the horrors of civil contention. Paganism 8. The reign of Julian was memorable for the re-establish- bifs'hedby ment of paganism. The emperor was, doubtless, above believing the phiioso- m its fooleries himself; but he thought like most of the early Julian, philosophers of Greece and Rome, that the people must have some religion coined for their use. His ideas of Christianity were associated with the character, and conduct towards his fa- mily, of the Constantines, its supporters ; and he probably thought that Christianity, as well as paganism, was such a coinage; not (The ar u ren,ectm g that whatever God has made his creatures to need, he ment stated invariably provides. Man is created to need religion; for since in form. ^ dawn of history there have been double-dealing traffickers in God gives the article. Among these stand prominent the Egyptian, Greek, he make? m ^ R° man priests, the Delphian oraculars, and the Druids of him to have Britain. These manufacturers of fable and imposition, supplied We neeTof" tne market kept ever open by man's mental craving ; and they He has we re repaid by his submission of body, soul, and estate. Unlike need reii- these, the Christian teachers believed that Christianity was in Therefore trutn tnat spiritual food, which the Almighty Parent had him- he has self sent down to satisfy the desires of the famishing soul. To gion for him^ tn ^ s v * ew °f Christianity, which exalts it over all others as the i. e. Chris- only true religion, Julian himself gave an incidental testimony; lamty.) ^ OY ^p recommended, that with the heathen ceremonies, the people should follow the Christian morality. This emperor did not indeed revive the persecutions of former pagan sove- reigns, or prohibit the worship of the Christians ; yet he removed them from offices of trust, and from the care of the education of youth, and oppressed them in various ways. 3£«g. 9. Julian settled the concerns of the west, and proceeded into Julian's Asia. After wintering in Antioch, he marched towards Persia, P ped?t?on.*" rava g eQj the plains of Mesopotamia, passed the Euphrates, and spread devastation through a part of Syria. He attempted, with the strenuous aid of the Jews, to rebuild the temple at Je- rusalem, in order to disprove the prophecy of Christ. The ^fil foundations of the temple were laid, but they were destroyed. His vain at- " Horrible balls of fire," says a pagan historian, "breaking out tejnpt to f e- from the foundation with frequent and reiterated attacks, ren- Jewish 6 dered the place inaccessible to the workmen. The victorious temple, element continuing in this manner, seemed obstinately bent to T. How was his accession secured and the empire saved from civil war ? — 8. For what is his reign chiefly memorable ? What is the strong proba- bility respecting Julian's own belief? When we know that God has created man to need any thing, what may we infer ? Who are named as classes of men who have trafficked with the religious wants of mankind ? What have they manufactured for the people ? What have they got from the people in return ? What difference do you find between these and the early teachers of Christianity ? How did Julian incidentally bear testimony to Christiani- ty? — 9. Give an account of Julian's Persian expedition. Of his attempt to rebuild the Jewish temple. THE EMPIRE DISMEMBERED IN THE EAST. 167 drive them to a distance, and the hopeless attempt was aban- jgge Hist doned." Christians and pagans alike believed that the doom of a supernatural power forbade the work ; and it was no more attempted. 10. At the passage of the Tigris, the Romans obtained a vic- tory over the Persians, but here their successes ended. Julian was induced to burn his fleet at the suggestion of a treacherous Persian, who, in the character of a deserter, had entered his Julian in the camp. As the Romans advanced their provisions failed. The whichCras- cattle were driven away, the inhabitants had departed, and the sus formerly country, naturally fertile, presented only smoking ruins. The JJerishesf emperor sought to retrace his steps, but the Persian prince, with a numerous army, appeared in sight, hovered around, and harassed his retreat. Attempting to force his way, Julian was mortally wounded. His dying moments were passed, not in sacrificing to the gods, but in philosophical discourse. The unexpected death of the leader spread, in the harassed army, confusion and dismay. The officers could not agree upon a successor, when the name of Jovian, a man of no military re- j - nown, but attached to the household of Julian, was circulated succeeds, among the troops, and he was immediately declared emperor. 11. Amid their deliberations and sorrows, the legions had been compelled to continue their retreat, surrounded by the Persians, The Ro- and momentarily subject to their vexatious and often fatal at- heartened" tacks. Four days after the death of Julian, the disheartened . and army reached the city of Susa. The Tigris was still to be enemy's crossed, and they were almost in despair of effecting their es- power, cape. Here Sapor sent them proposals of peace, and although Roman em- they were disadvantageous, they were accepted. The provinces ^mbe'rVd beyond the Tigris, which Diocletian had obtained of Narses, by losing were then ceded to Persia, and the impregnable city of INI isibis, v ?n C e e Jeast which had so often resisted the Persian arms, together with oftheTigris, some of the strongest fortresses in Mesopotamia, were surren- Nisibis. dered ; when the army were suffered to pursue their homeward way in ignominious peace. 12. On the accession of Jovian, Christianity again became the established religion of the empire. But his reign was ter- minated by death before he reached Constantinople. Valen- tinian, commander of the guards, was unanimously proclaimed his successor. He appointed his brother Valens as his col- league, committing to him the eastern provinces, while himself 3^54. retired to the western, where he prosecuted the war against the vaientinian barbarians with considerable success. Yet the decline of the ^hlem- 8 ' empire became more and more apparent. The civil wars of the pire near its sons of Constantine had destroyed vast numbers of soldiers, and c,ose ' left the frontiers exposed to the depredations of the barbarians. The valor and energy of Julian had, indeed, for a moment, IO. What was the manner of his falling into a snare ? What were Us consequences ? What was the manner of Julian's death? Relate the ap- pointment of his successor. — 11. Give an account of the treaty of peace and the dismembering of the empire. — 12. What religion did Jovian favor ? 168 THE GOTHS ADMITTED INTO THE EMPTRE. Middle Hist. 375. Gratian 17 years of The Goths implore aid of the Ro- mans against the terrible Huns. Division of the Goths in eastern ' and western. 376 Goth? al- lowed to settle in the Roman Em- pire. They are ill- treated by the Romans. Insurrection of the Goths- checked their incursions, but his unsuccessful Persian war had still farther weakened the military force of the empire, and pre- pared the way for the peace, by which Jovian began its dismem- berment. Valentinian died in the twelfth year of his reign, and left the empire to his son Gratian, with the condition that a younger son named Valentinian, then an infant, should be as- sociated with him. 13. The Goths, who had repeatedly invaded the empire, again appeared on its frontier; not now indeed in the character of hostile barbarians, but of humble suppliants, themselves driven from their dominions. The Huns, a vast and terrible race, inhabiting the north of Asia, and more barbarous than either the Goths or Germans, had been precipitated by the wars in the east, upon the frontiers of Europe. Under Attila, called the " Scourge of God," they had subdued the nations of the Alani, who inhabited the regions between the Volga and Ta- nais, and advanced upon the kingdom of the Goths. Their first appearance on the Gothic frontier was in the declining days of the great chief, Hermanric, whose dominion, it is said, ex- tended from the Baltic to the Danube and lake Maeotis; and who had united under his sway the two great portions of the Gothic race, the western or Visigoths, and the eastern or Ostro- goths ; the former having been governed by the house of the Balti, the latter by that of Amali. The death of Hermanric, prevented the united efforts of the Goths in checking the in- vaders, and the Ostrogoths soon submitted. The Visigoths, in terror as the desolating " Scourge" approached, supplicated the emperor Valens, for vacant lands on the southern banks of the Danube, engaging to guard the frontier from the dreaded enemy. 14. Valens agreed to admit the Gothic nation within the em- pire, on certain conditions, to which they acceded 5 but the most important of which, the relinquishment of their arms, they afterwards evaded. The nation was transported across the Danube to improve the waste lands of Thrace. A million of barbarians, who could bring into the field 200,000 warriors, were thus admitted to a peaceful settlement within the bosom of the empire. The emperor granted the Goths permission to engage in traffic; but the avarice of the Roman ministers not only rendered the permission useless, but destructive to them. At length their property was exhausted in procuring means of subsistence, and they were compelled to sell their children to obtain bread. The treachery of the Roman governor of Mar- cianopolis towards Fritigern, a valiant Goth, enkindled his 12. Give an account of his successors. Of the disastrous state of the empire. Give an account of Gratian. — 13. In what character did ihe Goths now approach the Romans? Give an account of the Huns. What had been the extent of the Gothic empire in the days of their great chief? What division of the nation submitted? Which petitioned Valens, and for what? — 14. Where did they settle? What condition did they evade? What was their whole number? The number of their warriors? How were they treated in respect to traffic ? To what did necessity compel them ? What chieftain arose ? THEODOSIUS. 169 wrath. He summoned his countrymen to arms, and led them Jjgg Hist. to Maesia, which they overran and desolated ; and then proceeded period i. to threaten the capital. 15. Valens now sought to crush a nation, whom he had first introduced into the heart of the empire, and then forced by ill- usage to become his enemies. Gratian, who had just succeeded his father in the west, was summoned to his aid, but was pre- vented by an irruption of the Alemanni, which employed his whole resources. The Visigoths, meanwhile, had formed an alliance with a body of Ostrogoths, who had also procured a settlement on the southern side of the Danube, and with some scattered hordes of the Alani and Huns. On the plains of A- j£ople~ drianople, Valens met the barbarians, and the courage and skill The Goth's of the Roman legions failed in the encounter. The emperor lenJanJde- was wounded, and conveyed to a building, which being fired stro'y two- by the enemy, he perished in the flames. Two-thirds of the ^/my. imperial army were destroyed ; the remainder fled, and the Goths ravaged the country to the suburbs of Constantinople. 16. Gratian, meanwhile victorious over the Alemanni,, march- ed to the relief of the east. He learned on his journey the death of Valens, and the defeat of his army ; and sensible of his inability to sustain the weight of an empire sinking under its numerous foes, he associated with himself, in the govern- . ment, Theodosius, a native of Spain. His father was a gene- sovereign, ral who had distinguished himself in the reign of Valentinian, Th ™odosius but was unjustly put to death, by order of Gratian himself, his asso- But such was the towering genius of the son, such his reputation ciate ' for wisdom and magnanimity of temper, that the emperor, in his hour of peril, scrupled not to admit him as his partner. Theo- dosius was free from the vainglory of conquest, and he pursued at first a careful and watchful policy. From Thessalonica, which he made his head quarters, he kept his eye fixed upon the barbarians, and availed himself of every judicious oppor- tunity of wasting their forces, or gaining over their leaders. 17. Fritigern died, and disunion among the Goths ensued ; Theodosius' the different tribes pursued each its own individual interest with- L r l at j? e 2J out concert or design ; and in four years from the death of Valens, the policy of Theodosius procured an advantageous peace, the conditions of which were arranged in the neighbor- hood of Constantinople. Theodosius invited their aged chief, • ... The true Athanaric, to visit the capital, and partake the hospitalities of me thod of his palace. The chieftain was astonished at the grandeur and overcoming x o enemies. magnificence of the objects presented to his view. " Truly," exclaimed he, iC the emperor of the Romans is a god upon earth, and the presumptuous man, who dares to lift his hand against him, is guilty of his own blood." Athanaric sickened and died. Theodosius paid the most respectful honors to his 15. Give an account of the battle between the Goths and Romans. — 16. Why did Gratian choose an associate ? Why did he select Theodo- sius? — it. Give an account of the manner in which Theodosius treated the Goths. Of the opinion of the chief respecting him. 22 170 THE SERVANTS OP CHRIST EXERCISE LORDSHIP. Middle Hist. 383. Maximus proclaimed emperor in Gaul; de- stroys Gra- tian. Theodosius receives Justina, and marries her daughter. The banks of THE SAVE. Theodosius defeats Maximus. 388. Theodosius becomes the last emperor of the whole empire. Ecclesiasti- cal power assumes control over the civil. Theodosius not only humbles himself, but the secular power. remains; and his grateful Goths, thus converted into friends, entered the Roman legions, declaring that while Theodosius lived they would acknowledge no other chief. 18. While Theodosius was thus calming the disorders of the east, a new insurrection had arisen in the west. The indolence of Gratian had alienated the affections of his subjects. Maxi- mus, at the head of his legions, entered Gaul, where he was hailed as emperor. Gratian, who was at Paris, fled to Lyons, and was there assassinated, through the intrigues of Maximus, who next invaded Italy, and compelled the widowed em- press Justina, with her young son Valentinian II., and her daughter Galla, to flee for succor to the emperor of the east. Theodosius did not invite them to his court, but met them at Thessalonica, whither they had come by sea. His wife being dead, he married the beautiful Galla, and then marched, at the head of a hardy and disciplined army, into Pannonia. On the banks of the Save he met and defeated the forces of Maximus, and executed the usurper. The provinces returned to their alle- giance ; and Theodosius, superior to the seductions of pros- perity, so often fatal to virtue, magnanimously restored to Va- lentinian the throne of Milan, and added to his dominions the provinces of Britain and Gaul. But the young prince soon fell a victim to domestic treason. Theodosius thus became sole monarch of the empire, now for the last time united under the sway of one sovereign. 19. Since the reign of Constantine, Christianity had been rapidly declining from its primitive purity, and ambitious men sought, through its medium, to gratify the unhallowed lust of power. By gradually extending the authority of the bishops, the foundation was laid of that abominable oppression, which for so many ages was to weigh down the moral and intellectual energies of Europe. During the reign of Theodosius, the ecclesiastical power manifested itself as already superior to the civil. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, had forbidden to the empress Justina, who reigned in the name of her son Valen- tinian II., the use of a chapel, where she might worship agreeably to her belief in the Arian doctrines. The bishop next sternly and openly denounced her as a heretic, and when she passed an edict to banish him, he refused to obey ; — nor could she compel his obedience, or punish his contumacy. Theodosius had, in a moment of passion, given the only cruel order which stains his equitable government, that of putting to the sword the offending people of Thessalonica. He repented, and sought, too late, to hinder its execution. Ambrose boldly reproached him, and exacted of him public penance ; and the 18. Give an account of the last days of Gratian. Give some account of Maximus. What account can you give of Justina? Of Galla? Of Valentinian II. ? — 19. What may be said of Christianity from the reign of Constantine ? What during the reign of Theodosius, concerning the stretch of ecclesiastical power ? What was done by Ambrose in relation to Justina ? To Theodosius ? DEATH OF THE GREAT THEODOSIUS. 171 master of the world, in a mournful and suppliant posture, with Middle Hist . sighs and tears, confessed and deplored his crime, in the pre- period i. sence of the congregation. chap. v. 20. Theodosius died at Milan, a few months after he had v *^^ v ^v-^ quelled the disturbances consequent on the death of Valentinian, 395. lamented by the church, to which he had been reconciled ; by TheodosSL. the Roman people, whom he had governed with moderation ; and even by the vanquished provinces, who had experienced his kindness. Before his death he divided the empire between his two young sons; and this division proving permanent, becomes an important epocha in history. SO. Was Theodosius honored in his death ? What division of the em- pire did he make ? Theodosius and his Sons PERIOD II FROM 395. THE DIVISION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, TO THE ARABIAN > g^O. HEGIRA, 5 ClNTO THE EASTERN £ and western, Cor flight of (_ MAHOMET. CHAPTER i. The Western Empire. 1. The student has hitherto found his attention directed to some one great nation, extending its influence to all the smaller kingdoms and nations of the earth, and thus, at the same time, placing before him the whole civilized world. The Egyptian, Assyrian and Chaldean, — the Macedonian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman empires, have thus successively risen to his view. But from this period he will find his attention divided, first, between the two divisions of the Roman empire, now distinct and sepa- rate governments, and subsequently, between various independ- ent and powerful nations, arising from the ruins of the Roman empire, anal the civilisation of the northern barbarians. 2. On the death of Theodosius, his son Arcadius succeeded to the Eastern empire, comprising Thrace, Dacia, Macedonia, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt ; — while to his remaining son, Honorius, fell the Western empire, which contained Italy, Africa, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and the provinces of Noricum, Pannonia, and Dalmatia. Although the barbarous nations had Period II. — Chap. I. — 1. To what has the attention of the student been hitherto directed ? What empires have successively occupied the principal place ? What is now to become the course of history ? From what origin are we to find nations arising ?— -2. Which of the sons of Theodosius had the Eastern empire? Of what did it consist? Which had the Western? What provinces did it comprise ? 173 Middle Hist, PERIOD II. CHAP. I. Eastern em- pire, capital Constanti- nople. Western empire, capital Milan. 174 SWARMS OF BARBARIANS. Middle Hist. PERIOD II. CHAP. I. 402. The Ostro- goths. Treachery of Rufinus. POLLEN- TIA and VERONA. Stilicho de- feats the Goths under Alaric. Great confe- deracy of German trihes. 4©6. FLO- RENCE. Stilicho be- sieges them in camp, and forces them to capi- tulate. bowed to the superior abilities of Theodosius, they knew their own strength, and the weakness of the empire. The Roman armies were not only filled with barbarian auxiliaries, but they were also not unfrequently commanded by chiefs of barbarian origin ; while the indolent and effeminate citizens refused to leave their luxurious pleasures for the service of their country. Luxury had, in another manner, laid the train for the subver- sion of the empire. The Roman soldiers had obtained permis- sion of the different emperors, to cast aside their heavy shields and a part of their armor; so that when they were exposed to the attacks of the barbarians, now instructed in the art of war, clad in armor, and skilful in the use of missile weapons, the contest was unequal, and the barbarians had the advantage. The youth and incapacity of Arcadius and Honorius subjected them to the control of their favorites. Rufinus, a Gaul, go- verned the councils of Arcadius; while Stilicho, a Vandal, di- rected the administration of his brother. 3. The western Goths, under Alaric, took up arms, passed into Greece, and spread desolation through Macedonia, Thes- saly, and Attica. Rufinus, deeming it a stroke of policy to turn their arms upon Italy, negotiated an alliance with them, and privately advised Alaric to seek his fortune in the Western em- pire, promising that succor should be sent him. The Goths accordingly proceeded towards Jllyricum, Istria, and the north- east of Italy. Stilicho, at the head of the western legions, ad- vanced to repulse them. The history of their progress is obscure, but it is certain that Stilicho obtained a decided advantage at Pollentia, and that they were compelled to retreat. Alaric was again defeated at Verona; and the vigilance and skill of Stilicho finally procured a temporary peace. 4. The fears of Honorius were awakened by this invasion, and to preserve his person from danger, he removed his resi- dence from Milan to Ravenna, a more secure situation, which henceforth became the imperial city. An irruption of Pagan barbarians now occurred, more formidable than even that of the Goths, who being christianized, possessed the rudiments of civilisation. These were a confederacy of the German nations, the Vandals, Suevi, Burgundians, and part of the Mani, to the number of 200,000 fighting men. Headed by their king, Radagaisus, they issued from the shores of the Baltic, showed themselves upon the banks of the upper Danube, passed into Italy, and laid siege to Florence. The active Stilicho ap- peared with his army, surrounded the barbarians, and besieging them in their camp, reduced them to the greatest distress, and com- %. What causes of the downfal of the empire were now at work ? Who were the respective favorites of the monarchs ? — 3. What nation attacks the Romans? What portion of the empire do they ravage? How and by what treachery is their course turned ? ' Describe their next operations, and those of Stilicho ? — 4. What change did Honorius now make in the seat of the Western empire ? What irruption of barbarians occurred ? Why was it more formidable than that of the Goths? What was their progress? By whom and how were they met ? -ALARIC, THE GOTH. 175 pelled a great part of them to capitulate. Radagaisus perished ; Middle Hist. when the remainder of the army retreated. Leaving Italy, they period ii. proceeded to devastate and take possession of Gaul, from the chap. i. Rhine to the Pyrenees. " This," says Gibbon, " may be con- v -*"~v-h^ sidered as the fall of the Roman empire beyond the Alps." 5. The feeble and contemptible Honorius, whose principal occupation, history informs us, was to feed poultry, was moved, by the arts of an ambitious flatterer, to jealousy and hatred against the only man whose talents could support his tottering Honorius, state. Stilicho was murdered, and Alaric advanced upon Rome. Jous ofsim- The venerable city was forced to purchase with money the re- cno > de- treat of the barbarians. The conditions of the payment not being strictly complied with, Alaric made this a pretence to re- . turn. Again he besieged Rome, and compelled the reluctant The sen a te senate to receive from him Attalus, the prefect of the city, as their bu y a peace, emperor. The capital was still spared, but the Gothic troops return. S overran and devastated Italy. Attalus did not long enjoy the favor of the Gothic chief, who, the following year, degraded him from the imperial dignity. Honorius, at Ravenna, still re- Th take fused to make peace with the Goths. They returned, thirsting and sack the for spoils, and bent upon destruction; — and Rome, so long clty ' vaunted as the " eternal city," was taken, and suffered during six days the horrors of sack and pillage, from a barbarous soldiery. 6. Alaric passed triumphantly forth, and bent his course to the south of Italy, intending to embark for Africa, — when he died. His grave was made in the bed of a small stream, whose waters, for that purpose, had been conducted from their channel. Aiaric's After his burial, the stream in resuming its wonted course, con- buriaL cealed for ever the body of the conqueror. Adolphus, his bro- ther-in-law, succeeded him. His first intention was to make Rome the seat of a new empire of the Goths ; but study and re- flection convinced him, that law and order were essential to a well constituted state ; and as the yet unlearned Goths would not submit to these, he magnanimously resolved to seek a Ad ^jf s * or region more favorable to the genius of his countrymen, and Atauipnus, leave Italy to be governed by her own regulations. After the £n|Xmof Goths had enjoyed an undisputed control during four years, he the visi- concluded a peace with Honorius, receiving from his hand g s P ain. n his sister Placidia* in marriage. He retired from Italy into * The young Placidia was the daughter of the great Theodosius and Galla. She was taken prisoner at the sack of Rome, and carried away by the barbarians, but was treated with respect. She captivated Adolphus ; and the elegant person and ingenuous mind of the young soldier were not regarded by her with indifference ; and it may be that Italy was, on this oc- 4:. Where did they then go ? What part of the Roman empire was now cut off? — 5. What kind of emperor was Honorius ? How did he reward his best friend and ablest general ? What immediately followed ? How did Rome put off her evil day ? What treatment did the city, formerly boasted as eternal, now receive ? — 6. Relate the death and burial of Alaric. The noble conduct of his brother-in-law. Where and how was the mar- riage of Adolphus and Placidia celebrated ? (See note.) 176 GENSERIC, THE VANDAL. Middle Hist. PERIOD II. CHAP. I. 424. Placidia go- verns for her son Va- lentinianlll. 42T Genseric with his Vandals overruns Africa and establishes a kingdom. 442. The Huns the most nu- merous and formidable of all the barbarians. Gaul, and from thence into Spain, where he founded the king- dom of the Visigoths. 7. The independence of Britain was acknowledged by Hono- rius, and he had ceded the lands of Upper Germany to the Bur- gundians, and of Lower Germany to the Franks, when, after an ignominious reign of twenty-eight years, he died. Adolphus had fallen in war, and Placidia, having returned to Italy, had become the wife of Constantius, a distinguished general. He succeeded Honorius, was assassinated, and his son Valenti- nian, a boy of six, proclaimed emperor. The administration was committed to his mother, Placidia, as regent. The armies of the Western empire were commanded by ^Etius and Boni- face, between whom there was an irreconcilable enmity. The misrepresentations of iEtius, led Placidia wrongly to distrust the loyalty of Boniface, and to recall him from Africa, where he held the command. Boniface, who has been styled the last of the Romans, was roused by the suspicion of his integrity; and revolting, he invited to his aid a desolating scourge. 8. This was Genseric, king of the Vandals, who had esta- blished his nation in Spain. He transported his hosts across the straits of Gibraltar, drew to his camp the wandering Moors, and then began the devastation of Africa. Boniface learned too late his mistake, and returned to his allegiance. But the pro- vinces from Tangiers to Tripoli had become a prey to the de- structive fury of the Vandals. Boniface engaged them in battle, but was defeated and compelled to retreat. The success of the Vandals was for a time retarded by a treaty with the Western emperor, but in eight years, Genseric had obtained possession of Carthage, and permanently established a kingdom. 9. The terrible Huns, who had driven the Goths and Vandals from the north of Europe, now spread their savage hosts from the banks of the Volga to those of the Danube. Attila, their king, claimed descent from the ancient Huns, who had con- tended with the monarchs of China ; and 700,000 warriors fol- lowed his banners. He had conquered the various nations of barbarians who still inhabited northern Europe. The Gepidae, casion, indebted as much to love, as to reason for deliverance. The royal nuptials were celebrated with great splendor at Narbonne, the capital of the new kingdom won by Gothic valor. A hall was decorated after the Roman fashion. The first place of honor was reserved for Placidia, while Adol- phus, clad in a Roman toga, himself took a lower seat. Fifty beautiful youths, attired in silken garments, whom he destined as a gift to his bride then advanced, each presenting to her two cups, the one filled with gold, the other with gems, a part of the spoils of Rome. At the same time Attalus, that Attalus whom Alaric had created emperor, appeared, and sang the epithalamium. T. What parts of the empire had become independent ? Who succeeded Honorius ? How did Placidia become vested with the chief power 1 In what respect was she unfortunate in her generals ? What mistake did she commit ? What wrong did iEtius ? What great wrong did Boniface ?— ®. Describe the course of Genseric and his Vandal subjects. — 9. Who were the Huns ? What was the extent of their empire ? The number of their warriors ? What nations were subject to Attila? ATTILA, THE HUN. 177 and the Ostrogoths, the kings of Scandinavia and of the islands, owned his supremacy. His depredations extended to Persia; and Theodosius II., now emperor of the east, was compelled to pay him tribute. He made an alliance with Genseric, and pre- venting the eastern emperors from yielding assistance to Valen- tinian, facilitated the conquests of the Vandal king. 10. Intending to invade the Western empire, Attila sought to unite with him the nations of Gaul, among which the Visigoths, headed by Theodoric, the son of Alaric, and permanently set- tled in the southern part, were the most formidable. Theodo- ric wavered between the rival powers ; but when iEtius marched into Gaul, he united in its defence. iEtius further drew to his standard as allies, the Saxons, the Burgundians, the Sarmatians or Alani, the Franks, and other powerful tribes. At Chalons, iEtius and his auxiliaries encountered the formidable host of Attila, and by one of the most bloody battles recorded, com- pelled him to retreat. The Visigoths constituted the strength of the Roman forces, and Theodoric, their valiant king, fell in the battle. The Goths, animated by the son of Theodoric, were furious to revenge his death, but the policy of iEtius, who wished to preserve the Huns as a counterpoise to the power of the Goths, secured Attila a retreat. 11. The power of Attila, however, was not broken, nor his resources exhausted. The ensuing spring, with apparently un- diminished strength, he passed the Alps, and invaded Italy, — be- sieged and took Jlqmleia, Milan, and Pavia. Valentinian made a hasty retreat from Ravenna to Rome, and the defence of the nation was again committed to iEtius, who, destitute of other troops than his domestic forces, found himself unable to with- stand, or retard the depredations of the enemy. The barbarians of Gaul refused to march to the defence of Italy. An embassy, accompanied by Leo, bishop of Rome, in his sacred robes, was despatched to the barbarian camp. Attila listened with attention to their humble supplications, and acceded to a treaty, which purchased the temporary safety of Italy, at an immense price. 12. The death of Attila, which occurred soon after his re- treat, by disuniting the various nations who had yielded to the sway of his genius, ruined the power of the Huns, and relieved Rome for a time from the terror of its most formidable enemy. Yet the destruction of the empire was not to be stayed by the removal of external foes. Its internal strength was gone, nor did any virtue remain, to give hopes of recovery. Placidia was now dead, and the feeble Valentinian, no longer governed by her, gave way to jealousy; and the first sword which perhaps he had ever drawn, was plunged into the bosom of his faithful iEtius. He thus, as he was told by a bold Ro- MiddU Hist. PERIOD II. CHAP. I. Theodoric king of the Goths, holds the balance, declares for the Romans. 451. CHALONS. iEtius de- feats Attila. Loss on both sides 162,000. Theodoric killed. 452. The Huns make a successful inroad into Italy. Rome again purchases a peace. 453. Death of Attila, and end of the great empire of the Huns. Valentinian kills his best friend. 9. With whom did he form an alliance ?— lO. What did Attila seek to do? What course was taken by Theodoric? By iEtius? Give some ac- count of the battle of Chalons.— 11. What cities did Attila next take? What hindered his taking Rome ? — 12. What effect had the death of Attila on the empire of the Huns ? What was done by Valentinian ? 23 178 COUNT REC1MER. Middle Hist. PERIOD II. CHAP. I. 454. Wrongs and vengeance of Eudoxia. 455. Genseric takes and pillages Rome. Makes Eudoxia a prisoner. Count Reci- mer the real sovereign of Rome. Recimer puts down Avitus and elevates Majorianus. 461. Destroys him to make way for Severus. man, " cut off his right hand with his left." His vices did not long remain unpunished, He fell a victim to the vengeance of Petronius Maximus, an injured husband. 13. Maximus was elected emperor. He compelled Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian, to marry him ; and she, in the madness of hatred, secretly called on Genseric to avenge her wrongs. He had become powerful by a naval force, and had extended a system of piracy into every part of the Mediterra- nean. Joyfully accepting the invitation to invade Italy, he landed his troops at the mouth of the Tiber, and advanced to the gates of the now defenceless city. Maximus, on learning the approach of the Vandals, attempted to escape, but was slain in the streets. The entreaties of the good Leo again saved the city from conflagration, but for fourteen days and nights it pre- sented horrible scenes of pillage and rapine. Private and public wealth, the treasures of palaces and churches, became the prey of the Vandals. The ornaments of the capitol, with the statues of the gods, which since the introduction of Christianity, had not. been removed, — with the treasures and vessels of the holy temple of Jerusalem, which had been brought by Titus to adorn his triumph, were alike embarked for Carthage ; but they were lost on the passage. The empress Eudoxia, and her three daughters, were carried, by Genseric, prisoners to Africa, with multitudes of Roman women and children. 14. Avitus, of Gaul, was at Toulouse on an embassy to Theodoric If., king of the Visigoths, when the news of the death of Maximus, and of the recent disasters at Rome, was received. The vacant throne tempted his ambition. The powerful Theo- doric encouraged it, and by his influence, Avitus was received into Rome as emperor. Count Recimer, a descendant of the kings of the Goths, commanded the barbarian troops who formed the defence of Italy. He was indignant that he should not have been consulted in the choice of an emperor ; and compelling Avitus to abdicate, he raised to the imperial dignity Majori- anus, a man of virtue and talents, who in his person seemed to revive the image of the Roman majesty. He attempted the character of a reformer, but the various classes who derived ad- vantage from the existing abuses of the degenerate times, united against him. 15. Italy suffered severely from the piracies of the Vandals, and Majorianus built a fleet, vainly attempting to subdue the power of Genseric. His want of success afforded Recimer a pretence to depose him. This maker of emperors next put up Severus, of course himself exercising the sovereign power. Finding a navy necessary to prevent the depredations of the 13. What events followed his death ? What was now the condition of Genseric? What his conduct in regard to Rome? What treasures were lost at sea? What prisoners were sent to Carthage ?■ — 14-. Give an account of the successor of Maximus. Who put him down and elevated another ? What was the character of Majorianus? — 15. How was he displaced, and who was put in his place ? END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 179 Vandals, Recimer solicited the aid of Leo, who now filled the kiddie m s t. imperial throne of Constantinople ; and his assistance was period ii. granted, on condition that he should nominate an emperor, chap. i. He accordingly named Athemius, who repaired to Italy, where, to strengthen his power, he gave his daughter in marriage to Recimer. The strength of both the Roman empires was no) employed against Genseric, but failed to deprive him of his naval mius, whom supremacy. Recimer became jealous of Athemius, and es- and^utt^p poused the interest of Olybrius, who had married the daughter oiybrius. of the empress Eudoxia, — marched to Rome, took the city, and R ec imer delivered it up to pillage. He slew Athemius, and declared sacks Rome. Olybrius emperor. Forty days after, Recimer died, and Italy His death, rejoiced in the death of the tyrant. 16. Olybrius reigned but seven months. Two competitors appeared, Glycerius, a Roman, and Julius Nepos, the go- vernor of Dalmatia. Glycerius exchanged his crown for a G j <*jfus mitre, — Julius Nepos Avas received by the senate, and reigned and Julius a year. Orestes, a Pannonian, who commanded the motley Ne P° s - army of barbarians who had enlisted in the Roman service, now excited a rebellion among them. Nepos, on their approach to Ravenna, retreated to Dalmatia, and Orestes proclaimed his son, 4^5. Augustulus Romulus, emperor of the west. Orestes found ^omuius 18 the power he had easily acquired for his son, not so easily sus- the last em- tained. The barbarians who procured his elevation, not content P Ro° m e. by the increase of their pay and privileges, required him to di- vide among them a third of the lands of Italy. Orestes refused to sacrifice the natives of the soil to their capricious demands. s uccee ded Among them was the ambitious Odoacer, king of the Heruli, a by odoacer, savage people who had migrated from the coast of the Baltic to a w S takes' Pannonia and Noricum. He led them to Rome, took and pil- the l . itle of laged the city, — executed Orestes, and assumed the sovereign power. Augustulus Romulus laid down his sceptre, and found mercy in the camp of the Herulian chief. So passes from the historic scene the last emperor of Rome. 17. It is a singular coincidence, that his name contains that of the first king and founder of Rome, and also of the first em- peror ; reminding us of the infancy, the maturity, and the fall 4^6. of the empire. Odoacer was the first barbarian who reigned .Odoacer over Italy under the name of king. The western empire, after existing from the foundation of Rome, 1229 years, was now ex- tinct ; while the eastern, at the period of their separation in the like state of decay, continued nearly a thousand years longer. 15. What further did Count Recimer? — 16. What further changes oc- curred to the time of the last emperor of Rome ? How did Augustulus Ro- mulus gain, and how lose the imperial crown ? — IT. What singular coinci- dence may we observe to aid the memory? What may we remark of Odoacer ? king of Italy. CHAPTER II. 45r Leo. Times of peace. The Eastern or Byzantine Empire. 1. The stronger allurements which the Western empire of- fered to the barbarians, and the subsidies paid by the emperors of the East, preserved that portion in comparative tranquillity. Arcadius, a weak and timid prince, was, at his death, succeeded by his son Theodosius. He was a minor at the time of his accession, and, during his whole reign, was subject to the influence of his sister, Pulcheria. On his death she suc- ceeded to the throne, and was the first female who swayed the sceptre of the Roman empire. She was a princess of genius and virtue. On her death the Theodosian family became extinct in the east. Marcian, her husband, continued to reign with a vigorous and prudent policy. Despising the miserable artifices by which former emperors had purchased immunity from the dreaded arms of the Huns, he stopped the payment of the sub- sidies. The Huns menaced revenge ; but the death of Attila oc- curring at this period, delivered the empire from the danger of the threatened invasion. Leo, the successor of Marcian, was emperor at the period of the destruction of the Western empire. Zeno, Anastasius, and Justin, successively ascended the throne, but left behind them no deed which should preserve their names from oblivion. 2. Justinian, succeeded Justin. The kingdom of the Van- dals in Africa, founded by Genseric, had become established. Hilderic, grandson of Genseric, succeeded him. He was de- posed by Gelimer. Justinian, desirous to recover the province, affected to favor Hilderic, and sent Belisaritjs with an army into Africa. He conquered the Vandals, reduced Carthage, and took Gelimer, whom he carried to Constantinople, to grace his triumph. As Hilderic had been executed, the race of Genseric became extinct, and Africa now belonged to the Eastern em- pire. Gelimer was seen in the triumphal procession of Belisa- rius, arrayed in regal robes, and though he neither sighed or wept, he was heard to murmur, " Vanity ! vanity ! all is vanity !" Belisarius next marched to Italy, where he defeated the Ostro- goths, subdued Italy and Sicily, and returned to Constantinople with Vitiges, the Gothic king, in chains. 3. These successes awakened the jealousy of Chosroes, reigning sovereign of Persia, who now renewed the war which had been suspended by a truce. Belisarius was sent against him, and the war was waged with various and alternate success, until Chap. II. — 1. What preserved the Eastern empire in comparative tran- quillity ? Give some account of Pulcheria. Of Marcian. What happened in the reign of Leo ? Who were the next three of the emperors ? — 2. What in the reign of Justinian was the condition of the Vandal empire in Africa ? Give some account of the African war. Of the war with the Ostrogoths. — 3. Give some account of the Persian war. 180 JUSTINIAN. 181 the declining years of Justinian and Chosroes cooled their mi- Middle Hist. litary ardor, and procured a further truce for fifty years. Beli- period ii. sarius was next sent to Italy against the Goths, who had rebelled, chap. ii. but being recalled through a jealousy which had arisen in the -~^v~^> mind of the emperor, Narses, another lieutenant of Justinian, 553. was substituted in his place, and effected their complete reduc- ^^en/^ 3 tion. After this final conquest of the Gothic kingdom, the the Gothic government of Italy was administered by officers styled Exarchs, it a "y d Tft°e f r who held their court at Ravenna, and were the representatives which is j* .7. established of the eastern emperor. the Exar . 4. The Bulgarians, aided by a multitude of barbarous Scla- chateofRa- vonians, now crossed the Danube, ravaged Macedonia and Thrace, and extended their devastations within a few miles of ««Kw Constantinople. Belisarius met and defeated them. But this jvople' was the last of his many victories ; and he who had so glo- d efeaSSe riously sustained the military fame of the empire, was doomed Bulgarians. by regal ingratitude to pass his old age in penury and disgrace. Belisarius 5. While the arms of the empire had acquired glory abroad, in - treated - the declining nation was still in distress. Constantinople was distracted by factions. Earthquakes of unusual extent and du- earthquake, ration spread desolation in different parts. Antioch, especially, ^««* de ~ was almost wholly destroyed, and 250,000 persons were sup- TqlarieTlf posed to have been buried in its ruins. A most dreadful pesti- a mi fjf e *? lence spread its ravages through the empire, and for a time its pe ° P *' virulence seemed undiminished by the change of seasons. At A fata i peg . length its malignity abated, but for half a century, its presence tiience. Ten ° • j n , T n ,. i i • ,t thousand die was in some degree lelt. in Constantinople, during three daily in one months 5,000, and at last 10,000 persons are reported to have city - died daily. Many cities of the east were depopulated, and during the reign of Justinian, there was a visible diminution of H Sinish Ce the human species. 6. Justinian derives his chief reputation from his system of Roman jurisprudence. With the assistance of Tribonian, an ^e^act' 8 eminent lawyer, he digested and simplified the mass of laws, yar.ee in ju- which had been accumulating for ages ; and formed those bo- ns P rudence - dies of law called The Justinian Code, the Pandects, and the Institutes. This was the greatest work of the age, and forms the foundation of the present civil law. 7. Justin II., who was nephew and successor to Justinian, 5?8. was unequal to the weight of government, and associated with Justin ir., himself Tiberius, a man of surpassing merit, the captain of a "iuJn;" the guards. The barbarian Lombards, under Alboin, conquered 5§«j. the northern part of Italy, and established a kingdom to which Maurice. they gave the name of Lombardy. By the nomination of the worthy Tiberius, Maurice succeeded him. A revolution had irTpersia? 3. Of the war in Italy. What was established after the destruction of the kingdom ? — £. Give an account of the last victory of Belisarius. Of the treatment he received. — 5. What disasters occurred about this time. — 6. From what does Justinian derive his chief reputation? What are the bodies of law digested by Tribonian called ? — T. Who were the successors of Justinian ? Give an account of the rise of the Lombard power ? Who was now the emperor ? 182 THE AVARS. Middle Hist. PERIOD II. CHAP. II. 545- The Avars commence >he Turkish Empire. Settle first in Panno- nia, now Hungary. Make war upon the empire. 602. Phocas. Suffering of a Christian. 610.. The brutal Phocas de- posed by Heraclius. occurred in Persia. Hormouz had succeeded his father Chos- roes, or Nourshirvan the Just ; but he was of an opposite cha- racter. He had in Bahram a general of great talents and ambition. Jn a fit of hasty displeasure Hormouz sent a present of a woman's dress, a wheel and a distaff, to Bahram. He put on the dress, and w r ith his presents in his hands, appeared be- fore the army. The enraged soldiers, thus insulted in the person of their commander, revolted, and deposed the foolish monarch. His son Chosroes fled to Constantinople. Maurice received him favorably, and despatched an army to Persia, which subverted the power of Bahram, and placed him, as Chosroes II., on the throne of his fathers. 8. The Avars, an Asiatic race, had fled from the victorious arms of the Turks, or Turcomans. By union with the Lom- bards, they had destroyed the Gepidae. After the Lombards carried their arms and nation into Italy, the Avars settled in Pannonia, which they had vacated, and extended their dominion from the Euxine to the foot of the Alps. While the Persian war employed the imperial arms in the east y the Avars threatened the empire from the north. As soon as the military force was released from the Persian war, Maurice hastened to employ it against these barbarians. His generals were ill selected, with the exception of Priscus, who obtained several victories ; — but the situation of the army and the empire rendered even his victories unprofitable. 9. The emperor ordered the army to make the country of the Avars their winter quarters. Already inclined to mutiny, they now burst into open revolt, declared Maurice unworthy of the crown, and elevated Phocas, an ignorant and brutal cen- turion. The rebel army then hastened their return to Constan- tinople. Maurice and liis family had fled to Chalcedon, whither the cruel emissaries of Phocas followed. They compelled the emperor to witness the successive murder of his five sons. The agonized father uttered the ejaculation, " Thou art just, O Lord, and thy judgments are righteous." Even amidst this dreadful scene, his stern adherence to truth prevailed over natural affec- tion. When the nurse by falsehood sought to preserve the life of his infant, Maurice disclosed her design, and surrendered his child. 10. An ignominious peace with the Avars was made by Phocas, who found himself exposed at once to a revolt of the province of Africa, and to the arms of Chosroes, who now found, in the death of his benefactor, Maurice, a pretext for war. He wrested from the empire many of its eastern fortresses, and carried terror into Syria. Heraclius, son of the ex- arch of Africa, who had never acknowledged the authority of Phocas, advanced at the head of the African forces, and by T. Give an account of the revolution in Persia. What part in it had Maurice ? — H. Give an account of the Avars. Of the war with them. — 9. What further account can you give of Maurice ? What account can you give of Phocas ? — 10. Give an account of Heraclius. HERACLIUS. 183 a union with the disaffected, made himself master of Con- Middle m s t. stantinople, and deposed and executed the tyrant. Chosroes period ii. made himself successively master of Antioch, Jerusalem, and chap. ii. Alexandria; and while one division of his army extended v -**"' v '"v-' his conquests to Tripoli, another marched to the Bosphorus, (Great and, for ten years, lay encamped in the neighborhood of Con- the Persian stantinople. The Avars renewed their hostilities, and encamped JJSrSSSS their hosts along the plains of Thrace. Thus, on every side, elephants, the speedy dissolution of the empire was threatened. cameis°j°his 11. In this extremity the funds of the church were appro- paiace'has pnated to the service oi the empire, and an immense army was columns of levied, while a large subsidy purchased, though it did not secure ^^'jjjjf the neutrality of the Avars. Declining to engage the Persian globes of army, which lay encamped opposite the city, Heraclius, master 5S$ e jS the of the sea, transported his forces to the confines of Syria and heavenly Cilicia, and pitched his camp near Issus, on the ground where T he° patriot- Alexander had vanquished Darius. Here, secure from attack, ism of the he organized and disciplined his troops. The Persians repaired to Cilicia; and Heraclius drew them into an engagement, and defeated them. 12. In the next campaign, Heraclius passed the Black Sea, Heraclius and traversed the mountains of Armenia. He penetrated into the pjrsia* heart of Persia, to compel Chosroes to recall his armies for the while . Chos - defence of his own kingdom. The Persian king, however, constanti- still maintained an army in the vicinity of Constantinople, to n °P le - second the operations of the treacherous Chagan, or chief of the Avars, who, regardless of the subsidy he had received as the price of his neutrality, had entered into an alliance with the Persians. A host of Avars, Gepidae, Russians, Bulgarians, and Sclavonians, now besieged Constantinople, but were repulsed; while the Persians, on the opposite side of the Bosphorus, be- held their discomfiture, without being able to render them any assistance. 62 1 ?. 13. Heraclius had, meantime, strengthened his army by an nineveh. alliance with the Turks. A memorable battle was fought at ^f^f^ s Nineveh, in which the Roman arms triumphed. Chosroes the Turks) was shortly after assassinated by his son Siroes, who con- SStfthe eluded a peace with the Romans, in which he relinquished the Persians, conquests of his father; and Heraclius withdrawing his forces Pe a C e with from the kingdom, returned to his capital in triumph. Persia. lO. What parts of the empire are conquered by Chosroes ? What other enemies are in the field? — 11. What was done in this extremity ? What course was taken by Heraclitus ? Relate the battle of Issus. — 12. Where did Heraclitus go the next campaign ? Where did Chosroes keep an army ? By what host was Constantinople besieged ? Was it taken ? — 13. With what nation did the Greek emperor form an alliance ? Relate the battle of Nineveh and its results. church. ISSUS. CHAPTER III. The nations formed on the ruins of the Roman Empire. Middle Hist. PERIOD II. CHAP. III. A. C. 14© to 17©. 2d migra- tion. Death of Aurelius. Rome loses Dacia and all north of the Danube. 402. 3rd migra- tion. The king- dom of the Visigoths in Spain. 409. 4th migra- Rome loses Spain, Gaul and Africa. 1. The overthrow of the Roman empire, and of ancient civilisation, was brought about by the barbarians of the north ; and the new kingdoms formed, owed their origin to the same cause. To assist the memory, we shall' recall in a connected view the seven great migrations of the German nations" into the Roman empire. The first migration occurred before Christ. The Cimbrians and Teutones migrated towards Rome, desiring places to settle. They crossed Helvetia, and were joined by the Celtic and Helvetic tribes, surmounted the Alps, and in the valley of the Po spread death and consternation. They defeated, in three successive campaigns, the Roman armies under the consuls. At length the reluctant senate sent to meet them Caius Marius. He twice defeated them ; their last and final defeat being at Verona. 2. The second migration occurred in the reign of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. The empire was then invaded by a con- federacy of the Suevi, Quadi, Marcomanni, Vandals and other European tribes, with several from Sarmatia, of whom were the Jazyges from the Dnieper, the Roxalani and the Alani. The emperor strove against them, and finally lost his life in the contest. His successor ceded to them Dacia, and all north of the Danube. The Goths and the Chatti, who then inhabited the banks of the Vistula and Oder, moved south, and pressed forward the Marcomanni upon Illyria and Aquileia. The Ro- mans artfully divided the league, and made peace with each separately ; but they broke their treaties, and lost the respect of the barbarians. 3. In the third migration, the Goths settled by permission south of the Danube. Alaric spent five years in disciplining his army according to Roman tactics — then left Illyria ; and at Verona, where Caius Marius was once victor, Stilicho (a Vandal) conquered Alaric. Subsequently he returned, and his Goths took Rome. Then, after burying him in the bed of a stream, Adolphus turned westward, and expelling the Suevi, founded the kingdom of the Visigoths in Spain. In the fourth migration, the Suevi, under Hermeric, and the Vandals, under Gonderic, went by the invitation of Gerontius, the treacherous Roman governor, into Spain. That province was thus lost to the Roman empire. Other portions of the same tribes, with the Burgundians, took possession of Gaul. Chap. III. — 1. What is attributed to the barbarians of the north ? How many great migrations of the German barbarous nations are reckoned ? Relate the first migration. — 2. Give an account of the second. — 3. Of the third. Of the fourth. 184 HENGIST. 185 The Vandals in Spain, under Genseric, crossed into Africa, and thus was Rome dismembered in the west and south. 4. The fifth migration is that into Britain of the German na- tions on the opposite or eastern coast of the North Sea. By this the kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons, in England, was esta- blished. As it is these nations, together with the Roman Britons, whose language and blood are our own, a more particular account will follow. Theodoric the Great led the sixth mi- gration, by which the kingdom of the Heruli in Italy was sub- verted, and that of the Ostrogoths established. Alboin, at the head of the Lombards, in the seventh migration, established the kingdom of Lombardy, north of the Po. 5. BRITAIN. — When Alaric, with his Goths, threatened Rome, Stilicho withdrew the legion from Britain which guarded the wall of Severus. The warlike barbarians to the north of the wall — the Scots, said to have migrated from Ireland — the Picts and the Jutes, tribes from the peninsula of Jutland, in- vaded and distressed the Britons. They applied to Honorius to protect them, and once or twice that emperor sent some feeble aid ; but at length he wrote to them, absolving them from their allegiance, and exhorting them to defend themselves. The flower of their youth had been withdrawn, and had fallen in the battles of the empire, — and relying on the Romans, the Britons had sunk into effeminate dependence. Left to themselves, they disagreed in the election of a sovereign, but at length fixed on Vortigern. Their enemies were at their doors, and peo- ple and king agreed on the dangerous experiment of asking foreign aid. At their request, 1500 Saxons from the mouth of the Elbe appeared in three galleys, at the island of Thane t, under the brothers Hengist and Horsa. Vortigern took them into his pay, when they proceeded against the Caledonians, whom they defeated at Stamford. 6. The Saxons, however, demanded a stronger force; and next arrived sixteen ships, containing, besides Saxons and Danes, a portion of another tribe, the Angles, from whom England derives its name. In this fleet came Rowena, the beautiful niece of Hengist, whom Vortigern married. The Caledonians were driven out, but still the Saxons continued to draw over large numbers of their countrymen. Vortigern lost his influ- ence, and was compelled to submit to his son Vortimer. The Britons finding the Saxons appropriating the island, endeavored to drive them out, but without success. Hengist made himself king of Kent, which was the first kingdom of the seven or eight which the Saxons founded. Middle Hist. PERIOD II. CHAP. III. 428. Honorius abandons Britain. Vortigern made king. 449. Hengist and Horsa. Horsa dies Saxons ar- rive at Ab- besfleet, in the isle of Thanet. STAM- FORD. They defeat the Picts and Scots. 450. 16 ships. The Anglo- Saxon emi- gration. 455. The king- doms of the Heptarchy are forming. 4r. Relate the fifth migration. Relate the sixth migration. The seventh. — ■ 5. On what occasion did the Romans withdraw from Britain the northern defences ? At what time, and by whom were the Bri tains absolved from their allegiance to Rome ? Who was Vortigern? What was done in con- sequence of an invitation from him and his people ? What was done by the Saxons ? — 6. Who came with the sixteen ships ? When the Britons found that the Saxons were appropriating the island, what was done ? Give a farther account of Hengist. 24 186 THE SAXON HEPTARCHY. Middle Hist. 7. Hengist destroyed many of trie nobles, and was feared period ii. f° r hi s valor and cruelty. His niece, at his instigation, poisoned chap. in. Vortimer, her son-in-law. The Britons then raised to the chief ^^-v-w command, King Arthur, a native prince, the sovereign of The famous Cornwall and Devon, who, with his knights, performed prodi- withhis gies of unavailing valor. Before the Saxon kingdoms were "the'found* established, occurred one hundred and thirty-five years of dis- tabie." tressing warfare. The Saxons remained in possession of all the 48S. ^ cultivated parts of South Britain, while the unhappy 'natives in Kent, were driven to the mountains of Wales and Cornwall, and to S had been^n ^ ie district along the north-east coast of the island. During Britain 39 these disastrous wars, a fart of the Britons passed over to the ^KentM? continent, and settled in the Gallic province of Jirmorica, to which they gave the name of Bretagne or Brittany. 8. Kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy, or Octarchy. from to 1. Kent. — Comprising Kent and a part of Surrey. Hengist, the 454-823. first king, was said to be descended from Odin, or Woden, the war-god of the Scandinavians. 499-721. 2. Sussex, (South Saxons.) — Sussex and a part of Surrey. 509- 3. Wessex, (West Saxons.) — Founded by Cerdic, a Saxon general, from whom the Saxon kings of England are descended. King Arthur, with his knights, fought this 419-590. general, and at Baden Hill, near Bath, defeated him, killing, it is said, four hundred with his own hand ! 530-823. 4. Essex, (East Saxons.)— Middlesex and London. 54T-559. |^5 ("5. Bernicia. — Northumberland, Durham, and a portion of |p! Scotland. This kingdom was founded by Ina, ||? | a reputed descendant of Odin. 560- !"o[8. Deira. — Lancashire, York. Founded by Ella. 5T5- 7. East-Anglia. A small part of the eastern coast, called also Angle-land, from whence the name, England. The Saxons unanimously agreed to give this name to the country. 586- 8. Murcia. — Formed of a part of Deira, — the last established. 9. The monarchies of the Heptarchy were rather elective than hereditary ; the king's power was little, only as he carried out 690. the wishes of his nobles and people, who held councils called gemot. e " Wit all, or Wittegemot. Ina, king of the West Saxons, was the first to assemble this body, which is considered the germ of the British parliament. It appears also, that these kingdoms held themselves bound by a species of undefined confederacy ; and jQft one °f ^ ie sovereigns presided over the whole, whose office First Bret- was called Bretwalda. The first Bretwalda was Hengist, the third Ethelbert, king of Kent, who subdued some of the other kingdoms ; and the seventh and last was Oswy, of North- 1. What was done by Rowena? Who was Arthur ? How many years were there of war ? Whither were the inhabitants driven ? — 8. What were the kingdoms of the Heptarchy, or Octarchy ? — 9. Give an account of the government of the Saxons. What persons having the office of Bretwalda are named ? walda. THE MEROVINGIAN DYNASTY. 187 umberland. So complete was the sway of the Saxons in the *ggfe Hut. island, that their language became in a great degree that of the period ii. whole people. Perhaps three-fourths of the words in common use in the English language are of Saxon origin. It was during the Heptarchy that Christianity was introduced into England by Augustine. 10. FRANCE-— The Franks were also an association of the warlike tribes of Germany. They derived their name, which signifies freemen, from their love of liberty. They made con- quests in Gaul, in the third century, and were governed by chiefs «*& martyr, or kings of the family of Merovius. His grandson, Clovis, *jjs60 was chief of a tribe called the Saltan, and the founder of the 4 ^j > French monarchy. When the Western empire was subverted Ckxw. by the barbarians, Gaul was at the time divided between the (From the Visigoths, the Eurgundians, and the Romans. Syagrils, the comes the' Roman commander in Gaul, had, in the declining days of the ^ich^ro- Roman empire, thrown off his allegiance, and established an in- bibita a dependent government. Clovis took arms against him, defeated ^^minea him at Soissons, and subjected the Roman provinces of Gaul to sovereign.) the swav of the Franks. *JS£« 11. He next engaged in war with the Jilemanni, an independ- ent German nation, and defeated them in a great battle. In the ^96- course of the engagement, his troops were ready to give way. ciovia de- Clovis invoked the God of Clotilda, a Christian princess of *Jf te Burgundy, whom he had married. Rallying his troops to the charge, he obtained the victor}', embraced Christianity, and was ^S^^ baptized at Rheims. i; Bend thy head, proud barbarian,' 1 said £beias». St. Reni, the bishop, as Clovis approached the sacred font. The conversion of the monarch was followed by that of great num- bers of his subjects. His alliance, by marriage, with the Bur- gundians, secured their friendship; while his embracing the Catholic Athanasian faith, insured the powerful support of the clergy of Gaul, and afforded the subtle monarch an opportunity of turning their influence to advantage, in a war upon Alaeic II., king of the Gallic Visigoths, who held the Arian tenets, to which the clergy of Gaul were vehemently opposed. The armies of the Visigoths and Franks encountered each other in tiers. battle, near Poictiers. Alaric was slain, his forces defeated, and 2JS A \ the provinces of Jlquitaine and Thoulause were added to the Mia Alaric. kingdom of the Franks. 12. On the death of Clovis, hi3 extensive dominions were ■ ^h, x _ divided between his four sons. During the reign of these bro- vis present a thers, the dominion of the Franks was extended over Burgundy. JSffif Trie annals of the kingdom present an unvarying scene of en- discord. 10. Who were the Frank3 ? From whom is their first dynasty named? Whaf is meant by the Salic law ? (Examine the 3ide notes.; Give an ac- count of Clovis. How was Gaul divided? What did Clovis obtain by the battle of Soisson3? — 11. Give an account of his conversion to Christianity. B f ; means did he gain the clergy of Gaul to aid him against Alaric ? Relate the battle of Poictiers and its consequences, — 12. What happened on the death of Clovis ? 188 THEODORIC THE GREAT. Middle Hist. PERIOD II. CHAP. III. 395 to 402. Extent of the kingdom of the Suevi and Vandals. The Visi- goths overpower them. Ostrogoths overpower- ed by Attila. Revolt and are allied to the Romans. 493. Theodoric the Great, educated at Constanti- nople, founds in Italy the kingdom of the Ostrogoths. Wise regu- lations of Theodoric. Boethius put to death. mity, contention, violence, and bloodshed. Clotaire, the youngest of the four, finally reunited the nation under his sway. On his death, the kingdom was again divided between his four sons, and this second division was followed by crimes even more aggravated and horrid than the first. The death of these four princes, left Clotaire II., grandson of the former monarch of that name, undisputed sovereign of France. 13. SPAIN. — TheSuevi and Vandals carried destruction over this nourishing portion of the Roman empire. Their monarchy at one period, extended from the Loire to Gibraltar, but the con- quests of Clovis wrested from them the greater portion of their possessions in France. The Vandals, under Genseric, founded a new kingdom in Africa. Adolphus, whose marriage with Placidia was celebrated at Narbonne, proceeded to the conquest of this monarchy, and made a triumphal entry into Barcelona. Of his successors, Theodoric was slain at Chalons; — Euric became entirely independent of the Romans, and hence is re- garded as the real founder of the Gothic monarchy in Spain. 14. ITALY. — In Italy was founded the kingdom of the Os- trogoths. This nation, subdued by the Huns, followed the standard of Attila in his invasion of the Roman empire. On his death they threw off their allegiance to the Huns, and by arms established their independence. Theodoric, the son of their monarch, was given as a hostage to Zeno, the emperor of the east, with whom the Ostrogoths formed an alliance. Theodo- ric was a youth of talents, ambition and courage ; and after a re- sidence of some years at the Byzantine court, he returned to his nation elevated above his rude subjects, The emperor Zeno, to divert the Gothic arms from his own dominions, gave Theodoric the kingdom of Italy, which Odoacer had wrested from the Romans. Theodoric defeated Odoacer, and established the kingdom of the Ostrogoths, upon the ruins of that of the Heruli. 15. Theodoric reigned thirty-three years. Under his govern- ment Italy was in a state of comparative peace. The Romans or Italians were left in possession of two-thirds of the lands, while the remainder was divided among the Goths. The Italians retained their laws, customs, dress, language, personal freedom, and had the civil administration. Theodoric executed Bcethius, the last Roman orator, on the alleged charge of treason against the Gothic government ; for which he was visited with remorse. He left no son, but on his death-bed he commended to the no- bles his daughter Amalasontha, and her son, then ten years of age. The son soon died with disease, and the mother, after some years of able administration, was killed. Thudat suc- 12. On the death of Clotaire ? — 13. What barbarians wrested Spain from the Roman empire ? What was the northern boundary of their king- dom ? The southern ? By whom were the Suevi and Vandals overpower- ed ? What kingdom was established in Spain and the south of Gaul? — 11:. Give some account of the Ostrogoths. Of Theodoric. — 15. What division of land and civil power did he make ? Who succeeded him ? ORIGIN OF THE TURKS. 189 ceeded, who was soon displaced to make room for Vitiges. jjjjjjjj* Hist - Belisarius then conquered the kingdom, and carried Vitiges cap- period ii. tive to Constantinople. When Belisarius left Italy, the Goths re- chap. hi. volted, and proclaimed for their king Totila, a brave and war- like prince. Him Narses defeated and slew; and Italy was annexed to the Eastern empire. 36. After the destruction of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths, the Eastern empire was ruled, as formerly, by the Exarchs of Ravenna. Their peace was disturbed by the ferocious Lorn- Lombards bards, and their king Alboin. To the weak and often-con- AjMon. quered Italians, Alboin was invincible, and with hardly an effort, he made himself master of the greater part of Italy. But his reign was short. His wife, Rosamond, was a princess of the Gepidas, whose father Alboin murdered. He then compelled her to drink from a cup made of her father's skull. She avenged the abominable act, by the death of her odious tyrant. 17. THE TURKS. — The original seat of the Turks was Origin of the among the Altai mountains, in the interior of Asia. The race Turks - had been slaves to the Khan of Tartary, by whom they were employed in the manufacture of iron, of which great quan- tities were found among their native mountains. Leaders at length arose among these slaves, who induced them to throw off their allegiance to their masters. At different times they invaded China and Persia, and showed themselves dangerous enemies. In the wars of Heraclius, the Turks rendered him essential service. Their empire extended itself by degrees over the northern parts of Asia; while on the south their conquests included the nation of the White Huns, who possessed the cities of Bucharia and Samarcand. 16. Who founded the kingdom of the Lombards, and what was his cha- racter ? What revolting act of his caused his death ? — IT. Give some ac- count of the Turks. WS& Mahomet relates his Dream to his Friends PEKIOD III THE ARABIAN"? THE CORONATION 622, TO 800. OR FLIGHT OF MAHOMET, OF CHARLEMAGNE. PERI'D III. CHAP. I. CHAPTER I, Mahomet and his Religion. 1. Mahomet is one of the most remarkable men, and alto- jgg *R*t. gether the most successful impostor, who appears on the page of history. He was born in Mecca, and was a descendant of one of the most powerful families in Arabia. Early left an or- phan, he was indebted for support to the kindness of an uncle, Abu Taleb ; who, to instruct him in the business of a merchant, took him when only thirteen into Syria. He remained with his uncle until the age of twenty-five, when he engaged in the service of Khadijah, a rich widow of Mecca, whom he sub- sequently married, and thereby became one of the richest men of his native city. In his fortieth year he opened his alleged mission ; having by previous sanctity and solitary watching in a cave prepared the minds of his family to receive it. To Kadi- jah he first imparted the story; declaring that the angel Gabriel had appeared to him in the cave, and told him that he was the chosen apostle of God. To love is to trust, and Khadijah believed her husband and rejoiced in his glory. Mahomet's next disciples were Zeid, his servant, Ali his cousin, and Abu Beker his friend. Period III. — Chap. I. — 1. Give some account of Mahomet and of his parentage. Who was his early protector ? Who was Kadijah ? At what age, and how, did Mahomet open his alleged mission? How did Kadijah receive his declaration of a divine mission ? Who were his next followers ? 191 Mahomet's first disciples. 192 MAHOMET. Middle Hist. PERI'D III. CHAP. I. 609. The Koran, the Maho- metan scrip- tures Reasons for believing that Maho- met wrote the Koran himself. Mahomet's first preach- ing to his relatives. 2. It is probable that the great mind of Mahomet was from his youth teeming with his mighty plan ; and that he pursued it in the deep silence of his own heart, many years before he began to develope it in action ; — gathering information on every subject connected with it, and educating himself in secrecy. Acquainted with the Jewish and Christian systems, he followed them in the ideas which he inculcated of the Supreme Being. He acknowledged the veracity of their histories, the truth of their miracles, and the divine character of their teachers. His system, he declared, was the perfecting of theirs, he being the Comforter promised by Christ. He spent much time in his cave, and thence issued with the chapters of the Koran, one by one pro- duced, and declared to have been received from the angel Gabriel. 3. These productions are works of genius ; and as Mahomet professed himself illiterate, they appeared as miraculous evidence of the truth of his apostleship. Some suppose he kepi; a monk concealed who wrote them for him. It is far more probable that his time in the cave was spent in studies which he concealed from every eye, and that he thus became master of language, and wrote the Koran himself. He was forty before he opened his mission. He, who was wise enough to know that the faith of his wife was of the first consequence to his success, would be too wise to give himself a master, in any man who would be able at any moment to expose his imposture, or to put an end to it by withholding his assistance. The style of the Koran corre- sponds to that of Mahomet's words and actions ; and if another man of genius had been engaged in getting up the deception, he would have appeared to claim his share in the rewards of suc- cess. For these reasons, we believe that the Koran was both planned and executed by Mahomet himself. 4 After three years labor, Mahomet had only fourteen prose- lytes. He then invited his numerous relatives to a feast, and told them that the Almighty had commissioned him to call them to him. He offered them present and future happiness, and en- quired who would be his vicar. An rose up, amidst the laughter of the company, and sternly accepted the office. Now, said they, jeeringly to Abu Taleb, the father of Ali, "You must obey your son." Still there were those in whom Mahomet's earnest man- ner and good character produced conviction. He then began to preach openly to the people, and incensed them by upbraid- ing them with their idolatry and crimes. His uncle Abu Taleb remonstrated in displeasure, and advised him to cease. " Not," said Mahomet, " if you set the sun against me on the one hand, and the moon on the other." Thus the grandeur of his genius 2. What is probable concerning Mahomet's deep designs ? What did he acknowledge concerning the Jewish and Christian religion ? In what man- ner and with what declaration did he bring forward the Koran ? — 3. What rea- sons does your author give for believing that Mahomet wrote the Koran himself? — 4\ What was his first progress in making proselytes ? Relate his first preaching to his assembled relatives. How did they receive it ? What passed between him and his uncle, and on what occasion ? THE HEGIRA. 193 sustained him, and .though he made many enemies, he gained a few sincere followers. He next took the bold measure of as- serting that he had been favored with an entrance into the hea- vens, where on the throne of God was written, " There is no God but God, and Mahomet is his prophet." This became afterwards the creed of his followers. The marvellous tales which he related shocked the faith of many who had before been his disciples; but while some laughed, and some mocked with bitter irony, others believed, and thus became the tools and dupes of him who deceived them.* 5. The powerful tribe of Koreish were Mahomet's inveterate foes; and they treated his followers so rudely, that he led them forth for a time, but returned. His last flight was to save his. life. Accompanied by his friend, Abu Beker, and two other per- sons, he hasted secretly to Medina. This was Mahomet's lowest, point of depression, and is made the era of his followers. His reception at Medina was the renewal of his hopes. The various tribes and inhabitants of Arabia were accustomed to pay their annual devotions in the Caaba or temple of Mecca. In their pilgrimages there, many of the citizens of Medina had listened to the eloquence of Mahomet, and become converts to his religion. He was now, in his distress, received by them with enthusiasm. Five hundred citizens advanced to meet him ; the people unanimously embraced his faith, and swore allegiance to his person. Mahomet had, up to this time, propagated his religion peaceably. If they would not hear him, that, he said, was the affair of him who sent him, not his own. But now that Mahomet felt his power, he pretended to a new command. This proves the selfish, wickedness of his imposture. God had now, he averred, directed him to propagate his religion by the sword ; and the false prophet, at this time, promised a sensual paradise to those who died fighting in his cause. 6. The first military exploits of Mahomet and his followers were to intercept the caravans of Mecca, engaged in the Syrian trade. Abu Sophian, the head of the Koreishites, and the mortal foe of Mahomet, on returning from Syria with a wealthy caravan, was attacked ; and by Mahomet's personal intrepidity, * The angel Gabriel, Mahomet said, came spreading seventy pair of wings, and bringing for his accommodation the milk-white mule Alborak. The wonders of his journey were manifold. One will serve as a specimen. Among the varieties of angels, he saw one in the form of a cock, his feet standing on the first heavens, and his head reaching to the second, five hun- dred days' journey above, as men travel. When the Almighty sang his morning hymn, this angel-cock always crowed so loud, that he was heard throughout the whole universe except by men and fiends. Middle Hist. PERI'D III. CHAP. I. Mahomet marries Ayesha, the young daughter of Abu Beker. July 16, 622. The Flight, or Hegira. Mahomet shows the wickedness of his imposture^ Military ex- ploits of Mahomet- 4r. What pretence did he next boldly make? How was this received ? — 5. What tribe were the false prophet's foes? What was Mahomet forced to do ? What and when was his lowest point of depression ? What is this point of time made ? What proved the renewal of his hopes ? Relate his reception at Medina. How had Mahomet up to this time propagated his re- ligion ? What new command did he now pretend to have received ? — 6. What were the first military exploits of Mahomet and his followers ? Who was Abu Sophian ? 25 194 THE FORMATION OF THE MOSLEM EMPIRE. Middle Hist. PERI'D III. CHAP. I. 628- Mahomet enters Mecca. 632. Death of Mahomet. Extent of his empire. Arabs rebel *and are subdued. (Sara-, cen, de- rived from Sarra, an Arabian word signi- fying desert. The earliest fol- lowers of Mahomet were Sara- cens. Maho- met called his religion Islam, i- e. submission to the will of God, "Moslem," or Mussel- mans, signi- fying "the sacred.") Omar suc- ceeds Abu Beker. Syria con- quered- defeated. The following year Abu Sophian attacked Medina with 10,000 men of various nations. Divisions were excited among the discordant tribes, and a tempest adding to their dis- tress, Medina was saved. Mahomet's arms were next directed against Mecca, but the Koreishites defended it. A treaty was concluded by which hostilities were to be suspended for ten years, and the prophet was permitted to enter his native city as a pilgrim. His imposing entrance into the city — his devotion and eloquence, produced the conversion of multitudes. The truce was broken, Mahomet was victorious and entered Mecca as a conqueror. The citizens embraced his religion, and were par- doned for past offences. The submission of Mecca resulted in that of all the neighboring tribes. The idols were now every where destroyed, and the faith of Mahomet was established throughout Arabia. At the age of sixty-three, the false prophet died, having spread the terror of his name from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. 7. Abu Beker, his friend, was chosen as his successor, re- ceiving the title of caliph or lieutenant. The Arabian tribes were unused to subjection, and on the death of Mahomet they rebelled, but were again reduced to submission; and the ca- liph's lieutenant, Caleb, called by the Arabians the " Sword of God," conquered apart of Persia. Abu Obeidah, another of the Saracen commanders, conducted an army into Syria, where he met and defeated a formidable force sent by the emperor He- raclius to the defence of the province. The Saracens then in- vested Damascus, which, seeing no hope of succor, capitulated. Abu Obeidah' permitted the Christians of that city to depart into exile ; but after three days, Caled, led by an apostate Christian, pursued the fugitives, overtook them, and gave them up to in- discriminate slaughter. 8. Omar succeeded Abu Beker in the caliphate. Being in- formed by the aged and dying caliph that he was to be his successor, Omar said : " I do not want the place." " But," said Abu Beker, " the place wants yom" During the first years of the reign of Omar, the Syrian war was prosecuted ; and succes- sive victories increased the enthusiasm, and augmented the num- bers of the faithful. Damascus, Heliopolis, Jerusalem, Aleppo, and Antioch, successively fell before the Saracens; and in seven years after the death of the prophet, the whole province of Syria was added to the empire of the Saracens. In Persia they passed the Tigris and took Ctesiphon, when Yezdegerd, the Persian monarch, fled for protection to the Turks. 9. The invasion of Egypt succeeded. The rapid success of the Mahometans in this province was in a degree owing to the 6. Relate Abu Sophian's attack on Medina. Relate Mahomet's return to Mecca. How was Mahomet's religion extended soon after? How far at his death? — T. Give an account of Mahomet's successor. What war was carried on in Syria? — 8. Who succeeded Abu Beker? What places had the Saracens conquered in seven years from Mahomet's death ? What was their progress in Persia ? THE CALIPHATE. 195 divisions and hatred existing among the different Christian sects at this period. The emperor of the east had persecuted a large portion of his Egyptian subjects, who welcomed the Moslems as deliverers. Memphis submitted without resistance, and Alexandria* was taken after a siege of fourteen months. The great library of that enlightened city was destroyed. The caliph, when petitioned to spare it, replied, " If these writings of the Greeks agree with the Koran, they are useless, and need not be preserved ; if they disagree with it, they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed." In the reign of the succeeding caliph, Othman, the Saracens extended their conquests into the pro- vince of Africa. 10. Dissensions now arose among the Moslems with respect to the rightful succession to the caliphate. An insurrection re- sulted in the assassination of Othman ; and Ali, the cousin of Mahomet, and one of his first four proselytes, was now elected to the office. The pretensions of Ali, who married Fatima, a daughter of the prophet, and of his descendants, the Fatimites, are the origin of the discord which has ever existed between the Persians and the Turks, who had now become Mahome- tans ; the former espousing the interests of Ali, and the latter maintaining the equal sanctity of the three preceding caliphs. On the accession of Ali, the sceptre of the caliphs extended over the kingdoms of Persia, Syria, Arabia and Egypt. Tezdegerd, the last of the Persian monarchs, made an ineffectual attempt to recover his dominions, but betrayed by a servant, and deserted by his allies, he was slain in attempting to escape ; and the reli- gion of the Magi was thenceforth displaced by that of Mahomet. 11. The empire of the Saracens began to be weakened by in- ternal dissensions and civil wars. Ali, though not engaged in the assassination of Othman, reaped the advantages derived from his death. Mo a wi yah, son of Abu Sophian, of the family of Ommiyah, to cover his own ambitious purposes, undertook to * The literature and science of the world had for several ages its chief seat in Alexandria. To the Alexandrian school, the noble youth of the most re- fined countries repaired for instruction. Theon, a president of this school, had a daughter, Hypatia, whom he found possessed of so extraordinary a genius, that he gave her great advantages; and she became, in philosophy, geometry, astronomy, and mathematics, the most learned person of her age. On her father's death she was promoted to succeed him in the presi- dency. The flower of all the youth of Europe, Asia, and Africa, sat at the feet of this beautiful instructress, greedily receiving learning and philo- sophy from her mouth. Her moral life was pure and blameless ; but a party of the people, in the interest of Cyril the patriarch, becoming enraged with Orestes the governor, who was the friend of Hypatia, they tore her from her chair and brutally murdered her; (415,) when the school was discontinued. Middle Hist. PERI'D III. CHAP. I. 655- Ali and the Fatimites. Extent of the caliphate. Religion of the Magi displaced by Mahomet- anism. Constantine shut up this school ; Ju- lian re- opened it. Afterwards Theon and Hypatia fill the chair. 415. 9. Why were the Egyptian subjects of the Greek emperor not attached to his government ? What was the progress of the Saracen arms among the cities ? What became of the great Alexandrian library ? What had Alexandria been for some ages past? What remarkable woman flourished there ? (See note.) What conquest was begun in the reign of Othman ? — 10. Relate the manner of the accession of Ali. What dissension arose re- specting the succession to the caliphate ? How far did the caliphate now extend ? Give some account of Yezdegerd.— 11 . Who was Moawiyah ? 196 THE MOST IMPORTANT BATTLE RECORDED. Middle Hist. PERI'D III. CHAP. I. Moyawiyah the first of the Om- miyades suc- ceeds on the murder of AM 661 The Moors of Africa submit to the Sara- cens. 709. 711. Spain in- vaded. 713. XERES. The Maho- metans es- tablish their empire over that of the Visigoths in Spain. 714. TOURS. Chas. Mar- tel, in a great battle, totally de- feats the Saracens with the enormous loss of 350,000. avenge it. Amon, the viceroy of Egypt, espoused his cause, Moawiyah was declared caliph at Damascus, and at the head of a large army marched against Ali. After a sanguinary con- flict, in which many thousand Moslems perished, a truce was effected between the rival caliphs. Meantime some enthusiasts in the temple at Mecca planned the deliverance of the nation from these evils. Assassins were despatched to procure the death of Ali, Moawiyah, and Amon. Ali was murdered, while Moawiyah and Amon escaped. Moawiyah succeeded to the caliphate, which was now changed into an hereditary office. 12. During the reign of the Ommiyadesjthe lieutenants of the caliphs penetrated the deserts of Africa, and extended to Mount Atlas the terror of their arms. The Moorish tribes along the coast, after a short resistance, were conquered, converted, and adopted into the Arabian family. 13. The Goths of Spain were in possession of the garrison of Ceuta, on the African side of the straits. Here the Saracens were at first repulsed, but at length Count Julian, commander of the garrison, becoming a traitor, put them in possession of the fortress, and instigated them to the invasion of the Gothic kingdom of Spain. The obscure race of kings, who held sway over the monarchy founded by Adolphus in Spain, presents no name worthy of mention in history. A civil war had enabled Roderick, a noble Goth, to dethrone Witerza, the lawful king, and usurp the crown. It was at this period that the Sa- racens entered Spain. In a decisive battle at Xeres, in Andalu- sia, they established the Mahometan dominion. The princes and friends of Witerza's family revolted, and joined the Maho- metans ; and Roderick, "the last of the Goths," was drowned in the Guadalquivir. The Goths submitted to the victor, but being Christians, were allowed the enjoyment of their own religion. The dominion of the Saracens extended from the Mediter- ranean to the Pyrenees. Pelagius, a member of the royal family, finding it impossible to resist the conquerors, retired with a band of followers to the mountains of Asturias, where he established an independent Christian kingdom. 14. The Arabian victors advanced beyond the Pyrenees, bent on the entire conquest of Europe. The valiant Charles Martel, of France, took the field against them. An ever me- morable battle was fought near Tours, where an immense mul- titude were slain. The Saracens retired to Spain, and it is a remarkable fact, that they made no further attack upon the northern nations. 15. In pursuing the victorious course of the Arabs westward, 11 . Between what parties was a sanguinary battle fought? How did Ali come by his death? Who suceeeded, and what changes occurred? — 12. What occurred during the reign of the Ommiyades? — 13. Give some ac- count of the Saracen invasion of Spain. Who was Roderick? Witerza? Who were the parties in the battle of Xeres ? What happened to Roderick after his defeat ? How far did the Saracen empire in Europe now extend ? What place, however, did they fail to conquer ? — 14. On what were the Saracens now bent ? Relate where, and by whom, they received a memorable check. EUROPE PRESERVED FROM THE MOSLEMS. 197 we have passed by the attempts made, under the caliph Moya- mmm* Hut. wiyah, upon Constantinople. The Moslems attacked it in the perpd in, summer, and retreated in the winter, for five successive years, chap. i. At length the Greek fire was invented by Callinicus, of Helio- v *-^~ s ^ > w' polis, and brought by him tc Constantinople. It was a compo- 661. sition of naphtha, pitch, and sulphur, which, when once ignited, in vest C Con- could not be extinguished by water. It adhered to wood, and stantinopie. consumed whole fleets ; when thrown upon the combatants, it insinuated itself between the joints of their armour, and they 66T- died a death of torture. It was projected by pistons, " took fire ^ Greek f in the air, and approached its victims in the form of fiery fire, dragons." In one winter the caliph lost a fleet and army; and not only retired, but concluded a peace, by agreeing to pay the emperor a tribute for thirty years. Thus providence barred the way of the Musselmans to the conquest of Europe, both in the west and the east. 16. Damascus was now the seat of the caliphate. The family „ T ■ . . r , , J , Mahometan of Ommiyah, although during ninety years they produced factions fourteen successive caliphs, yet had never been favorites with the Arabian people. Their early persecution of the prophet, and the tardiness with which they embraced the faith, made them suspected by the devout. The descendants of AH and Fatima had abandoned their pretensions to the sovereignty, and by strict devotion to the observances of religion, had acquired great reputation for sanctity among their countrymen. The descendants of Abbas, the uncle of the prophet, were more aspiring in their views, and had secretly enlisted great numbers in their cause. The adherents of each of these factions was designated by the adoption of a peculiar color in their dress. The green was appropriated to the Fatimites ; the white, to the Ommiyades ; and the black to the Abassides. 17. The contest of the white and black faction could only be ?^?' terminated by a civil war. Abbas al Saffah, the chosen caliph of the Abassides, and Merwan, the last of the Ommiyades, led their armies to battle. Merwan was defeated, and the t0 ' Abassides triumphed in the east. Abdalrahman alone, of the 751'. royal family of Ommiyah, escaped. Spain received the fugitive, J^ a §Sgta and established him on the throne of Cordova, where, for more Spain from than two hundred years, his descendants reigned. The dynasty th %^ s ' of the Abassides urns established in the east, and they made Bagdad their seat ; but the unity of the empire was destroyed. Under these princes, of whom Haroun al Raschid, and' his son al Mamon, stand pre-eminent, learning was patronized, and uaroun'ai the literature of Greece and Rome carried to the east. Raschid. 15. Relate the attacks of the Saracens on Constantinople? What re- markable agent saved the city? By whom was it invented, and what its effect ? — 16. What was the seat of Caliphate at this period? What three factions existed among the Moslems, and how was each distinguished ? — • It. Between which was a civil war? Who escaped of the Ommiyades? Where did he reign ? Where did the Abassides fix the seat of government? Which was the most illustrious of these, and what did he encourage? Refer to the map, and look over the chapter, and point out all the country which the Mahometans had now conquered. CHAPTER II. The Eastern Empire.— The Church. — The Empire of Charlemagne. Middle mn. l. EASTERN EMPIRE.— Heraclius lived to see the Syrian perpd in. province severed from his dominion, and Jerusalem in the hands chap. ii. of the Moslems. The successors of Heraclius, for a consider- V <' v ~ > w able period, present no name worthy of record; and the annals (The Mos- f the empire are marked with revolting accounts of intrigues, 'jeruBaiem assassinations, and petty revolutions of the palace. The cruel cit. B " h brt anc * snamem l v i ces °f Justinian II. produced general disaffee- in sanctity tion. Being deposed and expelled from the empire, he retired to Mecca). to £ u jg ar i ai) a new kingdom on the north-western shore of the 685. fiuxine. The Bulgarians furnished him an army, with which Justinian II. ' . & ... J 7 , , he recovered his throne. His cruelties again produced an in- surrection, during which he was assassinated. With him perished the last of the race of Heraclius. isauriandy- 2. The Jsaurian dynasty commenced with Leo III., who rose nasty begins f rom an obscure origin. In his reign was the commencement with Leo III. „-.', & ,. - ■ ,, . r ,. P ■-. xir> of the controversy respecting the worship of images ; the Ko- man church contending for the practice, and the Greek church ma ship WOr ~ against it. This dispute separated the eastern and western churches, and contributed to disengage Italy from all dependence 741 upon the Greek or Byzantine empire. Image worship was, separation however, restored by the infamous Irene, who was the empress ° errand of Leo IV., and mother of Constantine VI. The death of churche" ^eo, wn ^ e Constantine was but ten years of age, placed the imperial government in her hands. When Constantine arrived T81. at maturity, she still wished to retain the power; and hence Th ir3' 6SS bitter enmity arose between the mother and the son. Ambition stifled every sentiment of nature and humanity, and the horrid Her inhu- woman deprived her son of his sight and his life ! After Irene traction "of ^ ac ^ re ^ nec ^ ^ ve y ears ? Nicephorus, her treasurer, seized the her son. throne, and doomed her to exile in the Island of Lesbos, where she earned a scanty subsistence by spinning. 3. CHURCH HISTORY.— The bishops, or overseers of the (First Christian churches, at first demeaned themselves in the meek Sewmd'aiid s P*rit of tlie founder of their religion. But at length they third cen- sought temporal power, and worldly advantage. The bishops* * There were four general councils of bishops arid doctors, called (Ecu- menical Councils. The first was convoked (325) by Constantine, and was held at Nice, in Asia Minor. The Nicene Creed was here adopted. The patriarchs of Alexandria and Constantinople presided alternately. The second was convoked (381) by Theodosius, and held at Constantino- Chat. II. — 1. What was the condition of the Greek empire? Give some account of Justinian II. Of a new nation which had arisen. — 2. What dispute occurred in the reign of Leo the Isaurian ? What kind of a person was it who restored image worship in Constantinople ? Of what horrid act was she guilty ? — 3. What may be said of the bishops of th« Christian churches in the first century ? Where were the four general councils held ? 198 ORIGIN OF MONACHISM. 199 of the great cities assumed authority over those of the surround- Middle Hist ing country ; and Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, perpd hi. and Jerusalem hecame the seats of ecclesiastical power; and chap. n. their bishops might be said to constitute an oligarchy in the ^^^^^/ church. By degrees, those of Rome and Constantinople be- F *-^ its results is probably the most important ever fought, — infliwn- 132. cing not only the destiny of France, but of all Europe, — .and put- H^JJued ting a check to the final progress of the Mahometan religion. Martei, the Charles did not assume the name of king, but exercised the full iiTmSa power. f °™ e in 8. He was succeeded in the mayoralty by his son Pepin, who, performing the functions, aspired to the title of sovereign. The aid of Zachary, bishop of Rome, now known by the ap- fi e r J[^5j, e pellation of pope, was sought by Pepin, who inquired of him, took the title " Whether a prince incapable of governing, or a minister in- gra ce of vested with royal authority, and who supported it with dignity, Go ^" le " d ought to have the title of king ?" The pope decided in his fa- bishops into vor. The people were absolved from their allegiance, their "sembiies!" consciences quieted, — and Childeric 111., the last of the Merovin- gian race, was deprived of his crown, and shut up in a monas- tery. Pepin was crowned king of France, at Soissons, by St. Boniface, bishop of Mentz. He was not unmindful of his obli- The exarch- ffations to the pope. In his wars with Astolphus, kino; of the ate of Raven- t i i i i r i -i i /• T> na lost t0 the Lombards, he conquered from them the exarchate ot Kavenna, Greek empe- which they had wrested from the Greek empire. This he gave -fcJJtJii to the pope, who thereby became a temporal sovereign. The pope. kings of France were recognized as patricians of Rome. 9. Pepin was succeeded by his sons Charles and Carlo- man. The sovereignty of France could hardly be considered Ch „ les ^nd as hereditary at this period, as the consent of the nobles was Carioman. required to the accession of these princes. The death of Car- Y £ y d "l"' loman left the whole kingdom to Charles. This prince gave £ a ^?J te . r8 °, f early indications of those qualities which gained him the name Carioman of Charles the Great, or Charlemagne. He found a pretext ^jes. for invading the kingdom of Lombardy, in the hostilities of Desiderius against the pope. Charlemagne crossed the great TT4. St. Bernard from Geneva, and successively took Pavla and Ve- Gh n a e rl r :on _ rona. Lombardy was soon reduced to submission, and the king quers the made captive. Charlemagne next visited Rome, where he was ^e Lom- f received, by pope Adrian I., with every demonstration of joy, bards, and and hailed as the deliverer of the church. He caused himself Kaudng- to be crowned king of Lombardy. ^° m lasted 10. The Saxons now extended from Bohemia to the German 220 years. ocean, and from the Rhine to the Baltic. They had often been 7. What is said of the battle of Tours ? From whom are the succeeding kings called the Carlovingian dynasty ? — 8. What question was submitted by Pepin to the arbitration of the pope? What was the decision? Who was the last of the Merovingian kings, and what became of him ? What did Pepin give to the pope which made him a temporal sovereign ? How did Pepin obtain his title to the exarchate of Ravenna? — 9. Who succeeded Pepin? Give an account of Charles. Who was Desiderius? Relate Charlemagne's invasion of his kingdom, and the result. Where did he next go ? Of what kingdom was he crowned king? 26 202 THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. Middle In st. f orce d to pay tribute to the monarchs of France, and as often peri'D in. revolted. Charlemagne made war upon them; but it was not chap. ii. till after thirty years of arduous contest, that he reduced them to submission. Witikind, the most valiant and renowned of their chiefs, at length embraced Christianity, and resigned his arms. Charlemagne then obliged the Saxon people, under pe- nalty of death, to receive baptism. He invaded and conquered the Huns and Sclavonians. He then turned and attacked the Saracens of Spain, and annexed to his dominions the territory between the Pyrenees and the Ebro. On his return, as the rear Spa Eh t0 the °^ ki s arm y7 loaded with booty, passed Roncesvalles,his nephew, Roland, and many of the knights, were attacked by the Gas- cons, and though brave, they perished in the valley. 11. Until the emperor, Leo the I saurian, had outraged the feelings of the Catholics by the proscription of image-worship, the Division of authority of the Byzantine court had been acknowledged in and witem Rome. Gregory II., now pope, remonstrated ; but finding his churches, efforts for the removal of the edict ineffectual, he excited the people to vindicate what they considered the cause of religion. Rome and Ravenna revolted, and all Italy flew to arms. The statues of the emperors were broken, and at Ravenna, the Its cause- exarch, and many of the Inoclasts, or image-breakers, were massacred ; and thus the eastern and western churches be- came ultimately divided. 754. !£• Lltitprand, the ambitious king of the Lombards, availed Pepin pre- himself of these disorders, took Ravenna, and subdued all the Lombard cities of the exarchate. The Greek emperors recovered Ra- conqueststo venna, and continued their persecution of image-worship; and which be- the popes not less zealously continued to favor it. Astolphus, Po^t&om °^ Lombardy, again subdued Ravenna, and threatened Rome. The pope, Stephen III., went in person to the court of Pepin, (ASeeisthe who, as has been related, conquered the exarchate, and gave it ove7w°hich to tne See of Rome. Charlemagne, after conquering the Lom- a bishop has bards, affected to confirm the gift of his father to the Holy See, 6CCi@S13.Stl- . cai juxisdic- adding to it all the cities and islands which had been annexed U °see oT he t0 tfte exarcnate - Yet, during the life of Charlemagne, these Rome is dominions were dependent upon his power ; and both Ravenna lHe see e ") anQl Rome were numbered in his list of the metropolitan cities "Holy 1 of his Great Empire of the West. 10. Where dwelt the Saxons at this period ? What had been their con- duct towards the kings of France ? How long did it take Charlemagne to subdue them ? What, can you relate of Witikind and of the Saxon people ? What nations east of the Saxons did Charlemagne conquer ? What south of France ? What happened at Roncesvalles ? Look through paragraphs 9 and 10, and show upon the map the countries which Charlemagne had now Conquered? — 11. Relate the occasion on which the eastern and west- ern churches divided ? — 12. Who was king of the Lombards, and what was his conduct? Did the Greek emperors afterwards recover the exarchate ? How was it concerning image-worship ? What was done by pope Stephen III., and on what occasion? What was now given by Pepin? What course was taken by his son ? Charlemagne receives from the Caliph the keys of the Holy Sepulchre. PERIOD IV. FROM THE CORONATION £ 800. 1 OF CHARLEMAGNE, TO THE COMMENCEMENT^ HOO.j OF THE CRUSADES. CHAPTER J. Empire of Charlemagne. 1. At the coronation of Charlemagne, Pope Leo III., after placing the crown upon his head, saluted him with the title of emperor of the Romans. He had quelled the barbarous nations of Europe, with the exception of the Danes, or Normans-, and his kingdom comprised France, Germany, Italy, and the north of Spain. From the east Irene, the empress of Constantinople, sought his friendship; and even the caliph of Bagdad, the princely Haroun al Raschid, entered into a correspondence with him, and sent him the keys of the holy sepulchre of Jerusalem. Charlemagne, though a barbarian who at first could not write his name, but " signed his treaties with the hilt of his sword, and enforced them with its point," had yet great sym- pathy with learned men. After he was a conqueror, he took as a master in certain sciences, Alcuin, an English ecclesiastic, and he founded the university of Paris, the first in Europe. Period I V.— Chap. I.— -1. When did Charlemagne receive the imperial crown, and from whom ? What nations had he conquered ? What was the extent of his empire ? What sovereigns of the east honored him ? What present did he receive from a caliph ? What can be said of Charlemagne in regard to science and literature ? 203 Middle Hist. PERI'D IV. CHAP. I, §00. Charle- magne crown- ed at Rome. The Ca- liph him the keys of the sepul- chre. naire, son of Charle- 204 RUINOUS FAMILY DISSENSIONS. Middle Hist. Charlemagne had daughters whom he was careful to have in- peri'd iv. structed in the duties of their sex ; and he had two brave and chap. i. warlike sons, by whose death his last years were darkened ; — v -^ >/ ^ >w/ and the invasion of the Norman pirates, whom he foresaw would ' 814. distress his people, it is said, melted him to tears, magne" ^* Louis, surnamed, from his meekness, " le Debonnaire," dies, was ill qualified to govern the great empire to which, on the Louis le death of his father, he succeeded. He early associated his three 1_ sons with himself in the empire. Bernard, son of Pepin, Char- lemagne's eldest son, had been previously placed on the throne magne* of Italy. He now revolted, claiming that as the son of an elder second b rotner 5 h' s right to the empire was superior to that of his mar- uncle. Bernard was made prisoner by Louis, and being con- nage.) demned ^ the loss of his eyes, he survived only three days. Louis, seized with remorse for his cruelty to his nephew, im- divides peached himself, and requested the clergy to condemn him to his em- penance ; and they gladly seized this opportunity of humbling pire ' the civil power at the feet of the ecclesiastical. mis ^" Meanwhile, the birth of a son, Charles the Bald, by a second second marriage, made Louis desirous of another division of Judith hi s dominions, which should give this son an inheritance with ofBava- his brothers. Lothaire, his eldest, who was associated with "igates him in the government of the empire, at first consented to a him to new division. He soon, however, repented, and joined his king- younger brothers, Pepin and Louis, to whom had been assign - he™ son e< ^ tne kingdoms of Aquitaine and Bavaria. The three openly Charles rebelled against their father. Pope Gregory IV. joined the Bald.) party of Lothaire, who was proclaimed emperor. The father was imprisoned in the monastery of Soissons. The nobility, however, soon returned to their allegiance, took Louis from the convent, and restored him to the throne. Lothaire was forgiven by his father, and permitted to retain the kingdom of Italy. On the death of Louis, his sons turned their arms against each other. Pepin, to whom had been assigned Aquitane, was dead, and his possessions had been given by his father to Charles the Bald. Lothaire, however, grasped at the whole empire. His brothers united against him ; and the blood of thousands flowed to gratify the ambition and hatred of men, who should have shown to each other only kindness and affection. 841. 4. The civil war was succeeded by a negotiation, in which a Down- n ew division of the empire was made. Lothaire, with the im- the em- perial title, was left in possession of Italy, and the north-eastern Char?/- P art °^ France, known by the name of Jlustrasia. To Charles magne. the Bald were assigned Neustria and Aquitaine, while Louis 1 . How did he have his daughters instructed ? What sources of grief had he in his last years? — 5$. Give an account of Charlemagne's succes- sor. — 3. For what purpose did he make a second division of his dominions ? What did his three elder sons? With whom did the pope take part, and what followed ? By whom was Louis restored ? How did Louis treat Lo- thaire ? What occurred on the death of Louis ? — 4. How did Lothaire. Louis, and Charles the Bald divide the empire among themselves ? end of Charlemagne's empire. 205 retained possession of Germany. Thus fell the empire of Char- Middle Hist, lemagne. Divided among his grandsons, and sub-divided among perpd iv. their successors, its several portions became the scene of anarchy, chap, i, o. The Normans, or Danes, took advantage of these dis- v -*"~ s ^w turbances, and spread devastation in the dominions of Charles the Bald, even to the neighborhood of Paris. Lothaire, the thaire emperor, in his declining days, divided his dominions between {^J 1 ^ 3 . his sons, and sought, by retirement and penance, to expiate the pire. sins of his former life. His eldest son succeeded to the impe- rial honours under the title of Louis IT. 6 Louis of Germany governed his dominions with consi- derable ability. On his death, they were divided between his three sons. Carloman governed Bavaria; Louis, Saxony; and sion of Charles, Suabia. Louis II., emperor and king of Italy, dying Ge n T a " without sons, the Pope espoused the interest of his uncle, Charles the Bald, who now received at his hands the impe- rial crown. In virtue of his authority as emperor, Charles was compelled to cross the Alps for the protection of Italy, which was invaded by the Saracens, and during this expedition he died. 7. The successors of Charles are little worthy of a place in 8^9. history. His son, Louis the Stammerer, reigned but a few jJ°Md months, and was succeeded by his two sons, Louis and Car- Cario- loman. The death of these princes, while their brother, man> Charles the Simple, was yet a minor, transferred the crown of France to Charles the Fat, son of Louis the German SSJ" B king, who had inherited the possessions of his brothers, and tneFat. had already obtained the imperial crown. Thus, under this monarch, was nearly reunited the empire of Charlemagne. His incapacity for governing it was, however, soon apparent. The ^ 0Y _ Normans again apppeared, and besieged Paris for two years, ma ^ s during which the wonderful exploits of Eudes, Count of Paris, S. e and of his brother Robert, saved the city. The inefficiency of Charles, who engaged to pay money to the Normans, on §§§. condition of their departure, displeased his subjects, and he Count was deposed. Charles the Simple, yet a minor, was de- a n £* clared king, and the valiant Eudes held the sovereign authority cl J n rles in trust. The Germans made Arnold, an illegitimate descend- simple. ant of Charlemagne, their king. 8. Eudes died 898. With all his valor and ability, he had ®*f * found himself unable to heal the disorders of the realm, which feudal the weakness of Charles the Simple increased. The barons ^/p™ obtained from him a decree, making their estates and titles he- tuated. 4. Did the empire of Charlemagne longer exist? — 5. What barbarians invaded France ? What portion of France ? Who was the successor of Lothaire? — 6. Give some account of the affairs of Germany. What is further said of Charles the Bald ? — T. Give some account of his successors. Under whom was the empire nearly reunited? Who saved Paris from the incursions of the Normans ? Who was the real sovereign of France while Charles the Simple was the nominal one? What account can you give of Arnold? — S. What concessions did the barons gain from Charles the Simple » 206 HOLLO, OR DUKE ROBERT. Middle Hist, rediiary in their families, and this is considered the beginning peri'd iv. of modern nobility. They were also permitted to fortify their chap. i. castles, which Charlemagne had prohibited, but which the ^*~\'-~*w attacks of the Normans rendered necessary. In process of time, however, this, with other measures, left the nobles a mere no- minal dependence on the crown ; and they exercised within their respective domains, the rights of sovereign princes, and France was filled with the miseries arising from their continual depredations upon each other. 9. The Normans, or Danes, made a new incursion, and 905. spread devastation far and wide, plundering even the churches, same anc * carrying terror and dismay into the remotest parts of the people, country. The martial spirit seemed wholly to have deserted V der the the sons of the Franks ; and with the most astonishing cow- n Danea f arc ^ ce 5 tne y suffered themselves to be plundered, and even invaded butchered by the barbarians. Under the command of their ce- Slfd", leDratecl cnie f Rollo, they sailed up the Seine, and made them- under selves masters of Rouen, which they fortified. Charles, unable conquer to re P e l tn e invaders, ceded to them the province of Nuestria, western ^ ierea f ter ca ^ e d Normandy, and gave to Rollo his daughter in pro. marriage. The Norman chief was, however, to do homage to France!" Charles, kneeling and kissing the royal toe. Though willing to acknowledge the supremacy of the king of France, the haughty Rollo was displeased with the manner. At length it was arranged that one of his officers should perform the cere- mony in his name. His substitute, as unwilling to stoop as his master, under pretence of carrying his majesty's foot to his mouth, overturned him in the presence of his court; and Charles, unable to revenge the insult, submitted to it in silence. 912. ^' ^ ie Normans became converts to Christianity, and Rollo Nor- was baptized, receiving the name of Robert. He adopted the m ^ s feudal system, dividing Normandy into large shares among his brace chief captains, on condition of their doing homage to him, and SS&ty. bringing to the field a stipulated number of followers. These chief officers divided the remainder of the land thus assigned them, each among his own favorites, who were to furnish sol- adopts diers to these chiefs, as they themselves were to the sovereign, jgj £ eu - who, in Normandy, received the title of duke. This was an temfthe improvement upon the course of things among barbarians ; as it features was better that men should settle down and cultivate the soil, of feeling that they possessed it, than that they should be wander- are h here i n g robbers ; and in order that other freebooters should not repeat- destroy them, as they had the unresisting inhabitants who pre- ceded them, it was necessary to keep up a military organisa- tion. But in the process of time, the feudal system became exceedingly oppressive to the serfs, or villains, as the lowest class were denominated ; and the former inhabitants of the 8. What is this considered to be the beginning of? What was the con- dition of the kingdom ? — 9. Give an account of the invasion of the Nor- mans or Danes. On what terms did they cease hostilities? — lO. Repeat, the main features of the feudal system adopted by Rollo ? BEGINNING OF THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION. 207 conquered countries were always of this lowest class. Their md ^ e gg. condition was essentially that of slaves, as they were liable to peri'D iv. be sold with the land. They could not, however, be transferred chap. ii. but with the soil ; and hence families were not liable to be for- ^^ '^v-^-' cibly disunited. 11. A shadow of royalty alone remained to the degraded 9ST- descendants of Charlemagne ; many of the nobles possessing ^pf?. more resources and greater power than the monarch. Hugh The ca- the Great, son of the duke of Brittany, put up kings, and put P su?" S them down at his pleasure. At length his son, Hugh Capet, th c e e Q^ in 989, added to the power, the title of king of France, and was lovin- the founder of the Capetian dynasty. gians " 12. Five nations, each governed by their own laws, and their rive own dukes, the Franconians, the Saxons, the Swabians, the n lt™ns Bavarians, and Lorrainers, composed at this time the German jonft- Confederation. . Among their princes were able men, and they and determined to choose, in a pressing emergency, (the terrible "Jjjjj^ Huns having invaded them,) one of their own number as their mo- emperor. Assembled in diet at Worms, the electors of these n ^^ nations conferred upon Conrad, the duke of Franconia, the tiye. imperial dignity. The reign of Conrad was disquieted by the 912. rebellion of some of the powerful nobles of the empire, and by Coi j rad the irruptions of the Huns, who spread themselves over Pan- nonia, which from them received the name of Hungary. From thence they extended their ravages to the Baltic, — passed the Rhine, and desolated France and the northern part of Italy. Germany was, however, the scene of their most destructive inroads. Conrad became weary of the cares of state, and re- commended a rival, who had sought to deprive him of power, as his successor, because he believed his talents fitted him to be *5 O L o o r3 920. an able sovereign. This was Henry the Fowler, duke of Henr y Saxony. He obtained a decided victory over the Hungarians, the which, though it did not effectually subdue their power, yet ^_ er freed the Germans from their depredations. He was succeeded c ^ e r ds d by Otho the Great. CHAPTER II. Britain.* 1. The most interesting event which happened during the Heptarchy was the introduction of Christianity. The period of * Said to have been originally Bruit-tan — Tin-land. lO. Did this tend to equality in the circumstances of men, or what was its tendency ? — 1 1 . What was the condition of Charlemagne's descendants ? What father and son supplanted the Carlovingian monarchs and founded a new dynasty? What was it called? — 12. Explain the condition of the Germans, and what they now did in reference to the sovereign. Chap. II." — 1. When and by whom was Christianity introduced into England ? Who was the first martyr ? 208 ALFRED. Middle Hist. PERI'D IV. CHAP. II. f §2T Saxon hep- tarchy united under Egbert. §65. Ragnor Ladbrog a fa- mous sea- king is killed, which causes the sea- kings or Danes to infest Eng- land. 8W. Alfred the Great. Alfred visits foreign coun- tries. Learns to read of his fa- ther's young queen. this, is generally" reckoned to be that of the visit of st. Augus- tine, 596 ; although there had been Christians much earlier. St. Alban, England's first martyr, suffered in the persecutions of Diocletian. After much bloodshed, the seven kingdoms which formed the Saxon heptarchy, were united under one monarch, Egbert, king of Wessex. The council of the Wittagemot was composed of about thirty persons, the most powerful in the kingdom, whether lay-men or ecclesiastics; and probably rather hereditary than elective. Their consent was necessary to all laws. Their laws, however, show the barbarity of the times. For murder, offenders were fined, and in proportion to the rank of the person murdered. For a king, the sum was very large ; for an earl or bishop about one-fifth as' much ; for a serf, less than a hundredth. The tranquillity of Egbert's reign was dis- turbed by the depredations and assaults of some of the most fierce and fearless of barbarians 5 who under the names of sea- kings, Normans, Northmen, and Danes, ranged in ships, — pirates at sea, and robbers on land. He encountered them in battle ; and though he obtained two successive victories over them, still their ships brought new swarms. 2. Under his successor, Ethelwolf, the nation suffered still more severely from their ravages. Ragnor Ladbrog, a noted sea-king, had been killed in England by Ella, one of the Saxon princes ; and to avenge his death, no less than to glut their ap- petite for plunder, murder, and rapine, these terrific natives of the peninsula of Jutland, commanded by the sons of Ladbrog, again united their forces to ravage England. They landed in great bodies, plundered and desolated the country, made pri- soners of the inhabitants, and when attacked by the English, re- treated with their booty to their ships. A succession of three weak and inefficient princes, Ethelbald son of Ethelwolf, and Ethelbert and Ethelred his sons, was followed by the reign of Alfred, the younger son of Ethelwolf. 3. In his early youth, Alfred had accompanied his father in a pilgrimage to Rome, and on his return visited Paris ; thus gaining some insight into the characters and situations of other and more civilized nations. At the age of twelve he was igno- rant of the art of reading, an acquisition at that time rare ; but he delighted in hearing Anglo-Saxon songs. One day he dis- covered in the hands of queen Judith, a French princess whom his father had married, a written volume of his favorite poems. She promised him that as soon as he could read the volume, he should possess it. He eagerly applied himself to the task, and soon obtained the valued trophy of his victory. At the age of twenty-two he ascended the throne. The Danes were now more formidable than ever. Alfred gained some ad- 1. Who was Egbert ? What did he do in reference to the Saxon Hep- tarchy ? Of what was the council composed ? Give an account of the ter- rible invaders of England. — 2. Under what kings did they continue their incursions? — 3. Give some account of Alfred's early years. Of the first years of his reign. a min- strel. BATTLE OF ETHANDUNE. 209 vantages over them, and they stipulated to retire ; but receiving Middle Hist. reinforcements, they violated their treaty. The young prince perpd iv •fought eight battles with them in one year; but they swarmed chap. ii. upon the coast in greater numbers than before. v^-v-x^ 4. The Saxons believed themselves abandoned by heaven, s^. and Alfred sought in vain to rally them. He then took the Alfred habit of a peasant, determining to reserve himself for more fa- th^dis- vorable times. To make his disguise the more complete, he s uise °_ f laid aside his princely bearing, as well as his regal robes, and sant,in with the dress and language of a rustic, he offered his services n ^g~_ to a herdsman, and faithfully tended his cows as they grazed, merset- Once, when his mistress had desired him to watch and turn the s lre " cakes at the fire, his mind wandered to other things, and the *f? veal ! good wife scolded hirn for permitting the cakes to burn. Yet, to some knowing his fault, he submitted patiently. He was beloved by ^JJo 1 ^. the honest pair, whom he afterwards gratefully rewarded. At sit him length Oddune, earl of Devon, whose castle the Danes had af £jX eI " besieged, made a sally, and took from them what they supersti- tiously believed to be an enchanted banner. Alfred now seeing vi S i ts cause to hope for better days, made himself known to some of * h ? his nobles who had in readiness their forces. He then took a camp as bold resolution. Disguised as a wandering minstrel, and bear- ing a harp, he entered the camp of the Danes; and while his music entertained them, they unsuspiciously suffered him to ob- g^g. serve their careless security. He also learned that they were eth- about to celebrate a festival. Quitting the hostile camp, he re- D J ^ E vealed himself publicly to his rejoicing subjects, who had Alfred thought him dead. They collected from all quarters, attacked de t f he ts the astonished Danes on the day of their celebration, and Danes, gained an easy, but complete victory. 5. Alfred granted the Danes permission to settle in Northum- berland and East Anglia, on condition of their being governed by his laws, and embracing Christianity. They were accord- Alfred ingly baptized; and the king himself stood godfather for Guth- truly rum their chief. The civil and military institutions of Alfred §j?au have acquired for him the admiration of posterity. The love . the of letters manifested in youth, continued through life; and, Eng-° though burdened with the cares of government, and harassed l. and tne , u6st rind with vexatious wars, he yet found time, at the age of thirty- most eight, to study the Latin language, and to write several works of reputation. He founded the university of Oxford, and he formed a system of jurisprudence, which is supposed to be the foundation of English common law. He established a navy, Alfred which is considered as the commencement of the greatest naval j* ie Jg power the world has ever witnessed. In short, it was Alfred 4:. Give an account of Alfred's subsequent changes of fortune till the bat- tle of Ethandune.— 5. Where did he permit the Danes to settle, and on what condition ? What did Alfred accomplish to merit the admiration of posterity ? Do you find any vice to counterbalance his accomplishments and virtues ? You have now read the history of many sovereigns, have you found this a common case ? 27 less. 900. 210 THE AGE OF SUPERSTITION. Middle Hist. r 9©i. Ed- ward I. 925. At.hel- stan. 940. Ed- mund I. 94§. Edred. 985. Edwy and Elgiva. A tragic story of love blighted by su- persti- tion. Dun- stan the great author of mon- kery in Eng- land. who laid the foundation of the British monarchy. Nor do we iind one act of inhumanity or vice, one habit of indolence or irregularity, to sully the fair fame of his public virtue. He had fought fifty-six battles ; but his wars were those of defence, and ever unstained by ambition or cruelty. 6. The three immediate successors of Alfred were able princes, who held the government with a firm hand. These were Edward the Elder, his son and successor, who built many fortresses and subjugated the Danes ; Athelstan, natural son of Ed- ward, who is much renowned in history for the victories he ob- tained over these and other barbarians by whom the kingdom was assailed ; — and Edmund the Elder, who conquered North- umberland from the Britons and bestowed it on Malcolm, king of Scotland, on condition that he should do homage to him, and defend the northern frontier from the Danes. The reign of Edred, his brother and successor, is memorable for the esta- blishment of monasteries in England ; and for the influence which Dunstaznt,* abbot of Glastonbury, possessed over this superstitious monarch. 7. Edred left the throne to Edwy, a prince of seventeen, — ele- gant in his person, and ardent in his affections. The beautiful Elgiva, his second cousin, had captivated his youthful heart, and he married her, contrary to the decree of the church, which forbade marriage between persons of this degree of affinity. Dimstan denounced and insulted him ; and he boldly banished the monk from the realm. But the spirit of fanaticism, — the prevailing spirit of the age, — was on the side of the church. Odo, archbishop of Canterbury, tore Elgiva from her husband, and caused her face to be scarred with a red hot iron, to destroy the beauty which had ensnared the king. The hapless wife es- caped from the cruel hands of her persecutors, and was returning to her husband, when they retook the fugitive, murdered her, and dethroned the wretched Edwy ; who, forsaken by his sub- jects, and excommunicated by the. relentless clergy, soon rested from his sorrows in death. 8. Edgar, a boy of thirteen, brother to Edwy, succeeded him ; and Dunstan, who had now returned, took the govern- ment in the name of the young prince. This monk set himself against the marriages of the secular clergy, and obliged great numbers of them to separate from their families. He was also * This monk concealed great ambition under the cloak of sanctity. The ignorance and credulity of those times cannot be better illustrated than by the stories which he made the people believe. In his miserable cell, the devil, affronted as he said, by his holy mortifications, annoyed him by fre- quent conflicts. At length, he came one day in the shape of a woman. St. Dunstan seized him by the nose with a pair of red-hot pincers. Satan roared and bellowed, and after this never dared show his face to the valiant monk. 6. What were the names and characters of the three immediate successors of Alfred ? (Always in answering such questions, give the names in the order of time.) For what is the reign of Edred memorable? Who was Dunstan ? — 1. Relate the history of Edwy and Elgiva. MASSACRE OF THE DANES. 211 active in endowing monasteries, and thus shutting up in idle- Middle m s t. ness many men whose services the kingdom needed. Edgar, as he grew to manhood, saw the difficulty of his situation, and in reality proved the master spirit of his kingdom ; but his cha- racter presents us greatness without virtue. Flattering the 959. monks, he preserved their favor ; and unrestrained by moral Ed s ar - principle, he violated, in the pursuit of pleasure, all laws, human and divine. He built and supported a powerful navy, which he Ke t JJg S " divided into three squadrons, commanding each to make by Dun- turns, the circuit of his dominions, thus keeping the seamen in Taxes practice, and intimidating the Danes. Edgar married for his the second wife, Elfrida, the daughter of a nobleman, more cele- brated for her beauty than her virtues.* 9. Edward II., son of Edgar by his first marriage, was raised 972. by Dunstan to the throne, in opposition to the wishes of Elfri- Edward da, who desired her own son, Ethelred, to receive the crown. Martyr. He obtained the surname of the martyr ; for the wicked Elfrida 9"?§. soon caused him to be murdered; thus securing the crown for E ^ l ~ Ethelred. 10. The Danes, with fresh hopes and recruited strength, again entered England, and the weak monarch gave them money to depart. This was both a lure and an acknowledg- ment of weakness ; and, as if to add yet another induce- 1002- ment to the myriads of the northern hive, the weak and cruel ^ r a e ss of ~ son of Elfrida gave orders for a general massacre of all the .the Danes in his dominions ; and the order was executed with the Danes. Sweyn | ^ most barbarous inhumanity. Among the number was Gtjnhil- da, sister of Sweyn, the powerful king of Denmark — a Chris- tian princess, married to a nobleman of England. The mother was made to witness the dying agonies of her children, who were put to death before her face ; after which she was herself inhumanly slain. The fierce wrath of Sweyn was enkindled. "fL® „ | |=< He collected a formidable armament, landed in the west of Eng- expel: land, and carried fire and sword through the land. The timid B |J| 1 " Ethelred fled to Robert, duke of Normandy, (whose sister * The fame of her beauty had reached the monarch, and he sent Ethel- wold, his favorite, to see if her charms deserved the praise bestowed upon them. Ethelwold, enamored of her himself, falsely told his master that re- port had exaggerated her beauty — but that she was a rich heiress, and would be a desirable match for himself. Edgar promoted the union. Afterwards, suspecting the treachery, he determined to visit the castle of Ethelwold. The distressed husband confessed to his wife the fault his passion had led him to commit, and besought her to conceal her beauty as much as possible. But Elfrida was careful to attire herself in the most becoming manner. The monarch was charmed, slew the husband with his own hand, and married Elfrida. She who had thus connived at the destruction of her husband, carried dissension and disaster into the royal family. 8. Give an account of the reign and character of Edgar. What was Dun- stan engaged in bringing about ? — 9. What was the name and fate of Ed- gar's successor ? — IO. What was done by Ethelred in relation to the Danes ? Give an account of their massacre. Who avenged the death of Gunhilda ? To whom did Ethelred flee ? 212 CANUTE. Middle Hist. 1042 05 I Edward the Con- fessor, last of the Saxon kings, de- j scended I from L Cerdic. Emma he had married for his second wife.* Sweyn died bf3fore he had time to establish himself in his conquered do- minions. 11. Ethelred returned to England, but found Canute, the son and successor of Sweyn, a powerful adversary. The death of Ethelred left his eldest son Edmund Ironside to carry on the war. Edmund, though brave, was unable to resist the war- like Danes, surrounded as he was by the treacherous machi- nations of his own subjects. He was defeated in a battle, and compelled to relinquish a part of his territories. Canute re- ceived the northern part of the kingdom, while Edmund was left in possession of the south. But this monarch, worthy of a better fate, was assassinated by two of his rebellious subjects in the interest of Canute, who then seized on the dominions of Edmund, and became sovereign of the entire kingdom. To strengthen his title he married Emma* the widow of Ethelred. 12. Canute sent back a part of his followers into Denmark, and restored the Saxon laws and customs. After this he return- ed to Denmark, and conquered Sweden and Norway ; when he returned to reside in England. Canute became weary of the flatterers, who pronounced him omnipotent. He ordered his chair placed by the sea shore, and commanded the advancing tide to stop ; but it moved onwards and wet his robe — when, turning to his flatterers, he sternly rebuked them. On his death, his sons Harold and Hardicanute successively obtained the crown of England. On the death of the latter the English threw off the Danish yoke, and recalled Edward, surnamed, on account of his piety, "the Confessor." He was the son of Ethelred and Emma, and had been under the protection of his maternal uncle, the duke of Normandy. The reign of Edward was disturbed by rebellions among his nobility, some of whom openly aspired to the crown. 13. The death of Edward the Confessor, who was the last of the Saxon kings, left the succession to the English throne open * Emma was a descendant of Rollo ; her father, Richard the Good, of Normandy, being Rollo's great grandson. She is remarkable as a con- necting link in the English history. She married two of the kings of Eng- land, Ethelred, to whom she was the second wife, and by whom she had two sons, Alfred and Edward ; and after his death Canute, by whom she had one son, Hardicanute. Edmund Ironside was her step-son, as was the second Harold, so that she was connected as either wife or mother, to six of the kings of England, Ethelred, Edmund, Canute, Harold, Hardica- nute, and Edward the Confesssr. She was aunt to William the Conqueror, and his only claim to the crown of England was through her. Thus she forms the connecting link between the Saxon, the Danish, and the Nor- man kings of England. 10. Give some account of Emma. (See note.) — 1 1 . Give an account of Canute. — 12. What did Canute in respect to the Saxon customs? What kingdoms did he conquer? As Canute was originally king of Denmark, of now many, and what countries was he now the sovereign? What method did he take to reprove his flatterers ? Who succeeded Canute in the sovereignty of England ? What was done on the death of Hardica- nute ? What was the parentage of Edward the Confessor ? Who was his remote ancestor ? Of what dynasty is he the last king ? WILLIAM THE CONQ.UEROR. 213 to contention. Edgar, surnamed Atheling, (the illustrious) a ^fffff HisL son of Edmund Ironside, presented his claim, and also William, perpd iv. duke of Normandy, natural son of duke Robert, the brother chap. ii. of Emma. Before, however, the question of right was decided, Harold, son of the powerful Earl Godwin, usurped the sove- reignty, and obtained the allegiance of the nation. William, of Normandy, was distinguished for courage, ambition, and mili- . t tary skill. His court was thronged by youth of different coun- mothe^was tries, eager for military enterprise. William dutifully applied da ^ rl 1 5 > t ttg ' of to pope Alexander IJ. for permission to conquer England. The a tanner.) pope gave him the country, and sent him his blessing, with a ring containing one of St. Peter's hairs. William no longer hesi- tated, but embarked his army, and landed at Pevensey. Harold was in the north, where he had just defeated the forces of the king of Norway, who had invaded his kingdom, when he J^^r learned that the duke of Normandy had landed with a power- inqs. ful army. Elated with his recent victory, he hastened to the ^Jj*™ south. Deaf to remonstrances, at Hastings he ventured his q»ers kingdom, though with an inferior force, upon the success of a i a nd~ single battle, — lost it—and with it his crown and life. 14. William proceeded to London. Before he reached the wn- city, he was met by a deputation who offered him the crown, '^n? 6 accompanied by Edgar Atheling, with the two noblemen Edwin queror and Morcar, who had proclaimed this descendent of the Saxon "hJf 8 line. After six months he revisited Normandy. The rapacity of rei s n his army produced a revolt. William hastened his return, and sfveto found that the insurrection was headed by the most powerful the peo- nobles of the realm, aided by the kings of Scotland and Denmark. He crushed the rebellion, and found pretences to enrich his Norman followers, bestowing on them the estates of the rebels. 15. William introduced the feudal system into England, di- viding the kingdom into large landed estates, or baronies, which 0? e were distributed among the Norman chiefs, none of the English themto being permitted to hold those of the first rank. The English PJJ^J* nobility were therefore degraded, and the lower classes of the lights at conquered became serfs. William caused a survey of all the ringing lands in England to be made, and recorded in what is termed of b the " the Doomsday Book." He obliged the people to extinguish oTeven- their lights at the ringing of the curfew, or evening bell. in s bel1 -) 16. On the death of William, his dominions were divided among his sons. England was the portion of William Rufus. 10ST His continental possessions were divided between his younger William sons, Robert and Henry, Robert receiving the larger share. 13. Who presented claims to the throne at his death ? Who was ac- knowledged king ? For what was William distinguished ? What species of persons thronged his court ? When he invaded England, at what place did he land ? Where was Harold ? Give an account of the battle of Hast- ings and its results? — 14. Relate the circumstances of the early part of his reign. — 15. In following out the feudal system, whom did William make the chief barons ? Who became serfs? What measure did he take con- cerning the landed property in England? — 16. Give an account of the suc- cessors of William. I g it b as 214 KENNETH M'ALPINE. Middle Hist. PERI'D IV. CHAP. II. The high- lands of Scotland never con- quered by the Romans. Divided be- tween the Picts and Scots. 84*2. In Kenneth is united the empire of the Picts and Scots. Duncan. 1039. Macbeth. 1056. Malcolm. The good queen Mar- garet. Wars between these brothers followed. At length Robert im- bibed the enthusiastic spirit of the crusades; and resolving to devote himself to the holy enterprise, mortgaged Normandy to his brother William, for a sum of money sufficient to enable him to embark. 17. SCOTLAND. — The ancient Caledonians were never conquered by the Romans, though they employed the arms of some of their most skilful commanders against them. In the fifth century, when the island was abandoned, and the Britons were left to their independence, we find in the northern parts, two powerful and distinct tribes; the Picts and the Scots. The Picts are supposed to be the descendants of the ancient Britons, who, in the Roman conquests, chose to migrate north- ward rather than to submit. They inhabited the eastern, while the Scots, supposed to be of the same origin with the northern Irish, occupied the western coast of the island .* These nations were continually at war with each other, and with the inhabit- ants of South Britain, who at last, unable to withstand their depredations, called in, as we have seen, the aid of the Saxons. These contests of the Picts and Scots were at length closed by the elevation of a prince named Kenneth McAlpine, to the throne of both kingdoms, he uniting the blood of the two royal families of the Picts and the Scots. The country received the name of Scotland. 18. Duncan succeeded to the crown in 1033, but fell by the hand of Macbeth, who usurped his throne. The usurper was soon slain in battle at Dunsinane, by Macduff, an injured noble. Malcolm, the son of Duncan, had taken refuge in England, where he was hospitably received by Edward the Confessor. By the assistance of the Duke of Northumberland, whom Ed- ward sent into Scotland, Malcolm recovered his kingdom. During the remainder of Edward's reign, the two nations were at peace. On the accession of Harold to the English throne, Malcolm favored the insurrection against him. Many of the Saxon nobles of England, stung by the indignities suffered from their Norman conquerer, fled to his court. Among them, were Edgar Atheling, and his sister Margaret, a virtuous, beautiful, and accomplished princess. The monarch of the Scots made her his queen, and she exerted a most happy influence, laboring * The language of this people is called the Celtic, or more recently the Gaelic. The learned are at variance respecting the Celts; some maintain- ing them to be the same people as the Goths, others assigning them a dif- ferent origin. Julius Caesar found in Gaul, a people whom he called Celts. Some suppose that Caesar referred to the Belgic Gauls. All, we believe, agree that the only remains of this people now discoverable, are found in Ireland and the western part of Great Britain. IT. Were the ancient Caledonians ever conquered by the Romans? What two tribes gave demonstrations of their power in the fifth century ? What is believed concerning the Picts ? What is said of the Scots ? (Ex- amine the note.) Why is the reign of Kenneth McAlpine memorable ? — 18. Whom did Macbeth assassinate ? Where, and by whom was Mac- beth slain ? Give an account of his successor. What persons fled to Mal- colm's court ? Give an account of Margaret. OTHO THE GREAT. 215 for the instruction of the barbarous Scots, and relieving the dis- Midd ^ Hist. tresses of her Saxon countrymen. During the reign of William perpd iv. Rufus, Malcolm was frequently engaged in hostilities, and was ch ap- in. finally slain in battle. His children being minors, his brother ^^"\^w Donald Bane usurped the crown, and Scotland was for some 1093. years embroiled in civil war ; but at length, Edgar, the third Saite? son of Malcolm and Margaret, obtained the crown. 1098, 5 ' Edgar. CHAPTER III. Germany. 1. After the downfall of Charlemagne's empire, Germany, 936. from the character of its sovereigns, took the lead in the poli- ° th ° *• tics of Europe. Otho the Great succeeded his distinguished hifdis- father, Henry the Fowler. The powerful nobles of his king- JJJjJJJ* dom openly aspired to independence, but he obliged them, by extends the force of his arms, and the superiority of his genius, to submit. p( ^ s er He balanced their power by conferring upon the clergy the over rights of temporal princes. Bohemia he rendered tributary to m i a and Germany, compelling the inhabitants to embrace Christianity. Hunga- He encountered the warlike Hungarians near Augsburgh, and was victorious. He invaded France and Denmark, and where- ever he went, he made the will of others bend to his own. 2. Since the extinction of the empire of Charlemagne, Italy 9^ had been governed by native princes, engaged in frequent hos- e$fi\. tilities with each other, and the realm was divided by powerful Kings of factions. Of these princes, perhaps Berenger I., who, from Beren- duke of Friuli, became king of Italy, is best known. The aid § er L of Otho was now implored against Berenger II., who had ge r n. rendered himself odious by his tyranny. Otho marched into Italy, subdued Berenger ; made himself master of his kingdom, deposed the licentious pope, John XII., who favored Berenger, and placed Leo VIII. in the papal chair. Otho determining to set the civil above the ecclesiastical power, revived a oS^n* claim that he and his successors should have the power of unites naming the pope, and giving investiture to bishops. On the tbe'em- return of Otho to Germany, his Italian subjects again revolted, P'^e- and on the death of Leo, contested the right of the emperor to nominate his successor. His arms, however, again compelled 18. Who are the successors of Malcolm ? Chap. III. — 1. On what account did Germany take the lead in politics? From what able monarch did Otho the great descend ? What actions showed the force of Otho's character ? What nations did he successfully contend with 1 — 2. What occurred in Italy after the fall of Charlemagne's empire ? What pretext had Otho for invading Italy ? What did he effect in Italy ? What claim did he set up ? 216 GERMANY. Middle Hist. PERI'D IV. CHAP. III. 9?3. Otho II. Three popes at the 9S3. k o a. Eo, Otho III. O 1002 Henry II. 1024 Conrad II. 1039 Henry III. 1056 Henry IV. War of the in- vesti- tures. submission, after which his reign was tranquil. He was the most powerful monarch of his time. 3. Otho I. was succeeded by his son, Otho II., who during the life of his father had been elected his successor. By a mar- riage with Theophana, daughter of the eastern emperor, he ob- tained a claim to the Grecian provinces of Italy. During his reign, the most disorderly and turbulent proceedings were wit- nessed at Rome, where at one time three several popes were elected, each anathematising and excommunicating the others. 4. Otho III., although a minor at the time of his father's death, had by his influence been elected to succeed him. The Italians rebelled, and under Crescentius, a Roman, who took the title of consul, an attempt was made to re-establish the re- public. But the degenerate Romans had no longer the virtue to remain free, even if a leader of talents had been at their head. Otho, when he became of age, soon quieted the disturbances made by the party of Crescentius, and restored pope Gregory whom they had deposed. This emperor defeated the Danes, and entered into an alliance with Eric, (who then swayed the sceptre of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark,) obtaining permis- sion for Christian missionaries to enter his kingdom. Otho ex- pelled the Saracens from the south of Italy, where they had made, for forty years, destructive ravages. He dying without heirs, several claimants of the imperial crown appeared. 5. Henry II., grandson of Otho II., obtained the election. His reign is marked by no important event. It is said, that dis- gusted with the world, he desired to retire to a convent, and as- sumed the monastic habit. The abbot received him as a bro- ther, but remarked, u Monks owe obedience to their superiors, 1 order you to continue at the helm of government." Henry obeyed his superior, and reassumecl his crown. At his death an assembly of princes, after six weeks deliberation, elected as his successor, Conrad If., surnamed the Salic, duke of Franconia. During his reign, the kingdom of Burgundy was annexed to the German empire. 6. He was succeeded by his son, Henry III., who found himself engaged, at the commencement of his reign, in wars with the Hungarians, the Bohemians, and the Poles who had now become a nation; in all of which, success followed his arms. Henry extended the prerogatives of the crown, and exer- cised a more absolute power than any former German monarch. His nobles murmured, and after his death their enmity descended to his son and successor, Henry IV., and was manifested in the course of the war with the popes, called the war of the investitures. The former Roman emperors had exercised the power of nominating bishops and abbots, and of giving them 3. Give an account of his successor. What was the state of the pope- dom ? — 4. Who was Crescentius? Eric? What is here said of the Sara- cens? What actions were performed by Otho III. ? — 5. What can you say of Henry II. ? What kingdom was annexed to Germany by Conrad the Salic ? — 6. What account can you give of Henry III. ? HILDEBRAND. 217 investiture by the ring and crosier. Otho the Great, and his Middle Hlst successors, had claimed this power. Pope Alexander II. had perpd iv published a decree during the life of Henry III., forbidding this chap. hi. investiture, and the doctrine was now maintained, that as the ^-*w~w spiritual power was superior to the temporal, the bishops and abbots received their authority from God, and not from the em- peror ; but, on the contrary, that the emperor was to hold his investiture of the pope, and his authority under him. 7. The famous Hildebrand, with the title of Gregory VII., Hilde _ -. was now in the papal chair. He dispatched a legate to the brand German emperor, forbidding him to exercise the rights of inves- v l™*_ titure. Henry treated his messenger with contempt, convoked Jj^jjJ an assembly of his princes and ecclesiastics, and declared pop es. Gregory a usurper of the papacy. Gregory, fully aware of bo H d e ly the disaffection of the German nobles, pronounced a sentence claims of excommunication against Henry, absolving his subjects from 'JJ^fJl their allegiance, and depriving him of his imperial authority, minion. The German nobles, thus encouraged, revolted, and the German clergy, who had just before declared Gregory an usurper, now espoused his cause. 8. Henry, surrounded with dangers, saw no safety but in ap- peasing the wrath of the pope. With this view, he passed the 10T6. Alps, and accompanied by only a few domestics, proceeded to Mean- Canosa, where Gregory then was, and presented himself as a Henry, penitent at the gates of the fortress. The monarch was only and ar- admitted within the outer court. There, wrapped in sackcloth, severity with his feet bare, he was detained three days in the month of o{ o th e e January, before the haughty pontiff would admit him to his pre- sence. The penance of Henry, and his promise to submit in all things, at length procured him absolution. 9. The reconciliation, however, was short; the arrogance of Henry's the pope had alienated the minds of the Italian princes, and a second strong party was formed in Henry's favor. He renewed the with the war, but while engaged with the Italians against the pope, his P°P e - German subjects revolted. A second excommunication was wolf- thundered against him by Gregory, who again deposed him, ff%™_ and declared Rodolph, duke of Swabia, emperor. Henry, aug- ringia. mented his party in Germany, and convening a few bishops who ^felts adhered to him, he degraded Gregory and appointed another Ro- pope. He defeated and slew Rodolph, when his followers dis- ^J 1 -; persed. Henry then returned to Italy, laid siege to Rome, and kined continued it for two years, when at length the city was carried i a nce of by assault. Gregory escaped, but shortly after died. Henry JJjj^. procured the consecration of Clement III. After the emperor's ion.) G. What was the point in dispute between the popes and emperors re- specting investiture, or investing with authority ? Who was Henry IV. ? — 7. What pope was his opponent ? What course did he pursue towards Henry ? How did Henry retaliate ? How did the German nobles now conduct ?— 8. Relate the abject submission of Henry, and the conduct of the pope. — 9. Whom in this contest did the Italians favor ? Whom did the Germans ? By what parties was the battle of Wolfsheim fought, and what were its results ? 28 218 RISE OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. Middle Hist, return to Germany, his enemies deposed Clement, and elected peri'Div. Victor, whose early death made way for Urban If. He re- chap. m. newed the war of the investitures, and embroiled Henry in a '^^^^^ quarrel with his son, Conrad. This brings the history of Ger- many to the period when the council of Clermont decided upon the first crusade. 10. ITALY.— When on the death of Charles the Fat, the empire of the west passed from the Carlovingian family, the go- vernment of Italy was usurped by the principal nobles. Of these, the dukes of Spoletto and Tuscany, and the Marquises of Pavia, Susa and Friuli, were the most powerful. The great duchy of Benevento, had been divided into the principalities of Benevento, Salerno and Capua. Apulia and Calabria were still divfdTlfa d su ki ecti io ^ ie emperor of the east, JYaples and Amalfi were re- desoiated. publics, under the protection of the Grecian empire. Rome was subject to the pope. For seventy years the sovereignty of Italy, though little more than a name, was the subject of contest be- tween the most ambitious and powerful nobles. The northern parts were desolated by the Hungarians, while the southern coasts were subject to the inroads of the Saracens, who had made themselves masters of Sicily. 11. It was at this time that the assistance of Otho the Great was sought. He marched into Italy, and received, at Milan, the iron crown of the Lombards, and at Rome, from the pope, the golden crown of the empire ; thus reviving in his person, the 936. title of emperor of the Romans, which had been extinct for forty otho the years. Otho, and his immediate successors, exercised the pre- as a 1 del!- rogatives with which the emperors of the west had formerly verer, fixes Deen endowed. They repeatedly marched into Italy at the head sovereignty, of armies, received the homage of the Italian states, exacted their rents, and promulgated their laws. The tie which bound Italy to the German empire was, however, growing weak. The dis- tance of the emperor prevented the continued and energetic ex- ercise of the imperial prerogative, and a spirit of freedom was enkindled. 12. The dangers with which the cities were surrounded, compelled the inhabitants to provide for their own defence, and by permission they rebuilt their walls. The protection they thus afforded, drew multitudes of the country people within them. Their population and wealth rapidly increased. Obe- Riseofthe dience to the dukes, counts, or marquises, was thrown off, and Italian the people of the cities elected their own magistrates. The war "ecome the of the investitures, in which the cities engaged, part of them on Italian re- t ne s [(\ e f the emperor, part on that of the pope, showed these little communities their importance, and contributed to diffuse a republican spirit. In Lombardy, Milan was the most import- ant of these independent governments. There existed at this IO. Describe the condition of Italy? — 11. What crowns did Otho the Great receive? What occurred after his death? — 12. Describe the man- ner of the growth of the Italian cities ? Of their becoming republics ? What five are here mentioned ? THE BROTHERS ROBERT AND ROGER. 219 period, still older republics, which had arisen from the ruins of the Grecian possessions — Venice, Ravenna, Genoa, and Pisa. 13. When Attila drove from their homes the inhabitants of Aquileia and Padua, they found a refuge on some islands in the Adriatic, where they built and settled, calling their city Rialto. It gradually increased in population, and was subject to the By- zantine empire, till the tenth century. It then became commer- cial and independent, and conquered the adjoining territories called Venetia, Istria and Dalmatia. 14. Early in the eleventh century, the Normans were em- ployed by a prince of Salerno, against the Saracens, who had invaded his territories. Fresh adventurers from the north flocked into Italy, where they founded the small city of Aversa near Capua. A difficulty respecting their pay, at length pro- duced a war between the Normans, and their employers. They invaded Apulia, which they soon subdued. After the conquest of the Grecian possessions of Italy, the republics of Naples and Jimalji, fell before the invaders. The sovereignty of Jipulia was conferred upon Robert Guiscard, one of the renowned brothers, sons of Tancred, lord of Hauteville, in Normandy. 15. The pope, Leo IX., formed a league with the emperor of Constantinople against the Normans, and Leo marched in person against Robert, but was defeated and taken prisoner. The de- votion of the Normans dictated the most honorable treatment to the head of the church, and the warriors knelt to implore his forgiveness for arming in their own defence. The pope granted them absolution, and conferred upon them the sovereignty of the country they had conquered, which they now held as a fief of the holy see. Roger, the brother of Robert Guiscard, conquered the Saracens of Sicily, and made himself master of the island. Robert next directed his views towards the eastern empire. At the head of his Normans he advanced into Epirus, took the city of Durazzo, and obtained a complete victory over the army of the Greek emperor, Alexius Comnenus. His successes in Greece, however, were of no permanent advantage. Robert was recalled to Italy by the revolt of some of the cities of Apulia. In the war of the investitures, he afforded powerful aid to pope Gregory VII., and at length gave him an asylum when driven from Rome. Middle Hist. PERI'DIV. CHAP. III. 452. Venice founded. 1060. The Nor- mans called in to aid against the Saracens, take the country themselves. Robert surnamed Guiscard, (or the cunning,) makes the pope prisoner. 1060 to 1090. Roger con- quers Sicily. Robert makes war upon Alexius Comnenus. 1082. DURAZZO Robert Affords aid to Gre- gory VII. 13. When and how was Venice founded? — 14:. Describe the rise of the kingdom of Naples? — 15. What league was formed against the Normans ? Which of the sons of Tancred of Normandy conquered Sicily ? What war was afterwards made by Robert Guiscard ? CHAPTER IV. France, Spain, Russia, Greek Empire, &c. Middle Hist. 1. FRANCE. — The princes of the Carlovingian family had PERr~> Iv# become so insignificant, and the ties which bound the nation chai iv. to its monarch were so slight, that the accession of Hugh V *-"^ V ~ N »- / Capet, the founder of the new dynasty, was hardly considered 'The Ca- as an usurpation, and was attended with no disorder. After a Dot inn - Dynas- reign of eight years, Hugh transmitted the sovereignty to his AGw sorl ? Robert, whom he had already associated with himself in Hugh the government. Robert was undisturbed by foreign foes, but Capet, the discipline by which the papal power humbled and subjugated Robert' kings, blasted his domestic happiness. He had married Bertha, (Owing sister of Rodolph, king of Burgundy, his cousin in the fourth terribfe degree, while the prohibition of the church extended to the se- power venth; and Gregory V. ordered the dissolution of the marriage, commit- under pain of excommunication. The king ventured to disregard even Ms ^ e thunders °f the Vatican,* aimed not only at him, but against ser- all those who had abetted the offence. The bishops who had would sanctioned the marriage were suspended. Robert soon expe- not rienced how terrific the power of excommunication had become, anyar- ^ s courtiers and servants abandoned him. Two domestics ti«jie were all who dared remain, and even these purified by fire the had vessels used by the unfortunate prince, and threw the remaining conta™ ^ 00< ^ to tne dogs. The weak monarch, instead of arousing to with the her defence, at length repudiated his blameless wife, queen!) ^- Henry, his son and successor, being disturbed by do- mestic conspiracies, sought aid of Robert, duke of Norman- 1031- dy? who re-established him upon the throne. In reward for this Henry I- service, Henry added to his duchy Chaumont, Pontoise, and other places which belonged to the crown. He was succeeded 1960. by his son Philip I., only eight years of age. During his Philip I. minority the regency was committed to the pious and dignified Baldwin, earl of Flanders, who preserved the peace of the nation by being always ready for war. Philip was on the throne of France, at the time when the council of Clermont decided on the first crusade. 3. SPAIN. — It will be recollected that after" the conquest of Spain by the Saracens and Moors, some of the Christian inha- bitants fled to the mountains of the north, where they founded * The palace of the popes of Rome is called the Vatican. The decrees which the pope sent forth had become, from his great power, so terrible, that they were expressively called " the thunders of the Vatican." Chap. IV. — 1. What may be said of the accession of the Dynasty of Capet in the room of the Carlovingian ? Under what circumstances had his successor contracted marriage ? What was the consequence of his excom- munication ? — 2. What account can you give of his successors ? — 3. What country of Spain had not been conquered by the Moors ? 220 ASTURIAS THE GERM OF CHRISTIAN SPAIN. 221 the kingdom of Asturias. From this mountainous domain, whose very insignificance proved its security, sprung - other kingdoms, which eventually subdued the Mahometan power on the peninsula. The descendants of the powerful Abderrhaman had undermined their own strength by their frequent dissen- sions ; and about the commencement of the eleventh century his family became extinct; and the kingdom of Cordova was divided into separate provinces, or petty kingdoms, over which the principal nobles assumed the sovereignty. The Christian do- minions in Spain had, at this time, become enlarged by en- croachments upon the Saracens, and the kingdoms of Leon, Castile, Navarre, and Jlrragon had each its respective monarch. 4. Sancho III., or the Great, united in his person the sove- reignty of Navarre and Arragon; and his son Ferdinand made himself master of Castile and Leon, so that the whole of Chris- tian Spain was, in 1035, under the government of one family. Alphonso VI., the successor of Ferdinand, recovered the city of Toledo. The wars between the Christians and Moors, in this century, are memorable for the display of valor and chi- valry. Don Roderigo Dias de Bivar, called the Cid, (the chief) was the most eminent of the Spanish knights, whose exploits have descended to posterity glowing with all the ro- mance of the age. 5. RUSSIA. — It was during this period that we first meet in history, the name of Russians. In the ninth century they ap- peared at Constantinople as traders, and exchanged their slaves, furs, honey, and the hides of their cattle, for the corn, wine, oil, manufactures and spices of Greece. The luxury and splendour of Constantinople excited the desires of the barbarians, and piratical expeditions were commenced. Their vessels, descend- ing the Borysthenes, penetrated the Euxine, and spread desola- tion through the province of Anatolia. At length the adventu- rous Russians menaced Constantinople. In their first enterprise, they entered the port during the absence of the emperor, Mi- chael. A tempest destroyed their ships, and compelled them to retreat. 6. Afterwards Nicephorus, emperor of Constantinople, in- stigated Swatoslaus, prince of the Russians, to undertake the conquest of the Bulgarians. The Russian prince having achieved this, soon gave indication of his dangerous vicinity. At the head of his barbarians he invaded the empire, and Nicephorus found himself unable to cope with the enemy he had brought upon his dominions. His successor, John Zimisces, was more successful. He obtained repeated victories over the Russians, drove them out of the empire, and pursued Swatoslaus to Dritza, Middle Hist. PERI'D IV. CHAP. IV. Sancho the Great IOOO. Alphonso VI. 1065- The Cid. 9th century. Russians first known in history. Russians threaten Constanti- nople. Bulgaria conquered by the Rus- sians. Russians in- vade the Greek em- pire. 3. What sprung from it ? What was the condition of the Saracens of Spain? What four Christian kingdoms had arisen? — 4r. Which of them did Sancho the Great govern ? Which his son ? Who is the most noted of the Spanish knights ? — 5. Give an account of the Russians in their first invasion of the Greek empire ?— 6. What was done by the Russians under Swatoslaus ? 222 ALEXIUS COMNENUS. Middle Hist. PERI'D IV. CHAP. IV. 963. Phocas. 98®. 05-^ Zimis- ^ ces. O o S 1059. Isaac 1 110s. Alexius. 1082. DU- RJiZ- zo. Robert Guis- card defeats Alexius a post on the Danube to which he had retreated. Here he be- sieged him, and compelled him and the remnant of his follow- ers, to return to their nation. 7. Olga, the mother of Swatoslaus, was a princess of un- common character. She bad early embraced Christianity, and received baptism from the patriarch of Constantinople. Her zealous efforts to Christianize her barbarous subjects had, how- ever, proved ineffectual ; even her son having rigidly adhered to the ancient religion. Yet the example and influence of Olga were not without effect. Her grandson Vlodomir, on his mar- riage with Anna, a princess of Constantinople, renounced ido- latry, and embraced the Christian faith. Her efforts to civilize her subjects, evinced a mind far in advance of the age in which she lived, and Vlodomir pursued the course marked out by her superior wisdom. 8. THE GREEK EMPIRE.— Basil, the Macedonian, was the founder of a new dynasty. He restored in some measure the falling honor of the empire, and rendered it again formidable to the barbarians and the Saracens. The reigns also of Njcepho- rus Phocas, and of his successor, John Zimisces, are signalized by their military spirit. John Zimisces conquered the Russians, penetrated Syria, and not only recovered Antioch from the Saracens, but passed the Euphrates, and made himself master of many Saracen cities. After these successes, the empire again sunk into insignificance, under the government of weak and effeminate princes. In the reign of Michael VI., the last of the Macedonian race, the Greeks awoke to a sense of their degra- dation, and invested Isaac Comnenus with the imperial purple. The Comneni were an illustrious family of Roman origin. Isaac, who was first raised to the imperial dignity, enjoyed his elevation but two years, when his declining health induced him to abdicate. 9. Alexius Comnenus, who succeeded him, filled the By- zantine throne at the time of the first crusade. Dangers sur- rounded the empire on every side. The provinces of the east had been conquered by the Turks, while the Greek possessions in Italy had been usurped by the Normans, who were advancing to Constantinople. Alexius found himself without soldiers, and with an exhausted treasury; yet compelled to maintain a con- test with powerful enemies. He made the best preparations in his power, assembled an army, and marched into Epirus, to • meet the Normans, who, under Robert Guiscard, had laid seige to Durazzo. Alexius was defeated; yet, amid all his calamities, he sustained himself with dignity, as is shown in the excellent 7. Give some account of Olga. — 8. What dynasty acceded to the do- minion of the Eastern empire in 867 ? Give an account of the founder. What three reigns (the two first not consecutive,) are signalized by energy and military talent ? What conquests were made by the last of the three ? What after this became the condition of the empire ? What change of dy nasties occurred ? — 9. Give an account of the second of the Comneni. Who invaded his empire ? What battle was fought ? DECLINE AND FALL OF THE CALIPHATE. 223 history of the times, written by his daughter, Anna Comnena, jjgge Hist. the best writer of that age, and the most renowned of female peri-d iv. historians. The conquests of the Normans were staj^ed by the chap. iv. return of Robert to Italy, where, having restored tranquillity, v -**~ v "" > w he resumed his eastern enterprise Alexius had improved his (Three naval naval force, and now disputed with the Norman chief the do- merits with minion of the sea. Three engagements took place near the ^ansV island of Corfu ; the third resulting in a victory of the Nor- mans. But the death of Robert relieved the empire from its most formidable enemy. 10. Ex\lPIRE OF THE CALIPHS.— Haroun al Raschid 8©?. 1 (Aaron the Just) was the sixth of the Abassides. His empire r0U rfai was more extensive, his power more absolute, and his court B ^ B - more splendid, than that of any other monarch of his age. While literature graced his luxurious capital, his victorious arms spread terror through the west. But he was killed in quelling Haroun a rebellion in Khorasan. The succession was disputed be- al ,^ a ?" tween his sons, and a civil war ended in the elevation of the killed in youngest, Al Mamon, who was even more distinguished than J^jJjJ his father for patronage of arts and letters. In his reign lion in volumes of Grecian science were translated into the Arabic ^arf" language, and every facility and encouragement afforded to the study of the sciences. He conquered Sicily and Crete. 11. But even in that magnificent reign, the decline of the em- pire had begun. Motassem, the successor of Al Mamon, es- tablished a guard of 50,000 Turks for the security of his Tl ^|jf sn throne ; these soon, like the praetorians of Rome, assassinated guards and elevated sovereigns at pleasure. At length their chief was t r h u e le p a" called " Emir al Omrah," " Commander of Commanders," and lace, ruled in the palace as the mayors had in France. The caliph came to be considered merely as the chief ecclesiastical officer. Cor ^° r j Spain, as we have seen, had revolted, and placed the last of the 300,000 Ommiyades, Abdalrahman, upon the throne of Cordova, and anTfts' even his descendants had passed away, and his kingdom been court rent into fragments. Fez was built and made the capital of a W most he petty kingdom. Three dynasties had arisen in Africa in the splendid commencement of the ninth century, and in the tenth, the de- ^ope." scendants of Fatima wrested from the Abassides the province of Egypt, and established their throne at Cairo. 12. RISE OF THE TURKISH POWER.— While the empire of the caliphs was thus dismembered, the power of the Turks was rising into consequence. It is believed that they possessed 9. Who was Anna Comnena? For what is she distinguished? — 10. Who were the most distinguished caliphs of the Abassides? What was the condition of the caliphate under these two, and what soon after? 1 1. What was established by Al Mamon's successor ? What happened in consequence of keeping such a standing army ? What was the condition of the independent kingdom whose seat was Cordova ? What city in Africa had been built as a seat of a petty empire ? How many such empires ex- isted in Africa independent of Bagdad in the ninth century ? What princi- pal province of Africa did the Abbassides lose in the tenth century? — 12. What account is here given of the Turks ? 224 MAHMOUD THE GHAZNEVIDE. Middle Hist. PERI'D IV. CHAP. IV. § Alp S Tegin. A. g i Capital Ghaz- ii], in Khora- Avicenna. (As a physi- cian marvel- lous cures are ascribed to him.) (Mahmoud made twelve ex- peditions to India.) 1032. Tagrul Beg. Near the JIHOM defeats Masoud. i &2 10T4. Malek Shah. Soli- 10?6. Jerusa- lem taken by the Turks. an ancient Scythian empire, but it had long been dissolved, and now powerful and independent tribes were widely scattered throughout the interior of Asia. Slaves and soldiers of Turkish ex- traction, were in the service of every monarch of Asia. The prin- cipality of Ghazni, in Khorasan, was founded by Alp Tegin, who rose from the condition of a slave. The most distinguished sovereign of the Ghaznevide dynasty, was Mahmoud. He was the patron of science, which now centred rather at Ghazni than at Bagdad. Avicenna, u the prince of Arabian philosophers and physicians," flourished during his reign. This great genius, at the age of twenty-one, undertook the first Encyclopedia which was ever compiled, and carried out his plan in twenty volumes, entitling his work " The Utility of Utilities." Besides this, he wrote seventeen other works, translations of which were the only books on mathematics and physics in use in the schools of Eu- rope in the twelfth century. Mahmoud added Transoxania and Persia to his dominions, and extended his conquests to Hindos- tan. He conquered the cities of Delhi, Lahore, and Multan, thus extending to the remote east the religion of the Moslems, which the Turks had embraced. The caliph of Bagdad conferred on him the title of sultan of Ghazni, and his authority was acknow- ledged from the Caspian to the Indus. 13. Tagrul Beg, a valiant Turk of the family of Seljouk of Samarcand, was the founder of the Seljoukian dynasty. He passed the Jihon, defeated Masoud, then sultan of Ghazni, and received from the caliph of Bagdad the title of sultan. He delivered the caliph from the oppression of the Turkish and Arabian emirs, and restored to him the city and district of Bagdad. Malek Shah, the second prince from Tagrul, was one of the most powerful conquerors of his age. He extended his dominions from the borders of China to the neighbourhood of Constantinople. The reign of Malek was peaceful and pros- perous, and through his liberality, the literature of the east re- vived. On his death, the empire ivas divided among his sons ; the Persian kingdom, as that to which the others were in some measure subordinate, being given to the eldest. Soliman, of the family of Seljouk, was a renowned and powerful sovereign. His interference was felt in the affairs of the Greek empire, as we find him establishing one of the emperors upon the throne. Under this valiant Turk, Jerusalem, Antioch, and at length all Asia Minor was subdued. Alexius, emperor of Constantino- ple, trembled for the safety of his empire, now also threatened by the Normans. He was forced to comply with the demands of the Turks, and confirm by treaty the conquests of Soliman. 12. Who was the founder of the dynasty of the Ghaznevides? What and where was his capital ? Give an account of the most distinguished of the Ghaznevides. Give an account of Avicenna. What dynasty supplanted the Ghaznevides? — 13. Give an account of Tagrul Beg — Of Malek Shah — Of Soliman. Notice particularly what cities he took, and how far he ex- tended the Turkish dominions. Preaching of Peter the Hermit. PERIOD V- THE COMMENCEMENT f 1100. < OF THE CRUSADES TO RY > 1492. < OF AMERICA, THE DISCOVER 1 CHAPTER I. Pilgrimages. — Chivalry. — The Crusades. 1. As the spiritual worship of the early Christians was ex- changed for the frivolous rites and idle ceremonies of later days, the possession of relics, and pilgrimages made to holy places, became objects of eager desire, and substitutes for personal piety. Of all pilgrimages, that to the holy sepulchre of Jerusa- lem was the most frequently made, and considered the most meritorious. It was performed by multitudes of devotees from every part of Europe. After the holy city fell into the hands of the Saracens, these pilgrimages, though attended with more difficulty and danger, were still continued. The caliph Haroun al Raschid afforded protection to the Christian pilgrims, even presenting to Charlemagne the keys of the holy sepulchre. His successors, the Abassides, pursued, as we have seen, the same tolerant system. But when the Fatimites of Africa obtained possession of Palestine and Syria, the pilgrims suffered from them severe persecution. Under the reign of Hakem, the third caliph of the Fatimite race, Christian churches were demolished, Middle Hist PERIOD V. CHAF. 7. PitorimaL'es to thp Holy Sepulchre. The Abassi- des protect the pilgrims. The Fati- mite? perse cute them. Period V. — Chap. I. — 1. For what had the spiritual worship of the early Christians been exchanged ? What then became objects of desire ? — what besides objects of desire did relics and pilgrimages become ? Which was regarded as the most meritorious pilgrimage ? Were there many that performed it ? How did the Abassides treat the pilgrims ? How did the Fatimites ? 29 225 226 CHIVALRY KNIGHTHOOD. Middle Hist, the destruction of the sepulchre attempted, and many Christians period v. suffered death. Under the succeeding caliphs, however, a tole- chap. i. rant spirit revived, and pilgrimages became more frequent than v- ^ N/ ^* w/ ever. Policy might dictate this course, as the treasury of the caliphs was replenished by the tribute which procured the pro- tection of the devotees. 2. Two years preceding the first crusade, pilgrimages had in- creased to an unparalleled extent, and multitudes of every age, and rank, and sex, thronged the roads to Jerusalem. The holy The Turks land now came into possession of the Turkish hordes ; and the ^""racenV 6 pilgrims, who with toil and suffering had pressed their way msterToT ^ rom { ^ e rnost distant P arts °f Christendom, often found them- the Holy selves on their arrival at the holy city, debarred from entrance, Land. j,y c i emanc i s which they were unable to meet, and thus deprived of the object for which their sufferings had been endured. Mul- Thepiigrims titudes perished by want; and of the thousands who directed in distress, their enthusiastic way to Asia, few returned to their homes. 3. These brought accounts of their injuries to their brethren in Europe. If in our days such devotees had existed, and had uttered complaints, the calm of society would not have been broken. The effects then produced, show how powerfully re- ligious faith animated the mass ; and not more remarkable is the stupidity with which the people rejected the Savior, with all his The eo le 1Tn g nt y works, than the zeal with which they were now ready reject the to sacrifice every thing to rescue his sepulchre. Yet had this nght°for a his dee P feelm g existed in the minds of the Christian eommu- sepuichre. nity one hundred years earlier, its dictates could not have been carried into action. But in the meantime, a spirit had been pro- duced, and an institution had arisen which while it was im- bued with the superstition of the times, was yet more honor- able to man, than any other merely human. This was the spirit of chivalry and the institution of knighthood, which, connected with Christianity, laid the foundation of a new, and eventually a better order of things. chivalry 4. Chivalry arose in Normandy, in the eleventh century, arose in There the home-born oppressions of the castled barons was se- N ?n The dy vere ^7 ^ L Those petty princes were leading their followers to eleventh perpetual wars, and outrage and licentiousness filled the land* century. wn i} e no government existed which could protect the weak against the strong. Then the spirit of virtuous indignation against oppression — of deep faith in Christianity, and of newly awakened admiration of the female sex, induced a band of noble minded young men to dedicate themselves in the fear of God to right the wrongs which existed around them. The priest 2. What is said of the acquisitions of the Turks ? How did they treat the pilgrims ? — 3. Suppose in our day such complaints had been made ? What do we find then remarkable in the spirit of those times ? Could that spirit have been carried into action much earlier ? What spirit and what institu tion had arisen ? — 4\ When and where did it arise ? What oppressions gave rise to it ? What was the spirit of chivalry ? To what did the knights de vote themselves ? s a sonnd mind. A BETTER STYLE OF MEN AND WOMEN. 227 hood sanctioned these resolutions, and the order of knighthood MUMe Hist, began. period v. 5. Each member of the order possessed the power to confer chap. i. it, on such candidates as had proved themselves worthy by vir- ^-^^^s^ tuous deeds and valorous exploits ; and knighthood soon be- came an honor to which kings and princes aspired. A conscious loftiness of purpose, and a firm persuasion of the protection of heaven, bore the knights almost above humanity. They ne- glected nothing which could increase and preserve their physi- Jj® knight ' t n-ii. j .1 i r l xi • takes great cai powers. 1 hey inured themselves trom early youth to in- caretopos- credible labors and privations, which made them strong and bodyjasweil hardy; and for self-preservation against the arms in use, they a cased their persons in steel armor, so heavy, that a man of mo- derate strength at this day could scarcely lift its weight. The war-horse which bore him to battle, was cared for by the cham- (I j[f e t?uTto° pion, as a mother cares for her child. The true knight pos- "God and $ sessed the perfection of manners, — courtesy, controlled by candor. To maintain truth in word and act, was a part of his vow. He was not ashamed of his religion, or his love, and never spoke lightly of the one or the other. 6. In the meantime, the female character and condition had The regene- been changed by the introduction of Christianity, which showed gating in- that women had an equal share with men, in the grace of God Christianity and the blessings of immortality. The virtues which elevate the r ™ctS and sex were taught and enforced. Men received special directions, condition of from Christ and his apostles, in regard to their treatment of the weaker sex; which moderated their tyranny, and restrained their The feudal licentiousness. The feudal system, co-operating with these bringJanew causes, produced an entire new feature in modern civil iza- feature into , F -, . . f. , -, .. . . modern ci- tion, which was now arising from the ashes of the ancient, viiization. This was domestic society. The hereditary baron in his proud castle, surrounded with his serfs and menials, was a petty so- vereign ; and but for the society of his own family, must have {J regarded been reduced to utter solitude. His wife and daughters thus astyranni- came to be known and appreciated, as the dispensers of domes- wom^n are tic joy. Woman being now beheld in her proper niche, — her disposed of style of character changed by Christianity, — seemed invested without with a new and holy light. Men of finer mould, such as knight- ^g^) hood found or made, seemed awe-struck, and almost rendered idolatrous worship. 7. Peter the Hermit, a native of Amiens, in France, re- returned from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where his enthusiasm had been fed, and his resentment enkindled. He hastened to 5. What power did each knight possess ? Who aspired to be knights? What mentally and physically bore up the knights and fitted them for high achievements? Did they neglect their own health, or even that of their war-steeds? In what respect had the true knight the highest style of fine manners ? — 6. What had effected a change in the character and condition of women? In what respect did it show them on an equality with men? What precepts of Christianity operated in favor of women? What effect had the feudal system on modern civilization ? How did it operate to pro- duce this effect ? 228 EUROPE IN ARMS. Middle Hist, visit the pope, Urban II., and with his approbation the enthu- period v. siastic Peter went through Europe, publishing the sufferings of chap. i. the pilgrims, and calling on Christain warriors to have pity upon ^-"^^w their brethren, — to go up to battle in the name of the Lord, and 1095. no longer suffer the holy sepulchre to be defiled by infidels. P He e rmu e ^he hearts °f the people burned as he spoke, and the flame rouses up spread from city to city, from country to country. Every- aiready P by where the holy Peter was received with rapture. The pope previous ac- called a council at Placentia. Ambassadors were here received C °pared. re " from Alexius Comnenus, emperor of the east, who had pre- 1095- viously sent to beg the aid of the western powers against the cans'? coun- Turks by whom Constantinople was threatened ■ and he now cii at Pia- reiterated his petition, and plead the danger of delay. taiy. S. A second council was convened in the autumn of the same year at Clermont, to make a final decision. An immense councTat multitude of priests, princes, and nobles were present ; and so Clermont, g rea t was the concourse of people, that the city was filled, and thousands compelled to erect shelters in the fields. Urban ad- dressed the assembled crowds, and with the most persuasive eloquence depicted the horrors of infidel oppression, the duty Eloquence °^ armm g m the defence of the holy cause, and the rewards of Urban, of the faithful. The effect was overwhelming; the crowds slafrh ofthe sent forth > simultaneously, the shout " God wills it." " God people, wills it." " It is the will of God," replied the pope, " and let this memorable word, the inspiration surely of the Holy Spirit, be forever adopted as the battle-cry, to animate the devotion and courage of the champions of Christ." The sign of the cross was immediately impressed on the right shoulders of the garments of the champions ; the pope pronounced the absolu- tion of their sins, and the multitude separated to prepare for the war. 1096. 9. The 15th of August following, was fixed for the depar- o^crus^ders ture °f the pilgrims ; but so eager were the lower orders, and under Peter so incapable of appreciating the necessity of preparation, that crowds, under the command of Walter the Pennyless, and Peter the Hermit, took their departure early in the spring. Walter was possessed of considerable military talent, but the multitudes who marched under his standard were un- disciplined and ungovernable. The crowd who followed Peter were, if possible, still more licentious. Before they reached Constantinople, many of these crusaders had fallen by skir- Are de- mishes with the Hungarians and Bulgarians. From Constanti- S Hungary nople they crossed the Bosphorus, but in their progress through andBuiga- Bithynia, nearly the whole fell an easy conquest to the Turks. Peter returned to Constantinople, and Walter fell in battle. 10. But while these undisciplined bodies were hurrying to de- struction, the chivalry of Europe, under their most warlike and ?. Who first preached a crusade? How was his preaching received? Who was the pope, and what course did he take ? — 8. Describe the coun cil at Clermont. — 9. Give an account of the first army of crusaders. THE FIRST CRUSADE. 229 able commanders, were preparing for more regular warfare. M ^die Hist . The most renowned chiefs of the first crusade were Godfrey period v. of Bouillon, duke of Lorraine ; Hugh, count of Vermandois, chap. i. brother of the French king; Robert, duke of Normandy, son v ^^ v ^*- / of William the Conqueror; Robert, count of Flanders; Ray- The knights mond, count of Toulouse; Adhemar, Bishop of Puy, and manders of Bohemond, prince of Tarentum, son of Robert Guiscard. It the a Jm Ular was under his banners that Tancred, his kinsman, and the pride of European chivalry, marched. These various forces, under the command of their respective chiefs, took separate routes for Constantinople. 11. Hugh of Vermandois was the first who reached the do- minions of Alexius Comnenus. Here he had expected friend- E tf?e east* ship and welcome, but he was, on his arrival, arrested and treats the imprisoned. The emperor of the east was conscious of his "with™ weakness, and though when he supplicated aid from the west, cruelty, he would gladly have received a few thousand troops, he was alarmed at such formidable and warlike hosts. " It seemed," says the princess Anna Comnena, " as if all Europe, loosened from its foundation, was precipitating itself upon Asia." On the arrival of Godfrey, Hugh was released, not however, until he had done homage to the emperor of the east. The policy of Alexius was to preserve his own sovereignty, and to convey from Constantinople one army, previous to the arrival of another. 12. Before the walls of Nice, now made the capital of the 109'Y. Seljoukian kingdom, the several bodies of crusaders met and Nic^'the besieged the city. Robert of Normandy arrived after the com- £ a P| tE j! of mencement of the siege. Peter the Hermit also joined them kias!be-~ with the small wreck of his host. The number of the crusaders t ak e g n d b an a d n after this junction, is computed at six hundred thousand armed army of warriors. While tTie Christians besieged his capital, Soliman, cr u° s °aders. who had been assembling his warriors from the distant parts of his dominions, arrived on the mountains, in view of the Chris- tian camp. A battle ensued, the Turks were defeated, and obliged to retreat. After a few weeks the city surrendered. 13. The efforts of Soliman in raising another army were unremitting and vigorous, and when, after the surrender of the city, the crusaders commenced their march, he surprised them in Phyrgia and gave them battle, but the Christians were again Crusaders triumphant. Great numbers in both armies fell. The Turks, ^ous over" who saved themselves by retreat, proceeded next to desolate the Turks, the country through which the route of the crusaders lay. Thus the difficulties of their march increased, and numbers sunk under hardships. After halting a while at Antiochetta, the army proceeded on their march towards Antioch. 14. After an unsuccessful attempt at storming this city, its IO. Who were the chiefs of the regular army?— 11. How did Alexius Comnenus treat the crusaders ? What was his daughter's expression re- ^ specting the number of the crusaders?— 12. Give an account of the siege of Nice as to the besiegers. What did the suhan S'oliman ? — 13. What v. happened to the crusaders on their way from Nice to Antioch ? 230 DESTRUCTIVE SIEGE OF ANTIOCH. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. I. The cru- saders be- sieged in Antioch by the Persians and Turks. Priests re- sort to the aid of super- stition . (" Those that hide can find.") 4NT10CH. The cru- saders de- feat the Turks and Persians. Loss of the vanquished 69,000. October. 1099. siege was commenced. For seven months it continued with little prospect of success, when, one night, the commander of one of the towers treacherously admitted a body of the cru- saders within the city. The Turks, awakened by the horns giving signal to the army without the walls, rushed to arms, and the sanguinary and hopeless contest continued through the night. The gates were opened to the army without, and in the confusion and darkness, many Christians, as well as Turks, fell by the hands of their brethren. In the fanaticism of the moment, the most horrid excesses and cruelties were committed. Though the Christians obtained possession of the city, the citadel was still occupied by the Turks. The small supplies of provisions which the Christians found within the city were soon exhausted, and before measures could be taken for pro- curing more, an immense army, under the command of the Persian Emir, appeared before the walls. The successes of the Christians had alarmed the Mahometan powers, and the repre- sentations of Soliman had roused them to aid in the defence of his kingdom. 15. The crusaders were in their turn besieged. The Persian Emir and Soliman had joined their forces, and were now set down before Antioch, with three hundred thousand men. The most horrible famine prevailed in the Christian army. Their horses were slain for food, while within their view, the Turkish camp displayed every luxury. When thus reduced to the utmost distress, the superstition of the soldiers was called in aid. Either deluded by their enthusiastic imagination, or prac- tising deception, the priests declared they saw visions from heaven encouraging them to persevere, and promising them vic- tory. A monk asserted that the place where the lance which pierced the Savior's side was buried, was revealed to him, with directions to procure it, and assurances of victory when in possession of this holy relic. Search was made, and after some digging, the monk descended into the excavation and returned with the lance. The hearts of the soldiers revived, and being purified by the customary rights of the church, the following morning they advanced, full of assurance, against the infidels, although vastly inferior in numbers The battle was, on the part of the Turks, bravely and obstinately fought. A cry arose among the crusaders that the saints were seen fight- ing on their side. This gave to the fanatical host resistless might, and the Turks fled in confusion. Their camp fell into the hands of the victors, and abundance succeeded to famine. 16. The chiefs delayed two months in Antioch, when a se- vere pestilence swept away multitudes of their followers. In October they marched, and at length arrived in sight of the 14. Give an account of the taking of Antioch. What army appears against the crusaders ? — 15. What was now the condition of the crusading army? By what means did the priests animate the soldiers? What was the result of the battle? — 16. With what numbers, and at what time did the crusaders march from Antioch to Jerusalem ? JERUSALEM TAKEN BY THE CRUSADERS. 231 holy city. Dissensions had arisen, but the knights laid them jfigfc Hist. aside by mutual concessions, and directed every thought to their period v. common object. Though now reduced to less than sixty chap. ii. thousand men, the most vigorous preparations were made for the assault of the city. Moveable towers, and all the imple- ments of destruction known to the warriors of the eleventh century were prepared. Efforts of valour almost incredible were made by the chiefs during the two days of the assault. They take At length they gained the battlements, and there planted the l storm. Y standard of the cross. A most dreadful massacre followed, and 1099- the blood of thousands polluted the holy places of Jerusalem. 17. The object of the war being accomplished in the deliver- ance of the holy sepulchre, the crusaders now bent their thoughts to the permanent establishment of their power. God- amcelon. frey of Buillon, the most deserving of their chiefs, was elected king of Je- king of Jerusalem. He soon found himself compelled to en- JJjjJJJ^ gage in new conflicts, and at Askelon he encountered and de- .Moslem feated a great army of Moslems. On the death of Godfrey, ^"oqo foot, after much dissension, Baldwin, his brother, received the and 100,000 crown. Under his administration, the kingdom of Jerusalem flourished. His army triumphed over the Turks, Persians and Saracens combined. Acre, Tripolis, and Sidon were taken; and also, in 1124, by the aid of the Venetians, Tyre was added to the kingdom of Jerusalem. Thus had this vast movement 1124. broken for the time the power of the Turks. Had the Chris- tians remained at home they would probably have been obliged to receive its shock at their own doors. CHAPTER II. The Greek Empire. — Germany. — France. 1. THE GREEK EMPIRE.— The emperor Alexius, equally 1097- alarmed by the encroachments of the Turks in Asia, and the c ^y' f swarm of pilgrim warriors from Europe, pursued a treacherous Alexius, course of policy, by which he designed to benefit his own kingdom, whichever way the fortune of war might incline. Thus, while he urged the Christians to the prosecution of the holy war, he afforded them no aid, but rather impeded their movements. On the surrender of Nice to the crusaders, a secret treaty was completed between an agent of Alexius and the Turks, by which that city became the prize of the Grecian enlarges emperor. While the Christians proceeded onwards to Jerusa- his ir e e m " lem, and occupied the attention and strength of the Mahometan powers, Alexius recovered by his arms possession of many of 16. Describe the taking of the city.' — IT. What was the next object of the crusaders? Who was the first king of Jerusalem? Give an account of the kingdom during the reign of Baldwin. What had this vast move- ment accomplished ? Chap. II.— 1. What was the policy of the emperor Alexius Comnenus? 232 THE WARS OF THE INVESTITURES. Middle Hist. 1143. Manuel. 1084. Henry IV. wars against two other popes and his two sons. 1106. Henry V. carries on with the popes the war for pre- eminence, called the war of the investitures. 1119. Tope and emperor re- conciled. 1125. Lothaire of Saxony. the cities of Asia Minor, and of some of the islands which had been conquered by the Turks. He thus transmitted his empire to his successors with its boundaries enlarged, and its internal affairs in a prosperous condition. 2. John, his son and successor, swayed the imperial sceptre twenty-five years with vigor and clemency. The penalty of death was abolished during his reign. Manuel, a warrior of great physical strength and prowess, was the son and successor of John. He was occupied with a series of wars against the Turks, and the barbarians beyond the Danube. After his reign a period of fifty years occurs where the Byzantine history pre- sents no prominent name or event. 3. GERMANY. — The war of the investitures did not cease with the death of Gregory VI 1. Urban II. pursued the same design of aggrandizing the Roman See, and Henry IV. of Ger- many, the same resolution of keeping the power of the emperor superior to that of the pope. At the instigation of Urban, Con- rad, the son of Henry, rebelled, — assumed the title of king of Italy, and induced many of the cities to submit to his govern- ment. Meanwhile, the death of Conrad and Urban, while it changed the actors on the scene, did not change the current of events. Pascal II., successor of Urban, excommunicated the emperor, and induced his younger son, Henry, to revolt and assume the imperial honors. Henry IV. was deposed, and he who had fought sixty battles was reduced to such extreme dis- tress, that he applied for the place of under- chanter in a church at Spires, and was refused, where gratitude was his due. But his fortunes seemed again rising, when he died. 4. No sooner did his successor Henry V., find himself se- curely seated on the throne, than he entered upon the same course of opposition to the church, which his father had main- tained. During the contest, which continued many years, Henry repeatedly marched into Italy, defeated the forces of the pope, and at one time made him prisoner. The pope excom- municated the emperor, and the emperor appointed a new pope, who revoked the sentence, and confirmed his right of investi- ture. At length the states, weary of the disorder and confusion attending the contest, effected a reconciliation. Calixtus II., who filled with ability the papal throne, called a council, at which the ambassadors of the emperor appeared, and in which a compromise between the emperor and the pope was concluded. The reign of Henry V. was one of the most bloody which had desolated Christendom ; marked not only by the war just men- tioned, but by others with Hungary and Poland. •5. On the death of Henry, who had no children, the states elected Lothaire, duke of Saxe Supplembourg. He engaged in war with the Bohemians from whom he exacted homage. Lo- 1. In what condition did he leave his empire ? — 2. Give some account of the successors of Alexius ? — 3. Relate the remainder of the history of Henry IV. — 4:. What course did Henry V. take with regard to the wars of (he in- vestiture ? How was the dispute settled ? GUELPHS iND GHIBELLINES. 233 thaire espoused the cause of Innocent II., against a rival pope, Anacletus, and marched into Italy to establish his right. This involved him in a war with Roger, duke of Apulia, who es- poused the cause of Anacletus. The arms of Lothaire prevailed, Roger was driven from his Italian possessions into Sicily, which he had recently conquered, and Anacletus was imprisoned. During this reign, the Justinian code of laws was -adopted in Germany. 6. The sudden death of Lothaire, without heirs, again changed the line of succession. The states convened, and elected Con- rad of Franconia, nephew of Henry V. The duke of Bavaria, of the family of the Guelphs, aided by the pope, disputed his title, and embroiled the empire in a civil war. The emperor's brother, Frederic, duke of Suabia, commanded the imperial forces, and his soldiers took the name of Ghibellines, from Ghibel, the place of Frederic's nativity. Hence, while the party favored by the pope was termed the Guelphs, that of the empe- ror ions called the Ghibellines, and the wars for supremacy which had been called the wars of the investitures, were re- newed under the party watch-words of Guelphs and Ghibellines. 7. No sooner was tranquillity in any measure restored, than Conrad II!., inspired by the preaching of St. Bernard with the fanaticism of the times, resolved to take arms in defence of the Christians in the Holy Land, they being pressed by the Maho- metan powers, who in 1144 took Edessa. Conrad marched to Asia, but failing in the object of his enterprise, he returned with the wreck of his army. Frederic Barbarossa was elected his successor. He kept up the wars with the popes; subdued the Poles, awed the Bohemians, and obliged the king of Den- mark to do him homage. The spirit of liberty had arisen in the Lombard cities ; several of which, encouraged by the pope, revolted from the emperor. Frederic marched into Italy, and took signal vengeance on the revolted cities He razed Milan to its foundations, strewed salt upon its ruins, and destroyed several other cities, or deprived them of their privileges. He marched repeatedly into Italy, but was not successful in his at- tempts to conquer the Lombards. 8. FRxANCE. — Philip I., who was on the throne of France at the commencement of this period, was a profligate and licen- tious prince. So openly dissolute was his character, that in the council of Clermont, assembled within his own kingdom, Urban II. did not hesitate to pronounce his excommunication. This en- Middle Hist. PERIOD v. CHAP. II. 1141. Conrad III. Guelphs and Ghibellines. (It is said that in these wars the castle of Weinsburg being taken, the women had leave to quit the pre- mises with what they could carry ; when, be- hold, they came out with each her husband on her back.) 1147. Conrad III. engaged in the second crusade. 1152. Frederic Barbarossa, bold and warlike. 1162. Milan de- stroyed. From 1060. to llOS. Philip I. 5. Give some account of the events which occurred during the reign of Lothaire. — 6. Who succeeded Lothaire? Who opposed the election of Conrad ? What is the origin of the terms Guelph and Ghibelline ? Which of these is the name of a family, and which from the name of a town ? — T. What incident connected with these wars is related ? What was now the condition of the Christians in Palestine? Whom do we find preaching a second crusade ? What was done by Conrad in reference to the Holy Land ? Give an account of Conrad's successor. Of his operations in Italy. — 8 What was the character of Philip I. ? What was done by pope Urban, and where ? 30 234 THE SECOND CRUSADE. Middle Hist, couraged his nobles, who openly aspired to independence; anb period v. during his weak and inefficient reign, many encroachments were chap. ii. made on the prerogatives of the crown. 9. Philip was succeeded by his son Louis VI. The energy and virtue of Louis restored the monarchy. During the prin- cipal part of his reign, he was occupied in a war with Henry J. of England, who had acquired Normandy from his brother Ro- bert, and now withheld it from William, the son of Robert. Louis maintained his power over the nobles, by showing himself the protector of the lower orders, and by making freemen of many of the vassals, and thus composing a third estate, or com- mons. 10. Louis VII., the Young, his son and successor, was Louis ' early involved in war with the aspiring nobles. He was suc- vii. cessful in subduing them, but the destruction of thirteen hun- c fe e u e C d" s dred persons in the town of Vitre, who had taken refuge in a his fa- c h urcn to which he ordered fire to be put, pressed heavily on his conscience. Reasoning on the vain addition to Christianity . made in the dark ages, he believed that his own deeds could be carried by the church to the credit side of his Maker's account These- current; and to balance this sin, he undertook a Second Cru- crusade. sade. His army fell before the arrows of the Moslems ; and after a visit to the holy city, productive of no efficient aid to Eiea- the Christians there, he returned with the wreck of his forces. heiress On h* 8 reaching France, Eleanor, his queen, was divorced on of an accusation of adultery. She married the duke of Normandy, neand afterwards Henry II. of England; who, by this marriage, Poictou, obtained her rich dowry — the fine provinces of Guienne and vorced. PoictOU. 11. Philip Augustus, succeeded his father in the fifteenth year of his age. He bore the character of a wily politician, who knows how to move men, as in a game. He entered into an al- 11SO. liance with Richard, the son of Henry of England, and encour- Au1?- 2. Frederic being a minor, his uncle, Philip, duke of Swabia, (Fifth became regent. The sultan of Egypt had reduced the Chris- 2 d u e " tians of the east to great distress, and their only hope was in by An- the aid of their brethren of the west. To engage Frederic in d nSIi- f their cause, the pope gave him in marriage Yolanda, the daugh- gary.) ter of John of Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem, with that king- 1228. dom as her dower. Still Frederic manifested a reluctance to Y ™ C A \{. depart, until the patience of the pope was exhausted, and he con- pronounced his excommunication. The emperor now renewed ftf the war of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. He invaded Italy, sixth - compelled the pope to flee from Rome, and ravaged his pos- sessions. Frederic at length proceeded to perform his vow ; but fig ^, w departed for the holy land without the sentence of excommuni- in Pa- cation having been revoked. His crusade was more successful ^ib\t than that of either of the preceding monarchs. The sultan of 01 the Egypt ceded to him Jerusalem, with several other cities. A truce ceeding often vears was concluded. Gregory IX. would not allow any c ™~ f , ." . . . . & t^ J , . i . r. T , J sades,of ecclesiastics to assist m crowning r redenc king of Jerusalem, which there were ric main- tains but he took the crown from the altar, and with his own hands placed it on his head. four.) 3. The pope instigated his subjects in Italy to revolt, and for several years, Germany and Italy were deluged with blood. A succession of popes declared Frederic excommunicated and de- Frede- throned, and new emperors elected. Still he maintained his cause, until death relieved the popes from a fearless and formid- able enemy. But the troubles of the empire increased. Tumult a gahist and confusion prevailed. All classes were in arms ; several em- the perors were elected, but none properly acknowledged, until 125^ Rodolph of Hapsburgh, a prince of the ancient family of the *s>>^5 Guelphs, and possessing considerable territories in Switzerland, r - was raised to the throne. From him sprang the House of do, P n - Austria. 4. While Germany was in this state of disorder, Denmark, *nM* Holland, and Hungary threw off their allegiance to the empire. Hanse- A confederation of several cities, the principal of which were atic JLubec, Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzic, was formed about 1. What countries did he conquer? Who succeeded him? — 2. What was now the condition of the Christians in the Holy Land ? What did the pope to induce Frederic to undertake a crusade ? Did he fulfil his promise at once? What did Frederic in consequence of the pope's excommunica- tion? Relate the circumstances of Frederic's crusade. Which crusade was this ? Was there fighting in the Holy Land during this or any future crusade? What was done at the coronation of Frederic in Jerusalem ? How many crusades were there? — 3. What occurred afterwards during this em- peror's reign ? What after his decease ? Who was elected to succeed him ? — 4. What states during the interregnum became independent ? ►8 o 3 246 Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. IV. 1291 Adolphus of Nassau. 130S. Albert seeks to subjugate wholly the Swiss. William Tell's intre- pidity. (There is a difference among his- torians con- cerning this story of Tell; but it seems highly im- probable that it should so long have been be- lieved un- less it were true.) General re- volt in Switzer- land. 1315. MORGAR- TEN- The Swiss show the superiority of infantry. THE HERO OF SWITZERLAND. this period in the west of Germany. These cities were situated on, and near the Elbe. They were called the Hanse towns, and the confederation the Hanse atic League. Rodolph took arms against Ottocarus, king of Bohemia, who had seized the duchy of Austria; defeated and slew him in battle. Austria was given to Albert, the eldest son of Rodolph. The reign of Rodolph was prosperous and popular. The electors at his death, rejecting Albert, chose Adolphus of Nassau; but he was eventually deposed, when Albert obtained the sovereignty. 5. The Swiss Cantons of Uri, Schwitz and Under wald, al- though free and independent in their internal government, had been obliged to acknowledge the supremacy of the empire, under the administration of Rodolph, who, however, treated them with great lenity. Albert, indignant at the spirit of freedom which they had occasionally expressed, sent bailiffs, with orders to tame these mountaineers, and bring them to subjection. Gesler, one of these officers, had erected m the market place, a pole on which he placed his hat, commanding the passers by to pay it obeisance. William Tell refused to yield the ho- mage. He was sentenced to death, but his sentence was ex- changed into a command to shoot an apple from the head of his son ; and if his arrow failed, both he and his son were to be executed. Tell hit the apple ; — but Gesler discovered another arrow in his possession, and inquired for what purpose he de- signed it. " For thee," replied Tell. He was imprisoned, and put on board a boat to be conveyed across the lake of Lucerne. A storm arose, and Tell was unbound, that his known skill might save the perishing bark. He guided her course to a shore, where, springing upon a rock, he killed Gesler with an arrow as he landed, and then escaped to his friends, in the canton of Schwitz, who were already banded in the cause of their coun- try's liberties. 6. Melchthal, Stauffacher, and Furst, three patriot leaders, had in secret matured their plans ; and the affair of Tell proving the signal of revolt, the whole country rose in arms. The Austrian officers, surprised, and unable to resist, were made prisoners, and conducted to the frontiers, where they were with- out bloodshed liberated, on their swearing never again to serve against the Swiss. After the death of Albert, Germany was again distracted by two emperors being elected at the same time, and the people arranged by their leaders on opposite sides, were wasting and destroying their common country and themselves. During this period, one of their emperors, Leopold, undertook 4. What confederacy arose, and of what cities was it composed? How does Albert become sovereign of Austria? What account can you give of his being elected emperor? — '5. What three of the Swiss cantons are here mentioned ? What account can you give of them ? What orders did Albert give his officers ? Relate the story of William Tell. — 6. Who were the three patriot leaders leagued with Tell? What was done by them and the Swiss generally ? What occurred after the death of Albert in rela- tion to the succession ? What number and kind of force went against the Swiss ? With what did the Swiss defeat them, and where ? THE POPES AND EMPERORS STILL CONTEND. 247 to reduce the Swiss, and went against them with 21,000 cavalry. Middle Hist. But the brave mountaineers, with 1,300 infantry, defeated them period v. at Morgarten ; and established the independence of Switzerland, chap. iv. Other cantons soon joined them, and in 1353, there were thirteen. v -«'~ v ^ , w 7. Henry, count of Luxembourg, was elevated by the electors to the throne. His short reign is but a repetition of 1318. that of his predecessors — intrigues at home, — contests with the Henry vii., popes, — wars in Italy. During one of these he died suddenly, Jh^pope. at Benevento. After an interregnum of fourteen months, two emperors were elected in Germany, who, by their conflicting «*>*>«> claims, brought again the curse of civil war. Louis of Bava- Louis of Ba- ria being at length elected, carried his arms into Italy. Pope varia - John XXII., who resided at Avignon, excited the German princes to revolt. On the return of trie emperor to quell the domestic disturbances, the pontiff recovered his power at Rome, and the The same friends of the emperor were expelled from the city. Finding overlain, all reconciliation with the Roman see impossible, Louis sum- The empe- moned a diet, which decreed that the pope had no superiority po pe con- over the German emperor; nor was his approval essential in tend for su- the imperial elections, the power of choosing the emperor being vested in the college of electors alone. For a while the empire remained at peace, but the intrigues of the pontiffs again pro- duced open hostilities to Louis ; and Clement VI., who had i V ! r f S succeeded to the papal chair, procured the election of Charles Luxem- of Luxembourg, son and heir of the king of Bohemia. Louis soon died, and Charles becoming emperor, was a mere tool for the reigning popes. 8. It was, however, during this reign, that the constitution 1855. called the " Golden Bull" was established. By this the number %^a and duties of the electors were settled, and the succession of each consti- electorate acknowledged as belonging to the oldest son. This f or the famous instrument shows the style and spirit of the times. It ^ e n ™^" begins with an apostrophe to Satan, Anger, Pride, and Luxury; racy, (so and it sets forth the necessity that the number of electors should ^.JJ^f be seven, in order to oppose the seven mortal sins ! On the the death of Charles, his son Wince slaus succeeded to the impe- pa p n er rial throne, as well as to the crown of Bohemia. The shameful which it levity and utter profligacy of this prince disqualified him forthe writ- care of his empire ; and under his administration, its affairs, both ten,) in Germany and Italy, went to ruin. The electors held a diet and deposed him. Winceslaus took their treatment, however, 13^8. in good part, and returned to his hereditary dominions ; only winces- desiring the cities to send him as a parting present, some butts of their best wine! 9. Frederic, duke of Brunswick, was next chosen, who was shortly after murdered ; and subsequently, Rupert, count pala- tine of the Rhine, was elected to fill the vacant throne. At this T. What occurred during the reign of Henry of Luxembourg ? What during that of Louis of Bavaria? — 8. What was the golden bull? What was settled bv it? Give some account of the successor of Charles TV. — !>. Who succeeded Winceslaus? 248 DAWN OF THE REFORMATION. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. IV. Sigismund. 1415. Council of Constance. John Huss burnt. 1416. Jerome of Prague. 1438. Albert II. succeeds Sigismund. 1440. Frederic III. 1453. Turks mas- ters of Con- stantinople. 1493- Maximilian 1491. Philip II., Augustus. perioJ may be dated the commencement in Germany of a schism in the church, which led the way to " the Reformation." John Huss, of Prague, a follower of certain opinions which Wick- liffe had taught in England, began to teach in Bohemia. The emperor Rupert vainly sought to heal the dissensions which arose in the church, but died without effecting his object. He was succeeded in the imperial government by Sigismund, king of Hungary, brother to the deposed Winceslaus. The disorders of the church claimed his first attention. A general council was, with the approbation of the pope, convened at Constance. Huss was cited to appear, charged with heresy, condemned, and with a mitre of paper placed upon his head, on which were painted three devils, he was committed to the flames, and died maintaining his faith. The same opinions were professed, and taught by the learned Jerome of Prague, the companion of Huss ; and he suffered the same fate. But these executions served to increase the number of the Hussites; and in Bohemia they maintained a long war with the imperial power. A pacification was at length effected, and they were granted the privileges which they claimed. 10. Albert, duke of Austria, son-in-law of Sigismund, suc- ceeded him in the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, and was subsequently raised to the imperial throne. His short reign was alarmed by the appearance of the Turks in Bulgaria. His sudden and early death prevented his meeting them in arms. He was succeeded on the thrones of Hungary and Bohemia, by his son Ladislaus, then a minor, and the empire was conferred on his cousin, Frederic of Austria. This prince wandered, like his predecessors, after the phantom of power which their Italian titles conferred, and was crowned at Rome. Europe was now alarmed at the progress of the Turks, who made, them- selves masters of Constantinople. Assemblies were summoned for the purpose of arming Christendom against them, but nothing effectual was done. John Hunniades, general of the Hunga- rians, compelled them to raise the siege of Belgrade, which they had invested. Frederic III. was succeeded by his son, Maxi- milian, arch-duke of Austria. He married Mary, only child of Charles the Bold, and heiress of Burgundy and Flanders, and thus obtained possession of these extensive domains, which were at this period rich and commercial. 11. FRANCE. — Philip Augustus, on going to the crusade, had pledged himself by oath not to encroach upon the do- minions of Richard ; but the pope giving him a dispensation, 9. Who subsequently ? What persons were at this period tried and con- demned ? At what council were they condemned, and for what? What effect had their death upon the belief of the people ? What was done, and what obtained by the Hussites? — 10. In whose reign did the Turks ap- pear ? In whose reign did they conquer Constantinople ? What hero met them in Hungary ? Pay particular attention to the successor of Frederic III. Who was he ? By what marriage connexion did he gain large pos- sessions? In what condition was Burgundy and Flanders? — 11. How did Philip Augustus conduct in reference to Richard of England ? last. THE TIME OF INNOCENT III. 249 Philip held himself free to follow out his ambitious inclinations, jggfe HisL He excited Richard's younger brother John to rebel against him, period v. and practised to have Richard himself detained prisoner in Germany : but the lion-hearted warrior escaped, and Philip wrote to John, " Beware ; the devil is unchained." On Richard's return to his dominions, a war ensued between the rivals, but it was characterized by no remarkable event, and waged with little vigor. On the accession of John to the crown of Eng- land, Philip summoned him as his vassal of Normandy, to ap- pear before him and answer for the murder of his nephew, Arthur. John neglecting to appear, his continental dominions Philip were declared forfeit, and annexed to the French crown. The ^"so- pope, in a quarrel with John, gave to Philip the crown of Eng- vereign land ; and he made extensive preparations for a war in vindica- charie- tion of the claim thus obtained. Meanwhile the pontiff con- magne. eluded a peace with England, and revoked the gift. Philip, as a sovereign of the French, was one of their best. He not only enlarged his domains, but he consolidated his power, and gained an ascendancy over the nobles favorable to the interests of -j^^S the people, constituting a royal court, to which they could ap- i j0U i S peal from the decisions of the baronial courts. He also estab- ^JH- lished a royal military force, paid directly from his own coffers, against 12. The short reign of Louis VIII. is memorable for nothing ^^J" rfave finishing a cruel war undertaken by his father, Philip Au- ses. gustus, against the Waldenses and Albigenses* religious orders in the south of France. Pope Innocent III. denounced them as 1226 heretics, and commanded the chivalry to destroy them. The L ^\ g famous Simon be Montfort commanded against them, and ix. 200,000 men were employed in extirpating a million of harm- mak e es less people. Louis IX., called Saint Louis, being a minor, his the s e - mother, the excellent Blanche of Castile, held the reins of c™- government, and with a vigorous hand. He undertook a cm- **#|- sade for the benefit of Christians in the east, now in distress, the' He first directed his arms against Egypt, as being the key of E ^ h d th the holy land •, but his army was reduced by pestilence, defeat- ed by the Moslems, and himself made prisoner. He was re- k The Albigenses, who were in Piedmont, must be distinguished from the Waldenses, or followers of Peter Waldo, in Dauphiny, Narbonne and Provence. The Albigenses, so called from the town of Albigeois, were a sect of the Monichseans, and held to certain doctrines respecting the origin of good and evil deemed heretical ; with these they mingled an abhorrence of the Roman hierarchy, for which the pope decreed their destruction. The Waldenses held to deriving their religion, without the intervention of man, directly from God — by his holy spirit, and through his written word, which they circulated. This makes the Waldenses the true precursors of the Re- formation. The persecution of the Albigenses was, however, equally sinful. Some distinguish the Vallenses from the Waldenses as a church coming down from the apostles, and having never bowed to Rome. 11. Where was Richard detained on his return from the holy land? What did Philip write to John when he escaped ? How did Philip get pos- session of Normandy ? What gift did he receive from the pope ? What was Philip's character as a sovereign ? What were his principal acts ? — 12. For what was the reign of Philip's son memorable ? Who were the Albi- genses i The Waldenses ? The Vallenses ? Give an account of Louis IX. 8 32 ves- pers. 250 THE SICILIAN VESPERS. Middle Hist, leased, in exchange for the city of Damietta of which his army period v. had obtained possession. After passing four years in the holy chap. iv. land he returned to his kingdom. But his rage of crusading v -*^ v ^ lw/ was not extinguished. He invaded the kingdom of Tunis, in order to convert the monarch and his people ; but himself and his army fell a prey to an epidemic disease which ravaged the country. 1253. 13. Philip the Hardy, succeeded his father. In his reign Philip a massacre of the French took place in the island of Sicily, Hardyf called the " Sicilian vespers." Charles of Anjou, the sove- reign of Sicily, was a French prince, and uncle to Philip. His ambition and talents had made him feared and hated by the clergy, especially by the pope ; and the seeds of revolt were sown deep in the minds of the Sicilians. At Palermo, as a The bride with her train were passing the streets, they were treated ciiian rudely by a Frenchman. A Sicilian immediately stabbed him to the heart. Instantly the cry was heard in every direction, " Kill the French ! kill the French !" Men, women, and chil- dren were massacred; and the French population in the island wholly exterminated. Charles escaped from Sicily, and appeal- ing to his nephew, Philip, engaged him in his cause. Peter, king of Arragon, had claims upon Naples and Sicily, and these were now acknowledged by the inhabitants. Philip, in order to establish the claims of Charles, invaded Spain ; but he suf- fered much in the attempt, without accomplishing his purpose. 14. Philip "the Fair," engaged in contests with the Philip' haughty pope, Boniface VIII. His finances being low, he ex- iv. sue- acted money from the priests, notwithstanding Boniface had hfsfa- prohibited the clergy of any kingdom whatever, from granting ther. m0 ney to princes, without his special permission. Boniface sent as a legate, to threaten the king of France, one of his own Bonf- reD el subjects, who was immediately seized and imprisoned by face his sovereign. Boniface, enraged, issued a proclamation de- °ruie 0t daring that the " Vicar of Christ was vested with full authority Philip over a r[ th e kings and princes of the earth ;" and ordered the Fair. French clergy forthwith to repair to Rome. A French priest carried this proclamation to the king. Philip threw it into the Their fire, assembled the representatives of the states of his kingdom, ieads Ut to an ^ l&d ^ ie case before them. They acknowledged Philip's the first independent authority, and disavowed the pope's claim. It was 'assem- on this occasion that the representatives of cities were first regu- biy of i ar ]y summoned to the national assembly. Philip IV. improved the civil policy of France, both in the legislative and judicial 1 "^1 4. departments." Louis x- 15. His son and successor, Louis X., was a mean and avari- 13. What occurred in the reign of Philip the Hardy ? Who was king of Sicily ? Give an account of the " Sicilian vespers." How did Philip be- come involved in war with Spain ? — 14. With what pope was Philip IV. at variance ? What claims did this pope set up ? How did Philip treat him ? To what memorable assembly did this dispute lead ? In what respect was France improved by Philip ? GUNPOWDER FIRST USED. 251 cious king. He executed his prime minister, Marigny, on the mddle Hist - pretence of his dealing in magic ; but in reality in order to con- period v. riscate his great possessions. The death of Louis without male chap. v. heirs, gave rise to a contest respecting the right of female sue- ^^v- 1 ^ cession. The decision was unfavorable to the daughter of the 13*£§. king, the Salic law having decreed that no female could inherit Philip v. the crown of France. It passed first to Philip the Long, then to Charles the Fair, both brothers of the late monarch. The !v. es short reigns of these princes, who died without heirs, were fol- pwi . lowed by the elevation of Philtp of Valois, cousin of the late vi.JS kings ; and thus the crown of France passed from the Capeiians Val01s - to tfie house of Valois. CHAPTER V. England and France. 1. Edward III , put in a claim to the sovereignty of France, 1336. in right of his mother Isabella, daughter to Philip IV. It was Edward disallowed by the French, who unanimously placed Philip on the throne. Edward, doubtless trusting more in the strength of his arms, than in the justice of his cause, assumed the title of king of France, and invaded that kingdom, where he fought the famous battle of Cressy, and defeated the army of Philip with 134@ great slaughter. He then besieged and took Calais, when a truce C gy S was concluded between the two nations. On taking that city, Edward which had resisted his arms for nearly twelve months, Edward ™a$J~ threatened to put the inhabitants to the sword, unless they Philip would deliver up to death six of their principal citizens. Six noble burghers, self-devoted, came forth to his camp with hal- ters on their necks. Edward commanded their execution. His queen Ph.ilippa arrived, threw herself upon her knees, and im- plored her husband to save them. She prevailed, and the gal- lant burghers exclaimed, " Edward conquers our cities, but Philippa our hearts." 2. Artillery was, for the first time, used at the battle of Cressy, and by the English. The invention of gunpowder is ascribed to Swartz, a monk of Cologne ; but Roger Bacon of Eng- land, the greatest European philosopher of the dark ages, had, "f gun- in a work on chemistry, described the mixture, and its explo- powder, sive force. Small arms were not used till nearly a century af- terwards. The knights regarded shooting as a barbarous mode 15. What occurred in the reign of Louis X. ? What respecting the succes- sion ? Who were the three next kings? What change of dynasty took place ? Chap. V. — 1. On what ground did Edward III. claim the sovereignty of France ? What did he to enforce his claim ? What occurred on his taking Calais? — l Z. Give some account of the invention of gunpowder? 252 MISFORTUNES OF FRANCE. Middle Hist. f attacking an adversary. But experience has demonstrated period v. that the invention of fire-arms has been one of the greatest means chap. v. of civilizing the world. As heavy ordnance costs labor and V -*^^^~ N -^ money to transport it, an advantage not before possessed was Destructive given to the invaded over the invader, which kept nations settled. war g gWet°he The physical strength of a steel-guarded giant, who could deal to mental 8 neav i er blows than his neighbors, no longer gained him an as- over physi- cendancy to which his moral and intellectual energies afforded TotheTin- nmi no claiiTi. The hazards of war could be better calculated, vaded over and disputes were oftener settled without bloodshed. What- ever increases the dangers and hazards of those who fight, na- turally diminishes the number of wars, as it makes people more inclined to settle their differences peaceably. 1^»f> ^' ^ truce was made, during which Philip VI. died, and left John be- the government to his son John, a prince ill qualified for his comes king station. On the expiration of the truce, the Prince of Wales, called from his armor the Black Prince, who had when very *«»Kf* young distinguished himself at Cressy, entered France at the poic- head of an army, and near Poictiers he encountered the forces Ed 7/£ d S 'i °f J° nn ; and although they were far superior in numbers, he Black routed them and made their king prisoner. No knight ever featsjohn" trea ted a captive with more respectful courtesy, than the Black of France Prince did king John. He was carried into England, and dur- a him'p. k i- S m g h' s absence, the government of the kingdom was committed soner. to the dauphin, afterwards Charles V. 4. A truce with England for two years, relieved France from foreign enemies ; but it was torn with domestic dissensions, which the weak administration of the young dauphin was un- able to check. The national assembly was convened, but instead of assisting the king's government, they availed themselves of present disturbances to extend their own prerogatives, and limit those of the crown. Paris revolted ; the example was fol- "jaquerie," lowed by many other cities, and anarchy pervaded the nation. ° r ^GrTaV ^ n tne war °f ^ e " J aQ i lier i e ?" the peasants rose against the no- disorders, bility, burnt their castles, and murdered their families without mercy. The horror and desolation which spread through the (The spirit land, and the want of any authority to check disorders, brought ° l hi S e ume a the capital to submit to the dauphin, and Charles now pro- as much ceeded with vigor to restore order in the state. The truce was France as in now exchanged for a peace. King John was set at liberty for England.) a ransom m money, and for giving up, without reserving even right of homage, several French provinces to England. 5. John did not long survive the peace, and the dauphin, 2. Why was it a means of civilization ? — 3. What change in sovereigns occurred in France ? Was the war suspended or terminated ? Give an ac- count of the exploit of the Black Prince. Of his courteous behavior. In John's absence who was at the head of affairs in France? — 1. What sus- pension of the war now occurred ? What was the condition of the kingdom ? What occurred in the war of the Jacquerie or peasantry? To what did this anarchy lead the people of Paris ? On what conditions did the French make peace with the English ? DUKE OF BURGUNDY ASSASSINATED. 253 Charles V., ascended the throne. When the internal disor- Mddle Hist - ders which had so nearly destroyed his kingdom, had by his period v vigor and prudence been healed, he renewed the war with Eng- CHAP - v - land ; whose continental affairs, in consequence of the advanced age of Edward III., and feeble health of the Black Prince, were now less prosperous. During the remaining years of his reign, he conquered all the English possessions in France, except Calais, Bordeaux, and Bayonne. 6. His son, Charles VI., a minor, succeeded him. The am- bitious dukes of Anjou, Berri, and Burgundy, uncles to the young king, were made regents during his minority. They 13SO- overburdened the people with taxes, and lavished the revenues tunate° r " of the kingdom upon the regal household, or suffered them to ^f France 1 be plundered by the officers of government. This state of mis- (the Be-' rule led to horrible assassinations, and at length a cruel war. loved > The hostile parties, called from their leaders, Armagnacs or Or- leanists, and Burgundians, each struggled to obtain the person Horrible of the king, and as they obtained it, they alternately seized the civil war of reins of government. The dregs of the populace of Paris es- ^J^JtGn- poused, with the most ferocious zeal, the parties of the rivals, leansfaction and unchecked by any authority, committed the most horrid ifurguiJ crimes. The unfortunate Charles became insane, and never re- dians - covered. Henry V., now on the throne of England, profited by the miseries of France, to renew the war. He landed at the ^. mouth of the Seine, and took Harfleur. On the invasion of a AOI ^ foreign enemy, the French, for the moment, suspended their l £° T U y T oi . quarrels, and rallied in defence of the kingdom. An army of England de- 50,000 men, under the constable D'Albret, posted themselves prenc^wfth near the village of Agincourt, to intercept the English on their 11,000 march. A bloody battle ensued, in which Henry was victorious En g llsh - over an army more than four times his number. 7. The Burgundian and Armagnac or Orleans factions, again made war upon each other, and the count d'Armagnac was bar- ci ^JJJ|[ in barously massacred in Paris by John of Burgundy. Henry renewed, made himself master of Normandy, and prepared to advance to Paris. The young dauphin, now at the head of the Orleans party, affected to seek a reconciliation with the Burgundians, and a meeting between him and duke John, surnamed the Fear- "jeansans less, was appointed on the bridge of Montereau. The duke JS'bythe knelt to the dauphin. At the moment, one of the Armagnacs onanists stabbed him, and he fell dead at the prince's feet. The Burgun- at f Some- 6 dians, who had the good-will of Paris, believed that the royal family were privy to this deed of treachery, and Philip, their young duke, hastened to offer to Henry of England the crown reau. 5. Who succeeded John of France ? What did he before renewing the war with England ? What was the situation of England's continental af- fairs ? What did Charles conquer ?— 6. Who was Charles VI. ? Who were regents during his minority ? What was their character and conduct ? To what did their misrule lead? What factions arose, and what was their conduct towards the king ? What befel the king ?— 1. Relate the succeed- ing murders of the two factions ? To what adjustment with Henry V. of England did these affairs lead ? 254 JOAN OF ARC FULFILS HER MISSION. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. V. 1420. Treaty of Troyes. Charles VII. Duke of Bedford, English re- gent in France. 1424. VER- NEUIL. English un- der Bedford defeat the French. They be- siege Or- leans. "La Pu- celle," or "Maid of Orleans." Joan of Arc raises the siege of Orleans. of France, The other party also, intrigued with this foreign king. Affairs were compromised by the treaty of Troyes, by which Henry espoused the princess Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and ivas declared heir of the French monarchy. The two kings Henry V. and Charles VI., died the same year, and Henry VI., the infant son of Henry V., was proclaimed king, with equal rejoicings in London and Paris. 8. Nevertheless, the dauphin assumed the government, under the title of Charles VJI., and took the field. He was crowned by his partisans at Poictiers, Rheims, the usual place, being in the hands of his enemies. The regency of France was com- mitted, on the part of the English, to the duke of Bedford, uncle of the young Henry. 9. While the English interest in France was supported by the dukes of Burgundy and Brittany, the nation, after the death of their monarch, evinced symptoms of returning affection for the amiable Charles, his son. Yet, though the number of his adherents increased, and he received auxiliary troops from Scotland, his treasury was at a low ebb, and his prospects gloomy. The duke of Bedford obtained a victory over the united French and Scotch at Verneuil. He then besieged Orleans, which was considered as the key to France ; and Charles, hope- less of relieving it, was about to retire, — when his sinking and almost ruined fortunes were retrieved by means of the most singular kind. A young female presented herself before him, and declared herself commissioned by God to deliver the city of Orleans, and conduct him to Rheims, there to be crowned and anointed. Her own solemn persuasion of the reality of her mission, — which was, she said, communicated in visions, — together with the intrepidity of her manner, made an impres- sion of awe, — even on the minds of the gay courtiers. 10. The politicians saw, that whether true or false, important use might be made of the heroic Joan of Arc ; yet at first they doubted, or pretended to doubt; and called a council of the clergy, who pronounced her revelations genuine. Clad in steel armor from head to foot, and mounted on a gallant war-steed, the maid of Orleans rode forth, bearing a consecrated banner. She took the command of the army, and assured, as by a voice from God, the joyful troops followed her into the city. The English affected to laugh, — but they were heart-stricken with (The identical steel armor worn by Joan of Arc is in the " Musee d' Ar- tillerie" at Paris. Its weight is such that an ordinary woman of our day could not lift it.) 7. What two kings died the same year, and what year? What prince was proclaimed ? — 8. Who formed, however, a party in France to crown Charles VII. ? At what place was the coronation, and why at that place ? Who was the English regent in France ? — 9. With whom did the Scots take sides? What was the situation of Charles VII.? What battle was fought, and who conquered? What siege was maintained ? By whom were the fortunes of Charles retrieved ? Relate her own account of her mission, and her impression concerning it. — If). What is said of the politicians and the clergy ? Describe the appearance and first exploits of Joan of Arc. FRANCE PwECOVERED FROM THE ENGLISH. 255 the fear, that haply they were fighting against God. The hero- Middle His t. ine led the French to repeated attacks ; and by continued victo- period v. ries, compelled their opponents to retire from Orleans. chap. v. 11. She then demanded of the king, that he should depart N ^~ v "^w/ for Rheims to be crowned. It seemed a mad undertaking, for the country was in the hands of the English. Yet, Charles obeyed the mandate. The English, although the duke of Bed- ford was indefatigable, could scarcely be prevailed on to offer the little army any annoyance. The cities, as they passed, pf" , ' opened their gates; Rheims sent its keys, and Charles entered — crown- was crowned — and anointed with the holy oil kept since the R^^g time of Clovis. Here the maid declared that her mission was closed ; but the French pleaded for her stay, and she unwisely Joan of remained in the camp. At the siege of Compegne, she was Arc bar- taken captive in making a sally, tried by an English ecclesiasti- i y burnt" cal court for the crime of sorcery, and burnt alive. Her influ- ence was however still felt. Heaven had interfered in behalf of the French, and restored their lawful sovereign ; and the nation, after such divine interposition, was not slow in return- ing to its duty. 12. The party of the English rapidly declined ; — the death of the duke of Bedford gave the finishing blow to their misfortunes, and enabled Charles to obtain entire possession of his kingdom. The remaining years of his reign were devoted in endeavors to restore the wasted energies of the nation ; and were successful in raising it from its long depression, to a high state of pros- perity and happiness. A standing army was supported by a tax upon the people. This, by rendering it unnecessary to call 144© upon the forces heretofore furnished by the vassals of the p f the crown, prevented the strict relation which had existed between feuda] svstcm the nobles and their retainers ; and facilitated the decay of the feudal policy, found^in the progress of society, to have become destructive in its consequences, both to the rulers and the people. 13. Lons XL, the son and successor of Charles, gave early 1461. indications of that intriguing policy, which characterized his L J U j ls reign. He collected around him to execute his plans, the most politic degraded of his subjects. His attempts to humble his great fa a iUl _ vassals, and extend the prerogatives of the crown, caused a war, less - known by the name of the war of the "Public Weal," which ended in a treaty favourable to his subjects ; but which Louis soon infringed. He was long engaged in hostilities with Charles, surnamed the Bold, duke of Burgundy. 11. After she had raised the siege of Orleans what did she require of Charles? Describe the passage of his army, and the result of the move- ment. What did Joan then declare ? What did she unwisely consent to do ? What was the consequence ? How was her influence felt after her death ? — 12. What was now the condition of the English party ? To what were the remaining years of Charles VII. devoted ? What had been found to be the operation of the feudal system ? What was done in France par- tially to destroy it ?■ — 13. Give an account of Louis XI. 256 CHARLES THE BOLD. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. T. 1476. GRjUYSON and MORAT. Swiss de- feat Charles. JVAJSTC Y. Duke of Lorraine defeats Charles the Bold. Louis treacherous and cruel, and yet for the people at large a good sove- reign. 1483 Charles VIII. 14. Burgundy, as a kingdom, was founded by Rudolf. At one period it comprised Switzerland as far as the river Aar, — the country north of the present province of Burgundy, once called Austrasia and Metz ; while on the south it took in at its greatest extent Dauphiny and Provence. In 1369 Flanders and Artois had been added to the duchy, by the marriage of duke Philip the Good to Margaret, the heiress of these domains. By other means he acquired dominion over the whole of the Low Coun- tries. The duchy of Burgundy was now an independent sove- reignty, in a high state of cultivation, and celebrated for its manufactures of wool. Charles the Bold, who succeeded John, was the richest and most powerful — kept the most splendid court for tournaments and feats of arms — of any sovereign in Europe. Louis XI. took the extraordinary resolution, after giving Charles much cause of discontent, to go almost alone to pay the fierce Burgundian a visit. Charles, however, was by no means outwitted by him ; and Louis could only get from his power by mortifying concessions. The Swiss, whom Charles despised, defeated him in the battles of Granson and Morat. Charles, in attempting to establish his authority in Lorraine, was killed in battle near Nancy. His only child, Mary, married Maximilian of Austria. 15. On the death of Charles, Louis seized part of the do- minions of Mary, his daughter, the heiress of Burgundy. Multi- tudes of the subjects of Louis were sacrificed to his cruelty and treachery. During his reign, 4000 are estimated to have perished by torture, without any kind of trial. Yet he was himself perpetually tormented by the fear of death, and of that punishment thereafter, which he well knew that, for his crimes, he had merited. Yet, as a king, Louis XI. was to the people at large, a better sovereign than many who dazzle by generous qualities, and excite admiration for valor. If he oppressed the people himself, he suffered no one else to do it ; and one tyrant has always been found a less evil than many. Louis XI. was succeeded by his son Charles VIII., who married Anne, the duchess of Brittany, by which that province, the last of the great feudatories of France, was annexed to the crown. 14. Give an account of Burgundy as to its founder and early extent ? What domains did Philip the Good add by marriage and otherwise? In what state did he leave the duchy to his successor — or what is said of the power and wealth of Charles the Bold? What was done by Louis XI. ? How did he get out of the power of Charles ? What people did Charles despise ? In what battles did they defeat him ? Where did he lose his life ? Who was his heiress ? Whom did she marry ? — 15, By whom were a part of Mary's dominions seized ? What was the character of Louis XI. ? CHAPTER VI. England and Scotland. 1. Richard, on the conclusion of the truce with Saladin, hastened his return to his own kingdom, where the intrigues of his brother John, and Philip Augustus, rendered his presence necessary. On his arrival in Germany, where he travelled in disguise, he was discovered, and made prisoner by the duke of Austria ; who, for ^660,000 placed him in the hands of the em- peror. After two years he was liberated, the English paying the emperor .£300,000. He then returned to England, and was welcomed with joyful acclamations by his subjects. His brother John had cause to dread his approach ; but Richard, naturally kind-hearted, was willing to overlook his misdeeds. " I freely forgive him," said he, " and I hope 1 may forget his wrongs, as soon as he will my pardon." Richard though a valorous knight, and a jovial companion, was fierce and rash in conduct ; and his reign was unfortunate for his country. His delight was in hard blows, and he received his death-wound in storming the castle of a rebellious subject in France. 2. On his death there were two claimants of the English throne ; John, who took immediate possession, and Arthur of Brittany, his nephew, son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, an elder brother. John defeated the forces of Arthur, took the young prince prisoner, and killed him. The king of France summoned John to answer for the murder of Arthur, both John and Arthur being, on account of their French possessions, vassals of that monarch. John not appearing, his domains were forfeited, and Philip took possession of Normandy, Maine and Anjou, wliicli were thus alienated from England. 3. The unnatural murder of his nephew Arthur, and the continued violence and oppression of which John was guilty, had rendered his character and person odious to his English subjects ; while his weakness enabled the people to put forth their claims to those rights of which they had long been de- prived. A confederacy, including nearly all the nobility of England, demanded the restoration of their ancient laws, and the redress of their grievances. To enforce their demands, they prepared for war. John found himself compelled to treat with his subjects a-tRunymede, and he subscribed " the charter," or the Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. VI. 1199. John. Arthur's murder. Normandy and the French pro- vinces lost. 1215. The barons at Runy- mede com- pel John to grant them the Magna Charta. Chap. VI. — 1. What happened to Richard on his return from the cru- sade ? How was the affair concerning his ransom ? How much money did the emperor make ? What occurred between him and his brother John ? What was Richard's character, and the manner of his death ? — 2. What claimants were there to the crown ? What was the conduct of John, and the fate of Arthur ? What was done by the king of France ? What pro- vinces did the English lose ? — 3. What made John unpopular and even odious ? What important measure was now taken by the nobles ? What constitution did they obtain from John ? Where and when ? 33 25T 258 MAGNA CHARTA. Middle Hist. Its leading stipulations. John's bad faith. 1216. Henry III. Ten years of age. Louis is de- feated ai sea and abandons England. 1236. Henry III. marries Eleanor of Provence. 1258. Parliament at Oxford- " Magna Charta." The venerable archbishop of Canterbury, Stephen Langton, braved the displeasure of the pope, by being one of the foremost in procuring, and afterwards defend- ing from the faithless attempts of John, this great chart of Eng- land's freedom. Twenty-five of the barons were named as guardians of the liberty of the kingdom, to whom was com- mitted the charge of seeing the provisions of the charter ex- ecuted. This important instrument contains the germ of Eng- lish constitutional liberty ; and not only of English liberty, but of American. The main points for which the charter gives surety are: — 1, representation in parliament; 2, trial by jury; 3, writs of habeas corpus. It provides also for the fixed and regular returns of the courts of common pleas, and for the safety of foreign merchants travelling within the realm. 4. John now gave his dominions to the pope, and received them back as a fief of the Holy See, together with absolution from his engagements. Then supplying himself with foreign mercenaries, he attacked the unsuspecting barons, burned their castles, and laid waste their territories. The barons, enraged, offered the crown of England to Louis, the son of Philip Au- gustus of France, who entered England with an army. But on the death of John, many of the nobles withdrew their support from Louis, and proclaimed Henry III., the son of John. He being a minor, the earl of Pembroke, a wise and upright states- man, was made regent. He conducted the war against Louis, and compelled him to renounce his claim to the crown of England. 5. Henry married Eleanor, the daughter of the count of Provence. That portion of France became early polished in manners ; and those of her countrymen who followed the queen, made themselves agreeable to the king, and received his favors ; while they looked superciliously down on the offended nobles of England. Henry applied to the parliament for money to enable him to invade France. The barons first demanded the confirmation of the charter, which was granted. The inva- sion was fruitless ; meanwhile the spirit of disaffection spread throughout the kingdom. The great charier was again renewed by Henry with the most imposing ceremonies ; but he afterwards disregarding it, a parliament was summoned at Oxford, which confirmed and extended the rights of the people. 6. At the head of the party opposed to the king, was Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who by his talents and address 3. What ecclesiastic of England here favored the cause of human rights as well as English liberty ? For what were 25 barons selected ? What are the main points for which the charter stipulates ? — 4-. What conduct of John showed him not to have been in good faith when he made the engage- ments of the " Magna Charta ?" To whom did the English barons offer the crown, and what was the consequence ? What occurred on the death of John respecting the succession and the "regency ? What war did earl Pem- broke finish, and how ? — 5. Who was Henry's queen ? What was the con- duct of the French who accompanied the queen ? For what did Henry apply to the parliament ? How was his application met by the barons ? Where and in what assembly was the great charter finally renewed ? THE FIRST HOUSE OP COMMONS. 259 had insinuated himself into the confidence of the people. A civil war ensued. Leicester obtained possession of the person of the king ; and for two years exercised the regal power in his name. Edward, the eldest son of Henry, who had at first joined the party against his father, now took the command of the royalists, and by his energy and valor, he obtained a vic- tory over the forces of Leicester at Evesham, where that cele- brated earl was slain. Although the reign of Henry is not con- sidered a glorious one, yet during its long continuance his kingdom was less oppressed by exactions than in the times of more warlike sovereigns. It increased in wealth, and extended its commerce ; the rights of the common people became more re- spected, and for the first time they were represented in 'parlia- ment. 7. His son and successor, Edward, in the period which in- tervened between the battle of Evesham and his father's death, went, at the summons of the pope, accompanied by his queen, Eleanor of Spain, and a few military followers — not so much to aid the cause of the Christians, as to behold their defeat in the Holy Land. Yet he found various occasions for the display of bravery and sagacity. He came near falling the victim of an assassin. An infidel stabbed him in his tent, with a poisoned weapon. The affectionate Eleanor sucked out the poison nursed and tended him, and he slowly recovered from its effects. 8. Edward returned to England on the death of his father, and having regulated the affairs of his kingdom, his aspiring mind con- ceived the design of uniting in his own person the dominion of the whole island. The Welsh, the ancient Britons, now under their king Lewellyn, struggled bravely to retain their indepen- dence, but were conquered. Lewellyn was slain in battle. His bro- ther, prince David, was made prisoner by the English, tried as a traitor, and executed with a barbarity not unfrequent in that cruel age. Tradition says that Edward then assembled the leaders of the Welsh, and told them he would give them for their sovereign, a prince, with whose manners no possible fault could be found, a Welshman by birth, who could not even speak a word of English ; and amidst their acclamations and promises of obedience, he produced his infant son, born in Wales, in the castle of Caernarvon. This was his second son, but the oldest dying, the " Prince of Wales" became thereafter the title of the heir of the monarchy. 9. Events transpired in Scotland which gave tp Edward the desired opportunity to interfere in the affairs of that kingdom. Alexander HI. died, leaving no other descendant than a grand- 6. Who was Simon de Montfort, and what part did he act ? Who set the royal party free from him, and at what battle ? What may be said of Henry's reign ? When was the first regular parliament called ? Of what representatives did it consist ? — T. What crusade did prince Edward join? What happened to him in the Holy Land ? — 8. On what occasion did he return ? Give an account of the conquest of Wales. Of the origin of the title applied to the eldest son of English kings. — 9. What is said of Alex- ander III. ? Middle Hist. PERIOD v. CHAP. VI. Between 1270 and 1274. Prince Ed- ward joins the Eighth Crusade. 1274. Edward I. 12§2. Edward conquers Wales. Origin of the title ' Prince of Wales." 260 EDWARD I. WALLACE. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. VI. Edward meets the Scottish no- bles at Nor- ham. Decides in favor of Baliol. 1296 Edward makes Ba- liol prisoner. William Wallace. daughter, Margaret, then about three years of age ; the off- spring of Eric king of Norway, and Margaret, daughter of Alexander. She was affianced to Edward, the young prince of Wales, son of the king of England ; and she was taken from her home to be there educated. The delicate little " maid of Norway" withered like a transplanted flower, and died at the Orkney Islands, on her passage to England. Thirteen claimants to the Scottish crown appeared, but all were soon dismissed, except John Baliol and Robert Bruce. They were both descendants of the earl of Huntingdon, third son of David I. king of Scotland. Baliol's claims would at this day have been acknowledged without controversy, as he was de- scended from the eldest daughter of the earl of Huntingdon, being her grandson ; but he was one remove farther from the blood of the Scottish king than Bruce, who was the son of the second daughter of the earl. 10. Henry II. had compelled William, king of Scotland, ;whom he had taken prisoner, to do homage for his kingdom. Richard I. renounced this claim. Edward renewed it, nor dared Alexander III. refuse compliance* In virtue of being lord para- mount, Edward, on the death of Margaret, summoned the Scot- tish nobility and clergy to meet him at Norham, on the south- ern bank of the Tweed ; where, by his address, he succeeded in inducing them to recognise his supreme authority, and leave to his decision the question of right between Bruce and Baliol. Both the competitors also gave their solemn assent to his arbi- tration as sovereign lord of Scotland. After calling much learned council to his aid, Edward decided in favor of Baliol. Baliol, however, soon found the English yoke galling-, and his haughty temper being wrought upon by his nobles, he con- cluded an alliance with Edward's enemies, the French, and ob- tained from the pope a dispensation from his oath of fealty. 11. Edward invaded Scotland at the head of a powerful army, crossed the Tweed, defeated the forces of Baliol, and carried him prisoner to England. William Wallace now rose from obscurity. The fame of his brave and successful exploits drew multitudes to his standard, and at length placed him at the head of a considerable army. He defeated the English governor, near Stirling, made himself master of that fortress, and laid * On his knees, in presence of the English prelates and barons, he said, " I Alexander, king of Scotland, become the liege man of the lord Edward, king of England, against all men." This may serve as a specimen of what is meant by the phrase " doing homage," so frequently occurring in the his- tory of the feudal times. Several conditions, such as supplying a certain number of troops, &c, were generally annexed to this acknowledgment of paramount authority. 9. Who was the " Maid of Norway," and what was her fate? What account can you give of the claimants to the Scottish throne ? — lO. How did Edward I. get up a claim to arbitrate in the affairs of Scotland ? What question was left to his decision? How did he decide? What is further said of Baliol ? — 11. What measures did the king of England take ? Give an account of the first public acts of William Wallace ? ROBERT BRUCE. 261 waste the country to Durham. Edward, who had concluded a peace with France, turned now his whole strength upon Scot- land; defeated the Scots at Falkirk, proceeded to the northern parts of the kingdom, and for a time, again subjected it to his power. Wallace still maintained his independence, but was at length betrayed to Edward by his pretended friend, Sir John Monteith, and suffered, on Tower Hill at London, the cruel death of a traitor. 12. Robert Bruce was grandson to the competitor of Ba- liol. His father, in hopes of obtaining from Edward the Scot- tish crown, had joined the English army. After the battle of Falkirk he held a conference with Wallace on the banks of the Carron. But instead of being persuaded to submit to Edward, the undaunted patriot indignantly upbraided Bruce with having, for ambition, basely abandoned his native land, and sacrificed her independence. Bruce felt his reproaches so keenly that he sickened ; and with his dying breath he exhorted his son to make atonement to his suffering country. On the death of Wal- lace, young Bruce fled from England and offered himself as a leader to the Scots, who burned with rage at the base execution of their hero. He was joyfully received, but soon found him- self surrounded by dangers and difficulties. Comyn, the heir of Baliol held the sovereignty, and affected to combine with Bruce, while secretly he plotted to betray him. Bruce stabbed him ; and was crowned king at Scone. Edward was enraged, and at a grand military court at Westminster, he and his son swore never to rest till Scotland was subdued. Bruce was driven to extremities ; his wife and daughters were made prisoners, and, with a few followers, he found a winter's refuge in the island of Rachrin. In the spring he passed over to Arran, where his ene- mies were in full possession of the country. But the hearts of the people were with Bruce.. Raising 300 men, he surprised the English and took the castle of Turnberry in Carrick. His followers increased; and for eight years he kept the field and held the whole force of England at bay. 13. Edward I., to fulfil his oath, bad raised a large army, and having marched to Carlisle, disease put a period to his life. During his reign England made great advances, both in national power and prosperity, and in individual security. He is called the English Justinian, from his improvements in jurisprudence. He established the regularity of parliaments, and confirmed the right of the people to take a share in them by their representa- tives. Edward II. his successor, withdrew the forces which his father had marched into Scotland, or left them under lieu- Mddle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. VI. 1306. Bruce crowned, March 27. 130T Edward II. Weak and governed by favorit&s. 11. Give a further account of Edward I. What was the fate of Wal- lace ? — IS. Who was Robert Bruce? Relate what part his father took in the war in which Wallace was the Scottish chief? Relate the course of young Bruce up to the time of his coronation ? What oath was taken by Edward and his son ? What was now the condition and conduct of Bruce ? — 13. What was the last public act of Edward? Where did he die? What was the effect of his reign upon England ? What was he called and for what reason ? What did he establish and confirm ? 262 THE SCOTS STRIKE FOR INDEPENDENCE. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. VI. Piers Gaveston executed. 1314. BAN- NO CK- BURN. The Scots under Bruce, with 30,000, de- feat Ed- ward II. with 100,000. 1321. Hugh Spen- cer, a new favorite, causes civil war. 1322. Lancaster beheaded. tenants, contrary to his father's dying commands. The reign of this weak prince was disgraced by his subserviency to the worthless favorites whom he kept around him. His nobles, dis- affected with his retreat from Scotland, and enraged at behold- ing unlimited honors and riches lavished upon a Gascon named Piers Gaveston, revolted, and placed at their head, Thomas, earl of Lancaster, cousin to the king. Edward was at length compelled to yield his favorite to the public indignation, and to renew the Scottish war. 14. Brace's authority was now acknowledged throughout Scotland, and with the exception of a few fortresses, all the con- quests of the English had been recovered. His army which was assembled in the county of Stirling, was much inferior to the English, but rendered intrepid by the knowledge that they must fight for their homes, and their independence. Edward himself headed the English. The Scots had made careful pre- parations for the action, and chosen well their battle field, — the memorable plain of Bannockburn. The armies were in sight of each other when the Scots knelt to implore the blessing of heaven, and to receive the benediction of their priests. Edward, who had expressed his doubts whether they would " abide bat- tle," on beholding the army in this posture of supplication, ex- claimed joyfully, " they crave mercy." " It is from heaven, not from your highness," replied Umfraville, a Scotchman in the English service ; " on this field they will either win or die." His prediction was fulfilled; the English were defeated, and driven into their own kingdom. 15. After this unsuccessful campaign against the Scotch, the peace of England was again disturbed by the animosities of the nobility against the favorites of the king. Hugh Spencer was now the object of the royal favor, and of the nation's jealousy. This favorite, and his father, were banished, but were shortly after recalled; and a civil war ensued, in which the earl of Lan- caster was taken by the king and beheaded at Pomfret. A truce was concluded with Scotland for thirteen years, and the queen Isabella, the beautiful but unprincipled sister of the king of France, returned to her native country to settle disputes which had arisen between her brother and her husband. In France Isabella united her influence with the members of the Lancas- trian faction, with whose chief, Mortimer, she carried on an in- trigue. She conspired against her husband, and re-embarking for England, landed at Ore well in Suffolk. The disaffected ba- rons of England flocked to her standard, and Edward found him- self nearly deserted. The Spencers were made prisoners and 13. What was the character and conduct of his successor? Who was Piers Gaveston? What was done by the nobles? What two measures were taken by Edward to restore himself to fav,or ? — 14. Describe the bat- tle of Bannockburn ? — 15. What favorite again provoked the barons to re- bel? What befel the earl of Lancaster ? Who was queen Isabella ? For what did she go to France ? With what nobleman did she form a conspi- racy against her husband ? When she landed in England how was she re- ceived ? EDWARD III. INVADES FRANCE. 263 executed. The queen summoned a parliament which deposed jg*g Hist. Edward, on the ground of incapacity for governing. period v. 16. His son, Edward III. was placed upon the throne ; and chap. vi. the regency committed to the queen. The deposed monarch w~v~^/ was carried from place to place, till at length he was confined 132?. in Berkley castle. The vassals one night heard dreadful shrieks Edward IIL from his apartment, — the next morning his death was announced, and no one doubted that he had been murdered. The nation was not long deluded by the pretences of Isabella and Mortimer, (Isabella is who still kept the young prince under their control. A con- s P oet Gray. 6 spiracy, to which he was privy, was formed, which succeeded ''she-woifof in delivering him from the power of the regency. Mortimer was taken and executed. Isabella was spared from regard to her rank and sex, but remained a prisoner. She was held in contempt for her vices during the rest of her life ; but received in her confinement annual visits from her son. 17. Meantime Scotland had passed from the vigorous hand of Robert Bruce, to his son David II., a minor. Sir James 1329. Douglas, who was at one time the support of the throne of ^bSSb Bruce, was absent, and the regency was committed to Randolph sets out with earl of Murray. Edward Baliol, son of John Baliol, took lh | r ucefto f this opportunity of advancing his claim to the Scottish throne, carry it to which was supported by the English. He collected an army Land, bu/in which defeated that of Bruce at Halidon hill. David was forced ^JJJf^j 11 to take refuge in France. A Scottish parliament was called, who Spain, is recognized Baliol as their sovereign, and some of the nobles kllled -) took the oath of fealty. Soon, however, the attachment of the 4333. Scots to their former monarch, and their inveterate animosity (Hjilidojv- towards the English, by whom Baliol was supported, revived EdwardBa- the party of the son of Bruce, and a second and a third invasion 1 g 1 d ?, fe I a I ts by Edward of England, failed of establishing Baliol on the throne. 1339. 18. Meanwhile the English monarch assumed the title of king Edward' in. of France, and with an army invaded that kingdom by the way invades of Flanders. He obtained an important naval victory near He I- 1346. veot-Sluys, after which he returned to England, to make more Gains the vigorous preparations for another war. This proved success- Dressy. ful. "The great battle of Cressy was fought, and Calais taken. k ? ills ip e During this war, David Bruce had returned from France to hemia, the Scotland, and having raised an army, he carried his arms into F ^j^^' s the north of England, where he was defeated and made prisoner 6,000 knights by an army led by the queen, Philippa, of Hainault. a me5 e Jnd~ 19. At the expiration of the truce which succeeded the sur- so,ooo soi- render of Calais, the war with France was renewed by Edward, 16. Who was placed on the throne ? What became of the deposed king? What was done by the young prince ? How was Mortimer treated ? How was Isabella? — IT. What were the circumstances which led to the battle of Halidon-hill ? How did this battle terminate, and what followed it ? What opposition did Baliol find ? — 18. Give an account of Edward's first invasion of France ? What great victory was subsequently gained by his army ? What city taken? What loss did the vanquished sustain? What success was in the meantime gained against the Scots ? 264 THE DEATH-SCENE OF A KING. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. VII. 1376. He dies. Alice Per- rars. Death of Edward III. (Manufac- ture of wool introduced from Flan- ders.) the valiant prince of Wales, already so much distinguished as " the Black Prince." At the battle of Poictiers, he defeated a French army greatly superior in force, and made John, the reigning king, prisoner. He was sent to England, where the king of Scotland was also a captive. Another truce of two years followed this battle, when the monarchs entered into a treaty, by which Edward III. renounced his pretensions to the crown of France, but obtained the full sovereignty of the ancient English possessions, and recent conquests in that country, to- gether with a liberal ransom for the French king. 20. The differences between England and Scotland were set- tled by the death of Edward Baliol, and the recognition of Da- vid II. by the king of England. The Black Prince received from his father the sovereignty of Aquitaine and Gascony. His chivalric spirit led him to Spain, to reinstate upon his throne "Peter the Cruel," whose daughter Constance, his brother, John of Gaunt had married. But his health failed, and he returned to England, to die a lingering death. After his return the French renewed the war, and recovered, by the valor of the constable Du Guesclin, all the cities which the English had owned in France except Bordeaux, Bayonne, and Calais. After the death of queen Philippa, Edward kept about his per- son one Alice Perrars, to whose care and mercy he was aban- doned when a mortal disease was upon him. She removed him to Shene, and the morning before his death, robbed him of the very ring upon his finger, and departed. The other servants left the helpless man to plunder his house; and he who had been the most powerful monarch of his age, would have breathed his last sigh alone, had not a priest chanced to come in. He admonished him of his situation; Edward thanked him — wept — and expired. 21. This king improved England in its legislation, police, and especially in commerce and manufactures. The magnificent castle of Windsor was built by him. But his foreign wars had drained his kingdom. His successes were but a dazzling show; the evils that followed were a sad reality. CHAPTER VII. The war of the Roses. 13? 1 ?. 1- Richard II., son of the Black Prince, at the age of twelve, Richard II. succeeded his grandfather. On account of his minority, the 19. Give an account of the battle of Poictiers, and mention how long it was after the battle of" Cressy. What were the conditions of the truce which followed ? — SO. How were the differences with Scotland adjusted ? Give a further account of the Black Prince. Of his father. — 21. What was the character of Edward's reign, as to his management of internal affairs ? Chap. VII. — 1. Who succeeded Edward III.? What was his age? W1CKL1FFE THE GREAT MAN OF HIS DAY. 265 administration was intrusted to his uncles, the dukes of Lan- Middle m s t. caster, York, and Gloucester; the latter of whom had a period v. controlling ascendancy in the government. A state of gloomy chap. vir. discontent pervaded England. Not only had the foreign wars ^-^^v^ of Edward drained the kingdom ; but the galling servitude of feudalism, amounting to personal slavery, was yet unbroken, and worse than the tyranny of lords temporal, was that of the lords spiritual. Besides tithes and rich perquisites, the clergy owned, at this time, more than one half the landed property in England. A great man now appeared as a reformer, — John y^ e ' Wickliffe, born in 1324. He was educated at Oxford, and -Jjjjg* there received distinguished honours. As early as- 1370 he be- gan to speak openly of the corruptions of the Romish church, and to charge the pope with claiming usurped powers. Edward III. invited him to court, and gave him the living of Lutterworth. The pope commanded the English clergy to seize the arch-here- Makes tic; but John of Gaunt favored him, and he eluded their utmost his ap- vigilance. He then came boldly before parliament, with a se- ^\i£- vere paper against the papal infallibility, and in favor of the ment. scriptures being used in the vernacular tongue. This he did 1334, preparatory to publishing a translation of the Bible. Wick- Trans- lifTe was afterwards persecuted ; but he lived to old age, and died la Bibie he of disease ; and though his bones were afterwards exhumed and burnt, yet his doctrines, which had gone into the minds of men, there remained and germinated. 2. The discontent of the people broke out in Dartford, fifteen miles from London. A tax gatherer insulted the daughter of a blacksmith ; the enraged father slew him by a blow with his ham- mer. To shield their townsman from the consequences of the act, and to avenge their own cause, his neighbors rallied around him. They took their way to London, and their numbers increas- ed as they went on. They entered the city, burned the duke of Lancaster's palace, pillaged others, and murdered those of 1381. the higher orders who fell into their hands. At Smithfleld, Ins « r " o 7 ruction Richard, then in his seventeenth year, had a conference with ofWat Wat Tyler, of Maidstone, whom the insurgents had placed at T y ler - their head. Signs of an intention to stab the young king were shown by Wat. Walworth, mayor of London, thrust a small sword into his throat, and he fell. The archers drew their bows to avenge his death. Richard rode intrepidly up to them, and spoke like a king ; " What are you doing my lieges ; Wat was a traitor : come with me, and I will be your leader." The rabble, disconcerted and overawed, followed him as he rode off the field. The nobility had been meantime collecting with their followers. The insurgents, on their knees, implored the king's mercy ; and, influenced by the wishes of the royalists, 1. Who formed the regency during his minority? What was the state of the public mind in England ? What causes of discontent had the peo- ple ? What did the clergy receive, and what own? Give an account of the English reformer. — 2. Give an account of the insurrection of Wat Tyler. Of the behaviour of Richard II. on that occasion. 34 266 HIGH STATION DANGEROUS TO YOUTH. Middle Hist. Richard granted it, and they returned to their homes, only two period v. of tne leaders being executed. chap. vii. 3. From this period, when the warm-hearted and elegant -~v~w young king had given such happy presages of a good reign, we see him by degrees become the victim of a situation which, however desirable it may seem, tends to ruin the character, and blight the happiness of the individual. Richard's ambitious uncles, desirous to keep him from politics, that they might rule unchecked, placed around him gay young men, and encouraged the disposition to pleasure natural to his age. When he became attached to these youthful companions, and granted them favors and emoluments — and when his pleasures became expensive, they charged him with favoritism and extravagance. They fomented discontents against him, and raised a powerful party, who deprived him of all his friends, — some of whom were sen- tenced to death, and executed. Richard learned dissimulation, and quietly remained a mere cypher, while the duke of Glou- cester and his party governed in his name. 4. In the meantime the excitement subsided. Some of the adherents of Gloucester privately offered their services to the R?hard ^ n & anc * Ri cnar d a g am extricated himself by a bold stroke, as- In a great council held at Easter, he unexpectedly asked his thTgo- unc l e his a g e - " Your highness," said the duke, " is in your vern- twenty-second year." " Then," said the king, " I must be old plreon? enough to manage my own concerns ; I thank you my lords for your past services, but do not need them longer." He im- mediately demanded the seals from the arch-bishop of York, and the keys of the exchequer from the bishop of Hereford, and proceeded to appoint new officers. Gloucester was obliged to yield, and Richard continued for several years to. govern with discretion. At length, forgetting the lesson taught by adversity, Giou- he gave himself up to the gratification of revenge and avarice. cester Jealousies had always existed between him and his uncle Glou- m ed. e cester, who was now suddenly arrested and sent to Calais, where he was secretly murdered. 5. Not long after the death of Gloucester, Henry, duke of ?a, U of" Hereford, son to John of Gaunt, (or Ghent) duke of Lancas- Hainuit ter, was arrested on the charge of holding language disrespectful birth e to to the king, and sentenced to banishment for ten years. On j 16 h s °in tne death °f the duke °*" Lancaster, Richard unrighteously Ghent.) seized his immense estates, the rightful property of his son. The nobles wrote to Hereford at Paris. He took advantage of Richard's absence on an expedition into Ireland, and landed in England; where he was joined by many of the most power- ful barons, and soon collected a large army ; his ostensible 3. Give an account of the manner in which his uncles corrupted his mind, and destroyed his peace. — 4h How did he manage to get the government into his own hands? How did he govern at first ? What faults did he af- terwards commit ? What did he in regard to his uncle Gloucester ? — 5. What unrighteousness was he guilty of in regard to the son of his uncle John of Gaunt ? I 3 " PRINCE HAL" BECOMES HENRY V. 267 object being to claim his inheritance. The duke of York, who Middle Hist - was regent of the kingdom in the absence of Richard, joined period v. Henry, now duke of Lancaster, who thus obtained possession chap. vn. of London. The ministers of Richard were imprisoned, tried ^«^v-^^ by a military court, condemned, and executed as traitors. 6. When Richard learned the news of a general insurrection 1399. in his kingdom, he was overwhelmed with grief. He landed in £jjg" Wales, where he remained some time without forces sufficient of Lan- to cope with his adversaries. At length, under pretence of ^J 8 " negotiation, Richard was made prisoner, and taken by Henry to York. London. So fallen were his fortunes, that as he passed through the streets, " no man cried God save him." He renounced the crown, whether voluntarily or not, is uncertain. The parliament deposed him for tyranny, and decided that he should be kept a prisoner. He died in the castle of Pontefract. The circum- Rl jj! rd stances of his death are not known, though there are grounds posed. for suspicion that violence was used. 7. The duke of Lancaster was now seated on the throne, 1399. under the title of Henry JV. His reign was soon disturbed by H J V 7 the insurrection of the Percies in the north, and of Owen s f^^" Glendower, in Wales. The northern insurrection was quelled Henry by the battle of Shrewsbury, in which the revolters were de- fe ' at g" feated; and Percy, (called Hotspur, from his fiery temper,) the " Ho *," son of the earl of Northumberland, was killed. The valorous Owen Glendower so long maintained the contest in Wales, and with such unequal force, that he was suspected of being a magician. The uncertain title by which Henry IV. held the throne was calculated to make him pay court to parliament, and their privileges were enlarged during his reign. In this reign -- ftl the first laws were passed for punishing heretics by death. Feb 19 " William Sawtry, a Wickliffite rector, was burnt at Smithfield ; the first Christian in England who was put to death, by men professing to be Christians, for alleged errors of opinion, ijliq 8. Henry of Monmouth, was made prince of Wales, and HeTiry " duly acknowledged as heir to the crown; to which he sue- v. ceeded, on the death of his father, under the title of Henry peare's V. The youth of this prince, with the exception of occasional "£*i™ e flashes of valor, and a few acts of wisdom, was spent in frolics sir wn- and dissipation, amidst dissolute companions. On his accession J^™ to the crown, the idlers who had surrounded him, expected to goine, be promoted ; and the wise, who had rebuked his youthful jSu/e, follies, to be persecuted. But the man saw with different eyes had from the boy ; and while he dismissed the former, he advanced C om- the latter. — Laws were enacted against the followers of Wick- fjjjj^j] line as heretics ; yet the sect increased, and under the name of prison.). I hi © 1 5. Give an account of the progress of Henry of Lancaster, until he ob- tains possession of London.— 6. Where was Richard? Give the final history of this unfortunate king. — T. Of what house, or family, was Rich- ard's successor ? What insurrections were there ? What battle occurred ? How was it with the parliament ?— 8. How had Henry V. spent his youth ? How did he conduct when he became king ? 268 MARGARET OF ANJOU. Middle Hist. Lollards, they formed an extensive party in the realm. The period v. proceedings against them became so severe as to drive them chap. vn. into open rebellion. They were dispersed, and their leader, V -^" N ^ S *» / Sir John Oldcastle, lord of Cobham, a most worthy gentle- man, was cruelly executed. 9. Henry now renewed the claim of the Plantagenets to the Henry crown °f France ; the distracted state of that kingdom, under invades Charles V. offering a prospect of success. At the head of a e * powerful army he invaded France, laid siege to Harfeur, which he soon reduced, and terminated his first campaign by the 1414. AGIN- COURT. memorable victory of Agincourt. Through the success of his arms, and by treaties with the Burgundian faction, Henry v. de- made himself master of Paris^ and of a large portion of French! France. He then married the princess Catharine, daughter of the French king, and was acknowledged heir of that monarchy. Charles was reinstated on the throne, but he was merely a no- minal king, while the real authority was in the hands of the English sovereign. Catharine, after Henry's death, married Owen Tudor, of Wales ; and from the connexion sprung the house of Tudor. 1421. 10. Henry V. died in France, — his son Henry the VI. being H v" ry y et an m f ant - Before his death, he appointed his brothers, the 1444 dukes of Gloucester and Bedford, the former to the regency of Henry England, and the latter to that of France. The decay of the English power in that kingdom, connected with the story of the Waiter " Maid of Orleans," has already been related. Henry VI. was Scott free from vice, mild and forgiving ; but he was destitute of ca- Charles pacity. At the age of twenty-five, on the suggestion of his the Bold council, he bethought himself of marriage ; and his bride was "Had i Margaret, daughter of the good Rene, patron of" the joyous b oked sc i ence " °f tne troubadours, — titular king of Sicily, and duke of with Anjou. Margaret was beautiful in person, and had she found a ^et S i" projector in her husband, (to whom she appears to have been could ever an affectionate and faithful wife,) she might, perhaps, have d h rawn been feminine in character. But she was obliged to be the sup- her ; but porter of one whose mind, naturally weak, sometimes sank mjTneck into utter imbecility ; and history presents her as a masculine think of woman ? coping with the most able politicians and commanders I it.") of her day. 11. When Henry IV. succeeded to the sovereignty on the deposition of Richard II., who died without issue, there were still living some of the descendants of the duke of Clarence, elder brother of John of Gaunt; and whose claim was, conse- quently, superior to that of the Lancastrian family. Their 8. Give an account of the Wickliffites. — 9. Give an account of Henry's invasion of France. What is related of the princess Catharine? — lO. Whom did Henry appoint regent for England ? Whom for France ? What was the issue of this great English invasion of France ? What was the character of Henry VI. ? Whom did he marry ? What description of person was she?— 11. How did Richard of York derive a claim to the crown ? 1455. WAR OF THE ROSES. 269 right had now descended to Richard, duke of York, through his mother, the last of the descendants of Clarence. The op- position to the queen and her ministry, had procured from par- liament the appointment of this nobleman as regent, or protector of the kingdom ; but the transient restoration of the king again transferred the power to the queen's party. The Yorkists took up arms, and a civil war began, which, for thirty years, deso- lated the land. This was termed " the war of the roses," the Lancastrian party assuming the red, and the Yorkists the white rose. This war comprehends one of the most disastrous pe- riods of English history. By repeated battles and executions, the kingdom was deluged with blood, and some of the noblest families in the realm were exterminated. 12. The first battle fought between the rival parties was at St. Albans, where the Yorkists were triumphant. They ob- tained possession of the person of the king, induced him to grant a general pardon, and to reinstate the duke of York in office. A change, however, was again effected by the manage- ment of the court party, and York was dismissed by the king. Three years elapsed before hostilities were renewed. The peace-loving king made an effort to reconcile all differences. With his whole court he went in procession to the cathedral of St. Paul's, and at his desire, the duke of York walked with the queen. But though peace was on their tongues, hatred was in their hearts, and cabals and stratagems again led to war. A battle was fought at Bloreheath, in Staffordshire, in which vic- tory declared for the Lancastrians ; and the duke of York was compelled to take refuge in Ireland. 13. Meanwhile the earl of Warwick, who was governor of Calais, espoused the cause of Richard, and with an army landed in Kent. Advancing towards the capital, his forces augmented. He entered, and took possession of London, and of the person of the king. A parliament was summoned, which decided that Henry VI. should possess the crown during his life, but that the duke of York should succeed him; and in the meantime, be intrusted with the administration of the government. The queen, with her young son, had retired into the north of the kingdom, where she had gathered a considerable army. York marched against her, but was defeated and slain at Wakefield- green ; and his principal followers were taken and executed. 14. Edward, earl of March, the son of York, inherited his title, and prosecuted his claim. He was victorious in a battle fought between his forces and the queen's army, at St. Albans. Margaret, who was now joined by her husband, re- Middle Hist. 1459. BLORE- HEATH. The red rose party prevail. Earl of Warwick. 1460. WAKE- FIELD. York de- feated and slain. Second battle of ST. AL- BANS. Yorkists, or white roses victorious. 11. How did he come to be appointed regent? How did he lose his power? What was the civil war which ensued called? What was the character of this war? — 12. Where was the first battle between the rival parties? What was its result ? What was attempted by the king? Re- late the battle of Bloreheath. — 13. What success now attended the York party ? Where did the tide of fortune change ? What was the result of the battle ? — 14. Who was now the representative of the house of York ? 270 WARWICK, THE KING-MAKER. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. VII. TOW- TON. Yorkists defeat the Lan- cas- trians. 1464 HEX- HAM. York- ists again defeat queen Marga- ret. The York- ists tri- umph- ant. Edward IV. of- fends earl War- wick by marry- ing the widow of Sir J. Grey. 1471. BAR- NET. The queen's party defeat- ed, and War- wick slain. tired into the north of England, where her greatest strength lay, and Edward IV. was proclaimed king in London. The war now raged with dreadful violence. The armies of Edward and Margaret soon met near Towton, a few miles from York, where was fought the most memorable battle which had yet occurred during the contest. The forces of Edward amounted to 40,000, while the Lancastrians numbered 60,000. The fight continued at intervals during three days, and resulted in the entire dis- comfiture of the Lancastrian army; and 36,000 Englishmen are said to have fallen in that battle. 15. Margaret fled with her husband, and her son the young prince, to seek friends in Scotland. She next sought aid from Louis XI. of France, and after an absence of two years, returned with a small body of French, which was augmented by her Scottish allies. At the head of these forces, she again met her enemies, but was defeated at Hexham near the Tyne, and, with her husband and son, again compelled to flee. Henry, after being a while secreted in the borders of Scotland, was made prisoner, and confined in the tower. Margaret and the young prince Edward, made their escape to the continent. The Lan- castrians without a chief, and every where defeated and hum- bled, were incapable of offering any effectual resistance, and Scotland and France manifested a desire of reconciliation with the ruling monarch of England. 16. Edward had now the misfortune, or the indiscretion, to offend his most powerful adherent, the earl of Warwick; styled the " king maker." While the earl was on the continent, ne- gotiating a marriage between him and the princess of Savoy, sister-in-law of Louis XL, Edward accidentally meeting with the lady Elizabeth Grey, of the family of Wydeville, was so pleased with her, that he privately married her, and soon pub- licly acknowledged her as his queen. The earl of Warwick highly resented this conduct, which interfered with the negotia- tion in which he was engaged. The promotion of the queen's family to places of honor and trust, still further alienated the mind of this haughty noble, as well as others of the king's former friends. They conspired against him, and Margaret and Warwick, from being the most implacable of enemies, became friends. 17. Warwick left Calais, of which he was governor ; landed in England, and produced so general a revolt, that Edward was obliged to flee to Holland. With the aid of the Flemings, how- ever, he returned and encountered his enemy at Barnet near London, where a battle was fought, in which the army of War- wick was defeated, and himself left dead on the field. The same day Margaret, with her French forces, arrived in England, 14:. Describe the course of the war through the two succeeding battles. — 15. Relate the further misfortunes of Margaret. — 16. How did Edward now offend the earl of Warwick ? What was the consequence of Warwick's resentment, and that of other nobles ? — IT. Relate the battle of Barnet. Of Tewksbury. 271 and another battle was fought at Tewksbury, where she was Mddle Hist - entirely defeated. Her son, prince Edward, was made prisoner, period v. and brutally murdered by some of the highest nobles in the chap. vir. realm. This battle closed the bloody war, and while it secured s «-* < ^^v-/ the crown to Edward, restored tranquillity, at least for a time, Sff' to the kingdom. The husband of Margaret, Henry VI., who y ™£_ had never been more than a nominal king, expired in the tower ists soon after the battle of Tewksbury. His death has been charged p ^an'. upon Richard of Gloucester, the only surviving brother of the king. The resolute and persevering, but unfortunate Margaret, was kept for years a prisoner; but at length she was ransomed by Louis XI., when she returned to the court of her father. 18. Edward next prepared to invade France. A treaty ad- vantageous to England was the result ; for Louis XI. never suf- fered his subjects to fight, when his own false promises could (9 neof avert a war. The profligacy of Edward, during the last years tresses" of his reign, hastened his death. His son Edward, a youth of was thirteen, was declared his successor ; but his immediate coro- Jane nation was postponed through the intrigues of his villianous, ^hope_ hypocritical uncle, Richard of Gloucester. A large party of the risned ancient nobility had manifested a jealousy of the rising fortunes ditcrAn of the Wydevilles, the queen's relatives. Of this faction, Richard ^on- now availed himself for the execution of his sinister designs. On the death of his brother, he hastened to assume the title of protector of the kingdom, Having made himself master of the young king, he next lured, by fair pretences, his younger bro- S'f®**,' ther, the duke of York, from the arms of his weeping mother, v. He then removed all the nobles who were likely to prove an obstacle to his usurpation. The earl of Rivers, and the Wy- devilles, Lords Stanley and Hastings, were executed on the same day, and without the form of trial. 19. The obsequious parliament then declared the young princes illegitimate, and proclaimed Richard king. The two royal boys, who were confined in the tower, now disappeared. ^.5 No inquiry was made concerning them, but all supposed that Richard they were murdered by Richard's commands * The duke of " L Buckingham, who had been an instrument of Richard's eleva- mostde- tion, perceiving the general detestation with which his crimes ^the inspired the nation, turned against him. Henry, earl of Rich- kings of mond, of the family of Owen Tudor and the dowager queen of jj™|" Henry V., was, on his mother's side, descended from John of Gaunt. In the general destruction of the Lancastrian family, * By the confessions of the assassins afterwards made, it appears that these two lovely boys, of the ages of thirteen and eleven, were strangled in their bed, as they were sleeping together, in a room in the tower, and their bodies buried under the stairs. The wooden chest containing their remains was afterwards discovered. 17. What became of Henry? Of Margaret and her son ?— 18. What happened in relation to the invasion of France ? Relate what occurred in regard to the succession. What measures did Richard take to make his usurpation secure? — 19. What was the fate of the two princely boys? What competitor for the crown waa now set up by the disaffected ? 272 THE TIME OF THE CABOTS. Middle Hist, he remained the only surviving chief, and though he was now period v. m exne on the continent, yet the Lancastrians formed a con- chap. vni. spiracy to dethrone the usurper and confer on him the crown, v-f-v^w' Richard detected the plot, seized the duke of Buckingham its head, and executed him, with some of his accomplices. Having defeated this design, he summoned a parliament, who acknow- ledged his title to the crown ; to strengthen which, Richard took measures (his wife being yet alive,) for marrying his niece, Elizabeth, sister to the murdered princes. f 1485. 20. Meanwhile, Henry of Richmond embarked from Harfleur Bos- in Normandy, with 2,000 men, and landed at Milford-Haven in Henry Wales, — where he was gladly received by the Welsh, many of vii. de- whom joined his army. Richard had been energetic in his Richard measures for repelling the expected invasion, but he could place I t | L '. no reliance upon his disaffected subjects, nor even depend upon killed, the fidelity of those nobles who appeared in his cause. The wown- adverse armies met at Bosworth-field, where the wicked usur- ed upon per was defeated and slain. Henry was crowned on the field, the field. an( j sa i ute( j k m g f England. The subsequent marriage of Henry with Elizabeth, united the house of York with that of Lancaster. Henry VII. is the founder of the dynasty of Tudor. fEiiza ^' Henry was SUDt l e 5 penetrating, — and vigorous in his mea- bethTid sures for defeating the designs of his enemies. But the leading a°happy feature of his character was avarice ; and to obtain money, he life, for often stooped to falsehood and low artifice. During his reign make 5 the imposter Lambert Simmel appeared, pretending that he badhus- was the young king Edward V., and afterwards, Perkin War- beck set himself up for the duke of York. Marvellous accounts were given of their escape from the tower, and many friends to their cause appeared, but the imposture was at length detected, Ameri- ^ s reign is memorable as being the period of the discovery ca disco- of America. Henry VII. was the sovereign under whose ban- vered ' ner that part of the continent which we inhabit, was discovered by the Venetian captains, John and Sebastian Cabot. CHAPTER VIII. Spain and Portugal. 1. We have seen how Spain was conquered and occupied by the Saracens, except the little territory of Jlsturias on its 19. Give some account of the duke of Buckingham. — 20. Where did Henry land ? What battle soon followed ? What was the result of the battle ? In the alliance between Henry VII. and Elizabeth of York, what political object was answered ? — 21. What was Henry's character ? What impostors were set up to personate the murdered princes ? Why is this reign memorable to Americans ? SPAIN PASSING FROM THE MAHOMETANS. 273 northern coast. Here the Christians were pent up in a moun- kiddie m s t. tainous region, and constantly in danger from their Mahometan period v. foes. Want, difficulty, and danger, educated to hardihood and chap. via. daring the Christian Spaniards, as similar circumstances did the y *-*'~ s/ ~ > **-' first settlers of our own republic; and a new destiny was the TheSa-i consequence of a renovation in character. The Saracens mean- of Spam | time, under the mild and peaceful rule of the Ommiyades, cul- fjl™^ 1 ' * tivated science and literature, — agriculture, navigation, and com- people merce ; and precisely at the time when the rest of Europe was e r f p"~ in the deepest gloom of the dark ages, Saracenic Spain was most enlightened. Averroes, of Cordova, made a translation of Aver- Aristotle, and introduced it as a study into his native city, and J^ii among the Moors of Africa. Algebra was invented, and arith- metic much improved, in the Aiab or Saracen schools, while many of the first nobles of Christendom could not even read. But the Saracens became more and more luxurious and enervated. At length they quarrelled among themselves ; while from the 1282< north the hardy Asturians came down from the mountains, and To ^° took from them town after town, and province after province, sieged. In 1282, the Castilians under Alphonso VI. and his great cap- -*«>S5 tain Roderigo Diaz de Bivar, the famous Cid, reached the Tagus, Toledo and after a three years siege, took Toledo. taken. 2. The Saracens had applied for aid to their Mahometan brethren of Morocco. The Moors came to their assistance and 1282- stayed the progress of the Christians, by defeating them in a The^Moors great battle, but their leader, Yussef, by perfidy and violence andSara- seated himself upon the throne of the caliphs, and founded the awTcfiii? dynasty of the Mmoravides. The Moorish kingdom of Grenada tians - began in 1283. The Christians and Moors kept up a perpetual Maho- ~\ war, and though success varied — upon the whole the Christians met T * gained ; until in 1450 the Moors were confined to a space not much exceeding the present province of Grenada j but within EjJfjJJ this they had many cities, and a dense and wealthy population. Grenada, the capital, was embellished by costly structures, one of which, the Jllhambra, was the most splendid palace in the 134S world. 3. The Christian power in Spain was, for centuries after the Saracen conquest, divided among many small independent sove- reignties, which often made war upon each other; and but for having had a common enemy in the Moors, their contests might have been utterly destructive to themselves. By conquest, and com- pleted in Chap. VIII. — 1. What part of Spain was not conquered by the Saracens? What was the condition of the Christian Spaniards, and what effect had it on their character ? How in the meantime were the Saracens employed ? What was done by Averroes ? What improvements in science were made among the Arabs? What effect in regard to their warlike character did these pursuits produce ? By whom was Toledo taken from the Sa- racens ? — 2. To whom did they apply for assistance ? What was done by the Moors ? What dynasty was established by them? At what time did the Moorish kingdom of Grenada begin ? What in 1450 was its size ? What its capital ? Give some account of the Alhambra. — 3. How was it with the Christian power in Spain ? 35 274 HENRY OF TRASTAMARA. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. VIII. The Black Prince, with more politeness than morali- ty, takes his part. 136®. Henry of Trastamara. 1450. (Castile, or Castilla, so called from the numer- ous castles of the nobles. 1169. intermarriages, some of the provinces at length attained pre- eminence. The kingdom of Castile, as comprising Asturias, was looked up to, as the most venerable. One of the kings, Ferdinand III., united Leon to Castile, and conquered from the Moors the cities of Cordova and Seville. James I. of Arragon, a cotemporary sovereign, made the conquest of the Balearic isles, and of the kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia. Alphonso XI., of Castile, conquered Algesiras. 4. Alphonso was succeeded by his son Peter I., whose enor- mities procured him the appellation of " the Cruel." Henry or Trastamara, his natural brother, was driven into rebellion by his severities, and by apprehension for his own safety. The French monarch, Charles V., enraged by Peter's murder of his queen, Blanche of Bourbon, espoused the interest of Henry, and sent to his aid Du Guesclin, at the head of a considerable body of French soldiers. Peter was driven from his kingdom, and took refuge in France, with Edward, the Black Prince, then, governing the English principality of Aquitaine. This prince made it a point of honor to reinstate his suppliant guest ; and at the head of an army, he advanced into Castile, defeated the French and Castilians, and restored Peter to the throne. But his cruelties soon produced another rebellion. Du Guesclin, who had been made prisoner by the English, was ransomed, and returned with a recruited army to the aid of Henry. The tyrant, now abandoned by the Black Prince, soon lost his crown and his life, and Henry of Trastamara was made king. The descendants of this monarch, in two distinct lines, ruled the separate kingdoms of Castile and Arragon till the middle of the fifteenth century. 5. The peninsula was at this period divided between the Moor- ish empire of Grenada and four Christian kingdoms, each under its own sovereign. 1st, Castile, which reached from the bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean. 2d, Arragon, which embraced Arragon proper, and the provinces between that and the Medi- terranean. 3rd, Portugal, the ancient Lusitania, made a king- dom in 1139, when Alphonso defeated the Saracens in a great battle, took Lisbon, and gained by conquest four of its six pro- vinces. The 4th kingdom of the peninsula was the Pyrenean district of Navarre. The early internal police of Castile pre- sents much popular liberty. The first legislative body, or cortes, in which the commoners were represented, was held 3. How did some of the provinces obtain pre-eminence ? Which was looked up to by all the others, and on what account ? What union and conquests were effected by Ferdinand III. ? What by James I. of Arra- gon ? What by Alphonso XI. of Castile ? Observe on the map what must now be the extent of Castile. What of Arragon. — 4. Who was the successor of Alphonso XI. ? What enemies did his cruelties raise up against him ? Who took his part ? Was it right and wise to shed blood to force a bad king upon unwilling subjects ? Did Peter long keep the crown ? What parts of Spain were ruled by the descendants of Henry of Trasta- mara ? — 5. Between which kingdoms was Spain divided in the middle of the fifteenth century ? THE SANTA HERMANDAD. 275 in 1169. But it was only the people of the cities who had Miili ^ Hist. this privilege. The nomination of the one representative to period v. which each city was entitled, was at first vested in the sepa- CH ^ P - cu- rate householders, but afterwards in the municipality. These x -^~\/~*«w/ representatives assembled in the same chamber with those of the nobles and clergy, but they could, of themselves, pass laws (See Pres- binding on the cities, without the concurrence of the other ^an^ and" orders. This union of the cities afterwards became still more Isabella.") intimate, when the Saxta Hermaxdad, or u Holy Brotherhood,'' was established. The cities, by this union, bound themselves The cities of by solemn covenant to stand by each other, against all invasion of rights. The Castilians learned from the Moors trade and commerce, and they early made laws to foster their fine breed of sheep. The " Holy Brotherhood" was sanctioned by the monarchs as a balance against the nobles, who owned the coun- try, and while they were exempt from taxes, they held the pea- santry in servitude. Some of them could bring large armies into the field, and their revenue far exceeded that of the sove- reign. The power of the sovereign was too limited, and was ill defined, — hence was greater or less, according to the abilities of the monarch. He, however, held the balance between the cities and the nobles. Another power, that of the clergy, was then great, and was still rising. 6. The cities belonging to the kingdom of Arragon, taking advantage of their maritime position, fostered a free and com- mercial spirit, and possessed a considerable navy. Arragon, it J~Jj* set appears, had a written constitution in the ninth century, by the upper virtue of which the monarchy was elective, the electors being Arrajo". twelve noblemen. The aristocracy, calling themselves "the Union," already overbalanced the other powers ; and from one of the kings, Alphonso III., they obtained two writings, called the " Privileges of the Union," by which they mastered the monarchs, and oppressed the people. Peter IV. rose against them, defeated them at Epila, and assembling a cortes at Saragossa, he pro- Jp^f ' duced the conveyance of the " Privileges," and cutting it, while Peter iv. he wounded his hand with his dagger, he let fall the drops of de n e a b t ies he his blood upon the paper- ■' This writing." said he, u Avhich has caused so much blood to be shed, shall be washed out in the blood of a king." Peter then made laws, which secured in a great degree the peace of the realm, paying great regard to the regulation of the judiciary. The cortes was composed of four branches — 1st. the higher nobilitv : 2d, the inferior, with the The nobility i-i o i i • • » i i -i mi may, if they knights; dd, the commons, or citizens; 4th, the clergy. Ine choose, vote higher nobility might send their substitutes ; and what is par- by P ro *y- 5. At what time was the first Cortes? Of whom was it composed? What was the Santa Hermandad ? Why was this sanctioned by the mon- archs ? What was the condition of the nobles ? What is said of the power of the king? Of the clergy? — 6. What was the condition of the cities of Arragon ? How early had Arragon a written constitution ? What is related of the nobles ? What of Peter IV. ? Of what branches was the cortes of Arragon composed ? 276 ISABELLA. PERIOD V. CHAI 1 . VIII. Arra- gon. 1458. John II. Castile. Henry IV. 1454. Alphon- so. 1469. Isabella. Henry IV. dies. Isabella proclaimed. 14T4. 8he regu- iates the af- fairs of Cas- tile, which had suffered from mis- rule. ticularly worthy of remark, haronial heiresess might also vote in the cortes by proxy ; thus was extended to females a prin- ciple for which men have so often contended, that taxation and representation should go together. 7. John II., of Arragon, married for his first wife, Blanche, the heiress of Navarre ; but with the condition that her children should inherit that crown. On her death he married Joan Henri que z, the daughter of a nobleman, a woman of high ambition, who became the mother of Ferdinand. Joan wrought on the mind of her husband against the children of Blanche, to the prejudice of their rights of succession in the kingdom of Navarre ; and after a life of trouble, Carlos, the eldest, sank to an untimely grave. Navarre went to his sister Leonora, who had married the Count de Foix. Ferdinand, now the only son, was acknowledged the heir of Arragon. In Cas- tile Henry IV. rendered himself odious by his effeminate and voluptuous life. His subjects rebelled, deposed him, and pro- claimed his brother, Alphonso. Alphonso dying, Henry was compelled by his subjects to sign a treaty, declaring his noble sister, Isabella, heiress to the throne. 8. Isabella was possessed of a saintly modesty, of great fore- sight and prudence — and, though but eighteen, she had already given indications, not only of unswerving rectitude, but of a dauntless spirit.* In person she was majestic and beautiful. Of the many suitors for her hand, she chose Ferdinand of Ar- ragon. By their union the two principal kingdoms of Spain were united ; and thus that country was eventually raised, to be one of the most powerful monarchies of the world. By the articles of the marriage contract, the rights of the sovereignty of Castile were wholly vested in the queen; and through her life she preserved them entire. Her first care, on her full acces- sion to the throne, was to heal the wounds of her kingdom, which had long been bleeding by civil war, misrule, and anarchy. To curb the lawless arrogance of the great nobles, she revived and cherished the " Santa Hermandad," and committed to regu- * Isabella, at the age of thirteen, had been trafficked away by her brother to the king of Portugal. She refused to marry him, alleging, though so young, the sound reason that the infantas of Castile could not be disposed of in marriage without the consent of the nobles. At sixteen her brother gave notice that she must marry an aspiring nobleman, every way her inferior, and the object of her dislike. She shut herself up, wept, prayed, and took her resolution — then said to her female friend, ' ' God will not permit it, neither will I," showing a dagger, which she kept in her bosom, vowing to plunge it into the heart of the unworthy man if he dared to approach her. His death saved her the trial. T. What information do you get from this paragraph of John II. ? Of Blanche? Of Joan Henriques ? Of Carlos? Of Leonora? Of Ferdi- nand ? What is related of Henry IV. of Castile ? On what occasion was Isabella declared heiress of the first monarchy of Spain ? — 8. What was the character and appearance of Isabella ? Whom did she marry ? What was the consequence to the Spanish monarchy of this connexion ? What rights were secured to her by her marriage contract ? Did she preserve them ? What was her first care on fully possessing the throne-? What measure did she take to curb the lawlessness of the nobles ? THE INQUISITION. 277 lar officers of their body the police of the country. She rode on horseback from place to place, and with the most fearless intrepidity superintended the administration of the laws, and the punishment of crime : and no rank or wealth could shield the offender from her even-handed justice. Thus were internal peace and confidence restored, the nobles checked, the royal authority established, and the arts of peace so cultivated, that wealth and plenty took the place of poverty and want. 9. One dark shade falls upon the lovely character of Isabella — she was superstitious. The deep piety of her youthful mind had been tampered with by her confessor, Torque mad a, and she had been wrought up to make the promise, that if she ever came to the crown, she would K extirpate heresy." Through this promise, a reluctant consent was wrung from her, by her husband, and the priests, to sanction the Inquisition; which, although carried to its greatest enormity in Spain, began in France. Innocent III. had, by his influence, sent crusading armies, who had swept through the south of France, putting to the sword tens of thousands of the Waldenses and Albi- genses. Cases occurred, where some court seemed to the fanatics necessary to decide whether persons apprehended were, or were not heretics, and whether heretical principles might not be charged upon some who went at large. At Toulouse, Inno- cent established such a tribunal, with inquisitorial powers. The Dominican friars, with their founder, Dominic, at their head, were the first inquisitors. The institution was soon adopted in Germany and Italy. The use of the Scriptures was at the same time forbidden. In Germany the Inquisition was soon and finally discontinued. 10. The Inquisition in Spain was first established at Seville. Pope Sixtus VI. sent over a bull to authorize it, at the request of three ecclesiastics, of whom the principal was Alphonso de Ojeda, Dominican prior of St. Paul's, in that city. The sovereign united in this request. The pope would, by means of this tribunal, fix his dominion by such an utter subjugation of the spirits of men, that they, and all they possessed, would be his, whenever he wanted their property or their services ; and his agents shared the dominion, and the spoils. Of the latter Ferdinand was to have a large share. The Jews existed in great numbers in Spain, and had much wealth, which they often foolishly paraded. The jealousy of the nobles and the cupidity of the king were thus excited. To make them hated, so Middle Hist. (Paramo of Sicily traces the Inquisi- tion from the Almigh- ty down through the patriarchs Moses, Ne- buchadnez- zar, and king David !) 1209. Inquisition begins. Nov. 1, 1478- The pope's bull autho- rizing the Inquisition received. 8. For what purpose did she fearlessly ride from place to place ? What objects did her arrangements and energy effect ? — 9. What blemish is there on the lovely character of queen Isabella ? Who was Torquemada ? What did he lead her to sanction ? To what time and place is this tribunal traced ? What led to it in the first instance ? Into what countries was it carried ? In what discontinued ? — lO. At what place in Spain was the In- quisition first established ? What pope gave his sanction ? By whom was the petition for it made ? In what respect would such a tribunal give power to the pope ? What is said of the Jews, and of their conduct in regard to their wealth ? 278 BARBAROUS TREATMENT OF THE JEWS. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. VIII. (The Jews by false wit- ness sacri- ficed the Sa- vior, by false wit- ness they perish.) At Seville the Inquisi- tion esta- blished, Sept. 17, 1480- 1481. Jan. 2. Customs of the Jews made the ground of their de- struction. Nov. 4, 298 had been sa- crificed. 1483. The modern Spanish In- quisition es- tablished under Tor- quemada. that their destruction should not cause u an uproar among the people ;" witnesses, whom we cannot doubt were false, were brought, who testified that they were in the practice of sacri- ficing Christian children at their feasts. On one occasion, twenty -five knights swore that at their passover they had cru- cified a Christian boy. But in this age falsehood, as well as fighting for the church, was esteemed meritorious service. Yet the common people did not know this. They believed the reports, and persecuted the Jews unto death throughout all Europe. In Spain they had flourished ; their genius had aided the Saracens in the revival of letters, and having remained among the Spaniards after the conquest, their industrial pursuits had made them, not only the wealthiest subjects of the mon- archy, but the creditors of most of the improvident nobles. To destroy the Jews would be to cancel these debts, and to con- vert their property to the use of the church and the state. For these objects the Inquisition was first brought into Spain. Its office, called by a misnomer little short of profane, the " Holy Office," was opened at Seville, Sept. 17, 1480. 11. The inquisitors immediately published an edict, requiring " all persons to aid in apprehending and accusing all such as they might know or suspect to be guilty of heresy." All modes of accusation, even anonymous, were encouraged, and the in- quisitors, of whom Ojeda was chief, had soon so many vic- tims, that they removed their sittings from the monastery of St. Paul's to the fortress of Siana, without the city. Jews were convicted and punished when it was found that they wore bet- ter clothes on Saturday, the Jewish sabbath, than on other days ; if they turned the face of a dying man to the wall, or used warm water in the post-mortem ablution. Four days after the first sitting, six victims were consumed by fire ; and before the end of November three hundred, save two, had been sacrificed. The Inquisition sat upon the dead as well as the living, and condemning those who were in their graves, their menials dug them up and burned the decaying corpses. But it was the wealthy, whether living or dead, who were condemned ; and the confiscation of their property, was a well remembered part of their condemnation. 12. Seville by the hand of divine justice lost 15,000 inha- bitants by a plague. The inquisitors removed their tribunal for a time, and went on as before. Two thousand were burned in Andalusia within the year. The pope, on the representation of the Jews, rebuked the inquisitors; but he afterwards exerted himself to quiet the uneasy scruples of Isabella, and proceeded 10. What measures were taken to make the people desire their de- struction ? — 11. What edict was published? What kind of accusations were received ? On what sort of facts were Jews condemned and executed ? How many were burnt from Jan. 6th to Nov. 4th ? What became of the property of the persons condemned ? What strange and shocking trials are related?— 12. To what place, and on what occasion did the tribunal re- move ? What double-dealing appears on the part of the pope ? THE SPANISH INQUISITION. 279 to invest Torque mada with the office of inquisitor-general Middle H *<~ of Castile and Jlrragon, with full powers to form a new period v. constitution. From this period is reckoned the origin of the chap. vm. terrible Spanish Inquisition. During the reign of Ferdinand v-**~v-w/ and Isabella, there were in different parts of the two kingdoms Tfae ^^ thirteen different branches, or inferior courts. "auto de 13. The new constitution provided that on the first Sundays fe, fJ^ ° f in Lent, edicts should be proclaimed, ordering all persons who 1584, knew or suspected any to be infected with heresy, to lodge in- at Seville, formation against them ; — ministers must refuse the consolatory offices of religion to any one, however true himself, who failed to inform, though it should be against a parent, a child, or a wedded companion. All accusations, signed or unsigned, were admitted — the names of the witnesses being mentioned, their depositions were taken down by a secretary of the office. The unconscious victim was seized in some solitary place by armed menials of the Inquisition, and conveyed to its dark subterra- The unfair- neons prison ; — his family and friends knew only that he had inquisitorial disappeared, but they might not inquire, or even weep with trlbunal - safety. In his dungeon the prisoner saw only spies of the tri- i ts utte r se- bunal 5 and all its servants were bound by oath and by fear to a crecy. secrecy not to be violated by a look. When at length called before the inquisitors, the accused neither saw his accuser nor was suffered to know him or his witnesses. If he refused to confess his guilt he was put to the torture, by rack or fire, in its diaboii- the depth of vaults where no pitying ear, save God's, could hear ca crue y ' his cries. If pain extorted from him the confession of his he- retical opinions, it was expected, if he survived, that he would (Torque- repeat this confession the next day. Should he refuse, his mada eight % . o -, . , % n years mof- aching form was again subjected to the torture, now still more rice. 100,000 agonizing. Should he, through all this, aver his innocence, it ^^jfo 8 ' was not even then considered as established ; and nothing was burnt, the before, him but a painful death, or a life of poverty — with a body SSufied mutilated, and a character branded with an infamy, which .by law and dis- was to descend, — blighting his posterity. 14. In the year of the discovery of America, Ferdinand and Isa- bella were persuaded to pass an edict to banish all the Jews who 1490 would not consent to receive baptism. Great was now the distress About of these children of Israel as they passed from the pleasant land 1 ^JJ^JJ rs of their birth. Tens of thousands perished with famine,and the hardships of the change from luxury to homeless beggary. They scattered to different countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa. 15. To the conquest of the Moorish infidels in the south, Ferdinand and Isabella had turned, though with different motives, their united attention. Muley Abul Hacem, the sovereign of Grenada, began the war by taking the Spanish fortress of Za- 12. What is regarded as the commencement of'the modern Spanish Inquisi- tion ? — 1 3. For what, respecting accusations, did Torquemada's constitution provide? Describe the unfair and cruel proceedings of the Inquisition.. — 14-. Give an account of the banishment of the Jews. — 15. To what did the sovereigns of Castile and Arragon now turn their attention? 280 THE CONQUEST OF GRENADA. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. IX. 14 SI. The war with the Moors be- gins with the taking of Zahara. (Hospitals for the sick and wound- ed, the in- vention of Isabella.) 1492. Ends by the capitulation of Grenada. hara. The Spaniards retaliated by capturing Mhama. The Moors, destined to destruction, did for their enemies more than half their work by intestine divisions. Muley Abul Hacem quarrelling with Zorayda, his chief sultana, the intrepid woman tied together scarfs and veils and delivered herself and her child- ren, by descending from a high tower upon this uncertain sup- port. The people, aroused at her tale of oppression, expelled Abul Hacem, and proclaimed Boabdil, his son and Zorayda's. The expelled sovereign was received at Malaga; and thus the kingdom became divided against itself. 16. The Spaniards presented the new spectacle of moving on with the united force of the two kingdoms, headed by their united sovereigns ; — Ferdinand commanding the armies in person, and declaring, when amidst peril and exposure he was told that his head could do more than his hand, " that when his men were, for his cause, in danger, he could not stop to calculate chances ;" — and Isabella in the meantime taking charge of the finances, and of the whole quarter-master's department ; especially attending to the sick and wounded, and introducing, in this respect, im- provements in military science. She was ever hovering on the confines of the war, and when the hearts of the men were ready to fail, they sent for her to come to the camp ; and she came like a guardian spirit, infusing hope and courage, and dispelling fear. " Isabella," says Mr. Prescott, her eloquent historian, " may be regarded as the soul of this war." It was terminated by the taking of Grenada in 1492, the same year in which Columbus, under Isabella's patronage, discovered the Western continent. CHAPTER IX. Italy. 1266. Italian re- publics. Four clusters. The capitals were: of the 1st, Milan, 2d, Verona, 3d, Bologna, and 4th, Florence. 1. Italy was at this period divided between, — 1st, the repub- lics in the northern and central parts,— 2d, the temporal sove- reignty of the pope, and 3d, the kingdom of Naples. The re- publics which occupied the northern parts of Italy may be divided into four clusters. The first was composed of the cities of central Lombardy, of which Milan was the principal, and included Milan, Cremona, Pavia, Brescia, Bergamo, Parma, Placenza, Mantua, Lodi, and Alexandria. These were the ori- ginal seats of the liberty of the Italian cities. In the second 15. Give an account of the royal family of Grenada and their divisions. What division ruined the Moors ? — 16. What spectacle does the Spanish his- tory at this time present ? What does Prescott say of Isabella ? How, and when was the Moorish war closed ? Chap. IX. — 1. How was Italy at this period divided? Into what clus- ters were the republics divided ? THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 281 division may be placed Verona, Vicenza, Padua, and Tre- Mddle Hist - viso. The cities of Romagna, of which Bologna and Ferrara period v. were of most consequence, composed a third cluster, to which CHAP - Ix « may be added Modena. A fourth, comprised the cities of Tus- v ^~ v ~ > **'' cany, of which Florence and Pisa were the chief. Besides these, were the two maritime republics of Genoa and Venice. These cities did not all at once throw off their allegiance to the empire, or adopt a republican government. Milan took the lead. 2. The disorders of the German empire during the eleventh century, enabled the citizens of the Italian cities to choose their own magistrates, and to take a share in public deliberations. As these cities increased in wealth and strength, a residence in them t ^owoffthe became a desirable refuge from the dangers, in which the disor- yoke of their dered state of affairs placed the rural gentry. The nobility of con( * uerors - the country were themselves oppressed by the cities, and glad to take refuge in them ; where, as they were privileged with citizenship, they could attain the power of directing the govern- ment. As their strength increased, the desire of extending their The reasons power, and the limits of their territories, increased also ; this leasing" produced encroachments upon the small towns, and upon the strengthand territories of the country nobility. Early in the twelfth century, prospen y ' a war was carried on between Milan and Lodi, in which the latter was subjected to the former. Wars continued to be prosecuted between many of the cities. 3. Meanwhile Frederic Barbarossa, of Germany, attempted to regain his dominion in Italy ; which, though still acknowledged, * 1^2. existed but in name. Availing himself of the war between Milan Barbarossa and Lodi, and of the jealousies felt by many of the cities to- ,"2^, wards the former place, Frederic attacked the towns in de- pendence upon Milan. After two invasions of Italy, Milan itself was compelled by famine to capitulate. Frederic held a diet at Roncaglia, where he defined the imperial rights over the cities, appointed magistrates, called Podesta, justice, and abolished the office of consuls, who were chosen by the people. The Milanese, irritated at this tyranny, as soon as the emperor had withdrawn his army, renewed the war. He returned, destroyed Crema, a dependent of Milan, then laid siege to Milan, which, subdued by famine, surrendered. The citizens were compelled to disperse themselves to four villages a few miles distant, while their habitations were razed to the es roye ' ground. The misery of the cities of Lombardy was now com- to ct the Italian states. o administer «SSSJS" vent the cities from defending themselves. Milan 1. Show on the map the location of each city of the first cluster. Of the second. The third. The fourth. What maritime republics were there, and how situated ? — 2. At what period did these cities begin to disregard the German power, and perform acts of sovereignty? Did these cities usurp power over the surrounding country ? What did the nobles find it most for their interest to do? Did the cities agree among themselves? What ex- ample of a contest is given ? — 3. What was done by Frederic Barbarossa ? What regulations were made by the diet ? What was done by the Milanese ? What next by the emperor ? What was now the condition of Milan and the other Lombard cities ? 36 282 THE MEDICI. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. IX. Milan rebuilt. 11T6. The Lom- bard league defeat Fre- deric Barba- rossa. 1183. Peace of Constance. 146®. Liberty of the Floren- tine republic subverted by the Medici. plete. Even those which had enlisted in the service of the emperor, felt that they had sacrificed their liberties to their jea- lous divisions. 4. The emperor met with a repulse at Verona, against which he had next carried his arms. The spirit of liberty revived; a secret league was formed among the Lombard cities, termed the Lombard league, by which they pledged themselves to mu- tual assistance in defence of their common rights, for a period of twenty .years. Milan, by their united efforts, was quickly rebuilt, and the confederates prepared to withstand the arms of Frederic, whose strength had been reduced by. a contest with pope Alexander III., during which, in laying siege to Rome, he lost a large part of his army by pestilence. The war continued many years without any decisive action, until, in the battle of Leganoyihe confederates obtained a complete victory. Frede- ric escaped from the field in disguise. By the mediation of Venice, a truce of six years was agreed upon. After this, the peace of Constance was concluded, by which the Lombard re- publics were established in their former rights. The league was renewed ; but unfortunately, no constitution for a perma- nent federal union was formed. 5. During the reign of Frederic II., these republics were plunged into another protracted war, after which they became entirely emancipated from the empire. The liberties of the peo- ple were, however, gradually sacrificed to the ambition of the aristocracy. Of all the Italian nobles, the Medici of Florence make the most distinguished figure in history. The historian Sismondi represents them as a bad family, — the selfish, artful, unprincipled, and heartless destroyers of their country's liber- ties.* They owed their popularity to their wealth, liberality, and taste in the fine arts. Cosmo de Medici, a man of plebeian origin, the founder of the family, died in 1464. His grandson, Lorenzo de Medici, surnamed " the Magnificent," and the most distinguished for his patronage of the fine arts, died 1492. The sovereign power in Florence, after some attempts to restore the republic, became hereditary in this family. 6. The founder of the family of Sforza was, in 1409, a pea- sant of Romagna, of prodigious strength of body, and great courage. He gave himself to military pursuits, revived the an- * The idea given of the family character by Sismondi is confirmed by that of the two queens of France, Catharine de Medici, the instigator of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and Mary, wife of Henry IV., and by that of Giovanni de Medici, son of Lorenzo, who as pope Leo X., by his abuses of the pontifical power, drove Martin Luther to set up the standard of reforma- tion; also by that of Clement VII. , who was the nephew of Lorenzo. 4:. As the misery of the cities began with their disunion, what happened when they again united ? Give an account of the battle of Legano. By what peace where the cities established in their former rights ? What was renewed, and what was unfortunately omitted ? — 5. What happened in the reign of Frederic II. ? When did the republics become independent of Ger- many ? What enemy had their liberties after this ? Which of all the noble families did the most to destroy the liberties of the people 1 Give an account of this family. (See note also.) RIENZI. 283 cient system of tactics, and adapting it to later times, became jgjg Hist. considered a distinguished teacher of the art of war, and after- period v. wards a great captain. His son, Francesco Sforza, exceeded chap, ix, his father in fame and talents, and at length made himself of so v -* *"V^«' much importance in the perpetual wars of the times, that he married a daughter of Visconti, the last duke of Milan of that name. On his death, Sforza contrived, by arts which soiled his fair fame, and by the aid of his friend Cosmo de Medici, to ob- tain the sovereignty of Milan, which continued for a considera- ble time in his family. 7. The temporal sovereignty or the pope was at this time fully established over the dominions belonging to the Ro- man see. The emperor Rodolph, of Germany, giving up his claim, the pope now held the relation to Italy formerly claimed -anm** by the emperor ; but the city of Rome itself often revolted from sovereignty his government. The remembrance of the glory of their an- ofthe P°P e - cestors at times enkindled the spirit of freedom in the breasts of the degenerate Romans ; and it had often burst forth in resist- ance to the power of the pope. Several times the "holy father" was expelled from the city. During the residence of the popes at Avignon in France, no authority of sufficient power existed at Rome to curb the licentious citizens- and disorders of every kind were frequent. At different periods, individuals arose who roused the popular feeling by eloquent harangues, in which they depicted the blessings of liberty, and recounted the glorious ^ego^ names of the ancient republic. One of these orators, Arnold Arnold of of Brescia, not only denounced the corruptions ofthe clergy, Bresci. but advocated boldly the principles of civil liberty. He was banished by Innocent II., who branded his doctrine as the " he- resy of the politicians." He was subsequently recalled to Rome, and burned at the stake. 8. A century after, Nicholas di Jrienzi conceived the vast project of uniting the several states of Italy into a federative re- public, and of restoring Rome to its ancient greatness, as the head of the confederacy. He was learned in the antiquities of the city, and his enthusiasm for his country gave him an irre- sistible eloquence, while he explained to the listening crowds, 1346. the ancient memorials of the glory of their fathers. The multi- ins ^f|g*° n tude caught the inspiration, and determined to re-establish the Nicholas di old republican form of government. Rienzi was made tribune ienz * of the people ; but under this title he was in fact sovereign of Rome. At first he administered the government with the strict- est equity, but by degrees he became spoiled by prosperity ; and manifested neither the virtues which had given him the con- fidence of the people, nor the talents for a successful usurper. The nobles whom he bad opposed, regained their ascendency 6. Who was the founder of the Sforza family? Who was his son ? — T. What was the condition of the pope in regard to his temporal sovereignty ? What in regard to the people of Rome ? What occurred during the resi- dence of the popes at Avignon ? Give an account of Arnold of Brescia.— 8. Give the history of Nicholas di Rienzi. 284 NAPLES AND SICILY UNITED. Middle Hist. PERIOD V, CHAP. IX. 1261. Genoa flourishes- obtains Pera. Venice grows rich by the crusades. Venice at- tains her highest ele^ vation in the 13th century. 1166. House of Normandy unite Na- ples and Sicily. House of Swabia. and re-established the authority of the pope. Rienzi, banished from the city, wandered among the mountains of Hungary and Bohemia, and was at length made prisoner and sent to Innocent VI., at Avignon. He not now fearing him, sent him to quell popular disturbances in Rome. No longer buoyed up by youth- ful hope, and virtuous enthusiasm, Rienzi no more possessed the power of swaying the multitude by his eloquence; and though at first the populace received him with marks of affec- tion, they, after four months, barbarously took his life. 9. Genoa, in the beginning of the thirteenth century, had attained considerable importance, and its commerce was in a flourishing state. Its prosperity was greatly increased by the settlement of Pera, in the suburbs of Constantinople, which the Genoese obtained from the Greeks, in reward of their ser- vices in the recovery of that city. Genoa maintained frequent wars with Pisa, and with Venice, its rivals in trade. Its internal history is marked by frequent contests between its leading fa- milies. After several changes of government, it submitted to that of a duke, or doge, and was finally placed under the pro- tection of the king of France. The assistance which the re- public of Venice had given to the crusaders in conveying them to Palestine, was rewarded by a rich commerce with the east. But the commencement of its prosperity and splendor was in the thirteenth century. Having sustained an important part in the conquest of Constantinople by the Latins, it obtain- ed three-eighths of the city, and of the provinces, as a reward. The government of Venice was administered by a doge, or duke, who, as early as the eighth century, exercised the power of a king. Subsequently his authority was limited, and at length it very little exceeded that of the other nobles ; and the government became, in the thirteenth century, an oppressive aristocracy. In the fourteenth century, Venice was engaged in wars with her neighbors, which proving generally successful, her prosperity increased. During the fifteenth century, the most splendid period in her annals, she extended her dominion over Padua and Verona, and obtained from the duke of Milan, the city of Vicenza. 10. KINGDOM OF NAPLES.— After the extinction of Robert Guiscard's posterity, the son and successor of his brother, Roger of Sicily, added to his dominions the Norman possessions of Apulia and Calabria; and subdued the republics of Naples and Amalfi, and the city of Capua. In this new kingdom of Naples he was succeeded by his son, William the Good, the last of the Norman princes. At his death, the crown of Naples and Sicily passed to Henry VI. of Germany, son of 9. Give an account of Genoa. What part of the spoils of Constantino- ple did Venice receive at the time it was taken by the Latins ? What is related of its government ? What was the most flourishing period of Ve- nice ? What places were conquered ? — lO. What prince united Naples and the adjoining provinces to Sicily ? Who was the last king of the Nor- man line ? THE GREEK EMPIRE IN DECAY. 285 Frederic Barbarossa, who had married Constance, aunt of Wil- Middle Hist . ham. The German princes continued upon the throne of Na- period v. pies, until at length the pope, who was opposed to them, offered chap. ix. the kingdom to Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis JX. of ^*~v~'w France — who led thither an army and enforced his claim. Man- H JJ® J ° f fred, the last of the German princes, was slain. The Neapo- The German litans having now their capital made the seat of an extensive prl "f e t s h h e ead empire, were in the French interest; but the Sicilians being re- Gueiphs. garded by them but an appendage, and treated with insult and indignity, they rose upon the French, and perpetrated the horrid massacre of the " Sicilian Vespers." 11. The people now placed upon the throne Peter III., of House of Arragon, who had married Constance, the daughter of Manfred. Arra § on - A bloody war succeeded, in which Philip of France supported the pretensions of the house of Anjou. James I., the son of Peter, who had succeeded him on the throne of Arragon, de- sirous of peace, renounced his claims upon Sicily, in favor of the French ; but the Sicilians, unwilling to submit to French domination, placed his brother Frederic upon the throne. The king- From this period, we find the kingdom of Naples a subject of pies a bone perpetual contention, between the rival princes of France and °Jjo° n {;|™~ Spain. The house of Anjou always maintained their claim, tween the and had their " titular kings" of Naples ; but the house of Arra- £ r r a n C c e e \ n f d gon held the actual authority; and an illegitimate branch of the Spain. family was upon the throne at the close of this period. 12. On the recovery of Constantinople from the Latins, Mi- 1261. chael PaljEOLogus, to secure himself in possession of the M iSfo 6 gu^ throne he had usurped, deprived of his sight and banished John Lascaris, the heir of the crown. The crimes of which Michael was thus guilty, drew upon him the anger of the patriarch Arsenius, who excommunicated him ; and stirred up a powerful faction in the empire. Michael was succeeded by 12S2- his son Andronicus. The Catalans, who had served in the AndromcU3 Sicilian wars, at their close swarmed into the Greek empire in quest of plunder. Still more disastrous to the nation were the Tne empire civil wars waged between the emperor Andronicus, and his invaded by grandson of the same name, whose dissolute life induced him niards from to look for another successor. Twice the civil war was inter- Catalonia, rupted, and again renewed ; until at length, after seven years, 132©. the younger Andronicus entered the capital triumphant. The Andronicus aged emperor abdicated the crown, which the younger seized. IL He was the slave of intemperance and debauchery. He carried war into Asia, but found himself unable to cope with the Otto- 10. What family, or house, then governed Naples ? What did the pope to oppose these princes in respect to Naples ? What house succeeded that of Swabia in Naples ? How did the different parts of the kingdom stand affected to the French? — 11. Who was called to the throne after the ex- pulsion of the French ? What war ensued ? Was the contest between the French and Spanish princes settled? — 12. Give an account of the emperor of the east. What happened during the reign of his successor ? What account can you give of" Andronicus IT. ? 286 BAJAZET. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. IX. 1399- Bajazet threatens Constanti- nople. 1299. Othman I. 1236. Orchan and Solyman obtain per- manent footing in Europe. 1359. Amurath. man power. His death left the empire a prey to civil commo- tions. 13. John Paljsologus reigned thirty-six years, during which the distress of the nation was continually augmenting. At the instigation of Amurath, the Ottoman sultan, he put out the eyes of Andronicus, his eldest son, and of John, his grandson, — imprisoned them', and made Manuel, his second son, his heir. His discontented subjects removed the two blind princes from their prison to the throne. The emperor, with Manuel, made his escape from Constantinople, and thus civil war was again added to other disasters. A reconciliation between the contending princes was at length effected, by the partition of the remaining possessions of the Greeks ; Constantinople being assigned to Manuel and John Palaeologus, (who died shortly after,) and all without the wall to the blind princes. The Ottoman sultan, Bajazet, threatened the city. A truce was effected, by the pro- mise of an annual tribute from the Greeks, and the toleration of the Mahometan religion. Bajazet soon violated this truce, and again laid siege to Constantinople, under pretence of vindi- cating the rights of John, the blind prince. Manuel was con- strained to flee, and sought aid from France. Meanwhile, Bajazet restored John to the throne ; then, claiming the city for himself, he continued the siege. Constantinople must now have fallen, had not a threatening power in the east demanded the imme- diate attention of Bajazet. 14. THE OTTOMAN TURKS.— On the destruction of the Seljoukian kingdom, by the descendants of Jenghis Khan, many of the Turkish chiefs retired among the mountains, and estab- lished small principalities. Of these, the Ottoman was destined by Providence to exercise a wide and important influence upon the nations of the earth. It was founded by Othman ; — his reign of twenty-seven years was one of war and conquest. Prusa, near the sea of Marmora, was made the capital of his kingdom. He was succeeded by his son Orchan, who con- tinued his encroachments upon the Grecian provinces, conquer- ed the whole of Bithynia, and obtained a victory over Androni- cus the younger. Solyman, the son of Orchan, with several thousand Turks, crossed the Hellespont in the civil wars of the Grecian princes. They took possession of the fortresses of Thrace, and the Grecian power being insufficient to expel them, they obtained a permanent footing in Europe. 15. Orchan and Solyman both dying, Amurath, the son of Orchan, succeeded. He pushed the Turkish conquests in Eu- rope, subjected nearly the whole of Thrace, and made A&ria- nople his European capital. He then attacked the warlike tribes between the Danube and the Adriatic. In a battle with these 13. Of John Palaeologus ? Of Manuel ? Of the two blind princes ? Of Bajazet? 14. What occurred when the kingdom of the Seljoukians was destroyed? Who founded the Ottoman sovereignty? What was his capital? What was done by his son? What by his grandson? — 15. Give an account of Amurath. TAMERLANE. 287 nations, in Servia, although victorious, he fell by the hand of a ■Mddiemst. Servian soldier, who starting up from among the heaps of slain period v. upon the battle-field, stabbed this destroyer of his country's in- chap. ix. dependence. Amuvath established the janizaries, the praetorians of the Ottoman empire. They were selected from among his captives, educated in the religion of the Moslems, — trained to the exercise of arms, and consecrated by a dervish. Amurath was succeeded by his son Bajazet, the rapidity of whose Ba J azet - marches and conquests procured for him, among his country- men, the name of Ilderim, or the lightning. He extended the j^/qopo. empire of the Ottomans in Asia 5 and in Europe he subjected the lis. remaining parts of Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly. He car- fonou^over ried his arms into Hungary, and defeated at Nicopolis a confe- sigismund derate army of French and Germans. ° ungary * 16. The interference of Bajazet in the affairs of the Greek Tamerlan ^ princes, and his siege of Constantinople, have already been orTimur-' mentioned. From this siege, he was recalled by a Mogul irrup- / Ti muf'the tion under Tamerlane, to defend his Asiatic dominions. Ta- lame.) merlane was a descendant, in the female line, of Jenghis Khan ; and from being the chief of a small province of Transoxania, he raised himself to the sovereignty of the Mogul empire. Jn a 1399 campaign of one year, he made himself master of Delhi, passed Tamerlane the Ganges, and penetrated to the Burrampooter, when intelli- ^oftomaif 6 gence of the conquests of Bajazet, induced him to return. After empire, conquering the Christians in Georgia, and one city in Anatolia, Tamerlane left for a time the Ottoman dominions. At Aleppo, the capital of Sicily, he conquered the Turkish emirs ; but at Damascus he met a temporary check from the Mamelukes* of Egypt. 17. The time occupied by Tamerlane in the Syrian con- 1402- quest, gave to Bajazet an opportunity to prepare for the coming -angora. contest. At Angora was fought between them the memorable defeats Ba- battle in which the Turks were completely vanquished, and the /rpjjfjjah sultan made prisoner. Tamerlane at first affected to treat Bajazet one of the' with much consideration, and made to him moralizing speeches ; ra q Ue r f rg, n ° but afterwards he put him in an iron cage, in which he was sometimes carried about to grace his triumphant marches. The invasion human of Europe was prevented more by the want of a fleet to con- b , e a ngs l ? be duct the forces of Tamerlane across the Hellespont, than by the in walls— suppliant embassies of the Greeks and the sons of Bajazet. t obTpound- Tamerlane next projected the conquest of China, where the dy- ed to death nasty of Jenghis had recently been overthrown ; but death pre- mortars?) * The Mamelukes were originally slaves, purchased from the shores of the Caspian, and first organized as a body guard by the renowned Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria. Their numbers were from time to time aug- mented, until they became the most powerful military force of Egypt, and at length gained a supremacy in the government. 15. Of his successor. — 1©. What called Bajazet from the siege of Con- stantinople ? Who was Tamerlane ? Give an account of his conquests. — IT. Give an account of the contest between Bajazet and Tamerlane. How was the vanquished treated by the conqueror ? 288 LADISLAUS AND JOHN HUNNIADES. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAf. IX. Mahomet I. and Amu- rath II. Pope Euge- nius urges a crusade. 1443. Near JSISSA. The Chris- tians victo- rious. (The cele- brated Pcanderbeg, afterwards chief of Al- bania, was in this battle.) 1444. VARjYA. Amurath de- feats the Christians, and estab- lishes the Turkish power. 10,000 Chris- tians slain. Nations who a few centuries before had raised such vast armies to invade the infidels, now stupid- ly suffered them to come to their own doors. vented the execution of his plans. Though the strength of the Ottoman power was for a time suppressed, yet the sons of Ba- jazet were left in possession of the different provinces of his kingdom ; and discord and destructive civil wars followed, which ceased only with the death of all, save Mahomet I., under whose sway the unity of the empire was restored. Ma- homet was succeeded by Amurath II., who renewed the siege of Constantinople, but was recalled by a revolt in his own do- minions. 18. The revival and spread of the Turkish power in Europe, awakened Pope Eugenius to a consciousness of the danger, not only of Constantinople, but of all Christendom. He wisely sought to form a league among the Christian powers against the infidels. The Hungarians and Poles, under their monarch La dislaus, in whom the government of both kingdoms was united, undertook the war. His army was augmented by many soldiers from France and Germany, and strengthened by the counsels aud conduct of the pope's legate, cardinal Julian, and the brave Hungarian general, John Hunniades. The Christians, in two successive battles, humbled the Ottoman power, and drew from Amurath an offer of peace, by which he was to withdraw from their frontier. The remonstrances and intrigues of the cardinal prevailed against the advice of Hunniades, and the Christians violated the treaty. With an army diminished by the departure of the French and Germans, (volunteers, who on the first sound of peace, had hastened to their homes,) Ladislaus inarched to encounter Amurath. The Turk, irritated and incensed by the bad faith of his opponents, hastened to avenge himself. On the field of Varna, the armies were drawn up in hostile array, and a most sanguinary conflict terminated in the triumph of the Ma- hometans. Ladislaus signalized himself by daring feats, but at length perished on the field. 10,000 Christians were slain, but so great was the loss of the Turks, that Amurath declared another such victory would prove his ruin. The valiant Hun- niades survived, and for many years defended the Hungarian frontier from the arms of the infidels. 19. Mahomet II. succeeded his father on the Ottoman throne. While he was making professions of friendship to Constantine, the last of the Greek emperors, he was secretly maturing a plan for the conquest of his capital. He erected a fortress on the European side of the Bosphorus, which gave him the command of the streets, and in spite of the supplications of the Greeks, prepared to besiege the city. The winter preced- ing the siege, was one of distress and dismay within the capital. Constantine, with a spirit worthy of the best days of the em- pire, endeavored to animate the fainting hearts of his degenerate IT. What happened in the Ottoman empire after the capture of Bajazet? Give an account of Amurath II. ? — 18. What was done by pope Eugenius ? What army was collected? What military movement favorable to the Christians occurred ? What bad conduct followed ? Give an account of the great battle of Varna. What account can you give of John Hunniades f EXD OF THE GREEK EMPIRE. 289 subjects, to quell their divisions, and to inspire them with heroic Middle m ^- ardor. He conveyed the intelligence of his distress to the period v. western monarchs, and solicited the aid of his Christian brethren. CHAP - IX - But amid the din of arms and petty contentions which re- ^-^"V"^' sounded through the western nations, the petitions of Constan- tine passed unheeded, and their own danger from the Turks was blindly disregarded. Constantine next attempted to effect a reconciliation of the churches, which might enlist the pope in his cause ; but the attempt only brought upon him the wrath of the Greek churches, and involved the city in new disorders. 20. Meanwhile Mahomet continued his active preparations for the siege, which early in the spring he opened by sea and land. The spirits of the Greeks revived when a small fleet of five ships, furnished by Sicily, the Morea, and some of the islands of the Archipelago, triumphantly entered the harbor, after obtaining a splendid victory over the Turkish fleet which guarded the Bosphorus. Mahomet now devised a plan, by which his fleet obtained possession of the harbor, the entrance Mahomet's to which was guarded by a chain, and defended by the Greek fc J2 de ^ e vessels. He caused a passage of nearly two leagues to be dug transports over land, lined with planks, and smeared with grease ; and in ^ver uSd. the space of one night, by the help of engines, and a prodigious number of men, he drew a fleet of more than a hundred vessels across this passage, and launched them all in the harbor. The city, after enduring a siege of fifty-three days, was taken by as- sault. Constantine, the last of the Csesars, perished bravely fighting, while multitudes fell by his side. The city experi- 1453. enced the horrors of sack and pillage, heightened by the ani- ^JKHSb mosity which the Mahometans felt towards the Christians. by the Mahomet now established his throne in the capital of the east, Turks - and the remainder of the Greek empire soon fell before the arms of the Moslem conqueror. A succession of able princes filled the Turkish throne, under whom the empire became consoli- dated. 19. Relate the operations of Mahomet II. Of Constantine. — 20. What circumstance cheering to the Greeks occurred ? How did Mahomet remove his ships ? Relate the final fall of Constantinople and the Greek empire, and the establishment of the Ottoman. 37 MODERN HISTORY. FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. Return of Columbus. PERIOD I. THE DISCOVERY £ 1492. < OF AMERICA THE TREATY OP CHATEAU CAMBRESIS TO 1559. WHICH ESTAB- LISHES PROTESTANTISM. CHAPTER J. General view of Europe. 1. At the commencement of this period of history, we find Modem His. the nations entering upon a new order of things. Indeed, the period I. student of universal history may say this in every age ; and he chap. i. who should have expected the state of the world to continue un- v-^-v^/ changed, or who should have believed that in the mirror of the past he could see the future, would have been mistaken. Theo- a fallacious ries whose basis is analogy, often mislead the student: and no ^S a J i i • i • ■ w .1 i -Ti • reasoning where more than in history. It has been said that nations are exposed. Modern History. — Period I. — Chap. I. — 1. What do we find on com- mencing the present period ? Do we in any two ages find the state of the world alike ? 291 292 THE DAWN OF A NEW HISTORIC DAY. Modern His. A great change. Its causes. The cru- sades of the 12th and 13th centu- ries. Commercial marts. 1236. Paper money. 1438. First print- ing by Ros- ter. (See Chronologi- cal Table.) The arts of printing and navigation diffuse knowledge. like individuals, and therefore must have their growth, maturi- ty, and decay. This is no better reasoning than it would be to affirm that nations, being like rivers, composed of aggregated particles which change as they flow, must by the laws of nature flow on while time endures. Nations are unlike indivi- duals, because there is no physical necessity for their decline. They are unlike rivers, because their particles are intellectual and moral agents, amenable to a righteous God ; and their pros- perity or decay will be according to their own conduct, and his Providential appointment. 2. But although the world is ever changing, the period now under consideration is in this respect altogether remarkable ; it is in fact the dawning of a new historic day. The crusades, although undertaken in the spirit of a fanaticism, at war with Christianity, and carried on with a great and criminal destruc- tion of human life, had yet beneficial effects on European civilization. They brought distant nations together, who thus each learned much from the others, and returning to their homes, they there improved political and social relations. They acquired a taste for articles of convenience of which they had not before known the use, and learned where their wants might be supplied; and where their own surplus productions might find sale. Thus an impulse was given to trade, manufactures, and arts ; and European Commerce began soon after the commencement of the crusades. Venice led the way ; Con- stantinople, Genoa, and Pisa were among the earliest commer- cial marts. London obtained its first charter, with pow r er to elect its sheriff, from Henry J. ; — its first trading company was formed in 1319. Florence, under the Medici, was the empo- rium of trade, as well as arts. London was of little mercantile importance, when Bruges and Ghent, and afterwards Antwerp, were the centres of European commerce. Paper money was in- troduced from China into Italy, in the thirteenth century. In the fourteenth, banks existed in Genoa and Florence. 3. This was an age of invention and discovery. The art of -printing was invented, and the polarity of the magnetic needle discovered, by which navigation was improved and new re- gions made known. By these arts, knowledge took wings, and became so widely spread, that no barbarian burner of li- braries could again deprive the world of its intellectual riches. The Bible was printed; — the human mind, which had began to expand, thus received an impulse, that prepared the way for 1. Suppose in this free country persons should say that it does not matter how rulers and people conduct, things must take their course, because na- tions are like individuals — what reply would you make? — %, What effect had the crusades in ushering in a new historic day ? What account can you give of the introduction of commerce ? What city led the way in commerce ? What others are among the oldest commercial cities? What account can you here give of London. Of Florence. What other cities are named ? — 3. What great inventions and discoveries were made in the arts, which fa- cilitated the spread of knowledge ? — What is remarked concerning the spread of sacred knowledge by the printing of the bible ? THE DAWN OF MODERN CIVILIZATION. 293 breaking the most galling fetters by which mankind were ever Jtfo ^ er?t His - enslaved; and the Reformation dawned upon Christendom, period i. The invention of gunpowder made a change in the art of war, chap. i. which took the palm from mere physical strength and courage. <-^^^^*^ It gave the invaded advantages over the invader ; thus lessening the probability of settled nations being again overrun, and bringing the chances of war more within the scope of calcula- Invention of tion. These circumstances, combined with the introduction of gunpowder, diplomatic art, and with the practice which now prevailed of an d stanY- employing and paying regular armies, instead of the feudal ser- in s armies, vice, greatly ameliorated the condition of Europe in respect to c character war. When immense masses of barbarians were moving over ofvvars - and prostrating the settled nations, the feudal system seemed necessary to fix them. This mission was now fulfilled, and the system was passing to decay, or changing its form. The prin- cipal thrones of Europe had been simultaneously filled with kings who had, with great talent and deep policy, depressed the nobles and strengthened the royal authority. The princi- pal of these were Louis XL, Henry VII., and Ferdinand, the Catholic. At the same time Isabella of Castile, and John II., of Portugal, by their patronage of navigators, added vast regions by discovery. The practice of sending diplomatic agents or ambassadors from nation to nation, arose in this age, and was theCaSXuc, said to have commenced with the Spaniards. Diplomacy was, the first to however, " a knavish calling," as these national agents were by se matlc ° order of their kings, to whom the whole foreign department of a s ent3 -) each country belonged, watching to take unfair and dishonest advantages ; caring nothing for the rest of the world, if their own master's power was advanced, and not scrupling, for sel- fish purposes, to stir up bloody and causeless wars between other nations. Posts for carrying dispatches were about this time introduced. 4. A highly important feature of the present period, was the revival of learning. This may in its beginnings be traced to the brilliant genius of Charlemagne ; he having founded the first Aicuin, born university in Europe, that of Paris. His friend and preceptor at York, first Alcuin, was its brightest ornament. Alfred of England founded theumver- the second university, that of Oxford. He was himself a S p a y ri g f scholar, and one of those to whom the English language owes its formation. The Scholastic Philosophy, began with Jllcuin, and continued to be regarded as the highest pursuit of acute minds through five centuries. The grand object of inquiry among the 3. What effect had the discovery of gunpowder? What other circum- stances contributed to change the state of Europe respecting war ? What is here said of the feudal system ? What three kings are named, and for ■what are they remarkable ? What two sovereigns were the most remarkable for patronizing discovery? What can be said of diplomacy at that pe- riod ? What great convenience to the world originated about this time ? — 4-. What important feature of this period is next noticed ? What part had Charlemagne in this movement? Alfred of England? Which of these monarchs was himself a scholar? What is said of the Scholastic Philoso- phy ? What account is given of Alcuin? 294 REVIVAL OF LEARNING. Modern His. PERIOD I. CHAP. I. (Scotland and Erin contend tor Ills birth. Hence he is called Sco- tus Eri- gena.) 1130. Peter Abelard. (Michael Scot, sup- posed by the ignorant to be a wi- zard. See Walter Scott's "Lay of the Last Min- strel.") schoolmen, or scholastic philosophers was, " what is the object of our thoughts when we employ general terms."* The school- men at first united in opinion that there were in the mind real ideas, or existences, corresponding to general terms, and hence were called Realists. For two centuries Realism prevailed ; but in the course of the discussions much freedom of thought on mental operations was elicited by the writers, among whom may be named John Scotus Erigena, who taught at Oxford, and Gerbert, who became pope under the name of Sylvester II. These were opposed 03^ RoscELLiNUsf of Compeigne, and after him, by Peter Abelard of Paris, who maintained that general terms are like algebraic signs, — themselves, in their compound signification, the objects of thought when employed by the reasoning faculty, which without such aid, could not on general subjects perform its proper functions. This doctrine of words or names, was called " Nominalism." The acute reason- ers who maintained it, were led to some inferences concerning sacred things which alarmed the church. Duns Scotus, one of the Oxford scholastics, called the " subtle doctor," was so much admired that it is said he had 30,000 students to attend his lectures. He was invited to Paris and there excited equal attention. He was the author of a theory respecting the birth of the Virgin, called the " Immaculate conception," which he brought two hundred arguments to prove, and which was after- wards the cause of persecution in the church. 5. Ancient manuscripts which had been kept for ages care- fully preserved in monasteries, — their only safe depositories through the dark ages, began now to be examined by the monks, who alone possessed sufficient learning. From another source the ancient lore of Greece and Rome was introduced. The Cordovan Averroes had translated Aristotle's works, and Mi- chael Scot had rendered them from Arabic into Latin. Aris- totle now enjoyed a literary supremacy in the several universi- ties which at this time existed. The works of the Arabian Avicenna were also translated and introduced into the schools. From the Arabians too, proceeded algebra, that powerful engine fc The author of this work, in 1832, published an article on this memora- ble question in " the Journal of Science," in which she undertook to prove that it could not be answered in the terms proposed, because the question it- self contains a latent fallacy. tRoscellinus taught the doctrine of the Trinity in such a manner, that he was charged with Tritheism, and was obliged to flee from persecution for heresy and sin against the Holy Ghost. 4. What, was the grand question which so long occupied the schoolmen ? What was their opinion at first ? For how long a time did realism prevail ? Did some mental improvement result from these metaphysical reasoners? Who among them are mentioned ? By whom were they opposed 1 What doctrine did their opponents maintain ? With what heresy was Roscellinus charged * Give an account of Duns Scotus. — 5. Where were the remains of ancient learning preserved ? By whom examined and brought forth ? Who were the only learned men? What Arabian authors were now studied ? What author was now regarded as of supreme authority in the schools ? PROGRESS OF LANGUAGE. 4tfO of the mind, which enables it to wield in calculation, subjects which without it, the human powers cannot grasp. England now produced a philosopher who turned his attention to sub- jects of natural science, — this was Roger Bacon, the most philosophic genius of the middle ages. So much in advance of his age was " friar Bacon," that he was regarded as a magi- cian. The revival of Aristotle's works, which were considered as favoring realism, brought up its long-vexed question, and William Occam gained great applause as a defender of No- minalism. In the meantime the philosophy of Plato revived, and favored by the Medici, was opposed to that of Aristotle. When Constantinople was taken by the Turks, many learned men fled to the different parts of Europe, who became authors and teachers in universities; and thus the downfall of the east- ern empire greatly promoted the diffusion of learning. 6. Language. — The Latin was cultivated as the only lan- guage of the learned during the dark ages. New languages, however arose, formed by mingling the dialects of the bar- barians with the Latin. The first of these which produced authors of any note was that of Provence; — there the trouba- dours, those minstrel poets of the "joyous science," took their rise ; numbering in their ranks many knights of fame and royal de- gree, each of whom sung in Provencal French, his lady eh charms, his own devotion, and the exploits of heroes, particularly those of Palestine. The Italian language in Italy took the place of the Latin, and the great Dante consecrated it by the " Di- vine Comedy ;" Petrarch had shown its fluent melody by his love sonnets, and Boccaccia its powers in prose. Chaucer, the father of English poetry, had begun to demonstrate the rich- ness and adaptation to verse of his native tongue; — Wickliffe, the reformer, had shown its powerful energy in prose. The imprisoned monarch, James I., of Scotland, had woed the muse in the deep solitude to which his youth was barbarously con- demned, and he became not only the most learned man, but the best poet of his age. In Germany the vernacular tongue early produced good histories and excellent poems; one of which, called the Nibelungen-Leid, bears some striking resemblances to the Iliad, and is yet unequalled in the German language for the simple pathos of its narrative. 7. Architecture. — Among the wonders of the dark ages, we are struck with the fact, that they produced, apparently all at once, a species of architecture unrivalled for blended majesty Modern His. (Among the troubadours was Richard the lion- hearted, and F. Barba- rossa of Germany.) 1411. (The first English printing press was set up at Westmin- ster by Wm. Caxton.) (About 1200 The Nibe- lungen- Leid. The author un- known. See Schlegel.) 5. Give an account of Roger Bacon. Of William Occam. What phi- losophy was now opposed to that of Aristotle? What effect had the taking of Constantinople by the Turks on the literature of Europe ? — 6. What was the only language of the learned in Europe ? How did new dia- lects arise ? Which was the first of these new dialects that produced au- thors? What account can you give of the troubadours? What writers by their genius gave character to the modern Italian ? Who were the ear- liest writers in the English language ? What species of composition did the Germans early excel in ? What remarkable poem produce ? — 7. What is said of a species of architecture produced in the dark ages ? 296 ADVANCE OF THE FINE ARTS. Modern Jlis. PERIOD I. CHAP. I. The Gothic architecture introduced about the end of the ninth century. 1025. Guido of Arezzo. Franco von Cologne. 1823. John de Muris in- vents semi- breves, min- ims, &.C. 1405. (James I. of Scotland, made pri- soner by Henry IV. at the age of 13; but furnished with books and teach- ers. Re- leased by Henry V.) 141?. 1240 to 1520. Cimabue. Leonardo di Vinci. Michael Angelo. Raphael Sanzio. and beauty, and which inclines the beholder to religious awe. It has received the name of Gothic, but is not now believed to have originated with the Goths, but with the Lombards. The great cathedral of Milan is regarded to this day as unsurpassed. Notre Dame at Paris was one hundred years in building. About the same time was required for erecting the great York Minster, the cathedrals of Rheims and Rouen, and the church of St. Marks at Venice. The greatest church, — in fact the most spa- cious hall ever built, is St. Peter's at Rome. The present struc- ture was begun about 1513, and not completed till 1614. The measures resorted to by various popes, particularly Leo X , to obtain means for its completion, was a moving cause of the downfall of the papacy. 8. Music, the universal language of feeling, — always the most refined and elegant of the arts, and now one of the most pro- found of the sciences, received the rudiments of its present form in the dark ages. Guido of Arezzo was the inventor of the notation by lines and spaces, but he used dots. His scale was imperfect, being only a hexachord ; to express the sounds of which, he used six syllables. Franco of Cologne added the seventh note, and invented the musical divisions of time ; and John of Muris, the characters by which they are expressed. Archimedes is by some regarded as the inventor of the organ. The fable of the beautiful St. Cecilia, with the nightly visits of the angel, who was drawn down by her melody, dates back to the third century, when a lovely Christian lady of that name, who excelled in music, suffered martyrdom at Rome. One of the earliest composers of music was the imprisoned royal bard, James J. of Scotland. He played eight different instruments with such skill, that he seemed to be inspired. An Italian writer, his cotemporary, boasts of him as the pride of his age in regard to music ; particularly for a new kind which he had in- vented, of a plaintive and soothing character, and which, says the author, was imitated by the Italians. Though songs of war and love came into vogue with the troubadours, yet the ob- ject of music was, in these ages, religious. The organ was brought to great perfection ; the grand and simple style of sa- cred music prevailed ; and the long aisles and echoing vaults of the vast cathedrals, heightened its effect. 9. Painting, under the patronage of the Medici, revived at Florence, and the great Italian school was established. Cima- bue, its founder, struck out for himself an original and majestic style, in which he was excelled by Leonardo di Vinci. Mi- chael Angelo carried the style to a degree of sublimity 7. What great cathedrals are named, and what is said of the length of time taken to erect them ? — 8. What account can you give of the cultivation of music during the dark ages? What was invented by Guido of Arezzo ? By Franco of Cologne ? By John of Muris? Who is regarded by some as the inventor of the organ ? What is reported of St. Cecilia? What is here said of James I. ? What was the object of music at that time ? — 9. At what time, and where did the art of painting revive ? Who was the founder of the Italian school? Who its greatest masters ? THE PAPAL POWER. 297 which belongs to no other painter. Raphael Sanzio, to the Mode ™ gfo sublime, united grace and beauty ; and his works exhibit the ut- period i. most perfection which the art has reached. chap. j. 10. But though improvement was thus dawning upon the ^-^^v^«^ world ; the papal dominion, the most absolute to which man- kind has ever been subjected, was existing in full force ; and it comprehended all Christendom, except the Greek church. For *«|r in order to keep unity, those who presumed to deny the pope's Fourth and the church's infallibility, were cut off by fire and sword. A t ^Lateran council of 1200 bishops at Rome, decreed that the secular powers at Rome, ' must be compelled to extirpate from their territories all heretics ; and a million of the Waldenses and others suffered. Rome had thus a second time become the seat of empire ; but small was the power of Augustus and Trajan compared with that of the popes. They assumed only political authority, whereas the popes tensions 6 " claimed divine power. They were " vicars of Christ, and vice- than any gerents of God," therefore the earth, with all things therein, was men ever set under their control; they gave kingdoms or took them away; ^J^no nay, they entered the inner sanctuary of the mind, to be there church the guiding will, the understanding, and the conscience. What- p^ume til ever they set up as truth, men must believe ; what they were justify.) pleased to call sin, men must call sin too ; and what they com- manded, though it were otherwise crime, must be performed on pain of eternal damnation. The whole army of monks, and crusad- ing monkish warriors, such as the knights of St. John and those of the Teutonic order, were under vows of obedience and celibacy, and often changing their location, they had no tie to hinder their entire devotion to the great central power, — no country but Rome. 11. The practice of auricular confession began about A. D. 120©- 1200. By this, the emissaries of the pope, in the persons of ^Sfeasion . confessors, obtained the secrets of those in power; and were thus kept advised of coming events, and could prepare to meet them. The sins confessed, it was believed, might be ab- solved by the confessor, especially in consideration of penance, such as flagellation, and wearing shirts of hair- cloth; and thus absolved, divine vengeance was no more to be feared for the most flagrant transgressions. Hence the power of conscience Indul s ences was put to rest; and deluded men, believing that the priesthood could open and shut the gates of heaven, sought rather to obtain their favor, than that of the all-seeing God. The papacy took ad- vantage of this delusion to extend its power and wealth. Partial in- dulgences for the suspension of penance, on account of particular sins, or plenary indulgence could be had for money. The church Mass e S f Gr made merchandise of natural affection, requiring masses to be paid the dead. 10. What is said of the papal dominion ? How did the Roman church preserve unity ? What decree is mentioned ? Who were under vows of obedience and celibacy ? What in regard to country was the consequence of their not being allowed to have families? — 11. What advantages did the popes gain by auricular confession ? How was conscience put to rest on the part of the persons confessing ? Whose favor would they naturally seek to obtain ? 38 Penance. 298 RELIGIOUS TOLERATION UNKNOWN. Modem His. f or? DV the people, to take their dead relatives from purgatory, period i. an d send them to heaven. They made laws respecting marriage chap. i. and divorce, such as the Creator never made, but which the -— *^v^s^ pope could remit for a consideration ; and they taxed the love ago of fame, by the profane mockery of canonization, which au- Canoniza- thorized men to worship what God has forbidden. This began tion - as early as 993, where in a council at the Lateran palace, in Rome, John XV. declared that " Hilderic, bishop of Augusta, might be worshipped as a saint reigning with Christ in heaven." This practice was continued, and men of shameless lives might hope to be canonized; if they proved the devoted servants of the hierarchy. The church, by these and other means, grew rich ; and the priests, in many instances, rioted in luxury and ill-con- cealed voluptuousness. But if men had accusing thoughts, they The t I i "J|" lsl " must not breathe them to the winds ; the Inquisition had its se- cret agents at every turn. That of Spain alone had 20,000 officials. 12. The monarchs of Europe were allowed peaceably to ex- ercise their political functions, provided they gave no offence to the church, whose interest it was to keep its votaries from weak- ening each other, and lavishing their treasures in war. Many l nd h° noraDie exceptions to this character of worldly ambition with and aii the which the Roman hierarchy is chargeable, appear, especially from n which m * ts ear ^ er day. While they did but what all are apt to do, our republic seize advantages and keep them ; they little thought what a were°ofthe tremendous engine they were constructing. It would be un- R , oma h J ust to brand them with all the evils which mankind have hence these suffered from religious persecution. The principles of tolera- 'T^cmr 3 " ti° n w hich teach that religion is a matter between man and his progenitors Maker, and not subject to human authority, were in those days a othersO S unknown. Force and fraud were the engines employed to govern mankind. The first was mainly depended on by the kings and nobles, and the last, in this period of the world, by the church. Bad as were these methods, they were better than the absolute anarchy and barbarism which prevailed after the downfall of the empire of Charlemagne ; — when ancient civiliza- tion was broken up, and modern had not begun to exist. 13. England, under Henry VIJ., had been far more pros- perous than under her more warlike sovereigns. By degrees, the disorders and insurrections which attended the commence- A e prudent" ment °f R is reign were quieted, many good laws were passed, butavari- commerce and industry were encouraged; and though his ava- mg. r - ce j^ j^ tQ m ake oppressive exactions, they were counter- balanced by these advantages. The parliament at this period had little independence, but gave its sanction to such acts as 11. What means were taken to draw money from the people? What tribunal took charge of any who might complain ? — 12. Was the papacy generally friendly to peace? Should we make religious persecution a com- plaint against the church solely ? What may be said of the earlier popes ? What were the two main engines used against the violence and anarchy which prevailed after the death of Charlemagne ? — 13. Give an account of England. STATE OF EUROPE. 299 were most agreeable to the king's will. Scotland at this pe- riod, flourished under James IV., one of the greatest of her kings, who held the marauding nobles in check, and protected commerce. He married Margaret, the daughter of Henry VII., and by this marriage the Stuarts afterwards filled the Eng- lish throne. 14. In France, all the great feudal nobles had been brought into subjection to the monarch. Charles VIII., who succeeded his father, Louis XI., had by his marriage with Anne, the heiress of Brittany, re-united that important province to the crown of France. In Germany, the emperor, Frederic III., was succeeded by his son Maximilian I. The low countries and Burgundy had been annexed to the empire, by his marriage with Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, and the heiress of these pro- vinces. His hereditary possessions were also increased by the death of his cousin, the arch-duke of Austria, to whose domin- ions he succeeded. The empire became better organized by the establishment of imperial courts, and a division into circles. Mary of Burgundy died, leaving the emperor a son, Philip, and a daughter, Margaret, who was affianced to Charles VIII., and sent to France to be educated. Maximilian made suit to Anne of Brittany, and was accepted. Charles VIII. supplanted him, married his espoused, and sent home his daughter. Hence, hatred arose between Germany and France. Portugal, under the sway of John II., had commenced a series of successful naval enterprises, which extended her commerce and power, and made her respectable among the nations of Europe. 15. Spain, by the territory and talents which were united in its joint sovereigns, was taking the lead in the politics of Eu- rope. The eldest of their children, who bore her mother's name, became the wife of Emmanuel, of Portugal. By the con- dition of this marriage the Jews were banished from that king- dom. John the second, the amiable heir of Spain, received for a bride, Margaret, that daughter of the emperor Maximilian who had been educated in France ; while Joanna, their third child, married Philip the Handsome, the emperor's son; and their youngest child, Catharine of Arragon, was affianced, and after- wards married to Arthur, the heir of England. Scarcely had his marriage festivities ceased, when John died with a fever. Isabella, the queen of Portugal, soon after expired in her mo- ther's arms. Such repeated trials of her maternal heart, af- fected her health ; and queen Isabella's days were overcast, and drew to a close. But the affectionate mother survived to sus- tain another trial not less severe. Her third daughter, Joanna, had accompanied her husband to the Low Countries, and having at Ghent given birth to a son, afterwards Charles Modern His- Charles VIII. Maximi- lian I. (Anne of Brittany es- poused by proxy to Maximilian, marries Charles. She prefers Louis of Or- leans to either.) John II. Patron of discoverers. Ferdinand and Isabella- Isabella their daugh- ter, marries the heir of Portugal. 1493. (March 15. Columbus arrives at Palos on his return.) Charles V. born at Ghent 1500. Isabella dies 1504. 13. Give an account of Scotland. — 14:. Of France. Of Germany. Of Portugal. — 15. Which was now becoming the most prominent power in Europe ? What marriage connections did the Spanish sovereigns make for their children? What family misfortunes sunk the health of Isabella ? 300 A MONUMENT. an instruc- tive monu ment. Modern His. y " he had left, had been massacred, and their fort destroyed. . After the departure of their commander, their licentiousness Hispaniola, and rapacity had known no bounds ; and the kind-hearted na- (St. Domm- tives were at length aroused to madness ; and destroyed, in self- defence, the abusive intruders. 5. Columbus now made choice of a healthy situation, where Isabella the he founded a city, which he named Isabella. During a short America! 11 absence of Columbus, the Spaniards, disobeying his commands, irritated the natives by new excesses ; who, assembling in vast numbers, sought to drive from the land these terrible invaders. Columbus having returned, attacked them in the night, and so alarmed were they by his fire-arms, and other weapons of Eu- ropean warfare, that they fled without resistance ; and he at length subjected the whole island to the Spanish government. The unhappy natives next attempted to destroy their oppressors nativeYof by neglecting the cultivation of the maize and cassada which Hls P amoIa - furnished bread. They were themselves, however, the greatest sufferers. The Spaniards received supplies from Europe, while the Indians, having retired to the mountains and wooded parts of the island, and subsisting upon the spontaneous productions 3. How long was his homeward passage? How long had been his ab- sence ? — i. How was Columbus received ? What application was made to the pope, and what division thus settled, as the boundary between the Spanish and Portuguese discoveries? How large an armament had Colum- bus on his second voyage ? How had the Spaniards conducted during the absence of Columbus, and what had been done by the natives? — 5. What city was founded ? Relate the further particulars of the conquest of St. Domingo. Mournful fate of the 304 THE OCEAN CHIVALRY. Modern His. PERIOD CHAP. II. Third voy- age of Co- lumbus. Discovers Trinidad and the continent. 149% The Cabots the first discoverers of the con- tinent. Amerigo Vespucio gives name to the con- tinent. 1-49S- Vasco de Gama dou- bles the Cape of Good Hope. 1499. Cabral. (The Cape discovered by Bartholo- mew Dias, 1486.) 3ad charac- ter of the colonists. Columbus falsely ac- cused. of the soil, died with famine and disease ; and in a few months, more than a third part of the inhabitants of the island perished. 6. Columbus leaving the government of the colony to his faithful brother, Bartholomew, again returned to Spain, where his enemies were undermining his interest with the king. He was received with seeming favor ; but the delays attendant on the fitting out of another expedition, and the preparations for making the colony permanent, detained him two years. In his third voyage, he proceeded farther to the south, discovered the mouth of the Orinoco, and landed on the continent. John and Sebastian Cabot, sailing under the patronage of Henry VII., had the year previous discovered the continent at Labrador. On his arrival at Hispaniola, Columbus found the colony in a suffering state. The insurrections of the natives, and still worse, the mutiny of the Spaniards, had reduced his brother to the greatest distress. Private adventures from Spain began to be attempted. Alonzo de Ojeda sent by the merchants of Seville, followed the track of Columbus, having obtained his charts and journal. Amerigo Vespucio, a native of Flo- rence, accompanied this expedition; and by publishing a work on his return, descriptive of the country and natives on the coast of South America, he came to be considered the discove- rer of the continent; and thus fraudulently deprived Columbus of the honor of giving it his name. 7. Meanwhile the Portuguese had pushed their discoveries in the south and east. A squadron, under the command of Vasco de Gama, had doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and thus discovered the passage to India. The following year, another expedition, sent to the East Indies, under Cabral, steering west to avoid the winds and calms off the coast of Africa, discovered by accident the coast of Brazil, in South America, and took possession of the country. As it was found to be on the Portuguese side of the pope's line, the right of that monarchy to the country was not disputed. This accidental discovery proved of more value to the crown of Portugal than all its East India possessions. 8. Many of the colonists whom Columbus had carried over were of the very dregs of society — criminals, who were re- leased from prison to plant colonies in the New World. His attempts to enforce discipline among this licentious mass, ex- posed him to their hatred ; and they made false accusation^ against him, which reached the court of Spain. There he had active enemies; for envy, which ever follows and seeks to de- preciate superior merit, had been awakened, by witnessing his 6. Give some particulars of the visit of Columbus to Spain. Of his third voyage. Who had discovered the continent before Columbus ? What account can you give of Ojeda? Of Amerigo Vespucio? — T. What im- portant discoveries were made by the Portuguese? — 8. Of what character were many of the Spanish colonists ? How did Columbus suffer on account of this, both in the colony and in Spain ? COLUMBUS IN CHAINS. 305 splendid successes. In one respect his conduct had laid him Modernity open to misrepresentation. Isabella had forbidden the slavery period i. of the natives. Columbus had faithfully endeavored to fulfil chat. ii. her wishes ; but circumstances forced him to allow a species ^^"""•^'**« / of servitude almost amounting to slavery. This was told at court, with exaggerations. Isabella, though she had long with- stood these calumnies, at last yielded to their influence, and be- lieved Columbus to be guilty of oppression to the innocent na- tives, for whom her kind heart was warmly interested, 9. Francis de Bovadilla was now appointed to proceed to 1500. Hispaniola, with power to examine into the administration of Bovadilla Columbus, and if necessary, to supersede him in the govern- sent over ' ment. On his arrival, the island had been reduced by Colum- bus to submission, and all dissensions composed. Bovadilla, however, at once assumed the government, and sent Columbus Columbus in chains to Europe. Ferdinand, ashamed of this injustice, gave chain"? " orders on his arrival in Spain, that he should be released, and invited to court. The cold and calculating monarch received (Bovadiiio him with civility ; — Isabella, with such tenderness, that Colum- in 150 i bus knelt at her feet and wept. He related to his sovereigns to'return"to his trials, his efforts, and his injuries. But, though Bovadilla Spain, goes was removed from the government and recalled, Columbus was with his not reinstated in his rights, now so extensive as to be an object J r e Y s d ure.) of jealousy to the court. On the contrary, Nicholas de Ovando was appointed governor of St. Domingo. 10. Columbus felt keenly this new injury; and he re- mained two years an unsuccessful suitor at the court of Spain. Finding it vain to solicit redress from an ungrateful monarch, 15058-4. he offered to conduct another voyage of discovery, to seek a fourth and new passage to the Indies, which he expected to find some- last voyage- where near the isthmus of Darien. Ferdinand, hoping to reap farther advantages from his genius, furnished him with four small disagree-* ships, and Columbus, at an advanced age, again went forth to ment among seek new countries. This voyage was disastrous ; after sailing ShTage of along the coast a considerable distance, he found his hopes of Columbus, discovering a strait, delusive. He encountered a violent storm, posTnVhfm and his vessels were so much injured as to compel him to run t0 5 7 a at e his en them aground at Jamaica. Here, far away from all aid or con- death. Some solation, he was detained more than a year by the governor of ^"derj" St. Domingo. When he returned, Isabella was dead, and from her alone he had hopes of sympathy and justice. Heart stricken i^i« s by this blow, he sunk into despondency, and died at Valladolid, A. D. 1506. 11. Hernando Cortez, an idle, wilful, and irregular young man, left his paternal mansion, in Estremadura, at the age of 8. In what respect had his conduct laid him open to misrepresentation ? — 9. Who was now sent over by the Spanish sovereigns, and with what powers ? In what state did he find the island ? What however did he do ? How did the sovereigns treat Columbus? Who was sent over governor? — 10. What did Columbus next undertake ? What was the character of his last voyage ? What further account can you give of Columbus ? 39 306 HERNANDO COR.TEZ. Modern His, nineteen, and went an adventurer, to Hispaniola, where Diego period i. Columbus, son and successor of the great admiral was governor. chap. ii. He sent Velasquez with an armament, to colonize Cuba. The •^r~ss~»>~ good monk Las Casas, went as the companion of Velasquez, Las Casas, an( | exerted an influence to prevent the atrocious abuse of the who is called . . * , .„ " The Pro- natives which had occurred in the conquest 01 rJispamola. Cortez, 'Tndktns?' 6 a ^ so ' wno h^ acquired some fortune, went Math Velasquez, and settling in Cuba, he evinced such talent and energy, that on a proposition of sending an armament to possess a rich country to the west, which had been visited by Grijalva, Cortez was appointed to command the expedition ; and six years after Nunez de Balboa had discovered from the mountain heights, the great Pacific, Cortez set sail from St. Jago in 151.8. Cuba for Yucatan. It was at night, with a fleet half-manned show S eZ ii an( ^ half-equipped, and without ceremony of leave-taking, that energy of his Hernando Cortez set forth on an expedition which gave a new character. em pj re to Spain. Cortez had learned that Velasquez, grown jealous, was about to supersede him in the command, after he had embarked all his fortune and hopes in the enterprize. 12. There was reigning in Mexico, Montezuma, the powerful sovereign of the Aztecs, or principal tribe of the country; and Cortez met a people more civilized than any the Spaniards had before found in the New World. Mexico was a great and rich city, as was Tetzuco and several others. But the blighting curse of a terrible superstition was upon them. A cruel priesthood had made them submit to a discipline by which their very souls that inone d were subjugated. For their bloody war-god they demanded place 100,000 human sacrifices, which they offered in a manner shocking be- s Sms S were" y or, d expression, and in astonishing numbers. The flesh of counted.) these human victims, the Mexicans cooked and ate ! ate it at their feasts, and made merry. And the different tribes had perpetual wars with each other to get a supply of victims for these sacrifices. It is not wonderful, that such a nation was ripe for divine retribution. Cortez was made the human in- strument. 13. Montezuma, in his lake-encircled capital, was by his re- gular couriers advised, from the first, of the arrival and move- ments of the Spaniards. Doubtful whether they were human beings, or the descendants of a benevolent deity, whom their his landing traditions had taught them to expect ; he wavered between giv- foundatlon m £ tnem welcome as friends, or resistance as enemies. The of vera latter, however, would have been his only safety. The Spaniards ruz '^ came to plunder his wealth and possess his kingdom; and no consideration of gratitude or kindness would have stayed their 11. Who was Hernando Cortez? What was done, and by whom, in reference to colonizing Cuba ? What had Cortez f.o do with this colony ? By whom was the Pacific ocean first discovered ? What was done by Gri- jalva ? What was the manner of Cortez's leaving St. Jago ? Why did he thus ? 12. What sovereign was on the throne of Mexico ? What kind of a people did Cortez find ? What was the character of their religion and reli- gious rites ? Were they cannibals ? — 13. What were the opinions, and what was the conduct of Montezuma ? THE LAST KINGS OF MEXICO. 307 unrighteous course. Montezuma sent to Cortez a magnificent Mod ern iris present, a mock sun of burnished gold — a moon of massy silver, period i. and rich mantles, curiously wrought of the many-tinted feathers chap. h. of their bright birds, — with fruits and flowers; but the emperor ^c^n^x^ forbade their approach to his capital. This present excited Montezuma their avarice, and lessened their fears. Cortez told the Mexicans sent s S from the Spaniards wanted gold ; they had a disease of the heart t J I p e | ic ; J ) n t i which nothing else would relieve ! To keep his followers from ards on the looking back, Cortez burned his fleet. Fertile in mental re- coast ' sources — sleepless in vigilance, and staunch in determination, he then swept through the country with an army of about 600 men ; sometimes fighting against odds which would be quite in- credible, but for artillery, of which the Mexicans had no pre- vious knowledge, and cavalry, which equally surprised and frightened them, they supposing that the horse and his rider were one. 14. Arrived at his capital, Montezuma came out to meet the Spaniards ; — received, fed, and lodged them, as the descendants of gods. But Cortez believing that he was plotting to destroy them, took advantage of the frank courtesy of the sovereign, — seized his person, and conveyed him to the extensive building as- signed to the Spaniards. The Mexicans were horror stricken ; for with them the person of their emperor was sacred. Cortez through him, held them for a time in check. But at length, as KjJJJ* the king appeared upon a balcony to say what Cortez had dictated, tezuma re- they attempted to kill him. He then died voluntarily.! Gua- f and d g f ave' tamozin, his nephew, succeeded him ; and had the natives been himself up to united, his talents and devotion would have saved his country; S pIobabiy e but they fought against each other, and the Spaniards took their Jjj account sovereign prisoner. To make him discover into what part of of his the lake his riches were thrown, they stretched him, with a faith- wounds -) ful adherent, over burning coals. He turned to his master a be- seeching look, and Guatamozin replied to it — " Am I taking Co ~^r ^ fr3 my pleasure." Not being able to shake his constancy, Cortez to Spain, took the sovereign from torture, but afterwards hanged him. 154©. Having fully subjugated the country, he returned to Spain, spainforthe Charles V. sent him over again, but with diminished authority. D fe*\j2jJ2ui Although in his declining years the emperor treated him coldly, 1547. yet he ennobled his posterity. 15. Francis Pizarro, who went as a soldier of fortune to the West Indies, having obtained some knowledge of Peru, re- 1529. turned to Spain to solicit authority and means to undertake its a SorSed conquest. He obtained the authority, but could not procure the to take Pent. 13. What present did he send! What effect had it ? What disease did Cortez say the Spaniards had ? What did Cortez do to prevent his men from thinking of going back ? What was the number of the Spanish army ? What is said of the encounters of Cortez with the natives ? 1*. When they arrived at Mexico how did Montezuma meet them ? What was the behavior of Cortez ? What the fate of Montezuma ? Who was his successor ? What hindered his expelling the Spaniards? How did Cortez treat Guatamozin? Relate the remaining history of Cortez. — 15. Who was Francis Pizarro? For what did he return to Spain ? 308 THE CONQUEST OP PERU. Modern His. 1581, February. Pizarro sails from Panama. Takes Peru by treachery. 1541. June 6. Righteous retribution. money, till meeting Cortez, he furnished him the necessary- funds to equip a small armament. With three light vessels and 180 soldiers, Pizarro, with his associate d'Almagrq, sailed from Panama to conquer Peru. He landed, and at Tumbez received a small reinforcement. In Peru he met people of nearly the same degree of civilization as those in Mexico, and here too, was a divided empire. Between Hue scar, the legitimate, and Ata- haulpa, the reigning Inca or sovereign, was a war in which Pizarro immediately engaged, affecting to take the part of Ata- haulpa. By his party the Spanish leader was introduced into the heart of the country; where the mild and amiable people re- ceived him in state, as the ambassador of a great monarch. He treacherously attacked them, and made Atahaulpa prisoner, who offered for his ransom a room full of gold. After Pizarro had received it, the faithless robber put the Inca to a cruel death ; and subjugated and oppressed the country. Pizarro and Alma- gro quarrelled, the army divided, and, in a battle, Pizarro took as prisoner and afterwards executed, his former friend. By the son of Almagro, Pizarro was himself assassinated. CHAPTER III. 1492. Charles VIII. of France claims Naples. Italy the subject of contention, and seat of war- 1. A war now commenced, the seat of which was Italy, but which engaged several of the great powers. Its first object was the sovereignty of Naples, which, as we have before seen, had been long contested between the French and Spanish. The throne was claimed by Charles VIII. of France, though occupied by Ferdinand II., a prince of the illegitimate house of Arragon. Charles, though the son of Louis XI., who wished him to learn little else than his favorite maxim, " he who knows not how to dissemble, knows not how to reign ;" had yet quite other views of the beau-ideal of royalty. He had read romances, and his head was turned with the belief that he was des- tined to become a great conqueror. Ludovico Sforza, " the Moor," now duke of Milan, who wanted the aid of the French in the civil broils in which he was engaged, artfully wrought 15. How did he succeed in his application ? From whom did he procure money ? When and under what circumstances did he sail from Panama ? In what respects did this kingdom resemble Mexico ? What division was here respecting sovereigns ? Whose part did Pizarro pretend to take, and how did he treat him ? How did he reward their kindness to the Inca and the people? What was the fate of the two partners in wickedness, Pizarro and Almagro ? Chap. III. — 1. What is here said of a coming war? Between what powers had the sovereignty of Naples been contested ? Was Charles VIII. like his father ? THE FIRST DIPLOMATIC LEAGUE. 309 upon his foible ; and Charles, after making arrangements to propi- tiate Ferdinand of Spain, by relinquishing to him Roussillon, an important province, invaded Italy at the head of a large army. All the Italian powers were alarmed, and even Sforza was sur- prised at the result of his intrigue ; but, as no effectual opposi- tion was made, Charles swept through northern Italy ; and achieved the conquest of Naples without the shedding of blood. He was, however, at little pains either to conciliate the people, or to establish his government ; while the licentious manners of the French rendered the Neapolitans wholly averse to their dominion. Meanwhile the jealousy of the surrounding nations was excited by the grasping ambition of the emperor. Ferdinand of- Spain had an eye to the future possession of Naples himself, and notwithstanding his treaty, he, through his diplomatic agents, stirred up against Charles the " League of Venice," me- morable as being the first alliance in Europe pointing to the principle of confederacy. By this league Ferdinand of Spain, the pope Alexander VI., the emperor Maximilian, the republics of Venice and Milan, (for the double-dealing Sforza was in it,) agreed together to expel the French from Italy. Charles, on learning this, left a governor in Naples, and garrisons in the principal towns, — inarched to meet the confederate armies, and encountered them near Parma, where a battle ensued. Though his enemies had nearly double his force, he obtained a partial victory ; but was obliged to retreat to France, with but little the air of a conqueror. 2. Ferdinand II., the reigning king, took advantage of his retreat to recover Naples ; and was aided by the great Spanish captain Gonsalvo de Cordova, who was sent to his aid by Fer- dinand of Spain. By their united efforts the French were driven from Italy. The king of Naples died, and was succeeded by his uncle, Frederic Pope Alexander VI. received the great captain after his successes with honor ; but, in a personal interview, spoke against his master. The captain boldly de- fended him, and plainly told the pope, that he had better reform his own scandalous life. The death of Charles VIII., who left no sons, was followed by the elevation of the Duke of Orleans, Louis XII. to the throne of France. He immediately asserted a right to the Duchy of Milan, through his grandmother, Va- lentina Visconti, and revived the claims of the house of Anjou upon the crown of Naples. By various incitements, he allured pope Alexander VI., the Venetians, and the Florentines, to his interest. He then marched into Italy, and achieved the con- Modern His- 1494. Charles takes pos- session of Naples. 1495: League of Venice, against Charles VIII. PARMA. Charles VIII. de- feats the allies. (The dowa- ger queen Anne of Brittany now mar- ries her youthful choice, Louis XII., who gets a di- vorce from Joan the deformed, daughter of Louis XL) 1499. Louis XII. conquers Milan. 1. Who played upon the vanity of Charles to incite him to attack Italy? What treaty did he first make with Ferdinand of Spain ? How did he suc- ceed in his invasion of Naples ? What was his subsequent conduct ? What league was formed against him ? — 2. What was done by Ferdinand of Na- ples ? Who was sent by Ferdinand of Spain to his assistance ? Relate what happened between him and the pope ? Who succeeded Ferdinand of Naples ? Who succeeded Charles VIII. of France ? What claims were made, and what was done by Louis XII. ? What powers joined him ? 310 THE MOST WARLIKE OP THE POPES. Modem ills. q ues t f Milan, almost without a blow. Sforza was eventually period I. taken, and ended his days an unpitied prisoner in France. chap. in. 3 # Louis next set himself to the recovery of Naples ; and for K ~*~^~ > *~ / this object formed an alliance with Ferdinand of Spain, who did not scruple, thus, by a secret treaty, to plot against his relation Frederic, while openly he professed to aid him against the 1500. French. The kingdom of Naples was to be divided, the French league of king to have the northern, and the Spanish the southern portion; Partition, and each to conquer his own division. This treaty prepared the way for bloody and lasting wars ; the French and Spanish (Gonsaivo portions not being defined, each nation claimed the central parts, of the abfest While Gonsaivo de Cordova was already pushing the war in e t"fet?mes° f ^7? Ferdinand was amusing Louis with negotiations. When and author the Spanish troops had made themselves masters of Naples, ° f nTen r t°s Ve " Louis being sensible that he had been duped, prepared to attack in sapping Ferdinand with vigor, and to carry the war both into Spain and mining.) j^jy g ut despite his efforts, the Spaniards remained masters of the whole kingdom. Po*??u1ius ^' Meantime a change in the views of the popedom had ii. ' taken place. The death of Alexander VI. was followed by the died a horrid election of Julius II. This pontiff, not satisfied with the en- death by gines which his sacred character put into his hands, to bend dririkmgthe kings to his will, sunk that character in the ambition to rival } PJ is0 . n he d tnos e kings in the extent of his temporal dominions ; and in foranoTher.) intrigue, and martial achievement, he proved the master spirit of his day. His object was to extend the popedom over all Italy. 150§> The power of Venice must first be humbled. To effect this, ALeagueof Julian entered into an alliance, called the " League of Cambray," Cambray, with Louis of France, and Maximilian of Germany. The only Venice"!!! com pl amt °f these sovereigns was, that the people against basely whom they confederated had no king, and thus they stirred up crushed. t k e enV y Q f t h ose w ho had. The Venetians could not with- stand their power. After losing a battle, they gave up their possessions on the continent, and retreated to their city. 1510- 5. Julius determining to expel every foreign power from Italy, 1st "Holy now found means to draw the Venetians into an alliance against League" France. Spain and Switzerland soon joined the " Holy League." FranS Louis dispatched a powerful army into Italy, under the com- raven- mand of his gallant nephew, Gaston de Foix. After brilliant Gaston" de successes, this young hero penetrated to Ravenna, — there en- Foixvicto- countered the troops of the allies, and completely defeated (His young them : but he fell in battle, and with him fell the fortunes of the French. They were driven out of Milan, and Sforza, the sister, Ger- maine se- cond wife to son of Ludomco* regained the ducal throne. Meanwhile Fer ^-dina- J Cat lie.) the catho- dinand of Spain made himself master of Navarre, which he 3. What shameful treaty was now made between Charles XII. and Fer- dinand the Catholic? Who again commanded the Spaniards in Italy? How did the French king bear his disappointment in regard to his part of Naples? — 4-. Give an account of Julius II. Of the league of Cambray. What complaints had those allies to make of Venice? — 5. What new league did the system of diplomacy next produce ? What battle occurred in consequence ? What conquest was made by Ferdinand of Spain ? CHARLES V. 311 conquered from John d'Albret, a nobleman of France, in alli- ance with Louis, who became sovereign of that kingdom by marriage with its heiress. 6. The death of pope Julius, at this period, changed the aspect of things. His successor, the accomplished Leo X., of the house of Medici, showed himself friendly to France. The death of Louis XII. occurred shortly after that of pope Julius. Leaving only a daughter, the crown of France descended to his cousin, Francis I. This popular prince was distinguished for the manly beauty of his countenance and person, the suavity of his manner, his valor and ambition, rather than for the sound- ness of his mind. Bent on the recovery of Milan, he assem- bled a large army, and led them in person across the Alps. At Marignan he encountered the Swiss in the service of the Mi- lanese, fought and won a bloody battle. The duchy of Milan submitted ; and its duke, Maximilian Sforza, abandoned his claim to its sovereignty, and in exchange received a pension from France. Leo X. now made peace with France, and Eu- rope for a short season enjoyed a general tranquillity. 7. The death of Ferdinand, king of Spain, was followed by the elevation of his grandson, Charles V., then sixteen years of age, the son of Philip the Handsome, and the unfortunate Joanna. From his maternal grand-parents, he inherited Spain and Navarre ; from his paternal, Austria and the Netherlands. About two years after the elevation of Charles to the sovereignty of Spain, the death of his grandfather, the emperor Maximilian, left the imperial throne vacant, and presented a source of com- petition between Charles and Francis Both offered themselves as candidates. The electors very naturally preferred the claims of Charles, who was a prince of German origin, and heir to the Austrian possessions, to those of a foreigner, who was not even acquainted with their language. At another period they might have been jealous of concentrating so much authority in one man ; but at this time they felt the need of a powerful so- vereign to defend them from the alarming power of the Turks. Charles, therefore, was elected emperor of Germany. 8. It was not long before the disappointed Francis found pretexts for hostilities. He presented claims to Naples, and required the restoration of Navarre to its hereditary prince, as an ally of France. Charles, on the other hand, revived his claim upon Burgundy, which he averred had been unjustly wrested from his grandmother, Mary of Burgundy, by Louis XI.; and he claimed Milan as a fief of the German empire. Both monarchs made preparation for war, and strengthened Modem His. Francis 1515. MARIO- JYAAT. Francis I. defeats the Milanese and reco- vers Milan. 1516. Charles V. 152®. Charles elected em- peror. Rival claims. 6. Who succeeded Julius II.? Who Louis XII. ? For what was hedis- tmguished ? What success did he obtain ? — 7. Who succeeded Ferdinand the Catholic ? Who were his parents ? Who were his father's parents, and what possessions did he inherit from them ? Consider the preceding his- tory, and relate also who were his mother's parents, and what he derived from them. What two competitors had the electors to decide between, in their choice of an emperor, and how did ihey decide ? — 8. What claims were now set up by the two rival princes, Charles and Francis ? 312 THE TRAITOR BOURBON. Modern His. England ap- pealed to. 1520. Francis re- leased by the Treaty of Madrid. 1526. 2d "Holy League" against Charles V. (When the duke of Uourbon vi- sited Spain Charles V. desired one of the nobles to accom- modate him. He said, "certainly, Sire,butyou must not be surprized if I burn my castle as soon as the traitor leaves it.") themselves by alliances. The French were unsuccessful, and were expelled from Milan. Francesco Sforza, brother of the late duke, was raised to the duchy, which he held as a fief of the German empire. Francis was meanwhile perplexed by the defection of one of his most important subjects, a man of splendid talents, as well as of powerful connections. This was Charles, duke of Bourbon, constable of the kingdom ; who, from a quarrel with the queen-mother, abandoned the service of his country, and in a spirit of revenge, entered tliat of the emperor. 9. The French king, having successfully repelled an invasion of Provence by the forces of the imperialists, marched in person at the head of an army into Italy ; and besieged Pavia. A division of the opposing army, under the duke of Bourbon, attacked, de- feated, and made him prisoner. Francis wrote to his mother, " Madam, all is lost but our honor." France was filled with dismay, and the other allied powers with surprise and grief. Francis- was conveyed to Spain. His reception in that kingdom gave to Charles the character of an ungenerous and unfeeling rival. Henry VIII. of England, who had previously been in alliance with Charles, now entered into a treaty with the queen- mother, Louisa of Savoy, who was regent of France, by which he pledged himself to a defensive alliance with that kingdom, and to the exertion of his power in procuring the release of the captive monarch. Charles at last became thoroughly alarm- ed by the discovery that Francis had resolved to resign his crown, and was taking measures to carry his purpose into effect. He then negotiated with his prisoner the peace styled "the Treaty of Madrid," by which he was released ; but the condi- tions were hard; and, as Francis had planned, the states refused to ratify the treaty, and the pope absolved the monarch from his oath. 10. Leo X. was succeeded by Clement VII., also of the house of Medici. This pope, the Venetians, and the duke of Milan, now formed a league with Francis against the emperor, and. induced Henry VIII., of England, to become its protector. This was termed a " Holy League," the pope being at its head. The duke of Bourbon again received the command of the imperial forces in Italy, and before the arrival of reinforce- ments to the confederates from France, he took Milan, plun- dered and overran the territory, and advanced upon Rome. The pope, alarmed, shut himself up in the castle of St. Angelo. Bourbon prepared to storm the city, but while mounting the 8. What was done at Milan ? Which of the generals of Francis now turned traitor to him ? — 9. Relate the operations of Francis in Italy. The battle of Pavia and its consequences. How was Francis treated by Charles ? To what power did Louisa the qeeen regent apply, and what alliance was formed ? By what treaty, and on what kind of terms was Francis liberated ? How did he fulfil them ? — lO. Give an account of the Holy League. Who headed its forces ? What reply did one of the grandees of Spain make to the sovereign, when asked to lodge the duke de Bourbon ? (See side note.) What bold measures were immediately taken by the emperor's forces ? : ' LA PAIX DES DAMES." 3l3 wall was slain. His army continued the assault, took Rome, ■ M ''" fer ' i His - and a scene of pillage, bloodshed and rapine succeeded, un- period i. equalled even in the conquests of the Goths. The imperial chap. m. arm)* remained in possession of the city two months, retaining ^-^v-*v^ the pope a prisoner. Charles, with characteristic dissimulation, affected the utmost sorrow at the captivity of the " holy father," and ordered a general mourning upon an occasion at which, in his heart, he rejoiced. 11. Meantime, Henry VIII. of England, again alanned, was excited against the emperor by the continued successes of his 1525. arms, and by the indignity offered to the pope; and he was en- (Henry vm. couraged in these feelings by the famous cardinal Wolset, who ° sides? believed himself to have been excluded from the pontificate by f^rite Charles. Henry, therefore, now joined the Holy League, and his book was complimented by being made its protector. Lautrec, com- a ?her, S and maiider of the united armies, made himself master of Genoa and the P°R e Pavia, and from thence advanced towards Rome. On the ap- "Defender proach of the confederated army, the emperor liberated the pope. F ? f . th ? M Lautrec then invaded the kingdom of Naples, and besieged the city with every prospect of success. 12. At this juncture, the French king, by some regulations Andrew Do- likely to affect the commerce of Genoa, offended the commander pajherofhia of the Genoese fleet, who was blockading Naples. This was Country.'' Andrew Doria, called " the Father of his Country," for his dis- 15*29- interested services in changing and improving the government of ''Til? Genoa; thus encountering personal danger, and refusing reward Ladies' or preferment. Doria drew off the Genoese fleet, leaving the PefUsC port free, when fresh troops and provisions arrived in aid of CanibraY."' the citizens, and Lautrec was compelled to raise the siege. In (Margaret the north of Italy, similar bad fortune attended the arms of the sister of Phi- confederates. By this time, both Charles and Francis were *£j^J" weary of war. Charles had difficulties to contend with in his married German dominions, which demanded all his energies. The s p J a in "hav- monarchs. therefore, gave their sanction to peace, called •' The in ? been Ladles' Peace," it having been negotiated at Cambray. by two "charies women of much ability, Louisa, the queen mother, and Marga- ret of Austria, the aunt of Charles. By this arrangement, Francis relinquished a claim upon the sovereignty of Flanders and ^/gavo 1 ?) Artois. 13. The Reformation had spread extensively in the empire, and threatened to subvert the authority of the pope. Charles, T he Refor- though a bigoted adherent of the Roman church, had been com- matron. pelled, by the war with France, to leave the Germans in the 10. Relate the'capture of Rome. What happened to the pope, and what did Charles in consequence? — 11. What part was the king of England taking in these continen*al affairs, and by whose instigation? What new treaty was formed ? Who commanded the confederated armies of France and Eng'and ? What was done by them ? — 12. In what manner did the French king give offence, and to whom ? What honorable title did Andrew Doria obtain, and for what services ? How did Doria resent the injury done his country by the French ? What effect had this on the arms of the con- federates ? What peace was now negotiated, and by whom ? 40 VIII. She was now the widow 314 PIRATICAL KINGDOM OF THE BARBAROSSAS. Modem His. exercise of their opinions ; but he was desirous of .interposing his authority for the suppression of heresy. T*he empire was in great danger from the Turks, who had already invaded Hungary, and now menaced the Austrian dominions. To ob- tain the assistance of the protestants against the Turks, Charles affected great moderation. Solyman, the Turkish sultan, en- invasion of tere d Hungary at the head of 300,000 men. Charles assem- the Turks, bled from different parts of the empire a well-disciplined regular force of 90,000 foot, and 20,000 horse, besides many irregulars. The emperor himself, for the first time, took the command in person. No battle was fought ; but after manoeuvring through a summer campaign, Solyman, overawed, relinquished his pro- posed invasion, and retraced his steps to Constantinople. 14. Charles now returned to Spain, and prepared for an ex- pedition against' the Barbary states. Aruch Barbarossa and his brother Hayraddin, from being commanders of a fleet of pirates, had made themselves the terror of all the countries on the shores of the Mediterranean. They ravaged the coasts of „,,_ Italy, and invaded the kingdom of Tunis, which they conquered, Charies'goes an d drove a way its king. The exiled prince applied to Charles against the for aid, and the emperor gladly entered upon a war which might states. Re- rid him of piractical neighbors* and in the eyes of all Christen- Ie chrta?an°° ^ om ^ e 5 m trutn 5 a h°ty expedition. He collected a veteran slaves, army, and with a fleet of nearly five hundred vessels sailed for Africa. Aruch being now dead, Hayraddin put himself under the protection of the Turks, drew together the Moorish and Arabian forces of the different African princes, to whom he re- presented the invasion as an attack upon all Mussulmen. Not- withstanding this formidable resistance, the expedition of the emperor proved successful. The conquest of Tunis, the release of twenty thousand Christian slaves, and the check given to the piratical power, were truly glorious to Charles ; and called forth the applause and admiration of the civilized world. 15. The absence of the emperor in Africa, seemed to Francis a fit opportunity for renewing the war. The trial and execu- tion of his envoy at the court of Milan, for the murder of one of the duke's domestics, afforded a pretext. Having obtained 1533. the countenance of the pope by the marriage of his son Henrjfii? Henry, with the niece of the pontiff, Catharine de Medici, Francis re- he dispatched an army into Italy and took possession of the vvaTand territories of the duke of Savoy, an ally of the emperor, almost takes without opposition. The death of Sforza without heirs, now avoy. occurring, Francis renewed his claim to the duchy of Milan. Charles, in the meantime, returned successful from his African expedition, and flattered himself that he might add France to his other conquests. He invaded it, and was pressing forward 13. What affairs pressed upon the emperor at this time? Relate the movements of the Turks? — J 4. Who were the authors of the piracies of the Barbary states ? Relate the emperor's expedition against them? — 15. What was done by Francis to strengthen his cause with the pope ? What in reference to Milan ? What measures of retaliation were taken by Charles \ THE PEACE OF CRESP1. 315 with vigor. Francis prudently resolved to maintain only a de- Modem His. fensive warfare. He directed his general, Montmorenci, who period i. commanded in the south of France, to lay waste the country chap. iv. on which the emperor must depend for subsistence. By pursuing ^-*»^v^^-/ this Fabian mode of warfare, he rendered the attempts of the Charles in- imperial forces entirely unsuccessful. France. 16. Francis, in the meantime, gained a temporary advan- 1536. tage, but ultimately hurt his cause, by negotiating with the Ot- grands toman sultan, and thus putting all Christendom in jeopardy, league with Solyman dispatched an army into Hungary, which defeated the 11 essek' Germans in a great battle at Essek, on the Drave, and sent his The Turks fleet under Barbarossa to the coast of Italy ;— the Turks landed Germans! near Tarento, ravaged the country, and retired. The feelings of all the Christian powers were outraged by this union. Ten years' Most creditable efforts were made by the pope to effect a peace. t ruce be- Both monarchs greatly desired it, yet the terms could not be chadesTand settled. At last a truce of ten years was agreed upon. Francis. 17. During the period of this truce, Charles wished to pass through France to the Netherlands, to suppress an insurrection of the citizens of Ghent. He hesitated whether he should trust chadelgoes himself to the power of the French king. The generosity of .» second Francis' character, and his chivalric notions of honor, induced VhTplfate? him to make the trial. He was received with regal hospitality, and conducted safely through his rival's dominions. Charles suppressed the insurrection, and inflicted rigorous punishments upon the inhabitants of Ghent, his native city. During this year, he made a second expedition against the pirates, which was disastrous and unsuccessful. Meantime, his obstinate re- jj,°i „* fusal to grant to Francis the investiture of Milan, caused the c rpm \ truce to be broken. For two years, war raged in France and Betw f en Spain, Italy and the Netherlands with all its concomitant hor- Charles and rors, but without any decisive result. A treaty of peace was cioseTtneii at length concluded at Crespi, in which Charles made several contention, concessions. CHAPTER IV. The Reformation. 1. The corruptions of the Romish church, and the despotic power which the popes exercised, had frequently produced 15. What course was directed by Francis, and what was the result? — 16. What very reprehensible measure had Francis taken? What was done by Solyman? What by the pope? What arrangement was all that could be effected ? — IT. What example of chivalric honour is here related ? What acts are related of Charles ? Tell where were two years of war and bloodshed, and tell if you can for what? In what year was peace made, and where ? 316 MARTIN LUTHER. Modern His. controversies between the pontiffs, and the different sovereigns of Christendom. In many instances, individuals too, of un- common penetration and courage, remonstrated. An instance of this, within the church, was given by Roger Bacon's friend, 1253. whom, he said, was the most learned man in Europe, Robert that among Grostete, (or Greathead,) bishop of Lincoln. Innocent IV. th eyaiieys commanded him to give an office in the church to his nephew, the follow- a child, five years old. This zealous and honest Christian wrote erS Waido ter to tne P°P e > " That when the benefices intended for able pastors found lone were given to those incapable of performing pastoral duties, it churched was a crime hateful to God, and hurtful to men, and if com- withthe' mitted by the Holy See, would forfeit all its glory, and plunge their guide, it into the pains of hell I' 1 The pope, on reading the letter, ex- with which claimed, a How dare this doating old fool to write thus to me f lesced. Is not his master, the king of England, my subject, or rather T vai lenses'* m y s l ave ?" Such, however, was the weight of the bishop's maintained character, that he was not molested ; and on his death bed, he faShhad de- declared his belief, that the reigning pope was antichrist. When scended such discontents were among men whom the church exalted, theprimi- much more were they found among those, who, without any tt i«8St ■ ^ avor ? were trodden down by its gigantic power. The Wal- joim Huss Senses, Wickliffe, Huss, and Jerome of Prague had borne their and Jerome testimony, and although they had passed away, the leaven of rague. ^ e ^ doctrines was still working in the public mind. The re- vival of letters had awakened a spirit of enquiry, and the influ- ences of the art of printing began to be felt. Nov^io ®* M ARTIN Luther was destined to exercise an influence on 1483. human opinion almost miraculous, in destroying the curse of A M Eisl f b id"' a som, "blighting despotism. To his mother, Luther attributed electorate of his early bent to religious devotion, by which, though educated Saxony. f 0T a i aW yer, he became an Augustine monk. He had a friend struck dead by lightning at his side, which also affected his mind. In the spirit of his order he wrought in menial occupa- tions ; and even begged through the streets of Wittenberg in Luther finds Saxony, with a bag at his back. He had never, at this time, ll l e ^y, e - perused the Scriptures ; but finding a neglected Latin copy in the library of his convent, he read and studied it ; and his soul kindled with new energies, as he saw how truth had been wronged by ignorant piety, and hypocritical infidelity, induigeri- Indulgences, when first they were sold to raise money for the cessoidto crusades, were but the commutation of prescribed penances; for S tnT°cru- now they implied a release from the guilt of sin, and the ven- sades. geance of Heaven ; and Leo X. employed the sale to raise money to pay a debt, and to complete the mighty edifice of St. Chap. IV. — 1. Did the corruptions of the church, and the despotism of the pope pass unnoticed ? Give some account of Robert Grostete, bishop of Lincoln. Who are mentioned as having borne their testimony and passed away ? — 2. What is said of Martin Luther? To what did he attribute the bent of his mind towards a religious life ? What further excited him ? How did he spend his time in his convent ? What is said concerning his acquain- tance with the scriptures? When were indulgences first sold? What did they imply at this time ? For what purpose, and by whom were they sold ? THE FIRST SOUND OF THE REFORMATION. 317 Peter's church. Tetzel, a Dominician friar, impudent, from the inquisitorial power of his order, employed his ensnaring eloquence to persuade the people to purchase indulgences. Luther had prepared himself to deliver a course of lectures on Scripture repentance, which led him to examine and detect this mystery of iniquity ; and he took ground against the Domini- can. Tetzel threatened him with the inquisition, and, with a word, he might then have delivered him to its fires ; — but Luther had a work to do and he was preserved. He had acquired such reputation that he was made professor of theology, in a university which the Elector of Saxony had founded at Wittenberg. He applied himself more and more to scripture studies, and wrote " Ninety-five Propositions," after the scholastic forms, denounc- ing the doctrines of purgatory, penance, and indulgences ; — hung them on a church door in Wittenberg, and invited a pub- lic disputation. His challenge not being accepted he published his " Propositions?'' Thus went forth to the world, the first sound of the Reformation. 3. So wonderful was the effect produced on the public mind in Germany, that Tetzel now found himself in a condition rather to fear force than to use it ; for the hearts of the peo- ple were with Luther. To recover his ground with the public, Tetzel published an answer to Luther, in one hundred and fifty-six propositions ; but as they were based on the infallibility of the pope, while Luther derived his proofs from Scripture, the question was still left open. Tetzel, in an assembly of Monks, burnt Luther's book ; — the students of the university of Wit- tenberg, took public ground in the contest, by burning that of Tetzel. The court of Rome became alarmed, and from thence- forth used its mighty power to crush Luther, and were unable. Cardinal Cajetan was sent to Germany, and gave money to the needy Maximilian, who publicly requested the pope to ex- tinguish the new heresy. Luther was forthwith summoned to Rome. Delivered, as he now was by the emperor, to papal vengeance, he became as a thing accursed by the church and the state. But he had friends in his God, and in his own genius, and he did not despair. His keen understanding pointed to him Frederic, elector or Saxony, as a protector. The elector's vote was important to the wishes of Maximilian, in favor of his grandson Charles V. as his successor to the empire ; and Luther sought and obtained his protection. Instead of going to Rome, he was allowed, at the elector's request, to appear for trial be- fore a council at Augsburg. Finding his destruction resolved on, he escaped from his enemies, and returned to Wittenberg. 2. How did it providentially occur that Luther was prepared to detect and expose this wickedness ? What was Tetzel's power, and how did he threaten Luther? What did Luther in respect to his Propositions? — 3. How was Luther's publication received? In what situation did this place Tetzel, and what course did he take ? How did the students of Witten- berg take ground in the contest ? What was done by the pope ? How did cardinal Catejan succeed with Maximilian ? What was Luther's condition and his course ? To what place did he go, and whence return ? Modern His- His famous ninety-five Proposi- tions. The begin- in g of the Reforma- tion. 151S. August 7th, Luther sum- moned to Rome. Diet of Augsburg. 318 DIET OF WORMS. Modern His. 4 After this Luther openly propagated his opinions. The pope published against him a bull of excommunication. Luther hod a pile erected, on which he publicly burned it ! His in- trepidity proved his safety, and that of his cause; for com- mon minds confide, where great courage is displayed. Charles V. succeeding to the German empire, he convoked an assembly of its princes, the first ever held, to meet at Worms, in order to put down the new doctrines. Before this august tribunal, Assembly of wnere tne stern emperor himself was to preside, Luther was the princes summoned ; — and to this, in spite of the remonstrances of his * e 5i§0* friends, he said he would go, "though there were as many devils in Worms as there were tiles on the houses." The elec- tor had procured for him the emperor's safe-conduct for a cer- tain number of days. Luther's entrance into Worms showed the intense and favorable interest he excited. The papal throne and the German empire was, — so God appointed, — shaken by the one mind enshrined within that monk, whom a dense and almost impenetrable human mass were straining to behold, — as bare-headed, and in an open carriage, he rode into Worms. Luther appeared calm and respectful in the presence of his judges. " Are you the author of these books," he was asked. «o-a ^ e replied, " I am." " Will you," was the next demand, "re- Luther ap- tract the opinions herein expressed." To this he answered, pears before that he desired time for consideration. After two day's re- Worms, flection, he again appeared before the princes and firmly gave his negative. " Unless, said he, J shall be convinced by Scrip- ture, (for I can put no faith in popes and councils, as it is evi- dent that they have frequently erred, and even contradicted each other,) unless my conscience shall be convinced by the word of God, I neither will, or can recant; since it is unworthy of an honest man to act contrary to his own conviction. Here I stand ; it is impossible for me to act otherwise — so help me God." 1521- & m His boldness was taken by Charles as an affront ; and the Luther in ban of the empire was added by the emperor to the excommu- cMtie?nefr nication of the pope ; so that Luther would be an outlaw the Eisenach, in moment his safe-conduct should expire. The elector Frederic (Luthfr** caused him, as he was returning to Wittenberg, to be seized wears the D y armed men, and forcibly conveyed, as a place of conceal- knight, and ment, to the castle of Wartburg. Luther here performed the writings g reat work of translating the scriptures into the German Ian- from Pat- guage ; and through his amiable friend, the eloquent Melanc- mos.) 4. Having escaped from Augsburg, what did he do at Wittenberg ? What was next done by the pope ? What did Luther? On the accession of Charles V. what measure was taken against the Reformation? What was this assembly called ? (See side note.) Could Luther's friends dis- suade him from obeying the summons of the emperor ? Give an account of his entrance into Worms. Of his appearance before the tribunal. What was the first question and reply? What was the second, and the reply to that? — 5. What effect did Luther's boldness produce on the emperor? What measure was taken by the good elector to save the life of Luther? What did he accomplish during his concealment ? THE REFORMERS ARE CALLED PROTESTANTS. 3 19 thon, he communicated many treatises for the public press. Modern H ™- While Luther was still under a sentence of death, which any periodiT one who met him was at liberty to execute, he sallied forth chap. iv. from his confinement, — returned, and was joyfully received at s ^^~ s/ ^^^ Wittenberg, where he exerted himself to compose the differences < In l |?® cas - which had arisen among the friends of the Reformation. burg, in the 6. Adrian VI. who succeeded Leo X., published a declaration, p\ed%y C Lu- in which, — intending to reform the church, he says, " many abo- ther, is minable acts have been committed for several years past in this ffklpot an holy chair; and we shall endeavor that our court, from which, the wall, perhaps, all this evil has proceeded, shall undergo a speedy re- been°made e form." The German princes, some of whom were Catholics, , b y. nis , . , ,. , x \ „ «,.... - ■ , throwing his drew up a list to be transmitted to Kome,oi the iniquities of the inkstand at priesthood, and the evils of the church system ; and requested, a ^hichhe" 1 for the purpose of adopting measures of reform, the calling of a fancied general council. These public documents contained the avowals h h l im. e ) d of friends, — nay, the confession of the papacy itself; and thus 1,522. confirmed what had been asserted by the reformers. Adrian Adrian, for- was, however, the stern foe of Luther's doctrine, and was fully chariesv!, bent on his destruction. He soon died, perhaps by poison, and underta kes was succeeded by Julian de Medicis, under the name of Cle- the church. ment VII.; when the object of the papacy was, as before, not 1523. to reform, but to aggrandize. Clement 7. For the eight years succeeding the diet of Worms, Charles was fully occupied by his contests with Francis. In the mean- time, the sentiments of the Reformers continued to spread ra- pidly. In Switzerland, two or three years before Luther com- menced his career, Zuinglius, a priest of Zurich, entered on a similar course, and the Swiss generally embraced his opinions. 7 *?*9* But a minority opposed them by an armed force, and Zuinglius killed? 3 was killed in battle. His principal friend, (Ecolampadius, died with grief. Erasmus, the most learned man of his age, who had nSiv^of* chosen a retirement in Switzerland, gave his influence against Ro »erdam, the abuses of popery, if not warmly in favor of the reformation. Basle.) From Germany the new opinions extended to France, the Low Countries, and England. In the meantime, the peace of Cambray 1529. liberated Charles from the French war, and he summoned a diet J^J at at Spires, to settle religious controversies. The decree of the diet confirmed that of Worms ; and forbade any further innovation in religious affairs. The elector of Saxony, with other princes of Reformers the empire, and the deputies of fourteen imperial cities, pro- p ro 2ltantg. tested against this decree, and hence the reformers received the name of Protestants. 8. The emperor summoned another diet at Augsburg. Luther 5. Under what circumstances leave it ?— 6. What declaration was pub- lished by Adrian VI. ? What list of grievances was by the German princes sent to Rome ? How did these publications serve the cause of the reforma- tion? What occurred on the death of pope Adrian ? — 7. How was Charles V. employed? Who was Zuinglius, and when and where did he stand for the reformation ? Who was his friend ? Who was Erasmus ? What coun- tries did the new opinions extend to ? Give an account of the proceedings of the diet at Spires ? How did the reformers get the title of protestants V: 320 RISE OF THE JESUITS. Modern Ms- League of Smalkald. 154© Ignatius Loyola founds the order of Jesuits. (Clement XIV. in 1773 suppressed the Jesuits. 1814, Pius VII restored them.) Luther's coarse rebuke- 1524. Rise of the Anabaptists, 1534-5. was not permitted to attend, and Melancthon drew up the pro- testant confession of faith, which was presented to the diet; but all efforts at reconciliation were fruitless. A more rigorous decree was passed against the protestants; who now formed the league of Smalkald, in which the proteslant states pledged them- selves to defend each other against all aggressions. They also formed a secret alliance with Henry VIII. of England, and with Francis, the constant enemy of Charles. From this period, 1531, to the peace of Crespi, 1544, the emperor, occupied by his wars with the French, and the Turks, and by his expedi- tion to Africa, left the protestants free to promulgate their opinions. 9. While the papacy was thus losing on the one hand, it was gaining on the other. Ignatius of Loyola, an elegant young knight, was fiercely fighting at the siege of Pampeluna, when he received severe wounds in both his legs. As he lay confined, a book of saints and martyrs was put into his hands ; and when he arose from his bed, he laid aside his mili- tary honors, and practised the most abject and painful mortifi- cations. He then went a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and became imbued with a belief, that he had a special call to found a society for the conversion of those who sat in darkness. The pope gave his sanction, and the society was founded, and is still known by the name of the Jesuits. This society has pro- duced a Xavier, a Marquette, and a host of others who zeal- ously labored in heathen lands. The Jesuits afterwards became corrupt; and their union, their secrecy, and unprincipled acts performed under the base maxim, that " the end sanctifies the means," made them the dread not only of protestant, but of catho- lic countries. The cause of the reformation was also wounded by its friends. When Luther first returned to Wittenberg, he found among them, those who were setting aside all rule. Asserting a baptism from on high, they called themselves Jina- oaptists. Their leader telling Luther they needed not the Scriptures, they were guided by a spirit, he impatiently replied, " I slap your spirit on the snout !" The result of their move- ments, snowed that Luther had discerned its nature. Munzer, the chief leader, after making many proselytes, led them forth in armed masses, ranging the land and committing excesses, in order to drive out u the Canaanitish nations." No less than 50,000 persons are supposed to have perished. At length Muhl- hausen, in Thuringia, became their chief seat. Munzer as- sumed the sole power, and no crime was too shameful for him and his followers to perpetrate. At length they were defeated in battle, and Munzer was slain. 10. When relieved from his cares, Charles leagued with the 8. What occurred at the diet of Augsburg? What league did this lead to? What obliged Charles to leave the protestants for a time at liberty ? — 9. Give an account of the founder of the Jesuits. Of the society of the Je- suits. Of the anabaptists. What was done after they ranged in arms with Munzer at their head ? MAURICE OP SAXONY. 321 pope to extirpate heresy. They convened a council at Trent. Modern.ms. The protestants refused to submit to its decisions. Considering its doctrines as abhorrent both to reason and Scripture, they resolved rather to resort to arms. Charles, unprepared for im- mediate war, had recourse to his usual arts of intrigue and ne- gotiation. He won Maurice, a prince of the Saxon family, by promising to give him the possessions of the elector of Saxony. While the emperor and princes of the league were thus negotia- ting, Luther died; and the protestants were subjected to all the evils arising- from divided councils. Maurice invaded Saxonv, ,m « -i r i i r- i m i ^ i - ,^ * 1 (The Coun- deleated the troops of the Elector, and made himself master of cu of Trent almost the whole electorate. The disheartened confederates chuSbViw sued to the emperor for peace; but the conditions he imposed fallibility — were so rigorous, that they were at once rejected. Their army, thTabuses meantime, verv imprudently separated. This was no sooner of the P a P«- done, than Charles took measures to procure the separate sub- nounces mission of the princes. All but the elector of Saxony, and the JjJ^J landgrave of Hesse, yielded. The former returned to his elec* against ail torate, which he recovered. The death of Francis, relieving w theST 8 ' 6 Charles from fear of France, he carried the war into Saxony. The elector was defeated and taken prisoner. The landgrave France* > alone, was now in arms, and the emperor, by artifice obtained possession of his person, and detained both him and the elector in rigorous captivity. The league, so formidable at first, was thus wholly dispersed. 11. At a diet held in Augsburg, there was presented by the emperor's orders, a system of doctrine called " the Interim," because it was to be binding only until a general council should 154c be called. This system, although relaxed in one or two points, "The int'e- was decidedly against the protestants; and did not satisfy either rim " them or the catholics. In the meantime the emperor manifested a desire to make the imperial dignity hereditary in his family; and hence he sought to procure his son, Philip, to be elected (Ferdinand, emperor, to the prejudice of his brother Ferdinand, who had second son already received the title of king of the Romans. These, with Handsome? other measures, alarmed the German princes. The electors re- f" d T Joanna « r 1 -ill- t • • t»/t- r> n tne Insane.) fused to yield to his solicitation. Maurice of Saxony now se- cretly became his enemy, and with consummate art, set himself to countermine his plans. He obtained of Charles the command of the imperial army, and was employed to compel the citizens Maurice of Magdeburg to submit to the Interim. After accomplishing pl £r g ie S nst that object, he delayed, under various pretexts, to disband his army. He next obtained the support of Henry II. who had suc- ceeded his father in France. At the head of 20,000 foot, and IO. What council was convened, and by whom ? What did the protest- ants think of its decrees, and what prefer to receiving them ? Who was won by Charles ? In what year did Luther die ? What was then the con- dition of the protestants ? What course was pursued by Charles, and how far did he succeed in breaking up the league of Smalkald ? — 11. What, was the scheme called the interim, and how did the protestants receive it ? What other measure did Charles pursue displeasing to the German princes ? What course was now taken by Maurice ? 41 322 CHARLES V. ABDICATES. Modern His. PERIOD 1 CHAP. V. 1552- Peace of Passau. Establishes protestant- ism. 1556. Charles ab- dicates. 5,000 horse, he now published a manifesto against the emperor, boldly stating the reasons of his taking arms. Charles, out of health, and not suspicious of ill, was, with a few soldiers, at Innspruck. Astounded at the news of the defection of Maurice, he had no resource but flight. Unable to travel in a carriage, the sovereign of half Europe was hurried over the Alps in a litter. He arrived safely at Villach, in Carinthia, where he re- mained till matters were settled with the protestant princes. 12. Maurice finding the pursuit fruitless, returned to Inn- spruck. The council summoned to Trent, had been removed on pretence of an epidemic, to Bologna, and they now separated in consternation. Meantime negotiations commenced at Passau, which at length terminated in a peace, styled " the Peace of Religion." Its principal stipulation was, f that the liberties and rights of the protestants in Germany should be secured. The French king had no part in this treaty, so that Charles still had a war upon his hands. The Turkish fleet again made a de- scent upon Italy, and ravaged the coast of Naples ; while, in Hungary; the imperial arms were unsuccessful. Charles, wearied with the cares of royalty, now abdicated his crown ; resigning the sovereignty of Spain and the Netherlands to his son Philip. His brother Ferdinand was chosen emperor by the electors of Germany. In order to leave his dominions in quiet, he made a truce Math Henry II. of France, for five years. He then re- tired to a monastery in Spain, where he passed the two remain- ing years of his life, with no amusement but that of making watches. CHAPTER V. 1509- Henry VIII. His early promise of goodness soon blighted. England. — Scotland . ]. Henry VIII., on the death of his father, succeeded to the throne at the age of eighteen. Handsome, generous, and adroit in martial exercises, his accession to the throne was hailed with a joy the more sincere on account of the unpopularity of his father. His first step was to secure the alliance of Spain by a marriage with Catharine of Arragon, the widow of his brother Arthur. He retained in his service the counsellors of his father, and assisted in their deliberations, that he might learn to 11. What was now the situation of the emperor?— 12. To what place was the council of Trent removed? When and where was a peace con- eluded ? Was the empire of Charles wholly in a state of peace ? Give an account of his abdication and retirement. Chap. V.— 1. What was the first appearance and conduct of Henry VIII. of England, after his accession ? THE REFORMATION IN SCOTLAND 323 conduct public affairs. But he had within him the germs of Modern His - violent passions, which, nursed in the hot-bed of unrestrained period i. self-indulgence and flattery, attained at length an enormous growth. The adulation which he received on account of his feats at tournaments, inflated him with the vain desire of equalling the military fame of Edward III. and Henry V. in the fields of France. Making the quarrels of Louis XII. with the pope, a pretence for war, he invaded his kingdom with an army, and de- manded the surrender of those provinces, which had formerly dor that the belonged to the English. P Iac f is . called the 2. During his absence, James IV. of Scotland, incited by the "Field of the French court, and complaining of grievances received from the q°J|J ?, f English, collected an army, crossed the Tweed, and passing through Alnwick, encamped at Flodden. Here he was met by *f J^' the earl of Surrey ; and the bloody battle of Flodden-Field den' was fought, in which the king of Scotland perished, with the f f^ re j a me"s flower of the Scottish nobility, iv. Scottish 3. James V. was only a year old at the time of his father's 't^S' death. Henry intrigued to get the administration placed in the and nobles hands of his sister, queen Margaret, mother of the young king. Between her and the duke of Albany, a nobleman in the interest James v - of the French court, constant dissensions arose. Hostilities gent' 6 " with the English continued, with no important results. James assumed the administration at the age of seventeen. He made (The Doug- peace with Henry; but espousing successively two French lases in princesses, the last of whom was Mary of Guise, the Scottish g They°and r ' monarch became closely united with the French. Scotland, as the Hamil - , -s great joy and splendor. This reconciliation was the signal for 1555. lighting up the fires of persecution in England. The first mar- antfSra 8 tyr was John Rogers, who was burnt at Smithfield, March 4th, burnt. 1555. The bishops Latimer, Ridley, Hooper, and Cranmer, fathers of the English church, also suffered martyrdom. The num- (Calvin, ber of those who were put to death for conscience sake, during about 1542, this short reign, is estimated at 400, of whom 290 were burned vetus to be alive. Many of the protestants fled to foreign lands. John ^rettc.)' Calvin was teaching with great reputation at Geneva, and there many of the persecuted found repose. The death of Mary, 455^ which occurred not long after, was followed by the accession Elizabeth of her sister Elizabeth to the throne. The following year, s1 JSary? S the wars which had so long agitated Europe, were composed by the treaty of Chateau Cambresis, vMcli procured a general 155®. peace. 14. POLAND, anciently inhabited by Vandals, was, in 550, 55®. " made a duchy. About 300 years afterwards, Piastus, a peasant, Po ^ and was elected duke. He lived to the age of 120, and made so duchy. excellent a sovereign, that the Poles called his successors, when ?^9- o ' ... . A kin"'- native princes, Piasts. Christianity was introduced about the domun- time that Poland became a kingdom, under Boleslaus III. A ^giaus succession of civil wars followed until 1178, when Casimir hi. the Just restored order. From Andrew If. the Poles obtain- ~%-%%% ed a great charter, which laid the foundation of their national charter freedom. Looking back to the early history of this country, f^jjj] fc Cardinal Pole was by birth an English nobleman, and allied to the royal Bull." family. Early in the reign of Henry VIII., his piety led him to take orders in the church. When that monarch sought to be independent of the see of Rome for the iniquitous purpose of obtaining a divorce, Pole had the firm- ness to oppose him, which changed the love, the king had borne him, to hatred. Forced to leave England, the pope and emperor of Germany es- poused his cause, and he received high honors in the church. Henry, in revenge, put to death several of his relatives, and among them his aged mother, the countess of Salisbury. On the accession of Mary, he was re- called. Had his mild counsels been followed, instead of those of the cruel priests, Gardiner and Bonner, the blood of many martyrs who perished in this reign, might have been spared. In regard to the personal character of Mary, much allowance should be made for the errors of her government, from the peculiar circumstances of her childhood, as well as the influence of her husband, to whom she was faithful and devoted. The blood shed by Mary in England was little in comparison to that which flowed in Spain by the inquisition, allowed by her grandmother. Yet Isabella is lauded, even by protestants, while her granddaughter is called "The Bloody Mary." Times had changed, but Mary, brought up in seclusion with her wronged and unhappy mother, had not changed with them. 13. What was done soon after Philip's arrival? Who was first put to death ? Where did he suffer ? What others are mentioned ? Who suc- ceeded Mary ? What occurred the following year ? — 14. By whom was Poland anciently inhabited ? When was it made a duchy ? From whom were the early princes called Piasts? Under what sovereign, and when did Poland become a kingdom ? What is said of Casimir the Just ? What was done in the reign of Andrew II. ? 328 POLAND INCLUDING PRUSSIA. Modem His . we see no t why, had the Poles been united, and judicious as well as patriotic, they might not have been at this day one of the first powers in Europe. But the practice of choosing foreign sovereigns early began. In 1370, Louis, the able sovereign of Hungary, was elected king of Poland ; and he ruled a domain, parts of which touched the Adriatic, the Black sea, and the Baltic. Lithuania, though often at war with Poland, had till this period preserved its independence, and was the last portion of Europe unchristianized. Louis had sought to secure the succession of Poland to his eldest daughter Maria and Sigis- mund, elector of Brandenburg, to whom she was betrothed ; but the Poles preferring Hedwige, the younger daughter, she r I386. was marr ied to Jagello, duke of Lithuania, and he was elected jaus i" under the name of Ladislaus I, He was baptized, and his peo- ^kff" P^ e rece i ve d Christianity; and he became the founder of a dy- Poiand nasty, under which Poland saw her best days, thuanla ^ Prussia was conquered by the Tuetonic Knights, an united, order of military monks, who, returning from the crusades, Lad . h. in 1225, obliged the people, at the point of the sword, to sub- to mit to their government, and receive their religion. By their Lad hi. barbarities they almost depopulated the country. Casimir IV., chosen of Poland, took up arms for the oppressed people, and long and Hun. bloody wars followed, in which the knights were, in 1466, 1466. overcome. Albert, the grand master of the order, then,re- C1 Cas mir 5-i Ions. n _ nounced the Catholic, and embraced the Reformed religion, and quers was made duke of east Prussia, as a vassal of Poland. Albert Prussia. founded the University of Konigsberg. The first diet of Po- land was in 1468. The reigns of Sigismund I., and of his Fir^t son ant l successor Sigismund If., form the brightest era Diet, of Polish history. The reformation was received, and Po- gio is . land was the first of the nations to declare religious to- mund I, leration. The death of, Sigismund II. terminated the male l$V2- * nie °f me Jagellons, and, unhappily, foreigners were af- Lastof terwards elected by the contentious nobles. The frame of Jagei- society and government had now lost its balance, the aris- tocracy having reduced to nothing the power of the people, and of the sovereign. (Poland was the ancient Sarmatia, and during the last portion of the middle ages, the principal of the Slavonic Nations, so called from the Slavi, a barbarous and peculiar people, who once wandered over its fer- tile regions, which extended from the Euxine to the Baltic. The Poles were originally divided into small republics, under chiefs elected for life, called palatins or vaivodes.) 14. Give an account of Louis. Of the extent of his empire. What occurred respecting the succession? What is remarked concerning the dynasty of the Jagellons ? — 15. By whom, and when was Prussia con- quered? By whom, and when were the Teutonic Knights reduced to sub- mission ? What was done by Albert ? What occurred 1468 ? What reigns form the brightest era in Polish history? When were the Jagellons ex- tinct ? Patent given in 1578, by Q. Elizabeth PERIOD II THE GENERAL TREATY OR? 1559 C OF 2RAL PEACE 3 C CA CHATEAU CAMBRESIS, THE ASSASSI- NATION OF TO 1610.£ HENRYIV " COF FRANCE. CHAPTER I England and Scotland. 1. After Charles V., the main light of the historic picture falls upon Elizabeth of England ; as being the most powerful, sagacious, and politic sovereign of the time. Though she suc- ceeded to the crown without opposition, her claims were every- where disputed by the Catholics, on the ground that the mar- riage of her father, Henry VI If., to her mother, Anne Boleyn, was not valid ; the pope not having sanctioned his divorce from Catharine of Arragon. The pope accordingly issued a bull, de- claring her illegitimate, and absolving her subjects from their oath of allegiance. Her cousin -german, Mary, queen of Scots, was esteemed by the Catholics, the lawful heir. She had re- mained in France, been educated to extensive knowledge of languages, general literature, and elegant accomplishments ; and was now married to the dauphin, afterwards Francis TI. By the advice of the duke of Guis'e and the cardinal of Lor- raine, the brothers of her mother,fshe assumed the arms and title of " queen of England f* thus giving just occasion of alarm Modern His. PERIOD II. CHAP. I. Period II. — Chap. I. — 1. What may be said of Elizabeth of England as to her merits as a sovereign ? What causes of annoyance had she ? Where was now Mary queen of Scots? Who gave her bad advice, and what did she in consequence ? 42 329 INTOLERANCE OF THE PROTESTANTS. Modern His. PERIOD II. CHAP. I. (John Knox had been under Cal- vin's teach- ing on the continent. While there he wrote and sent over a book entitled "The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women;" meaning Mary of England and Mary of Guise.) 1559. The ambi- tion of the Guises again mis- lead their niece. to Elizabeth, although no immediate measures were taken to sup- port her claim. Meanwhile Elizabeth strengthened herself in her authority, by choosing and sustaining able counsellors, and adopting prudent measures • while with mingled courtesy and dignity, she made herself as a mother to the lowest of her sub- jects ; never refusing to receive their petitions, and judge between them and their most powerful oppressors. But, like her father, she had an indomitable will, a disposition to control unchecked, all affairs in her kingdom, both secular and ecclesiastical. Hence her reign procured England prosperity and peace, but neither civil or religious liberty. 2. In Scotland, the reformation had made great progress. The heads of the protestant party, the principal of whom was John Knox, jealous of the influence of the Guises over the queen-regent Mary of Guise, had associated as the " Congre- gation of the Lord." The papists, alarmed, resorted to persecu- tion. The regent at one time was in favor with the protestants, but she forfeited their esteem by her duplicity; and rebellion ensued. The protestants applied to Elizabeth, who sent an army to their assistance. The queen regent, though she re- ceived troops from France, retired to Leith, where she was be- sieged. Here she died ; when the Guises dispatched envoys from France to Edinburgh, and a treaty was concluded with Eliza- beth's ambassadors ; by the terms of which, the French forces were to be withdrawn from Scotland, and Francis and Mary to abstain from assuming the title of king and queen of England. The rights of the protestants were secured by the treaty, which provided for a regency of twelve persons to be chosen jointly by the queen of Scots and the parliament, to govern the realm during her absence. After this, the French and English armies both left Scotland ; but Elizabeth held a controlling influence. 3. The protestants, still headed by John Knox, now perse- cuted in their turn. Worship according to the ritual of the Romish church was utterly prohibited by law, and the third offence of this kind made punishable by death. Meantime the Guises, although compelled by the disorders in France, to yield for the present, did not relinquish their design of establishing their niece, Mary, upon the throne of England. Influenced by them, Francis II. and Mary, now king and queen of France, re- fused to ratify the treaty which their ambassadors had made in Edinburgh, and continued to assume the title and arms of mon- archs of England. The sudden death of Francis left the beau- tiful Mary, now no longer queen of France, at liberty to return to Scotland ; and a deputation of her subjects arrived with a 1. How did Elizabeth strengthen her authority? How did she gain the love of her people ? — 2. What was the state of the reformation in Scotland ? Between what parties was there contention ? What foreign influence guided the councils of the queen-regent ? Whom did the protestants call to their aid, and what was done ? Where did queen Mary die ? What events fol- lowed her death ? — 3. By what was the protestant cause now disgraced ? How did the Guises and their niece conduct in regard to the treaty ? THE QUEEN OF SCOTS. 331 pressing invitation that she should assume the government. She Mode™ m s . complied, and bade adieu to France with tears and lamentations, period ii. " Farewell ! dear France, — farewell !" she said, as the receding chap. i. vessel carried her from its beloved shores, to a land around "^~\r***s which clustered dark forebodings of the future. 4. On her arrival she was received with joy, and by her first measures she acquired the confidence of the protestant party. Mary, however, was a papist ; and her adherence to the regular celebration of mass soon awakened the jealousy, and at length 1561- alienated the affections of those of her subjects over whom oJqueenof Knox held a controlling influence;* and she thenceforth re- Scots - ceived from them abusive treatment, and on some occasions, outrageous insult. There was now peace between England and Scotland ; and apparently cordial friendship between the rival queens. 5. Among the aspirants for the hand of the fair queen of Scots, was her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord Darnley, eldest son of the earl of Lenox, his mother being Margaret Doug- WMB5- las, niece to Henry VIII. Darnley was elegant in his person, marrils and after Mary, next heir to the English crown. Him Mary Darnle y- married, and by this measure excited the jealousy of the vigi- lant Elizabeth. Darnley proved not only weak and vain, but S^pthe savage in temper; and he soon ceased to pay to the lovely Mary protectants the homage her heart demanded, and to which she had been Mary^Xn accustomed in France. The favor she showed to David Riz- drowns it.) zio, an Italian musician, whom she had made her private secre- tary, excited the jealousy of Darnley, who, with some of his 1566. friends, entered the queen's apartment, dragged the Italian from M Rizzio° f her presence, and murdered him in the room adjoining. The birth of her son James soon followed this tragical event. 6. A few months after, the house in which Darnley slept was fi destroyed by an explosion of gunpowder, and he was killed. Hepburn. The earl of Bothwell was supposed to be the author of this Earl of Both- atrocious deed ; and rumor attributed to the queen a share of the £s Darn- guilt. Bothwell, after a mock trial, was exculpated from the ley ' and charge of murder. The queen exalted him to high honors and Mary'. offices, and about three months after the murder of her hus- band, she married him. An attempt of Bothwell to get posses- sion of the infant James, drove the indignant nobles to arms. Mary also assembled forces ; but on witnessing the reluctance * A table is now shown (the fragments having been collected) in Holy Rood house, at Edinburgh, on which stood an image of the virgin, which John Knox, intruding himself into the private apartment of his sovereign, dashed to pieces in her presence. 3. What change now took place in the condition and location of Mary?— 4. How was Mary received ? How treated by the protestant leaders ? Were her relations with Elizabeth amicable ? — 5. How did she excite Elizabeth's jealousy ? Who was lord Darnley ? What kind of man did he prove to be? What shocking outrage was he guilty of ? What occurred soon after ? — 6. How was Darnley killed ? What was believed concerning the murder- ers ? What was the conduct of Mary towards Bothwell ? What was now the position of Mary ? 332 A POLITIC STATESMAN. Modern His. PERIOD II. CHAP. I. James VI. 154*§. GLAS- GOW. Murray de- feats his lawful sove- reign. (Mary's confinement was embit- tered by the meanness of her son. When on one occasion her own hands had wrought him an ele- gant pre- sent, he sent it back be- cause she had not, for- sooth, pro- perly di- rected it!) 158T Mary executed. 1562. (The XXXIX. Articles ra- tified.) (After the death of Mary, Philip offered his hand to Eli- zabeth, and was re- jected.) of her troops to fight in defence of Bothwell, and receiving as- surances from the confederated lords, of their willingness to submit to her government, provided Bothwell was banished from her councils, she dismissed him, and he fled to the Ork- neys. Here his piracies raised him new enemies, and he was finally captured, and died unpitied in a prison in Norway. The queen herself was treacherously kept a prisoner in the castle of Loch Leven by the confederated lords, who took upon them- selves the administration of the government. They next com- pelled her to resign, and then proclaimed her son king, under the title of James VI.; making the earl of Murray regent of the kingdom. 7. Mary escaped from her prison by the aid of the chivalric young Douglas, a captive to her charms. At Hamilton, she was joined by a large number of the nobility, and, with an army of 6,000, she met and encountered, near Glasgow, the forces of Murray, and suffered a total defeat. She then rashly threw her- self upon the generosity of Elizabeth for protection. The Eng- lish queen unjustly made her a prisoner, and contrary to the laws of nations, Mary, being like herself, an independent sove- reign, she assumed to try her before a court of English and French commissioners, on the charge of being accessory to the death of her husband. Mary objected to the jurisdiction, and at the same time denied the charge, but was pronounced guilty; and thenceforth she was kept a prisoner in England, always strictly guarded, and sometimes poorly accommodated. Nine- teen years after her first trial, she was arraigned again, on the ac- cusation of being a party to a conspiracy against the life of Eliza- beth ; — condemned, and executed at Fotheringay castle. The misfortunes of the lovely queen of Scots, insensibly lead the heart to regard her with sympathy ; and throw a veil over her imprudencies, it may be her crimes. 8. The internal administration of the English government was, during this period, wise and vigorous. Cecil, Lord Bur- leigh, the secretary of state, knew every winding of human policy, even to its ultimate axiom, that good faith and fair deal- ing are, on the whole, the most profitable. The nation rose to wealth and consequence, more rapidly than at any former pe- riod. The religion of the reformation was permanently estab- lished, and troops were sent to France to aid the distressed protestants in that kingdom. England and Spain were at this period the most powerful nations of Europe ; and the interests of the monarchs being opposed, pretexts for hostilities were found. Philip was at the head of a league formed among the 6. Why did she dismiss Bothwell? Did the lords deal fairly with her? What did they compel her to do? What was their next step? — T. Who aided her escape? What parties fought a battle near Glasgow, and how did it terminate ? What rash step was next taken by Mary ? What was now the conduct of Elizabeth ? What further can you relate of the un- fortunate Mary ? — 8. What in the meantime was the internal administration of England ? Who was the lord Burleigh ? Which were the most power- ful nations of Europe ? How did the position of the sovereigns contrast ? ELIZABETH AT TILBURY. 333 catholic powers, for the suppression of heresy ; while Elizabeth Modern His. was regarded as the leader of the protestant party. Philip es- period ii. poused the interests of Mary, queen of Scots, encouraged and chap. i. strengthened insurrections in England, and dispatched a body ^-*^v~n-' of Spaniards and Italians, to assist the Irish in a rebellion against the English government. Elizabeth, by the vigor of her arms, ^JJJJf not only crushed the rebellion in her own states, but yielded Spain effectual support to the inhabitants of the Low Countries, who were struggling to escape from the tyrannical domination of Spain, l^s^ 9. England was now alarmed with the intelligence that the m r Francis Spanish monarch was preparing an immense fleet, styled the ^aising- " Invincible Armada," for the invasion of the island. Philip English se- laid every part of his vast dominions under contribution ; and ^JJJJf t 5j the length and nature of his warlike preparations, betokened Spanish that the enterprise contemplated nothing less for its object, than pJSested'at the entire conquest of Britain. Indeed, so confident were the ? e "^ a ' h hin " Spaniards of success, that many nobles attended the armament, mament a merely to receive a share in the division of the country. ^burnuJ 1 ^ 10. Elizabeth was fully awake to the emergency. She su- squadron in perintended the military preparations herself. She mounted Cad bo r h ) ar " her horse, rode forth and inspected her troops at Tilbury, — (The pope awakened their hopes, and aroused their energies. " I will," j^VfnriT said she, " fight at your head, for though I have but the arm of l'Viiip.) a woman, I have the heart of a king ; and I am ready to pour out my blood." The Armada, from which such mighty achieve- ments were expected, was attacked in the channel by the Eng- lish under Howard and Drake, several ships taken, and others 1588. sunk, or damaged; so that the Spanish commander, the duke ofthe "in- of Medina Sidonia, was obliged to return to Spain for repairs. vi ^^ » r " The winds proving contrary, he sailed north to make the cir- cuit of the island. Off the Orkneys, a severe storm dispersed ^{JJma L and wrecked the fleet. One half of the vessels, and a still known also greater proportion of the seamen and soldiers were destroyed. derFarnese") Thus ended this formidable invasion, whose destruction proved the commencement of the maritime supremacy of England. 11. The parliament during this reign, as in the preceding, generally displayed the most abject submission to the will of the sovereign. On one occasion they demanded liberty of speech ; the queen "peremptorily refused, and they submitted. 15*2%. But towards the close of the reign they took a bolder tone ; and sir Francis the queen showed her policy in granting with a good grace, cun^navi-" what she saw she could not safely refuse. In this reign Sir gates the Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe; an exploit which g] £t time. 6 8. Concerning the queen of Scots what part was taken by Philip, and what hostile measures towards England did he pursue ? — 9. What great enterprize had the Spaniards now in hand ? What appears to have been their expecta- tion of the result of the invasion ? — IO. How did the queen of England meet the emergency? Describe the operations and fate of the armada ? What did the destruction of this armament prove ? — 11. How was it with the par- liament during this reign ? What was done by Sir Francis Drake ? 334 ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE AMERICA. Modern Hii PERIOD II. CHAP. I. 1559. Philip per- secutes heretics. 156*. The Nether- lands revolt. filled Europe with astonishment. Commercial relations were entered into with Russia and Turkey. Elizabeth gave, in 1578, to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, the first patent to lands in the new world to which the royal signature of England was affixed. Gilbert lost his property and life in vain attempts to settle the country ; when the queen transferred the patent to his brother- in-law, the scientific and courtly Sir Walter Raleigh. The navigators sent out by him discovered a fair coast, which the virgin queen named Virginia, and which Raleigh was at much expense to colonize ; but his attempts to plant permanent settle- ments were disastrous failures. Elizabeth* was not particularly liberal to men of genius ; yet her reign produced William Shakspeare, the prince of poets. 12. SPAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS.— The treaty of Chateau Cambresis being concluded, Philip, after endeavoring to quiet the Netherlands, returned to Spain. Having encountered a severe storm at sea, on his first landing, he threw himself on his knees, and in gratitude for his own preservation, vowed to devote the remainder of his life to destroying heretics ! His ut- most efforts, aided by the tortures of the Inquisition, were now exerted for their extirpation, and he gave the monstrous order, that all heretics in Spain, Italy, the Indies, and the Netherlands, should forthwith be converted to the Catholic faith or put to death. The Netherlands had received the doctrines of the re- formation. They had become wealthy by their commerce and manufactures, and the free government of their cities had con- tributed to foster a spirit of liberty. The persecution of Spain now drove them to revolt. 13. The cruel duke of Alva was sent by Philip, with a large body of Spanish and Italian soldiers, to reduce the Dutch to submission. He caused the counts Egmont and Horn, who had taken the lead, to be executed. William of Nassau, prince of Orange, who succeeded them in command, * In speaking of Elizabeth, it is the common place remark, that " though she was an indifferent woman, she was a first-rate ruler." This is one of those many expressions, by which ordinary women, who are influenced by them, are made through their lives a species of larger infants ; and queens, should any read them, must be led to suppose that queen-craft requires, or excuses vice. Will the Almighty make such distinctions ? Elizabeth was a human being placed in authority. Did she do best, the best things ? That was wise, and some indulgence should be shown for her irregularities of temper, when she gave her thoughts to the anxious cares of her high voca- tion. Did she indulge in violent outbreaks of temper ? That is disgraceful in man or woman. Did she dissemble and act a double part ? That is wrong in woman or in queen. Isabella of Spain, who but for her bigotry would have been a better queen, never was insincere, although she had the example of a beloved husband. 11. With what nations were commercial treaties made ? What was done in regard to colonizing America? — 12. Give an account of the movements of Philip of Spain after the treaty of Chateau Cambresis ? What dreadful order did he give ? What tribunal had he to aid him ? What was the con- dition of the Netherlands ? What effect had Philip's persecution ? — 13. What commander was sent against them ? Whom did he cause to be exe- cuted ? Who succeeded them as the leader of the Dutch ? What difficul- ties did the Prince of Orange experience ? THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES. 335 enlisted in his service a body of the German protestants; but Mode™ m s . unable to bring Alva to an engagement, and possessing no for- period ii. titled place, he was compelled to disband his army. Executions chap. i. now were numerous, and many of the Dutch fled and took y *^~^ > *-' refuge in England. Their privateers, which had disposed of prizes in the English ports, were on the remonstrances of the Spanish court, excluded. This compelled them to seek a har- bor of their own ; and they seized and fortified the Brille, a port in Holland. The spirit of the Hollanders revived, and many towns took sides with the prince of Orange. Alva, fore- seeing the length and probable result of the war, petitioned to be recalled; and he returned to Spain to boast, that during the five years of his command in the Netherlands, 18,000 heretics had perished by the hands of the public executioner. 14. Re que sens, the Spanish governor who succeeded, tried the efficacy of milder measures ; but the disease was past reme- dy, and the inhabitants, smarting under their recent oppressions, continued the war with various success. A detachment under Louis, brother to the prince of Orange, was defeated and slain 15^4 by the Spaniards, who next laid siege to Leyden ; but the Dutch Leyden be- dreaded the Spanish rule more than death, and they opened sie ged. their dykes and sluices. A powerful wind impelled the waters with fury against the works of the besiegers, and compelled them to retreat. The Dutch offered the sovereignty of the Low Countries to Elizabeth, but she prudently declined it, though she aided them with men and money. At length a 15^6. treaty, called the pacification of Ghent, was concluded, by which P J° gjjjjj!* it was stipulated that all foreign troops should be expelled, and the inquisition of the Netherlands abolished. Requesens died ; — Don John of Austria, who succeeded, violated the treaty, and the war was renewed. Unhappy divisions between the states had prevented vigorous efforts against the common enemy. The prince of Orange exerted himself to produce a union, and pro- 15^9. cured a meeting of deputies at Utrecht, from Holland, Zealand, n c e f Hoi-" Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Overyssel and Guelderland, land c p on j- who signed the articles called the union of the Seven United The" Union Provinces. Thus commenced the Republic of Holland. j- ^ e 15. The duke of Parma, one of the most accomplished ^^ Pjq. generals of the age, now commanded the Spanish forces. The yinces. states doubting their ability to withstand the power of Spain, again offered the sovereignty to Elizabeth; and on her second rejection, to the duke of Anjou. The duke, by an attempt upon the liberty of the states, lost their confidence, and was obliged to return to France, where he soon after died. The 13. What was done in respect to a harbor ? What further can you relate of the duke of Alva? — 14. Who succeeded Alva, and in what temper did he find the Dutch? What singular measure did the Dutch take at Leyden to rid themselves of their besiegers? To whom did the Dutch offer the sovereignty of their country ? Relate the time and place of the meeting of the deputies — the number of states composing the Republic. — 15. What commander now appears on the side of the Spanish ? Who on the side of the Dutch comes at their invitation ? How did he lose their confidence ? 336 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR OF HOLLAND. Modern His. PERIOD IX. CHAP. I. 1585. Elizabeth aids the Dutch. (Alva re- turns, 1673.) 1594. TURM- HOUT The Dutch defeat the Spaniards. 1596. BAY OF CADIZ. English and Dutch de- feat the Spanish. 1600. JWEU- PORT. Dutch and English de- feat the Austrians. command of the confederates devolved upon the prince of Orange, who, through his whole life was faithful to the liberties of his countrymen \ but an assassin, whom a reward offered by Philip had instigated to the ruthless deed, took his life. The states appointed his son Maurice to succeed him in command. 16. The duke of Parma, having reduced Ghent and Brussels, besieged Antwerp, the richest and most populous city in the Netherlands. The inhabitants made every effort to save the city, but were at last obliged to capitulate. At this disastrous juncture, when the provinces were ready to sink under con- tinued efforts, Elizabeth finding her interest now united with theirs, embarked heartily in their cause. Her favorite, the earl of Leicester, was dispatched thither, with six thousand En- glish troops, while Sir Francis Drake was sent to attack the Spaniards in the West Indies. Leicester, having failed to render any effectual assistance, was recalled, and lord Willoughby appointed to the command of the English forces. 17. The duke of Parma was obliged to lead his army into France in aid of the catholic party, and he was also required to direct the operations of the " Invincible Armada," and thus ob- liged to neglect the concerns of the Netherlands. On the death of that able commander, Mansfield was appointed to succeed him. Maurice now took Breda, and with the aid of the English, under Sir Francis Vere, made himself master of Gertruyden- berg and Groningen. At Turnhout, in Brabant, they obtained a complete victory over the Spaniards. In 1597, the Dutch and English squadrons made a joint attack upon the Spanish fleet, in the bay of Cadiz ; destroyed it, and took the city. Philip now began to think of peace; but as the states would hearken to no terms which did not recognize their independence, he chose rather to transfer his dominion over the revolted pro- vinces to his daughter Isabella, who was affianced to Albert, duke of Austria. 18. Albert, after his marriage, endeavored to prevail on the United Provinces to submit, by promises of lenity. They dis- regarded his advances, and resolved upon liberty or death. Albert then issued a decree, excluding them from all intercourse with Spain, Portugal, and the Spanish Netherlands. This, though designed to injure their commerce, had a contrary effect, and changed the current of their trade, without lessening its profit. The hostile parties now strengthened their armies. Prince Maurice enlisted bodies of Germans, Swiss, and French. The arch-duke received supplies from Spain, Italy, and Ger- 15. What further can you relate of the prince of Orange? Who suc- ceeded him ? — 16. What city was now besieged ? What course was now taken by the queen of England ? Whom did she send ? How did Leices- ter succeed?— IT. Examine the operations detailed in this paragraph, and say which has the advantage. Why did the duke of Parma neglect the affairs of the Netherlands. What engagements are related ? What city in Spain is taken ? What passed in respect to a treaty of peace ? What transfer was made ? — 18. What measures were taken by Albert to induce submission ? How did each party strengthen its army ? PORTUGAL UNITED TO SPAIN. 337 many. A sanguinary battle was fought at 1ST ieuport, near Ostend, in West Flanders, in which the Dutch and English obtained the victory. 19. Albert soon took the field with a powerful force, and sat down before Ostend. After a memorable siege of three years, which cost the archduke the lives of 70,000 men, Ostend ca- pitulated. Prince Maurice, meanwhile, had reduced seven towns, which more than balanced its loss. After prosecuting the war two years longer, the court of Spain retaining posses- sion of the ten provinces, treated with the seven who had ac- ceded to the union as an independent nation. A truce of twelve years was concluded, during which their civil and re- ligious liberties were guarantied to the states. Through the energy and persevering industry of the Dutch, their commerce was extended and their wealth increased. The East India Com- pany was established during this period. 20. While Philip II. had lost the Netherlands, he had ac- quired Portugal. Don Sebastian, the sovereign, under the in- fluence of the Jesuits, attempted an invasion of Morocco. Sailing for Africa with an army of 20,000 men, his forces were defeated, and he was slain in battle. He was succeeded in his kingdom by his uncle, cardinal Henry. On his dying childless, the line of succession was broken, and many claimants to the crown arose. Philip, although not possessed of the best right, was the most powerful ; and he was accordingly crowned king of Por- tugal. The whole Spanish peninsula, now united under one monarch, was, on the death of Philip II., transmitted to his son, Philip III. Modern His 160tt. Independ- ence of Hoi- land(one year before the first ef- fectual set- tlement of the old 13 U. States.) Portu- gal uni- ted to Spain. Philip I O II. ^ 1598. Philip II. ea re- CHAPTER II. France. 1. Francis I. dying in France, his son Henry II. succeed him. The death of Henry II., shortly after the treaty of Camb sis, left the throne of France to his son, Francis II. This king- dom was now a scene of contention. The protestant religion had taken a deep hold of the affections of the French people, and numbered among its disciples the prince of Conde, admiral Coligni, and many other important personages. The Guises 1547- Henry 51. Francis II. and Mary queen of Scots, king and queen of France. 18. Where was a battle fought, and with what result ? — 19. Give an ac- count of the siege and capture of Ostend. What had prince Maurice gained ? What is said of the measures of the court of Spain ? What treaty was made ? What did the industry of the Dutch effect? — 20. What accession had Philip of Spain received ? Who were the last sovereigns ? Why was Philip made king ? Chap. II. — 1. Who succeeded Henry II. of France? Who was now queen of France ? What was the state of the kingdom ? Who were the Protestant leaders ? 43 338 CATHARINE DE MEDICI. Modern His. PERIOD II. CHAP. II. Persecution of the protestants. The Jesuits. (The spread of the so- ciety of Je- suits was wonderful; in Loyola's life they numbered 100 colleges. In 1608 there were 10,581 Je- suits.) 1560. Catharine de Medici iegent. were at the head of the Catholic party ; and in fact, through their influence over the young and feeble Francis, they were at this period at the head of the whole French nation. Swayed by a furious zeal against the Protestants, and not satisfied with influencing the councils of the young king, they plotted to gain possession of his person, and force him into all their measures. The queen-mother, Catharine de Medici, more from ambition than maternal regard, opposed them. This led them to the adoption of milder measures. Conde, who had been made pri- soner, was released. Shortly after, the Guises recovered their influence with the court. 2. The see of Rome had a powerful support in the Jesuits. When Loyola threw himself with all the intrepidity of his en- thusiastic character into the formation of this order, both the pope and the inquisition opposed him ; but subsequently they adopted the society and turned it to their purposes. Paul III. confirmed the order in 1540, and the next year Loyola was created general, or. grand master of the society, with powers subordinate only to the pope. Its seat was at Rome, whence missions were sent to every part of the Old and New World ; which, in reference to this society, was divided into twelve pro- vinces. After Loyola's death, which occurred in 1556, the order was in a degree remodeled. Its main object then became, to de- fend the supreme authority of the papacy, and for this purpose to control public opinion ; — to work by good or bad means, as would most effect the downfall of its foes, or the elevation of its friends. The Jesuits by private tokens knew each other ; but mingling in all the walks of social life, they were not known to the uninitiated, who were thus surrounded by spies. Monarchs, whom they daily approached as confessors, were blindly wrought upon to do the will of this dark and dangerous order ; and their secret councils were too often betrayed and transmitted to Rome. 3. The sudden death of Francis II. transferred the supreme authority to his mother, who exercised the office of regent dur- ing the minority of her second son, Charles IX. Catharine sought to render her own power paramount, by balancing opposite factions, and steering a middle course between them. De l'Hopital, whom she made chancellor, was an upright and honest man ; and notwithstanding he was a catholic, he in- fluenced the queen to show some favor to the protestants. A meeting of catholic and protestant divines took place at Poissy, where the cardinal Lorraine, on the part of the former, and 1. Who the Catholic, and what was their influence and power? Who was Catharine de Medici, and what part did she take? — 2. By whom had Loyola, in the first founding of his society, been opposed ? What did these parties subsequently do ? When and by whom was the society confirmed ? What success had Loyola as regarded his society, during his lifetime ? There appears to have been a change as to the objects of the so- ciety after his death, explain what it was. — 3. What event placed Catha- rine de Medici in power ? What policy did she pursue ? What counsellor had she, and how did he influence her ? Where did the two parties hold a conference ? THE HUGUENOTS. 339 Modern His. Theodore Beza on that of the latter, held a theological dis- pute, but without coming to any amicable understanding. Mean- period ii. while, a deputation from the different parliaments of the king- chap. n. dom, published an edict granting toleration to the protestants, or Huguenots as they were called, and permitting them to assemble for worship without the walls of towns and cities. The Guises left the court, indignant that such a favor should be granted to heretics. But during the absence of the queen and court from Paris, the duke of Guise returned thither, and upon his arrival the populace rose in his favor, and evinced great zeal in the catholic cause. 4. The protestants prevailed in the south and west of France, and, under the prince of Conde, made Orleans their head quarters. The catholics entered into a league with Philip of Spain, and England the protestants with Elizabeth of England. Havre de Grace was ^ nd s / ain ltttBricrti yielded to Elizabeth, and a body of 6,000 troops furnished by her. The catholics besieged Rouen, which, after a bloody de- fence, surrendered. Anthony of Bourbon, king of Navarre, who had at first favored, but afterwards abandoned the protestant ^^j- cause, was here slain. His queen, Jeanne d'Albret, with her Guise and young son, afterwards the gallant Henry TV., still adhered to the ^"fea°uhe protestants. The first important battle was fought at Dreux, protestants / where the prince of Conde, and admiral Coligni commanded the an^CoUgnL protestants ; the duke of Guise and the constable Montmorenci the catholics. The contest was obstinate, but terminated in the p itrot as- defeat of the protestants. Admiral Coligni retreated from the fu SS }^ te ^ { field with the remnant of the army, and the prince of Conde Guise, was made prisoner. The duke of Guise, not long after, was shot by an assassin while engaged in the siege of Orleans. 5. An accommodation now took place, and the protestants were granted the liberty of worship within those towns of which they were in possession. This was, however, soon abridged. A meeting between Charles IX. and his sister, the queen of 1566. Spain, was arranged to take place at Bayonne, in France, near The Holy the Pyrenees. At this conference, which Catharine, and the League, duke of Alva, as minister of Philip, attended, «the Holy ' ^ e £*g£ League" was formed for the extirpation of heresy. Meanwhile |56§. the cardinal Lorraine was at Rome, concerting measures with st. dems. the pope for carrying the designs of the leaguers into effect. ™!j defeat" The protestants under Conde and Coligni, again resorted to the protest- arms ; a battle was fought at St. Denis, five miles north of Paris, 3. Who were the chief speakers? Was any good done? What edict was published ? What persons were offended, and why ? What is further said of the duke of Guise ? — *. What part of France favored the protestants ? Who commanded, and where did they make their head-quarters? What foreign powers were now interested in the dispute ? What place yielded to the English ? What happened at the siege of Rouen ? What parties were opposed at the battle of Dreux, and what were the results? What assas- sination occurred ? — 5. What engagement was made to the protestants, and how was it kept ? As the league here mentioned was important, be particu- lar in relating who formed it, — when it was formed, — where, — and what was its object ? Where was the cardinal Lorraine ? Relate the battle of St. Denis ? 340 THE MOTHER OF HENRY IV. Modern His- PERIOD II. CHAP. II. The Lame Peace. JARNAC. Protestants defeated. Henry de Bourbon, King of Na- varre, then 16. 1569. JtfOJV- C ON- TO UR. Henry of Anjou de- feats the protestants, whose loss is 10,000. (Catharine de Medici, she personi- fication of the Italian and Spanish state-craft, or Machia- vellian poli- cy, so called from Ma- chiavelli, who does but give its rules.) in which the aged constable, Montmorenci, commander of the catholics, was slain. The protestants, however, were at length driven from the field. They next laid siege to Chartres ; during which time, Catharine with her usual artifice, betook herself to negotiations, and another treaty, called the " Lame peace," was concluded. 6. This was soon infringed by an order, dictated by the double-dealing Catharine, to arrest Conde and Coligni for trea- son. They, having kept themselves on their guard, escaped, and again placed themselves at the head of the protestant forces. At Jarnac they met and were defeated by Henry duke of An- jou, brother of the king. Conde fell in the battle. This de- feat, and more especially the death of their commander, threat- ened ruin to the protestants. Many of the officers refused to obey Coligni, and dissensions ran high in their ranks. At this juncture, the intrepid, Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, stepped forward, animated the dispirited protestants by her zeal, and furnished them with funds. " Despair not,"" said she, pre- senting her young son, " behold the new chief whom heaven has sent to command you." From this time Henry was acknowl- edged as their leader, although the more experienced Coligni yet guided their councils. He strained every nerve, in again pre- paring the troops for action. Poictiers, commanded by the young duke or Guise, was besieged, but an epidemic disorder in the camp compelled Coligni to raise the siege. 7. Henry of Anjou now appeared in the field, and Coligni, urged by his troops, many of whom were German auxiliaries, anxious to return to their homes, hazarded a battle. The plains of Moncontour now witnessed the entire defeat of the protest- ants. Coligni, though severely wounded, was soon in the field at the head of another formidable army. Having obtained some successes which inspirited his troops, the court commenced ne- gotiations, and a treaty highly favorable to the protestants was concluded. Liberty of worship in their towns was again granted ; and their well-grounded fears of treachery were lulled by their being permitted to garrison four strong places, Rochelle, Montauban, Cognac, and La Charte, as guarantees that the con- ditions would be observed. But the most horrible perfidy was meditated. The design of the court was no other than to lull the fears of the protestant leaders, draw them to the capital, and other cities, and then massacre them all. 8. On various pretexts, they were induced to come to Paris. Coligni, ever true to his country, was incited by the prospect of commanding in a war with Philip of Spain, for the recovery 5. What peace was next made ? Have you read of any peace made by that bad woman which did not prove a " lame peace" to those who put any faith in her engagements? — ©. How did she infringe this treaty ? What oc- curred at the battle of Jarnac ? What was done by Jeanne d' Albret ? How was young Henry regarded ? — 7. What parties engaged at Montcontour? What was the result? What did Coligni? What treaty was now made? What was the design of Catharine and her party ?■ — 8. How and where were the leaders of the protestants collected ? THE MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. 341 of Flanders. He was received with the most devoted respect, Mode ™ H ^' consulted on every occasion, and addressed by the young mon- period ii. arch with the title of father. The virtuous queen of Navarre chap. ii. came with Henry, her gallant son, then seventeen. A marriage ^""vx-' had been proposed for him, with Margaret, the sister of the king ; but the suspicious eye of maternal affection saw treachery in the caresses of Catharine ; and she withheld her consent. She i^wo died suddenly, probably by poison. The negotiations for the August n. marriage proceeded : and the leaders of the protestants through- Marriage of T ^ ° r ' , tt, . t N (. . . *? Henry with out h ranee were summoned to Fans to celebrate its festivities. Margaret. The wedding took place on the 17th of August, and Paris re- sounded with mirth and revelry. 9. At the stillness of midnight, on St. Bartholomew's eve. August 24th, the tocsin bell of St. Germain L'Auxerrois, awoke the inhabitants of Paris. It was the signal to begin the dread- ful massacre ; and the morning light looked upon more tnan ten Aug. 24. thousand bleeding corpses of the protestants, strewed through- sf^ /^^ out the streets, and within the houses and sanctuaries of the iomew. city. Warriors, women, infants, and old men were slain. In other parts of France, there were put to death sixty thousand more. More than The catholic family of Montmorenci gave funeral honors to the 70 S a°Grea aS ~ mangled remains of Coligni. Pope Pius V., on hearing of the massacre, was affected to tears; but Gregory XII. who at this time succeeded him, insulted the majesty of heaven by return- ing public thanks for these atrocious cruelties. 10. The king was, meanwhile, seized with all the horrors of remorse. When the assassins, who had acted by his authority, came to relate, and make a merit of their bloody deeds, the spectators beheld him shuddering as if with cold. He hated from that time his wicked mother and the Guises. " I know a ;f d e ™ e a r t S h 0f not," said he to his confidential physician, " what has happened Charles ix. to me, but in mind and body I am shaking as in a fever. It ( Men?oirs y ) S seems to me every moment, whether waking or sleeping, that ^5^4 mangled bodies present themselves to me with hideous faces, and covered with blood." No earthly medicine could reach the seat of his disease ; and he died at the chateau of Vincennes in the most agonizing tortures, and bathed in his own blood, which oozed from his veins. 11. His brother, Henry of Anjou, was proclaimed as Henry H enry m. III. He was not at the time in France, but in Poland, where he had been elected king. The catholics, two years after his tjjwjg. accession, formed the celebrated league for the defence of reli- rpjjg gion, at the head of which was Henry, duke of Guise. War league, was declared against Henry, king of Navarre, who had escaped the massacre of St. Bartholomew : and, after having been kept three years a prisoner of state, had regained his liberty. The ' (f These 8. What marriage had been proposed for Henry of Navarre? What w j"s were » happened to his mother? When did the marriage take place? — U. Give an however, account of the massacre of St. Bartholomew. — IO. Of the remorse and cMed the death of Charles IX. — 1 1. The war which followedtwas called the war of wars of th=? the three Henrys — who were the three ? league.) 342 THE WARS OF THE LEAGUE. Modern His, league had in the field two armies, each 20,000 strong, while period ii. the king of Navarre could raise at the most, only 5,000 men ; chap. ii. yet his valor and abilities, and that of his few followers' sus- tained him. At Coutras he encountered an army of the royal- ists, which he defeated, but was unable to reap the advantages Navarre de- of victory; for he had no means of paying his troops, and a great part of them left him soon after the battle. 12. The designs of the league became apparent. Guise was openly solicited to dethrone the king of France, and take the sceptre into his own hands. This he dared not do ; but he in- stigated the Parisians, who had organized a military force of Deathofthe 20,000 men, to seize the person of the sovereign. The Pari- Senfassa- s * ans fei^d m tne ^ r attempt, and Guise proceeded to Paris to ac- creofst. complish it himself; but the king escaped, and took refuge at Ba mew!°" Rouen. Guise, finding many difficulties in the way of his usur- pation, entered into a compromise with the king of France, and was appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom. Henry, how- ever, felt himself unsafe upon his throne, while his rival was in being ; and Guise was assassinated by his orders, as he was en- tering the council chamber. His brother, the cardinal, was sent to prison, where he was shortly after slain ; and about this time died, too, that faithless queen, and wicked woman, Catharine de Medici. 13. The pope now denounced the king of France as a here- enne tic, and the partisans of the league, incensed against him for the head of assassination of their leader, placed the duke of Mayenne, the League, surviving brother of Guise at its head. In these circumstances, Henry of France leagued with Henry of Navarre, who, at the Henry head of their united forces, marched to Paris, and invested it. sassina"- The French monarch retired to St. Cloud, where the dagger of ted. a monk, suborned by the duchess of Montpensier, sister to the duke of Guise, accomplished his death. When dying, he named Henry of Navarre his successor. He now claimed the throne of France, and assumed the title of Henry IV. The duke of 15§S?. ]Y[ a yenne caused the cardinal Bourbon, to be proclaimed under iv. the name of Charles X. ; but he being a prisoner at Tours, May- enne took the whole command of the war. 14. Henry met the veteran army of the league at Arques, AR . with a force not one quarter of their number. Hard pressed, ques. his little army overpowered, Henry rushed into the thickest of defeats the battle, and exclaimed, " Are there not fifty gentlemen to die May- w i tn tnen - king ?» The faltering troops rallied ; renewed the fight ; and became masters of the field, Henry soon after re- ceived reinforcements from England, while Mayenne obtained 11. Give a more particular account of Henry of Navarre. Of the bat- tle of Coutras. — 12. What were the designs and the conduct of Henry of Guise in relation to the sovereignty of France ? How did Henry of France keep the treaty of peace? What other plotters of the great massacre died about this time? — 13. What was now done by the pope and the partisans of the league ? What by Henry of France ? What by Henry of Navarre ? What was done by the agency of the duchess of Montpensier ? Whom did Henry III. declare his successor ? — 14. Relate the battle of Arques. enne. HENRY IV. 343 supplies from Spain. Disastrous was now the civil war which Mode™ His. wasted the fair fields of France, where brothers and former period n. friends were shedding each other's blood.* On the plain of Ivry chap. ir. another battle took place. Henry, in directing it, said to his *^ r ~^~^~ / troops, " If you lose your standards, follow my white plume ; 1590. you will find it in the way to victory and honor." His predic- Hen ^fagain tion was accomplished, and his enemies defeated. victorious. 15. Henry had invested the capital, and while his warlike attitude made him feared, he showed the kindness of his dispo- sition, by using every effort to induce the Parisians to submit ; jk«mv but they refused. His heart was pained to witness the distress Henry be- to which they were reduced by famine, and he suffered those sieges Paris, i -tit i . i • i • • c x j which is re- who wished to leave the city to pass his lines m satety ; and lievedbythe even, — although blamed by his officers, — granted a passage to s ^S" d8 several convoys of provision, destined for the city. Mean- Parma, while the duke of Mayenne, who had been to Flanders, returned reinforced by Spanish troops, under the duke of Parma. Henry was compelled to withdraw his forces from the siege, to oppose the Spaniards ; whom, however, he was at last unable to bring to a combat. Their object being the relief of the city, when that was accomplished, they withdrew from France. 16. The cardinal of Bourbon was now dead. The exploits of Henry had filled Europe with his martial fame. The strict- ness with which he kept his faith when once plighted, and the 1594. constancy of his attachment to his friends, made him confided Henry is re- in ; and he had displayed a benevolence, which should have Some and touched the hearts of the people. But worn out as France was ^ n p ° d w -„ with the wars of the league, still such was the bigotry of the patenters times, that Henry w r as convinced that he could not obtain the as kmg " crown unless he became a catholic. The protestant divines counselled him rather to renounce protestantism, than to con- tinue the war. He accordingly did so, and was received into the bosom of the catholic church. By this measure, the league elation!" received a blow from which it could never recover. Paris ca- (A measure pitulated, and Henry was received into the city as king of morality France. The provinces gradually followed the example of the an p j" cy r " e capital, until at length the whole nation submitted. Mayenne, supported by the Spanish interest, continued for a time in arms ; * It was daring these wars that the marquis of Rosny, afterwards the duke of Sully, and ever attached to the fortunes of Henry, hearing that his wife was dangerously ill, went in disguise, with a few followers, to his castle, to visit her. His brothers (catholics) had taken his castle, and deaf to his earnest pleadings, refused to admit him to visit his dying wife. The daring Rosny prepared to attack his own castle, when his brothers, rather from fear than from pity or affection, permitted him to enter. 14. What foreign nations furnished troops, and what was the character of the war? Relate the battle of Ivry. — 15. How did Henry conduct the siege of Paris ? How was he compelled to withdraw his army from the siege? — 16. How was Henry situated in 1594? To what was he coun- selled by protestant divines, and what did he do ? What was the effect of his recantation on Paris ? On other parts of France ? What did the duke of Mayenne ? 344 EDICT OF NANTZ. Modern His. PERIOD II. CHAP. II. 1596- Calais and Amiens Ta- ken by the Spaniards. Amiens re- covered. 1598. Edict of Nantes. Peace of Vervins, Duke of Sully. (Sully was not a syco- phant. On one occasion Henry con- sulted him respecting a paper by which he was about to bind him- self to a foolish en- gagement. Sully tore it,— and Henry for- gave him.) Henry's plan for abo- lishing war, by uniting Europe in a grand con- federacy. but after the pope had absolved Henry, this officer made his submission, was received into favor, and ever after remained a firm friend to his sovereign. 17. The opposition of the protestants, whose suspicions began to be excited by a delay in securing their rights, and by the dis- posal of all the great offices to the catholics, prevented Henry from carrying on vigorously the war against Spain. The Spaniards took Calais and Amiens, and it was with difficulty that Henry could, in the exhausted state of his finances, raise an army to withstand them. At length, at the head of such forces as he could assemble, he advanced to Amiens, which he invested, and compelled the city to surrender. He next came to an accommodation with the protestants, granting them, by the celebrated edict of Nantes, the enjoyment of their religion, and admission to public offices. Ambassadors now met at Ver- vins, where a peace icith Spain was concluded, on terms favor- able to France. 18. Although policy compelled Henry to grant most of the high offices to catholics, yet his chosen friend and counsellor, from the beginning to the end of his career, was a protestant. This was the wise duke of Sully. The economy and discreet management of 'this minister, brought the totally deranged finances of the kingdom to order, and soon placed at the dispo- sal of his beloved monarch, a well furnished treasury. Henry, constantly seconded by Sully, followed the bent of his benevo- lent heart, in studying to promote the welfare of his kingdom. Commerce, agriculture, and manufactures, all received a new impulse. Nor did he limit his desires of doing good to his own subjects, but he conceived the bold design of banishing war from Europe, by uniting the great powers in one confederacy ; establishing a grand council after the model of the Amphicty- onic, to which all the principal states of Europe should send their delegates, and refer their differences. Sully at first op- posed his views as visionary, but afterwards entered fully into them. Elizabeth of England, for whom Henry had a high re- spect, was also a party to the scheme.* It was the opinion of these sovereigns, that the house of Austria must first be hum- bled before this project could be carried into effect. The death of Elizabeth was deplored by Henry ; yet he proceeded to make * This is stated on the authority of the duke of Sully — see his " Memoirs." Some writers have treated Henry's great design with levity, considering it as a mere covering to his views against the house of Austria. The charac- ter of Elizabeth makes it not improbable that this motive was predominant with her ; but Henry had a great and benevolent heart as well as a fertile mind, and he was not a man of pretences. IT. With what were the protestants displeased ? How did the war with Spain proceed ? By what edict were the protestants quieted? What treaty was made with Spain ? — 18. Give an account of the duke of Sully ? What did he in regard to the finances ? In what did he aid his friend and sove- reign ? What bold and philanthropic design had Henry formed ? Who en- tered into his views ? What was believed must be done before they could be accomplished ? ASTRONOMY CULTIVATED IN GERMANY. 345 vast preparations for the accomplishment of his design ; but he was cut off in the midst of them, by the dagger of Ravaillac, an obscure assassin. The French nation wept for him as for a father. The vile assassin, — whose name the afflicted Sully- never would pronounce, — suffered a terrible death 19. Henry IV. as has been related, married at an early age, Margaret, sister to the king of France. He afterwards divorced her, and married Mary de Medici, a weak and passionate woman, whom he too often irritated by his prominent fault, a want of conjugal fidelity. She on her part, incapable of appre- ciating the noble energies of his character, or seeking by discreet measures to win his wandering affections, did but make herself disagreeable by continual reproaches, and by keeping around her, Italian favorites, whom he particularly disliked. 20. GERMANY.-— Ferdinand I., the younger son of Philip the Handsome, and the insane Joanna, succeeding his brother Charles V. as emperor of Germany, occupied his short reign in honest endeavors to compose the religious differences which agitated the empire ; and in prosecuting claims to the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia, which he derived by his marriage with the heiress, Anne, daughter of Ladislaus. In these countries the Turks resisted him and made conquests. In the diet of Ratisbon, assembled soon after his accession, the " Peace of Religion" was confirmed. The council of Trent was reassem- bled in 1562. The whole body of protestants rejected its dogmas, and denied its authority ; as did a portion of the catho- lics. It is memorable as being the last called a general council. 21. Maximilian II., son and successor of Ferdinand, was early in his reign engaged in war with Solyman I., with whom his father had unsuccessfully contended, and who was now bent on the conquest of Germany. The success of the imperial generals checked the progress of the Ottoman arms, and on the death of Solyman, his son and successor Selim II., concluded a peace of twelve years. Maximilian was succeeded by his son Rodolph II., during whose long reign, the empire continued almost undisturbed by intestine broils. He was himself of a peaceful temper, and devoted much of his time to the study of astronomy, in company with Tycho Brahe and Kepler. His brother Matthias conducted the war with the Turks, who had invaded Hungary ; and the renown and influence he acquired by his success, enabled him to obtain the crown of Hungary, and make himself master of Austria and Moravia, all of which Modern His. 1610. Henry as- sassinated (by the insti- gation of the Jesuits, who are offended at the Edict of JYantz.) 1558. Ferdi- nand I. Peace of Re- ligion. 1564. Maxi- milian II. to o o 3 3 15?6 Ro- dolph II. j The two greatest as- tronomers of the age. 18. What hindered his attempting to accomplish his great and good plan ? — 19. What account can you give of Mary de Medici? — 20. Who was Ferdinand I? To what part of the honors of his brother did he succeed ? How was his reign occupied ? What was done by the diet of Ratisbon ? What account can you give of the council of Trent? — 21 . Who succeeded Ferdinand? Who was his and his father's adversary, and what was he grasping at? How did the Turkish war terminate? Give an account of the next emperor? What great astronomers were his contemporaries? What kingdom did his brother obtain ? 44 34b CYPRUS CONQ.UERED BY THE TURKS. Modern His. Solyman dies M. 70. Selim, his son, suc- 15*1. Turks con- quer Cy- prus. LEPANTO. The allies defeat the Turks in a memorable naval battle. Turks lose 30,000 ; Christians 10,000. Turks and Christians make peace. Rodolph confirmed to him, rather than his own peace and that of the empire should be disturbed. 22. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE.— The sultan Solyman, be- sides the war which he carried on with the German empire, during the reign of Maximilian, had despatched a fleet and army to reduce the island of Malta, where the knights of St. Johnfhad been established, and still maintained themselves. The Turkish general, Mustapha, besieged the island ; but the governor of Sicily coming to the aid of the knights, the Turks, after a siege of five months, were obliged to abandon the enterprise with the loss of 24,000 men. 23. Selim II. after having concluded a peace with Germany, turned his arms eastward ; but failing in his attempt to reduce Persia, he invaded the island of Cyprus, which belonged to the republic of Venice. A league was formed between the pope, Pius V., the king of Spain, and the Venetians, for its defence. Their forces failing to arrive in season, the Turks conquered Cyprus, and subjected its inhabitants to the most inhuman cruelties. They extended their ravages to the coasts of Italy, Dal- matia, and Istria. The pope, the Spaniards, and the Venetians, assembled their fleet, and a naval engagement between them and the Turks took place in the gulf of Lepanto. For duration, fierceness, and destruction of human life, it was at that period unequalled. The Christians, commanded by Don John of Austria, were at length victorious. The following season, however, Selim equipped another fleet, which again spread the terror of the Turkish arms. Philip soon found his attention drawn to the Low Countries ; and the Venetians concluded a treaty, by which Cyprus was left in possession of the Turks. Tunis, which had been taken by Don John of Austria, was re- taken by the sultan. The three sovereigns who immediately succeeded Selim, did not extend the Turkish conquests. 22. Give an account of the siege of Malta and its result ? — 23. Of the conquest of Cyprus ? Of the battle of Lepanto ? Of the Turkish depreda- tions ? The Pilgrims in the Cabin of the May-Flower, 1620. PERIOD III. FROM THE ASSASSINATION > 16IO. \ OF HENRY IV. THE EXECUTION CHARLES ^ 0F |l648.£ AND THE TREATY OF WESTPHALIA. CHAPTER I. The Scandinavian Nations. — Germany. 1. The Scandinavian Nations are those west of the Baltic, Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Their history during the dark ages is that of unprincipled freebooters, — bloody pirates, — who looked upon the more peaceful and wealthy, as the wolf upon the well-fed lamb. We have seen how, under the names of Sea-kings, Danes, and Normans, they ravaged and conquered England, — and caused Charlemagne to weep for the miseries which he saw that these, the only barbarians of Europe unsub- dued by his martial genius, would yet inflict upon his people. We have seen them, under Rollo, overcome and give their name to the west of France, and thence through William the Con- queror, Robert Guiscard, and his brother Roger, give law to England, Naples, and Sicily. In the great movement of the crusades, some of the most distinguished leaders, Bohemond and Tancred, were of this stock. The abandonment of their barbarous and sanguinary customs was owing in part to their intercourse with more civilized nations; but chiefly to Chris- Modem His. PERI'D III. CHAP. I. (826, The first convert Harold a Danish prince, bap- tized at In- gelheim Part III. — Chap. I. — 1. Which were called the Scandinavian nations? What were the people during the dark ages? What in the course of the history has already been related of them ? To what causes was the change in their barbarous customs owing ? 347 348 MARGARET OP WALDEMAR. Modern His. PERI'D III. CHAP. I. 13§9. FAL CO- PING, in Gothland. Margaret defeats Al- bert. (The Union of Calmar was re- nounced in 1449.) 1513. Christian II. the Wicked, (marries Isabella, the sister of Charles V. grand daughter of Isabella of Spain.) 1523. Is expelled from Swe- den by Gus- tavus Vasa tianity, which was introduced into Denmark in the ninth century, into Norway in the tenth, and into Sweden in the eleventh. 2. The union of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden under Margaret of Waldemar, " the Semiramis of the North," greatly contributed to their common advantage. She was the daughter of Waldemar II., king of Denmark. By her talents and address she obtained, on her father's death, contrary to the Salic custom of the Danes, peaceable possession of the sove- reignty. On the death of her husband, Haquin, king of Nor- way, she in the same peaceable manner, in the face of custom and prescription, made herself queen of the admiring Norwe- gians ; and such was her fame for wisdom and energy, that when the Swedes were oppressed by Albert, a German con- queror, they invited her aid. She went with an army, defeated Albert in battle, and made him prisoner. After seven years of war, occurred the " Union of Calmar," by which the three nations formally united in a confederacy, each having its own legislature, but under the same monarch. They elected Mar- garet. She established many wise regulations, and during her reign great advances were made in commerce and the arts. But she was absolute*, and when the nobility reminded her, that they had records of her oath to observe restrictions, she replied, " You had better keep them, as I shall the castles and cities of my kingdom, and all else pertaining to my dignity." She had no child, but adopted Eric, a grand-nephew, who proved a weak prince, and unequal to lis station. 3. A period of war and confusion succeeded, when Swe- den had a separate king. In 1513, Christian II., called the " Nero of the North," was king of Denmark and Norway. Sweden was divided into two parties, and Troll, archbishop of Upsal, encouraged Christian to invade that kingdom. He killed the king, Steen Sture, in battle, a.nd was acknowledged by the diet. He then made a great feast, and treacherously slew his guests, — ninety-four nobles and bishops, — after which he let loose his troops upon the people; and Sweden bled at every pore. Gustavus Vasa, the son of a nobleman, fled and con- cealed himself among the mountains of Dalecarlia, whence he issued with a resolute band. All his countrymen rose at his signal of revolt, against the man whom they all hated. They expelled the Danes, and placed Gustavus on the throne. He encouraged agriculture and commerce, improved the Swedish jurisprudence; — and on the breaking out of the Reformation, he, with the Swedish people, received its doctrines. It was in 2. What union contributed to advance their prosperity ? Whose daughter was Margaret, and what throne did she ascend on his death ? Who was her husband, and in what manner did she succeed to his authority ? What were the circumstances of her becoming the sovereign of Sweden ? What particulars can you give of the Union of Calmar? — 3. What was the con- dition of these nations in 1513? What account can you give of Christian II.? Of Gustavus Vasa? THE THIRTY YEARS* WAR BEGINS. 349 defence of these that we are soon to see his descendant, the M° de ™ #»*- great Gustavus Adolphus come forward as the hero of his peri'd hi. age. With him to command her armies, and his able minister Oxenstiern to manage her revenues and internal police, Sweden rose, in this period, to a first rate power. After the dissolution of the Union of Calmar, Norway became again confederated with Denmark, each of the two states having its own assembly, but both under the same king. 4. At the death of Rodolph, the imperial throne was given 1612/ to his brother, the archduke Matthias. The protestant Mat- princes of the German confederation had formed a league called u The Evangelical Union." Matthias had hitherto shown him- m. self friendly to them, but they now pressing him for an exten- -p vaT , sion of their privileges, he resisted their demands, and they ffp i: pa i complained that he encroached upon their rights, and took up iT n j ftn arms. This proved the beginning of the thirty years' war. formed ' Matthias procured the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary for his 1608. cousin Ferdinand, the duke of Styria, whom he designed for his successor in the empire. These measures alarmed the Hun- garians and Bohemians, who took part with the revolted princes 16 19. of the Evangelical Union. Amidst these disorders Matthias JSini died, and Ferdinand II. was raised to the imperial throne. The (duke of Bohemians continued their revolt, deposed Ferdinand, and p^ede- elected to the sovereignty of that kingdom, Frederic V., elec- ric v. J tor palatine of the Rhine, who had married the daughter of James I., reigning sovereign of England. Besides the support of the protestant princes of the empire, Frederic received the aid of Bethlem Gabor, the chief or vaivode of Transylvania, ^• deri< ? f a tributary of the grand sultan; a body of 8,000 troops from ancestors of the Low Countries°under Henry of Nassau, and 2,000 Eng- t 5£5Jj*J.J f lish volunteers. His preparations were, however, inadequate for the war, in which he had to withstand the united strength of the house of Austria,— the emperor, the king of Spain, and the arch-duke of Austria. Their army being commanded by jfjoo Tilly, defeated that of Frederic at Prague. The imperialists pragu'e. drove him from his palatinate, and degraded him from his ^J^Jists'Sm- electoral dignity, which was conferred upon the duke of Ba- derTiiiyde- varia. Frederic's father-in-law refused in this extremity to J^Hoi pa- aid him, much to the annoyance of his subjects; the English latine. considering that their king showed himself, by this neglect, false to the protestant cause. 5. Ferdinand, after crushing a league of the northern powers, 3. Of Gustavus Adolphus ? Who was his minister ? — 4, Who succeed- ed Rodolph in the German empire ? What league was formed by the pro- testant princes? By what actions did Matthias manifest a grasping dispo- sition ? What proved the beginning of the thirty years war ? Who joined the princes of the Evangelical Union against the emperor? What account can you give of his successor? Give an account of Frederic V., and ob- serve particularly whom he married, as it is through this princess that queen Victoria and her immediate ancestors hold the throne of England ? What princes are mentioned, belonging to the house of Austria in Germany and Spain ? How did James I. treat his son-in-law ? 350 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. Modern His. PERI'D III. CHAP. I. Ferdinand provokes the protest- ant princes, who form a league with Sweden and France. 162®. (Partly on account of religion, partly on account of balance of power.) Holland and England aid the protest- ants. 1631. LEIPSIC. Gustavus Adolphus defeats Tilly. 1632. LUTZEJf. The Swedes victorious, but their king slain. Sweden ably go- verned. at the head of which was Christian IV., of Denmark, aspired to establish a despotic power in Germany,— to reduce the princes to the rank of nobles, and to revive the imperial juris- diction in Italy. His first attempt upon the protestant princes was made by an edict requiring them to restore the church lands and benefices which they had possessed since the peace ofPassau. The princes remonstrated, and urged that the edict was illegal. Ferdinand persisted, and the protectants formed a secret alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden. This monarch had already shown his valor in war, and his wisdom in peace. He was a zealous protestant, and he deemed it policy to unite him- self with those powers who sought to weaken the dreaded in- fluence of the house of Austria ; and furthermore, the emperor had incurred his displeasure, by assisting the Poles in their wars against the Swedes. The alliance was extended to the court of France, where the cardinal Richelieu was the prime mover, and he sympathised with Gustavus in the desire of curbing the Austrian power. Holland also came into the alli- ance ; and Charles I., now king of England, furnished the allies with 6,000 men. 6. Gustavus entered Pomerania, and made himself master of many important places. At Leipsic, he obtained a complete victory over the imperial forces, under the command of Tilly, who was an able general- All the members of the Evangelical Union now joined his standard ; and he possessed himself of the whole country from the Elbe to the Rhine. Tilly having been killed, the renowned Wallenstein succeeded him. To him Gustavus offered battle at Lutzen. The contest lasted from day-break till sunset, when the obstinate valor of the Swedes at length triumphed over the superior numbers of the enemy ; but Gustavus perished. When wounded on the field, and asked by an enemy who he was, " I am," said he, " the king of Sweden, and I seal with my blood the protestant religion, and the liberties of Germany." 7. As Gustavus left but one child, Christina, a daughter of six years of age, the government of Sweden was held by the able statesman Oxenstiern, who was made regent. The war was conducted with vigor, and officers formed in the school of Gustavus sent into Germany. The imperial general, Wallen- stein, being assassinated, the command was given to Ferdinand, king of Hungary, eldest son of the emperor. The accession 5. What league did Ferdinand crush ? What did his ambition next aspire to? What new league was formed against him ? What account is given of Gustavus Adolphus ? What motives operated with him in forming the league ? Look over your map, and point to the countries subject to the different branches of the house of Austria, (the whole Spanish peninsula, Naples and Sicily, Flanders, Germany, Hungary and Bohemia,) and now point to the nations leagued against them. — 6. What battle was fought, and with what result? Who succeeded Tilly in command? Where did Gus- tavus give him battle, and with what result? — f. Who was heiress, and who regent of Sweden ? What was the fate of Wallenstein ? Who suc- ceeded him in command ? GENERALS FORMED BY GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 351 of the dukes of Lorraine and Bavaria, with a reinforcement of Modern gfr- Spanish troops, at this time, strengthened the imperial party, perfd hi. The arnry of the confederates, under the command of general chap - *■ Horn, and the duke of Saxe-Weimar, encountered the forces of the king of Hungary at ISTordlingen. One of the most bloody battles recorded in history ensued. It ended in the total defeat of the Swedes. The emperor now negotiated with the Evangelical Union the treaty of Prague, by which he left the protestants in possession of the church property, and per- mitted the free exercise of their religion throughout the em- 1(535. pire, with the exception of the kingdom of Bohemia, and the Treaty of provinces of the house of Austria. Prague. 8. A new alliance was formed between Sweden and France, -« Q « and the latter kingdom now openly participated in the war. In \i T t- upper Germany, the elector of Saxony was defeated by the stock. Swedish general, Bannier, in a battle fought at Wittstock. fe^Bannier Ferdinand III., on the death of his father, succeeded to the im- victorious. perial throne, and continued the war against Sweden, France, J^^Ja and the protestants. The duke of Saxe-Weimar defeated the confede-' imperial army near Brisac, and reduced this with many other SJxe-Wei- towns. The Swedes were triumphant in Pomerania. Bannier mer victo- crossed the Elbe, entered Saxony, obtained advantages over the J^Jun imperialists in several slight engagements, and near Chemnitz, qhem- gained a complete victory. He next invaded Bohemia, and at JfIT %, Brandeiz fought the imperialists, under Hofskirk, and, again deiz. victorious, he pursued the retreating army to the walls of Swedes vic- Prague, and took the imperial general prisoner. 9. Bannier next formed a plan of attacking Ratisbon, during the session of a diet, which the emperor had there convened. Joined by the French army under Guelbriant, he crossed the Danube on the ice, captured 1,500 of the enemy's horse, and (Arch-duke seized the equipage and advance guard of the emperor, who JJ^beJSjpJ himself narrowly escaped being made a prisoner. An unex- parent of pected thaw saved the city, and compelled Bannier to recross Austna ' the river. A powerful imperial army now assembled under general Piccolomini, and the archduke Leopold. Bannier marched through Bohemia, followed by the imperial general, but before any decisive action could take place, death deprived jpSSSir- the confederates of the great Swedish commander. Torsten- buttel. son, another general who had served under Gustavus Adolphus, ^th'hfc' was sent from Sweden by Oxenstiern, with a strong reinforce- French ment of troops, and a large sum of money. Before the arrival f/Ss the d im of Torstenson, Guelbriant had led his forces to battle, and de- periaiists. T. Who commanded the army of the allies ? What battle was fought, and with what result? What arrangements were made by the treaty of Prague ? — 8. What new alliance was formed ? Trace through this para- graph the victories of the Swedes under their great general Bannier. Who succeeded Ferdinand II. in the empire ? What victory did the duke of Saxe-Weimar gnin over his troops? — 9. What bold plan was formed by Bannier ? Whose assistance had he in its execution ? How far did it suc- ceed ? What change in the Swedish commanders now took place ? What had the French general Guelbriant done before the arrival of Torstenson ? 352 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR CONTINUES. Modern His. PERI'D III. CHAP. I. Hostilities between Sweden and Denmark. 1645. THABOR. Torstenson and the Swedes de- feat the im- perialists. MJIRIEJV- DAL. The imperi- alists defeat Turenne and the French. 1646. NORD- LIJVGEN. Turenne t and Conde victorious. 1647. ZUMMER- HJ1USEM". The allies defeat the imperialists feated the imperialists near Wolfenbuttel. After his arrival, the French and Swedes separated. Guelbriant entered Westphalia, and Torstenson, Bohemia. 10. In the ensuing campaign, Guelbriant defeated the impe- rial general, and made himself master of almost the whole elec- torate of Cologne. Torstenson obtained two victories over the imperialists, after which he reduced Leipzic. The court of Vienna, in dismay, commenced negotiations, which were, how- ever, retarded by the death of Louis XIII., and of cardinal Richelieu. During these conferences, Torstenson invaded Hol- stein ; the king of Denmark having exhibited evidence of hos- tility towards Sweden. Christian IV., the Danish king, now implored the aid of the emperor, who dispatched one of his generals to withstand the army of Torstenson. The mediation of France soon produced an accommodation between these northern powers, and enabled Sweden to turn all her energies against the empire. 11. France and Sweden also entered into a treaty with George Racoczi, the vaivode of Transylvania, who, by invad- ing Hungary, divided the forces of the empire. Torstenson in- vaded Bohemia, and after an unsuccessful attempt at surprising Prague, drew the imperialists into an engagement near Thabor, where he defeated them with great slaughter. Many towns now submitted to the conquerors, who became masters of the Danube on the side of Moravia. In the meantime, the impe- rialists, under the elector of Bavaria, met the French, now under the command of the marshal Turenne, and defeated them on the plains of Mariendal. 12. Turenne, however, made a successful retreat, crossed the Maine in safety, and soon after received a reinforcement of 8,000 men, under the duke d'Enghien, afterwards the great Conde.. At Nordlingen he encountered the imperialists, and was now victorious. The success of Turenne spread terror through the provinces, and induced the electors of Saxony and Bavaria, and the German princes, to renounce the alliance with the emperor, and make a truce with France. The following year the elector of Bavaria, by the armistice of Ulm, induced Wrangel, the Swedish general who had succeeded Torsten- son, to abandon Bohemia. The treaty was violated, and the next spring, Wrangel, joined by Turenne, fought the imperialists and defeated them at Zummerhausen. Konigsmark, another Swedish general, surprised the new city of Prague, and made himself its master. 13. The emperor now sued earnestly for peace, and the ne- lO. What defeats did the imperialists next experience ? What retarded negotiations with France? What northern powers became embroiled? What nation mediated between them? — 11. What ally did France and Sweden gain from the east? What further success had the allies? Who was commander of the French ? What battle now occurred, and with what result? — 12. How and where did Turenne retrieve his loss? What are the principal events noticed in 1647 ? CLOSE OF THE THIRTY YEARS 5 WAR. $53 gotiations resulted in the Treaty of Westphalia, signed October ««*><*«•» rs». 24, 1648. This highly important treaty constitutes an approach perpd hi. to confederation among the contracting powers ; — it has served chap. i. as a basis for the future treaties, — most of the succeeding wars ^-^v^w/ having had reference to the balance of power. Its conditions showed that the pride of the house of Austria was humbled. To France were granted Alsatia, Brisac, and the sovereignty of Mete, Tonl, and Verdun ;— to Sweden, 5000,000 crowns, 164S. with Upper Pomerania, the Isle of Rugen, and a part of Lower Treaty of Pomerania, Wismar, Bremar, and Verden, to be held as fiefs of Westplia- the empire. The upper palatinate, with the electoral dignity, Ua, was continued to the duke of Bavaria, while the lower . palati- nate ivas restored to Charles Louis, son of the deposed elector; an eighth electorate being established on his account. Switzer- land and Holland were declared to be free and sovereign states, and " the three religions, Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinistic, n were each admitted to the free enjoyment of their several tenets. Thus ended the thirty years' war, which, though destructive, shows improvement in the state of the world; as it was not so much a war of conquest, as of principle ; — protestantism, as in Sweden, determining to defend itself against ecclesiastical ty- ranny ; and nationality, as in France, fearing the grasp of the giant strength of the House of Austria. The ends of the contest were accomplished. The thirty years' war broke the power of the pope, and humbled the House of Austria. 14. SPAIN. — Philip III. was a prince of little ambition, and governed by his ministers and the priests. After the peace which he concluded at the Hague, with the revolted provinces 1611. 1 of the Netherlands, he turned his attention to the extirpation of JJ?*jj heresy in Spain. The Moriscoes, descendants of the ancient e ted. Moors, were ordered to leave the realm within thirty days, on penalty of death. They resisted the cruel decree, and vainly attempted to establish an independent kingdom. They were, however, banished ; and thus Spain, deprived of nearly a million of industrious inhabitants, suffered a diminution of na- tional strength, greater than any foreign enemy had ever caused. The succeeding monarch, Philip IV., became more closely p^m?' united with the German branch of the house of Austria. Philip iv. and his ambitious minister, Olivarez, at the expiration of the truce, renewed the attempt to bring the Netherlands into sub- jection to the crown. But Spain, now on the decline, was at last obliged to acknowledge in full the independence of the 13. What important treaty was made? To what does this treaty con- stitute an approach? For what has it served as a basis ? To what have most succeeding European wars had reference ? What did France obtain ? What Sweden? What was done in regard to the palatinate respecting which the thirty years' war began? What smaller countries had their inde- pendence guarantied ? What arrangement was made with regard to reli- gion? What remarks are made respecting the thirty years' war? — 14. What was the character of Philip III. of Spain ? What cruel expulsion marks his reign ? Relate some of the events of the reign of Philip IV, 45 354 THE HOUSE OF BRAGANZA. Modern His. United Provinces. In Italy, her affairs were going to ruin, and peri'D in. sne na d a war with France upon her hands. chap. ii. 15. PORTUGAL, during this inefficient reign, struck for her s **f~ % *^>*' independence, and placed the duke of Beaganza, whose title *3 [164© was superior to that of the king of Spain, upon the throne, ^ I J °}! n under the name of John IV. All the Portuguese settlements in § i Asia, Africa, and the islands, expelled their Spanish governors, "5 I j^4§ and Brazil was recovered. Catalonia also revolted and placed sq I ' itself under the direction of France ; but after some years of war that province was reduced by the Spaniards to submission. CHAPTER II. France. m 1. On the death of Henry IV., his son, Louis XIII., being only nine years old, his mother, Mary de Medici, was made re- iouJ!' g ent 5 D y tnose wno expected through her to govern France. xiii. She was unfit to hold the reins of government, and especially Mary^de at a time when they required a firm and vigorous hand. The Medici, powerful arm of Henry IV. had scarcely restrained the nobles, who aimed at independence, and always furnished leaders to the malecontents of the kingdom. Mary soon departed from the line of policy pursued by her husband ; and dismissing Sully, trusted the management of affairs to her Italian favorites, Leo- 161/t N0RA Galigai, and her husband, Concini. Upon these, and Last ' other favorites, she lavished the wealth which Sully by his pru- * me fth ng dence nac * accumulated. The catholic party under their aus- § states pices, reassumed the ascendant. A union with Spain was the general. conse q uence , by which Louis married Anne, daughter of Philip The II. But misrule had brought confusion and distress: The marries powerful nobles meditated revolt. A meeting of the states'* Anne of general was called, memorable as the last of these national as~ Austria. sem j ) n es previous to the French revolution, but this measure was productive of no effect in removing the grievances of the kingdom. (t called 2. The young king, under the influence of De Luynes, his alS shai ar ~ favorite, was now stirred up to resentment against the Italian d'Ancre.) favorites of his mother. Concinif was arrested when proceeding 15. What was now done in Portugal ? How was it with the foreign pos- sessions of that kingdom ? What was done by the inhabitants of Catalonia? Chap. II.— 1. Who administered the government of France after the death of Henry IV. ? Was it well administered ? Who were the queen's favorites? How did she treat her husband's friend and wise counsellor? What is here said of the catholic party and their doings? What of the meeting of the states' general ?— ». What was done by Louis under the in- fluence of De Luynes? RICHELIEU AGGRANDIZES FRANCE. 355 to the council chamber at the Louvre, and on pretence of resist- • Modern His - ance, shot. Leonora was tried for sorcery; and when asked by peri'D hi. her accusers, by what process of the black art she acquired such CKAP - «■ influence over her mistress, she boldly replied, " Simply by the < *~*^^*~ / power which a strong mind has over a weak one.' 5 But she ^1% was burned as a sorceress, and the queen regent exiled to Blois; Mary's while De Luynes continued to control Louis. Richelieu, Italian bishop of Lu9on, and afterwards cardinal, effected an accom- it.es." modation between her and her son. The bold, aspiring genius of this priest made her the tool of his intriguing policy j and with her aid he raised a powerful opposition to Louis, and his worthless favorite. 3. The Huguenots, displeased at an attempt of the king to es- -„„- tablish the catholic religion, called an assembly at Rochelle, in- civil ' tending, as is supposed, to establish a republic. The command war of the royal army was given by De Luynes to Lesdiguieres, the Hu a Huguenot who had embraced the Romish faith. The northern provinces which had followed the doctrines of the reformation, were reduced ; but at the siege of Montauban, the royalists were j tjlu- defeated with the loss of a great part of their army. De Luynes baj^t. gue- nots. JtfOJV- died of chagrin ; and the following year a treaty was concluded su fid. between the monarch and his protestant subjects, which placed su their affairs as they were before this war, 4. On the death of De Luynes, Mary procured, though not Pr0 . without difficulty, a seat in the king's council for Richelieu, jects of Thenceforward the genius of the cardinal obtained an entire Jen!" ascendancy over both monarch and ministers, and he became in ^ ho plans fact, master not only of France, but in a measure, as we have the seen, director of the destinies of Europe. The aim of his policy d fur n r ~ a _ was to elevate the monarchy of France ; and to this end, he ther wished first to destroy the power of the Huguenots, whom he gooVof disliked as heretics, and whose assemblies he regarded as the France, prolific source of sedition and insurrection ; second, to humble the high nobility ; and third, to check the grasping power of the house of Austria. 5. He concluded an alliance with England, by the marriage of Henrietta, youngest daughter of Henry IV., to Charles, Henri- the prince of Wales. He shortly after infringed the treaty last w *J£ a £ f concluded with the Huguenots, and having provoked them to Charles rebel, while unprepared for war, defeated their plans ; and at last J^ero? made an accommodation with them, favorable to the crown. Charles To humble the House of Austria, he formed first a secret alliance 2. Give some account of the trial of Leonora ? What was done with the queen-regent ? Through what remarkable person did she regain some de- gree of influence ? In what condition did the cardinal place the king and his favorite ? — 3. What was now done by the Huguenots? What is it supposed they intended ? What measures were taken to oppose them, and with what success ? — 4:. To whom did Richelieu owe his election to a seat in the king's council ? What did he soon become ? What was the aim of his policy ? What three impediments did he wish to destroy as being in the way of the aggrandizement of the French crown ? — 5. What marriage was negotiated? How did Richelieu treat the Huguenots ? 356 ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND UNITED. Modern His- PERI'D III. CHAP. II. 1643. Death of Louis XIII. S 3" s O 1603. James I. (His tu- tor was the cele- brated George Bucha- nan.) The Pu- ritans dissatis- fied, made more so by the famous confer- ence at Hamp- ton- court. with Gustavus Adolphus, and afterwards, at the death of that monarch, as has been stated, he openly joined the Swedes. Had his abilities been more under the direction of that benevolence which loves all mankind ; or even of that justice which refuses to injure one class to benefit another, France would have had more cause to bless his memory. As it was, his talents were employed to crush the rights of the people. He laid the foun- dation of the grandeur and absolute dominion of Louis XIV.; and, in the reaction, that of the bloody French revolution. 6. ENGLAND, SCOTLAND AND IRELAND.— The his- tory of England during this period, is memorable for that strug- gle between the parliament and the monarch, which, beginning in the reign of James I., became more violent in that of his suc- cessor ; and at length ended in limiting the royal prerogative, and establishing the rights and liberties of the people. On the death of Elizabeth, the crown of England passed quietly from the house of Tudor, in which it had remained since Henry VII., to that of Stuart. Her successor, James I.* of England, and VI. of Scotland, son of the unfortunate Mary, was, as our his- tory has shown, great grandson of Margaret, the eldest daughter of that monarch. The accession of James was hailed by all classes of the English with enthusiasm. By profession a pro- testant, and accustomed to the rigid and austere notions of the Scottish church, he was peculiarly acceptable to his protestant subjects, while to the catholics, he was endeared by the remem- brance of his mother's claims and injuries. The pride of the Scots too, was gratified in giving a monarch to their haughty neighbors, who had for ages been seeking their subjugation. 7. On the arrival of James in England, his manners, — conceited, careless, good-natured and pedantic, soon began to be unfavor- ably contrasted with the royal dignity and courteousness of those of Elizabeth. Some disaffection was also caused by his profuse liberality to his Scottish courtiers, though he left the great offices of state in the hands of Elizabeth's ministers. Sir Robert Cecil, the second son of Cecil, lord Burleigh, was his prime minister ; a more shrewdly cunning, but less honest man than his father, and therefore a less sound politician. The Puritans, an order of protestants who regarded the ceremonies and discipline retained in the English church as an approach to popery, had not yet openly separated from it, expecting, that on the accession of James, these usages would be abolished ; and * The reign of James I. commenced seven years before the death of Henry IV. It was judged best in this, as in some other cases, to admit of some irregularities, rather than to break the thread of the history at an inconve- nient place ? 5. What measures did he take to humble the house of Austria ? What remarks are made on Richelieu's services to his country ? — 6. For what is this period of English history memorable ? What change of dynasties now occurred? Who was Elizabeth's successor ? How was his accession re- ceived by different classes? — 7. What comparison was made between his manners and those of Elizabeth ? What disaffection was there respecting his Scottish courtiers ? What sect of protestauts is here mentioned ? THE GUNPOWDER PLOT. 357 they petitioned the king accordingly. James had in his early Modem His. youth imbibed their notions ; yet, in his mature years, he ~ feared the republican tendency of their principles. His maxim was, " no bishop, no king." He called a conference at Hamp- ton-court, for the purpose of hearing the arguments on both sides, and at its close he declared, that " he would have one doctrine, one discipline, one religion in substance and ceremony;" ._.. and he therefore enjoined the puritans to conform to the estab- sionofthe lished worship. He shortly after made arrangements on a large completed scale for the accurate translation of the Scriptures ; to which we *n leu.) are indebted for our excellent version. 8. The memorable " Gunpowder Plot," was concocted by William Catesby; and his chief accomplices were Sir Eve- jxjo5. rard Digby, and William Tresham; — zealous catholics — The Gun- men of character, who believed that the act they meditated would po p^ot er be acceptable to God. The purpose of the plot was to destroy the king and parliament. One of the conspirators hired a coal eel- (The Jesuits lar, under the building where the house of lords met, and there are . charged deposited thirty-six barrels of gunpowder, which was to be ex- at the bot? ploded on the first day of the meeting of parliament, when the Jjj™ J^ th H king, queen, and prince of Wales| would be in the house. The secret, which had been in the keeping of at least twenty persons for more than a year, was discovered by means of a letter writ- ten to dissuade lord Monteagle, a catholic nobleman, from Seat Jon of" going to the house on that day. Monteagle communicated the J ai "es, an letter to the king, who, on the evening previous to the meeting, and highly caused search to be made, when the whole plot was developed. p ri nc f e e aied Guy Fawkes, an officer in the Spanish service, was found in 1612,jE. 19.) the cellar with a match in his pocket. The other conspirators were also discovered, and all consigned to punishment. Tor- ture was used to extract confessions. 9. The most politic and commendable measure of James I., was the progress which he made towards the settlement and James pro- civilization of Ireland. He abolished certain customs which ™, ot . es l . he supplied the place of laws, and which had kept that island in a of Ireland, state of barbarism and disorder. Among others, was that called the Eric, wherein a price was set upon every man, by the pay- ment of which, his murderer would escape unpunished. The English laws were substituted, and regular courts of judicature established ; while, for making such new laws as might be ne- cessary, an Irish house of commons was regularly constituted. Ulster was colonized by Scotch and English protestants. James recommended a union of the English and Scottish parliaments, and took the title of tf King of Great Britain." He encouraged the colonization of America. 7. What measure did he take to settle the minds of his people on reli- gious subjects ? What was the king's language and decision? — 8. Who were the principal persons concerned in the gunpowder-plot? What was its design ? How was it discovered ? What circumstance respecting their punishment marks a barbarous age ? — 9. What may be said of James' con- duct in regard to Ireland ? What other good measures did he encourage ? 358 PARLIAMENT ASSERTS ITS RIGHTS. 10. The attempts of James to introduce the customs, rites, peri'D in. and discipline of the church of England into Scotland, were met chap. ii. with decided opposition, — produced popular tumults, and drew upon him the enmity of that kingdom. In his latter years, too, the parliaments of England assumed a determined tone in regard to the measures of the court. The house of commons re- monstrated against the intended marriage of the prince of Wales with a catholic princess of Spain. They besought the king to unite with Sweden in war against the house of Austria for the their'neigh- recovery of the palatine for Frederic, his protestant son-in- ^iousVat-" ^ aw - James resented this interference of the commons, and ters.) commanded them not to presume to meddle with any thing that Parliament regarded his government. But they boldly presented still begins to as- another remonstrance, claiming, that they were entitled to inter- rights. (Pym pose in all matters of government, and, that freedom of speech and others m pu blic debate, was their ancient and undoubted right. The in parlia- r . 7 . . o ment take a king replied that their pretensions were what their predecessors S? defenc^of nac * never, during the weakest reigns, presumed to urge ; and the rights of insinuated, that their privileges were derived from the royal par lament.) f ayor . jj ut ^y remame( J fi rm an d resolute. 11. Negotiations for a marriage between Charles, now Bucking- prince of Wales, and the infanta of Spain, had been commenced, ham - but were broken off through the intrigues of the unworthy fa- (The temper vorite both of James and his son, the duke of Buckingham, of the com- anc j an un f rtunate war with Spain ensued. An alliance with mons to- . r „ . . wards the France and the Low Countries, for restraining the power of waVto°per- Austria, which met the entire approbation of parliament, was secute, hut formed. A marriage was also concluded between the prince strSned 6 " of Wales, and Henrietta, sister of Louis XIII. As the them. princess was a catholic, this match, although more acceptable James sane- -T. . • • , . . , \ 1 °, , , r . tioned the than the Spanish, was by no means agreeable to the nation. iw^menfor James died in the fifty-ninth year of his age. His unwarlike heresy.) disposition better suited the interest, than the inclination of his subjects ; and England, under his government, was prosperous, (After the death of Cecil, who was made earl of Salisbury, James fell under the dominion of unworthy favorites. The first who ruled him was Thomas Carr, earl of Somerset ; the second was George Villiers, whom he created duke of Buckingham, and made him his chief counsellor, for the wise reasons that he was handsome and of a pleasing address. He had learned to deal with James so as to carry his point; and he behaved like a petted and spoiled child — getting his way somelimes by whining and coaxing, and sometimes by bullying and threatening the indulgent and timid king. Lord Clarendon gives a lively picture of the manner in which he wrought upon James to sanction the visit of himself and the prince of Wales to the infanta of Spain, to whom Charles was betrothed. During that visit, Buckingham disgraced the prince by his pranks. The Spanish minister said, the infanta must curb the favorite after she was married. Buckingham, displeased, opposed the match, broke it off, and then told the parliament lying stories, laying the blame upon the Spaniards.) lO. What tyrannical attempts of the king in regard to church matters met opposition? What was the temper of the parliament ?— II. What nego- tiations of marriage were broken off, and by whom? What connexions were formed with France ? What is remarked of the unwarlike disposition of James ? CHARLES I. CONTENDS WITH PARLIAMENT. 359 increasing in wealth and national power. The great BACONt Mode™ His. honored this reign by his philosophical researches, but unhap- peri'd hi pily disgraced it by corruptly receiving bribes, while filling the chap. ii. high judicial office of lord chancellor. Hervey discovered the v-^y->^ circulation of the blood, which, opposed by his cotemporaries, Bacon. Lord made him poor while he lived, but gained him posthumous fame. ^JJJjJJT 12. Charles I., who was twenty -five years of age when he called Lord succeeded to the throne, had spent much of his youth with the B \S!) dissolute young Buckingham; and he was ignorant of the state Charles" of the nation. His measures were of course ill calculated to (His heal divisions, of whose existence he was little aware. His first a ^|„ t . act was to summon a parliament, to obtain the means of paying ed to the debts contracted by the crown, during the preceding reign, pJJ'2, and to enable him to prosecute the Austrian war. The parlia- the com- ment granted a small sum, inadequate to the wants of the nation. g Sted Their object was, by withholding supplies, to obtain from the ^5,000.) monarch some new security for their liberties. The contest between the prerogative of the king, and the rights of the com- mons, now fairly commenced. Charles, inheriting from his j & father lofty ideas of the royal prerogative, and regarding this Con .. § attempt to circumscribe his authority, as little less than a con- tests be - 1 * spiracy against his throne, dissolved the ■parliament. To supply the king his necessities, he resorted to illegal methods of taxation, which JJ^SJ; had been practised by the Tudors. 13. Having, by strenuous efforts, succeeded in fitting out a fleet, the command was given to lord Wimbledon, a favorite of the duke of Buckingham. This officer sailed to Spain, mis- ^Me managed matters, and returned. Charles was obliged to sum- plague 1 t i t mi rages in mon another parliament to obtain supplies. 1 he commons Lon- granted the money, and at the same time, requested the king to don) | remove the duke of Buckingham from his counsels. Charles rejected the petition, and again dissolved the parliament. < 14. A war with France, undertaken at the instigation of Buckingham, was now added to the alarming list of evils. Nothing was left to Charles, hopeless as that measure seemed, but again to summon a parliament. This body now resolved to provide some security for their rights and their liber- ties, so often violated. They determined to furnish a fresh supply to the king ; but before passing the vote, they appointed Petition of a committee, who prepared a bill, declaring the illegality of the Ch aJf^ measures of the court, and securing their liberties from future with dupn infringement. This bill, called a "Petition of Rights," Clty passed both houses of parliament, and required only the royal 11. What is said of Lord Bacon? Of Hervey?— 12. What was the position of Charles I. on coming to the throne ? What his first act ? What did parliament, and what was their object ? What was the contest which had now began ? How did the king view the question of royal prerogative ? What did he in regard to the parliament and his needed supplies ? — 13. What was done in relation to the Spanish war ? What was Charles obliged again to do to raise money ? What was the result of the parliament's meet- ing ? — l'l. What new war had Charles the folly to undertake ? What did the parliament which the king now called, and what did they obtain? acts 360 JOHN HAMPDEN. Modern His, assent to becom : a law. Charles gave it his sanction in the peri'd in. usual form, but with such evident tokens of unwillingness, as chap. a. made his sincerity distrusted. The supply which had been "^■"v^&w voted to the king, was eventually granted. Parliament was proceeding still farther to reform abuses, when it was prorogued by the king. August 23, 15, Shortly after, Buckingham, while preparing with a fleet Bucking'- to £° to Rochelle in aid of the French protestants, was as- ham assas- sassinated by the deliberate stroke of Felton, a religious en- smated. thusiast. The expedition to Rochelle failed; and while Charles had expended in preparations for its success, the subsidies granted by parliament, its failure served only to inflame the dis- content of his subjects. 1629. 16. The next parliament renewed a claim to the right of Contests be- regulating the mode of taxation: they also complained of tween the . . ... king and grievances in matters of religion. Charles, irritated at the conti- pa onUn ? u 5nt nue d attempts to limit his prerogative, again determined to dis- Denzii,(a'f- solve the parliament, but when the speaker of the house of LordHoHes ) commons was about to rise in order to signify the king's inten- was one of tion, he was forcibly held in the chair, until a remonstrance was wh^nekt" drawn up and passed. The enraged monarch, committed to the speaker prison and fined the leaders of the parliamentary party, who, of the nine by this prosecution, only acquired an increase of popularity. commuted Charles now resolved to govern by his prerogative, and for he is first twelve years there was no parliament. Being unprovided with named.) means f or continuing the continental war, he made peace with France and Spain. He extorted money-gifts from his sub- jects, under the name of loans and " benevolences," and claimed a legal right to levy taxes for the support of a navy, calling these taxes ship-money. John Hampden refused to pay his assessment, of twenty shillings. He was a man of commanding abilities, of popular manners, unblemished honor and patriotism ; johnHamp- an( ^ ne tnus boldly and openly set the example of braving the den loses power of the crown, in behalf of the legal rights of the people. 1638. Though the court of exchequer decided against him, giving many reasons for their decision, yet the people, as Hampden had foreseen, perceived the weakness of the royal pretensions, when tried in the balance of justice ; and became more and more (Puritans determined not to submit to such unreasonable exactions, persecuted, j^. The mutual hostility of the religious parties became loses his more inveterate. The puritans, now a numerous body, justly * on,' tether" complained of the rigorous measures taken by the episcopacy, of tfiearch- to enforce conformity with the rules of the established church; tHated and" while the church, under the control of the bigoted archbishop ftryeanfy ^aiid, increased their causes of complaint, by introducing 15. Give an account of the death of Buckingham ? — 16. What was done in the next parliament ? How did Charles determine to govern ? How long a time intervened without a parliament ? What means did he use to get money ? Who resisted his will? — IT. What was the state of the country in regard to religious parties ? 1638. THE LOXG PARLIAMENT. 36] new and more offensive ceremonies, and showing a manifest Mode™ Bis. tendency towards the catholic forms and faith. 18. Charles made a journey into Scotland, where his cause had been favored, for the purpose of bringing the Scots to con- form to the customs of the English church. This united that nation to oppose him. An outcry was raised against popery, and both the clergy and people entered into a bond of union, pledging themselves to resist all religious innovations, and to support each other against all opposition. This was termed The Scot- "The Solemn League and Covenant." The covenanters pre- tish Cove- pared to maintain their rights by military force. Charles, on nant. his part, raised an army to punish their refractory zeal. Afraid to hazard a battle, and sensible of the disinclination of his Eng- lish troops to the war, he endeavored to negotiate ; but as he would not concede all that the Scots required, the war was re- newed. The advantage was now all on the side of the cove- nanters. During the pacification, Charles had disbanded his army, and though he again collected a body of troops, he had no means of paying them. 19. In this dilemma, he was obliged to resort to the humilia- 1640. ting expedient of again calling a parliament. He obtained no Parliament aid, and dissolved it. — The army of the covenanters advanced into England. At Newcastle-upon-Tyne, they encountered a c ^i^' E _ detachment of the royal forces under lord Conway, and de- upojy- feaied them. In their march into England, the Scots maintained covenS- the most exact discipline, paid for their provisions, and made ters defeat protestations of loyalty to the king ; wishing only to obtain ac- aHstJ." cess to the royal person, and the redress of their grievances; and Charles was again obliged to make concessions, to obtain a ces- sation of hostilities. 20. Another assembly was now convened, which obtained the name of the Long Parliament, and proved the most remarkable iq±q of all the parliaments of England. Its chief leaders were John Nov. 3." Pym, John Hampden, and Denzil Holles. The younger JJaam'S Vane, now just returned from New England, where he had been made governor of Massachusetts, was, from his character and family connexions, very influential. A week after this parlia- Nov , 1J# ment convened, Pym carried up to the house of lords an im- Pym carries - - ' • i • m ttt i U P Straf- peachment ol high-treason against Ihomas Wentworth, earl ford's im- of Strafford, who was committed to the tower. Wentworth had, peachmem. at die beginning of this contest, occupied the same ground in the patriot party, as Pym and Hampden ; but the king bought his services, and repaid him with riches and an earldom ; he having become the adviser of Charles in his most illegal stretches of power. It was by his counsel that Charles had first taken up 18. What was done in Scotland ? What was the league called ? What was the kins' s position in Scotland after this? — 19. What was he again obliged to d~o ? What military operations occurred ?—20. What was the parliament called which now convened, — and what did it prove to be ? Who were its principal leaders ? What was done by Pym ? Give some account of Wentworth. 46 362 REFORM BECOMES USURPATION. Modern His. 1641. May 12. Strafford be- headed on Tower-hill. M. 49. The com- mons of the Long-parlia- ment exer- cise ofthem- selves the functions of sovereignty. Origin of the term Round- head 1642- The king vainly at- tempts to take Pym, Hampden, Holies, Sir Arthur Haslerig and Stroud. arms. He had ruled in Ireland, repressing disorders, but giving offence by his tyranny. JNTow,the representatives of the king- dom joined to impeach him with the design of altering the constitution from a limited to an absolute monarchy. He ap- peared with great dignity before the house of commons, where he made a most able defence ; but the extensive mischiefs trace- able to his ill advice and illegal rule, were by his judges con- sidered as proving his offence, and worthy of death, Strafford had hopes from Charles, to whom he had affectionately written to do as he judged best for himself. The king took him at his word, and signed Strafford's death warrant; not believing him to have been guilty, and contrary to his promise. When Strafford knew this, he exclaimed, "put not your trust in princes!" and resigned himself to his fate. 21. In the meantime, other high-handed measures of reform were going on. Denzil Holies impeached archbishop Laud, who was sent to the tower; as was Sir Robert Berkeley, the judge who gave the decision against Hampden in the case of the ship- money. The prison doors were opened to the incarcerated pu- ritans ; and the tribunal of the " Star Chamber," by which the last kings, with a show of law, had oppressed the people, was abolished. By a still bolder measure the commons attacked the other branch of the legislative body, and declared that bishops should not sit in the house of lords ; and by another act, they, in effect, made their own sitting perpetual. At this time a mysterious rebellion broke out in Ireland, in which more than 10,000 protestants were massacred by the catholics. The king among others, was suspected as having been one of its plotters. Parliament granted money to suppress it; but not in such a way that it went directly into the king's hands. But now that pre- cedent, and law, and order were set aside, every thing was tur- moil and confusion. Insolent bands of apprentices patroled the streets of London, who, wearing their hair cut round, captain Hyde drew his sword, and said he would "crop the ears of the round-headed dogs," and from hence the parliamentary party were called " the Roundheads." 22. Charles now meditated a bold stroke to restore his au- thority, but it proved its final subversion. He caused Jive of the members of Parliament to be impeached for treason, and despatched a sergeant-at-arms to the house to demand them; he was sent back without any positive answer. The king un- wisely proceeded in person, with armed attendants, to the house ; but the five members were gone, and as the king withdrew, the cry which greeted him as he retired, was not " God save the king ;" but " privilege ! — privilege of parliament !" Tumults suc- 20. Of what crime was he impeached? Relate the course of his trial and execution. — 21. What other bold measures were these reforming poli- ticians next engaged in ? What massacre occurred in Ireland ? What was the state of things now that law and order were set aside? What is the origin of the name Round-Heads ? — 22. Relate the event which proved the final subversion of the king's authority. CHARLES I. OVERPOWERED. 363 ceeded, and the royal family were obliged to flee from London. Both parties now raised troops, and prepared to decide the con- test by the appeal to arms. Charles raised his standard at Nottingham. On his side were most of the nobility, and the highest rank of the gentry, with their dependents ; but he was destitute of arms, ammunition, and money. On the side of the parliament, were not only the main body of the military force of London, but most of the great corporations, with the seamen. A battle, not decisive, was fought at Edgehill, in which Charles commanded in person, aided by his nephew, prince Rupert ; while his opponents were headed by the earl of essex. At Lansdown, a battle was fought without any decisive result. At Stratton and Roundway Down, the royalists were victorious. 23. In a skirmish on Chalsgrave-field, the patriot Hampden was slain. The royalists made themselves masters of Bristol, and laid siege to Gloucester. The parliament commanded their army under Essex to march to the relief of Gloucester. The king was compelled to raise the siege. The armies fought at Newbury. Neither side could claim the victory, but both sustained great loss. 24. The Scots now united with the parliament., while the Irish dispatched succours to the king. At Marston Moor, a bloody battle was fought, and lost by the royalists. Fifty thousand troops were engaged — a larger force than was em- ployed at any other period during this war. The parliamentary commanders were Sir Thomas Fairfax, and Oliver Crom- well. The royalists were led by the Marquis of New Castle, and prince Rupert. At Naseby was fought his last and fatal battle, in which Charles commanded in person, and displayed " the conduct of a prudent general, and the valor of a stout soldier." After the loss of this battle, he retreated to Wales ; but finding himself unable to retrieve his fortunes, he resolved to throw himself on the generosity of the Scots. He arrived at their camp at Newark, and was at first received with marks of respect; but he was detained a prisoner, and at length delivered to the English, for the consideration of 400,000 pounds. He was conducted to Holdenby,* where he was de- tained a prisoner by the parliament, until a change of events took him out of their hands. 25. Between the opponents of the monarch there now existed conflicting interests, and hostile feelings. Another religious * Clarendon relates in a touching manner the great satisfaction which the king felt that his children were permitted to come and spend a day with him. These were his younger children. His oldest son was with his mother in France — learning of her doubtless some of those lessons in dissoluteness and double-dealing, which he afterwards practised. 22. What followed Charles' unfortunate visit to the house of commons? Where did Charles erect his standard, and who were on his side? How was it with the other party ? Give some account of the battle of Edgehill. What other battles were fought in 1642 ?— 23. What in 1643 ? In which of these was Hampden killed ? — 24:. Give some account of the battle of Marston Moor. Of Naseby. Modern His. 1644. MARSTON MOOR. The royal- ists defeat- 1645. NASEBY. Charles commands, and is de- feated. 1647. Charles a prisoner. (The Scotch gave up the king for 400,000 pounds paid by par- liament.) 364 CHARLES I. EXECUTED. Modern His. PERI'B III. CHAP. II. 164?. Cornet Joyce seizes the king. (By the Old Style, or Ju- lian calen- dar, the year began the 25th of March ; by the New Style, or Gregorian, the year be- gins the 1st of January.) January 30, 1648, Old Style, or January 30, 11149, New Stylo, Trial and execution of Charles I. Spanish. 1565. St. Augus- tine found- ed. sect had arisen, who maintained among other opinions, thatt right of freedom for all, in matters of religion, which at I this day is so extensively acknowledged. These were the inde-- pendents, at the head of whom was Oliver Cromwell. They were opposed, not only to the king and prelacy, but also to the? presbytery. This party professed the desire of establishing a i republican form of government. Cromwell, by his real, orr pretended zeal for religion and liberty, had gained the entire » confidence of the army. He sought to obtain possessions of the king's person, and privately dispatched a party of five \ hundred horse, under cornet Joyce,* who seized him at H olden- • by, and conducted him to the army. Cromwell now marched I at the head of the army to London, where he gave laws to the parliament, — which had become extremely unpopular with the nation. At the same time he paid great court to Charles, whom i the hostilities of these two parties seemed again to bring into i some consequence. Even at this time the king rejected over- • tures for a reconciliation, refusing to relinquish his high preten- ■ sions, and allow the people that share in the government which i they claimed. Cromwell and his adherents established him at I Hampton court, where he lived for some time with the appear- ance of freedom. 26. The situation of the king, however, soon became un- pleasant. The visits of his friends were denied him, and angry menaces were thrown out against him by the people. Charles at length made his escape from the palace, and remained awhile concealed at Litchfield ; but was soon compelled to place him- self in the keeping of Hammond, governor of the Isle of Wight. He was here detained a close prisoner, until at length his opponents, fearing for their own safety in case of the revi- val of his party, brought him to a public trial for treason, on the ground of levying war against the parliament; illegally con- demned, — and unjustly executed him on the scaffold. 27. European Colonies on the coast of North America. — James Cartier, as early as 1534, discovered the bay and river of St. Lawrence ; and in 1541 he built a fort near the site of Quebec. In 1565 St. Augustine was founded by Pedro Me- lendez, a Spanish bigot, who cruelly put to death nine hun- dred French Huguenots, that under Coligni's patronage, had * The cornet, who had formerly been a tailor, came into the king's pre- sence armed with pistols. You must, said he, go immediately along with me. " Whither ?" asked the king. " To the army." " By what warrant?" demanded Charles. Joyce pointed to his soldiers, tall, handsome, and well armed. " Yourwarrant," said the king, " is in fair characters, and legible." 25. What division arose among the anti-royalists? What was the new sect called, and who was at its head? What was Cromwell's position? What measures did he take to get the king into his power ? Does it appear that Charles might yet, by concessions, have been reconciled to his people ? Where was he kept by Cromwell ? — 26. Give the sequel to the history of Charles I. — 27. What discovery was made by James Cartier? For whom ? When ? What city did he found, and when ? By whom and when was St. Augustine founded ? What massacre is related ? AMERICA COLONIZED. nade themselves a home in the wilderness, to escape the per- jiecutions of their native land. As this occurred while the mas- sacre of St. Bartholomew was plotting, it may well be sup- posed the government of France paid no attention to the slaughter of French heretics in distant lands ; but the Cheva- lier Gouges made a private expedition, in which he avenged their death, by slaying two hundred of the Spanish settlers of Florida. This country was discovered for Spain in 1512, by Ponce de Leon, an aged Spanish grandee, who ranged the New World in search of a fabulous " fountain of health." In 1603 Henry IV., of France, sent out the Sietjr de Monts, who founded ^Fort Royal. Quebec was begun by Champlain in 1608. | 28. On the failure of Sir Walter Raleigh's attempts to colo- nize Virginia, the English government, fearing the encroachment Im the French and Spanish, divided between two companies the extensive coast of what is now the Republic of America. The northern part was assigned to the '.' London Company," and the southern, to the " Plymouth Company." The settlers of the lLondon company succeeded, by means of finding a warrior, na- vigator, and magistrate combined in Capt. John Smith, " the father of Virginia." They established a permanent settle- ment in Jamestown. The grand sachem of the natives was JPowhatan, before whom, on one occasion, Smith was brought a prisoner, and condemned to die. When his head had been placed upon the block, Pocahontas, the young daughter of the chief, laid her head on Smith's to save his life, or first receive lithe stroke. The chief relented, and the Indian princess after- ( wards carried provisions to the colony, and informed them of | the plots laid by the natives to destroy them. 29. The Plymouth company were unsuccessful in their first j attempts to colonize. In 1620 the May Flower sailed under j their auspices from Plymouth, with one hundred settlers. These ; were a part of the congregation of John Robinson, who had removed from England to Holland, to enjoy that religious freedom which James I. denied them ; they being puritans, of a sect denominated separatists. They now sought a home in the western wilds, regarding themselves but as Pilgrims in this world. They named the place where they settled Fly- mouth, from that which they last saw in England. Their suc- cess and godly quiet was made known. When Charles I. added to his father's tyranny, a great emigration occurred of those noble spirits, — who could not in matters of conscience bend to human authority, — who would not bow to lawless se- cular oppression ;-— and who wished not for the strife of ambi- 3T. By whom was it retaliated? Who discovered Florida? By whom was Port Royal founded, and when? — 28. What companies were now formed by the English ? How was our coast divided between them ? Which was the first permanent settlement made on the coast between Canada and Florida? What is said of Captain Smith? Relate the heroism of Poca- hontas. — 29. Under whose auspices did the May Flower sail ? Who were the persons embarked ? Where did they settle ? What drove great num- bers of their best population from England to America ? 36t Modern His. PERI'D III. CHAP. II. French. 16©4. Port Royal founded. 1608. Quebec. English. 160*. Jamestown founded. 1620. Plymouth. (The Pil- grims sign the first constitution of America in the cabin of the May Flower.) 1628. Salem. 163©. Boston. 1636. Hartford. Providence 1639. New Haven 366 THE AMERICAN UNION BEGINS. Modern His. PERPD III. CHAP. II. 1609. Hudson ri- ver disco- vered. 1614. New York founded. 1615. Albany founded. 163$. Maryland named after the queen of Charles I. tion and of blood. These emigrated to the New World, where, in prayer and pious trust — in hardship and savage war- fare, they laid the foundation of a great republic. In 1643, four colonies, Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven, having each established within itself a representative democracy, formed a Union, their delegates meeting every year to devise good regulations, and guard the common safety. 30. In the meantime an English navigator, Henry Hudson, sailing in the service of the Dutch, discovered the Hudson river, to which both the Dutch and the English laid claim. The Dutch, however, took possession of the country in its vicinity, and founded New York and Albany. Swedes and Finlanders settled Delaware. Lord Baltimore, an English catholic, be- came, by a patent from Charles I., proprietor of Maryland ; and his brother, Leonard Calvert, conducted the first colony to that state. 29. What was done in relation to union by four of the colonies ? — SO. Who discovered the Hudson river ? What nations claimed it ? What towns did the Dutch found? •'/V pig )*"' /^ ;" ^ ^>tCoraova ?J --vOr / ty ^£jK fl_ \ / « 1ST D >*■ ^ PTPT^l Guadix^Cartha- «K< Ourique^ Seville f^ji^L^^il S *M ^ jMalaga^ _ J sI.1.eonjL MAP No. J 1 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. PERIOD IV. THE PEACE OF? jg^gC CLOSING THE THIRTY WESTPHALIA, I YEARS "WAR, THE PEACE OF UTRECHT, CLOSIN .} TO 1T13, C THE WARS OF THE Z SPANISH SUCCESSION, CHAPTER I. France. 1. The peace of Westphalia left the conflicting claims of France and Spain unsettled, and the war between these two powers still continued. Louis XIV. being a minor, the reins of government were held by his mother, Anne of Austria, who was guided entirely by the counsels of cardinal Mazarin, the successor of Richelieu. Paris was filled with seditious spirits, and the intrigues of the capital soon plunged the nation in civil war. The parliament of Paris,* instigated by the cardinal de * This parliament was a judicial, not a legislative body. No meeting of the national assembly was held from the regency of Mary de Medici, till the reign of Louis XVI. Period III. — Chap. L — 1. What powers were at war after the treaty of Westphalia ? Who was regent of France ? Who successor of Richelieu as first minister ? What was the state of Paris ? What claims were set up by the parliament of Paris ? What was this parliament ? (See note.) 367 Modern His. PERFD IV. chap. i. 368 THE WARS OP THE FRONDE. Modem His. PERI'D IV. CHAP. I. 1649. " La jour- nee des Bar- ricades." 1651. The differ- ent sides called Fron- ders and Mazarins. ST. AN- TOIJYE. M'lle.Mont- pensier figures. Louis XIV. declared of age. ("The states" or "states-ge- neral," the French con- gress or par- liament.) Retz, an ambitious rival of Mazarin, and roused by the example of their English neighbors, claimed the authority of examining, and refusing to pass, the edicts of the crown. The discontented among the nobility and citizens of Paris, supported the par- liament in its opposition to the measures of Mazarin. This minister, in want of money to support the war with Spain, or- dered a fine to be levied upon the new buildings in the suburbs of Paris, grounding his right upon an old act which forbade the erection of buildings in these places. The parliament prohibited the levy, and the minister was obliged to desist. Other occa- sions of discord arose, until Mazarin arrested and committed to prison the president and five of the most factious members. 2. The mob of Paris, joined by some of the more respectable citizens, proceeded on the following day to barricade the streets. The royal troops attacked them. The whole populace rose in arms, and the court was forced to yield, and delivered up the pri- soners, when the city returned to order. The queen regent, how- ever, did not consider the seditious capital a place of safety ; and with the young king and Mazarin she retired to St. Germain. The insurrections continued, and were called " The Wars of the Fronde?'' Some of those who were engaged being armed with slings, the wits of the court contemptuously applied to the insur- gents the epithet of " frondeurs," or " slingers." Constant in- trigues and change of parties perplex the history of these wars, and sometimes give it a ludicrous air. The generals who figured most were Conde and Turenne. Towards their close a battle was fought at Paris, near the suburb St. Antoine, between Conde, who had brought troops from Spain, and the royal forces under the command of Turenne, which was at last decided in favor of the frondeurs under Conde, by the intrepidity of Mademoiselle Montpensier, daughter of the duke of Orleans.* 3. After five years of civil w T ar, the French nation, without having advanced one step towards freedom, again humbly sub- mitted themselves to the royal authority. Louis XIV., though young, assumed the government, entered Paris triumphant, and was welcomed by the acclamations of his people. Conde re- paired to Spain. No clamors for the assembling of the states were heard, and Louis directed the parliament of Paris to pre- sume no more to interfere with his affairs. Jlfter this period * She prevailed on the municipal officers to open the gate St. Antoine; when she directed the firing of the guns of the Bastile, and even with her own hand applied the match. The court party by this means lost the bat- tle. " She has killed her husband," said Mazarin, who knew that she was ambitious to marry some crowned head ; and in fact these valorous proceed- ings of the lady decided Charles II. of England (according to Clarendon) not to offer her his hand. 1. By whom were its claims supported ? What acts of hostility occurred between the minister and the parliament?— 2. What was the cause of the queen taking the young king to St. Germain ? What were these insurrections called ? What account can you give of them ? — 3. How lo-g did ihey con- tinue ? What did the French people gain by these wars ? How did they re- ceive Louis XIV. on his assuming the sovereignty 7 Was any thins said of- , assembling a national legislature? What was tha> of France called^ (See note.) CHRISTINA ABANDONS HER POST. 369 the French monarch exercised unlimited power. During the Modem m s . wars of the Fronde, the Spanish war languished, but now, under peri'd iv. the conduct of Turenne, it was prosecuted with vigor. Conde, chap- l who commanded the Spanish armies, undertook the siege of ^"-v-x^ Arras, but was repulsed by the French, — compelled to raise the^" L ,' etat siege and retreat. The successes of the hostile nations were moi." i nearly equal, until Mazarin obtained for Louis the alliance of a ™ a {g e Cromwell, who now governed the commonwealth of England, said this In consequence of this treaty, 6,000 English joined the French king ' army in Flanders. Dunkirk fell before their united strength, *6«*S. and was assigned to the English. kirk 4. Spain and France became alike desirous of peace; and the ce t5ie t0 ambassadors of the respective sovereigns met in the isle of English.) Pheasants, in the Pyrenees, and settled its terms. By the "Treaty of the Pyrenees," Philip agreed to pardon the revolted Catalans,! and Louis, the prince of Conde. Louis espoused p Maria Theresa, the infanta of Spain, but renounced all claim jr? upon the Spanish monarchy. Mazarin died soon after the con- p elusion of this treaty, which completed the achievement of those ^ " j great objects of policy undertaken by Richelieu, and continued jf hVhis successor. France was extended in territory, her nobles tA-F h V n % iiiT tit r> * ■ i i -r» • i habitants of humbled, and the house ol Austria weakened. But it was the Catalonia. day of their sunshine, that, with the Bourbons, engendered Se 3 e 5 4.) Se the storm of the revolution, which at length overthrew them. 5. SWEDEN. — Christina, the daughter of Gustavus Adol- phus, who was seated on the throne of Sweden at the conclu- sion of the thirty years' war, acquired considerable renown by her attention to literature, and her patronage of men of letters, which drew to her court the learned of other nations. Her example shows how fruitless is mere intellectual vigor and cul- tivation, when not guided by benevolence and piety. Her lite- rary labors, instead of qualifying her to fill with usefulness and 1654. honor the station in which Providence had placed her, wrought c IS b Charles I b X. ^ in her a distaste to the cares of royalty, and the mere selfish signs wish of folio wing, undisturbed, her own propensities. Resigning cr o^ n her crown to Charles Gustavus, she repaired to Rome; and, t0 . her that she might enjoy the charms of Italian society there, she cousin, renounced the protestant faith, in which she had been bred. Thus the imputation of being a heretic did not interfere with her pleasures. In her visits to Paris, her dissolute life shocked even the French court, and her cruelties to her attendants excited their abhorrence. i«»w 6. Charles X. of Sweden conquered Poland, and compelled JJjSJJ,' John Casimir, the reigning king, to flee to Silesia. The Poles x. 3. What did the French monarchy become ? How did the war with Spain proceed? Whose aid turned the scale? What is said of Dunkirk? — 4t. Give an account of the peace of the Pyrenees. What events occurred soon after? What objects of Richelieu's policy had now been carried out? — 5. Who and what was Christina? By what did she acquire some renown? What may be learned by her example ? To whom did she resign her crown ? Give some account of her subsequent life? — 6. What conquest was made by Charles X. ? 47 370 THE LONG PARLIAMENT DETERIORATES. Modern His. PERPDIV. CHAP. I, Peace of Oliva. Kingly power abo- lished. (The excise system pro- jected by Pym, and carried first into effect by this par- liament.) 1649- Cromwell subdues Ireland. 1650. (May 21. The mar- quis of Montrose hung by the covenanters on a gallows 30 feet high.) July 15. Charles IL proclaimed king of Scotland. (fMr. Southworth a venerable catholic clergyman, aged 72. On the scaffold he reproach- ed his perse- cutors, and justly, for their incon- sistency.) revolted from the Swedish yoke, and, assisted by the Russians, Danes, and Germans, expelled the Swedes. Charles now turned his arms against Denmark. His death, which occurred while he was engaged in the siege of Copenhagen, left the throne of Sweden to his son, then a minor. A treaty of peace was con- cluded at Oliva, in West Prussia, by which the Danish and Polish monarch each made some sacrifices to Sweden ; and John Casimir was restored to his throne. 7. ENGLAND. — After the execution of Charles I., the com- mons passed an act, abolishing kingly power as useless, bur- densome, and dangerous. They also abolished the house of lords, and committed the great seal, the form and inscription of which they changed, to a certain number of persons, who were styled " the Conservators of the liberties of England." The proceedings of the Long Parliament in respect to revenue, de- prived them of the favor of the people. At first the civil war had been carried on much by voluntary contributions on both sides. The sacrifices made by individuals are almost incredi- ble. The marquis of Worcester gave to Charles 100,000 pounds, and the marquis of Newcastle his whole estate. On the side of the republicans, men often gave all their plate, and women all their jewels. But after the king's death the parliament devised new methods of taxation, and drained the people. And although at first they were self-denying, at last they appropriated in one way and another, large sums to them- selves and their relations. But their power was upheld by a standing army of 45,000 under Cromwell. He, however, saw the growing discontent of the public mind, and shaped his course accordingly. Laws were made, meantime, of great strictness. Under one of these a man fwas burnt at Winchester for being a popish priest. Cromwell was appointed by parlia- ment lord lieutenant of Ireland, and at the head of an army he entered the island where the earl of Ormond, an adherent of Charles I., was still in arms. Cromwell reduced the Irish to submission, and established the authority of parliament. The marquis of Montrose, attempting to raise troops in Scotland for the king, was taken and executed, with forty of his fol- lowers. 8. Meanwhile the Scottish covenanters, though little attached- to the royal family, resolved to support the monarchy, and raised an army of 36,000, — the command of which was given to Gen. Lesley. They then proclaimed Charles II. king of Scotland. 6. Did Poland continue in subjection? What country was Charles at- tacking when he died ? Give an account of the peace of Oliva. Who suc- ceeded Charles X. ? — T. What act was now passed in England by the com- mons ? How did they deal with the house of lords ? Who were the keepers of the great seal? What was the cause of the public disaffection to the Long Parliament? How was money raised to carry on the civil war? What was done after the king's death ? What part was taken by Cromwell ? With whom did he contend in Ireland, and with what result? Give some account of the marquis of Montrose ? — 8. What was done by the Scottish covenanters ? THE PROTECTORATE. 371 Charles, who had sought refuge in Holland, embarked for that country ; and on his arrival, before he landed, he signed the covenant. Parliament now recalled Cromwell from Ireland, made him captain-general of all their forces, and sent him against the Scots. He defeated them at the battle of Dunbar, gaining the victory mainly by his own regiment. He then made him- self master of Edinburgh and Leith. In the meantime, the Scots, though weakened by divisions among themselves, and jealous of the prince they supported, (having kept a national fast for his sins and those of his family,) had, notwithstanding, assembled an army, with which Charles entered England. Cromwell followed ; and a year after the battle of Dunbar he defeated the royal troops at Worcester. Charles was obliged to flee. After more than a month's conceal ment in different places,* and under different disguises, he landed in Normandy. 9. The authority of the " Commonwealth" was now ac- knowledged throughout the whole extent of the English pos- sessions. Cromwell took care to keep in his own hands the entire control of the army. The parliament now distrusted him, — of which he was aware. Taking a file of soldiers, he entered the Parliament hall, commanded the speaker to leave his chair, and told the members they had sat long enough, un- less they had done more good. Then, with his thick and con- fused utterance, he addressed individual members — telling Sir Harry Vane he was a juggler — Chaloner, that he was a drunk- ard — and in short, charging some with breaking one command- ment, and some another, and telling the whole, M You are no longer a parliament • I say you are no longer a parliament." Cromwell, now, while the name of liberty was upon his lips, became a military despot. By a council of his officers, he was appointed " Protector of the Commonwealth," and addressed by the title of " highness." He next summoned a number of men from the three kingdoms, who, having assembled at London, he pronounced them a parliament ; but did not allow them to sit long, for they showed too much the character of honest patriots to suit his views. 10. Jealousies arose between England and Holland, and a naval war ensued. After several undecisive engagements, the English fleet under Blake and Monk, engaged the Dutch, un- * At one time he concealed himself among the thick branches of an oak tree. While the persons in pursuit of him passed underneath, he heard them express their desire of seizing and delivering him to his father's murderers. At another time he rode two or three days journey with Mrs. Lane, the wife of one of his adherents, on a pillion behind him. She told her cousins where she stopped at night, that the young man was one of her neighbors — that he was out of health, and begged they would send him directly to bed. In this way she kept him out of sight. 8. What by Charles II. ? Whom did parliament put in command against the Scots? Give an account of the battle of Dunbar? Of Worcester? What was now the situation of Charles ? — 9. What was the situation of the Commonwealth ? Describe the manner in which Cromwell turned out the remaining part of the long parliament ? What title did he now receive ? Whom did he cause to assemble ? — 10. Give an account of the war with the Dutch? Modern His, PERI'D IV. CHAP. L Sept. 3. DUNBAR. Cromwell defeats the Scots, their loss 3,000 k. 10,000 pri- soners. 1651. Sept. 3 WOR C ES- TER. Cromwell again defeats the Scots. His army 30,000, he kills 3,000, takes 6 or 7.000. 1653. April 20. Cromwell turns out the parlia- ment called the "Rump Par- liament," it being the remains of the Long Parliament. (Called "Barebone's Parlia- ment," from a member named Praise-God Barebones.) War with the Dutch. 3?2 THE COLONIAL SYSTEM. Modern His. PERI'D IV, CHAP. I. 1655. Jamaica conquered by admiral Penn, the father of the founder of Pennsyl- vania. 1658. August 12. Death of Cromwell. 3 I I a: o oa N 1660. General Monk restores Charles II. der Van Tromp and De Ruyter, off Portland. The battle was fought with obstinacy for two days ; the third the Dutch were forced to yield, after which they sued for peace. England, now under the energetic government of Cromwell, rose to an importance among the nations of Europe, which had been un- known since the days of Elizabeth. The Spaniards and French, the Venetians and Swiss, courted the alliance of the protector. He formed connections with France, and engaged in the Spanish war. Besides the forces sent to the continent in aid of France, a naval armament was dispatched to the West Indies ; and Ja- maica, one of the Spanish Islands, was conquered by admiral Penn, and retained by the English. The settlements in North America had been favored by the Long Parliament From Cromwell they had a severer blow than they had ever received from the Stuarts, in the "Navigation Acts," by which he intro- duced a restricted system of trade, prohibiting the colonists from using their own ships, and thus obliging them to sell their pro- ducts to the English, and from them to obtain their supplies. 11. Cromwell's domestic government was perhaps as mild and equitable as his dangerous situation would permit, beset as he was by enemies who conspired against his life ; yet it was rigorous, and he was guilty of some acts of tyranny and injus- tice, on which Charles had never dared to venture. He died five years after he obtained the protectorate, and was succeeded by his son Richard, whose mild and unambitious disposition, so unlike that of his father, took alarm at the turbulence and cabals which surrounded him. He resigned the protectorate, and retiring, first to the continent, and afterwards to his estate in the country, he lived unmolested and unoffending. The nation was now divided into many parties and sects. The people be- came weary of confusion and change, and desired in their hearts the revival of the monarchy. 12. General Monk, an able commander, both by sea and land, was at the head of the army in Scotland. He now march- ed into England, and advanced to London, where he proceeded to execute a plan he had formed for restoring Charles II. to the throne. Disguising his designs under the appearance of zeal for the commonwealth, he procured the dissolution of the par- liament then in session, and the assembling of a new one ; and succeeded in securing the election of friends of the monarchy as members of the new parliament. On its assembling, a mes- senger, bearing a letter from Charles to Gen. Monk, was intro- duced. The prince offered a general pardon, promised liberty of conscience — assured the soldiers of their arrears, and sub- 10. What was England in regard to foreign respectability ? What war did Cromwell maintain ? What island did admiral Penn conquer for the English ? What is said of the North American settlements ? — 1 1 . What was the character of Cromwell's domestic government ? Give an account of his successor. — 12. Who was Gen. Monk, and what did he do? What plan had he formed? What measures did he cause to be taken in reference to a parliament ? What letter was read ? CHARLES II. RESTORED. 373 PERI'D IV. CHAP. T. Character of Charles 1661. Measures of Charles. mitted all grants to parliamentary arbitration. The house of Modem Jfo- peers now took their share in the government, and both houses — attending, Charles II. was proclaimed king. Sir Matthew Hale, the distinguished chief justice, aided by Prynne, wished to have limitations imposed upon the royal authority ; but these important suggestions were, for selfish ends, overruled by Monk. Charles sailed from the Hague, — was met at Dover by general Monk, and conducted to London. His return was hailed with joy by the nation. 13. Charles thus restored to his throne, everything conspired to promise a popular and prosperous reign. But the character of the monarch soon blighted the hopes, of the nation ; and proved that even the school of adversity does not always teach wisdom. His agreeable person, and easy, engaging manners, made him liked by all who approached him, even by those whose judgments most strongly disapproved the unblushing profligacy of his life. Thus his vicious example became par- ticularly dangerous to his subjects; and licentiousness quickly spread from the court to the extremes of the kingdom. His first measures were mild and popular, but his people soon found that his engagements weighed little. Notwithstanding he had sworn to support the covenant, and to protect the rights of conscience, he re-established episcopacy as the exclusive religion; restored the bishops to their seats in parliament, and the inferior clergy to their benefices. The disappointed puritans had a still more galling demonstration to encounter in the " Act of Uni- formity." By this it was ordained that every minister, school- master, or fellow of a college, must declare his consent to every thing contained in the book of common prayer ; and that all ministers should be ejected who had not episcopal ordination. By this oppressive act two thousand ministers, in one day, were driven from their livings. 14. Prosecutions were commenced against those concerned in the death of Charles I. Some were executed, and some fled to foreign kingdoms, where, under the name, " regicides," they were hunted. Three of these judges, Goffe, Whalley, and Dixwell, concealed themselves in New England. Fears of popery existed, and were increased by the marriage of the king with Catharine of Portugal, a catholic princess. But although the amiable character and manners of the queen gave general satisfaction, the king treated her at first with coldness, then with insult, and finally with neglect. 15. Charles engaged in hostilities with the Dutch on false pretences, hoping by means of involving himself in a popular 12. What attempt was made by Sir Matthew Hale ? Relate some of the circumstances of Charles' return. — 13. What blighted the hopes of the English nation respecting iheir monarch ? How was he faithless to the co- venanters ? What was ordained in the Act of Uniformity ? How did this affect the clergy who could not conscientiously conform ? — 14L What ac- count can you give of the regicides, as those were called concerned in the death of the late king ? Who was queen, and how was she treated by the king? — 15. Give an account of the war with the Dutch. {Edward Hyde, after- wards Lord Clarendon, lord chan- cellor and prime mi- nister.) 1664. War with Holland. 374 THE ENGLISH TAKE NEW YORK. .Modern His. PERPD IV. CHAP. I. 1664. New York taken from the Dutch. 1666. Off DUNKIRK English de- feat the Dutch. (Prince Ru- pert was cousin to the king, being the son of Eli- zabeth and the elector Palatine.) 1665. Plague in London. 1666. Sept. 2 to 6. Great fire. 1667. Peace of Breda. 166T Oarolinas, &(.'. granted war, to obtain money from parliament, and regain the good will of his subjects, whose jealousies were aroused by the in- terference of the Dutch in their foreign trade. He wished also to restore to his nephew, William III., the dignity of stadt- holder, which had formerly belonged to the family of Orange, but had been recently abolished by the Dutch. Holland was now, from her commerce, wealth and industry, a first rate power. John de Witt, who was at the head of the republican party, had before entered into an alliance with France. The English dispatched squadrons to Africa and America, and in both, they took possession of the Dutch settlements. It was at this time that Col. Nichols took New Amsterdam, from the Dutch go- vernor Stuyvesant; and in honor of James, duke of York, to whom his brother, king Charles, had patented this country, it received the name of New York. 16. A naval engagement took place off the coast of Holland, between the Dutch fleet, under the command of the admiral Opdam, and the English, under the duke of York, which ended in the defeat of the Dutch. Louis XIV. now sent out a fleet to aid them. The king of Denmark, also, jealous of the naval power of England, came forward to their assistance. In the following year a sea-fight took place off Dunkirk, the English being commanded by Monk, now duke of Albemarle, and prince Rupert ; and the Dutch by De Ruyter, and the younger Van Tromp. It lasted four days, with alternate suc- cess, when at length the arrival of another English squadron compelled the Dutch to retire. 17. In London a dreadful plague broke out, and nearly one hundred thousand persons fell its victims. A terrible fire burned four days, and consumed thirteen thousand buildings. Charles, though generally selfish, showed on these occasions, a fatherly solicitude for his subjects. This was particularly the case in the activity manifested in extinguishing the fire, and providing for the suffering population, who were exposed unsheltered to the elements. A Dutch fleet, under De Ruyter, entered the Thames, and burned several British ships of war. Shortly after this, a treaty of peace was signed at Breda. England retained possession of JYeiv York, and ceded to the Dutch Surinam. 18. Charles gave to his favorites large tracts of land in Ame- rica. To lord Clarendon and others he made a considerable grant, which he extended, giving, in 1667, to lord Shaftes- bury and others, a territory comprehending the whole southern section of the American Republic. For this new country, Shaftesbury, with the aid of John Locke, the great writer on 15. What place on our coast was taken from the Dutch ? What change of name occurred? — 18. Give an account of the naval engagement off the coast of Holland. What nations aided the Dutch? What battle took place off Dunkirk?— IT. What calamities now visited London? What was the conduct of the king on these occasions ? What was done by a Dutch fleet ? What was gained and lost by England at the peace of Breda ? TIME OP THE FOUNDING OP CHARLESTON. 375 the " Human Understanding," attempted to form such a constitu- Modern His tion as should realize their beau-ideal of political wisdom. This turned out a complete failure ; but the settlements in the Caro- linas grew, and governed themselves much after their own will. The proprietors, however, sent governors, of whom, Sayle founded Charleston. In the wars between Spain and England, these provinces came into collision with the Spanish province of Florida. In Virginia, which was at that time a loyal state, the misrule of governor Berkeley produced a disastrous in- surrection, headed by Nathaniel Bacon; and a bloody civil war ensued, — which was quieted by the death of the leader, and the submission of his followers. 1676. Bacon's re- bellion in Virginia. CHAPTER II. Europe during the Wars of the Spanish Succession. 1. While England and the United Provinces had been weak- ening each other by mutual hostilities, Louis XIV. was matur- ing plans for the aggrandizement of the French monarchy by taking from Spain her provinces on his northern frontier. The death of Philip IV., had left the throne of that kingdom to be filled by his son Charles II., a sickly infant; and the re- gency was committed to the queen-mother, a woman of little ability. Notwithstanding the renunciation of Louis on his mar- riage, he took advantage of the time to bring forward claims, in right of his queen, to the country which he meant to conquer, and entered the Spanish Netherlands at the head of 40,000 troops. The Spaniards were unprepared for the invasion, and town after town fell before the French. The rapid successes of Louis alarmed the other powers, and the English, Dutch, and Swedes, united against him in a league, called " the Triple Al- liance." Louis was now willing to negotiate ; and at Jiix-la- Chapelle the ambassadors of the different nations met, and formed a treaty of peace, which left to the French monarch the conquests he had made, but compelled him to relinquish all other claims upon the Spanish provinces. 2. Louis, however, determined to take a future occasion to revenge himself upon Holland for the share she had taken in obstructing his ambitious views- and he also sought to detach 1665. Ambitious projects of Louis XIV The Triple alliance. 166S. Peace of Aix-La- Chapclle. 18. To whom had Charles given lands, and where ? What was done in regard to a constitution ? What place was founded ? Where was a rebellion ? Chap. II. — 1. What advantage of the weak state of the Spanish monarchy- was the king of France preparing to take ? Relate his first invasion of the Spanish Netherlands. What nations were alarmed at his grasping spirit? What alliance, did they form ? What peace succeeded? — 2. Did the king of France make this treaty in good faith ? 376 WARS OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. Modern His. PERI'D IV. CHAP. II. Charles gets from his par- liament a large supply- to aid the Dutch, and uses it against them. William, Prince of Orange. 16T2. SO LB AY. Naval battle between the Dutch and English and French. French conquests. England from the triple alliance. The wants and weakness of Charles, led him to the shameful measure of a secret treaty, by which he agreed to assist the king of France in the conquest of the United Provinces, and the Low Countries ; to embrace pub- licly the catholic faith, and to establish it in his kingdom; and in reward of these services, he was to receive from Louis the sum of 200,000 pounds, besides an annual subsidy ; and in case of rebellion in England, a military force. 3. While the Dutch were flattering themselves with the hope of a long peace, Louis, at the head of an army, invaded and conquered the duchy of Lorraine, in order to furnish himself with an easy passage into the United Provinces. He had found measures to detach Sweden, as well as England, from the triple alliance ; and to bring some of the German nobles into the French interest. This extensive confederacy, and the formid- able military and naval preparations, threatened the entire over- throw of the republic. Charles, keeping the treaty he had formed a secret, obtained from his unsuspecting parliament the largest supply the commons had ever granted to a king, in order to enable him to sustain the engagements under which the triple alliance placed the English nation. He then, acting according to his secret treaty, ordered an attack upon a Dutch fleet from Smyrna, valued at two millions sterling ; and shortly after, on frivolous pretexts, he declared war against Holland. The com- bined English and French fleets amounted to more than a hun- dred sail, while the army collected by Louis numbered 120,000, commanded by the ablest generals of the age. 4. The Dutch, relying on the faith of treaties, were not pre- pared with a sufficient military force. The strength of the re- publicans was also weakened by dissensions among themselves. William, prince of Orange, was appointed commander in chief of the army. De Witt, whose authority was now declining, sought to recover it, and to inspirit the states to some great naval operation. He equipped a fleet, which, under admiral De Ruyter, came up with the united fleets of the English and French, as they lay at anchor in Solbay. De Ruyter attacked them, but obtaining no decisive advantage, he retreated to the coast of Holland, whither he was pursued by the English admiral. Meanwhile the French king, assisted in his command by Tu- renne, moved northward at the head of a large army, and reached the Rhine almost without opposition ; took JYimeguen, Arnheim, and invested Utrecht. The prince of Orange, with his small army, retreated before him ; and in a few weeks, all the 2. What treaty was made by him with Charles II.? — 3. What was the first hostile movement of Louis ? What nations were now united with Louis against the Dutch ? What double-dealing did Charles practise with his par- liament ? What attack did he order ? What fleet and army was collected against the Dutch ? — 4. What was now the condition of the Dutch ? Who was made commander of the army ? Relate the naval operations. By whom was Louis XIV. assisted in command? What successes did they obtain? What provinces were left to the Dutch? THE DUTCH WITHSTAND THE FRENCH. 377 provinces except Holland and Zealand, had submitted to the conqueror. •5. This crisis roused the citizens of Amsterdam and of the whole province of Holland, and every hand was nerved. The populace were taken into pay. Ships were stationed in the harbor, and the Dutch consigned their fertile fields and flourishing vil- lages to destruction, opening the sluices of their canals, and inun- dating the country to save the city. Yet while they prepared to resist, they sought for peace, but their overtures were re- jected ; and the resolute Dutch determined to leave their native land, if they could not defend it, and settle in India or America, In the frenzy of the times, the people, feeling the necessity of an acknowledged sovereign, and blaming the two De Witts, by whose influence the office of stadtholder had been abolished, now rose in fury, imprisoned and put them to death, and invested the prince of Orange with that dignity. The united fleet of the confederates about this time advanced towards the coast of Holland, having on board the army which was designed to complete its conquest. The Dutch thanked an overruling Pro- vidence when it was carried back to sea, and prevented by se- vere storms from landing the army. 6. The emperor of Germany, the king of Spain, and the elector of Brandenburgh, now awoke to the grasping ambition of Louis, and were ready to lend the States their aid. The prince of Orange retook JYaerden, and joining his forces with those of the emperor under Mox\tecuculi, they besieged and took Bonne, and subduing the principal part of the electorate of Cologne, interrupted the communication between France and the United provinces. The French were compelled to evacuate their conquests and retreat. The following year the parliament of England compelled Charles II. to abandon his shameful French alliance, and make peace with Holland. 7. The efforts of the French monarch to sustain the war were unremitting. He brought, this year, four armies into the field, and commenced the campaign by marching in person into Franche Compte, and subduing the whole province. Conde, at the head of another army, encountered the prince of Orange at Senefle in Brabant, and a bloody battle ensued, where twenty thousand were left dead on the field, without any decisive vic- tory. On the side of Germany, the French were successful, for there Turenne commanded. He conquered the Palatinate, but sanctioned cruelties. Louis began to fear the result of the com- bination against him, and bribed the king of England to prorogue his parliament, lest it should compel him to unite in the con- federacy. Modern His. PERI'D IV. CHAP. II. Dutch pa- triotism. 16TO. The two De Witts killed. Dutch suc- cesses. 1674. SEMEFFE. 20,000 men killed with- out any de- cisive re- sult. 5. What was now the conduct of the citizens of Amsterdam? Which of their own patriots did they destroy ? — 6. Who now aided the Dutch? Relate the military operations of the Dutch and their allies ? To what did the English parliament compel the king ?— T. Relate the progress of the French in the north. In Brabant. On the side of Germany. For what did Louis bribe Charles ? 48 378 JOHN SOBIESKI CHECKS THE TURKS. Modern His- PERI'D IV. CHAP. II. 1678- Peace of Nimeguen. The Jesuit mission- aries in the early stage of the Jesuit society. 16t3 Marquette discovers the mouths of the Mis- souri, Ohio, and Arkansas. Turks aid the rebel- lious Hun- garians. 1683, John So- bieski de- feats the Turks. (John Sobi- eski is reck- oned a second Charles Martel.) 8. In the next campaign the imperial general, Montecuculi, was opposed to Turenne, and by his skill prevented the progress of the French. The death of Tnrenne, who was killed by a cannon ball while reconnoitering the enemy, was an irreparable misfortune to Louis. On the ocean, the French were victorious chiefly through the skill of Du Quesne, who yet held but an inferior rank in the navy. Several battles were fought, in one of which De Ruyter, the Dutch admiral, was killed. Negotia- tions for peace were entered into at JYimeguen, in 1678, the Dutch retaining their former territories. 9. In the meantime, France gained by the efforts of the Je- suit missionaries, the prospect of a great empire in America. In 1640 they founded Montreal, to gain a starting point for their great effort to convert and subjugate the natives. These resolute and self-denying soldiers of the cross, carried their dis- coveries up the Otto was, the St. Lawrence, and the great lakes ; till finally Father Marquette, with but one companion, em- barked in a little boat on the solitary Wisconsin; and, with a courage not less remarkable than that of Columbus, the daunt- less Jesuit floated seven days with the Wisconsin, then reach- ing the object of his search, the great Mississippi, he followed its course, discovering the mouths of the vast tributaries, Mis- souri, Ohio, and Arkansas. La Salle, an enterprizing French- man, undertook to colonize these regions, and was the first European who, embarking on the upper Mississippi, followed the river to the ocean. In honor of his master, Louis XIV., this extensive country was named by La Salle, Louisiana. 10. In Germany, the emperor Leopold was alarmed by a rebellion of the Hungarians, aided by the Turks. Mahomet IV., then on the Ottoman throne, invaded the empire with the most formidable force which the Turks had ever sent against Christendom, His army entered Germany, and laid siege to Vienna. The suburbs were destroyed, and nothing less than the surrender of the city was expected, when the renowned John SoBiESKr, king of Poland, whose alliance the emperor had obtained, joined by several of the German princes, arrived before the Turkish camp. A battle ended in the precipitate flight of the Turks, and the relief of the distressed city. Among the spoils of the Turkish camp was found the celebrated stand- ard of Mahomet, which was presented by the captors to the pope. In other battles the Turks and Hungarians were de- feated, and Hungary was restored to the empire. 11. Louis XIV., having raised the navy of France to a degree of consequence unknown before his reign, various ports were 8. Relate the principal events of the next campaign. By what peace was this war closed ? How did it leave the Dutch in point of territory ? — 9. What city did the Jesuit missionaries make their starting point ? What ri- vers did they explore ? What was their object ? Relate the voyage of Fa- ther Marquette. Who was La Salle, and what did he do? — lO. Who was emperor of Germany, and what cause of alarm had he ? Who was the Turkish sultan ? What success had the Turks gained ? Relate what was done by the king of Poland ? What was presented to the pope ? LOUIS XIV., THE GREAT. 379 constructed at great expense. His squadrons commanded the Mode™ Ms. Mediterranean, and in some measure stopped the depredations perpd iv. of the Barbary pirates. He caused Algiers to be bombarded, chap. ii. and obliged the Algerines to release their Christian captives, ^-^"^w Louis in resentment towards the Genoese, who had assisted the Spaniards, ordered their city also bombarded, and compelled the 16S4. doge to implore his clemency at Versailles. This was the name Genoa bom- of a palace which he had erected at enormous cost, and where barde ' he kept his court, with a degree of expense and splendor pro- bably not equalled by any other monarch of Europe. 12. At this period, he lost his great minister, Colbert, who by his patronage of manufactures and commerce, and his skill in managing the revenue of the kingdom, had enabled his mo- narch to maintain such expensive wars, and erect such magnifi- cent edifices. Colbert had protected and patronized the Hugue- nots. Louis was himself a bigot, and he was now encouraged by Louvois, the successor of Colbert, to commence a religious 1685. persecution, in the course of which, he revoked the edict of yokes the Nantes, passed by Henry IV. The protestants were ordered to edict of declare themselves converted by a day appointed. Of those who were refractory, the leaders were broken on the wheel, while the (M Hu _ common people were hanged. The penalty of death was also guenots at enacted against all who attempted to emigrate; — yet, notwith- ^J™ standing, 50,000 families abandoned their country. Louis thus America, stained his character, and greatly injured France ; for by means some of our of these emigrations, the French skill in manufactures was car- best popuia- i -i ^iii« tion.) ned to other countries, while a great amount ol wealth and in- dustry was lost to their own. 13. From this period the power of Louis began to decline. The French protestants carried with them a hatred of their kino; which they infused into the hearts of their brethren in the neigh- 4«*®w- boring kingdoms. A league of the princes belonging to the . ^? e German empire was formed at Augsburg, for preventing the fur- ^ n ndP ther encroachments of France ; and with them, Holland, Spain, Spain ami and, finally, England united. Louis exerted his utmost vigor in ^"f^gf preparing to withstand his numerous and powerful enemies. France. The French were first in the field. The dauphin led an army 1688-9- to the Rhine, and laid siege to Philipsburg, which fell before Jate, ^pro- his arms. The French overran the Palatinate, where, by order te'stant of the king, they destroyed the great towns, and spread desola- populated 6 " tion through the country. This barbarous warfare served only Worms and to render the enemies of France more inveterate, and the cam- surfer! 11. What had Louis XIV. done in respect to a navy for France ? What in respect to the pirates and their prisoners ? How did he humble the Ge- noese ? What account can you give of Versailles? — 12. Give an account of the arrangements of Colbert ? In what respect was Louvois different, and what did the king in part through his influence ? What cruelties were now exercised against the Huguenots? In what respect did these enormities in- jure Louis and his kingdom? — 13. Had the revocation of the edict of Mantes and the persecution a permanent effect on the power of Louis ? What league was now formed? What was now done by the French, and how did it af- fect their cause ? 380 PEACE OP RYSWICK. PERI'D IV CHAP. II. Dutch. 1692. Off LA HO QUE. STEIJV- KIRK. English vie torious. Modem His. paign was, on the whole, against them. The following year - Louis dispatched an army into Italy, under Catinat, which was victorious over the forces of the duke of Savoy at Saluces. Luxembourg obtained a victory over the Dutch and Spanish on the plains of Fleurus. The naval operations of France were also prosperous. Admiral Tourville defeated the combined squadrons of the English and Dutch, ofTBeachy head, and even torious. Off made a descent upon the coast of England. B head Y 14. In the succeeding campaign, William, prince of Orange, Tourviiie now k m g f England, who at the commencement of the war English and was engaged in settling the affairs of that realm, resumed the command in Flanders. Louis took Mons, and the French arms were successful on the side of Spain ; yet this year, no decisive advantages were obtained by either side. The following spring, Louis besieged and took Namur, while Luxembourg was sta- tioned so as to prevent the king of England from bringing re- lief to the besieged town. But at sea, the French, under the command of Tourville, were defeated off Cape La Hogue by the English ; and at Steinkirk, William attacked and defeated their army. 15. At Widdin, the prince of Baden, who commanded the wmDiN. imperial forces, obtained a complete victory over the Turks. French and with whom the French king was now in alliance. The follow- T feated. e " ing year, however, a new vizier, of more military skill, changed the face of affairs. During the absence of the prince of Baden, who was settling disturbances in Transylvania, the Turks re- took Widdin and made themselves masters of Belgrade, and all Upper Hungary. Meanwhile the French general, Luxem- bourg, surprised king William, who, with his army, occupied the village of Neerwinden. The conflict here was long and obsti- nate, and though victory at length declared for the French, it king*of Eng- was dearly bought. Luxembourg afterwards took CharleroL land. j n Spain, the mareschal de NoAiLLES,and in Piedmont, Cati- nat, prosecuted the war with success. During the three re- maining campaigns of this war, no event of consequence took place except the conquest of Namur by king William. The parties were at length desirous of peace, and a congress under the mediation of Charles XI., now king of Sweden, assembled at Ryswick to settle the terms. The basis of the treaty was the restoration of all places taken during the war. France acknowledged William as king of England. 16. Soon after the treaty of Ryswick, a battle took place at Zenta, between the imperial forces under prince Eugene of Sa- voy, and the Turks, under the command of the sultan Musta- pha II., in which prince Eugene obtained a decisive victory g t e h n e e Tu?ks S 20,000 Turks were left dead on the field, besides prisoners and Turks lose those drowned in attempting to escape. The pavilion of the sultan, 30,000 men. r & r r i 1694. Turks take Belgrade. KEER- WIJVDEN. Luxem- bourg de- feats the 169T Peace of Ryswick. ZEJfTA. Prince Eu- 13. Give some account of the campaign of 1691. — 14. Of that of 1692.-— 15. What important battle was fought in 1693 ? Relate the battle of Neer- winden ? What is said of the three last campaigns of this war ? Give an account of the peace of Ryswick. — 16. Relate the battle of Zenta. DEFEATS OF THE COVENANTERS- 38i the great seal of the empire, and the immense stores of the Modern His - army fell into the hands of the victors. This event produced perpd iv. a peace between the German and Ottoman empires, which was chap. hi. signed at Carlowitz, and which restored tranquillity to Europe. v «-*'"-v" , w CHAPTER III. England. 1. Charles II. again outraged the feelings of English patriots, by the sale of Dunkirk to the French, for the sum of J400,000. His brother James, the duke of York, declared himself a con- vert to the catholic religion, and the evident prepossessions of the king to the same faith, awakened anew the fears of popery, with its inquisitorial horrors. Charles, though he often offend- ed his subjects, yet by his insinuating manners and scheming brain, could ever find ways to recover their favor. He proposed for this object, a marriage between the princess Mary, eldest daughter of the duke of York, and William, prince of Orange ; which, in spite of the remonstrances of James, he carried into effect. On another occasion he obliged his brother, who was much disliked by the people, to retire to Brussels. Great dis- orders arose in Scotland, in consequence of the arbitrary mea- sures of the English ministry, in the establishment of episco- pacy in that kingdom. Dr. Sharp, archbishop of St. Andrews, was murdered in his coach by Balfour, and eleven other co- venanters. Graham, of Claverhouse, was defeated by the co- venanters at Drumclog; but the duke of [Monmouth conquered them at Bothwell bridge. Monmouth behaving with great lenity to the prisoners, he was recalled in disgrace, and the duke of York, who had returned, was sent by his brother to admin- ister the government of Scotland. He cruelly persecuted the covenanters, seeming to enjoy their sufferings. 2. The court party, during the last years of Charles, gathered strength, and tyrannical principles were advanced, and gained ground. A conspiracy was formed to oppose the succession of the duke of York. Among the conspirators was lord Russell, who was tried and executed. Another conspiracy, called the Rye House Plot, was headed by the duke of Monmouth, a na- tural son of Charles, which contemplated raising him to the Charles II. 1668. Charles II. sells Dun- kirk. 1675-6. (This is the period of king Philip's war, the bloodiest of all the In- dian wars of New Eng- land.) 1679- June 1. DRUM- CLOG . Covenant- ers defeat Graham of Claver- house. June 22. BOTH- WELL- BRWOE. Are defeated by the duke of Mon- mouth. (The beha- viour of LadyRussell at her hus- band's trial was much admired.) 16. What was the consequence of the treaty of Carlo witz ? Chap. III. — 1 . How did Charles further offend the English ? What was done by his brother ? What measures were taken by Charles to keep his people in good humour ? What troubles arose in Scotland ? What account can you give of Dr. Sharp — his murder and murderers? Who was sent against the covenanters, and where were they defeated ?— 2. What party and principles gained ground, and when? What conspiracy was detected, and who was made the victim ? 382 HYPOCRISY AND TYRANNY. Modern His. PERI'D IV. CHAP. III. 1685. James II. Executions of Mon- mouth and Argyle. 16S». (Wm. Penn founds Phil- adelphia.) throne, and assassinating the king. Charles pardoned the offence. Algernon Sidney, an ornament to mankind, was ap- prehended on a charge of high treason, for having been the author of a treatise, in which he asserts that power is originally in the people, and delegated by them to the parliament, to whom the king is amenable. For these opinions, written, but not published, did the infamous Jeffries, his judge, condemn to death this friend of human rights, and " he rejoiced to die for the good old cause." 3. Charles was succeeded by his brother, the duke of York, under the title of James II. Assembling his council, he de- clared his determination to maintain the established government both in church and state. But his conduct in sending to make submission to the pope — going in state to high mass, which by act of parliament was an illegal assembly — levying taxes with- out consent of parliament — and advancing catholics to office while he displaced episcopalians, soon convinced the people of the hollowness of his professions. Insurrections broke out; one in Scotland, headed by the duke of Argyle, and another in England, headed by the duke of Monmouth. Their forces were defeated and scattered, and the leaders executed ; — Argyle at Edinburgh, and Monmouth at London. But these successes, instead of consolidating the power of the king, in consequence of the bad measures which followed, had a contrary effect. Military executions of the prisoners were frequent, and some- times attended with circumstances of horrid cruelty* Jeffries, who was chancellor of the kingdom, received from James a special commission to try the rebels ; and to be tried by this cruel and unjust judge, was to be condemned and executed. 4. By upholding such cruelties, the monarch made himself hated by his people. At the same time he made great preten- sions to zeal for religious toleration ; but it was because he wished to bring forward the Catholics. William Penn, the celebrated quaker, who had returned from the colony of Penn- sylnania, which he had founded in North America, was much in company with James ; his father, admiral Penn, having been a personal friend of the king. Penn was deceived into a belief that this bigot and tyrant had good designs respecting liberty of conscience. But his intentions were manifestly to break * After the battle of Sedgemoor, near Bridgewater, in which Monmouth was defeated, lord Feversham, who commanded against him, ordered a num- ber of the prisoners to be hanged without form of trial. Col. Kirk did the same at Bridgewater, and when he saw their feet twitching, as they were struggling in death, he ordered the band to play a lively tune, saying, " I will give them music to their dancing." 2. What account can you give of "the Rye House Plot?" Give an account of the the trial of Algernon Sidney ? — 3. Who succeeded Charles ? What were his professions, and what his conduct ? What insurrections broke out, and with what results? What measures followed, and how did they affect the stability of James' power? What is said of Jeffries? — 4. What is said of William Penn ? In what year did he found Philadelphia? A WRONGED PEOPLE RIGHT THEMSELVES. 383 down the free portions of the English constitution, and bring- Mode™ His. every thing into subjection to his own arbitrary will. To the peri'd iv. New England states, who had been flourishing under their chap. in. charters, derived at different times from the British crown, he v -* "~ s ^v*/ sent over his minion, that coxcomb of a tyrant, Sir Edmund rh (The Andross, who took away the charters, and assumed absolute Connecticut authority. To the clergy of the established church, the king b w JJi!r y Sw became particularly obnoxious. He not only deprived them of in a vener- privileges formerly granted them, but grossly insulted them as aSu^tTnd- a body, by directing them to read in public his declaration of i"g at Hart- equal indulgence to all religions ; a paper which contained mat- (Jain r es also ters contrary to their legal claims and declared opinions. The caused the archbishop of Canterbury, and six bishops, met and drew up a sports" for petition that the king would not oblige them to promulgate Sundays to that, which by former acts of parliament was illegal. He not the church- only refused to grant the petition, but committed the bishops to es,) the tower, and prosecuted them for a libel. 5. The whole of the community, except a few office holders, C o?Oran™e e now felt that the measure of tyranny and oppression was full ; was the and that such a government could no longer be endured. Many 8 charies n i°, of the most considerable persons, both in church and state, Jl is mother made secret applications to William, prince of Orange, who that king's 5 had married Mary, eldest daughter of James. The tories and dau !K r .\ whigs* united to request that he would undertake the defence of the nation ; a proposal highly acceptable to William, who had ever kept his eye upon the English throne. He sailed with a fleet for England, and landed his army at Torbay without op- position. The accessions to his party were so numerous and rapid, that it seemed as if the whole realm were in the conspi- racy. The army and navy deserted to him. James, after being absent from his patace, returned to find that his favorite daughter Anne had left him. " God help me," said the afflicted man, " my very children have forsaken me !" He sent the queen and prince of Wales to France, whither he followed himself, about the time that William advanced to London. 6. A convention was summoned, and a vote passed, declaring 1688. James to have broken the original compact between king and The Revo- people ; and that, withdrawing from the kingdom, he had left wmiamand the throne vacant. James was now dethroned, but William was Mary. not king ; and in the arrangement of this affair, that prince showed the soundness of his judgment. At first, the conven- tion thought of making Mary the sovereign, and William regent; * These terms were first used in the reign of Charles II., — the tory party being those who maintained the prerogative of the crown, — and the whig, those who advocated the rights of the people. 4. What was done in reference to the New England states ? How did James offend the established clergy ? — 5. What had now become the feeling of the community ? What was done to call in another person to take the crown from James ? Give some account of the movements of William. Of James. — 6. What was passed in the convention? What ground did William take in regard to a divided authority ? 384 THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION. Modern His- PERI'D IV. CHAP. III. 1689. May 26. KILLIE- CRJiNKIE. Dundee vic- torious — is slain. 1689. July 1. BOYNE. William de- feats James- (Those who adhered to James are properly called Jaco- bites.) fAfter Wil- liam's death was found tied to his arm, a ring containing Mary's hair.) but he sent them word that he would not accept of a power which depended on the life of another ; and if they concluded on this plan, he could render them no assistance. Mary se- conded his views, and the prince and princess of Orange were jointly declared king and queen of England. This event, called in English history the Revolution, is one of the most singular and important on record. It was accomplished almost without bloodshed ; and in its course the principle was acknowledged, that the people had by their representatives a right to elect their sovereign. No king could thenceforth assume, as their former princes had done, that the whole kingdom was his ; he deriving from God, and the people from him. This relic of the feudal system was, in England, left behind, when James, for his attempts upon English constitutional liberty, was ejected ; and William of Orange, by the pleasure of the nation, was made king. 7. In Scotland a powerful party held out for James, headed by viscount Dundee. At Killiecrankie, this brave and popular chieftain gave battle to the forces of William, under Mack ay, and obtained a victory, but fatally for the cause of James, he fell in the engagement. James, on his flight from England, had been hospitably received by Louis XIV., and lodged at St. Ger- main en Laye. Having now collected a few hundred of his own subjects, and some French officers, he embarked for Ire- land. The earl of Tyrconnel, who commanded there, re- maining faithful to his interests, had assembled an army of 40,000 men. James was received with enthusiasm, and entered Dublin amidst acclamations. The Irish protestants, howevei, resisted with intrepidity, though at times reduced to the utmost distress. William, who for a time had been compelled by the disputes which agitated the English parliament, to leave the Irish war to his lieutenants, now proceeded to that kingdom in person. A battle was fought on the banks of the Boyne, in which the monarchs were each at the head of their respective armies. Victory declared in favor of William ; James again fled to France, and Ireland soon after submitted to the power of the conqueror. 8. Though the reign of William was often disturbed by the Jacobites, yet the majority of the nation supported him in his measures. While he was personally engaged in the conti- nental wars, Mary, whose manners were popular, exercised with ability the office of regent, although, when her husband was in England, she was the most submissive of his subjects. Her death was deeply lamented by him, and by the people. Wil- liam died at Kensington, by a fall from his horse. This monarch ruled with ability, yet not well. Ambition was in his 6. What is this event called in English history ? Why is it singular and important? — T. What disturbance occurred in Scotland? What in Ire- land ? Relate the battle of the Boyne ? — 8. What circumstances are mentioned of the life and death of William and Mary ? ENGLISH NATIONAL DEBT BEGINS. 385 heart; and this was not modified as it should have been, by a Modern His - regard to the good of mankind, and especially to that of the perfd iv. people whom he governed. He determined so to sway the po- chap. m. litics of Europe, " that not a gun should be fired without his con- -^^v^x-/ sent." Hence he augmented the disturbances on the continent, wmuuri be- sent forth his armies to shed the blood of distant unoffending tionai debt people ; and to maintain these armies, he commenced the system }m2 wnifl. of borrowing money, which has in its consequences, accumulated nentaiwars. the enormous national debt that has brought England to the verge of destruction. 9. In America " King William's War" reached the people of 1690. New England, where the French and Indians from Canada, Schenet- came stealthily upon them — roused their slumbers by the war- ojhe/'pHaVes whoop, and waked them to behold their infants dashed against destr °y ed - the wall, and their dwellings in flames ; — themselves reserved for scalping and tortures. Thus were surprised, Schenectady, in of warfare New York, Salmon-Falls in New Hampshire, and Casco in ln Amerlca - Maine. Tn American legislation, some of the measures of William III. showed that he believed the free institutions of that country were tending to independence, and that he endeavored to bar their way. Puritan New England had re- joiced in his accession, and he recalled their petty tyrants, and suffered the smaller states to go quietly back to their charter democracies; but to the people of Massachusetts, the larger (Sophia was and leading state, who had shown the most determined self- ^gj will, William would not restore their former privileges, but b'eth,d. of compelled them to receive, with a new charter, royal governors. a „d tie 3 un- Disputes between these governors and their constituents began fortunate at once, which were never settled but at the war of the Ameri- claim* of an can revolution. To carry his measures in parliament, William ^e^l™* 1 resorted to the dishonorable and demoralizing plan of bribing the aside be- members of that body and other persons of influence, both at ca w 3 ( f r e hey home and abroad. During his reign, " an Act of Settlement" papists.) was passed, notwithstanding the opposition of the Jacobite party, which secured the crown of England to Sophia, duchess dowager of Hanover, and her descendants ; they being protest- ants. William was succeeded by Anne, (married to George, 1^91. prince of Denmark,) sister of Mary, and second daughter of Anne suc- James II. She continued the alliance with the house of Austria ; c f^ ™~ and it was during her reign that the victories of the duke of Marlborough reflected such lustre on the British arms. 8. What is remarked concerning the reign of this monarch ? What bad system did he commence ? — 9. How and where did the effect of his wars reach America ? What did he comprehend respecting the American insti- tutions ? How did he proceed with them ? What demoralizing plan did he adopt in order to carry his measures in parliament ? Give an account of the " Act of Settlement." Who was the princess Sophia? (See note.) 49 CHAPTER IV. Europe. — Thirteen year's War of the Spanish Succession. Modern His. PERID IV. CHAP. IV. Treaty of Partition. (William 111. of Eng- land the soul of this league.) 1698. Second Treaty of Partition. i?oo. Charles II. leaves his crown to Philip V. a Bour- bon. 1. The peace of Ryswick had scarcely composed hostilities between the European powers, when jarring- claims and in- trigues, concerning the succession to the Spanish crown arose, which eventually produced war. Charles II., the reigning mo- narch of Spain, had no children ; and the feeble state of his health gave reason to expect the immediate vacancy of the throne. Louis XIV., the emperor Leopold, and the elector of Bavaria, each possessed claims to the succession on account of descent in the maternal line from the royal family of Spain. The balance of power in Europe it was said, required that neither the house of Austria, nor that of Bourbon, should obtain such an accession of strength, as the acquisition of the Spanish mo- narchy would give. A treaty of partition ivas therefore formed by England, France, and Holland, dividing the territories of the Spanish monarchy among the different claimants. This treaty, which the framers designed to preserve secret, became known in Spain, and justly displeased both the king and the nation. Charles immediately made a will, excluding both the house of Bourbon and that of Austria, and bequeathing his crown, with all the Spanish possessions, to the elector of Bava- ria. The death of the elector, which occurred soon after, again renewed the intrigues of Louis and Leopold. The king of Eng- land continued to interest himself in the negotiations, and a se- cond treaty ivas formed between England, France, and Holland, by which a new partition of the Spanish dominions was made. To this partition also, the emperor refused to accede. 2. The intrigues of the clergy, and the influence of the pope, whom Charles consulted, and who feared for his own territo- ries, in case of a union between Spain and Austria, drew Charles from the Austrian interest, and induced him to make a secret will, in which Philip, duke of Anjou, second son of the dau- phin, was declared his heir. The death of Charles, and the publication of this will, caused a powerful sensation throughout Europe. The desire of aggrandizing his family, at length over- came every other consideration in the mind of Louis. He ac- cepted the will, and conveyed the duke of Anjou, his grandson, to Madrid, where he was crowned as Philip V. 3. England and Holland, though highly dissatisfied by the Chap. IV. — 1. What dispute now arose? What three claimants were there to the Spanish succession ? What partition treaty was made ? Does it not seem very wrong for nations to interfere in this manner with the in- ternal concerns of other nations ? What effect did the knowledge of this treaty produce in Spain ? What left the way again open to the intrigues of Louis XIV. and the emperor Leopold ? What new league was made ? — 2. How did Charles II. of Spain finally leave the succession, and what fol- lowed ? 386 WAR OP THE SPANISH SUCCESSION BEGINS. 387 want of faith which Louis had displayed, did not consider it for Moder * His. their interest to engage in war, and reluctantly acknowledged peri'div. the title of Philip ; but the emperor of Germany prepared for CHAP - IV - immediate hostilities, and despatched an army under prince Eu- ^-"^'v^w' gene into Italy, to enforce his claim to Milan. Here, through The nations, the treachery of the duke of Savoy, who pretended to be in the e many, ac-~ French interest, the imperialists obtained repeated advantages, ffp^suc^es- and made themselves masters of the country between the Adige «'on- and the Adda. 4. During this time, England and Holland were attempting to negotiate with France, and produce an amicable adjustment of the Spanish claims. All efforts proving vain, they entered into a treaty with the emperor of Germany, called the " Grand rm, p Alliance," whose objects were to prevent the union of the «p ranf j French and Spanish monarchies, to procure for the emperor the /m; al|P n » Spanish possessions in Italy ; to recover Flanders as a barrier to Holland, and to secure the English and Dutch commerce. On the death of James II., which occurred at this time, at St. Ger- James, the main, Louis acknowledged his son as king of England, and gave n" thS/SS him the title of James III. William at once recalled his am- Flt * e i d Z\ bassador from France, and his subjects seconded with ardor his the cheva- preparations for war. In the midst of them, William died ; but ^J r 2;') Anne, who succeeded to the English throne, continued the same measures of foreign policy. England, Holland, and the 1702* German empire declared war against France on the same day. ^[Sl^Se- The German princes generally were in the league. Frederic, ciare war the elector of Brandenburgh, had been won by receiving France 1 . from the emperor the title of king of Prussia. This is the first acknowledgment of Prussia as a kingdom. 5. During the first campaign, operations were not on a great scale. In Italy, and on the Upper Rhine, the French arms were successful ; but in Flanders, the allies, commanded by the duke of Marlborough, make themselves masters of several places. Their naval operations, also, were fortunate. A French fleet, which had just arrived in the harbor of Vigo, having in English and charge an immense treasure which it had brought from America, Dutch ca P- ™ tUF6 3. was attacked by the English and Dutch, the vessels captured or Frencnfleet. destroyed, and a great amount of wealth taken. The king of Portugal and the duke of Savoy now openly espoused the inter- ests of the Grand Alliance. 6. In the second campaign Louis exerted himself to the ut- most ; and the electors of Bavaria and Cologne, engaged with zeal 1?03. in his cause. The former carried on the war in Germany, and stadt. in union with mareschal Villars, the French commander, ob- ^p^Jl tained a victory over the imperialists on the plains of Hoch- allies. 3. What course was taken by the nations in reference to the accession of the Bourbon prince to the Spanish throne ? — 1. Between what nations was the Grand Alliance formed ? What were its objects? What event has- tened the war ? What change of sovereigns occurred in England ? What nations were now united against France ? — 5. Give the principal events of the first campaign ? What year was this? — 6. Tell the year and the events of the second campaign ? 388 MARLBOROUGH AND EUGENE. Modern His. 1704. The third campaign (Duke of xMarlbo- rough, the most suc- cessful of English comman- ders.) BLEN- HEIM. Marlbo- rough and Eugene victorious. Loss of the enemv 40,000, with all their artillery and stores. Eng. loss 500 k., 1705. The fourth campaign. Joseph, emperor of Germany. stadt. In Alsace and Italy, also, the French arms were success- ful. In the Netherlands, the tide of fortune changed, and the arms of Marlborough triumphed ; yet the general result of the campaign was favorable to Louis. 7. The following year Marlborough was early in the field, having planned with care and secrecy to relieve the emperor, whose capital was threatened on the one hand by the Hunga- rians, who were in a state of revolt ; and on the other, by the French and Bavarians, whose successes in the preceding cam- paign had put them in possession of Augsburg, and opened the road to Vienna. He designed to march into Germany, and de- ceiving the French by a feint, succeeded in crossing the Rhine, the Maine, and the Neckar. Having united with the imperial- ists under the prince of Baden, he compelled the elector of Ba* varia to retreat from Donawert, which he took. 8. Soon after this, prince Eugene united his army to that of Marlborough, and a great battle was fought between the allies, and the French and Bavarians, near the village of Blenheim. The hostile armies were nearly equal in strength, each number- ing about 80,000 men ; but the superior military skill of Marl- borough and Eugene, gave them the victory. This success relieved the emperor, and put the allies in possession of the country from the Danube to the Rhine. The conquerors fol- lowed up this blow by recrossing the Rhine, and obtaining pos- session of some important places in Alsace. At sea, the confe- derate fleets of the English and Dutch attacked Gibraltar, and the English seamen made themselves masters of that almost im- pregnable fortress. The operations of the French, however, were successful in other quarters. In Italy their arms triumphed; and also in Portugal, where the war on the part of the allies was conducted by the archduke Charles, who had assumed the title of king of Spain. 9. The ensuing spring, Louis had an army of 70,000 men, under mareschal Villars, in readiness to oppose the duke of Marlborough, who was thus prevented from penetrating into France. The most important events of this campaign were transacted in Spain, where the arms of the confederates met with signal success. The principal places in the province of Estre- madura were reduced; — nearly the whole territory of Va- lencia, and the province of Catalonia, submitted to the arch- duke. The death of the emperor Leopold, which occurred this year, placed his son Joseph upon the imperial throne, but did not affect the policy of the court. 10. In the next campaign, Marlborough, at the head of the English and Dutch, obtained at Ramillies an important victory over the French, under mareschal Villeroy. This victory en- T. The year and events of the third campaign to the battle of Blenheim. —8. Relate that battle ? What important acquisition was made by the English on the Mediterranean ? Where had the French been successful ? — 9. Detail the principal military events of the fourth campaign, or that of 1705? What change of sovereigns occurred ? — lO. Relate the battle of Ramillies? FRANCE EXHAUSTED BY THE WAR. 389 abled Marlborough to conquer Brabant, and almost all Span- JiIodern His , ish Flanders. The duke of Vendome was recalled from perud iv. Italy to oppose Marlborough. Prince Eugene had already CHAP - 1V - crossed the Po, and carried on a successful warfare in that ^~v~*w quarter. Joining the duke of Savoy, their united armies at- 1¥06. tacked the French before Turin, and completely routed them. TteduETof In Spain, also, victory declared for the confederates. Philip Savoy and was obliged to leave Madrid, which the English and Portuguese U fSth e e " entered. Charles, the archduke of Austria, was declared French. king, under the title of Charles III., but did not himself ad- vance to Madrid. Philip collected another army, and recover- ed his capital. 11. Louis XIV. now perceiving the distress to which his ifOY- great expenditures were reducing his kingdom, made proposals sixth cam- of peace to the other powers, which, chiefly through the ambi- paign ' tion of Marlborough and Eugene, were rejected. The war there- fore continued, and Louis, though greatly embarrassed, prepared to carry it on with vigor. Several armies were collected, and reinforcements sent into Spain. In Italy, continued misfortune attended the French and Spaniards ; the whole kingdom of Na- ples urns reduced by the allies, and the territory of the duke of Savoy entirely recovered. Here, however, the success of the allies, for this campaign, ended. In Flanders, the duke of Ven- dome prevented Marlborough from performing anything of im- portance. In Germany, mareschal Villars had obtained consi- derable success, and penetrated to the Danube. The Hunga- ALMAtN > rians continued to distress the empire. In Spain, the confede- za. rates met with a memorable defeat at Almanza, where the Be ^ck° f at duke of Berwick commanded the French and Spanish. After the head of this, the French and Spaniards, under this able commander, ^nd French! recovered the whole kingdom of Valencia for Philip. An at- defeats the tempt of prince Eugene and the duke of Savoy upon Toulon, (Duke of was successfully repulsed by the French. The advantages of ^{^aTson this campaign were mainly on the side of France. of James ii) 12. During the next year, the English were roused to more vigorous exertions, by an attempt of Louis to convey the pre- tender, James III., to Scotland, but the vigilance of admiral j^OS. Byng prevented his landing. Marlborough was now in Flan- Seventh ders. At Oudenarde, a battle was fought between the forces c ^JJJ , j£fJ!' under him, and the French army under the duke of Vendome, narde. where again the confederates were victorious. Soon after r0 u g r h Se- this, prince Eugene took the city of Lisle, which he had be- feJ \ ts ven- sieged two months. Ghent and Bruges, of which the duke of Vendome had obtained possession in the early part of the cam- IO, Relate the course of the victors — the circumstances of the next bat- tle. What occurred in Spain ? — 1 1 . In the sixth campaign what successes had the allies ? What the French and Spanish ? In the beginning of the campaign what did the king of France desire ? Which side had on the whole the advantage? — 12. What attempt was made by Louis XIV.? Relate the battle of Oudenarde. The remaining transactions of the cam- paign. 390 WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION CONTINUES. Modern His. PERI'D IV. CHAP. IV. MOWS. Marlbo- rough and Eugene ob- tain a hard fought field fromVlllars. 1710. Ninth cam- JlLMEMA- RA. Charles de- feats Philip. 1711. Charles em- peror of Germany. paign, were now recovered by the confederates. At sea, they acquired the command of the Mediterranean, and achieved the conquest of Sardinia and Minorca. 13. Louis again made liberal proposals of peace, which were again rejected. Not only were his armies unfortunate, but his subjects were suffering under a grievous famine, and his finances exhausted. This monarch, by his regal munificence, and his imposing qualities of person and character, was the idol of his subjects, to whom they willingly sacrificed their blood and treasure. By his patronage of literature, he had the talents and genius of France in his interest. Hence, when the rejection of a proffered peace left him no hope but in the successful prose- secution of the war, France aroused to new and extensive preparations. To mareschal Villars, he gave the command of his armies in Flanders, where Marlborough and Eugene acted in concert with a force of 100,000 men. The confederates having reduced Tournay, besieged Mons. Villars encamped his army a short distance from that city, where he was attacked by Marlborough and Eugene, and after a fierce and long-contested battle, he was compelled to retreat from the field, and abandon Mons to the allies ; yet he could hardly be said to have lost the victory, since the number of slain in the army of the con- federates, was double that on the side of the French. Villars held them in check, and prevented their entering France, or gaining any other important advantage. At the close of this campaign, the French king renewed his solicitations for peace, and negotiations to that effect commenced at Gertruydenberg. Louis was willing to make ample concessions ; but the demands of the allies were so exorbitant, as to preclude all hope of re- conciliation, and the negotiations were broken off. 14. In Flanders, several places of importance surrendered to the allies. In Spain, a battle was fought at Almenara, in which the two competitors for the crown, Philip and the archduke Charles, appeared at the head of their respective forces. The contest was decided in favor of Charles, and Philip was again compelled to flee from Madrid, of which Charles took posses- sion. The Spaniards, however, continued faithful to Philip's cause, and the duke of Vendome, who received the command of tlte French in that quarter, soon retrieved their affairs, and recovered Madrid. 15. About this period, two events took place, which tended to produce a cessation of hostilities. The emperor Joseph dying, his brother, the archduke Charles was raised to the imperial dignity; and as it was inconsistent with the avowed object of the Grand Alliance, to permit the throne of two nations to be occupied by one monarch, Charles was now considered as dis- qualified for the throne of Spain. A change had been effected 13. What remarks are here made concerning Louis XIV. ? Relate the battle of Mons, with its consequences. What was done concerning nego- tiations for peace ? — 14. Relate the principal events of the ninth campaign. —15. From what two events was peace expected ? WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION CLOSED. 391 in the British ministry, by which the tories had acquired the ascendency in the court of Anne, and a change of measures might speedily be expected. Marlborough was indeed conti- nued in office, but it was evident that his influence was on the decline. Negotiations were the next year entered into between the English and French courts ; Marlborough was recalled and dismissed from his offices. 16. Conferences were opened at Utrecht, and treaties of peace were signed by all the belligerent powers, except the emperor and the king of Spain. By the terms of these treaties, Philip V. was secured on the throne of Spain, on condition of his re- nouncing, for himself and descendants, all claim upon the crown of France. The heirs of the French monarchy were also to renounce all claim upon that of Spain, so that the two kingdoms should in no case be united. Sicily was given to the duke of Savoy, in addition to his hereditary dominions. The Italian possessions of Spain and the Netherlands, were relin- quished to the house of Austria. The Rhine was to be the es- tablished boundary between Germany and France. The right to both sides of the river Amazon in America, was confirmed to the king of Portugal. The title of Anne to the throne of England, and the eventual succession of the family of Hanover to that throne, was to be acknowledged by France. Gibraltar and Minorca were to remain in possession of the English. Hudson's bay and straits, the town of Placentia in Newfound- land, Nova Scotia, in North America, and the island of St. Christopher in the West Indies, were also to be ceded to that government by France. Luxembourg, Namur, and Charleroy, were given to the United Provinces ; and Lisle, Aire, Bethune, and St. Vincent were restored to France. 17. As the emperor refused his assent to the treaty, the war between the empire and France continued. Turning all their strength against Germany, the French were now successful in their operations, and the following year, Charles VI. was forced to conclude a peace at Rastadt, on less favorable terms than had been offered him at Utrecht. In New England the French and savages made destructive night attacks. The settlers never retired to their rest free from fear; for when the Indians came, they started up like a satanic creation of the night ; — did their deadly errand and were gone. Thus, in the depth of winter, was Deerfleld surprised by a party of French and Indians, under Huertel de Rouville, a Frenchman; and the whole settle- ment destroyed. Modern His. PERI'D IV. CHAP. IV. Peace of Utrecht. (The Eng- lish, as a pre- liminary, agreed to give the queen dow- ager of James II. an annual al- lowance of £60,000.) (England received from Spain the privilege of furnish- ing the Spanish West Indies 4,800 negro slaves a year.) 1*14. Peace of Queen Anne's war in New England. Midnight raids of the French and Indians. 1704. Deerfleld destroyed, 47 killed, 180 made captives. 16. (Examine the maps in learning the conditions of the important treaty of Utrecht.) What conditions were made by the Spanish and French Bour- bons ? What part of the Spanish possessions were given to Germany ? Of what was the Rhine to be the boundary ? What condition respecting the English throne was made ? What accession of territory did England receive ? What was confirmed ? What did Holland gain ?— IT. Between what powers was the treaty of Rastadt? How did " Queen Anne's war," as it was called in America, affect the American provinces ? CHAPTER V. Poland, Russia, and China. Modern His. PERI'D IV. CHAP. V. T1462 I Ivan I. the I Great. (tJohn Basilo- witz.) (Nearly 200 years the Rus- sians under tribute to the khan of Khapt- shak.) 1 . POLAND. — Sigismund II., dying without issue, the throne was afterwards disposed of by the nobles, who held their elec- tions in the open air, armed and on horseback. The principle that the majority must govern, was repudiated by them; and to make the election unanimous, the majority often fell upon the minority and slew them with their swords. Seldom agreeing on one of their own number, they, with a policy suicidal to their country, offered their crown to foreign princes, who hence learned to interfere with the affairs of Poland. John Sobieski, the hero of Polish history, was, however, a native Polander ; and was made king after he had defeated the Turks in the great bat- tle of Choczim. He had before risen by his public services to be grand marshal of Poland, and palatine of Cracovia. After his elec- tion, he marched to the relief of the emperor of Germany, the Turks having besieged his capital. He compelled them to raise the siege of Vienna, and to flee with precipitation. By stopping the progress of the Mahometans, he merited the title of a second Charles Martel. On the death of Sobieski, the Polish electors chose as their king, Frederic Augustus, elector of Saxony. 2. RUSSIA. — The greatness of Russia began, 1482, with Ivan VASiLOVicH,|of the family of Ruric. Up to this period many petty chiefs, of different degrees of authority, ruled the different parts of those vast regions. Ivan had, physically, the size and strength of a giant, with ambition and mental energy in proportion, and he centralized the power of Russia, by sub- jugating contiguous provinces. Since the time when the de- scendants of Jenghiz Khan overran the country, the Russians had been under the galling yoke of the " Tartars of the Golden Horde." In 1395 Tamerlane had devastated the country from Azof to Moscow. The Russians after this were under tribute to the horde of Khaptshak. These Tartars quarrelled and divided into four portions, — the Tartars of Crimea, of Khasan, of Astrachan, and of Siberia. Ivan took advantage of their disunion, refused the tribute, and made war upon the Tartars. He was naturally ferocious in temper ; but his cha- racter was modified by that of his wife, an accomplished Greek princess, Sophia, niece of Constantine, the last empe- Chap. V. — 1. What ideas had the Polish electors respecting majori- ties? What was their manner of holding an election? What bad prac- tice did they fall into respecting foreigners, and what was its consequence ? Give an account of John Sobieski ? Who was chosen to succeed him ? — 'Z. With whom did the greatness of Russia begin ? What had been the state of the Russians in respect to government ? Give an account of Ivan the Great. Of the Tartars, and their irruptions ? To what khan were the Russians under tribute ? How had they divided ? What did Ivan ? By whom was his character modified ? 392 FORMATION OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. 393 ror of Constantinople. By this connexion he took the title of Mode™ m s . Czar, (Caesar,) and claimed the throne of the ancient Greek em- perpd iv. pire. He fortified the Kremlin or citadel of Moscow ; and by chap. v. severe despotism at home, and successful war abroad, he ef- v *^-v~ , w fected the consolidation of the Russian power. 3. Ivan IV., (the Terrible,) formed a military guard, called $£re/itees,(shooters,)which were the first regular Russian army. 1546 This sovereign conquered the Tartars of Khasan and Astrachan, Ivan IV > * reduced the khan of Siberia to tribute, and subjected the Don Somes a Cossacks. Afterwards, the Swedes warred upon him, and he san guinary made peace by relinquishing Carelia and Ingria, and all the Russian possessions on the Baltic. After his death occurred a period of anarchy within, and the ingress of hordes of Tartars m. Ro- from without. At length the Russians with one accord rose up, ^jS and rejecting the competitors of the Ruric family, elevated to l t o the throne, Michael Romanoff. He restored peace, and re- 1645. claimed some of the alienated provinces. He was succeeded by his son Alexis, a wise and powerful sovereign. He reduced the Cossacks of the Ukraine. By his direction the laws of Russia 3^45 were revised. He mingled in the politics of Europe, sending to ministers to France and Spain, but refusing to receive an am- 16'76. bassador from Oliver Cromwell. 4. Alexis was succeeded by his eldest son Theodore II. On -jg^g the death of this sickly prince, Ivan and Peter, two young to sons of Alexis were declared ; but their sister, Sophia, by the 1682. force of her talents, and ambitious intriguing mind, had made dor/ii., herself the virtual head of the nation; notwithstanding the laws weakly. of Russia which doomed her, as an unmarried daughter of the ai Jp". Czar, to perpetual confinement in a convent. She managed to ter, 10 get the control of the strelitzes; and made a powerful Boyar, y ^ s (Russian nobleman,) prince Gallitzin, head of her party. Ivan was feeble of mind and body, and Sophia had no difficulty in ruling him ; but Peter, though but a boy, manifested so much J ?• decision and energy of character, that she is said, not only to his sis- have neglected his education, but purposely to have put him in {JJkuIiu" the way of criminal pleasures, that he might thus ruin his mental More and physical constitution ; but divine Providence suffered it not ^Jjjj to be. By the help of the strelitzes Sophia afterwards con- good- spired against his life. He escaped, and received the undivided sovereignty ; while she was imprisoned in a convent. Peter, peter after taking a terrible vengeance on the conspirators, set himself alone. to the task of ruling well the vast country which he had inhe- 1689. rited. Indeed the desire to improve and civilize his people, and procure for Russia the advantages of commerce and navigation, %. What title did he take ? What is farther related of Ivan Vasilovich ? — 3. What is related of Ivan the Terrible ? What occurred after his death ? Give an account of Michael Romanoff. Was he the founder of a new dy- nasty ? Give an account of his successor. — 4-. In what order did the sons of Alexis succeed him ? Give an account of Sophia ? What was her con- duct towards Peter ? A conspiracy is related with its results — what were they ? What became the ruling passion of Peter ? 50 394 LE FORT OF GENEVA. Modern His. PERI'D IV. CHAP. V. The be- ginning of a great army. (The knout somewhat resembles the cat-o'- nine-tails, but is far more se- vere.) became the ruling impulse of one of the most laborious lives on record. •5. In the suite of the Danish ambassador was a young man, elegant in appearance, but modest and retiring. Peter invited him to enter his service, but Le Fort said he owed gratitude to the Danish ambassador for aiding him in his necessities, and he was useful to him ; he therefore declined so much as asking his benefactor to part with him. Peter, struck with his self-sa- crificing faithfulness, asked the ambassador himself; and he was delighted with the prospect of greatness, which Peter's favor opened before this young Genevese. Peter made him his in- structor and friend, and eagerly listened to his accounts of the more civilized nations of the south. He asked Le Fort's opin- ion of his troops. " They are," said Le Fort, " well-made men, but neither their dress or discipline fit them for action." Peter desired to see the military costume of the south. In two days Le Fort appeared before him in the German uniform. Peter was delighted, and wished a company to be dressed in the same manner. Le Fort selected fifty of the tallest and most symmetrical of the strelitzes, and before the Czar believed it possible, they were paraded in full uniform, practising their newly learned evolutions beneath his window. Peter, to show his young nobility an example, himself enlisted in this com- pany, — and here began his military career, by faithfully perform- ing service as a drummer. 6. In favoring and increasing this new corps, Peter had in view to supplant the dangerous strelitzes. He had foreign offi- cers in his service, especially the two Scottish Gordons, but he wished for more. " Your majesty," said Le Fort, " cannot command such services, because your finances are in no better condition than your army ; your impost duties are so high, that the merchants practise frauds to get rid of paying them." On this, Peter changed the ten per cent, duties to five, made strict regulations against smugglers, and his receipts were soon doubled. Peter exercised at times the most barbarous severities. With his own hand he sometimes knouted, and sometimes de- capitated offenders. Without severity he could not have main- tained his authority; but he was subject to fits of ungovernable rage. Le Fort, moved with pity, would offer his own bared shoulders for the cruel knout, or his head for the block ; then Peter would frequently relent and spare the offender. 7. The want of shipping and seaports occupied the czar's mind. He began to learn the construction and management of vessels from a small one which he procured to be built on lake Peipus. He then took the extraordinary resolution to go to Holland and learn ship-building. But when he declared his intention of go- 5. Relate Peter's first acquaintance with Le Fort ? What happened be- tween them in relation to the military ? What example did Peter set to his young nobility ? — 6. What occurred in respect to the finances ? How did Le Fort save the lives of many Russians? — T. What subject occupied the Czar, and what did he begin to learn ? PETER OF RUSSIA IN HOLLAND. 395 ing abroad, the Russian clergy, already much scandalized be- Modern ms. cause their monarch had impiously, as they contended, planned perpd iv. a canal, thus setting up to make a river where the Almighty had chap. v. made none, now again were shocked at the idea of a Russian, ^^-v*^ and a Russian sovereign, leaving that first of lands to go and ( At this tim e abide in another. They formed a conspiracy, in which Sophia Jected™" again figured. Peter detected it, and punished the conspirators canal.) in a shocking manner. He then not only went abroad, but (Sophiawas compelled large numbers of the young nobility to go also, that not ' how ~ they might bring home improved customs. eV death.) 8. Passing through Riga and Hamburg, Peter went to Amster- dam, travelling as a private man in the suite of Le Fort, who went Ma in the character of ambassador. Here, sternly refusing to be Peter sets made a show of, to amuse the idle, he put on the clothes of outtotravel - a common laborer, used the ship-builders adze, and insisted on being treated like his fellow laborers. " Peter Roma- nofK" said the master of the yard, "why do you sit there? help to carry that log," and Peter put his shoulder beneath it. A ki at When the time for paying the men came, Peter took his wages, work. He and once he bought a pair of shoes ; and showing them after- pleasure of wards, " These," said he, " 1 purchased by my own labor." using his After he had learned ship-building, he passed over to England, ° W in|s arn " and was suffered, by William 111., to take his own way in visiting such objects as he could turn to the improvement of his people. While there, William Penn, who had already founded Pennsyl- vania, visited, and made for himself and the sect of quakers a 1698. very favorable impression on the mind of the Czar. Peter was e ^Yon. called home by an insurrection of the strelitzes, which was, however, quelled by General Gordon. The dreadful execution ( J a h y e s n Mott"' and destruction of this corps signalized his return to Moscow, ley, gave Le He then began to force the people to put in practice what he character: had learned abroad ; — correcting the dress, manners, and laws ^Pj^Jt- of the Russians. Le Fort assisted him; but in the midst of his ed, humane, usefulness he died. Peter mourned and wept aloud, — calling j gf n ' e s r ° b u e s r ,' on him by the names of father and friend: and making for and^ him the most sumptuous burial which Russia had ever wit- nessed. 9. Peter now turned a covetous eye upon the provinces which Russia had once owned upon the Baltic, but ceded to Sweden. Charles XII., at the age of fifteen, had succeeded his father, Charles XL, in that monarchy; and not only Peter, but other surrounding sovereigns had believed that this would tnlSnora? be a favorable moment for grasping its possessions. Peter purpose, leagued against Sweden with Frederic IV., the reigning sove- T. What resolution did he take? What causes of disaffection did the Russian clergy avow, and what did they attempt ? What did Peter ? — 8. How did he travel ? Describe Peter's behavior at Amsterdam. Where did he then go, and how was he treated by the king ? How did he like William Penn? How was he called home, and what happened on his re- turn? What did Le Fort and he do? What then occurred? — 9. What did Peter now covet, and why did he and the neighboring kings think it would be a good time to get what belonged to another country ? 396 CHARLES XII. OP SWEDEN. Modem His. PERI'D IV. CHAP. V. 1700. Charles makes peace with the Danes- itoi. NJ1RVA. Charles XII defeats the army of Peter. (Peter was not yet, however, nominally a general.) 1?©2. JVear the D WINA. Charles XII- defeats Au- gustus. GLISSAU. Charles XII- defeats Au- gustus. (The Poles here desert the Saxons-) reign of Denmark, and Augustus of Saxony, now raised to the throne of Poland. While Peter desired some of the provinces of Charles which would give him a port on the Baltic, Augus- tus wished to obtain Swedish Livonia; and Frederic IV. of Denmark, had a grudge against Charles of Sweden, on account of his taking part with his enemy, the duke of Holstein Got- torp. The Danes invaded the territories of the duke, who was brother-in-law to Charles, and who was vigorously supported not only by him, but also by the English and Dutch, with whom he had formed an alliance. Charles carried the war into Den- mark, and besieged Copenhagen. The Danish king, reduced to great distress, obtained the mediation of England and France, and a peace was concluded between Denmark and Sweden, highly honorable to the latter. 10. In the meantime, the Russians had commenced hostilities, and laid siege to Narva. Charles now advanced to the defence of that part of his kingdom, and although the Russian army numbered 80,000 men, he, with 8,000, attacked their camp, de- feated them, and relieved Narva. Peter, who was not in the battle, but was at the head of another army of 40,000 men, after learning the result, retired to his own dominions, exclaim- ing, " I knew that the Swedes would beat us, but in time they will teach us to beat them." In the meantime, Augustus had invaded Livonia, and laid siege to Riga. After the victory at Narva, the season was too far advanced to permit Charles to carry his arms against Augustus, but early in the ensuing spring he appeared in the field against the Poles and Saxons. The army of Augustus was stationed on the banks of the Dwina, where Charles, after forcing the passage of the river, encoun- tered them, and obtained a complete victory. With rapid strides he then marched through Courland and Lithuania. At Birsen, the town in which Peter and Augustus, a few months previ- ously, had planned his destruction, he now formed the resolu- tion to dethrone the king of Poland. Augustus governed the Poles with the same arbitrary sway which he had been accus- tomed to exercise over his Saxon subjects, and the nobles who elected him were chafed and indignant ; and Charles perempto- rily declared he would never grant them peace until they chose a new sovereign. 11. The hostile monarchs met at Glissau, and the heroic Swede, though with but half the number of troops, defeated the king of Poland. Cracow surrendered, but Charles being wounded by a fall from his horse, a few weeks were thereby afforded Augustus to rally his supporters. Charles being now recovered, 9. What three powers leagued against Sweden ? What two were aiding Charles XII. ? What did Charles in respect to the Danes?— lO. What happened at Narva ? Where was the czar Peter, and how affected by the defeat of his army ? What had been done by the king of Poland ? How was he met by the king of Sweden ? What resolution was made by Charles ? How did a portion of the Poles stand affected to Augustus? — 11. Relate the battle of Glissau. PETER THE GREAT. 397 marched against the remains of the Saxon army which had Modern m$. been defeated at Glissau, dispersed them, and then proceeded to PERI » D IV invest Thorn, whither Augustus had retired. He escaped, and fled to Saxony. Charles assembled a diet at Warsaw, which, under his influence, deposed Augustus, and elevated Stanis- laus Leczinski, an accomplished Polander of noble birth. Augustus received supplies of Russian troops, and he had still adherents who joined his standard; but Charles and Stanislaus obtained repeated victories over separate bands of the Russians, and at length drove them from Poland. Charles penetrated p * » Saxony, and at Alt Ranstadt Augustus, driven to extremity, ?{?« subscribed a disgraceful peace, by which he not only renounced ' ?~~ all claim to the crown of Poland, and acknowledged the title of b S et ^r ee ' n Stanislaus, — but he wrote him a letter of congratulation. The Charles xn. worst feature of the treaty was, however, his giving up to and t u" gus Charles, colonel Patkul, a noble-minded Swede, whom that hot-headed king had banished, for having spoken to him with obligesAu- an honourable plainness; and who, having entered the service gustusto of the czar, was sent as Russian minister to Augustus. He now Stanislaus, basely surrendered him, — and Charles cruelly slew him. 12. The czar Peter, in the meantime, had improved the disci- _ ."7" *. r t ■ • ■ ii- 11111 Great things plme of his armies, increased their strength, and he had con- done by quered Ingria, Livonia, and the city of JYarva. In the newly act e n e r y gy nd conquered country, and on a desert island, which the long winter of that climate rendered almost inaccessible, he had laid 1J03. the foundation of a new city, designed for the royal residence ; founds Pe- and to this he had transported, in less than five years, 300,000 tersburg. inhabitants. 13. Poland being subdued, Charles, confident of success, and resolving to attack his Russian enemy in the heart of his own dominions, directed his march to Moscow ; but the roads, by Peter's order, were destroyed, and the country desolated. — Finding himself obstructed on the route first attempted, and re- Treachery ceiving a promise of succor from Mazeppa, the chief of the °^man P of Cossacks, Charles next endeavored to penetrate to the capital the Cos- of Russia through the Ukraine. He also ordered his general, 9acks " Lewenhaupt, to bring him a reinforcement from Livonia. He entered the Ukraine in September, and overcoming every ob- stacle, advanced to the river Dwina, where he expected to be joined by Lewenhaupt and Mazeppa. The former was en- countered by the Russians and defeated ; the latter failed of his promised succor. Still, Charles, with a dreary winter before * Mazeppa was a Pole, brought up as page to the king. Afterwards an injured husband had him tied to the back of a wild horse, which carried him to his native woods among the Cossacks, who made him their hetman. 11. What was next done in regard to the Polish election ? How was Augustus situated ? How was it with the Russian invading troops ? What occurred at Alt Ranstadt ? Relate the account given of colonel Patkul ? — 12. What had the czar Peter done in the meantime in respect to his army ? What conquests had he made ? What city had he founded, and what num- ber of inhabitants placed in it ? — 13. Describe the course taken by Charles XII. ? What is said of Lewenhaupt ? Of Mazeppa? 398 CATHARINE SAVES THE RUSSIAN ARMY. Middle Hist. PERI'DIV. CHAP. V. jor-general. Conse- quence of Charles' de- feat. Charles in- cites the Turks against the Russians. May 21. THE TRUTH. Peter in danger. (Catharine was a poor orphan girl, but attrac- tive, and above all, good tem- pered. She was taken prisoner by a Russian army; and from such beginnings rose to be empress of Russia.) him, and with his army suffering from fatigue and famine, madly- persisted in his march. At Pultowa, he engaged the Russian army, consisting of more than 70,000 men, under the eye of the czar. Charles, so often the conqueror, here suffered an entire defeat. With only 300 guards, he escaped, wounded, from the field, went to Bender, and put himself under the protection of the Turks. Great was Peter's joy at this success. He advanced officers, and rewarded soldiers ; and as for himself, having, in the heat of the battle, taken prisoner a Swedish commander, and having had a ball shot through his hat, he, for these demonstra- tions, promoted himself to the rank of major-general. 14. Augustus had declared the treaty, which Charles had ex- torted from him, void; and renewed his claim to the crown of Poland. The czar supported his pretensions, entered Poland with an army, and reinstated him in the regal authority. Den- mark declared war anew with Sweden ; Peter laid claim to seve- ral of its provinces, and the king of Prussia to others ; and nothing but the interposition of the southern powers of Europe, prevented its dismemberment. 15. Charles was received by the Turks with great hospitali- ty, and employed himself in seeking to engage the Otttman Porte in war with Russia. The Porte showed their disposition to gratify his wishes, by imprisoning the Russian ambassador. Peter, when informed of this, advanced upon Turkey at the head of 40,000 men. Cantimir, prince of Moldavia, had vainly promised to aid him, and he marched into his country Near Jassy he discovered an army of 200,000 Turks, and soon after a considerable body of Tartars. He fortified his camp on the banks of the Pruth, where he lay besieged by the two hos- tile armies. The Turks now attacked him, and for three days kept the Russians fighting. Their numbers had wasted by nearly one-half, — their provisions failed, — and Peter retired in despair to his tent, forbidding any one to follow him. The czarina Cathariive, with the wives of several of the officers, had ac- companied the Russian army. She bethought herself of a last resource. The Turkish vizier might perhaps receive offers of peace if a suitable present could be made him, — without he could not be approached. She bought of all the ladies their jewelry, on pledge of future payment, and to these added her own. She then approached the irritable Peter, who seeing a gleam of hope, was pleased and grateful. The vizier received Catharine- s messenger, and sent back an answer of peace ; and Peter and his army were saved ; he giving ur> his ports on the sea of Azof. 16. Meanwhile the affairs of Sweden continued to suffer. 13. Relate the battle of Pultowa. What is related of Charles XII. after the battle ? What of the czar Peter ?— 14. What was the consequence of Charles' defeat in Poland with other powers ?— 15. What was done by the instigation of Charles, in Turkey? What was done by the czar in conse- quence ? Describe the situation of Peter at the Pruth. How was he re- lieved, and his army saved ? RETURN OF CHARLES XII. 399 The refusal of Charles to subscribe to a treaty which the em- peror and maritime powers had formed, kept alive the war in Sweden. The Danes, Saxons, and Russians, continued hostili- ties ; and the Swedes, though reduced to great distress, perse- vering] y resisted. Charles was troublesome to the Turks, who, though they desired not to violate the laws of hospitality, yet requested him to leave their dominions, and at last resorted to force, but still without effect. At length, receiving intelligence that the Swedes were urging the regency of the kingdom upon his sister, with a view of forcing her to make peace with Den- mark and Russia, he was induced to return to his kingdom. He arrived at Stralsund in Pomerania, five years after the battle of Pultowa, 17. The czar, whose navy had acquired considerable strength, commanded the Baltic, and now besieged Charles with a small army which he had collected, in Stralsund, The place was taken by storm. Charles escaped in a small vessel, passed safely through the Danish fleet, and landed in Sweden. Fifteen years had passed since the monarch left his capital, bent on the con- quest of the world. In his humbled fortunes, he did not choose to revisit it, but passed the winter at Carlscroon. Undaunted amid all his reverses, and unsated with blood, he still thought but of war. While his numerous enemies had made themselves masters of all his provinces, and threatened to destroy Sweden itself, Charles invaded Norway, and made the useless conquest of Christiana, which he was soon forced to abandon. However, he a second time invaded that kingdom, and while watching the attack of his soldiers upon Fredericshall, he was struck on the head by a cannon ball, and expired without a groan. The Swe- dish senate took immediate measures for settling the govern- ment. Ulrica Eleonora, sister of Charles, was raised to the throne. Treaties with the different powers were concluded, in which, by ample concessions, Sweden obtained peace. The czar, her most powerful enemy, was the last pacified, and then, only by obtaining the important provinces of Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, and Carelia. 18. Peter had married, when very young, the daughter of a Russian nobleman. After a few years he put her way, for no alleged cause, and confined her in a convent. Yet Alexis, the son whom she bore him, he designed as his heir ; but the youth often saw his mother, and he grew up undutiful and intractable towards his father, — making game of his improvements, and prac- tising petty deceptions to eseape, when the czar wished him to attend to matters of importance. His marriage with a lovely and amiable princess, but made his hopeless intemperance and Modern His. PERI'D IV. CHAP. V. (After the treaty of the Pruth, Charles, in passing the Turkish vi- zier, tore.his robe with his spur.) 1714. Charles re- turns to Sweden. Charles in his last days seems half insane. 1718. Death of Charles. Peace of Nystadt, Between the Swedes and Rus- sians. (Peter pays the Swedes as indemni- ty, 2,000,000 of dollars- The Czaro- witz. His worthless and irre- claimable character. 16. How was Sweden at this time situated ? What was the conduct of Charles towards the Turks? What induced him to return to Sweden ?— IT. What happened on his return ? What course did he take after his es- cape from Stralsund ? Where and how did his death occur ? Who was made queen? On what conditions did Sweden obtain peace, especially from I; the czar ?— 18. What was the character of the czarowitz Alexis ? How i had. Peter treated the mother of Alexis ? 400 THE CELESTIAL EMPIRE. Modern His. 1931. Peter takes a new title. 1925 Death of Peter the Great. (Called by the Chinese the Celestial Empire.) Kublai. 1299 to 1360. Marco Polo in China. (See history of Colum- bus, Vasco de Gama, the Cabots, Verazani, &c.) 136$. Dynasty of Ming. 1649. Dynasty of Tsing. profligacy the more apparent ; and the neglected and ill-treated wife died of a broken heart. Peter then threatened. His son escaped to Vienna, telling the emperor his life was in danger. Peter invited him to return on the pledge of safety ; but he brought him to trial, and the nobles and clergy pronounced him worthy of death. The evening before his execution was to have taken place, he died in his bed, doubtless by poison. After this, Peter took the title of " Emperor of all the Russias," which has been retained by his successors. He made an excursion to the Caspian, intending to attack Persia ; but returned after having founded a city. His wife, Catharine, was crowned empress dur- ing the lifetime of her husband, and on his death she succeeded, by his will, to the government of the Russian empire* 19. CHINA. — In 1719, the czar Peter, sent an embassy across Siberia to China ; and in 1737, Russia formed a treaty of friend- ship with that power, and sent an envoy to the court of Pekin, China is interesting from its great extent and population, but materials for its history are scarce. Before the Christian era, from 1776 to 1122, three dynasties reigned; after which, until 250 B. C, there is utter historical darkness; owing, it is said, to the destruction of the Chinese records by Schi-ho-ang-ti; who became the founder of a prosperous dynasty soon after the erection of the great wall, about 300 years before Christ. Through the middle ages China makes no figure, until Kublai Khan, a grandson of Jenghiz, conquered the country ; founded Pekin, and made himself Great Khan of China. During his prosperous reign, Marco Polo, a Venetian traveller, visited his kingdom. Publishing his travels on his return, his description of the riches of the " East Indies," the name given to the re- gions of the east, so inflamed the minds of the Italians, that they became a nation of discoverers ; their great object being to find a passage by sea to these rich countries. The race of Jen- ghiz lost the supremacy in 1368, being then supplanted by the dynasty of Ming. This was driven out in 1647, by the Man- chew Tartars, whose dynasty, called that of Tsing, has since continued to reign. The Chinese reckon this dynasty to be their twentieth. In the seventeenth century they received the Jesuit missionaries ; but early in the eighteenth, they drove them out, and persecuted their followers. * We have continued this account of the northern nations beyond the peace of Utrecht, for the purpose of bringing to a close the career of the two prin- cipal actors, Charles XII. and Peter the Great. 18. Did marrying an interesting woman reclaim him ? Relate the re- mainder of his history. What new title did Peter take ? What excursion did he make ? Who succeeded him ? — 19. What embassy is here men- tioned? What treaty ? What remarks are made concerning the Chinese history before the time of their historical darkness ? What from that time to the reign of Kublai Khan ? What during his reign ? What after it ? The Czarina saves the Russian army at the Pruth. PERIOD V. THE TREATY OF UTRECHT, ~? j »-fl £ THE WAR 0F THE SPANISH WHICH CLOSES 5 C SUCCESSION, THE TREATY OF AIX-LA-CHA- C l^Ag £tHE WAR 0F THE AUSTRIAN PELLE, WHICH CLOSES £ *£ SUCCESSION. CHAPTER I. Invasion of" the Turks. — Eight years war. 1. The peace of Utrecht had produced a considerable change in the situation and affairs of the southern nations of Europe. Austria received an accession of territory in the Spanish Neth- erlands, and in Italy. Two new kingdoms arose, Prussia, the title of whose king, Frederic II., was now, for the first time, acknowledged by France ; and Sicily, which, with his heredi- tary possessions, was erected into a kingdom for Victor Ama- deus II., duke of Savoy. No treaty having been made between Spain and Austria, although the war ceased, neither of these kingdoms resigned its pretensions. Peace was for the interest of the leading powers ; yet Austria was soon at war with the Turks, who had encroached upon the Venetian possessions, and overrun the Morea. Their army, under prince Eugene,* attack- ed and defeated the Turks at Zenta, at Peterwaradin, and Period V. — Chap. I. — 1. What changes were produced by the treaty of Utrecht ? What new kingdom arose ? What two nations were not parties to the treaty of peace? What encroachments h-ad the Turks recently made ? Give an account of the commander sent against them. (See note.) What signal victories did Prince Eugene gain over the Turks ? 403 Modern His. 404 THE PRAGMATIC SANCTION. Modern His. a g ain a t Belgrade. A peace was soon after concluded, at Passa- period v, rowitz, in which Turkey ceded to Austria Belgrade, part of chap. i. Servi.a, and Wallachia. Venice retained part of Dalmatia, hut v -*"~ v ~>>*- / surrendered to the Turks the Morea. 2. While Austria was employing her forces in the east, Spain, under Philip V., was concerting measures for renewing hostili- ties, with the design to recover possessions, which the treaty of Utrecht had given to the house of Austria. The Spaniards Projects of made themselves masters of Sardinia, and a great part of the th minister Sh Island of Sicily. Alberoni, the minister of Philip, had also Alberoni. concerted measures to procure for his monarch the regency of France, (his grandfather, Louis XIV., being now dead,) and for placing the son of James II., called " the pretender," upon the throne of England; but another, and leading object of the court, was to recover the Spanish possessions in Italy, as a portion for the children of Elizabeth, the queen of Spain, an Italian princess of the house of Farnese, and heiress to the duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena. These designs of the Spanish court aroused the jealousy of England, France, Austria and HIS- Holland ; and they formed a league for the preservation of the Quadruple peace of Utrecht, called the "Quadruple Alliance," which Alliance provided that the emperor of Germany should renounce all between claim to Spain and its colonies ; and that the king of Spain France,' should give up his pretensions to the provinces already ceded. A Hoiiand nd '* stipulated also, that Don Carlos, son of Elizabeth, should against' eventually succeed to the duchies of Tuscany, Parma and Pla- Spam. cen tia; and that the duke of Savoy should exchange Sicily for Sardinia. The Spanish court refused the dictation of the " Al- liance," and a declaration of war was made by England and France against Spain, whenPhilipV., alarmed at the consequences of resistance, disgraced his minister Alberoni, and acceded to the terms of the " Quadruple Alliance." 3. The emperor of Germany, Charles VI., who had no sons, desired to secure the succession of the Austrian territories, his Pragmatic hereditary domain, to his daughter, Maria Theresa. With this Sanction, (a v i ew h e pu t f or th his u Pragmatic Sanction," securing the sue- ing from the cession of female heirs ; having previously obtained the assent theadvfeeof °f tne hereditary states of the empire ; to which he now sought his counsel.) by negotiation, to add the approval of the other European powers, and which he finally obtained. 1*733* 4. The throne of Poland becoming vacant by the death of Au- theY/- g ustus ? Stanislaus Leczinski, whom Charles XII., of Sweden, Ush sue- had formerly elevated, was now chosen king by the Polish elec- lioS tors ' anc ^ receive & tne support of Louis XV. of France, who to had married his daughter. The sovereigns of Russia and Aus- 1109. tria opposed his election, and compelled he Poles to a second islaus Leczin 1. What changes of territory were made at the peace of Passarowitz ? — ski. 2. What places were taken by Spain ? What designs entertained ? What was the course of Spain in regard to the Quadruple Alliance? — 3. What was done by Charles VI. to secure his daughter's succession 1 — 4. By whom was Leczinski chosen, and to what sovereignty ? WAR OF THE POLISH SUCCESSION. 405 choice, when Augustus, son of the deceased monarch, was raised to the throne. The king of France resenting this treat- ment to his father-in-law, formed an alliance with the kings of Spain and Sardinia, and commenced hostilities. The war was carried on in Italy by the allies, who made themselves masters of most of the Austrian possessions in that country. The German empire was attacked by the French, and Philipsburg was taken. The losses of the emperor, and the pacific dispo- sition of cardinal Fleury, who was at the head of the French ministry, caused a peace, — which, the succeeding year, was set- tled at Vienna. By this treaty the French guarantied the "Prag- matic sanction." Stanislaus renounced his claim to the Polish throne, and received in compensation the duchy of Lorraine, where he passed his days in study and philosophic repose ; the former duke receiving Tuscany in exchange. Don Carlos was acknowledged king of the two Sicilies j\ and the king of Sar- dinia received some accession of territory. 5. The emperor, Charles VI., believed that he had secured to his daughter his rich Austrian possessions, including the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia. But the Pragmatic Sanction, which they had guarantied, proved a feeble barrier against the selfish- ness and ambition which ruled in the hearts of the neighboring monarchs. The death of Charles was immediately followed by claims from the elector of Bavaria to the kingdom of Bo- hemia, of Augustus, elector of Saxony, now king of Po- land, to the whole Austrian territories, and by other antiquated demands. Nevertheless, Maria Theresa took possession of her inheritance, and received the most flattering homage ; par- ticularly from her Hungarian subjects, with whom her digni- fied and conciliating manners had rendered her extremely po- pular. She had married Francis of Lorraine, grand duke of Tuscany, and she greatly desired his elevation to the imperial throne. 6. Prussia had now become a kingdom of considerable strength and importance. An immense treasure amassed by the parsimony of its first king, Frederic William, and an army of sixty thousand men, had passed under the control of his son Frederic II., who was now eager to employ the power and wealth of which he was master, to enlarge his territories. His heart was chiefly bent on obtaining Silesia, which belonged to Maria Theresa. At the head of a powerful army, he marched into the territory, and then offered to support her claims in Modern His. PERIOD V. CHAP. I. (f i. e. Naples and Sicily.) 1T38. Maria The- resa(called the queen of Hungary.) 174LO. Associates in power her husband Francis of Lorraine. War of the Austrian succession. Dishonora- ble conduct of Frederic II. 4. Observe and relate what nations are now interfering in the internal affairs of Poland. What kings support Leczinski? What was the course and termination of the " War of the Polish succession ?" What changes were made by the treaty of Vienna? — 5. What dominions did Charles VI. leave his daughter ? Why did not the Pragmatic Sanction insure her a peaceable succession? Which of her subjects seemed most attached? Whom did she marry ? — 6. How did Prussia become strong in her army and treasury ? Who was Frederic William's successor, and on what was he bent ? What was his conduct in respect to his unoffending fellow- sovereign, Maria Theresa? 408 WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. Modern His. PERIOD V. CHAP. I. 1741. MOLL- WITZ. League of Prussia, France and Bavaria, against Ma- ria Theresa 1742. At Prague, the elector crowned king of Bo- hemia, at Frankfort, emperor. Peace of Breslau, between Prussia and Austria. 1743. DETTW- GEJV. Austrians and English, under the king of England, defeat the French. Treaty of Fontain- blean, other quarters, on condition of her peaceably relinquishing to him Lower Silesia. She rejected his offer, and prepared to re- sist his usurpation. Their armies met at Mollwitz ; the Prus- sians obtained a victory, and the whole province of Silesia sub- mitted to Frederic. 7. His successes awakened the ambition of the French court. A treaty was formed between Louis XV., Frederic of Prussia, and Charles, elector of Bavaria, by which it was agreed to divide the Austrian inheritance, and place the elector of Bava- ria on the imperial throne. The Bavarian and French forces entered Upper Austria, and advancing upon Vienna, compelled Maria Theresa to retire to Hungary. The generous Hungarians, aroused by the wrongs of their sovereign, swore " We will die for our queen, Maria Theresa." From the other parts of her dominions also, powerful armies rallied to her standard. The elector, on account of the lateness of the season, and the strength of Vienna, turned towards Prague, which was taken, and he was there crowned king of Bohemia. Proceeding to Frankfort, he was, in that city, elected emperor of Germany, under the title of Charles VII. An army of the queen now invaded the Bavarian territories. 8. Frederic, regardless of his allies, entered into a treaty with Maria Theresa at Breslau. She granted him Upper and Lower Silesia, the object of his desires, and he engaged to remain neutral. The neutrality of Poland was also purchased by a grant of new territories. Meanwhile, the French army in Bo- hemia was reduced to the necessity of acting on the defensive. That portion which was in possession of Prague, was at length compelled to retire, but through the skill of their commander, Belleilse, they effected a safe retreat. Louis, now deserted by Frederic, offered proposals of peace, which Maria Theresa rejected. George II. of England, sent to her aid British and Hanoverian troops, and in the next campaign the French were driven from Bohemia, and the emperor was reduced to distress. At Dettingen, the British, Hanoverian, and Austrian troops, un- der the eye of George II, maintained a sanguinary contest with the French, and defeated them. The king of Sardinia now be- came an ally of Maria Theresa. 9. These successes of the queen, and the haughtiness with which she rejected every proposal of peace, led to a new coalition against her. Louis XV. renewed his alliance with Spain at Fontairibleau, and declared war against England ; and 6. How did she receive his offer ? What battle followed, and what was its result ? — 7. What treat y was now formed against Maria Theresa ? How did the allies commence hostilities ? Relate the movements of the elector of Bavaria till he became emperor. Where, in the mean time, was Maria Theresa, and what attached subjects did she find? — 8. What were the parties in the treaty of Breslau, and what its conditions ? Whom besides Frederic did Maria Theresa buy to be neutral ? What was now the condi- tion of the French in Bohemia? Relate the battle of Dettingen. What ally now joined the cause of the queen ? — 9. What led to a new coalition against Maria Theresa ? THE EIGHT YEARS' WAR. 407 from this period these two powers may almost be regarded the principals in the war. By the influence of France, — Prussia, Sweden, and some of the German princes, were at length in- duced to arm in defence of the emperor. The king of Prussia invaded Bohemia. His successes at first were rapid, but he was soon compelled to surrender his conquests and retire. The emperor was in danger of being driven again from his capital, when death put an end to his hopes and fears. Maximilian, his son, now entered into a treaty with the queen of Hungary, by which he agreed that her husband should be made emperor; she engaging to put him in possession of his hereditary estates. Francis of Lorraine was accordingly elected emperor at Frank- fort, under the title of Francis 1, 10. The armies of Prussia continued the war in Silesia and Bohemia; but after Frederic had obtained two decisive and bloody victories, one near Friedberg in Silesia, the other at Sorr in Bohemia, a treaty of peace was made at Dresden, by which he acknowledged the validity of Francis 7 election, and was con- firmed in the possession of Silesia. The French maintained the war with obstinacy in Flanders. Saxe, who commanded the French army, obtained a victory over the English and Hano- verians, under the duke of Cumberland, at Fontenoy, and re- duced Brussels and Brabant. The duke of Cumberland was recalled by the progress of the young pretender, prince Charles Edward, whom the French had encouraged to make a descent upon England. The Austrians were left to maintain the contest in Flanders, and marshal Saxe obtained a victory over them, at Roucoux. 11. Maria Theresa having made peace with Prussia, was ready to turn the whole force of her arms against France and Spain. The king of England, incensed at the support given to the pretender, only waited to suppress the insurrection which his presence occasioned, to engage with new zeal in the conti- nental war. In the succeeding campaign, the Dutch took an active part against the French. The duke of Cumberland, after having defeated the pretender's adherents in the battle of Culloden, and disgraced himself by the barbarities committed after it, returned with a reinforcement of British troops. An in- decisive, but bloody battle was fought at Val, after which the French invested, and finally, to the great consternation of the Dutch, made themselves masters of Bergen-op-zoom, the strong- est fortification in Dutch Brabant. At sea the British flag was triumphant. Modern His. PERIOD V. CHAP. I. 1745. FRIED- BERG and SORR. Frederic de- feats the allies. (In America Louisburg is taken by the English colonists under Pep- perell.) ROU- COUX. French de- feat the Austrians. 1746. CULLO- DEN. In Scotland. 1747- VAL. French vic- torious. They take Bergen-op- zoom. 9. What powers made a league at Fontainbleau ? What other powers were induced by France to unite against Austria ? — lO. By what peace did Frederic again desert his allies ? Did he serve his own purposes by gaining the province he desired ? What victories did he first gain ? What fortress was taken in America ? What generals were now in Flanders, and what battles were fought ? What called the English commander away ? — 11. What battle did he fight in Scotland, and who were defeated? What battle was fought during the last campaign of the eight years' war? What is said of Bergen-op-zoom ? 408 PACIFICATION OP EUROPE. Modern His. PERIOD V. CHAP. II. Peace of Aix-La- Chapelle. closes the Eight Years' War, 12. Louis now turned his thoughts towards peace, which the situation of his kingdom, notwithstanding his late victories, rendered necessary. A congress was opened at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a treaty formed, on the basis of mutual restitution. The queen of Spain obtained for her second son the sovereignty of the duchies of Parma and Placentia. The king of Prussia was guarantied the possession of Silesia. The right of Maria Theresa to the hereditary possessions of the house of Austria, with the exception of such portions as were already ceded to other powers, was acknowledged, and guarantied anew. That England should return her conquests, was subject of severe mortification to the people of New England ; who had mani- fested their loyalty and courage by the remarkable siege and capture of Louisburg ; then the key of the French possessions, and the strongest fortress in America. Thus was closed, " The Eight Years' War ;" during which blood flowed freely to gratify a few crowned heads ; who sent armies to be slaughtered, with as little compunction as they would have moved the pawns upon a chess board ; and often for purposes worse than idle. This war began with Frederic's desire to rob a young queen of her honest inheritance, which he had engaged to respect; and ended with his consummating the robbery. 1?©6. Union of the Scotch and English parlia- ments. (tin all taxes on land, Scot- land is to raise one- sixth, England five- Bixths.) CHAPTER II. England. 1. The union of the legislative powers of England and Scotland, is the most important event of the reign of queen Anne. The bill proposed allowed the Scots to send to the Bri- tish parliament sixteen peers and forty-five commoners, with reciprocal rights of trade. It was violently opposed in the Scot- tish parliament, on the ground of inequality of representation ; but was finally accepted, on the parliament of England paying 398,000 pounds sterling as an equivalent.! It diminished the political importance of Scotland, but secured its tranquillity. England was weary of the long and sanguinary wars of the Spanish succession, and intrigues were set on foot against the duke of Marlborough. Queen Anne, when young, had formed an intimacy with the witty, sprightly, but high tempered Sarah Jennings, afterwards married to Col. Churchill, who rose by his great military services, and by the affection of the queen for 12. Where did a congress assemble ? What were the conditions of the peace ? Why were the people of New England mortified that the English should give up their conquests ? What remarks close the chapter? Chap. II. — I. What was the most important political event of the reign of queen Anne? What plan was proposed ? How were difficulties finally adjusted ? Give an account of queen Anne's female favorites. THE HANOVERIANS SUCCEED THE STUARTS. 409 his wife, until he became duke of Marlborough, and received Modem m s . the splendid estate and palace called from one of his great bat- period v. ties, " Blenheim." The duchess introduced to the service of CHAP - n - the queen, one Agnes Hill, a weak but cunning sycophant, ^>^w^>^ who supplanted her in Anne's affections, and afterwards became Under " the lady Masham." The duchess had become presuming Anne and imperious ; and when she found that the queen was grow- jjjjj ^ ing tired of her sway, she gave loose to her fiery tongue, and too irritated Anne by continual reproaches. When affairs came to j 1 ^^!. this pass among the women, then the enemies of Marlborough, f 9 red the lords Bolingbroke, Oxford, aud others, by paying court Tneans 7 to lady Masham, brought the queen to treat the duchess with jjjjjj* cutting neglect, and strip the duke of his offices. The duke in favor- his political and pecuniary operations, had laid himself open to ltes ' censure. After this, the treaty of Utrecht was negotiated, and a brief pacification of Europe ensued. 2. Queen Anne survived this event but a short time ; for her ministers no longer occupied with a foreign war, broke into fu- rious quarrels with each other. With all the energy her gentle nature could command, the queen sought to direct affairs, and 1^13. settle difficulties; and to that purpose she attended a long con- (Pope, ference and dispute of her cabinet council. Her feminine mind ^ on \~ was overwhelmed with this strife of masculine passions ; she swift, declared she could not outlive it, — sunk into a lethargy, and now' after lingering two days, expired. The ministers, when they jfjJed") found that the queen must die, roused to a better spirit; and by their wise and rapid measures, placed the kingdom in a condi- tion, which secured the peaceful accession of the Hanoverian line, in the person of George I. 3. The three great factions who now divided the nation, were Line of ' the whigs, lories, and Jacobites, of which only the latter were swn.~ opposed to the king. It was his policy to conciliate them James 1. all ; instead of which, he lent himself completely to the whig ^JJ' party, and was guilty of flagrant injustice to the leading tories ; m.totbe taking away their estates, and in some instances procuring their e paS- r execution. Henry St. John, lord Bolingbroke, and the earl tine, of Ormond, who had stood high in queen Anne's favor, were ^J}**' attainted of high treason and deprived of their estates. The heiress, aged earl of Oxford was impeached, and though suffering with ™^q° u £' disease, so that his physician declared imprisonment would tus, endanger his life, yet the king unmercifully kept him confined C f Han- in the tower. The principal crime alleged against him, was over - that of having led queen Anne to make the peace of Utrecht. j^guS That such allegations were but mere pretences to commit legal king of 1. What political change occurred when the lady Masham's influence nere clj_ was completely established ? — 2. Relate the circumstances of queen Anne's tary death. What at the last, was done by the ministers of the queen when she elector was near death?— 3. What were the three political parties ? Which were of Han- opposed to the accession of George ? What was the conduct of the king over * towards these parties? How were the ministers of the late queen treated, the earl of Oxford in particular ? What was the accusation against him, and what did the people believe ? 52 o S3 ba So I 3 410 SOUTH SEA SCHEME. Modern His, murder on men whom the king, and his unprincipled and artful period v. minister, Sir Robert Walpole, wished out of their way, the chap. ii. people believed ; and hence hatred arose in many minds. -^*~v~**s 4. The Jacobite party gained ground; — the leaders pro- jected a rebellion, and the pretender was invited over. Louis XIV favored, though not openly, his cause; the earl of Mar, a wi* aided by many of the Scottish nobles, took arms ; and the earl pre's- of Derwentwater put himself at the head of a force in the F^S^h nortn °f England. While the pretender was preparing to em- defeat bark, Louis XJV. died ; and the duke of Orleans, the regent of lender." France, did not favor the enterprise of the Jacobites, though he amused and deceived them by false pretences.f The troops of George I. totally defeated lord Derwentwater, at Preston; and on the same day another army, under the command of the riff- i>uke of Argyle, gained an advantage over the earl of Mar, at a^ 1 ?' Sherifmiuir. After these transactions, the pretender arrived in Hano-' Scotland, and was proclaimed king by his adherents ; but find- defeats' m £ n * s cause desperate, and knowing that a heavy price was set Mar,ja- upon his head, he returned to France. Some of his adherents cobne. £ ec ]^ — some submitted, — and some were apprehended, and treated with unsparing cruelty. Lord Derwentwater was beheaded on Tower-hill. t(Bo- 5. This reign was the era of the famous speculating project, bJSte, call the " South Sea Scheme." The " South Sea Company' 1 now in was formed on some pretence of securing advantages in the was in' South Sea trade, but with the real object of obtaining the public ^esuif" stoc k ? and becoming the sole creditor of the nation. An enor- the pre- mous amount of South Sea stock was created in the first place, ten er.) w i t hout an y actual capital. Of this, a large amount was given 1?20. in bribes to insure the co-operation of persons, influential in the S Sea h v i ew °f tne speculators. They succeeded, and the holders of Scheme, a considerable part of the public debt were induced to exchange their securities for this stock ; and it rose in the market at one time to 400 per cent, above par. The whole nation seemed seized with the South Sea mania. The government and the Bank of England, as well as innumerable individuals, became deeply involved. At length the bubble burst. The stock sunk Vui- " to r i se no more 5 and individuals who had rashly parted with sion" in their real property to purchase nominal, found themselves in a ian(L~ destitute and forlorn condition. The bank of England was in imminent danger of failure, and public credit, of extinction. George I., who had gone on a visit to his Hanoverian do- minions, was called home in haste; and he and his parliament succeeded, after great difficulties, in allaying the evil, and setting 4t. What was done by the Jacobite party ? By whom was the pretender favored? Give an account of the battle of Preston. Of SherhTmuir, What is related of the pretender ? Of his adherents ? — 5. What speculating project was now set on foot ? What account is given of the South Sea Com- pany f Of the stock issued by this company ? How far did the speculators succeed ? What parties became involved ? When the bubble burst what happened ? THE YOUNG PRETENDER. 411 the wheels of commerce again in motion ; but many families • Mt)dern H ^ were irretrievably ruined, and the national credit and resources perfd v. were, for some years, impaired. CI1AP - IT - 6. George II., as has been related, engaged in alliances with x ~*'~^ / ^*~ / Frederic the Great, of Prussia, and Maria Theresa of Austria, 1TSW. and sent an army against the French under the duke of Cum- Ge {J ge berland. Another attempt was made to restore the Stuarts. The 1745. , chevalier Charles Edward, son of the pretender, encou- p ^q^~ raged by the Jacobites, landed in Scotland. The Highland chief- pans. tains and some lowland nobles joined him with their retainers. qZcLs- At their head the prince marched to Edinburgh, surprised and muir - made himself master of the city. He established himself in bites de- Holy-Rood palace, and caused his father to be proclaimed king gj^-jg of Great Britain. He afterwards gained a victory over the king's (Col. troops at Preston Pans. Parliament, alarmed, recalled the duke G ^^' of Cumberland from the continental war, and put him at the killed.) head of their forces. 7. Meantime Charles Edward made an irruption into Eng- land, took the town of Carlisle, and proceeded to Derby. But finding that few of the English Jacobites joined his standard, FAL _ and learning that extensive preparations were making against kirk. him, the disappointed adventurer retraced his steps. At Fal- bites kirk, he obtained another advantage over the royal troops ; but ™ l ™~ Cumberland, who followed him, gained a bloody victory over 1^4© his adherents at Culloden. The duke gave no quarter to those cul- who surrendered ; and when from among the mangled bodies on ^Ir. the battle-field, some rose up, recovering from the faintness of The their wounds, there were those in watching, who shot them pieten- down ; and who killed even females who came to seek for their t ^, r ^ dead. From this time the wretched young prince, — a heavy price feated. set upon his head, wandered for five months under various dis- guises. He was pursued and hunted from place to place ; suf- fering extreme hardships, yet experiencing the attachment and fidelity of the Highlanders, the poorest of whom would not be- tray him for money. At length he procured a passage to France. The cruel battle of Culloden crushed for ever the hopes of the unfortunate Stuarts. 6 What has already been related respecting the foreign alliances and wars of George II. ? Relate the progress of the young pretender up to the time of the battle of Preston Pans or Gladsmuir. Who was successful at that battle ?— T. Relate the progress of Charles Edward m England. Why did he retrace his steps ? What other battles were /ought and with what success ? Give a more particular account of the battle of Culloden. What became of the young pretender after this ? MAP Wo. 13. HOLLAND, AND THE ' Contiguous Countries- N O R T d S E 'Ghent Groningen^nffldenbi LeuwardenA / J* Ztrtpheft iippe R. %* >^.*> lberfeld/^g4J: <5 coioSie^ti^g y ''-'{& in , Nordhausen a^Cobl ®7 Cambray*^ tS 4j»^K i Basto _ •St. Quentin ^ Sedan\ Luxemburg 2 l„A PERIOD VI; THE PEACE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, ?1T48,5 WH 5 S £eIG TO ICH CLOSES THE HT YEARS WAR/ BY THE REPUBLIC OF AMERICA. CHAPTER I. The Seven Years' War. 1. An awful visitation of Almighty God was manifested at Modem His. this period ; a dreadful earthquake levelled the palaces of Lis- P erpd vi. bon in the dust, and crushed its inhabitants beneath their ruins, chap. i. The earth opened and swallowed them up, and the sea over- v^^^w flowed them; so that 30,000 perished in an hour. But the 1T55- rulers of the nations were bent on again preparing for their peo- E a a t r Ljsbon. e pie the more destructive evil of war. 2. Austria formed an alliance with France, Russia, and Swe- * This war might properly be called the Silesian war, as its cause was the desire which Frederic of Prussia had to possess the province of Silesia. It is often quoted in European history as the War of the Austrian Succession. In America it was called the Old French War. Period VI.— Chap. I. — 1. What visitation of Providence is here re- lated ? 413 414 AUSTRIA ATTACKS PRUSSIA. Mo dern His. aen . ana < Prussia with England. The alliance of the empress, I'Kiti'D vi. Maria Theresa with France, the ancient and hereditary enemy chap. i. of the house of Austria, for the purpose of invading a part of v - ■-v-w t h e German empire, is accounted for, by her animosity towards Reigning Frederic of Prussia for seizing Silesia, and her desire not only SanC\ to recover it, but to make reprisals. Indeed, the formidable al- G pruKi"'{ liance against Prussia hoped to divide that kingdom among Frederic I themselves. The French took Minorca. The king of Prussia Germany, ] invaded Saxony, and compelled Augustus, the elector, to aban- M : lhe "' \ don Dresden, of which he took possession. He then invaded Fmrfce, i Bohemia, and obtained a victory over an Austrian army at ^ is 3 Lowesitz. Russia, l 3. The following year, the French under mareschal d'Etrees, yoSngeS' I passed the Rhine to invade Hanover. George II., now king of daughter [ England, was warmly attached to his electoral dominions, and the Great. J sent his brother, the duke of Cumberland to the continent, to command an army of 40,000 Hanoverians and Hessians; FreX notwithstanding which, the French conquered from them the conquer electorate. It was reconquered the succeeding campaign. Hanover. p re( j er £ c f p russ ia was now in an alarming condition. An army of 180,000 Russians was threatening to invade his domi- nions •, the Swedes were in arms, and ready to enter Pomerania in order to regain that country ; and the empress Maria Theresa had augmented her armies to 180,000, intending to attack him on the side of the German empire. He found it necessary to make four divisions of his army ; each of which was to enter Bohemia separately, but to unite with the others ; and all to join in the neighborhood of Prague. After the union of three divi- prjique si° ns ? Frederic gave battle to the Austrians, who, under the Frederic de- command of prince Charles of Lorraine, and marshal iSians. Daun, were encamped near Prague. After a hard fought battle, the Austrians were compelled to quit the field, and retire within the walls, which Frederic closely besieged. On the approach KOLW. of marshal Daun, at the head of another division of the Austrian defeatFre- army, Frederic, with a part of his forces, advanced towards the , derie '™ ?™ Elbe, and gave him battle at Kolin. He lost the field, and was loses 20,000 *, .,, n & . , ,, „ , t> i • men. compelled to raise the siege ol Prague and evacuate Bohemia. 4. The Russians, French, and Swedes, had now invaded Prussia, but the martial genius of Frederic did not desert him. Assem- robbach bling another army, he offered battle to the French and impe- nvj Leuthen. rialists at Rosbach, where he obtained a complete victory. He featfthe 6- then marched and met the army of the Austrians in Silesia, un- im^edaiists ^er P rmce Charles, and at Leuthen was again victorious. The Russians, meanwhile, had retired into their own country, and 2. What two alliances were formed ? What seems the moving cause of these alliances, and the war which followed ? Give an account of the prin- cipal occurrences of the first campaign. — 3. Relate the first events of the se- cond campaign. (1757.) Wh;$t was the situation of Frederic in respect to in- vading armies ? What were his arrangements? Tn what battle was he suc- cessful, and whom did he defeat? What reverse did he meet, and how many men did he lose ? — 4t< Relate the last events of the second campaign, including two battles. THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 415 the Prussian army, which had been opposed to them, being left Modern Hia. at liberty, turned against the Swedes, and recovered many of peri'd vi. their conquests in Pomerania. chap. i. 5. The king of Prussia in the next campaign besieged 01- v -^ v ^-^ mutz ; but after four weeks, turned his forces against the Rus- 1758. sians, who had invaded Brandenburg. He obtained a victory Z dorf. over them at Zorndorf, and compelled them to retreat into Po- Frederic de land. Frederic was afterwards defeated at Hochkirchen, by the Russians. Austrians; but he still retained Silesia, and prevented them from hochkir deriving any important advantage from their victory. He next A c u 2 g marched into Saxony, where the Austrians had besieged Dres- defeat Fre- den and Leipzig, compelled them to raise the siege of both cities. denc * Thus ended the campaign with the triumph of the Prussian arms. The British had in the meantime been successful at sea. 6. The succeeding campaign opened upon Frederic with a reverse. The Russians again advanced upon Silesia, and made themselves masters of Frankfort upon the Oder. The Prus- 1759. sian monarch marched against the combined Russian and Aus- cuw- trian force, under general Laudon, which was posted at the #oS~ village of Cunnersdorf. A most sanguinary battle ensued. Not- Russians withstanding the almost incredible exertions of Frederic, the su- triansdefeat perior numbers of the Russians and Austrians prevailed, and the F ^P C > Prussians were defeated. At one period of the battle, victory 16,000. seemed to have declared in favor of Frederic, who at the mo- ment wrote a congratulatory note to his queen, " We have driven the Russians from their intrenchments — expect within (i n America, two hours to hear of a glorious victory." His triumph was battle of the short, and in a few hours another note conveyed to the queen ofabrji- the orders, " Remove the royal family from Berlin — Let the D ^JjJ^ f archives be carried to Potsdam — The town may make condi- Wolfe, and tions with the enemy." Yet so skillful were Frederic's ma- SU Q U e e n b teY f noeuvres, that the Russians did not hazard the attack of Berlin, and he soon appeared again in the field with a formidable force. 7. Meantime, prince Ferdinand, with the British and Hano- mijvdejv. verian forces, drew the French into an engagement at Minden, n^f^dlfeat and completely defeated them. A Russian army was to join the French. the Austrians in Silesia. To prevent this junction, was now Liomrz. the object of Frederic, and at Lignitz, he drew the Austrians into Fl f^ t [ ic t ^' a battle, before the arrival of the Russians, and defeated them. Austrians. The Russians on learning this, repassed the Oder, but sent a strong detachment into Brandenburg, where they joined the Austrians, and made themselves masters of Berlin. Frederic torqujI. passed into Saxony, and at Torqua defeated the Austrians under F ^She 6 " marshal Daun. This victory resulted in the recovery of nearly Austrians. 5. Relate the principal events of the campaign of 1758. or the third. — 0. Give a particular account of the battle of Cunnersdorf. Did Frederic give up in discouragement because he was unfortunate ? What important event occurred in America this year ? — 7. What other three battles occurred in Europe? Relate the battle of Minden. Of Legnitz. Of Torqua. What was now Frederic's position ? 416 CLOSE OP THE SEVEN YEARS* WAR, Modern His. PERI'D VI. CHAP. I. 1?60. Louis XV. makes a fa- mily treaty with Charles III. king of Spain and Naples. Fifth cam- paign. 1761. Sixth cam- paign. 1T6». Peter III. grandson of Peter the Great. 1162. Catherine II. his widow. 1163. Peace of Paris, between England and France and Spain. the whole of Saxony, where the Prussian king established his winter quarters. 8. The death of George II., which occurred at this period, did not affect the relations of England and Prussia. George III. continued in the same line of policy, being determined to preserve his German possessions. A change had taken place in the Spanish councils; — Charles 111., brother of the late monarch, Ferdinand VJ., having ascended the throne. The success of the British arms in America now caused to be form- ed a Family Compact between the Bourbon kings of France and Spain ; the result of which was war between England and Spain. Portugal became also involved in this war, by refusing to join in the compact against England. The king of Prussia continued the war in Silesia ; and his brother, prince Henry, in Saxony. In 1761 the Russians and Austrians took Berlin. Frederic's measures were throughout this campaign, wholly defensive. At sea, the British flag was still triumphant. Besides the capture of some vessels, this campaign was signalized by the conquest of Belle-Isle, on the coast of France. 9. A sudden and unexpected event occurred at this time, in the death of Elizabeth, empress of Russia, which relieved Frederic from a dreaded and inveterate enemy. Her nephew, Peter III., succeeded, who allied himself with the hero of Prussia, now called " Frederic the Great." Russia and Sweden also entered into alliance with him ; and the Prussian king found himself at liberty to turn his whole strength against the Austrians. But another revolution occurred in Russia. Peter III. had, by his numerous innovations in the internal adminis- tration of his kingdom, as well as by his alliance with Frederic, occasioned great discontent in his empire. Domestic dissen- sion was added to the evils which surrounded him, and his empress Catharine, headed a conspiracy of the disaffected among the clergy, nobility, and army. Peter was dethroned, im- prisoned, and probably murdered ; and Catharine was invested with the supreme power. She did not, however, resume the policy of Elizabeth, but while she recalled the Russians from the service of Frederic, she preserved the nation in a strict neutrality. 10. Frederic continued the war with increased energy ; re- covered Silesia, and invaded Bohemia and Franconia. The British had been successful at sea, and in America. Negotia- tions had been in progress between England, and France and Spain, and a peace was now concluded at Paris. Here was 8. What is here related of England ? Of Spain ? Between whom was a Family Compact made ? What other powers became involved in war ? What account can you give of the 5th and 6th campaigns of the seven years' war ? — 9. What sovereign of Russia had carried on this war against the Prussians ? Give from the side note the succession of Russian sovereigns ? When Peter III. succeeded Elizabeth what change occurred in regard to the relations of the northern powers with Prussia ? What counter move- ments took place in the succeeding reign ? — lO. Who were the parties to the peace of Paris ? A NATION ANNIHILATED. ceded :: Great Britain. Canada, in its utmost extent, all the :em side of the Mississippi, except New Orleans and its territories, the islands of Si. Pierre and Miquelon. and Flo- rida." Great Britain made some concess:;r= to France in the partition of the T »Ves: India Islands. Shortly after the conclu- sion of this treaty, another -was made between Pi and Sai ly, st Ebtbertst r. which close J me "Seven Yc War." Silesia was finally ceded to Prussia; all : . . and each power returned to me boundaries if : messed at the opening :: me war. Una war ; not onlv :e Lstated the fair plains of Europe, and drunk the myriads of her sons, but it had spread destruction through net dependencies, in Asia and America ; thus sketching . ... e than half the circuit of ;h e globe id thk lesti . rf the human race was made, because monarchs, with already much e :: the world than they could enjoy, coveted stfll orreater territories; and their thousands tameh followed '.em to be slaughtered. In pity to their fate, we forbear to say they &• served it by their follv. 11. PARTITION OF POLAND.— T .V a have seen how m Poland the err:: :: electing a foreign monarch had led the way to a system ::" foreign interference. Augustus II.. elector A ~ ■ : 5iarislais Leozinski,by the aid ::' Russian and Austrian arms. Still mere e Poland a | : erful party who deprecated foreign influr ee, a ssh a Polander for their monarch. On the Jeam ::' Augustus, Ca- raAsufS :: Russia turned this sentiment:: the advantage of Sttaitislau Poviatowssi. s =epe:s:nal a::.ea:-an:e and rnepossessing manners . b : red for him her favor ; but whose character and habits unfitted him for the station. He having beer : : : : : s e : : ; ft e s m : ress, to fill the P : I isfa thr : n - . Rnssiarj soldEers, seal : Enforce his e^e::::r. snrrounded the senate-?-- nse where he : - assembled. Majlachow- sk:. an azed patriot, and marshal of the last diet, entering the assembly, where :nly eight senators out of fifty appeared, e ::- claimed with a loud voi:e. - ; ince me Russian soldier^ hen ns suspend the authority of the die: " The soldiers ordered him :. resigni 'hie marshaPs stafX and threatened him with ven- geance. 3Ialachowski intrepidly replied, -You may cut off my "rand, or take my life, but I am marshal, ele: te a ee people, and I can only be deposed by a tree people — I shaH retire 12. The partisans of PoniatowskL supported by the P arms, proceeded to an illegal election, and the minion of marine was made kin?. After the coronation, she maintained Modem His. PEBrn vi. Peace of Hubert s- bur?. - Rn -\ tedei Spain to E : .i . i : : m ----- i e - stated .- 1783.] 1764-5 10 — 11 .-.-=: pei- h: . -■-.-- ' H: --■ i i ii :_z -.r.. :: S3 418 POLAND RULED BY FOREIGN POWER. Modern His. PERI'D VI. CHAP. I. 1¥69. Turks in al- liance with the Poles, invaded by the Rus- sians. Scandalous partition of Poland. Pulaski was killed at Savannah. Oct., 1779. an ambassador at Warsaw, by whose means she governed the monarch, 20,000 Russian troops being scattered over the country. The patriots who left Warsaw before the election, had attempted to form confederations in different provinces of the kingdom. They were now permitted to return, and did not immediately offer any opposition to the government. The favor of Catharine was shortly withdrawn from the king of Poland, and she fomented the dissensions which existed between the dissidents (or protestants,) and catholics, until the unhappy na- tion was involved in the miseries of a civil war. The leading patriots were now arrested by the Russian soldiers, and trans- ported to Siberia. Catharine offered them liberty on condition of their submitting to the authority of Russia, but they all re- jected the disgraceful offer with contempt. 13. The Poles next solicited and obtained the aid of the Turks. The Russian empress declared war with the Porte, and her fleet sailed through the Mediterranean to rouse the Greeks to arms, but owing to dissensions among their commanders, nothing decisive was effected. Two Russian armies, however, entered and overran a part of the Turkish dominions. This was discouraging to the Poles, whose army did not exceed 8,000 men, but they had seized the strongest posts among the mountains, and, under their general, Pulaski, kept the field, and occasionally annoyed their enemy. In the following year, the advantages of war still remained with the Russians ; and a short period of alternate hope and fear was all that was now allowed for the little band of Polish patriots. They soon learned that a league had been concluded between Maria Theresa of Austria, Catharine of Russia, and Frederic of Prussia ; and that these royal thieves had taken the greater part of their country, and divided it among themselves, annexing their several portions to their own dominions. The contemptible Poniatowski, who was entirely under their control, was by them made sovereign of the remainder. ] 4. Some of the Poles raised their voices against these ini- quitous proceedings. The patriot Reyten, finding that all was lost, was driven by grief to insanity. Protestations were sent to the other powers of Europe, but were unheeded. The pa- triot chiefs being obliged to flee, Pulaski crossed the ocean, and sacrificed his life in the cause of American independence. The partition of Poland has found no justifiers, even among those who have considered the many wars in which Europe has been involved, as being defensible, on the ground of maintaining the balance of power; a phrase which, as settled by the practices 12. Who was virtually the sovereign of Poland ? How were the patriots treated ? How was a civil war produced ? — 13. What occurred with regard to the Turks ? What was the situation of the patriots and their leader ? Who were the royal robbers here spoken of? What did they take to which they had no right ? Who was sovereign of the remainder ? — 14-. What particulars are mentioned of the acts of the patriots ? Where was Pulaski killed ? (See note.) Has the partition of Poland been justified ? PITT, AFTERWARDS LORD CHATHAM. 419 which have grown out of it, seems to mean a combination of a Modem ms. few families, to maintain each other in their hereditary autho- perpd vi. rity ; thus making Europe a grand aristocracy, the members of chap. n. which are called kings instead of nobles. The great plan of ^-"»~v~%^ Henry IV. of France, had it been established, would not, like the American constitution, have guarantied to the people their rights of self-government, but it would have given them much security against the horrors of war, and saved the blood of countless thousands. CHAPTER If. England and France, and their Colonies. 1714 to 1. The domestic history of England during the reign of Geor George II., is a catalogue of the political knaveries of the min- _i ister, Sir Robert Walpole, who made, no scruple to spend the public money, and increase the national debt, that he might \y%i practice every species of bribery and corruption which was cal- Great- culated to keep himself in power. At length he became odious |on n ?o to the nation, and changes in the ministry occurred; but the James i. course of politics was not yet reformed. About this period, the war against France, carried on in America, commenced. At first it was managed without spirit or success. At length, to prop up their sinking credit, the ministry called to a seat in the Ge °*s e cabinet, William Pitt, a leader in parliament, distinguished for W'Z*t his high powers of eloquence ; but to their surprise, they found - Jj{*A he had accepted a post of honor to serve his country, and that neither office nor money could tempt him to countenance mea- sures which he did not approve. Rather than do this, he re- signed his offices and retired. The nation were clamorous in his praise, and petitioned the king to recall him. Pitt was re- called and made prime minister. From this period, Great Bri- *™0* tain rose rapidly. Men were appointed to office, not because in. they were the creatures of those in power, but because they 1156. were suited to the service, and were true friends to their coun- pdmJmfn- try. France and England during this period, came into colli- ister. He is sion from difficulties commencing in their distant colonies of made a"eer India and America. *lt*m\ot 2. INDIA. — The fabulous computation of time contained in Chatham. 14. What meaning seems now to attach in Europe, to the phrase, bal- ance of power ? What is said of the plan of Henry IV. ? Chap. II. — Learn from the side note who were the three first sovereigns of the house of Hanover, and the time of the accession of each ? — 1. What may be said of the domestic history of England at this time ? What account can you give of William Pitt ? Of the effect of his ministry ? In what places did the English and French come into collision? 420 BABER, THE FIRST GREAT MOGUL. Modem His. PERI'D VI. CHAP. II. 1206. 1414. Sayid khan. 1526. Baber. 1530. Hu- mayun. 1556. Akbar. 1605. (Shah Jehan, son of Akbar, has four sons, the last, Aureng- Zeb, de- stroys the others.) the sacred books and traditionary accounts of India, go back to ages far beyond those indicated either by Scripture, or by the course of profane history. Then, say they, the immortal gods dwelt on the earth. Their reign was immediately succeeded by a dynasty of mortals descended from the sun, and more re- motely by a family from the moon. Krishna, a demi-god, the author of the Vedas and other sacred books, lived in the time of the lunar dynasty. After this they had earth-born kings, of whom Porus was on the throne when Alexander of Macedon invaded India, and Sandrocottus became the ally of Seleucus. Fifty years before Christ, was a reign distinguished as an era, on account of the encouragement given to literature, when nine writers flourished, called " the nine gems," one of whom wrote a lexicon of the language, and another a grammar. At the Christian era, India was divided into four kingdoms, and subse- quently into a greater number. In the tenth century the Ghaz- nevide sultans, supplanted by the Turks, invaded India ; and in the next century, Bahram established a kingdom whose seat was Lahore. Jenghiz Khan passed over India, and added it to his conquests, 3. The Mahometan kingdom of Delhi was founded by a Turkish prince, who overthrew the kingdom of Lahore. This empire was subverted by Tamerlane, who took and plundered Delhi. Sayid Khan ruled at first as his viceroy, but soon be- came independent and founded another Mahometan dynasty, called, the Jiffghan. Baber is, however, regarded as the foun- der of the wealthiest, and most powerful dynasty which has ever reigned in India. He was a descendant of Tamerlane, who having been driven from his kingdom at the north, invaded India, expelled the Affghans, and founded the Tartar dynasty of the Great Moguls. Akbar, the grandson of Baber, raised the empire to great prosperity by his wise government and judicious patronage of the arts. In 1600 there were English traders at Surat. 4. Shah Jehan, the successor of Akbar, was governed by the sultana Nourmahal. In 1602, the " Dutch East India Com- pany" was formed. In 1609, admiral Hawkins, their first en- voy, procured for the English Company some important grants. Aureng-Zeb, was noted for his energy and his cruelty. The empire of the Moguls was in his day one of the richest in the St. What computation of time is found in the sacred books and tradi- tionary accounts of India ? What do these say concerning the inhabitants of the earth in that remote antiquity ? What is said of Krishna ? What of the kings after him ? What occurred fifty years before Christ ? What at the Christian era respecting the division of India ? What occurred in the tenth century ? Where did the Ghaznevides establish a kingdom ? Who con- quered India, and at what time ? — 3. What empire was founded by a Turkish sovereign? What was done by Tamerlane? By Sayid Khan, and of what dynasty did he become the founder ? Give an account of Ba- ber. How did Akbar raise the empire to prosperity ? How early do you hear of the English in India, and at what place ? — 4. What do you learn of Shah Jehan? At what time was the Dutch East India Company formed? What is said of the first English envoy to the court of the Great Mogul? THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA. world ; its revenue being £32,000,000. But he persecuted the ancient inhabitants who refused to embrace Mahometanism, and by losing their good will, he lost the cement which bound to- gether the great empire of the Moguls ; and after his death, one province after another fell away from his successors. Their indolence was taxed with the loss of their power by the na- bobs, on whom they devolved their duties ; and in a few years, the Grand Mogul was but a state-puppet, moving as he was moved. At this time India was invaded by the powerful Nadir Shah of Persia, who took Delhi, and carried away a great booty in money and jewels. 5. The Mahrattas, an active and energetic people, heretofore but little known, conquered, in 1668, a part of the Deccan, and, under Sevajee, established a kingdom. This kingdom they continued to extend during the next century. The French, under Labourdonnais, governor of the isle of France, made an attack on the English trading settlement at Madras, and took the place, but restored it at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. The French having possession of Pondicherry, Dupleix, its commander, seeing the divided state of the country, attempted, by taking part with one of two rivals, to seize the Deccan as if for the other, but in reality for the French East India Company. The other party was Mahomet Ali, who appealed to the English. The French had the advantage, until Clive, who came from England as a clerk, having manifested military talent, was made a captain. He took Jlrcot, and won the battle of Ami ; after which a truce was made. 6. The English at Calcutta, were now suddenly attacked by Surajah Dowlah, the sovereign of the province of Bengal, at the head of 50,000 men. The governor vainly resisted, and then escaped on shipboard, leaving behind two hundred of the garrison. These were confined in a room not twenty feet square, in a hot night in June, with no water, and scarcely a breath of air. In vain they shrieked, for the tyrant had no pity. In this " Black Hole of Calcutta," one hundred and eighty men died in the course of the night. India has paid dearly for this cruelty. The Company at Madras sent Clive at the head of a small army, who retook Calcutta, and reduced Surajah to terms. The seven years' war now breaking out, the French were again active and Surajah united with them. Clive met his army at Plassey, and with only 1,000 English, and 3,000 natives, de- feated 70,000. Surajah was taken and put to death, and the British became virtually masters of his territory. Thus began the British empire in India. Its permanence was secured when the British having increased their conquests, the Great Mogul 4. Give an account of Aureng-Zeb. How did he prepare the way for the decline of the empire ? What happened after his death ? What tax do you find that indolent sovereigns who devolve their own duties upon their ser- vants have to pay? Give an account of the Persian invasion. — 5. Give an account of the Mahrattas. Of the proceedings of the French. — 6. Of the cruel proceedings of Sarajah Dowlah. How did the English Company re- trieve their affairs ? Relate the important battle of Plassey. 421 Modern His. 1730. 1739. These events led to war be- tween Eng- land and France. Clive takes Arcot, the capital of the Car- natic. ARM. Clive victori- ous. 1756. "The Black Hole." 180 die. (Clive, af- terwards Lord Clive, becomes immensely rich. Cen- sured by parliament, commits suicide.) 1757. PLASSEY. Clive de- feats Surajah. 422 TRIAL OF WARREN HASTINGS. Modern His- PERPD VI. CHAP. II. Indefinite claims of the French and English. or emperor, granted them at the peace of All a hah ad, the pro- vinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Oris-sa. 7. The English came into collision with Hyder Ali, a power- ful chief, who had founded the new kingdom of Mysore. In 1773 parliament sent Mr. Warren Hastings, as governor-ge- neral over the provinces of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. Soon after this, the French settlements at Pondecherry and else- where, were taken by the English, and Hyder Ali, who had ravaged the Carnatic, was completely defeated by Sir Eyre Coote. Hyder was succeeded by his son, Tippoo Saib. The English, though he long resisted, at length defeated him ; and driving him into Seringapatam, his capital, they took it by storm ; he bravely losing his life in its defense. His immense treasures, and his territory, became the prey of the conquerors. Warren Hastings was accused of mal-practices and recalled to England, where he was impeached by the eloquent Edmund Burke ; and being tried before parliament, he was defended by the idol of the whig party, Charles James Fox, the witty Sheridan, and others. The trial lasted eight years, and the accused was finally acquitted. William Pitt, the younger, now prime minister of England, proposed, and carried through parliament an im- proved system of government for -British India, under the direc- tion of a " Board of Control." 8. AMERICA. — We have seen that the English discovered in America the Atlantic coast ; the French, the St. Lawrence and its waters, and afterwards the upper Mississippi. That disco- very gave the right of soil none disputed ; but the boundaries of the countries claimed on account of these discoveries, were wholly indefinite, and each nation was ambitious of possessing large territories. Hence, they took care in granting the letters patent to their subjects, who were disposed to colonize the country, to make their claims sufficiently extensive. Thus se- veral of the English patents which bounded east on the Atlantic, gave the patentees the country as far west as the Pacific ; while the French, in some instances, gave patents running from th< St. Lawrence, indefinitely, south. While the settlements kept along the shore of the ocean, and the valley of the St. Law- rence, they caused no dispute ; but now the English, having extended themselves to the west, and the French to the south, their claims interfered. The English jealousy was also awak- ened by finding a line of posts extending from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to that of the Mississippi, projected and partly T. What is said respecting Hyder Ali? Respecting the French ? Re- specting Tippoo Saib ? Warren Hastings ? Who impeached him? Who defended ? Learn from the side note what formed the capital article in his impeachment. What bill did Mr. Pitt procure to be passed ? — 8. What have you learned from the previous history concerning the English and French discoveries ? What right was supposed to be given by discovery ? What source of contention existed with regard to boundaries? What kind of patents were granted by the English 1 By the French ? What circum- stances alarmed the English with regard to the great extent of the French claims in America ? MAJOR WASHINGTON. 423 made by the French ; which, if completed, would establish their Modern His - authority over the great valley of the west. This was pom- peri'D vi. pously exhibited in the large maps of De Lisle, the royal geo- CHAP - u - grapher, as a part of New France. By these maps, the Alle- ^-^"v^w ghany mountains were removed from their place, and set near SftafSo 1 the Atlantic ; the strip of land between them and the ocean, in Maine,' being all that was allowed to belong to the English <• while ufe^enfte^ New France stretched, in grand letters, from the mouth of the bec > andaii St. Lawrence to that of the Mississippi. The valley of the eas _ Mobile was also claimed by France, a settlement having been ^JJJie made at its mouth by Canadian French, under Le Moine founded by liii,.-™-.,.,. , _, d'Iberville. d'Iberville. 9. Determined to resist these claims, the English parliament 175©. granted to a company of gentlemen, mostly in Virginia, of whom Lawrence Washington was one, 600,000 acres of land, on company or near the Ohio river. "The Ohio Company" sent their agents ^wiaSg- to take possession of the territory. The Marquis du Quesne, ton, (brother governor of Canada, first threatened, and next seized and impri- t0 Geor 6 e -> soned those who had erected trading-houses on these lands. Dinwiddie, the English governor of Virginia, sent, though in ^Jjjjf J on the dead of winter, a young officer of twenty-two, across the crosses the wilderness of the Alleghany mountains, to bear despatches to Alle § hames - the French commandant. This young man was George Washington, destined to become the " Father of his Country," w ^J h Y n g t ' on and one of the chief lights of history. Major Washington sent against fulfilled his trust, by conveying to the French commandant in the Flench - the vicinity of lake Erie, Dinwiddie's summons to quit the ter- ritory. The French not obeying this mandate, Dinwiddie sent Washington, with a regiment, to enforce it. Although his con- duct was gallant, his force was inferior, and he was unsuccess- ful. The French now proceeded to the erection of a fort at the junction of the Monongahela and Alleghany rivers; to which they gave the name of Du Quesne. 1*754. ] 0. The British cabinet recommended to the colonies to cul- Co £f b r any at tivate friendship with the most powerful tribes of the savages, (Franklin is and to form a union among themselves. Accordingly, a congress ed*asl?phi- of delegates from the colonies of New England, met at Albany, losopher, for with those from New York, Maryland, and Pennsylvania; and ^rieain on the 4th of July, 1754, Benjamin Franklin, of Pennsylva- electricity nia, drew up a plan of union, which being approved by the J,e most congress, copies were transmitted to the several colonial go- universal i r /->. t-»-- t-j i geniuses of vernments, and to the court ol Great Britain. It suited not the history.) 8. Describe the map of De Lisle, mentioning who he was. On what grounds was the valley of the Mobile claimed by France ? — 9. What was none by parliament in order to set up counter claims and resist those of France? What was done by the Ohio Company? By the French Go- vernor? Mention his name. Who was governor of Virginia? What measures did he take ? What is here said of George Washington ? What was the result of his mission across the Alleghany ? — lO. What was the occasion of delegates meeting at Albany ? What colonies sent delegates to this congress? What plan was drawn up, and by whom ? What was the reason of its rejection in England ? 424 THE INFANCY OF AMERICAN FREEDOM. Modem His, colonies, because it granted too much power to the crown ; it peri'D vi. suited not the English ministry, because it gave too little, and chap. n. it was mutually rejected. Thus was tested that inherent differ- ^-^^fc^ ence of opinion between the colonies and mother country, on matters of government, which eventually separated them. 11. The course of history has led us to remark from what quartets the opposition to arbitrary power had originated in Causes of Europe ; and it is curious to observe, that it was precisely from th canfree~ those quarters that these colonies were originally peopled. It spirit. was when the despotic proceedings of James I. and Charles I. had roused the patriots of England to assert their rights, that some, unwilling to make disturbance in their native land, and yet determined to enjoy their civil and religious rights, found a home on the rude coasts of New England. Just after the Lord," says Dutch had resisted the tyranny of Spain, nobly contending for early wd- liberty, colonies from Holland came and settled on the banks ters, "sifted of the Hudson. When the protestants of France strove for tionsfbr" freedom from the civil oppression and religious persecutions good seed to f the Guises and Bourbons, they made settlements in the south; wilder- and when episcopacy took the rod of persecution from the ca- ness.) tholics, in the days of Charles I., the peaceful Calvert, (lord Baltimore,) came with a colony, and found a refuge where the city now stands which bears his name. 12. Arrived in America, almost every man was an agricul- turist ; — not poor., for he lived on his own domain, and ac- knowledged no other lord of his land, than the Lord of the America whole earth ; yet he was obliged to be industrious to live, and democratic. to De watchful and valiant, to escape the terrible savage who (No great in- ambushed his path and his dwelling. Thus the infant princi- 7e$nour pies of manly independence found a home in America, and thus we'cannoV were tnev schooled to a vigorous maturity. The court of as in feudal Great Britain had, on various occasions, seen them manifested, C have r an' mucn to their annoyance. They had allowed at first, without aristocracy suspicion of the consequences, the free, and equal citizens of would.) the new world to form confederacies, on the simple principles of natural justice, of equal rights, and mutual defence. The of- fices of the country were not then marks for ambition, but posts of difficulty and danger; reluctantly, in most instances, ac- cepted, and gladly relinquished. 1685. 13. At length, under James If., the court of Great Britain sir Ed ™ und having grown jealous, interfered, and sent Sir Edmund Andros "over by" over as governor-general of the offending provinces. And after James ii. t h e change in the government of Massachusetts, made by Wil- liam III., it was enjoined upon the colonies to compensate the lO. In the colonies? What was tested by this? — 11. What have we been led to remark? What is said of the English? The Dutch? The French ? The protestants and the catholics? — 12. What was the condition of the early settlers? What principles had thus found a home and been matured ? How was the court of Great Britain affected by them ? How was it with the offices of the country ? — 13. Give an account of the measures taken by the British court to repress an independent spirit. THE OLD FRENCH WAR. 425 services of the royal governor. This was a source of disafTec- Mode™ His. tion; but the colonists proportioning their pay of the royal perpd vi. officers, to their opinion of their good behavior, still ordered chap. u. political affairs much in their own way. The English next v "^^ > ^^^ instructed their governors to demand fixed salaries. This, the unyielding spirit of the colonial assembly would never grant; and Massachusetts thenceforth became an object of special dis- like to the British government. Such was the character of the men who met at Albany, in July 1754 ; and whom, not even the 1T54. pressure of a coming war, and an exterminating savage enemy, Albany. could induce to frame a government acceptable to the court of Great Britain. That nation, however, felt that the colonies were her own. General Braddock was accordingly dis- J755" patched to Virginia with 1500 men, — which reinforced by the dock>s- colonial militia, under Washington, proceeded through the de- En ^{f ^"aiid sert to attack fort Du Quesne. The British general, ignorant Americans of the terrible character of the American savage as a foe, and re- ^Indians! jecting all advice from the colonial commander, fell into an am- bush, and was slaughtered with more than half his army. The colonists alone retreated in order from the field, under the con- duct of the intrepid Washington, — who on the day of the battle had four bullets lodged in his clothes, and was the only officer on horseback who escaped unhurt. 14. In the meantime, the French had sent out the raron fort Dieskau with a formidable force. He advanced from Montreal E ®^son' by the way of the lakes Champlain and George, to attack fort and Lyman Edward, on the Hudson. Here the colonial forces under gene- kau^French rals Johnson and Lyman, met and defeated his army with the loss, 700 k., loss of 1,000 men ; among whom was Dieskau himself. These kau mortal- operations in America were one of the movinff causes of the '* wounded. " Seven Years' War" declared in 1756 5 in which, as we have * ? seen, England united with Prussia against France and her Years* War allies. In 1757, colonel Monroe, a British officer, was be- b |J™pe™ sieged in fort William Henry by the marquis Montcalm, at 1757. the head of 9,000 men. Monroe capitulated, but had not yet Massacre at left the fort, from which he was guarantied a safe conduct, when f Henry/on 1 a massacre was begun by the Indians in Montcalm's army, lake George, which he could not, or would not restrain. No pen can de- scribe the horrors of that midnight butchery ; where the sick, the wounded, men, women, and infants, all bled beneath the tomahawk and the scalping-knife. 15. George II., now aroused in earnest, and recalling Pitt, 1158. made him prime minister. He sent out, in a fleet commanded bSmjwhi by admiral Boscawen, a reinforcement of 14,000 men, under brings over the command of general Amherst. These, together with the ^erst!"" British and colonial forces already in America, made 50,000 13. How were they met by the colonists? What was, however, done by England to aid the colonies ? What occurred at Braddock's-field ? — 14:. What at fort Edward? What war in Europe in part originated here? What melancholy event marked the succeeding campaign of 1757 ? — 15. What reinforcements did the army receive, and to what number did it amount ? 54 426 THE FRENCH WAR. Modem His- PERI'D VI. CHAP. II. 1?59. Ticortde- roga, Crown Point, and Niagara taken. (Pri- deaux killed at Niagara.) HEIGHTS OF ABRA- HAM. Wolfe de- feats the French, and Quebec sur- renders. 1764- Lord Gren- ville. (His minis- try con- tinues from 1763-65.) 1765. Stamp Act Lo go into ef- fect Nov. 1. men, a much greater army than had before been employed in this country. Louisburg was a strong fortress, which com- manded the entrance of the gulf of St. Lawrence. In the last war the colonists had themselves, with singular bravery and much good luck, taken it from the French ; but the British had restored it at the peace of Ryswick. Admiral Boscawen now besieged and took the place with 7,000 prisoners. The other important events of this campaign, were the taking of fort Fron- tenac, by colonel Brad street, and that of fort Du Quesne, by general Forbes, assisted by Washington. That fort re- ceived at this time, the name of Pitt, which is still preserved in that of Pittsburg. 16. During; the campaign of 1759, general Amherst captured Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and general Pride aux, fort Niagara. But the most difficult part was assigned by Pitt, who was the soul of these enterprises, to James Wolfe, a young officer, whom he took the responsibility of sustaining, against the prejudices of the king. With an army of 8,000, Wolfe landed on the island of Orleans, with the formidable task before him of reducing Quebec, the strongest fortress in America. On the night of the twelfth of September, he scaled the heights of Abraham, a rock deemed inaccessible, — and his army follow- ing their daring leader. The marquis Montcalm saw, by the morning light, his enemy upon the elevated plain in order of battle. Victory declared for the English. Wolfe, mortally wounded, rejoiced in his country's success; and Montcalm, in dying, was consoled, that he should not witness the surrender of Quebec. The garrison of that city were panic struck, and surrendered a post which they might have defended. All Canada soon submitted to the British arms ; and its possession was confirmed at the peace of Paris, in 1763. 17. In 1764, lord Grenville brought into parliament a bill for taxing the colonies. The next year, the " Stamp Act" was passed by the parliament, notwithstanding able remonstrances on the part of the colonies and of the London merchants. The Stamp Act was framed with an intention to suspend the opera- tion of the laws in the colonies, and dissolve the bonds of go- vernment unless complied with ; for it decreed, that no deed, note, bond, indenture, or other covenant, should be legal, — no process, not even against a criminal, could be issued^ unless written on the stamped paper which the English should send over to certain officers, called Distributers of Stamps, and which must be purchased by the Americans at such a rate as to give the British government a revenue from the proceeds. The Ame- 15. What had been done in the preceding war respecting Louisburg? What was done in 1758 ? What are the other principal events of this cam- p a jg n ?_16. What was done by general Amherst ? What by general Pri- deaux « W hat is here said of James Wolfe ? Give some account of his ope- rations. Relate the battle of the Heights of Abraham. What were its re- sults?— 17. Relate the first attempt in the British parliament to tax America. Give an account of the Stamp Act. CHAP. II. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR BEGINS. 427 ricans regarded this as an attempt to take from them their just Modern His. rights. Most of the colonies elected delegates, who met in perpd vi. congress in the city of New York. In a formal " Declaration of Rights," the congress asserted that they were entitled to all the rights and privileges of natural born subjects of Great Bri- tain, — in particular, that of not being taxed except by their own representatives. They prepared a dutiful address to the king, and petitions to both nouses of parliament. A systematic and uniform opposition was made to the Stamp Act. The peo- ple not only refused to purchase the stamps, but so treated those who took the offices of distributors, that they were forced to resign. 18. The English government, thus foiled, changed their min- istry and repealed the Stamp Act ; but parliament declared their B ^V?Jl " right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." A new tempt to tax project, for taxation was soon got up, with the appendage of Amerlca - sending troops over to enforce it. Duties were laid on tea, &c. Tea was sent over, — and at Boston, men, armed and disguised, 'O^' went at night and threw the cargoes of three vessels into the overboardat sea ; — for which parliament shut up their port by law, and sent Boston - over general Gage with an army. Non-importation agreements were entered into by all the colonies. 19. Gen. Gage had been sent to Massachusetts in the spirit 1775. of hostility to that province. The people viewed his move- isx/JV'o- ments with jealousy and alarm; and preparing to resist, had col- tojv. lected warlike stores in different places. In an attempt of the Fir ghed?° British troops to take possession of the magazines at Concord, Br. loss, 273. in the neighborhood of Boston, hostilities commenced, and the m * first blood was shed. The militia rose, and although they could not prevent the destruction of the stores, yet they drove the British back to their strongholds in Boston, with loss. But this first blood was like the spark which ignites the magazine. ( ^ad hired* 1 The indignant country took arms; and in a few weeks twenty 17,ooohos- thousand militia were assembled in the neighborhood of Boston. slan roops ' The British army was largely reinforced by troops under gene- ral Howe. 20. The " Continental Congress" assembled at Philadelphia. Washington They took measures to raise men and money, and conferred the sionedTiune command of their armies on Washington. The militia, to 15th - drive the British troops from Boston, took, in the night, posses- J ^j^! h ' sion of Bunker's Hill, a position which commanded the town, ker's- As soon as they were perceived, general Gage sent a force to Br. gain the drive them from the entrenchments which they were throwing jj eld j Jjj . — the Am. 453. IT. How did the Americans regard it? Where did the congress first meet ? What acts of theirs are here mentioned ? What was done in rela- tion to the Stamp Act? — 18. What change was made by the British go- vernment ? What was done in parliament ? What was done respecting tea ? Who was sent over to Boston ? What agreements were entered into ? . 19. Describe the occasion and place of the first battle, and its result ? What effect did it produce ? — SO. What occurred at Philadelphia ? What is the difference in time between Washington's commission as commander-in- chief, and the battle of Bunker's Hill? (See note.) 428 THE BRITISH EVACUATE BOSTON. Modern His. PERI'D VI. CHAP. II. Unsuccess- ful attempt upon Canada. WW. March 17. Gage evacuates Boston. up. Under cover of their ships lying in the harbor, and of the flames of Charlestown, which they had fired, three thousand of the British troops ascended the hill and attacked the Americans, who were commanded by colonel Prescott. The result of the day was honorable to the republicans, although, from the failure of ammunition, they were obliged to retire. 21. Gen. Montgomery and Col. Arnold were despatched at the head of separate armies for the conquest of Canada. Mon- treal, and the fortress of St. John surrendered to Montgomery. Advancing down the St. Lawrence, — at Quebec, he met Arnold, who had taken the direct route through the woods. In the depth of winter their joint forces attacked that fortress ; — Mont- gomery fell, and the enterprise failed. 22. Washington, at the head of a formidable force, had, the preceding season, appeared before Boston, — taken possession of the adjacent heights, and invested the British forces. He con- tinued the siege through the winter, and on the 17th of March, Gage was forced to evacuate the town. The enemy, taking to their shipping, commenced a marauding warfare, and burnt Falmouth, Bristol, and other towns on the sea-board. Wash- ington entered Boston in triumph ; but he afterwards established his head quarters at New York, — stationing a part of the army, under generals Putnam and Sullivan, at Brooklyn. 20. Relate that battle. — 21. Relate the attempt upon Canada. — 22. The operations in and about Boston. What was done on the 17th of March? What afterwards by the British? What was done by Wash- ington ? "estJtt>ijit\l,£' JR)' [cievelaik n ^ a ^ ""fM . SPJ)))-) 5 S^« d Longitude West ]0 from Washington. 5 35 30 Longitude East. 5 H. Kinnersley. Washington assuming the command at Cambridge. PERIOD VII. THE DECLARATION BY ? l^fl £ 0F AMERICAN INDE- CONGRESS 5 C PENBENCE, ^1804:.^( THE CORONATION > 1804:. \ OF NAPOLEON CHAPTER I. Republic of America after the Declaration of Independence, to the adop- tion of the Federal Constitution. 1. The 4th of July, 1776, is the birth day of our Republic ; which is remarkable, not only as the oldest civilized nation of the western continent, but for the extent of its territory, the rapid increase of its population and resources, and especially for its political institutions, which have exhibited, in practice, a government of natural justice, and equal rights, heretofore re- garded but as the vision of the enthusiast. On that memora- ble day, the American congress, still environed with difficulties, took, with solemnity, the bold measure of declaring that, u America was, and of right ought to be, free and independ- ent." The most disastrous defeat of the war followed hard upon this declaration. That division of the army commanded by Sullivan, on Long Island, was surprised and defeated with great loss. Washington, threatened in New York, retreated into the interior. The British generals, Howe and Clinton, follow- ed him to White Plains, where an indecisive engagement took place. But at Fort Washington, which was commanded by Part VII.— Chap. I. — 1. What is the birth-day of the American Re- public ? For what is this Republic remarkable ? Why is the 4th of July, 1776, called the birth-day of this nation? Relate the most disastrous de- feat of the war. What was done by Washington after the battle of Long Island ? What occurred at White Plains? At Fort Washington? 431 Modern His. PER'D VII. CHAP. I. August 27. BROOK- LYJf. British de- feat the Americans, loss 2,000, Br. loss 400. 432 burgoyne's invasion. Modern His. PER'D VII. CHAP. I. 1776. Washing- ton's re- treat. Night of Dec. 26-27. TREN- TON. Washington surprises and takes 1,000 Hes- sians ; Am. loss 4, 2 frozen to death. January 3. PRINCE- TON. Br. loss 100 k., 300 pris.; Am. loss 70, Gen. Mercer killed. Sept. 11. BRANDY- WINE. Br. victori- ous ; Am. loss 1,300, Br. 500. GERMAN- TOWN. Br. victori- ous ; Am. loss k. 200, w. 600, pri- soners 400. July 7, HUB- BARD- TON. American loss 1000. August 16. BEN- NING- TON. Am. victo- rious, Br. loss 600. Sept. 19. STILL- WATER. October 7. SARATO- GA, Burgoyne defeated by the Ameri- cans, severe loss on both sides. Col. Magaw, the British took the fort with 2,000 prisoners. Howe was now commander-in-chief of the British forces. 2. The garrison of Fort Lee evacuated that post, and, under Greene, joined the desponding army of Washington, who crossed the Hudson, and retreated into New Jersey, his forces greatly reduced, and in want of almost everything necessary for a winter's campaign. He continued to retreat before his vic- torious enemy, who tracked his bare-footed army by their blood left on the projections of the frozen ground, till he had crossed the Delaware into Pennsylvania. On the stormy night of the 26th of December, Washington re-crossed the Delaware amidst floating ice, and attacked 1,000 Hessians stationed at Trenton, and made them prisoners. Then eluding the pursuit of the British army, he fell upon, and surprised another division sta- tioned at Princeton. These brilliant successes, following such a train of misfortunes, like a sudden light amidst darkness, re- vived the drooping spirits of the Americans. They were cheered also, by the arrival of the young and generous La Fayette, who had left, in France, all that, to an ordinary mind, makes existence desirable, and brought to lay upon the altar of right and justice, his life, his exertions, and his fortune. Washing- ton received, and ever loved him as a son. 3. France, Spain, and Holland, now began to regard the cause of America with favor ; and negotiations were commenced with these powers. General Howe, approaching Philadelphia by the way of the Chesapeake, defeated Washington at the Brandy- wine on the 11th of September, and entered the city. He was again successful at Germantown on the 4th of October. Gen. Burgoyne, with a formidable army, made up of British regu- lars, and Indian and Hessian allies, had made a descent from Canada. He opened a communication above Lake Champlain, and took Ticonderoga. General Fraser, who was despatched in pursuit of the flying garrison, came up with their rear at Hubbardton, and after a sanguinary conflict, the British obtained their last victory in that quarter. Shortly after this battle, Co- lonels Baum and Breyman were detached by Burgoyne, with a corps of Hessians, in search of provisions, and ordered to ad- vance upon Bennington. They were met near that place by general Stark, a militia officer, and totally defeated. After encountering severe losses, and great hardships, Burgoyne ar- rived at Stillwater, upon the Hudson. Here a battle occurred, in which he was defeated by the Americans, under general 2. What was done by general Greene ? Relate the situation and move- ments of Washington and his army. Did he sit down in despondency ? (See for an answer what he did on the cold and stormy night of the 26th of December, and ten days afterwards.) What change in the tone of public feeling is noticed ? What arrival of a foreigner added to the public satisfac- tion? — 3. What foreign nations now began to regard favorably the Ameri- can cause ? Relate the successes of the British in Pennsylvania ? Begin the history of Burgoyne's invasion. Relate the battle of Hubbardton. Of Bennington. Of Stillwater. Of Saratoga. What important event followed the battle of Saratoga ? REVOLUTIONARY WAR CONTINUES. 433 Gates. The British commander found retreat impossible, Modem ffis. and on the 17th of October, he was compelled to surrender his per'd vii. whole army prisoners of war. This expedition cost the British, chap. i. in killed, wounded, deserters and prisoners, an army of 9,000 ^-^^v-"^ men. It inspirited the Americans, and disposed the European Treaty nations to favor their cause ; and a treaty of alliance loith France with was entered into on the 6th of February, 1778. France. 4. Washington being now re-inforced, compelled Sir Henry WW- Clinton, who had succeeded Howe, to evacuate Philadelphia ; J jJojv?' and pursuing him on his retreat, he came up with him, and de- mouth. feated him at Monmouth. Clinton now turned his chief atten- victorious! tion to the conquest of the southern states. He sent a detach- B i,jj # ss 2 g 00 ' ment of troops under colonel Campbell, who, on the 29th savannah of December, took Savannah ; the garrison and stores falling tal ^ r n it i s y h the into his hands. The British authority was now extended over Georgia. To Charleston, in South Carolina, Washington had sent general Lincoln to the aid of governor Rutledge. In April, Clinton, with a force of about eight thousand men, *^f ®' laid siege to it, and on the 12th of May, the city was sur- Charleston rendered, with the artillery and garrison. Clinton organized taken. a royal government for Carolina ; and distributed 4,000 troops in different garrisons; then leaving lord Cornwallis in com- mand, he returned to his head quarters in New York. 5. General Gates being sent to stop the progress of the Bri- tish army in the South, was defeated at Camden by lord Corn- ^Jj^jy. wallis. The baron De Kalb, a gallant German volunteer in Lord com- the American army, was slain. After this disaster general f ^*" gates. Greene was appointed to the command of the southern armies. ITSi- At Guilford, he skilfully contended with Cornwallis, and though F qjF^ L q IL not victorious, he retired from the field in good order. Corn- Greene wallis retreated into Virginia, leaving lord Rawdon in Caro- ™ain g C0 B?.~ lina to sustain the royal cause, now on the decline. Becoming keep jhe discouraged with fatigue, loss of health, and the obloquy he io SS 1,300' had incurred by the execution of colonel Hayne, a native Carolinian, Rawdon returned to England; when the command eutaw devolved on colonel Stuart. Greene, in the meantime, ^2' having improved the discipline of his troops, sought the enemy, victorious; and fought and defeated him at Eutaw Springs. AmfVo. 6. On leaving the Carolinas, lord Cornwallis entered Virgi- nia, threatening chastisement to " the boy." So he termed La checked by Fayette, who, having been by Congress made a major general, J^ayette, now commanded the small body of American forces assigned for the defence of that state. But he showed himself a veteran 3. What great results were produced by this signal success ?— 4. Who had succeeded Howe in command ? What was he compelled to do ? Re- late the battle of Monmouth ? What occurred on the 29th of December? Relate the capture of Charleston. The subsequent arrangements of Clinton. —5. What is here said of general Gates ? Relate the battle of Camden. As Gates was unsuccessful, who was sent, in his place? Relate the battle of Guilford Court House. What change of commandants occurred in South Carolina? Relate the battle of Eutaw Springs.— 6. What occurred in Virginia ? 55 434 AMERICAN PwE VOLUTION CLOSES. .Modern His- PER'D VII. CHAP. I. 1181. October 1-9. YORK- to jvjst. Cornwallis surrenders his army of 7,000. 1183. Peace of Paris. 1183. Army dis- bands. in courage and skill ; not only eluding the pursuit of the British general, but rinding means to harrass his outposts incessantly, and to hold him in check, until the plans forming by Washing- ton for his destruction, should be matured. 7. Washington had, by a well managed feint, deceived Sir Henry Clinton into the belief that New York was his desig- nated point of attack. Admiral de Grasse, with a formidable French fleet, was ordered to block up York river, so as to pre- vent reinforcements reaching Cornwallis who was posted at Yorktown. In the meantime, the American commander, having formed a junction with a French army, which had arrived the year before, under count Rochambeau, arrived, by forced marches, at Yorktown, and invested the British army by land. Cornwallis made vigorous efforts to extricate himself, but in vain. The chivalry of America and France were upon him, each vieing with the other in feats of intrepidity. The British general had sustained himself in the belief, that timely succor would arrive from New York. This hope now failed him ; and to prevent a general assault from the combined French and American armies, who had already destroyed his defences, he offered terms of capitulation. On the 19th of October, 1781, the army, consisting of 7,000 men, were surrended to the Ame- ricans ; and the fleet, consisting of two frigates and twenty trans- ports, with their convoys, to the French. 8. Thus ended the active operations of the most disastrous war in which England was ever engaged. That nation even for a time lost her wonted ascendency on the ocean. The fleets of France and Spain sustained themselves with bravery, in many conflicts ; and the province of Florida, which Great Britain had received from Spain in 1763, was retaken by that power. A war so wholly unsuccessful and disastrous, drew upon the English ministry a large share of public odium. They were assailed by the press, and by the people at large ; and compelled to resign. A new ministry was formed, of men favorable to Great Britain's acknowledging American Independ- ence, since her efforts to hinder it had, though attended with so much expense, proved unavailing. This was therefore done by the treaty of Paris, Sept. 3d, 1783. By this treaty, Great Bri- tain lost Tobago and Senegal, ceded to France ; Minorca and Florida, ceded to Spain ; and the United States of America, made independent. But she, as has been related, had gained an empire in India. 9. The British armies having been withdrawn, those of the United States were disbanded ; not, however, without danger to the peace and liberty of the country. This danger Wasn- 't. Relate the operations of Washington until he arrived at Yorktown. By whom were the British invested by sea? What was the result of these combined operations ? — 8. What other disasters did Great Britain meet? What was done in regard to the ministry ? By what treaty did Great Bri- tain acknowledge the American independence ? What territories did Great Britain lose by this treaty ? — 9. Did the American army disband without any danger to the country ? 435 ington quelled by his influence, — frowning with severe disdain on intimations of making him a king. He then presented his accounts to congress, detailing with exactness his expenditures; but refusing for his personal services to accept anything, either for himself or his relatives. Having resigned his offices, and given a farewell embrace to his officers, he retired to the seclusion of a happy home. The articles of Confederation, which had bound the states in war, were now inadequate to their government. A convention met, and made Washington its presi- dent ; when the present constitution of the Republic was framed. It was adopted ; and Washington was unanimously chosen to be " the first in peace," as he had been u the first in war." John Adams was elected vice president, Thomas Jefferson was appointed secretary of state. The revenue was committed to Alexander Hamilton; and the system established by him, has not been essentially departed from. Washington and Adams were the second time elected president and vice presi- dent. Political parties began to assume a character of great bitterness,- — the terms federal and republican becoming the party names. Distinguished men arrayed themselves at the head of each ; and English and French politics were adopted, the first by the federal, the last by the republican party. Wash- ington maintained a neutral position, but his paternal heart was grieved at the acrimonious dissensions of his political family. 10. A dispute arose between Great Britain and the Republic. The Americans, being neutral in the European war, had supplied the French with corn. Orders were issued by the British ministry to search, seize, and detain all American ves- sels engaged in that trade. The British also continued to oc- cupy a chain of forts on the northern frontier, which, by the treaty of Paris, they had agreed to surrender, — where they shel- tered the Indians who depredated on the United States. Gen. Wayne was at this period sent against the savages, who had defeated the Americans, under St. Clair and Harmar. Wayne reduced them to order. The American government considered the British as implicated in the conduct of the savages. They laid an embargo of thi^ days on all English shipping in their ports. But the points in dispute being submitted to negotiation, Mr. Jay was sent over, — who returned with a treaty of commerce, which, despite popular clamor, was ratified by the president and senate. 9. How did Washington treat intimations to make him a king? What did he in respect to his accounts ? To offers of reward for his personal ser- vices ? What next is related of him ? What is said of the articles of con- federation ? What was done by a convention of delegates ? When did the new constitution go into effect, and who was the first president? Who was the first vice president ? What is said of Thomas Jefferson ? Of Alexan- der Hamilton ? — 10. What causes of dispute arose between Great Britain and the United States ? What is said of the savages ? How were the dis- putes with England settled ? Modem His. PER'D VII. CHAP. I. Convention at Philadel- phia. turn- Washington elected pre- sident. John Adams vice presi- dent. 1793. Washington and Adam* re-elected- 1794. Dispute be- tween Great Britain and America. Wayne's war. 1794. Jay's Treaty. f Louis XIV c (S3 o 1 CHAPTER II. The French Revolution. M,Se'rn His. \ m j^ Lh me nations who had been engaged in the "Seven VFAvi vii. Years' War," found themselves, at its termination, suffering chap, ii. under the burden of grievous taxes. France had, however, suf- fered the most severely ; and was, at the close of the contest, in a state of the. most lamentable depression. The evils of the 1643 * on g continued wars in which this nation had been engaged to during the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV., had been de- 1V15. veloped, and the finances of the kingdom were in a state of ir- ^v. 8 retrievable disorder and confusion. The reign of Louis XV. is 1715 especially signalized as an era of profligacy and corruption. iryj- * s li cent i° us monarch suffered his councils to be guided by +The ac' abandoned women ; — the treasures of his suffering people were cidentai lavished at their bidding, and offices disposed of,as their avarice ^cafibid or caprice might dictate. The marriagef of Louis, the dauphin, caused with the arch-duchess of Austria, Marie Antoinette, was death of celebrated with great pomp; and for a time withdrew the minds d h d"of °f tne peasantry from the sense of their sufferings. But they people had been ground down to abject poverty, by oppressive taxa- & mar- ^ on ' an ^ were subjected to arbitrary imprisonment. nage 2. The parliament of Paris had acquired power, and now ex- fe 5es Vi " hibited a determined opposition to the court. The middle class had become enlightened, but many of them had unfortunately WV4L. imbibed from Voltaire, Rousseau, and others, opinions hos- Louis tile to religion and morality. The American revolution had becomes been favorably regarded, and Franklin was received and honored king- at the court of Louis, and the principles of rational liberty, which the American patriots advocated, were embraced even by some among the nobility; and La Fayette and others left their country to aid them in the struggle. France, at length, though she could ill afford it, gave the national support to America, and pariia- thus became involved in a war with Great Britain. Louis XVI. The 5? f ma( * e fr uit l ess attempts to improve his finances, and ameliorate tiesVes- the condition of his people. The national debt amounted to P pads! y the enormous sum of 6,000,000,000 of livres ! The minister, show' Calonne, in order to relieve the government of its embarrass- pend- ments, proposed to levy a tax upon the privileged orders. The ence - nation, knowing the liberty of America and England, and chafed at its own degradation, demanded loudly that their national le- Chap. II.— 1. What is said of the effect of the Seven Years' War? What of the wars of the two reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV. ? For what is the reign of Louis XV. signalized? What marriage is mentioned, and what said of its celebration ? What was the state of the peasantry of France ?— 2. From what quarter was the court opposed? What was the state of the middle class ? What was done in reference to the American Revolution ? To what sum did the national debt of France amount ? What was proposed in reference to it ? 436 DESTRUCTION OF THE BASTILE. 437 gislature, called the States General, should again be called. Modern H ^ This the court feared to do ; and the minister convened the No- per'd vii. tables, an assembly selected from the higher classes. This chap. ii. assembly saw not, that they stood upon a volcano ready to v«**-v-^< explode ; and they refused to be taxed. On the 13th of July, 1788, as the harvest was nearly ready for the sickle, occurred 1^88. a dreadful storm of hail, lightning, wind, and rain. Some of July 13. the hailstones weighed ten ounces ; and the people, beat to the storm. 6 earth as they were going to church, lay prostrate, — believing that (The meet _ the end of the world had come. Their harvest, — their vines and ™ t |° f the fruit trees were all destroyed. The succeeding winter was se- ra^wLfjSJj vere, — famine came upon the miserable population, and there KS55f6? e was a ferocity in their murmurs which terrified the court. The admirnstra- king, by the advice of Neckar, then in the ministry, convoked ^m/, in" the States General. 1787.) 3. Their deputies met at Versailles on the 5th of May, 1789. The commons, or third estate, who in former times had been governed by the two other orders, the clergy and noblesse, now manifested an independent spirit ; and even when the king came ~* ay 5 ' to address them, they covered their heads in ominous disrespect. The The three estates had formerly sat in different chambers. Now General the commons, on meeting, refused to proceed to business until meet at joined by the other orders. Against the threats of the king, sanies, and the opposition of the aristocracy, the commons, at the head of whom was Mirabeau, carried the point of consolidating the Conduct assembly in one chamber; but the clergy united with them ®\lrgy. treacherously ; that they might help them do their worst, that (See so they should the sooner ruin themselves. The deputies gave themselves the title of the " National Assembly." 4. Louis had dismissed Neckar, and a new minister ordered a corps of foreign troops to advance towards Versailles and J»Jy 14 - Paris, — these places having declared for the assembly ; which str uc- was now engaged in making for France a free constitution. Jea- { J° n B ° g f _ lous for the rights of their legislature, all Paris flew to arms. tile. The " National Guard" was formed. They assembled with the July 16 citizens at the Bastile ; and that gloomy prison, where so many La Fay- innocent victims of royal caprice and tyranny had been immured, ma J e was levelled with the ground. Two days after this event La JJjj^ Fayette was made commander of the National Guard. The as- of the sembly demanded the dismissal of the foreign troops. The Jj^ minister retained them. When Louis was informed ofMhe cause Guard. I 2. What was the feeling and voice of the nation ? By what measure did the minister seek to avert this, and what was its result? What occurred on the 13th of July, 1788 ? What was the cause, and what the consequence of the famine ? — 3. When and where did the assembly meet ? What was the bearing of the third estate ? What point did they make and how suc- ceed in carrying it ? Who was the leader, or head of the commons ? What, according to M. Thiers, was the object of the clergy in consenting to sit in the room with the commons? — 4. What was the assembly engaged in do- ing ? What military corps was formed ? By whom did the people fear that the assembly would be overawed, and what did they do? What day was the Bastile destroyed, and what occurred two days after? CHAP. II. Distur- 438 THE MOB AT VERSAILLES. Mod&rm His. () f the excitement and agitation, ail of which had been con- pee'd vn. cealed from him, he visited the assembly, threw himself upon its protection and ordered the retreat of the troops. He next visited Paris, where he was received with demonstrations of at- tachment; which he strengthened by confirming the appoint- ments made by the assembly. 5. The king and royal family gave a splendid fete at Ver- bances sailles, on the first day of October. This was told to mothers, Sthof wnose children were suffering with famine ; and on the mora- October, ing of the fifth, a multitude of women in Paris rose, and set up the cry of bread ! bread ! and demanded to be led to Versailles. The rising became general, and arms were seized. La Fayette, (This unable to stop the mob, accompanied them to Versailles, at the honor- neac * °^ tne nat i° na l guards. The women went first — the able as crowd surrounded the palace;— the king appeared, and gratified i.aFay- them by promising to go to Paris. The queen was menaced ette, is during the day ; but at evening, though the mob were at Ver- many sailles, all seemed quiet. This, La Fayette reported to the king writers anc | queen, urging, however, the placing within the palace of ad- t'o cast ditional guards. The queen refused ; — blindly distrusting him. for his ^ e tnen ret i re d for a short repose. During the last hours of having the night, some of the more violent of the mob found an un- tcfsleep. guarded entrance into the palace, — sought the queen's apartment, , M. and would have murdered her, had she not escaped to another. § i ^nhis' La Fayette, informed of these disorders, which would have g I ^Je been prevented, had he been permitted to station the guards ^ I &ets the within the palace, threw himself among the infuriated mob, and saved the body guard, whom they were about to massacre. He next sought the queen — persuaded her to go with him to the balcony, where he bowed to her, and kissed her hand with profound respect; and the changeful multitude seeing his devo- tion, shouted " Vive la Reine." The royal family removed to Paris ; the National Assembly followed ; and its presence, with the exertions of La Fayette 3 for a time calmed the tumults of the populace, and restored a temporary quiet to the city. 1*790- 6. In the National Assembly were men of noble motives, and tiona? disinterested conduct; but while they proceeded with the work Assem- f uprooting ancient usages, they sometimes destroyed too aconsti- unsparingly the good with the bad. The remains of the old feudal system were cleared away ; the lands belonging to the religious houses were converted to the use of the nation ; and the estates of those who fled from France on the repeal of the edict of Nantes, were ordered to be restored. With the vast landed property of the church, which fell under the control of 4. What further occurred in regard to foreign troops ? What popular measures were now taken by the king? — 5. Relate the disturbances of the fifth of October. — The occurrences of the night. The conduct of La Fay- ette. What removal was made by the royal family ? — 8. What is here re- marked of the National Assembly, (caiied also the Constituent Assembly,) and of their acts ? How did they provide the fund for carrying their objects into effect ? matter right.) tution. ESCAPE AND CAPTURE OF THE ROYAL FAMILY. 439 the assembly, and with the confiscated domains of the emigrant Modem His. nobility, they constituted a fund for the national use; and on per'd vn. this basis, issued their paper securities, which passed current, chap. ii. and received the name of assignats. But while the assembly s*** P v'"w was laboring to complete the constitution, the king assenting to Pa P er their acts, various counter movements were in operation. Marie of the Antoinette neither loved nor trusted the French people. While ^f^s"" this beautiful and accomplished woman was the idol of the court, sembiy. she was censured by the nation for her extravagance and levity ; s tbse- and charged with more crimes than she had committed. The quern true daughter of Maria Theresa, she would, if left to herself, have two- opposed the revolution by energetic measures. The nobility JJirds had, in many cases, emigrated, and stirred up foreign princes landed against the reformers. The court saw that the tide had become v ly V f*~ too strong for them to cope with, and they, desirous to escape, France were in correspondence with the emperor of Austria, and ex- w t his n pected an armed force to come to their assistance. The catholic fund - clergy were seeking at home, by base means, to destroy the new order of things. On the other hand, among the revolu- tionists, clubs were formed, among which was that of the Jaco- bins, who stirred up the people to censure the measures of the new government, as too moderate, and too lenient to the prin- ciples of monarchy, 7. Meantime the crowned heads of Europe, alarmed at the (The prevalence of principles which tended to disorganize their own asS- to interfere for the purpose of restoring bly had uttered 11- ing words' the authority of Louis. On the north an Austrian army was "great approaching France, commanded by the duke of Brunswick. It was soon known that its object was to afford protection to the royal family, who escaped at night from Paris. Incensed ° in g e t h e " at their distrust and intention of joining their enemies, the peo- way to^ pie pursued, — arrested the royal fugitives at Varennes, and car- S aiit ried them back to the capital. The sense of personal danger JjJ"^ arising from the near approach of a hostile army, with whom people their own sovereigns were in league, roused up the people f^. to an agony which led to horrid deeds. Paris became a em mo- scene of tumult and uproar, and the whole kingdom was con- vulsed. In the assembly, violent discussions arose. Some maintained, that Louis had, by his flight, abdicated the throne ; fog in and the more violent demanded his execution. The new con- ^'In- stitution being completed, September 29th, 1791, the Constituent 1791. Assembly declared its business accomplished ; and not only dis- Con n t t i - solved, but decreed, with more magnanimity than wisdom, that Assem- no member of its own body should be eligible to a re-election, gjj^j" chies were becom- 6. What movements counter to the National Assembly emanated from the court ? What from the nobility ? What from the clergy ? What among the revolutionists?— T. What danger threatened the revolutionists from the surrounding kings ? What armed force was on the north ? For what purpose did it approach the confines of France, and what was done by the royal family ? What was the result of this attempt to escape ? What was done by the National Constituent Assembly ? 440 PilREXSY OF THE REVOLUTIONISTS. Modem His. g. Deputies being chosen, the " Legislative Assembly," com- per'D vn. posed of men ignorant and violent, convened October 14th. chap. ii. Roland was now minister of the interior, and Dumourier for s -^~ v ^ , **»* / foreign affairs. Francis J J., emperor of Austria, imperatively 'eu/ad- demanded the restoration of the old order of things, and was vocates preparing to enforce his demand by the sword. On the 20th tuSonaV °f March, the assembly declared war against him. Marechal mo- Rochambeau, La Fayette, and Luckner, commanded the French y.) arm j es . but after an unsuccessful invasion of Belgium, then under the Austrian yoke, their operations became merely defensive. Their want of success is ascribed to the malignant influence of the factions in the army which were opposed to the Assembly. La Fayette was at the head of the party, in favor of a constitu- tional monarchy. He wrote to the Legislative Assembly, fmd- The ing it departing from first principles. Members threatened his royal life, — when suddenly he appeared at the bar of the house. He blindly con J ure d the deputies to respect the constitution, and warned spurn them of the danger arising from the Jacobin chiefs. He also l friend y appealed to the national guards, by whom he was greatly be- W «nt * ove d- '^ ne court ? which he wished to save, unhappily still have distrusted him ; and thus, themselves defeated his measures for them "keir P reserva tion ; and La Fayette returned in despair to the army. 9. Prussia had joined Austria, and the combined army, amount- ing to 11-5,000 men, advanced and entered the French territory; when the duke of Brunswick published a manifesto, threatening the assembly with the loss of their heads, and all Paris with destruction, if the slightest insult was offered to the royal family. 1792. ^ ucn m sults had already been offered. The revolutionists grew The ' frantic. Destruction must do a work, — and they naturally sought Au^usf to screen themselves, by turning it upon their enemies, domestic a fatal' and foreign. In Paris all was uproar and agitation. The tocsin da the° r was soun ded, the drums beat, and armed men assembled, — or- royai ganized and united ; and early in the morning they besieged the ami y. Tuilleries. Louis with his family, once more beheld its beau- tiful garden, as they passed to enter the house of deputies, and claim the protection of the assembly. After the king left the palace, the rioters massacred the Swiss guards. They then sur- rounded the assembly, which yielding to their demands, passed a vote to dethrone the king. The Luxembourg was first as- signed him as his residence \ thence he was transferred, a pri- soner, to the Temple. 10. After these events, La Fayette, ever true to constitutional liberty, seeing that it could no longer be maintained, attempted, 8. What assembly next convened, and when ? Who were now the king's ministers ? What was done by the emperor of Austria, and by the French in consequence? What military arrangements are here noticed? What was done by La Fayette? — 9. What army was advancing upon Paris? What declaration or manifesto was published by the duke of Brunswick? What was now the situation of the revolutionists and their conduct? What was that of the royal family ? EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI. 441 IH with four of his friends, to escape to America ; but they were Modern His - made prisoners by the Austrians, and contrary to the laws of per'D vii. nations, immured for four years in the dreary dungeons of CHAP - "■ Olmutz. France was now divided into violent parties. In the ^~v^~' Legislative Assembly were the Feuillants or Constitutionalists, J t a e ^Jg the Girondists, who were not ill disposed towards the king, and offered the Jacobin or Mountain party, so called from their occupying ^ase" the highest and central seats in the chamber of session. The if he Jacobins were blood-thirsty agitators, and they held their clubs re tract in Paris, which were presided over by Danton, Robespierre, |^ s ®£ and Marat, afterwards called " the Infernal Triumvirate." in favor >.!§ 1 1. The combined army made themselves masters of Longwy °{£?f£~ and Verdun. The commune of Paris, when informed of this, berty.) gave orders for the general massacre of the royalists. About three hundred murderers were employed in the horrid service, 1792. and three days were devoted to the inhuman butchery. The Vassal assembly and the ministry attempted in vain to arrest the mas~ ere of sacre ; the soldiers who guarded the prisons were unable to af- t aiist°s y ~ ford their unhappy inmates relief. The Legislative Assembly closed their career, and were succeeded by an assembly still more violent, called the "National Convention." The regal power |JP- r 2 e °; was declared to be abolished and. a republic established. Vio- public, lent contests occurred in the assembly between the factions of the Gironde and the Mountain ; the former reprobated the mas- 1793. sacre, and wished to save the king, — the latter gloried in their 3 ^^' deeds of blood, and determined to destroy not only the king, but xvi. all persons who were opposed to their own violent measures. he ad~ e lic, exercised with arbitrary despotism, cruelties the most Nantes, and barbarous. Licentiousness and profligacy walked forth un- ^out veiled : even the forms of religion were destroyed ; and Chris- 80,000.) tianity was declared a nullity. The Sabbath was abolished; 1?94. and one day m ten set apart, not for religion, but for idleness (Madam and licentiousness. The goddess of reason, personified by a peraon 1 - na ked prostitute, was drawn in triumph through the streets of ates the Paris ; and the municipal officers of the city, and the members o? Rea- °f ^ ie National Convention of France, joined publicly in the son.) impious parade. 14. Of the three despots, Marat was assassinated by Char- lotte Corday, a young girl, self-devotecl to the good of her country. Danton was condemned through the instrumentality Death of G f Robespierre. This atrocious man, for a time, maintained the Marat .- r . , , , , , , . . ' , and sway alone ; but at last, deserted by his associates, he was con- pierre" demiied by the convention ; and the guillotine, which had, during his reign of nearly two years, shed the innocent blood of thou- sands, for once let fall the stroke of justice, and delivered the earth from a ferocious monster. 15. Meanwhile, the republican armies under Jourdan and (Abbe^ Pichegru, had retrieved the honor of the French ; and in the influen- Netherlands and elsewhere achieved many conquests. After the forming ^ °f Robespierre and his associates, the revolutionists began the to see that, if blood continued to flow, their own must soon cStl- swell the tide. The constitution was remodelled, so as to be- tution.) come less democratic, and the executive government was in- §H trusted to a Directory, consisting of five persons. The legisla- ' five body was formed of two councils, that of the " ancients," of two hundred and fifty, and the " council of five hundred." 1795. ^ l aws were to originate with the five hundred, but not to pass Napo- without the sanction of the ancients. Some of the provisions Bona- of the new constitution offended the Parisians and the National parte.) Guards, 30,000 of whom rose in arms. Barras, one of the 13. What is said of the war in La Vendee ? (Examine also the side note.) What party or faction now gained the ascendancy 1 Who was now sacri- ficed ? Who were the " Infernal Triumvirate ?" What impious declara- tion was made ? What infamous rites were celebrated, and who joined publicly? — 14:. What was the fate of Marat? Of Danton? Of Robes- pierre? — 15. Under what generals were the French armies? Were they successful? How was the government now remodelled ? Did this third constitution pass without tumult ? What occurred ? NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 443 directors, brought forward and placed at the head of the regular M °dern His. troops, a young Corsican officer, who promptly reduced them to per'd vil order. He had distinguished himself at the siege of Toulon, chat. hi. He was Napoleon Bonaparte. v-^-v^,/ CHAPTER III. Victorious Career of Napoleon Bonaparte. 1. Austria and England were now the only powers of the 1^95-6. first order engaged in the war against France ; the others having (Bona- withdrawn from the coalition. Bonaparte was raised to the nng e the q mob rank of general, and intrusted by the directors, who medi- recommend- A j h , r » • 'ii in-, edhimtothe tated the conquest of Austria, with the command of the army Directory. of Italy. Moreau led the army of the Sambre and Meuse, b rougtithim which was to press forward on the eastern frontier of Germany ; forward.) and Jourdan commanded that of the Rhine. A junction of these three armies was designed to take place at Vienna. Mo- reau and Jourdan crossed the Rhine. The Austrian generals *"^ fe * were unable to withstand them, and all Germany was filled with consternation. The imperial forces at length united, and under /° a u t r ^ a b n jj?~ the arch-duke Charles, they attacked Jourdan and defeated archduke. him. By this event, Moreau, who had advanced 200 miles, Moreau's and had the defiles of the Black Forest in his rear, was placed ce r etreat e in a dangerous position. His safe retreat, made under the most thr B "f" k the embarrassing and dangerous circumstances, is considered a great Forest. military exploit. 2. Bonaparte, meanwhile, advanced into Italy, passing round the southern extremity of the Alps, and keeping near the shores mo%te- of the Mediterranean. At Monte Notte, he encountered the notte. Austro-Sardinian army, and here obtained his first victory. He mf^er if it- n/r'n • 1 1»T • T •MJX/JBiOOi- again deleated his enemy at Millesimo, then at Mondovi. In mo. less than a month, he had gained three battles, destroyed 25,000 18th. of the enemy's forces, and made himself master of the mountain £"apa?t?s passes. Pressing forward, he crossed the Po, and attacking first vkto with desperate bravery the Austrians, at the bridge of Lodi, he "Austrfans forced their general, Beaulietj, to retreat upon Mantua. Milan May 11. submitted to his arms, and those powers of Italy heretofore neu- tral or interested in the Austrian cause, now sought the friend- Chap. III. — 1. What first-rate powers were engaged in war against France in 1795-6 ? What conquest did the directory now meditate ? Who led the three armies provided, and what was their destination? What success had the two armies sent against Germany in the first instance ? What was afterwards the position of Jourdan ? What was then done by Moreau ? — 2. Describe the course of Gen. Bonaparte until after his first and second victory ? Relate his third. What important city submitted to him? 444 Bonaparte's great Italian campaign. Modern His. PER'D VII. CHAP. III. 1798. August. LONATO. CASTI- GLIOJSTE. MED OLA. Bonaparte victorious over Wurin- ser and the Austrians. September. ROVERE- DO. Bonaparte defeats Da- vidovich. BASSANO. He defeats Wurmser. CALDIE- RO. Bonaparte repulsed by Alvinzi. Nov. 15, 16 and 17. ARC OLA. Bonaparte defeats Al- vinzi. ship of the conqueror. The dukes of Parma and Modena, the grand duke of Tuscany, and even the pope were compelled to purchase his favor, — not only with money and provisions, but with their finest paintings and statuary, which were transported to Paris. 3. Mantua was now the only place of strength whieh re- mained to the Austrians in Italy ; and to this Bonaparte laid siege. To defend it, 80,000 Austrians were despatched into Italy, under the command of Wurmser. Learning that the divisions of this army had unwisely been so far extended as to prevent easy communications with each other, Bonaparte left Mantua, and advancing unexpectedly, defeated one division at Lonato, and another at Castiglione. Wurmser, on learning this, advanced with his main force ; when, at Medola, victory again declared for the French. These three defeats had destroyed nearly half the Austrian army. 4. Bonaparte now resumed the siege of Mantua, which had in the meantime received supplies of men and provisions. Wurmser, who had retreated to the Tyrol, having been re-in- forced by 20,000 men, left Davidovich in command of a strong force, and himself moved again towards Mantua. Bonaparte waited only until Wurmser had entirely separated his two divi- sions, when leaving a small force at Mantua, he proceeded rapidly towards Roveredo, attacked and defeated Davidovich. He then, with astonishing celerity, marched upon the advance guard of Wurmser, attacked and defeated it ; and the next day obtain- ed a decided victory over the main body, under Wurmser, at Bassano. This general, as a last effort, succeeded in throwing himself, with a remnant of the Austrian army, now reduced to 16,000 men, into Mantua. 5. Another Austrian army, under Alvinzi, was sent to re- lieve that city. Bonaparte met him at Caldiero, and was re- pulsed ; but at Areola, where he fought three days, he was again victorious. Thus closed the wonderful campaign of 1796 ; — which the minister of war reported thus to the direc- tory, " Italy has been entirely conquered — three large armies entirely destroyed — fifty stands of colors have been taken — forty thousand Austrians have laid down their arms : — all has been accomplished by an army of thirty thousand Frenchmen, commanded by a general, scarce twenty-six years old." About this time, Corsica, the native land of Bonaparte, was, by his 2. What was the result of this brilliant success ? Which of the sove- reigns of these states made their submission, and with what were they com- pelled to purchase the favor of the conqueror ? — 3. What strong fortress held out for Austria? What was done in reference to it? By what army did the Austrians attempt to defend it ? How did Bonaparte destroy nearly half this army? — 4. Relate Bonaparte's three next victories. To what number was Wurmser's army reduced, and what, as a dernier resort, did he do? — 5. What general was next sent by the Austrians? What battles did Bonaparte fight with this army, and with what success ? What did the French minister report to the Directory concerning this astonishing cam- paign ? What is said of Corsica. PEACE OF CAMPO FORMIO. 445 agency, reunited to France. The destructive civil war of La Modem His. Vendee was ably and honorably brought to a close by general per'd vii. Hoc he, at the head of 100,000 men. chap. m. 6. The Austrians reinforced the army of Alvinzi. Bonaparte, ^-^"^^w* at Montebaldo, failed of his usual success ; but, in a desperate 1T9 1 ?. battle at Rivoli, he was again victorious, when Mantua surren- J mSnte-' dered, and Italy was conquered. Bonaparte now advanced to- baldo. wards Austria. Vienna was in alarm, and the humbled court reputed. 6 now consented to negotiations, which were opened at Idem- £t"?" y - berg on the 9th of April. While waiting for authority from Bonaparte the Directory to complete the treaty, the young conqueror sate vlctonous - down at Montebello, in the vicinity of Milan ; where ambassa- peace'of ' dors from Germany, the popedom, Genoa, Venice, Piedmont, F °J c f m E°_ and the Swiss Republic, gathered around him, each seeking his lease o'f La favor. On the 17th of October the treaty was concluded at Edition Campo Formio. To France was ceded Flanders, Savoy, and the extension of its boundary to the Rhine. 7. Austria was to be indemnified by receiving a 'part of the territories of Venice. An insurrection in that city, with the murder of some of the French soldiery, during the absence of Bonaparte, afforded him a pretext to conquer that republic. The Austrians took possession of some of its provinces, and , T *7 „ , „ , . . r , . . , . , , x r . J. (Italian Re- the h rench the remainder, with the capital. Naples was form- publics ed into a Parthenopean Republic. The Cisalpine Repub- t h°™ame lic was formed of the French portion of the duchy of Milan, burlesqued and several other Italian states. The constitution of Genoa used^oTe- also was changed, and it received the name of the Ligurian signate a Republic About the same time Holland was conquered by ^rTvince Pichegru, and the Batavian Republic there established. An t aJ d goveri^ insurrection took place in Rome, of which the French troops ment.) taking advantage, occupied the city, subverted the papal govern- ment, and established the Roman Republic French influence also produced a revolution in Switzerland, where the French arms, after several battles, triumphed, and the Helvetian Re- public was established. Geneva was united to France. 8. In the meantime the English, now left single handed to contend with France, had maintained their superiority at sea, and in successive engagements, defeated the French and their (English allies. The Directory of France, victorious on the continent, ala f£{jjj ta but disturbed by factions and disorders at home, — perhaps un- prospector willing to retain in Paris a general, who possessed ambition, ^JJSbJ 1 " 5. What of the disastrous war of La Vendee? — 6'. Relate the battles fought in the beginning of the year 1797 between Bonaparte and Alvinzi. What was the consequence of the victory of Rivoli ? What course did the French commander take after the conquest of Italy ? When and where did negotiations begin ? Where was now the young conqueror, and how surrounded ? Give some account of the peace of Campo Formio. — T. Relate the iniquitous proceedings with respect to Venice. Enumerate the burlesque republics which the French now formed of their con- quered provinces. Show on your maps the location of each. What city was united to France ? — f*. What had been the fortune of war on the seas? 446 BONAPARTE IN EGYPT. Modern His. PER'D VII. CHAP. III. ON THE NILE. Nelson gains a great victory. Feb. 11. (Bonaparte is guilty of destroying in cold blood at Jaffa 4,000 prisoners who laid down their arms under pledges re- ceived from his officers.) ABOUKIR. Bonaparte entirely de- stroys a Turkish army of 9,000. 1T9S Second Coalition. CASSAJYO. Russians under Su- warrow de- feat the French. and unlimited power over the troops, now planned a new and singular enterprise, — the conquest of Egypt. The preparations M r ere made under pretence of an expedition against England, and the command was given to Bonaparte. He embarked at Toulon, and on his passage he achieved the conquest of Malta ; and though pursued by the British fleet, he arrived in safety at Alexandria. He ascended the Nile, and near Cairo, in sight of those monuments of antiquity, he gained the sanguinary battle of the Pyramids, over the Mamelukes, under Murad Bey, whose cavalry had been regarded as invincible. Cairo surrendered ; Egypt was conquered, and the remnant of the Mamelukes dis- persed and fled. 9. Admiral Nelson, the hero of the British navy, commanded a fleet, which followed the French to the bay of Aboukir, near the mouth of the Nile, where their vessels were moored; and after a bloody battle, entirely defeated them, and nearly destroy- ed their ships ; — thus rendering the English masters of the Me- diterranean, and placing the French army in a perilous situation. Learning that the Turks had assembled two armies for the de- fence of Egypt, Bonaparte traversed the desert which separates Africa from Asia ; and entering Palestine, he defeated another body of Mamelukes, and took Gaza and Jaffa. Bent upon the conquest of Syria, he invested Acre, but receiving a repulse from the English, under Sir Sydney Smith, he was compelled to raise the siege, when he retired into Egypt. A Turkish army having landed at Aboukir, Napoleon advanced against it, and obtained another decisive victory. Intelligence from Europe now induced him to abandon Egypt ; and leaving his army un- der Kleber, he returned to France with secrecy and despatch. On the 14th of December, 1799, died George Washington., the father of his country, whose death filled the American peo- ple with unaffected sorrow. 10. While Bonaparte was engaged in Egypt, a reverse of fortune had taken place in the French affairs. A " Second Coa- lition" had been formed against France, composed of England, Russia, Naples, the Ottoman Porte, and Austria. The Austrian war had been renewed. The archduke Charles having won two battles over Jourdan, had penetrated Switzerland. The Russians and Austrians, under Suwarrow, had defeated the French at Cassano, and made themselves masters of Milan and Turin. In short, repeated defeats had deprived the French of nearly all their conquests in Italy. In other quarters, the arms of France were more successful. Under Massena, they defeated 8. What new project was got up by the Directory ? Give an account of Bonaparte's expedition against Egypt. — 9. What important naval battle was fought, and what were the results ? Relate the circumstances of Bona- parte's invasion of Syria. What bad action was he guilty of at Jaffa ? (See note.) What battle did Bonaparte gain after his return to Egypt ? Whither did he go? Whose death occurred, and when ? — IO. What nations were parties to the second coalition against France? What had been done by the Austrian armies in Italy ? How had the French succeeded in other quarters ? Bonaparte's second campaign in italy. 447 a Russian army in Switzerland, and took Zurich. A combined English and Russian army, under the duke of York, which had invaded Holland, was, after some partial successes, compelled to retreat. 11. France was torn by factions, which the directorial go- vernment could not manage. Bonaparte, with the Abbe Sieyes, planned another revolution, in which he took care to be ap- pointed to the command of all the military in Paris. The legislative body, (met at St. Cloud,) like Cromwell, he ex- pelled from their place of session, at the point of the bayonet. Three Consuls were appointed, of whom Bonaparte was first. Placed now at the head of the French nation, he made earnest overtures of peace to England, tut they were haughtily rejected. Russia, however, abandoned the coalition. 12. Moreau had now the command in upper Germany, and Bo- naparte invaded Ttaly with 30,000 men. He crossed Mount St. Bernard, through passes heretofore deemed inaccessible, sur- prised the Austrians, conquered the country to the Po, and re- stored the Cisalpine Republic. Melas, the Austrian general, had left what he deemed a sufficient force to guard the passes of the Alps, and with the main army advanced upon Genoa. Leaving there a besieging force, he marched towards France, encountered the French, under Suchet, and compelled them to retreat. On the eve of invading France, he received the as- tounding intelligence of Bonaparte's passage over Mount St. Bernard. Melas turned back, and on the plains of Marengo, the hostile armies met. The shock was terrific ; but the fierce and bloody encounter left the French masters of the field. This battle restored to France almost all she had lost in the preceding campaign ; and was followed by an armistice, which extended to the armies on the Rhine. Moreau had crossed the Rhine, penetrated Bavaria, and gained the battle of Hohenlinden where he took 10,000 prisoners, and entered Austria. Negotiations for peace were now opened at Luneville. The several repub- lics founded by the French were acknowledged ; and the Rhine was made the boundary between France and the German em- pire A treaty of peace was made, at Florence, with Naples. The naval war had meanwhile been to the advantage of the English, to w 7 hom Malta had surrendered. 13. In the north of Europe affairs wore a new aspect. Paul, now emperor of Russia, won over by the policy of Bona- parte, evinced a hostile spirit towards the English, and laid an embargo on their shipping. He also engaged Denmark and Modern His. PER'D VII. chap. nr. Nov. 11. French govern- ment modi- fied. Bona- parte First Consul. 1800. Bonaparte crosses Mt. St. Bernard. June 14. MAREN- GO. Bonaparte defeats the Austrian3 under Melas. Nov. 3. HOHEJV- LIJVDEJV. Moreau de- feats the Austrians. 1801. January 1, Peace of Luneville with Aus- tria. Peace of Florence with the Italians. 11. What did Bonaparte find to do when he returned from Egypt? Who aided him in changing the government? How was the new revolu- tion effected? What were the three first magistrates called, and who was first of the three ? What did the First ConsuHn regard to England ? What nation abandoned the coalition ? — 12. Relate Bonaparte's second invasion of Italy. The movements of Melas. The battle of Marengo. What ar- mistice was made ? What in the meantime had been done by Moreau ? What treaties of peace were now made ? What is said of the naval war ? —13. Who was Paul, and what was done by him? 448 Modem His. PER'D VII. CHAP. III. i&m. Peace of Amiens. (England agreed to restore Malta.) 1SO& Bonaparte first consul for life. Bonaparte's bad treat- ment of the negro great man, Tous- saint Lou- verture. (England refused to restore Malta.) The young duke D'Enghien shot. BONAPARTE FIRST CONSUL. Sweden in an "Armed Neutrality?* the object of which was to injure England. The English despatched ships to the Baltic, took possession of the Danish fleet, and attacked Copenhagen, thus obliging the Danes to sue for peace. The death of Paul produced another change. His son, Alexander, by mediating between England and France, effected a peace between them. It was favorable to France ; England restoring all conquests except Trinidad and Ceylon. Peace was also concluded be- tween France and the Porte. The English and Turkish army lead defeated the French forces in Egypt, and restored that country to the Turks. Bonaparte was now consolidating his power, by seeking the favor of every class. He re-established the Roman catholic leligion, revived the priesthood, re -orga- nized the national institute, permitted the emigrants to return, and pleased the officers of the army, already devotedly attached to his person, by creating the " Legion of Honor," a military aristocracy, of which himself was chief. He was declared by the senate first consul for life. 14. In the French island of St. Domingo the negroes had risen upon their masters, and massacres succeeded. The Eng- lish invaded the island. The French colonists and negroes made peace, and together expelled the common enemy. Although still tributary to France, they adopted a new government, and Tous saint Louverture, who, though a negro, possessed dis- tinguished talents and virtues, now held the first station on the island. The French attacked the islanders; Toussaint was treacherously made prisoner and taken to Paris, where Bona- parte disgracefully permitted the sable patriot to suffer and die in prison. The islanders resisted the French successfully, and maintained their liberty. 15. A year had not elapsed since the peace of Amiens, before the refusal of England to fulfil the treaty, produced a renewal of the war between France and that power. The French seized the electorate of Hanover, and a British squadron block- aded the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser. It was at this period that Bonaparte stained his name by the murder of the duke D'Enghien. He had been accused of favoring those who conspired against the life of the first consul. He was arrested, and, after the form of a military trial, condemned, and shot in the trench of the castle of Vincennes. The obsequious senate now offered to Bonaparte the title of Emperor; and he prepared for the coronation of himself, and his consort, the charitable and elegant Josephine. 13. How did his hostility to England affect Denmark? Who was Paul's successor, and what is the first act related of him ? Give an account of the treaty of Amiens. In what was Bonaparte now occupied, and what mea- sures did he bring to effect. — 14. What had been done in St. Domingo ? What oppressive act is related of Bonaparte ? — 15. What caused the re- newal of war between France and England ? What possession of the Eng- lish was seized by the French ? What measure of retaliation did the British take by means of their navy ? What was done by Bonaparte in relation to the duke D'Enghien? Coronation of Napoleon and Josephine. PEKXOD VIII. FROM THE CORONATION £ 1804: < OF NAPOLEON. TO THE BATTLE > 1815. < OF WATERLOO. CHAPTER I. The Great Empire of Napoleon. 1. Napoleon was, with Josephine, vested with the imperial dignity on the second of December, 1804. The pope, recon- ciled by the establishment of the catholic religion, assisted at the splendid ceremonial ; — crowned and anointed him, in the church of Notre Dame. Those states which had been called republics, were now to be remodelled, and the Cisalpine and Ligurian were formed into the kingdom of Italy, of which Na- poleon ivas crowned king at Milan. Thus a second Charle- magne had arisen to restore for a brief season the empire of the first. 2. England, with the influence she used, and the money with which she subsidized Russia and Austria, now formed with them a Third Coalition. Spain had already allied herself to France. Napoleon with his attached soldiers, — rapid as a mountain torrent, — crossed the Rhine, — took prisoners an Austrian army Modern His. P'R'D VIII, CHAP. I. Third Coalition, Period VIII.— Chap. I. — 1. What account can you give of the coronation mentioned ? What other coronation besides that of Paris is related ? To whom may Napoleon be compared, in respect to the empire which he ruled ? — %. What powers now coalesced against France ? What nation was with France ? Give an account of Napoleon's invasion of Germany. 451 452 THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE SUPERSEDES THE GERMAN. Modern Hts. P'R'D VIII. CHAP. I. 20,000 pris. Peace of Presburg. 1806. N. cuts up his "repub- lics" into kingdoms for his rela- tives. Confedera- tion of the Rhine. 1803. Fourth Coalition. Prussia joins Eng- land. JEJVjI. N. defeats the Prus- sians. "Continen- tal System," Dec 26. "Berlin Decree." (This was answeredby the British "Orders in Council.") at Ulm, and while Francis and his court fled to Hungary, en- tered his capital. At Austerlitz, on the anniversary of his coro- nation, he met the united Austrian and Russian armies. From sunrise until evening, the battle was hotly waged ; when the genius of Napoleon again prevailed, and the allies were com- pelled to retreat, leaving to the French 30,000 prisoners, and an immense quantity of artillery. The successes of Ulm and Austerlitz were followed by the treaty of Presburg, Austria now deserting the coalition. 3. In 1806, the ambitious views of Napoleon became still more apparent. Holland had, the preceding year, been formed into a kingdom, of which his brother, Louis Bonaparte, was made k*ng. Naples was now given to Joseph Bonaparte, the elder brother, who was also invested with the title of king of the two Sicilies. Several provinces were constituted duchies, or grand fiefs of the empire, and given to the emperor's relations and favorites. His sister, Pauline, was made princess of Guas- talla ; his brother-in-law Murat, grand-duke of Berg and Cleves ; while Eugene Beauharnois, the son of his empress Josephine by a former marriage, was sent viceroy to Italy. Fourteen princes in the south and west of Germany, were formed into the " Confederation of the Rhine." They were separated from the Germanic body, and recognized Napoleon as their head, under the title of Protector. The German empire now ceased to exist; Francis II. laying down the title of emperor of Ger- many, and assuming that of emperor of Austria. Switzerland was also brought under the dominion of France, Napoleon de- claring himself its "Mediator." 4. Frederic William of Prussia, who had heretofore been neutral, this year engaged in the war against France. The main origin of his enmity was the duplicity of Napoleon, who had encouraged the Prussians to seize the electorate of Hanover, and who had since, in negotiating with Great Britain, offered to restore it. The Prussian army, with their allies, amounted to 1 10,000 men. Napoleon met them at Jena, with 150,000 and obtained a complete victory. The different bodies of the Prus- sian army were, one after another, obliged to surrender, and in little more than a month, the French took 140,000 prisoners, great numbers of standards, large quantities of artillery, and made themselves masters of the principal towns of the kingdom. From Berlin, Napoleon issued his famous decree, declaring the islands of Great Britain in a state of blockade, and prohibiting the countries under his government from all intercourse with 2. Of the battle of Austerlitz. What treaty followed this great battle ? — 3. Let the pupil study with the maps, and show upon them the new king- doms, or what would be much the better way, sketch on a slate, black- board, or paper, central and southern Europe with the new divisions. As the change in Germany has remained, be particular to remember it. — 4. What power now joined England in a fourth coalition against France ? What had provoked the king of Prussia ? Relate the military operations of the Prus- sians and French with the Prussian losses. What system did Napoleon commence, and what decree issue from one of the capitals of Prussia? PEACE OF TILSIT. 453 that nation. He next detached Saxony from Prussia ; conferred Mode ™ His. upon the elector the dignity of king, and brought him into his p'R'd.viil alliance. The Prussian provinces on the lower Rhine were re- c »ap. i. duced by an army from Holland, under Louis, — and Silesia, by a v ^~^^-' French army under Jerome Bonaparte, a younger brother of Napoleon. ■5. Russia became now seriously alarmed, and her armies ad- i§©^. vanced to protect her empire. At Pultusk, a battle was fought pultvsk. between the French and Russians, without any decisive result. an?FxSi, Again at Eylau, from three o'clock in the afternoon until the next indecisive.' night, the two armies fought, — when, about twelve o'clock, Feb. 8. the carnage ceased, the French keeping possession of the ^defeat field. The armies now, for some time, remained inactive. Jn \he Rus- May, the French besieged and took Dantzic. The June follow- s,ans- ing, a decisive battle was fought at Friedland, where the Rus- frled- sians were defeated, and compelled to retreat with great loss. land. This battle was followed by the capture of Konigsberg, and p« ace f by a personal interview between Alexander and Napoleon, who Tilsit met on a raft in the middle of the river Niemen, for neither of these potentates would go to visit the other. The peace of Tilsit (Jerome had was concluded. Napoleon made hard conditions with Prussia, MisTpatter- stripping Frederic William of one-third of his dominions. The sonofBaiti- brothers of Napoleon were acknowledged in their dignities ; and his "low am- another of the family, Jerome Bonaparte, provided with a king- his^rot'her's dom in Westphalia. pride, sent 6. Denmark having manifested signs of hostility towards the America.) English, that government, fearing that Napoleon would possess himself of the Danish navy, demanded of the Danes to deposit Th ^?,®T' h their ships of the line in some British port. The haughty de- take posses- mand was refused. A British fleet was despatched to the Bal- ^nlS fleet, tic, conveying land forces, which defeated a Danish army, and invested Copenhagen. The city capitulated, and the shipping c ? n ) y e 1 sted en and naval stores were delivered up to the English. The Danish government refused to ratify the capitulation, and declared war against England. 7. Napoleon now turned his ambitious eye towards the south, coveting the peninsula of Spain and Portugal. He made a se- cret treaty with Charles IV. of Spain, by which he was to send ( G ? d °y "f- T-i i i i i r, • i 1 1 • • i t-» i gotiates the French troops through the Spanish dominions,- — take Portugal, treaty be- and then divide it with Spain. The French army, headed by Fra n C e e e and Junot, advanced towards Lisbon; and Napoleon declared that Spain, and the family of Braganza had ceased to reign. Under these cir- bailed "the cumstances, the prince regent, (John VI.,) and royal family re- p ri " ce „ / solved to remove the seat of government to Brazil; and they 5. Relate the military operations of the Russians and French. What fol- lowed the battle of Friedland ? What conditions did Napoleon make with Prussia ? What new kingdom was made, and for whom ? — 6. Give an account of the contest between the Danes and the English. — ?. What ad- dition to his dominions did Napoleon now covet ? What treaty was formed between him and the Spanish sovereign ? How did Napoleon contrive to get an army into Spain ? What declaration was made by Napoleon ? What was done by the royal family of Portugal ? 454 NAPOLEON AT BAYONNE — LA FAYETTE. Modern His. P'R'D VIIT. CHAP. I. isos. French troops oc- cupy Ma- drid. Ferdinand compelled to abdicate. Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain. The " Code Napoleon," (four years in forming.) (Madam Campan was the sister of Mr. Genet, well known in American history.) La Fayette. September. La Fayette released from Olmutz. hastily embarked in a British fleet, which had blockaded the city, and which now afforded them protection from the French, who soon after entered Lisbon. 8. The court of Madrid was agitated by the most violent fac- tions, arising from the discords of the royal family, — no doubt fomented by the emissaries of Napoleon. In March, 1808, Charles IV. abdicated the crown in favor of his son Ferdinand, VIII. Murat, with a French army, took possession of Madrid. Under these circumstances, Charles and Ferdinand, with the royal family, were induced by Napoleon to go to Bayonne, where he compelled Ferdinand to abdicate, and the younger members of the family to renounce all claim upon the Spanish crown. He retained them prisoners, and issued orders for an assembly of notables to meet at Bayonne, to settle the govern- ment. No Spaniards, except the partisans of France, attended. Joseph Bonaparte, who resigned the kingdom of Naples to Murat, the husband of Caroline Bonaparte, was here made king of Spain. Napoleon's base treachery towards Spain was, perhaps, his first fatal error. 9. During this year a new system of French jurisprudence was published, under the title of the " Code Napoleon." The ablest jurists in France had been employed by the emperor in its formation ; he gave much personal thought and labor to it, and it now remains as his best title to future fame. Soon after the publication of this code, Napoleon established a univer- sity for the superintendence of national education. Nor did he entirely overlook the education of the female sex, though he was far from regarding the subject in its true light. The institution which he founded, and placed under the celebrated Madam Campan, was designed rather as a means of encouraging the military, than of elevating the female mind and character ; it being made for the daughters of the " Legion of Honor," especially those whose fathers fell in his service. 10. From Napoleon, let us turn for a moment to a less daz- zling, but a more worthy character. La Fayette had for four years inhabited the gloomy dungeons of Olmutz. The empe- ror of Austria, appealed to by Washington in behalf of the American people, and by other friends of justice and humanity, offered him his liberty if he would abjure his principles. No less the votary of truth than the friend of human rights, La Fayette would not tamper with a lie to save himself, or even his dearer family, who had, with the generous devotion of truly noble French women, immured themselves with him. By the treaty of Campo Formio, he received his liberty, at the instance of Bonaparte. He retired to the chateau of La Grange, having been reinstated in that portion of his paternal inheritance. Na- 8. Relate the course of events by which the kings of Spain, father and son, became the prisoners of Napoleon. What new arrangements did he make with his kings? What is remarked concerning Napoleon's conduct towards Spain? — 9. What is here said respecting the " Code Napoleon?" What did Napoleon to encourage education? — 10. Give an account of La Fayette since his capture by the Austrian?. WARS OF THE SPANISH PATRIOTS. 455 poleon sought to draw him thence, and make him another sat- Mode™ His. tellite in his system; but the patriot, though grateful for his p'R'dviii. release, rejected every situation by which he would have coun- chap. i. tenanced the military despotism to which his country was sub- ^*~v-*** mr / jected, and quietly gave himself to agricultural pursuits. 11. Spain, though believed to be degenerate, had yet her wars of the patriots, who would not tamely relinquish her national inde- p^ots. pendence. They roused to arms, although not less than 100,000 French troops were dispersed throughout the kingdom. The Spaniards were, indeed, enervated by that luxury, which the gold and silver of the west had brought in its train, but not so much, the peasantry, as the nobles. Provincial assemblies were formed, acknowledging the authority of Ferdinand VII. ; and orders were issued for raising volunteers, and organizing ar- offCADiz. mies. The French fleet in the harbor of Cadiz, was com- Jjg^j; pelled by its patriotic citizens to surrender ; and a French army, French, near Almanza, was almost wholly destroyed. At Valencia too, alman- they learned that the Spanish people, though destitute of regular ffijIZfl troops, would defend their soil. At Saragossa they were again saraqos- repulsed with the loss of 12,000 men. In Andalusia, the French Sp ani S h general, Dupont, was defeated, and compelled to surrender his patriots de- army. These victories placed the southern parts of the king- French? dom entirely in the hands of the patriots. King Joseph mean- while arrived at Madrid, and assumed the reigns of government but learning the successes of the Spaniards, he retreated from the capital. 12. George III., of England, became insane; and his son, af- terwards George IV., was made regent. He formed an alliance with the Spanish patriots, and with those of Portugal, — who, following their example, now rose in arms against the French. *o ft o The British despatched an army under Sir Arthur Welle sley, vimeira. which landed in Portugal October 12th, 1808; and obtained, at English un- opt Wpllt^s— Vimeira, a victory over the French under Junot, and compelled i ey defeat them to evacuate Portugal. Another British army landed in the French. Spain, under the command of Sir John Moore. 13. Napoleon now took upon himself the command of the Spanish war. He defeated several patriotic armies, and advanced upon Madrid, which, after a weak defence, surrendered. Sir 1809- John Moore, who had proceeded to Salamanca, retreated, closely na. followed by the French, who overtook him at Corunna, and % en ^jJ e ' attacked him as he was about embarking his army. The En- English, glish gained their ships, but not without loss. Sir John was Death of Sir killed, — and his officers, before their departure, snatched a few John Moore, dangerous and sorrowful moments to bury him on the shore. 14. Russia and Denmark, now in the interest of France, made war upon Sweden, which favored England. The Swedes 11. Give an account of Spain, and the exertions of the patriots. — 12. What occurred in England ? What alliance did the English now form ? Relate the battle of Vimeira, and the events which followed. — 13. Relate the course of events in the peninsula, from the lime of Napoleon's taking command, till after the battle of Corunna ? 456 WAGRAM. Modern His. P'R'D VIII. CHAP. I. 1S09. Fifth Coalition, England, Austria, Spain, Por- tugal, *~' lesia, but his rapid return defeated their plans. He saved the city, and killed and made prisoners 25,000 of their troops. At Culm, the allies obtained a victory over the French general Vandamme. The Prussian general, Blucher, was victorious at the Katzbach, and in other quarters the allies gained advan- tages over the generals of Napoleon. He now concentrated his forces, and marched to Leipsic. On the 15th of October, the grand army of the allies advanced ; and the battle of Leipsic, the great battle which decided Napoleon's fate, commenced and continued three days. Napoleon, watching its progress, saw defeaTNa- the princes of the " Confederation of the Rhine," pass over with poieon. their troops to his enemies. This was the fatal stroke. He lost the battle, — and his fortunes were irretrievably fallen. Again he sought his capital, followed by the remnant of a noble army, and arrived at Paris on the 9th of November. 14. The Spanish campaign had been equally disastrous. The French generals, not reinforced, could only maintain a defen- June n. sive warfare. At Vittoria, the English and patriots, under Wei- Wellington lington, obtained a great and decisive victory over Joseph, who was retreating with immense treasures towards France. All became the booty of the conquerors, who were now masters of the peninsula. After the retreat of Napoleon from Germany, the garrisons which had been left there, were forced, one by one, to surrender. The allied sovereigns now advanced upon the Rhine, and with the opening of the next campaign, France was on all sides threatened with invasion. Wellington had entered upon its southern frontier, and the Russians and Austrians were ready to advance on the side of the Rhine. Holland, without tumult or bloodshed, emancipated herself from the French yoke, and reconstructed her ancient government. Murat, the king of Naples, ungratefully abandoned Napoleon, now in the time of his utmost need. 15. The French people were worn out with war; and all efforts to rouse the national spirit and recruit the army, proved ineffectual. The allies entered France; and Napoleon, after making the most of his inadequate means of defence, found him- self surrounded by difficulties which .no genius or skill could surmount. On the 30th of March, 1814, the allies advanced upon Paris. The empress Maria Louisa, and all the civil au- thorities, left the city, and a French army, which had taken a position on the heights of Montmartre, near Paris, was defeated. The following day the metropolis was given up to the allied sovereigns. 13. Give an account of military operations previous to the battle of Leipsic. Of that battle and its consequences.— 14. Give an account of the military ope- rations in Spain. Of the position of France at the beginning of the campaign of 1814. What was done by Holland? What is said of Marat ?— 16. Relate the advance of the allies to Paris. At what time did they enter that city ? defeats Jo- seph Bona- parte. (Napoleon wenttoFon- tainbleau. He re- leased Fer- dinand of Spain and the pope, whom he had there imprisoned five years.) 1S14. March 31. Allies enter Paris. 462 napoleon's abdication and return. Modem His. P'R'D VIII. CHAP. If. IS14. April 11. Napoleon abdicates. The remains of Napo- . Ieon's Rus- sian army restored. (Louis XVII., un- fortunate boy, never had other kingdom than the pri- son in which he died, — about two years after the execu- tion of his parents.) 1815. March 1. Napoleon lands in France. March 6. At Grenoble, 12th. At Lyons. 16. Wellington advanced to Bourdeaux, and there erected the standard of the Bourbons. The Austrians made themselves masters of Lyons. Napoleon who had been engaged in at- tempts to obstruct and prevent the union of the grand armies, was still manceuvering, with 50,000 men, to relieve Paris, when he learned its capitulation to the Russian and Prussian sove- reigns. With an agonized mind he retired and stationed him- self at Fontainbleau ; and there learned the general defection. On the 11th of April, 1814, he signed an act of abdication, re- nouncing for himself and his family, the thrones of France and Italy. He received from the allies the sovereignty of a small island, chosen by himself, — Elba, in the Mediterranean ; where he was to retain the imperial title, and receive an income from France. Alexander made himself justly popular with the French ; and chiefly by his giving freedom to the prisoners of Napoleon's army, by which 150,000 Frenchmen were restored to their families. 17. A new constitution, dictated by the allied sovereigns, was received by the French senate ; France was reduced to the limits it had occupied at the commencement of the revolution, the Bourbons were recalled, and Louis XVIII., who had been residing in England, was declared king. He had a task to per- form, in rewarding friends, responding to the claims of the old royalists, and quieting enemies, to which he was not equal. The year had not expired, before discontents and murmurs were heard, and intrigues and conspiracies were carried on. Jl con- gress of the allied sovereigns had assembled at Vienna, to ad- just and settle the concerns of Europe. They had not yet adjourned, when, ten months from his departure for Elba, Na- poleon again trod the soil of France. With his imperial guard of Elba, numbering about 1,000 men, he escaped from the island, landed at Cannes, near Frejus, and at once advanced to- wards Paris. The troops stationed in his course, were in vain exhorted by the officers of the king to oppose his progress. The sight of their general awakened pleasing remembrances of past, and dreams of future glory, — and they hailed him with joy- ful acclamations. At Grenoble, where he first met his former soldiers, they seemed, for a moment, hesitating. Napoleon ad- vanced alone, and offered his breast, — " Let him who will, kill his emperor." Overcome by the appeal, they threw down their arms, and rushed to embrace him. The troops of Lyons, not- withstanding the remonstrances of the brother and nephew of the king, followed their example. 18. Louis, meanwhile, had made the best dispositions in his power to arrest the progress of his rival. But he knew not whom to trust. Ney promised to bring Napoleon in a cage, 16. Describe the situation of France in regard to the invading armies. Which of the allies first entered Paris, and when ? What was the course of Napoleon? — IT. What was done by the allied sovereigns? What was the position of Louis XVIII. ? Where had the congress of allied sovereigns met ? Describe the course of Napoleon from the 1st to the 12th of March. 463 and Louis gave him the command of the army stationed at Modern His - Mehin, to oppose his entrance into the capital. This army was p>r>d viii. drawn up, expecting that, which Napoleon had collected on his cha p- "• way. A galloping of horses was heard, and Napoleon himself, v^~v^w with a few attendants, arrived, at full speed, in an open car- riage. He leaped from his vehicle, and threw himself into their 1§15. arms. Their hearts melted ; and thus, the proudest of his vie- March 20. tories, Napoleon won the last army which Louis could bring 0U p a r e is. Ve into the field. On the 20th of March, Louis again went into ^p. ^ " exile, and established his little court at Ostend. 19. When the news of Napoleon's debarkation from Elba was made known to the sovereigns at Vienna, they burst into a laugh ; but they soon found occasion for more serious proceed- ings. Scornfully rejecting the proffers of Napoleon for recon- ciliation, they issued their manifesto, declaring that he had for- feited the only legal title to life, and "that he was a disturber of the public tranquillity, and without the pale of civil and social relations." Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, re- land , g assembled large armies. England gave not only men, but money is 11 millions pounds sterling, which was paid in subsidies to Jjjjfj^gy the allies. The whole fortified frontier of the Belgic provinces an the allied on the side of France, was occupied by strong garrisons, chiefly P owers -) of troops in British pay, of which Wellington took the com- mand. The Prussian army, under Blucher, advanced to co- operate with him. The allies had in arms, in their various positions, upwards of a million of troops, to make war, as they declared, upon one man ! 20. The efforts of Napoleon were unremitting and gigantic. 1815. He raised an army of 200,000 men; a force, which, though wjiter- vastly inferior to that of the allies, was yet formidable. On the loo. 16th of June, Napoleon obtained, at Ligny, his last victory, in g^uy ae- which he compelled the Prussians to retreat. On the 18th, was featedby fought the ever memorable battle of Waterloo. The Prussians under Wei- were commanded by Blucher ; the English by Wellington ; and L( Jss 8 of "he the French were for the last time under the eye of Napoleon. French The battle was long and obstinately contested. It ended in the aUie^IbSoo. complete triumph of the allies, — and the sun of Napoleon now set forever. 21. He returned to Paris, and there found that he had no ^J d a gj£ r longer the confidence of the nation. Some proposed that he La Fayette a should dissolve the legislative chambers, and assume the die- ^"Kg " tatorship, La Fayette, then a member of the body, came for- scene.) ward, made and carried a motion that all attempts to dissolve the assembly at that important crisis, should be high treason. 18. Relate the occurrences to the 20th of March.— 19. What effect did the news of Napoleon's return produce on the sovereigns at Vienna ? What manifesto did they issue ? What nations took up arms again ? What did England give? What troops were on the northern frontier? — 20. What army was now raised by Napoleon ? Give a sketch of his short campaign till after the 18th of June. — 21. What occurred after Napoleon's return to Paris ? What was proposed in the assembly by La Fayette ? 464 THE LAST DAYS OF NAPOLEON. Modern His. P'R'D VIII. CHAP. III. 1815. At St. He- lena. 1821. May 5th. Death of Napoleon. " France," he said, " had shed blood enough for the ambition of one man. Against the force in arms it was vain to attempt resistance." Napoleon abdicated, recommending his son; but the assembly made no pledge. Napoleon then taking a sorrowful farewell of his army, went to Rochefort, designing to embark for America. The harbor was blockaded by a British squadron. He went on board one of the ships, and surrendered himself to the commander, claiming, as he was self-delivered, the hospitality of the British nation. They sent him to St. Helena, a rock in the ocean. He died, — and in a little grass-grown nook, two weeping willows marked the grave of Napoleon. But the everlasting mountains above, and the perpetual sea below, were regarded by the passing mariner, as emblems of his genius and his fame. 1802. English provoke a new war. 1803. May 18. Great Bri- tain de- clares war against France. Third Coalition. England de- clares war with Spain. CHAPTER III. Great Britain and America* 1. The terms of the Treaty of Amiens were mortifying to England. She had surrendered all her conquests, except Trini- dad in the West Indies, and Ceylon in the East. Some public rejoicings were held in London, but the people generally were by no means satisfied. And when it was seen that Bonaparte not only maintained his military armaments, but made new attempts to aggrandize France, Great Britain violated the treaty by refusing to give up the island of Malta. France then seized Piedmont; when the British recalled their minister, and declared war. Bonaparte then not only deprived them of Hanover, but made vast preparations for the invasion and conquest of the British islands. The English spirit rose with the crisis, and Napoleon was deterred from the project of invasion, and obliged to march into Germany, to combat the Third Coalition that " British gold and hatred," to use his words, had raised against him. 2. In the meantime the English continued the war in the East Indies, and acquired large territories from the native princes. They were triumphant over the French by sea, and captured their East India homeward fleet. England now declared war against Spain ; that power being subservient to the views ol Napoleon, and employed in increasing and strengthening her naval armaments. The French fleet, under admiral Ville- neuve, formed a junction with that of Spain, and both num- 21. Relate the sequel of Napoleon's history. Chap. III. — 1. How did the people of England view the treaty of Amiens? How did they violate it, and what was done by France ? When did England declare war, and what further was done by the two belligerents ? — 2. What was done in Asia ? What did the English capture at sea? What is here said concerning Spain ? AMERICAN COMMERCE DESTROYED. 465 bering thirty-two sail of the line, were attacked off Cape Modern His. Trafalgar by the British fleet, consisting of twenty-seven sail, p>r>d vui. under lord Nelson. The combined fleets were conquered, and chap. m. nearly destroyed ; but Nelson, with 2,000 British seamen fell v^^^v-^w in the battle. William Pitt, the energy of whose character 1S©5. had so long controlled the nation, sunk under the weight of his %?$££' cares in the beginning of the next year; and his rival Mr. Fox, faloar. appointed his successor, died also before its close. During the deTiveison administration of the latter, the Cape of Good Hope was con- and cojiing- V i ' .■■ t, ... i J wood, defeat quered by the British. the French 3. Napoleon, having, by the great battles of Austerlitz and Sp | n f sh Jena, reduced the continent of Europe to fear, if not to sub- isoti. mission, attempted, in 1807, to compel the people, by what he Death of called his " his continental system," to prohibit British com- p ox . merce. To retaliate upon France, the English ministry had 180T issued orders for blockading that large portion of the western Napoleon's coast of Europe extending from the mouth of the Elbe to Brest. cree"reta- These and other measures of France and England nearly anni- ha E n J „^h he hilated the commerce of the American republic. Mr. Jeffer- "orders in son, then president, caused an embargo to be laid on American ^fti' ' shipping ; but proving extremely unpopular, it was repealed, American and a non-intercourse with the two offending nations substituted, embargo. Great Britain made open pretensions to the supremacy of the ocean, assumed the right to search neutral vessels, and to take from them, not only such articles as the officers of their ships judged contraband, but also her native seamen. Under this pietended right she had grossly insulted the American flag, having taken native born American sailors, and pressed them into her service ; yet England had, at this moment, some apo- logy, in standing alone to set bounds to the ambition of Na- poleon. 4. The venerable George III. having, in 1809, attained the 1809. •50th year of his reign, his subjects kept the anniversary of his ^Ja/of coronation as a jubilee. His general health was good, but his jubiie« kept mind was borne down by a severe domestic affliction, in the attne g com- sickness and death of his favorite daughter Amelia, — and his ^f tt jj ° f reason was lost. His son George, the prince of Wales, was yea r of the formally invested with the regency of the kingdom. The com- G ^ r g " Jh merce of the Americans, continuing to be crippled by the restrictive systems of the two belligerent powers, they consi- dered that both had given them just cause of war ; but before 1812. putting forth a declaration, they offered peace to that power America de- which should rescind its measures. This was partially done by c against r France; whereupon the republic declared war against England. England. 2. Relate the battle of Trafalgar. What deaths occurred the next year? What conquest of the British is mentioned ? — 3. What was done by the French and English authorities, which nearly annihilated the commerce of America ? What measures were taken by president Jefferson ? What were the pretensions of Great Britain with respect to the ocean ? — 4t. When, and on what occasion did the British keep a jubilee ? What was done by the Americans previous to their declaration of war? When and against whom was that made ? 59 466 AMERICA AT WAR WITH ENGLAND. Modern His. P'R'D VIII. CHAP. III. Oct. 13. QUEENS- TOWN. British de- feat the Americans. Am. loss about 900 k. and prison- 1S13. Jan. 22. Massacre of FRENCH- TOWN. Am. loss 1,000. April 27. YORK. British loss about 1,000. Sept. 10. Perry's vic- tory on lake Erie. October 5. Near the THAMES. British de- feated. 1314. July 5. CHIPPE- WA. '■ July 25. BRIDGE- WATER. Americans victorious. 5. General Hull, on the part of the Americans, invaded Upper Canada, but soon retreated. The British general Brock, pursued him to Detroit, and there caused him to sur- render his whole force. At Queenstown occurred another affair between the American troops and the British. The American militia, unused to war, did not perform in a soldier-like manner. A small body of regular troops, under captain Wool, repelled an attack of the British, led by Brock, in which that commander was repulsed and slain. The American honor was well sus- tained at sea. The British frigate Guerriere struck to the frigate Constitution, commanded by captain Hull ; and the frigate Macedonian was captured by commodore Decatur, command- ing the frigate United States. In several other naval actions the Americans were also victorious. 6. General Winchester was defeated at Frenchtown ; and by the treachery of the British commander, colonel Proctor, 522 Americans were massacred by the savages after their sur- render. But York, the capital of Upper Canada, surrendered to the Americans, under general Dearborn. General Clay was defeated at the rapids of the Miami. Fort George was taken by the Americans ; and the British squadron on lake Erie cap- tured by commodore Perry. On lake Ontario, a strong navai armament was kept up, without any decisive superiority. In the meantime, a British squadron entered Chesapeake Bay, and committed depredations on its shores. The Chesapeake, an American frigate, too hastily fitted for sea, surrendered to the Shannon, a British frigate of superior force, off Boston harbor. 7. Lake Erie being now commanded by the Americans, an army under general Harrison, was landed in Canada, who pursued the forces under general Proctor, and the famous In- dian chief Tecumseh, and defeated them on the Thames. Commodore Chauncey having obtained the ascendancy on lake Ontario, an army under general Brown crossed the Niagara river, and aided by the militia under general Porter, captured fort Erie. This was the first of a brilliant series of victories obtained by the American generals, Porter, Scott, Ripley and Brown, on the Niagara frontier, over the troops who had fought under Wellington in Spain. The most bloody of these conflicts was the night-battle of Bridgewater. 8. Sir George Prevost, the governor of Canada, being re- inforced by Wellington's veterans, at the head of 14,000 troops, invaded the American territory at Plattsburgh, where were sta- tioned about 4,000 American troops, under general Macomb. A British flotilla on lake Champlain, under captain DoWxNie, reached Plattsburgh bay at the same time, and attacked the American squadron, commanded by commodore Macdonough. 5. What is said of Hull and his invasion ? Of the affair at Queenstown? Of the successes this year at sea? — i*. What account is given of the affair at Frenchtown? What are the other events by land and sea, of the cam- paign of 1813 ?— T. What occurred on the Thames ? On the Niagara fron- tier 3 in 1814 ? — S. What occurred at Plattsburgh, and on lake Champlain ? Ross killed. AFFAIR AT PLATTSBURGH. 467 A severe conflict ensued in the harbor of Plattsburgh, which Modern His. ended in the total destruction of the British flotilla, and the fall p>r'd vm. of Downie. The commander-in-chief of the British forces chap. m. saw this unexpected result with dismay. The militia of the adjacent states of New York and Vermont, by a general rally, were pushing forward by forced marches to succor Macomb ; the outposts of the British were attacked, and Sir George Pre- vost ordered and executed a retreat so hasty, that his camp under Mac- equipage and military stores were abandoned. featThl Bri- 9. In the south, a barbarous predatory warfare had been tish flotilla, waged by admiral Cockburn. Nor was its character much changed, on the arrival of general Ross. This officer landed Au „ ust25 a force from the united fleets of Cockburn, Malcolm and Coch- Gen. Ross rane, and proceeded to Washington for the avowed purpose of ^JJJJJ Jjj J_ burning and destroying the public edifices and works of art at fines of that place. This object being effected, the British commander ton. ng " made a hasty retreat, and re-embarked his troops. The next attempt of general Ross was against the city of Baltimore, unsuccess- which was ably defended by a corps under general Smith, fui attack on While advancing to the attack, Ross was met by a detachment General " of American riflemen, and fell mortally wounded. By this " time the defences around Baltimore assumed so formidable an appearance, that the British commanders, both of the navy and army, judged that the prospect of success was not equal to the hazard, and the invading army withdrew. 10. Admiral Cochrane went to the West Indies. Being re-enforced, his fleet now consisted of thirteen ships of the line with transports, in which he received Sir Edward Packenham, and an army of 13,000 efficient men, destined for an attack upon New Orleans. Well grounded fears being entertained for the safety of that important city, general Jackson was charged with its defence. The British troops effected a landing on the 23d of December, and took a position nine miles below New Orleans. Gen. Jackson had taken his position with judg- 1815- ment, and fortified it with care. On the 8th of January, Sir Ljsjtm' Edward Packenham attempted to storm the American entrench- -Ian. 8th. ments. A deadly fire from their batteries, and entrenched rifle- Jackson, de- men, overwhelmed and threw back the British divisions, as fe t j s t h t - he ^, l ; i " often as they were brought to the charge. Packenham was loss, 2,600 ; killed, and the second and third in command wounded, when at A ™ 'J k " length the British were driven from the ground. Their loss was 2,600, while of the Americans but seven were killed, and six wounded, a disproportion of loss not recorded of any other battle. Thus closed the military operations on land. At sea there had been spirited engagements, in which the American naval character was proved to stand a comparison with that of the British. 11. Peace had in the meantime been concluded between the 9, Relate the operations of general Ross, and the events in connexion. — lO, Relate the invasion and defence of New Orleans. 468 PEACE NEGOTIATED AT GHENT. Modern Ms. two nations, by a treaty negotiated at Ghent. Changes in Eu- P'R'D viii. ro P e nac * done away that part of the subject of complaint on the chap, in.' side of the Americans which related to commerce; and the ques- v-^~^*w/ tion concerning the claim of the British to search neutral ves- 1815. sels, for the purpose of impressment, was waived. But the Peace Of Americans had shown the British, that it could not with impu- Gheilt. nity be exercised on them. Before the intelligence of peace onbotSes cou ^ De communicated to the naval commanders on distant restored, stations, other naval actions were fought, which terminated in the triumph of the American arms. Peace with America, was (This peace at this moment fortunate for England ; for Napoleon, her old ted b™Aiex- and most dreaded enemy, soon after broke loose from Elba, and ander of repossessed himself of the throne of France. Upon an emer- gency so unexpected, all the energies of the British empire were needed, and, as we have before seen, put in requisition. We have also seen the result. Napoleon delivered himself to Eng- land, declaring that he considered her the noblest of his foes. 11. What treaty was made? Were the points in dispute arranged? Why was peace favorable to England ? The Battle of Waterloo. PERIOD IX. THE BATTL THE PRESENT OR TIME xl 1815 £ TO ?1844r.£ OF WATERLOO. OF CLOSING THIS HISTORY. CHAPTER I. Brazil and Portugal. — Revolutions in America and Europe. 1. The removal of John VI. of Portugal, and the Portuguese Modern His government, in 1808, to Brazil, was the commencement of that perpd ix great South American empire. The Brazilian government open- chap. i. ed their ports to all friendly nations ; abolished the inquisition ^-^wv^ and the slave trade, and entered into an advantageous treaty of alliance and commerce with England. In 1815, John VT. re- aSSi" turned to Portugal, and his son, Pedro, administered the go- inde- vernment. The Brazilians now asserted their independence, ^fpor- formed a constitution, and elected that prince emperor, under tu s aI - the title of Pedro I. Portugal acknowledged the independence Pedro i. § of Brazil, and the emperor exchanged ministers and treaties with foreign nations. 2. John VI. died in Portugal, March 10th, 1826. By the constitution of Brazil, Pedro the emperor, to whom the crown of Portugal now belonged, could not leave the new empire*, and he resigned Portugal to his young daughter, Maria de Gloria. Miguel, brother of Pedro, contested her right, and was aided J* Period IX. — Chap. I. — 1. Who was sovereign of Portugal at the time of the government's removal to Brazil? When did the removal occur ? What were the first acts of the government? What occurred in 1815 ? — 2. How was Pedro situated on the death of his father, and what course did he take ? 469 1832. 470 CIVIL WARS OF PORTUGAL. Mode rn His, D y the nobility and the priests. The constitutionalists and pa- perpd ix. triots were in favor of Maria, who at their request, crossed the chap. i. ocean. But as Miguel was waging a war of extermination against her partisans, she was first taken to London, and then back to Brazil. In the meantime, the native Brazilians had de- manded reforms in the administration, which were by no means agreeable to the Portuguese. Pedro wavered between the parties, and each was displeased with the concessions made to the other. Both the army and the people were against the em- peror. On the 8th of April, 1831, he abdicated in favor of his Pedro ii. hifant son i Pedro II., a native of Brazil. A regency being es- His father tablished, he embarked with his daughter Maria, and the rest of PorS his family, for Portugal. 3. Leaving Maria in France, Pedro entered his hereditary do- minions, and summoned his brother to surrender to the queen, his daughter. The cruelties of Miguel, had already arrayed against him the liberal party of the Portuguese, who now rallied under Pedro. The Portuguese clergy branded the adherents civiTwar in of Pedro and his daughter as heretics, with whom no faith was Portugal. to k e kept- and thus throughout Portugal was civil war sharp- 1833. ened by religious persecution. The fleet of Miguel was cap- Juiy 4th. tured ; Lisbon surrendered, and the usurper fled to Spain. The renders to populace rallied, proclaimed Maria, broke open the prisons, Maria. an ^ liberated more than -5,000 prisoners. The queen's right was acknowledged by the high powers of Europe •, the clergy were humbled, the convents were suppressed, and their property conflscated to the state. Courts of justice were instituted on (Maria was the model of those of England and France, and the trial by jury lSYtoason established. Miguel, however, still kept up a cruel partisan of Eugene warfare; when, on the 24th of April, 1834, a quadruple alliance noi3 Uh and was signed between the powers of Portugal, Spain, France and 3oon after Great Britain. This treaty guarantied the throne of Portugal 1836, to\he to Maria II., and also engaged to expel from Portugal the usur- du ^ e b ° u f r Saxe per Don Miguel. An adequate force was despatched from Eng- land to aid Maria in maintaining her authority. Under these circumstances Portugal was of course ruled by that nation. Spain had, by a singular coincidence, its young queen Isabella II., whose claim was upheld by the liberal party, and a usurper- 1834- uncle, Don Carlos, who was sustained by the royalists and Quadruple clergy. The Quadruple Alliance also guarantied the claims of Alliance. Isabella, and engaged to expel Carlos. 4. THE AMERICAN COLONIES OF SPAIN.— The jeal- ous policy of Spain had led her to suppress, as much as %. Give an account of Miguel. What was done with the little queen by those who conducted her to Europe ? What occurred in Brazil, and what new arrangements were made ? Who went to Portugal ? — 3. What was done by Pedro, and who rallied under his banner ? Who were against him and his daughter, and what was the condition of Portugal ? What successes had Pedro against Miguel? What number of prisoners were liberated? Who acknowledged the queen's right? What was done with respect to the convents? Courts of justice ? What powers formed a quadruple al- liance ? What did the alliance guarantee in respect to the government of Portugal ? What in respect to Spain ? SIMON EOLIVAR. 471 possible, all intercourse between her extensive American colo- Mod*™ His - nies and the rest of the world. Wearied with despotism, and perpd ix. disgusted with the quarrels and crimes of the reigning family, chap. i. these provinces took advantage of the invasion of Spain by Na- ^-*» p -v~ , w poleon, and asserted their independence. This opened an in- They claim tercourse between them and foreign nations, and their history ence. thenceforth began to be known. 5. In 1806, general Miranda, a native of Caraccas, who i§06. had served with reputation in the armies of republican France, ^ gjjjj}' made a generous, but premature attempt to liberate his native America, country. But in 1810, the patriots rose again, and although general Murillo, with 10,000 troops was sent from Spain, yet the Spanish authorities were deposed, and a new govern- ment organized, under the name of the " Confederation of Vene- l§10. zuela." A congress assembled, independence was declared, Venezuela and a constitution on republican principles was adopted. But dependence, the numerous clergy were hostile, and soon found an occasion to arrest the progress of public opinion, in the fatal earthquake which occurred March 26, 1812. On that day at 4 o'clock, 181*2. P. M , with scarce a minute's warning, 4,500 dwellings and 19 Earthquake churches were swallowed up, and 8,000 people went down to at caraccas, one common grave. The priests represented this dreadful phe- nomenon as a sign of the particular wrath of heaven, inflicted upon a rebellious and disobedient country, for daring to alter their political condition. The people were dismayed, and the whole province again submitted to royal authority. 6. In 1813, this province was again emancipated by the bold 1S13. genius and successful military operations of Simon Bolivar. A jJJjJ^? : In repeated battles he conquered the Spaniards, expelled them plants the from his native country, and then entering New Granada, he s SJepend°- f drove them from Carthagena, its capital, which he entered on ence in car- the 16th of August. Buenos Ayres became independent in 1816, Chili in 1818,Peru and Guatemala in 1821. The Spanish authorities continued to resist, until their defeat at the great battle of Ayacucho. The power of Spain over these extensive countries is broken, and their independence of foreign domi- nion established. But they seem destined to be rent by domes- tic factions, and the lawless desire for power, of ambitious mi- litary chieftains. 7. MEXICO. — While under the government of Spain, Mexico was a viceroyalty ; the viceroy having all the powers of a king. The Mexicans declared independence in 1813. Iturbide, an 4. What policy had Spain pursued with regard to her American colo- nies ? With what were their people wearied and disgusted ? What circum- stances did they take advantage of, and what do ? — 5. Who made the first at- tempt to free a Spanish colony,— lS when was it made, and how did it suc- ceed? What was done in 1810? What occasion was seized by the priests, and what did they do ? — 6. By whom was Venezuela finally emancipated ? What is related of New Grenada? Of Buenos Ayres? Of Chili? Of Peru and Guatemala, or Central America ? At what battle was the Spanish power in America entirely broken ? — 7. What was Mexico while under Spain? When did Mexico declare independence? thagena. 1S2S. 472 MEXICO INDEPENDENT. Mode m His, ambitious Mexican, at first opposed the revolution. In 1815, peri'DIX. ne destroyed or drove to the mountains, all the revolutionary chiefs, except Guerrero ; and in 1822 he restored the vice- royalty. Iturbide then raised his own standard, and caused himself to be proclaimed emperor, under the title of Augustine 1. The populace shouted him, and drew his carriage through the streets of Mexico. But a powerful party, headed by Vit- toria, Guerrero, Santa Anna, and other distinguished military men, opposed the new government, and after a bloody struggle, Complied ^ ie em P eror was 5 m 1823, compelled to abdicate ; but he was to abdicate, allowed to take refuge in Europe on a pension. In 1824 Itur- 1&24. bide returned; but he was a Napoleon in no one's estimation ^turbide's ' ^ ut n ^ s own '■> an( ^ as soon as ne stepped upon the shore of his death. country, he was arrested and shot. 8. The constitution of 1824 was adopted, and in 1825, the Mexican fl rs t constitutional congress assembled. Two political parties, constitution. , _, , ? . O or» ■, • t the Scotch and Yorkists, were in 1823, arrayed against each other in the choice of president. After an arduous contest, the election resulted in the choice of Gen. Pedraza, of the Scotch party, over Guerrero, candidate of the York party, by a majority Guerrero °f two votes. General Santa Anna, at the head of the military, made presi- proclaimed Guerrero president. After some fighting, Pedraza litary force was compelled to yield, and Guerrero was inaugurated president in 1829. 9. Gen. Bustamente, of the Scotch party, having been elected vice president, placed himself in his turn at the head of a body of troops, and denounced the president Guerrero. He nut ^nr, an A advanced upon the capital, and Guerrero finding himself too (Mexico and ,r . r i & Texas being weak to Avithstand him, abdicated the presidency, and general "toour 1 ?"- 8 Bustamente was elected by the army as his successor. In 1831, public, we Santa Anna, after having been for some time in a state of rebel- detaifedhis- lion against the president Bustamente, on the 15th of July issued tory,asmore an exciting proclamation, — calling on the Mexicans to arm interesting, o it / o and better against him. At length, in 1833, after sanguinary conflicts, Santa understood.) ^ nna prevailed over Bustamente; and established himself in 1SS3. power, and by some sort of an election, was made president. ? e X™if\var ^° mnuman scenes of civil war and bloodshed, the cholera and Asiatic this year added its ravages ; and 22,000 persons are supposed to cholera. j iave p er i s hed with this plague in the capital only. 10. The administration of Santa Anna commenced with some ^1§35. acts f avor able to liberty and toleration. Ecclesiastical tithes, president, monastic vows, and the authority of the pope were abolished ; Pol forms. re " ana - tne education of youth taken out of the hands of the priests. Five free colleges were established upon the ruins of the monk- T. Give some account of Iturbide. Who were the chiefs of the opposing party, and what was done by them ? Give the sequel of the history of Itur- bide.— 8. What occurred in 1824 ? What in 1825 ? What in 1828 and 29 ? — 9. Relate the contest between the generals Bustamente and Santa Anna. What year did the cholera appear, and how many died of it in the city of Mexico ? — lO. Give an account of the administration of Santa Anna before the battle of Guadaloupe. TEXAS REVOLTS. 473 Modern His. ish institutions ; and professors, either native or foreign, were employed without regard to religious tenets. But the old clergy perpdix. had still great power with the people ; and revolts against the CHAP - J - president, broke out in several of the states of the Mexican v -*"^/-^«^ confederacy. At Guadaloupe, Santa Anna, having obtained a ^octpje" decisive victory over the insurgent general, Garcia, became Santa Anna the idol of his army, and was greeted by the sounding title of ^urgems the " illustrious savior of his country." under 11. New principles were now introduced into the adminis- tration. With the ostensible view of restraining the turbulence arising from the imperfections of the federative system, Santa Anna procured a constitutional decree to be enacted, changing the form of government, to that which was termed, " A popular representative central system, — based upon the Roman catholic gama Anna religion, on the independence and indivisibility of the actual has the con- territory, on the division of the power of the government, and mStaryS the freedom of the press." And of this incongruous govern- joins the ment, the object of which was despotism, cloaked with fair taking free- words, Santa Anna was constituted "president and supreme domtrom ■ • n r i • 7 r • r i r , ,,, the people. chief ol tne nation, and protector oj its votes jreety expressed '. The supreme chief was fast consolidating his government; but he met with opposition, chiefly from the English and Anglo- American part of the population. Against those, the Spaniards were inspired with hatred ; in consequence of which, an inhu- man massacre took place at Zacatecas. 12. TEXAS in extent of territory, was one of the most con- siderable states of Mexico. Being contiguous to the republic of America, it was filling fast with some of the most enterprising citizens of its states. They believed that Mexico would adhere to republican principles ; and they were attracted by the fertility of Texas, and its other natural advantages. Besides these there was another class, composed of insolvent debtors, and other persons from the United States, who were less likely to make good inhabitants in their newly chosen country. But all had been nurtured in the lap of civil liberty, and taught to Texag re _ believe that the people's rights were sacred ; and they all refused voitsagainst to adopt the changed government introduced by Santa Anna. gantaAmfa They nullified his laws, resisted his custom house officers, and in some places drove them from the territory. Santa Anna issued his manifesto against the inhabitants of Texas. They fearlessly prepared to contest their independence. The San Felipe, a vessel manned by Texians, fought and took a Mexi- can vessel of war. Santa Anna despatched general Cos, with a strong force, to the mouth of the river Brassos. General Houston assumed the command of the Texian forces. lO. Relate the battle of Guadaloupe.— 11. Did Santa Anna, like Wash- ington, remain true to his country after power was in his hands, or did he then change his course? — 12. Give some account of Texas, and its inha- bitants. What ground did they take respecting Santa Anna's subversion of the Mexican constitution ? What measures did they take to resist the power of Santa Ana ? What military operations occurred ? 60 474 TEXAS DECLARES INDEPENDENCE. Modern His. He took Bahia, the fort of Goliad, and finally, with severe loss peri'D ix. on DOtn sides, he conquered the Alamo, — the name given to a chap. i. fortress in San Antonia de Bexar. v-rf^v^w 13. On the 2d of March, 1836, a convention of delegates, 1835. chosen for that purpose, drew up and published, in the name of f MeX taken tne P eo P^ e °f Texas, an able Declaration of Independence; — °is3€. n although they were at the same time menaced by Santa Ana, who March 2. Q n the 6th of March, arrived at the Alamo, (on the borders of Texian De- Texas,) with an army of from three to six thousand men. That Claratioil f or tress was defended by 180 Texians, under the command of of Illde- COL oNEL Travis. Santa Ana commenced an assault about pendence. midnight. At dawn only seven men of the garrison were found M the' alive. They cried for quarter, and being refused, renewed the *LJiMO. } battle, and fought till every man was slaughtered. More than cruelty, one thousand of the assailants are said to have perished. 180 killed. 14 After the fall of the Alamo, general Houston with about 1000 men, fell back upon the Colorado. Colonel Fanning with a qoliad. garrison of 500 was left to defend Goliad ; but, inferior in force, SneiFan- ne evacuated the fortress. Santa Anna pursued, and cut off his ningwitn retreat; when Fanning surrendered upon the faith of being 500 men treatec i according- to the rules of Christian warfare : but Santa Anna caused him and his men instantly to be put to death. Elated and confident, he then hastened to engage the main body 1836 °^ t ^ ie Texians, encamped upon the Brassos, whom his cruelty April 2i] had wrought to fury. Houston, bearing down upon his ene- jacijvto m ^ es ? thrice his own number, brought them to action so close, Houston and as to be within half rifle distance; and in less than thirty defeat e santa minutes compelled them to flee. This battle secured the inde- Anna, and pendence of Texas. Among the prisoners was Santa Anna dependence, himself, who after being detained some months in captivity, was set at liberty. A new constitution was adopted, and general Houston was elected president. 15. THE GREEK REVOLUTION.— The desire of liberty among the people, and a just appreciation of human rights, dis- 1820-21 tinguishes the nineteenth century. In 1820-21 it manifested it- stmggies of self not only in the rising republics of America, but in Spain, the people. p ortuga i ? -^ ap \ e ^ Piedmont,— and lastly, in the Turkish em- pire, where in Greece it produced permanent effects. The sove- reigns of Europe banded together in what they called " The Holy Alliance ;'" interfered to frustrate the wishes of the people in the other countries, notwithstanding they asked merely for ?er g tne d con- constitutional monarchies. Greece, though a Christian nation test, inter- un der Mahometan rule, would have fared no better, had not Greece° r Great Britain prevented the Holy Alliance from interfering 13. What was done on the 2d of March, 1836? Describe the military- operations till after the fall of Alamo. — 1*. From the fall of Alamo to the battle of San Jacinto. Relate that battle and its consequences. — 15. By what is the nineteenth century distinguished ? How did this spirit manifest itself in the years 1820-21 ? Why did not the effects of this spirit, thus mani- fested by the people, become permanent ? To what empire did Greece at this time belong? Why did not the Holy Alliance prevent the emancipation of Greece ? REVOLT OF THE GREEKS. 475 against her emancipation, wrought out by the desperate valor Mode™ His, of her sons. That interference was not, however, at this time, peri'd ix. 16. Russia as we have seen, had often in her employ able chap. i. foreigners. Such were the Greeks, count Capo D'Istrias, ^*» r -v^^^ Alexander Ypsilanti and others. Their hearts were set upon Gre , e u 1 f i ^ vo " the release of their country; and the Russian authorities, willing begins to weaken the Porte, that they might take its provinces, en- couraged them by hopes of aid, to raise the standard of revolt. They formed a secret society, called "the Hetaireia," who were bound by oath to stand for each other, and for the liberties of Greece. They then openly revolted. The Turks, of course, made war upon them to reduce them to submission. Russia having thus divided the Turkish empire against itself, treache- rously withheld her promised aid, and left the Greeks to fight their own battles. The struggle with them was now not only for liberty but for life ; and there is nothing in the history of ancient Greece to compare with the fierce valor, with which the modern Greeks resisted their oppressors. Even their women took arms. 17. Turkish vengeance attacked first the Greek clergy, and 1821. Gregory, the venerable patriarch of Constantinople, was barba- The patri- rously slain, at the door of his sanctuary. This act roused the "anSnopie Greeks ; and appalling horrors were perpetrated in the conflicts 9lain - which ensued. The Greeks were without a government, and without support, except what they received from charitable as- sociations in Great Britain, France, and America. Yet they proceeded in 1822, to form a union under an independent fede- 1822. rative government. The Persians having now invaded the a e govern- m Turkish empire, the sultan was obliged to send a powerful ment - army to the Euphrates; and he also placed a strong military force upon the Danube, to watch certain hostile movements of Russia. One of his own vassals, also, the bold and desperate Ali Pacha, of Albania, was in open rebellion against him. These troubles compelled him for a season to relax his opera- tions against the revolted Greeks; but having at length pur- chased a peace with Persia, beheaded Ali Pacha, and entered into friendly relations with Russia, he was again ready to pro- secute the Greek war. 18. Fifteen thousand of the most barbarous of the Asiatic Scio. Pop. Turks were let loose upon the beautiful island of Scio. The The g cio ' tea Sciotes resisted, but were overpowered, and their little paradise massacred, laid waste, — and 40,000 men, women, and unresisting children, were massacred, while 30,000 were carried into Mahometan 16. What Greeks were in the service of Russia, what did they desire, and what encouragement did they have ? What did they then do ? What part did Russia now take ? What was the character of the struggle in which the Greeks were now engaged? — IT. Who were the first objects of the vengeance of the Turks ? In what year did the Greeks form an inde- pendent government ? What circumstances for a time called off the atten- tion of the Turks from the Greek war? — 18. What was the first act of the Turks after this suspension ? What numbers were massacred and carried away prisoners at Scio ? 476 ENGLAND INTERFERES FOR GREECE. Modern His- PERPD IX. CHAP. I. 1824. (The Greeks raised money by a loan obtain- ed in Eng- land.) (Lord By- ron, the Na- poleon of poetry, died at Missolon- ghi, having embarked himself and his fortune in the gene- rous cause of Grecian liberty.) I8»*. The Treaty of London, Settles the affairs of Greece. 182T Battle of MAVARI- JVO. Peace. captivity. The Turkish fleet now took onboard the murderers ; who were prepared to desolate the Morea. The Ipsariotes, . having secured their families, went on board their little fleet. . With the courage of desperation they then grappled their fire s ships to the ship commanded by the Turkish admiral, which i blew up with terrible destruction. The commander himself, , and nearly three thousand of his men perished in the explosion. . 19. Kurchid Pacha, at the head of 25,000 Turks, passed I the straits of Thermopylae, and inhumanly laid waste the Mo- • rea. The Greek chieftains, Nichetas, Demetrius Ypsilanti, , and Colocotroni, occupied the straits which the enemy had I passed, and cut off his communications. The Turkish com- > mander, reduced to extremities, offered to evacuate the Grecian i territory, which was refused him. He then made a desperate \ effort to break through the Greek defences in the night. But I Nichetas fell upon the confused and bewildered Turks, and cut I up and destroyed the whole army. After this, the Turks made but little progress in Greece, until Ibrahim Pacha, of Egypt, was appointed by the sultan governor of Greece, and charged I with the management of the war. He opened the campaign of 1826 with energy, and the conquest of Greece seemed inevita- ble. In this alarming crisis, the Greeks implored aid of the j Christian powers. 20. England now interfered in earnest, and on the 6th of I July, 1827, by The Treaty of London, the ministers of Great I Britain, France, and Russia, guarantied the pacification of Greece, and the ministers of the three powers notified the i Turkish government, that " Greece must thereafter govern her- self." The Turks rejected the offered pacification of the three powers, and Ibrahim, with the Turkish-Egyptian fleet, entered the bay of Navarino. While lying there in order of battle, the combined British, French and Russian fleets approached, and a deadly conflict ensued. The Turkish armada of 110 ships fought with desperation. Not a flag was struck, and the whole fleet, was either burnt, sunk, or disabled. Hostilities now ceased, and the sultan soon after acceded to the treaty of London. 2L The Greeks had chosen a republican form of govern- - ment, and made count Capo d'lstrias their president; but the combined powers, having decided that the government must be : monarchical, conferred the crown upon prince Otho, second i son of Louis, king of Bavaria. His ministers have been occu- pied in organizing the government. They have gratified the : people by establishing the religion of the ancient Greek church. 18. What was done by the men of Ipsara ? — 19. What military opera- tions are next related ? When the great commander, Ibrahim Pacha, was I sent to Greece by the sultan, what occurred ? — 20. What power now inter- fered, and what treaty was made ? What notice was given to the Turkish authorities, and how did they receive it ? Relate the battle which followed, with its results. — 21. What government had the Greeks chosen? What form of government did the allied powers impose upon them, and whom give them for a king ? DEPRESSION SUCCEEDS WAR. 477 Commerce and agriculture begin to revive and schools are en- Modern H ™- couraged. On the 5th of July, 1834, a royal decree was made perpd ix. to encourage the spreading of female education over Greece, by CHAP - "• the establishment of a school at Athens for the instruction of ^«^v^v^ female teachers, a measure worthy of the genius of this inter- 1S34. esting people. The Greeks had been long expecting and pe- S chooiw S as titioning for a charter of their rights, — a constitution defining projected by the limits of the authorities set over them. Not receiving this ltSmthe just claim, they entered into a combination, and in the sum- u - States ") mer of 1843 compelled Otho to grant them a constitutional go- G * 8 ^?' vernment. stitution 1 !" CHAPTER II, The British Empire. 1. Until the close of the wars of the French revolution, the 1816- attitude of Great Britain had been warlike. She had stood the a 1 ? Deb?" bulwark of Europe against the encroachments of Napoleon ; Funded but in so doing had subjected herself to immense sacrifices. £816,-' Her debt amounted to more than the whole resources of the u'n- kingdom, if applied to no other purpose, could pay in forty f " n 4 d 1 ed ' years. As usual, war had been a season of excitement and in- 000,000 toxication; and peace, like the sudden withdrawal of a fever, made the nation languid and almost perishing from exhaustion. Hundreds of thousands had been provided for, who were at Th iaf t Ve once thrown out of employ ; the nation expending less by years of I g ^•50,000,000 annually, than in the years of the war. Want G\Btt~ bred discontent and murmurs. America, the best customer of tain an_ England,* was suffering a similar depression, so that foreign expend- trade failed to afford relief. Seasons were unfavorable, and har- ^Jjjj!? 1 vests scanty • wages low,and provisions high. Laborers pressed 000,000. by necessity, combined to extort higher wages. Masters could fJJ? give no more, and discharged their operatives. Writers took ad- y ears of vantage of these disaffections to sow disorganizing principles, £64,-' and the faults of the English government, real and imaginary, |?^ 0, became the agitating theme of her discontented people, — as vast stmiess., * So much the best customer, that when in 1836 all the exports from Great Britain to every part of the world, including her own provinces, amounted to .£53,368,000, those to our republic were £12,425,000,— -nearly one-quarter of the whole. 21. What is said of religion and education in Greece 1 What has lately taken place in Greece in respect to a constitution ? Chap. II. — 1. What was the attitude of Great Britain during the wars with Napoleon? What do you learn of her national debt in 1816 ? What was the first effect of peace ? What was the difference of the national ex- penditure during the last years of the war and the first of the peace ? What was the actual expenditure in each ? (See side note.) Describe the progress of discontent among the people. 478 RADICAL REFORMERS — MANCHESTER. Modem His. assemblages met in the open air. Workmen coming forth from peri'D ix. tne i r numbers, harangued them on their poverty contrasted chap. ii. with the luxury of those, who doing nothing, rioted in the na- s^^v-'w' tion's wealth. These orators chiefly fixed on the grievance of r ("Rot- the unequal representation in the house of commons, — by which roughs," Manchester, with 187,000 inhabitants, and other large manufac- pl h Having no children, Don Carlos his brother was pre- perpdix. sumptive heir to the crown; and the priests and ultra royalists chap. in. believed that under his auspices they were to be restored to "^^■/-**s their ancient influence. As this would be destruction to the 1833- existing government, Ferdinand was persuaded on the birth of vYl^suc- a daughter, named Isabella, to abrogate the Salic law, declare ceeded by her his successor, — and to constitute her mother, Christina, The pariists regent. The followers of Don Carlos remonstrated ; but on the r cruel a dvii a c ^ eatn °f Ferdinand in 1833, the arrangement went into effect, war ensues, and Isabella II., then three years old, was proclaimed. Don Carlos was also proclaimed by his party, and a sanguinary civil war ensued; he being supported by the clergy and absolutists, and the queen-regent by the liberal party. France and England being constitutional monarchies, cordially united in giving their EneiSad- 6 su PP or t to 'the young queens, Maria of Portugal, and Isabella mirai, Na- II. of Spain. The southern and eastern provinces of Spain rose P edthe f ab-" m 1835, and demanded back a constitution which had been soiutistsoff adopted in 1812. By the regent's consent it was anew pro- vfncent.) claimed. The same year the order of Jesuits was suppressed in Spain, — 900 convents were interdicted, and their property confiscated for the use of the government. Still the party of Don Carlos kept its ground, being favored in the northern pro- 1844. vinces. The most revolting scenes occurred of the fratricidal Spain. slaughter of brethren of the same political family. In 1840 a peace was made ; and the same year the queen-dowager resigned the regency, — which the Cortes conferred on general Espar- tero. In 1843 he was exiled, and Spain is again the theatre of civil war. Portugal is comparatively tranquil. 10. After the coronation of Charles X. in France, the Jesuits, and such as adhered to arbitrary principles, were taken into favor with the king. They were opposed with great energy and boldness by the liberals. To take off public attention from *w?r^ # ^ e ^ r measures 5 an d make themselves popular with the nation, with the ministry made a war with Algiers. It was ably conducted, Algiers. all( j en{ j e d in the subjugation of that country ; but the ministry obtained no credit even for this, and the elections were carried against them. This they attributed to the influence of " a free press," which, they said, " was at all times an instrument of dis- tIree order and se(lition " 0n the 26th of Jul y> 18 30, they pub- days/' lished " The Three Ordinances." The first, dissolved the 1S30. July 26, • chamber of deputies ; the second, suspended the liberty of the 27, and' press, and the third, presented a new and arbitrary law of elec- tion. The first attempts to carry these despotic ordinances into execution, was the signal for " The Revolution of the Three 9. What was the state of Spain in 1830 ? What arrangements were made by Ferdinand VII. ? What occurred on his death to produce civil war ? By whom were the opposite parties supported ? What ground was taken by France and England ? What was done in Spain in 1835 ? In 1840 and '43 ? What is in 1844 the state of Spain and Portugal? — lO. Who were favored by Charles X.? What was done by the liberals ? What war was got up, and how did it result ? What were the three ordinances ? UNFORTUNATE REVOLT OF POLAND. 487 Days." This revolution, like the American, was a contest for Modem, Ms. principle. Under the guidance of the venerable Lafayette, perpdix. "The Standard" around which the liberal French, as if moved by one spirit, involuntarily rallied, the revolution was effected. About 1000 men fell during the " three days." Lafayette was again made commander-in-chief of the national guards. Charles and the royal family departed from France. The chamber of deputies, at the recommendation of Lafayette, made Louis Cth Philip, of the family of Orleans, king of the French. The d d u f k ?S late ministers were tried and sentenced to perpetual imprison- Orleans ment. Hereditary nobility was abolished, and the elective s ld e d franchise extended. with the © rcvolti— S- * 11. The severity of the Russian government in Poland, with tionists the loss of national existence, had always been intolerable to a t "^ n ° e b d that ancient people. An extensive conspiracy of the youth of the the first families was formed to liberate their country. Their EgSitef operations were at first carried on in secret, but the conspiracy but was was discovered, and the prisons were crowded with Polish vie- e d.) tims. On the evening of the 19th of November, 1830, a young Discontent Polish officer entered the military school at Warsaw and called of the Poles - the youth to arms. The cadets instantly took up their line of 1S3C march, and accompanied by the students of the university, pro- insurrection ceeded to the residence of Constantino, and forced their way of Warsaw. into his palace. He escaped by a secret passage. The insur- rection immediately became general. Forty thousand Polish troops and citizens, having seized the public arsenal and armed themselves, expelled the Russian troops from Warsaw. A Po- lish diet was immediately assembled, and independence declared. The emperor Nicholas issued a proclamation denouncing the j^g S 7 a „ s patriots as rebels. A succession of sanguinary battles followed, take war- in which the Poles were at first victorious ; but single-handed, landTgJin they were unable to resist the giant power of Russia. They enslaved. concentrated their forces around Warsaw, where, after several R evo i ut i n days of continued fighting, the Polish armies were defeated, — in Belgium. Warsaw was taken, and its defenders slaughtered, or driven W as P the into exile. son-Sw 12. The French revolution of 1830 was immediately follow- of George ed by that of Belgium. The Belgic people, always French in ^arrieYiK their institutions and feelings, had been, at the congress of heiress of Vienna, injudiciously annexed to Holland. An opportunity was Jimeited* now seized to sever themselves, and a national congress assem- princess bled, which declared the independence of Belgium; and in 1832 The' English adopted a constitutional monarchy. The representatives of the ^^"ajjfa five powers, Britain, France, Austria, Russia and Prussia, assem- king, ceased bled in London, arranged the boundaries of the new kingdom, ^o/oofor and apportioned the national debt between it and Holland. It his annual was arranged that Leopold, of Saxe Coburg, should be king ex t Sre.) 1 " lO. What three days are mentioned, and what was done during the time ? Who was the leader at this time ? Who at the recommendation of Lafay- ette was made king. — 11. Relate the last valiant struggle of the Poles. — 12. What account can you give of Belgium ? 488 REINTERMENT OF NAPOLEON. Modem His. Q f Belgium. Leopold afterwards married Louisa, eldest daughter peri'dix. of Louis Philip. chap. iv. 13 The repeated attempts which have been made upon the life ^"~ x /~**- / of Louis Philip, have been a reason or pretence for so strengthen- ing his power, and his military arrangements, that he has wholly abridged the liberties of the French people, — completely shackled the press, and placed Paris under military despotism. This king has, however, bent in some things to the spirit of the age; his government having patronized schools for the improvement of the common people ; and while his power has promptly quelled their insurrections, he has gratified the feelings of the French in asking the British for the remains of him, whose conquests gave them, for a time, such a proud eminence among the na- Pouie e sent tions. A warlike vessel was sent to St. Helena. The grass- to st. Heie- grown nook has been disturbed, — and its willow no longer remaps of waves over the grave of Napoleon. Attended by six hundred Napoleon, thousand persons — borne on a glittering car, the conqueror IS4©. a g a in enters Paris. But death has conquered him ; and it is but Dec 6. dust and ashes, which is borne aloft, in that pompous ceremo- reinS^dln ma ^' The spirit which once gave such mighty energy is gone — Paris. we know not whither. CHAPTER IV. The Republic of America. 1. In the treaty of Ghent, between Great Britain and the United States, the contracting nations were, in regard to territory, restored to their respective limits before the contest. The free institutions of the Republic had been tested, and found adequate to a state of war, as well as of peace ; and happily those violent and often alarming party feuds which had arrayed one half of the people against the other, had been composed. Commodore Decatur was dispatched with a formidable naval force into the 1815. Mediterranean, to chastise the piratical powers on the coast of ctastise a the Barbary. The Algerines were never before so completely hum- Aigerines. bled. Their shipping was captured, their defences destroyed ; and the terrified Dey, while his chief city lay exposed to tne destructive fire of Decatur's guns, consented to make compen- sation for his past injuries to American commerce, and to with- draw his claims to the tribute, which the American republic, 13. What has been the course of Louis Philip? In what respect has he bent to the spirit of the age ? In what particular did he gratify the French people ? Relate some particulars of the second funeral of Napoleon. Chap. IV. — 1. How had the peace of Ghent settled affairs between Great Britain and America ? What circumstances favorable to America are no- ticed ? What was done by an American fleet under commodore Decatur ? TRIUMPH OF LAFAYETTE. 489 as well as Europe, had previously submitted to the disgrace of Mo & 6 ™ His. paying. Tunis and Tripoli were also compelled to agree to perpdix. humiliating terms of peace. chap. iv. 2. The efforts of congress were directed to improve the in- v -^*-v~*w/ ternal condition and prosperity of the Union. The Bank of the ( t ^ a j h g£f; United States, which had been established during Washington's son', Mal- administration, was re-chartered, with a capital of 35,000,000 so a n n 'fJ a n c r k . e, of dollars ; and a tariff of duties on foreign commerce was es- son, each tablished, whose object was to secure some of the more com- s fd en cy two mon domestic manufactures against a ruinous foreign compe- terms, and then D3.- tition. Mr. Madison, having enjoyed the presidency two trioticaiiy constitutional terms, declined another election: and the votes of decline . d a in />i fi i • -i re-election.) the colleges of electors of the several states were given, with great unanimity, to James Monroe, also a citizen of Virginia. 181 7* Mr. Monroe's administration was distinguished by wisdom and Mr - Monroe, firmness. The federal Union, which had been from time to time enlarged by the admission of new states,f increased steadily ^aa'admi" in general prosperity. The United States were fast relieving ted in 1837, themselves from the pressure of pecuniary embarrassments oc- "atesf— casioned by the late war. They had an affluent revenue, ac- double the quired mostly from duties upon foreign commerce, and from sales of public land. All internal duties and taxes were abolished ; and the surviving soldiers of the revolution were re- l® 1 ^"*"" lieved from poverty by the grant of an adequate pension. " The Florida, era of good feeling," that so signally characterised the com- mencement of the administration of president Monroe, still more conspicuously distinguished its close. 3. By invitation from the American government, general La- 1824- fayette arrived in New York, August, 1824. All the associa- Visit of La- tions connected with the name of Lafayette, were dear to the ("General American people ; and he was met by a warmth of national La ^ ay n 3 "^'" friendship and gratitude, beyond his most sanguine anticipa- made his tions. Every where hailed as the cherished " guest of the na- 5reg S °. f de-~ tion ;" his progress through the twenty-four states of the re- dining his public was one continual triumphal procession ; but unlike the ^gjj $$£ heroes of ancient Rome, he was followed by happy friends, not marquis de humbled enemies. The gratitude of his adopted country did ette!") not exhaust itself in empty honors. In consequence of his ser- vices and expenditures during the American revolution, congress made him a grant of two hundred thousand dollars, and a valu- able township of land in Florida. The interviews of Lafayette with some of his most distinguished co-patriots of the olden time, among whom were the elder Adams, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, standing as they all were on the verge of time, could not but be affecting. Still more so were his pilgrimages to the tombs of Washington, and others of the illustrious dead. After having been present at the inauguration of the younger 2. What two measures of Congress are here related ? What change of presidents occurred ? What is here mentioned in the side note ? What was the character of Mr. Monroe's administration, and the condition of the coun- try ?— 3. Relate the visit of Lafayette to America. 62 490 THREATENED REBELLION OF SOUTH CAROLINA. TERI'DIX CHAP. IV. Moder n His. j\,[ R Adams, March 4th, 1825, and received from him the na- tion's farewell, he embarked on board the new frigate Brandy- wine, and returned to act again an important part on the theatre of France. 4. On the fiftieth anniversary of the declaration of American independence, July 4th, 1826, died Thomas Jefferson, the author of that declaration, and John Adams, its most devoted advocate. On the fifty-fifth anniversary died James Monroe, another ex- president. At peace with all the world, and flourishing in agri- culture, commerce, and manufactures, the United States enjoyed a degree of prosperity never perhaps exceeded by that of any people. A wise and vigorous system of finance and expendi- ture, restricted to the wants of the public, reduced, and finally extinguished the national debt; while population and wealth increased in a ratio before unknown in the history of nations. 5. On the 4th of March, 1829, general Jackson was inau- gurated president of the republic, and John C. Calhoun, vice president. In 1832, North America was visited by the fatal " Asiatic Cholera," which began in Asia about fifteen years be- fore. It passed through Europe, then made its appearance in Canada, from whence it spread destruction over America ; being chiefly fatal in populous cities. On the 4th of March, 1833, general Jackson was again inaugurated president of the republic, 1829. March 4. Jackson and Calhoun in- augurated. 1833. vTnBuren. and Martin Van Buren was made vice president. 6. The protective duties laid by congress, while they ad- vanced the prosperity of the manufacturing interest of the north, increased the price of commodities, some of which were espe- cially needed at the south. Hence a violent anti-tariff party arose, chiefly in South Carolina. After working themselves up by meetings, speeches, and the press, to a high pitch of excite- ment, this party proceeded to declare, through a convention chosen for the purpose, that congress in laying protective du- ties had exceeded its just powers — that its acts, on this head, should be null and void, and that it should be the duty of the legislature of South Carolina to make provision to resist them by an armed force. The legislature obeyed the ordinance; and thus for the first time, one of our sister states was in the attitude of rebellion against the paternal rule of the general government. The president affectionately called on the wandering state to return to obedience ; while he took such decided measures to compel submission, as left little hope that resistance would be availing. The nullification party then consented to a compro- mise, which was introduced into congress by Henry Clay. 7. The national bank had, with apparent satisfaction to the states Bank, business community, afforded the facility of easy transmission, 3. What change of presidents was made in 1825 ? — 4. What remarkable coincidence has occurred in the death of three ex-presidents ? What was the state and prospects of the country ?— -5. When did the two inaugurations of general Jackson occur, and who were the vice presidents ? What account is given of the Asiatic cholera ? — 6. What occurred in consequence of the tariff or protective duties? What was the course of the anti-tarifF, or nulli- fication party in South Carolina? What was that of the president? "Nullifica- tion" party in South Carolina. 1832. Convention of Columbia pass the "nullifying" ordinance. Jackson's proclama- tion. 1833. Mr. Clay's "Compro- mise Bill." United IV. DESTRUCTION OF THE NATIONAL BANK. 491 and a uniform currency to every part of the republic. A party, Modem ms. however arose, with president Jackson at its head, who op- perpd ix. posed the bank, doubting its constitutionality and expediency, chap. His opponents alleged that the directors had refused to permit its offices to be made by the government the reward of party services ; as unhappily those of the revenue and post-office have, within the present century, been more or less made. The friends of Gen. Jackson, on the other hand, asserted that the agents of the bank had corruptly used their great moneyed power bank party ' against the supporters of his administration. However the con- test between the executive and the bank might have begun, its course was mutual injury, and its close destruction to the bank; the president, in 1832, putting his veto upon a bill for rechar- 1832. tering it, which had passed both houses of Congress. In 1833, Gen. Jackson the charter being soon to expire, Gen. Jackson directed Mr. bank'sch'ar- Duane, the secretary of the treasury to withdraw from it the ter - government funds. Mr. Duane, personally responsible in heavy J833. bonds, refused ; believing that the constitution regarded the Mr. Duane keeper of the public purse, as amenable rather to the house of withdraw representatives than to the executive. Gen. Jackson removed the deposits. him and put Mr. Taney in his place, by whom the funds were withdrawn. They were afterwards, by act of congress, placed 1835. in certain selected state banks, which were encouraged to dis- p^acedTnUie count freely; and thus facilities too great before, by which "P et „ money might be obtained on credit, were increased. 8. A perfect madness of speculation became rife throughout the land. The lots of cities, real or imaginary, were so bought and sold that fortunes were made in a day. Idleness and extra- vagance took the place of industry and economy. This public *$«*»• fever had, in 1837, a fearful crisis. Before it every one seemed The "Re- growing rich, after it many individuals and families were truly ' u 1 &^£ reduced from affluence to hopeless poverty. The banks were specie pay- obliged to suspend specie payment, and credit seemed univer- sally at an end. But by a return to the neglected virtues of in- dustry and economy, and by the great productive powers of the labor, the soil, and the manufactures of the country, business has revived. The banks of New York, in 1838, resumed specie 1838. payment, and those in other parts of the country, which did gume^pecie not utterly fail, soon followed their example. State govern- payment, ments, and other corporations, which partook the general mania ( Tner e has of dealing upon credit, are now paying old debts, rather than never been making new ones ; and they are all beginning to learn, that the the country people prefer to be taxed, rather than that any corporation to JfJJjjJj in which they belong, should suffer the disgrace of " repudiating ail the ne- their debts." cessjmesof 9. A portion of the aboriginal Indian tribes remained on their T. Give an account of the national bank, — the opposition to it, — its fall. Of Gen. Jackson's course in regard to the secretary of the treasury. — 8„ Relate the course of things preceding the revulsion. At what time did that occur? What was then the condition of the country? What causes are producing returning prosperity ? ment. 492 THE FLORIDA WAR. Modern His. PERI'DIX. CHAP. IV. (The Chero- kees are, we believe, now satisfied. A newspaper is (1844,) just esta- blished by the nephew of their prin- cipal chief, John Ross.) 1835. Dec. 23. DADE'S BATTLE- FIELD. All the Ame- ricans, (117,) killed. 1S36. OKEE- CHOBEE. Indians routed. 1837- March 4. Inaugura- tion of Van Buren and Johnson. reservations within the republic. Their settled practice of making war, when so far from having declared it, their show of friend- ship was the greatest, made them dangerous and dreaded neigh- bors. The general government had become involved in an agreement with Georgia to extinguish the Indian title to lands within its borders. Yet in its north-western section the Chero- kees, the most civilized of the North American tribes, inhabited and refused to quit their ancient domain. The president be- lieved, that if the Indians attempted to remain within the United States, it would but lead, as in former cases, to their own de- struction. Fie therefore proposed to congress that they should set apart a large territory in the far west, and remove them thither. Congress authorized general Jackson to carry out his project, and, one by one, the tribes have been sent to their des- tined abode. The treaty by which certain of their chiefs pledged the Cherokees, was considered by the body of that na- tion as unfairly obtained ; but they were obliged to leave their homes by the presence of a military force, which they could not hope to resist. 10. The Seminoles of Florida, incited by their chief Osceola, refused to remove; and a war was carried on to hunt them out from the unhealthy morasses of that peninsula, destructive of numbers of our bravest soldiers, and millions of our treasure. One little army of 117 men, under major Dade, fell into an ambuscade and were all cut off. A year after, at lake Okee- Chobee, 138 were killed, among whom was their commander colonel Thompson; and it was not until 1842 that the Semi- noles were subdued and carried to the Indian territory. While the Florida war was in progress, the Creeks attacked a steamboat on the Chattahoochee river and burned it; — another was fired, and with all its passengers consumed. General Scott was sent against these Indians ; and in a few months they were reduced to submission, and sent to the west. 11. On the 4th of March, 1837, occurred the inauguration of Martin Van Buren, as president of the United States, and Richard M. Johnson, as vice president. Mr. Van Buren was unfortunate in the time of his accession to the presidency, as it was the year of " the revulsion" when there was so much pe- cuniary distress. Many thought that the government should have attempted something for the general relief; but the president be- lieved that the faults of individuals had produced the depression, and individual industry and enterprize would alone suffice to restore prosperity. Meantime, as the banks where the govern- ment deposits had been kept were not considered safe, he projected a plan for keeping the public purse, called "the sub- 9. What practice of the Indians made it apparently expedient that they should be removed ? In what engagement was the United States involved ? What plan was proposed — by whom — and what occurred in consequence ? What is remarked concerning the Cherokees ? — lO. Give an account of the Florida, or second Seminole war? — 11. What change of presidents oc- curred, and when ? Why was Mr. Van Buren unfortunate in the time of his presidency ? THE ANGLO-SAXON NATIONS. 493 treasury scheme," which proving unpopular, he lost the next Modern His. election. It was by the freemen given to general Harrison, perpdix. as president, and John Tyler, as vice president. The benevo- chap. iv. lent and kind hearted Harrison died in one month after he was v —'"' v '^w inaugurated, — when, by the constitution, Mr. Tyler became pre- 1S41. •j t ■ * Harrison's smenL short presi- 12. The affinity of blood, of language, and of a free press and dency. constitutional government, which exists between Great Britain and this country, together with a close commercial connexion, Fnendiydis- , . •; 7 & .. , , „ , " positions be- seems at this time cementing these two great branches of the tween Great Anglo-Saxon family. During Gen. Jackson's administration, America.* 1 when Louis Philip wholly neglected to fulfil the terms of a treaty by which the French had engaged to pay for their spoliations on our commerce, — and general Jackson had taken that resolute tone of compulsion from which he never receded, England in- J hr , oug d ^ terfered by her friendly mediation, and saved us from a war ; per- mediation suading the king of the French to show his justice, rather than F t ™^ e J a e y y 3 his valor. When our citizens interfered in the rebellion of stipulated in Canada, Great Britain liberally accepted the assurances of our Treaty?'' government, that the interference was unauthorized ; and a ques- tion long agitated, concerning the boundary line between Maine and Lower Canada, has at length been amicably adjusted by a treaty negotiated at Washington, by lord Ashburton on the 1842- part of the British government, and Daniel Webster the Ameri- r^Ify £«'. can secretary of state. The great operations of Christian bene- f W pp|i r volence by which the present age is distinguished, have been Britain' mainly carried on by these two nations, Great Britain generally „j +ij e taking the lead. In another remarkable characteristic of the it states present time, the application of steam to useful arts, particularly to the increase of the speed of travelling by sea and land, — while the Anglo-Saxon nations have led the rest of the world, the Americans have not been at all behind their father-land. 13. The free institutions of America are watched by Euro- pean politicians with intense interest. None can deny their excellence ; but many predict their downfall. Trials have al- ready occurred, but they have been thus far efficiently met. By the goodness of Almighty God, we have been preserved from civil war ; and our hope for the future preservation of our righteous institutions is in him, and in the degree of piety, virtue, and intelligence, which exists among our citizens, female as well as male. The course of history, which we have pur- sued, has shown us, that with virtue a nation may continue prosperous and happy ; but when the people become corrupt, then ensues anarchy, — to save from whose bloody and intoler- able scourge, the iron rule of despotism is welcomed as a relief. 11. Who was Mr. Van Buren's successor in the presidency, and how long did he remain ? Who succeeded him ? — 12. What remark concern- ing Great Britain and our republic is here made ? What friendly office did Great Britain perform in regard to France. In what two instances has Great Britain shown a disposition to cultivate peace with our republic ? In what respects have Great Britain and America led the rest of the world ? — 13* What are the author's concluding remarks ? 494 CONCLUSION. Modern His. PERI'D IX. CHAP. IV. (The riots in Philadel- phia are now in pro- gress; and the dis- graceful scenes of the spring of 1844, in the hall of na- tional re- presenta- tion, have just past.) Conduct by which our citizens may preserve our country. If they are wrong who hold that this is the inevitable destiny of our republic, no less do those err who treat with levity every suggestion that such is our danger. Has the Ruler of Nations given assurance that he will set aside the order of his provi- dence in our behalf? Has he given us a license to commit, with impunity, offences for which he has filled other nations with blood] Let the father consider, as he looks upon the group which surrounds his fireside, that, although their being has begun under the sunny skies of public prosperity, its course may lie through the gloomy influences of public misrule, and finally, of desolating anarchy ; — then will he turn aside from his too anxious cares to earn a fortune for their present and fu- ture luxury, and awake to preserve the institutions of his coun- try, which cannot go to decay without dashing out the value of property, and putting life itself in peril ; for, rocked in the eagle- nest of liberty, America must first be crushed, before she changes her republicanism for monarchy. He would then lay by his petty prejudices of section or party; — he would vole for no miscreant to public office, who, false to the laws of his God and a traitor to his domestic relations, makes a contemptible parade of his love to his country ; — he would pay no money to support public prints which are careless of truth, and scatter public immorality ; — and he would not, by laxity of family dis- cipline, leave the wills of his children in the untamed condition of savage nature, but betimes inure them to obey lawful authori- ties. In all the boasted political compacts of the founders of our government, the solemn obligation was entered into, to yield voluntary obedience to the constituted powers. Finally, the conscientious respect to law in the hearts of the people, is that one virtue — the offspring and the parent of many others — which alone can sustain a republican government. This, with the continued smiles of the God of our Fathers, may preserve our noble political inheritance ; not only to bless our own posterity, but to remain a beacon-light, amidst the dark waves of oppres- sion, in which the weakness and wickedness of mankind have, for so many ages, involved the nations of the earth. 499 & o Deacidified using the Bookkeeper Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Ox Treatment Date: A PR PreservatiosiTechnoli A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESE 111 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16C . . 1 « " s> # ^ -.-.. ;■■.?■ s A ' ?ws „-% c "** ^ C.P v-C ^, £